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= Krusty Gets Busted =
" Krusty Gets Busted " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 29 , 1990 . The episode was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky , and directed by Brad Bird . In the episode , Krusty the Clown is convicted of armed robbery of the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . Convinced that Krusty has been framed , Bart and Lisa investigate the incident and discover that Krusty 's sidekick , Sideshow Bob , was the culprit .
This episode marks the first full @-@ fledged appearance of Kent Brockman , and Kelsey Grammer makes his first guest appearance on the show as the voice of Sideshow Bob . The episode was well received by critics , and it was the highest rated show on the Fox Network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Homer stops by the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart on the way home from work , and witnesses a robbery committed by a masked clown resembling Krusty . He identifies the clown as Krusty to the police , and Krusty is arrested , upsetting Bart , who considers him to be his idol . During his trial the next day , Krusty is revealed to be illiterate . After being called out to the stand , Homer points out Krusty as the robber , and he is convicted and sentenced to jail . The community then gathers up in a public burning as they burn up all of Krusty 's merchandise . Krusty 's sidekick Sideshow Bob becomes the new host of his show and making it a more educational program , while retaining the popular Itchy & Scratchy cartoons . Still refusing to accept that his hero could have committed the crime , Bart enlists the help of a reluctant Lisa and they set out to prove Krusty 's innocence .
At the scene of the crime , Lisa deduces Krusty could not have been the robber because the robber used the microwave not suitable for those with a pacemaker ( which Krusty was revealed earlier to have ) , and reading a magazine at the magazine rack . She accepts Bart 's theory that he may have been framed . She asks Bart if there was anyone who had motives to see Krusty gone and he suggests they ask Sideshow Bob because he may identify any known enemies . Bart and Lisa go to Sideshow Bob for his help in finding out if Krusty had any known enemies who wanted him gone , but are given tickets to his show . At the live broadcast , Bart is invited up on stage with Bob , where he points out the facts regarding the microwave and magazine , which Bob dismisses . When Bob says he has " some mighty big shoes to fill " , Bart remembers how Homer stepped on the robber 's shoes that made him scream in pain . When he watched Krusty head to trial , he was wearing normal shoes much too small to hold feet as large as the robber 's . Bart knew that despite wearing clown shoes all the time , Krusty never would have felt Homer stepping on them due to his small feet . It was then he realized that Sideshow Bob is the real robber , since he had the most to gain in Krusty 's downfall and has large feet . Bart proves his evidence by hitting Bob 's feet with a comedy mallet on live television . The police , having watched the show , realized they wrongfully put Krusty in jail for a crime he did not commit and head down the studio to arrest Sideshow Bob .
Arrested and exposed , Bob confesses that the reason he framed Krusty was out of frustration for constantly being on the receiving end of the clown 's humiliating gags . He gives a grudging kudos to the Simpson kids before being carted off to jail . Bob warns criminals not to underestimate children in spite of their innocent looks , because they were smart enough to foil him and can do the same to them . The charges against Krusty are dropped and he regains the trust of the community . Homer then apologizes to Krusty for fingering him in court , and Krusty thanks Bart for standing up for the truth and sticking to his convictions , and a picture is taken of the two shaking hands ( which Bart later hangs in his bedroom , refilled with Krusty decor ) .
= = Production = =
Director Brad Bird wanted to open the episode with a close up of Krusty 's face . The staff liked the idea and he then suggested that all three acts of the episode , defined by the placement of the commercial breaks , should begin with a close up shot . Act one begins with Krusty 's face introducing the audience at his show , act two begins with Krusty 's face being locked up behind bars , and act three begins with Sideshow Bob 's face on a big poster . Krusty 's character is based on a television clown from Portland , Oregon , called Rusty Nails , whom The Simpsons creator Matt Groening watched while growing up in Portland . The original teleplay , written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky , was 78 pages long and many scenes had to be cut . One scene that had to be cut down was the scene where Patty and Selma show the slideshow of their vacation ; it originally contained images of them being detained for bringing heroin into America .
Sideshow Bob 's first major appearance on The Simpsons was in this episode , but he first appeared in the season one episode " The Telltale Head " . In that appearance , his design was more simple and his hair was round in shape . However near the end of the episode he appears with his more familiar hairstyle . Bob 's design was updated for " Krusty Gets Busted " , and the animators tried to redo his scenes in " The Telltale Head " with the re @-@ design , but did not have enough time . The script for " Krusty Gets Busted " called for James Earl Jones to voice Bob , but the producers instead went with Kelsey Grammer , a cast member on Cheers at the time . Kent Brockman and Scott Christian make their first appearances on The Simpsons in this episode .
= = Cultural references = =
Chief Wiggum 's order during the suspect line @-@ up to " send in the clowns " is an allusion to the Stephen Sondheim song " Send in the Clowns " from the 1973 musical A Little Night Music . The Sondheim musical took its name from Mozart 's Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major , Eine kleine Nachtmusik , which is the theme tune to Sideshow Bob 's show . The close up shot of Krusty 's face behind bars in the beginning of act two is a reference of the closing credit motif of the British television series The Prisoner from the 1960s . The background music in that scene resembles the theme of the television series Mission : Impossible at one point . The line " The Day the Laughter Died " , shown during the newscast , is a reference to the Andrew Dice Clay album released the previous month . Sideshow Bob is reading The Man in the Iron Mask by Alexander Dumas to the studio audience . The song " Ev 'ry Time We Say Goodbye " by Cole Porter is featured in the episode . Following Sideshow Bob 's arrest , he mutters : " I would 've gotten away with it too , if it weren 't for these meddling kids . " , which is a reference to a catchphrase from Hanna @-@ Barbera 's animated television show Scooby @-@ Doo .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Krusty Gets Busted " finished thirteenth place in the ratings for the week of May 23 – 29 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 4 . It was the highest rated show on the Fox network that week . The episode received generally positive reviews from critics . Series creator Matt Groening listed it as his ninth favorite episode of The Simpsons and added " I have a peculiar love of TV clownery " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised the episode : " The invention of the Simpsons ' arch enemy as a lugubrious yet psychotic Englishman in dreadlocks succeeds wonderfully in this super @-@ fast , super @-@ funny episode that works by constantly reversing the audience 's expectations . " In a DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 3 / 5 . Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that " throughout the episode we found great material ; it really seemed clear that the show was starting to turn into the piece we now know and love . It ’ s hard for me to relate any deficiencies " and added that " almost every Bob episode offers a lot of fun , and this episode started that trend in fine style . "
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= Jonathon Blum =
Jonathon Gregory Blum ( born January 30 , 1989 ) is an American professional ice hockey defenseman currently playing with Admiral Vladivostok of the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) .
Selected by the Predators 23rd overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft , Blum was born in Long Beach , California and grew up in Rancho Santa Margarita , California . During his major junior career with the Vancouver Giants of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , Blum helped the club to a President 's Cup as WHL champions in 2006 and a Memorial Cup as Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) champions in 2007 . He received the Bill Hunter Memorial Trophy as the WHL 's top defenceman and the CHL Defenceman of the Year Award in 2009 . In his final season with the Giants , he established himself as the franchise 's all @-@ time assists leader . Turning professional in 2009 , he spent parts of three seasons with the Predators ' minor league affiliate , the Milwaukee Admirals of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , before joining the Predators . Internationally , Blum has represented Team USA on three occasions . He won silver at the 2006 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament and has competed in the 2008 and 2009 World Junior Championships , finishing without a medal both times .
= = Early life = =
Blum was born in Long Beach , California , to parents John and Dana . An avid surfer growing up in Rancho Santa Margarita , approximately 40 miles southeast of Long Beach , Blum was initially playing roller hockey recreationally at the age of four years before discovering ice hockey a couple of years later . He played minor hockey with the California Wave , a team led by Jeff Turcotte , younger brother of former NHL player Alfie Turcotte . Due to the lack of elite minor hockey competition in California , the team travelled to Canada and the Northeast United States to play in top @-@ level tournaments . Blum and the Wave recorded second place finishes in national Midget AAA and Bantam AAA championships culminating in an international Bantam tournament championship in Kamloops , British Columbia , in 2004 . Discovered by scouts at one such tournament , Blum was drafted by the Vancouver Giants of the WHL in the seventh round of the junior draft .
In the midst of Blum 's pending major junior career , his family was beset with tragedy . A few months prior to his first training camp in Vancouver and a freshman at Trabuco Hills High School , his house caught fire from a gas leak on April 2 , 2004 , killing his twin sister , Ashley . Blum has two remaining half @-@ siblings , an older brother and sister . The following year , during his rookie season in the WHL , his mother was diagnosed with a form of juvenile cancer . She underwent heart surgery and chemotherapy to overcome the cancer by May 2006 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Vancouver Giants ( 2005 – 09 ) = = =
Drafted 134th overall in the 2004 WHL Bantam Draft , Blum played his first season with the Vancouver Giants of the WHL in 2005 – 06 , recording 24 points as a rookie . He added 8 points in the post @-@ season , helping the Giants to a President 's Cup as WHL champions and a berth in the 2006 Memorial Cup in Moncton , where they finished third . The following season , in 2006 – 07 , Blum improved to 51 points as the Giants prepared to defend their WHL title as 2007 Memorial Cup hosts . With a league @-@ high + 37 plus @-@ minus , he earned the WHL Plus @-@ Minus Award . Blum also participated in the CHL Top Prospects Game along with teammates Tyson Sexsmith , Michal Repik and Spencer Machacek . The Giants met the Medicine Hat Tigers in the WHL finals , where they were defeated in seven games . Then , facing the Tigers in the Memorial Cup final Blum and the Giants captured the franchise 's first Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) title by a 3 – 1 score . That off @-@ season , going into the 2007 NHL Entry Draft , Blum was ranked 17th among North American skaters by NHL Central Scouting . He would be selected 23rd overall by the Nashville Predators , becoming the first California @-@ born @-@ and @-@ raised player to be drafted in the first round .
After being sent back to junior from the Predators ' training camp in September 2007 , Blum was signed to an entry @-@ level contract with Nashville on December 17 , 2007 . Earlier that month , on December 2 , he set a Giants ' franchise record with four assists in a 6 – 1 win over Portland Winter Hawks . One of the Giants ' alternate captains along with forward Garet Hunt , he finished the season with career @-@ highs of 18 goals and 63 points , finishing second among league defensemen ( behind Ty Wishart 's 67 points in 72 games ) . His offensive production also set a single @-@ season franchise @-@ record among Giants defensemen for goals ( surpassed by Kevin Connauton in 2009 – 10 ) and points ( surpassed by Brent Regner in 2008 – 09 ) . At the end of the season , he was named to the WHL West Second All @-@ Star Team , along with teammate Tyson Sexsmith .
With the departure of team captain Spencer Machacek to the professional ranks the following season , Blum was chosen in his place for the 2008 – 09 season . He began the season with 14 points in his first 10 games and was named WHL Player of the Month for September / October . On November 19 , 2008 , he recorded his first career WHL hat trick in a 4 – 1 win against the Chilliwack Bruins . Later that season , on February 7 , 2009 , during a 4 – 2 victory over the Portland Winter Hawks , Blum became the Giants ' all @-@ time assists leader with his 148th assist to pass Adam Courchaine 's 147 @-@ assists mark . Nearly a week later , however , he was sidelined with a shoulder injury after receiving a couple of hits from Kelowna Rockets forward Jamie Benn in a 3 – 2 overtime loss .
Blum returned to complete the season with 66 points in just 51 games to finish third in league scoring among defensemen behind teammate Brent Regner and Paul Postma of the Calgary Hitmen . Despite missing 21 games , Blum was named to the WHL West First All @-@ Star Team , along with teammates Casey Pierro @-@ Zabotel and Evander Kane , and won the Bill Hunter Memorial Trophy as the league 's top defenceman . He was later chosen as the CHL Defenceman of the Year over Dmitri Kulikov of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) and Ryan Ellis of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) , who were both chosen as defensemen of the year in their respective leagues . In addition to his league @-@ wide honours , he was named co @-@ team MVP with Casey Pierro @-@ Zabotel , as well as the Giants ' Top Defenceman and Most Sportsmanlike Player . After eliminating the Prince George Cougars in the first round , Blum scored 2 goals and 1 assist in the first 2 games of the second round against the Spokane Chiefs , earning WHL Player of the Week honors on April 6 . The Giants ' post @-@ season ended in the semi @-@ finals against the Kelowna Rockets . Blum led the team in playoff scoring with 18 points in 17 games .
= = = Milwaukee Admirals = = =
Upon the Giants ' elimination , Blum was assigned by the Predators to their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Milwaukee Admirals , for the remainder of their 2009 playoff run . He joined the Admirals , making his professional debut , in the second round against the Houston Aeros . Blum appeared in 5 games , recording no points , as the Admirals were eliminated in seven games .
He remained with Milwaukee in the AHL the following season and scored his first professional goal on October 14 , 2009 , against Hannu Toivonen in a 5 – 2 win against the Peoria Rivermen . Blum finished the campaign with 11 goals and 30 assists for 41 points , third among all rookie defensemen in the league . He then added eight points in seven playoff games as the Admirals were eliminated by the Chicago Wolves in the opening round .
Blum began the 2010 – 11 season with Milwaukee for a second consecutive year . After recording 7 goals and 34 points in 54 games , he was called up by the Predators on February 22 , 2011 .
= = = Nashville Predators = = =
Blum appeared in his first NHL game on the night of his first call @-@ up , registering a -1 plus @-@ minus rating in 16 minutes of ice time ; the Predators lost 4 – 0 to the Columbus Blue Jackets . In a rematch with Columbus five days later , he scored his first NHL goal against Mathieu Garon in a 3 – 2 win . Remaining with the Predators for the remainder of the campaign , Blum recorded 3 goals and 8 points over 23 NHL games while averaging 17 minutes and 45 seconds of ice time per contest . Making his Stanley Cup playoffs debut in Game 1 of the opening round against the Anaheim Ducks , Blum helped the Predators to a 4 – 1 win with one assist . The following game , Ducks forward Bobby Ryan stomped on Blum 's foot with his skate while the two players were tied up behind the Predators ' net . Blum was not injured on the play , while Ryan was given a two @-@ game suspension for the play . The Predators went on to eliminate the Ducks in six games , advancing to the second round , where they were defeated by the Vancouver Canucks . Blum finished the 2011 playoffs with two assists over 12 games . Following the elimination , Blum was reassigned to the Admirals for their 2011 playoff season . He dressed for one game , an elimination match against the Houston Aeros in the second round , which Milwaukee lost .
Blum made the Predators ' roster out of training camp for the first time in 2011 – 12 . After being made a healthy scratch in two consecutive games , however , he was returned to Milwaukee on December 12 , 2011 .
= = = Minnesota Wild = = =
The Nashville Predators failed to tender Blum following the 2012 @-@ 2013 season . On July 12 , 2013 , Blum signed a two @-@ way contract as a free agent with the Minnesota Wild .
= = = Admiral Vladivostok = = =
On August 8 , 2015 , as a restricted free agent with the Wild , Blum confirmed he had signed a one @-@ year contract with Russian club , Admiral Vladivostok of the KHL .
= = International play = =
Blum debuted internationally for Team USA at the 2006 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament in the Czech Republic and Slovakia . He captured a silver medal , as the United States lost to Canada in the final . Two years later , he competed in the 2008 World Junior Championships in the Czech Republic , finishing fourth with Team USA . Set to appear in the 2009 World Junior Championships in Ottawa , Blum was named team captain of the United States . He contributed two goals and two assists in six games , but once again failed to win a medal , finishing in fifth place .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
All stats taken from Jonathon Blum 's player profile at NHL.com
= = Awards = =
= = = CHL = = =
= = = WHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Giants = = =
= = Records = =
Vancouver Giants ' franchise record ; all @-@ time assists – 155 ( surpassed Adam Courchaine , 147 , on February 7 , 2009 )
= = Transactions = =
June 22 , 2007 – Drafted by the Nashville Predators 23rd overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft .
December 17 , 2007 – Signed to an entry @-@ level contract by the Nashville Predators .
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= 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion =
The 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion was an industrial disaster that occurred on February 7 , 2008 in Port Wentworth , Georgia , United States . 14 people were killed and 40 injured when a dust explosion occurred at a sugar refinery owned by Imperial Sugar . Dust explosions had been an issue of concern among United States authorities since three fatal accidents in 2003 , with efforts made to improve safety and reduce the risk of recurrence .
The refinery was large and old , featuring outdated construction methods , and these factors are believed to have contributed to the fire 's severity . The origin of the explosion has been narrowed down to the center of the factory . It was believed to have occurred in a basement beneath storage silos . Investigations conducted by the Department of Justice ruled out deliberate criminal activity in 2013 .
As a result of the disaster , new safety legislation was proposed . The local economy declined because the factory was closed down . Imperial intended to rebuild it and return to production by the end of 2008 , with replacement buildings to be completed by summer the following year . Some victims filed legal suits for damages against the owner and the company hired to clean up the refinery . Imperial said that the explosion was the main reason for a major loss in the first quarter of 2008 .
The U.S. Chemical Safety Board released its report on the incident in September 2009 , saying that the explosion had been " entirely preventable . " Investigations by Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) and the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives also concluded that sugar dust was the fuel for an explosion that could have been prevented . By September 2010 , 44 suits had been filed in Chatham County Court against Imperial Sugar and / or its cleaning contractor . Eighteen have been settled .
= = Background = =
The sugar refinery was a four @-@ story structure on the bank of the Savannah River . Imperial Sugar , based in Sugar Land , Texas , had bought the refinery and its brand name in 1997 from a previous local owner . Known since construction as the Dixie Crystals refinery , it was the main employer in the town of 3 @,@ 500 prior to the disaster .
The refinery was constructed in 1916 by 400 people who were moved from Louisiana specifically for the purpose , and opened the following year . Imperial bought the refinery together with Savannah Foods to form part of a national supply and distribution network to meet demand from businesses such as Piggly Wiggly , General Mills and Wal @-@ Mart . The refinery sat on a 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ; 0 @.@ 25 sq mi ) site and was spread across 872 @,@ 000 square feet ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) of it . This network was the second largest in the US . Workers described the factory as antiquated , with much of the machinery dating back more than 28 years . They said the site was kept operating because it had good access to rail and shipping links for transport .
In the last full fiscal year before the disaster , which ended on September 30 , 2007 , the facility refined 14 @.@ 51 million hundredweight of sugar , 9 % of the nation 's requirements , compared to Imperial 's Gramercy , Louisiana , refinery , which refined 11 @.@ 08 million hundredweight of sugar in the same time period . 90 % of the raw sugar supplied to the facility came from overseas in that year , and the company expected the " vast majority " to come in from abroad in the year of the explosion as well .
In the time leading up to the explosion , Imperial Sugar had run into financial difficulties . In the fiscal year ending September 30 , 2007 , sales fell 8 % , while profits were down 50 % from that year 's fourth quarter , and stock also down by half since April 2007 . The last two annual reports by Imperial before the explosion said that any damage to the facility at Port Wentworth would " have a material effect on the company 's business , financial condition , results of operations and cash flows . "
Meanwhile , in 2004 the Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board conducted a study into the risks presented by dust explosions after three fatal accidents in the year before . The West Pharmaceutical Services explosion killed six persons , the CTA Acoustics fiberglass insulation manufacturing plant explosion killed seven , and the Hayes Lemmerz automotive parts plant explosion killed one , prompting the report . Their report showed that between 1980 and 2005 , there had been 281 explosions involving combustible dust , resulting in 119 deaths and 718 injuries . The Board found that dust explosions posed a severe risk and made a number of recommendations to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration . These had been partly implemented by 2008 . The Board continued to be concerned about the potential for further fatal accidents up until Imperial 's refinery was the scene of an explosion .
= = Explosion and emergency response = =
The explosion occurred at 7 : 00 p.m. local time in what was initially believed to be a room where sugar was bagged by workers . Witnesses from across the Savannah River in South Carolina reported seeing flames shoot up several stories high . There were 112 employees on @-@ site at the time . The explosion occurred in the center of the refinery , where bagging and storage facilities were fed completed product by a network of elevators and conveyor belts . Many of the buildings here were six to eight stories high with narrow gaps in between .
Ambulances responded to the scene from across twelve counties , and firefighters from three . The United States Coast Guard closed off the river in the area , and a firefighting tug boat was used to douse the resulting fire from the river . A helicopter was used to search the river for anyone who may have been thrown into it by the blast . Refinery workers were brought in to assist with search and rescue operations , as emergency services personnel were unfamiliar with the plant 's layout . Red Cross worker Joyce Baker was among the first to arrive at the scene . She reported that it was like " walking into hell " , with some of the men she treated having " no skin at all " , while others had skin " just dripping off them . "
The Georgia Emergency Management Agency alerted local hospitals to prepare for up to 100 casualties . A doctor at nearby Memorial Health hospital described patients arriving at an emergency triage as varying in condition from suffering minor burns to their hands to having received 80 @-@ 90 % burns , with many in critical condition , and one with 95 % burns . The victims ' ages ranged from 18 to 50 . Many victims were placed in artificial comas because they were on life support systems . Eight were transported by helicopter to the specialized Joseph M. Still Burn Center in Augusta , Georgia , about an hour away . Five of those injured later died there while receiving treatment .
A church close to the refinery was used as a point for families seeking information on relatives employed at the facility . So many people turned up that police requested that each family send only one representative . At the close of the day of the explosion , six people were missing , with no confirmed deaths . Overnight , several deep @-@ seated fires were uncovered and firefighting continued the next day .
Most of the three @-@ mile ( 5 km ) stretch of river that had previously been closed was reopened without restriction , although a patrol remained in place to enforce a safety zone . The river restrictions delayed one outgoing vessel and two incoming ones . There was also a minor oil spill originating from equipment at the refinery 's unoccupied and rarely used dock .
The explosion seriously weakened the structure of the facility , leaving it highly unstable , and there was extensive smoke damage . The packaging area was totally destroyed and in all , 12 % of the refinery was demolished by the explosion . Removal of debris began the day after the accident , with assistance from structural engineers . The six missing persons were all found dead that day , three of them in tunnels running beneath the factory . The final death toll was thirteen . It was the first major shutdown of a US sugar refinery since American Sugar Refining Inc . ' s Domino Sugar shut down its plant in Chalmette , Louisiana in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina .
By February 14 , 2008 , the worst of the fire had been extinguished . The 100 foot ( 30 m ) sugar storage silos remained alight despite attempts to put the fire out by dousing them with thousands of gallons of water from a helicopter . Specialist crews and equipment were called in to complete work tackling the smoldering , molten sugar in the silos . At this time , seven bodies had been recovered , and an eighth person had died in the hospital .
= = Investigation = =
The location of the explosion was quickly established as a building used to store refined sugar prior to packaging it and two of three 100 foot ( 30 m ) tall , 18 inches ( 46 cm ) thick reinforced concrete storage silos adjacent to it , as pictured . According to Imperial Sugar CEO John Sheptor , the accumulated sugar dust likely acted like gunpowder . Sheptor , who was in the plant at the time of the explosion , survived only because he was protected by a firewall . Heavy equipment had to be used to shore up the partially collapsed structure before firefighters could enter it to search for victims . Within 24 hours , the explosive substance was identified as sugar dust .
Federal investigations by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) and the U.S. Chemical Safety Board ( CSB ) were launched , and they interviewed witnesses , checked documentation , and conducted on @-@ scene examination of the plant . OSHA arrived within two hours and the CSB within 48 hours . Other brief investigations were conducted by state firefighters and police and the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms , and Explosives , but these were ended quickly after confirming there was no evidence of the explosion and fire having been deliberately started . In a press conference held on February 17 , 2008 , one of the six members of the CSB team said that the explosion showed the ongoing risk from dust explosions despite their report highlighting the matter in 2004 .
Investigators were unable to enter the silos as OSHA ruled them to be too hazardous after the explosion . They were only able to access the area after the silos were demolished . By the time this took place , four months after the disaster , investigators believed that the explosion started in a basement area beneath the silos , from which sugar was fed up to the packaging building on conveyor belts . The factory 's outdated construction materials and methods are believed to have contributed to the severity of the blaze . The ceiling was of wooden tongue and groove design . The creosote used throughout was known as “ fat lighter , ” because of the fire risk it posed . Interviews of Imperial Sugar employees conducted by OSHA uncovered a lack of training , as 40 of the workers reported never receiving training on how to exit the building in an emergency . Only five employees recalled having a fire drill .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Initial response = = =
Imperial 's refinery in Louisiana was shut down by the company six weeks after the Port Wentworth disaster , over fears a similar explosion would occur there . It was kept from operating for more than a week . OSHA fined Imperial $ 36 @,@ 000 over safety legislation violations at that plant .
The Georgia plant 's 371 workers continued to receive payment from Imperial , and 275 were rehired to assist with cleanup and demolition of parts of the refinery that could not be salvaged . Work began on April 18 , 2008 after Imperial 's board confirmed their intention to rebuild . The plan was for the plant to return to sugar refining by the end of 2008 . Demolition of the sugar silos was conducted on June 24 , 2008 with a wrecking ball . A replacement packaging building and new sugar silos were intended to be completed by summer 2009 . During demolition , 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 kg ) of fire @-@ hardened sugar were recovered from one silo , and another 500 @,@ 000 pounds ( 230 @,@ 000 kg ) from a second . The company hoped to recycle the product for ethanol production . In the first quarter of 2008 , Imperial posted a $ 15 @.@ 5 million loss , which they said was primarily due to the explosion . Port Wentworth suffered an economic depression after the accident , with local businesses losing many customers . Imperial Sugar was purchased in 2012 by the Louis Dreyfus Group .
= = = Reports from OSHA and CSB = = =
Within a month of the accident , OSHA , fearing that relevant employers may be unaware their facilities presented a risk of dust explosions , sent a letter to 30 @,@ 000 employees to alert them to the danger of a similar explosion occurring . OSHA also proposed the Combustible Dust Explosion and Fire Prevention Act of 2008 , a new bill aimed at introducing regulations to reduce the risk of dust explosions . The bill passed the United States House of Representatives but never passed the United States Senate . In 2009 OSHA began developing a federal standard for combustible dust . Congress introduced a bill in 2013 to require OSHA to issue an interim standard based on the voluntary combustible standard set by National Fire Protection Association
In March 2008 Raquel Islas , a female worker whose arms were burnt , sued Savannah company Stokes Contracting , who had a contract to clean the factory . In April 2008 the widow of Shelathia Harvey also sued Stokes , as well as Savannah Foods . It was a wholly owned subsidiary after Imperial bought them out and the factory was still owned in its name . In August , 2008 Malcolm Frazier succumbed to his injuries , bringing the total number of deaths to fourteen . Frazier , who suffered burns over 85 % percent of his body , died at the Joseph M. Still Burn Center , where he had remained since the explosion .
On February 7 , 2009 , a monument honoring the people lost in the explosion was dedicated at Legacy Park , on the grounds of the Port Wentworth plant . OSHA fined Imperial $ 8 @.@ 8 million in May , 2010 after citing the company for 211 violations at the Port Wentworth plant and a plant in Gramercy , Louisiana . After settlement negotiations the company agreed to pay $ 6 million , while admitting no fault .
The Chemical Safety Board released its report in September 2009 , saying the explosion had been " entirely preventable . " It noted that the sugar industry had been aware of the risk of dust explosions since 1926 . Specifically , internal company memorandums by managers in 1967 expressed their concern about the potential of explosions from sugar dust . Imperial Sugar had recently made construction changes that enabled the accumulation of sugar dust . It had never practiced evacuation procedures , and the lack of emergency lighting meant that people were confined to dark hallways and tunnels at the time of the explosions .
= = = Legal issues = = =
Victims of the disaster continued to file claims against Imperial Sugar and its cleaning contractor . By September 2010 , 44 civil suits had been filed in Chatham County Court in relation to the explosion , and eighteen had been settled . The state appeals court rejected an effort by defendants ' attorneys for a pre @-@ trial appeal in two related cases in an effort to limit damages . In 2011 Lawrence Manker , Jr . , an Imperial Sugar worker who underwent 70 surgeries for burns covering 85 % of his body after the plant explosion , settled his lawsuit with the company for an undisclosed amount . He was the last victim to leave a hospital burn unit .
The Department of Justice requested that Ed Tarver , U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Georgia , pursue criminal prosecution against Imperial Sugar and its executives . OSHA cited Imperial with 124 safety violations , finding that the company acted with " plain indifference to , or intentional disregard for , employee safety and health . " Tarver said there was not enough evidence of intentional disregard or plain indifference to bring criminal charges against Imperial . He also cited a lack of federal criminal laws specifically related to safety in the sugar industry as a reason for his decision .
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= Rex Shelley =
Rex Anthony Shelley ( 27 November 1930 – 21 August 2009 ) was a Eurasian Singaporean author . A graduate of the University of Malaya in Singapore and Cambridge trained in engineering and economics , Shelley managed his own business and also worked as member of the Public Service Commission ( PSC ) for over 30 years . For his service , he was conferred the Bintang Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Star ) by the Government of Singapore in 1978 , and an additional Bar the next year .
Shelley started writing fiction late in life , publishing his first novel , The Shrimp People , in 1991 at the age of sixty one . The first substantial work by a Singaporean writer about the Eurasian community in Singapore , it was highly commended by The Straits Times and won the 1992 National Book Development Council of Singapore ( NBDCS ) Award . The books People of the Pear Tree ( 1993 ) , Island in the Centre ( 1995 ) and A River of Roses ( 1998 ) , on the same theme , followed within a decade ; respectively , they won NBDCS Highly Commended Awards in 1994 and 1996 , and the Dymocks Singapore Literature Prize in 2000 . In 2007 he was the Singaporean winner of the S.E.A. Write Award . Critics have responded positively to his writing , noting its " passionate , humane " style , and observing how his breadth of life experience gave rise to a talent for characterisation plus an ability to blend " a sharp sense of observed commentary with historical detail " .
= = Early life and education = =
Rex Shelley was born on 27 November 1930 in Singapore , and was of mixed English , Portuguese , Malay and Buginese ancestry . His father was a shipyard worker and his mother a teacher . Shelley was educated at St. Anthony 's Catholic School , and at a Japanese language school for a year during the Japanese occupation of Singapore ( 1942 – 1945 ) .
Shelley 's first employment was as a carpenter 's apprentice , in a shipyard . Following World War II , he graduated from the University of Malaya in Singapore in 1952 with an honours degree in chemistry , which he completed on a university scholarship . He later read engineering and economics at the University of Cambridge , where he was involved in left @-@ wing student politics for a time .
= = Career = =
After graduating , Shelley worked in Seremban in Negeri Sembilan , Malaysia , until May 1965 . He then returned to Singapore and began working for a company manufacturing pipes , subsequently starting his own machinery @-@ importing business . He also served on the Public Service Commission ( PSC ) for over three decades , from 1976 to 2007 . The PSC is a body created by the Constitution of Singapore that appoints , promotes , dismisses and exercises disciplinary control over public officers in Singapore . It has additional responsibility for planning and administering scholarships provided by the Government of Singapore . Shelley was involved in interviewing civil servants as well as students seeking scholarships ; he wrote a book entitled How to Interview Well and Get that Job ! ( 2004 ) . For service to the people of Singapore , the Government conferred the Bintang Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Star ) on him in 1978 , awarding an additional Bar the following year .
Shelley taught himself to speak Japanese , and edited Words mean Business : A Basic Japanese Business Glossary ( 1984 ) , a new version of a book first published the year before . Subsequently , he wrote Japan ( Cultures of the World series , 1990 ) and Culture Shock ! : Japan ( 1993 ) . He was also a self @-@ taught painter and piano accordion player .
= = Fiction writing = =
Shelley began writing fiction late in life , publishing his first novel The Shrimp People in 1991 at the age of sixty one . The first substantial novel by a Singaporean writer about the Eurasian community in Singapore , it was the best @-@ selling local paperback at the Times bookshop for three consecutive weeks between 22 August and 5 September 1991 , and remained in the top five until 11 December that year . The work won the National Book Development Council of Singapore Award for works in English the following year despite being up against books by established writers such as Gopal Baratham and Suchen Christine Lim . He wrote three more books , People of the Pear Tree ( 1993 ) , Island in the Centre ( 1995 ) and A River of Roses ( 1998 ) , on the same theme within a decade . The first two of these won National Book Development Council Highly Commended Awards in 1994 and 1996 respectively , while the last won the Dymocks Singapore Literature Prize ( now known simply as the Singapore Literature Prize ) in 2000 .
According to poet Edwin Thumboo , an emeritus professor of the National University of Singapore , Shelley " was a sensitive and acute observer of life . Because he started writing late , the material that generated his fiction was well digested . He brought to bear on it all the insights of an engineer , businessman , administrator , public servant and a person who loved life . His character analysis was therefore penetrating , and his range of characters are fully reflective of the society he wrote about . " Associate Professor Kirpal Singh of the Singapore Management University , himself a writer and literary editor , has commented that although Shelley 's impact on the Singapore literary scene had been " much less than it ought to be " , his body of work was significant for both the Eurasian community and the wider Singapore society :
Rex belongs to the small but significant group of writers who have articulated the experiences of the Eurasians . I think , some over @-@ writing notwithstanding , Rex 's contribution is admirable . At its best , Rex 's writing is passionate , humane and highly focused . Though he generally kept a low profile , his literary works will stand the test of time , combining a sharp sense of observed commentary with historical detail .
Shelley was the 2007 Singaporean winner of the S.E.A. Write Award . In August 2009 , Marshall Cavendish , a subsidiary of the Times Publishing Group , reissued Shelley 's books The Shrimp People and a non @-@ fiction work first published in 1995 , Sounds and Sins of Singlish .
In 2015 , The Shrimp People was selected by The Business Times as one of the Top 10 English Singapore books from 1965 – 2015 , alongside titles by Arthur Yap , Daren Shiau and Amanda Lee Koe .
= = Later life = =
Shelley died of lung cancer at the Assisi Hospice in Thomson Road , Singapore , on 21 August 2009 . He was survived by his wife Cora , from whom he was separated ; children Michael , Linda and Martine , sisters Joy and Ruth , and six grandchildren . His last book Dr. Paglar : Everyman 's Hero , a biography of his uncle , the Eurasian gynaecologist Charles Joseph Pemberton Paglar ( 1894 – 1954 ) , was published posthumously in 2010 by The Straits Times Press .
= = Works = =
= = = Fiction = = =
The Shrimp People , Singapore : Times Books International , 1991 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 204 @-@ 292 @-@ 7 ( pbk . ) .
People of the Pear Tree , Singapore : Times Books International , 1993 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 204 @-@ 449 @-@ 5 ( pbk . ) .
Island in the Centre , Singapore : Times Books International , 1995 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 204 @-@ 564 @-@ 5 ( pbk . ) .
A River of Roses , Singapore : Times Books International , 1998 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 204 @-@ 772 @-@ 4 ( pbk . ) .
= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =
Shelley , Rex , ed . ( 1984 ) , Words Mean Business : A Basic Japanese Business Glossary , Singapore : Times Books International , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 65 @-@ 147 @-@ 3 .
Japan ( Cultures of the World series ) , Singapore : Times Books International , 1990 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 204 @-@ 165 @-@ 4 .
Culture Shock ! : Japan , Singapore : Times Books International , 1993 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 204 @-@ 081 @-@ 7 ( pbk . ) .
Sounds and Sins of Singlish , and other Nonsense , Singapore : Times Books International , 1995 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 204 @-@ 392 @-@ 4 ( pbk . ) .
How to Interview Well and Get that Job ! , Singapore : SNP , 2004 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 248 @-@ 026 @-@ 2 .
Shelley , Rex ; Chen , Fen ( 2010 ) , Dr. Paglar : Everyman 's Hero , Singapore : The Straits Times Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 4266 @-@ 46 @-@ 8 .
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= Sunday Morning ( No Doubt song ) =
" Sunday Morning " is a song recorded by American rock band No Doubt . It was released as the sixth single from their third studio album Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) . The single was made available as a CD single , cassette single , and VHS single on May 27 , 1997 through Interscope . Lyrically , the song is about Gwen Stefani 's relationship with Tony Kanal , and their breakup that followed . The track was written by band members Kanal , Gwen Stefani , and Eric Stefani , while production was handled by Matthew Wilder .
The single was well received by many music critics , with one of them calling it a " standout track " . It also performed well commercially , peaking in the top 50 in several countries , including the UK , Canada , and Australia ; the song was certified gold in the latter country for sales of over 35 @,@ 000 copies . Musically , " Sunday Morning " is a ska punk and reggae rock song . A music video for the single was released in 1996 and directed by Sophie Muller ; it features the band members preparing a large feast before getting into a food fight .
= = Background and recording = =
Recording sessions and meetings for No Doubt 's third studio album Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) began in 1993 between members Eric Stefani , Gwen Stefani , Tony Kanal , Tom Dumont , Adrian Young , and musician Gary Angle . The material produced with Angle was hugely rejected by Interscope Records ' officials , and had the members work with producer Matthew Wilder instead . Upset with working with someone outside the band , Eric eventually stopped recording with the band , and encouraged the remaining members to write the group 's songs , as he felt threatened when he did so . After Kanal broke off his seven @-@ year relationship with Gwen , both of them wrote several more songs , until there was enough material for an album . The single 's inspiration came when Kanal was having a fight with Stefani , his then @-@ girlfriend , through the bathroom door of his parents ' house in Yorba Linda , California ; Stefani later revamped the lyrics to discuss her breakup with Kanal .
= = Composition = =
" Sunday Morning " was written by Kanal , Gwen Stefani , and Eric Stefani , while production was handled by Matthew Wilder . The song is a ska punk and reggae rock song , with one critic comparing it to Motown music . According to Chris Heath of Rolling Stone , the single " erupts delightfully from its opening harmonies into a thumping combination of Motown and pop cheese , is especially spirited " ; he later compared it to Kim Wilde 's 1981 single " Kids in America " . Kenneth Partridge , writing for Billboard , stated that the song allowed Gwen to go " from victim to victor " , especially in the lyrics " Thank you , now you 're the parasite " ; in Partridge 's The A.V. Club review , he described it as " a straight @-@ up ska track " that " didn 't chart as high , but the damage was done " .
= = Critical reception = =
After its release , " Sunday Morning " received general acclaim from music critics . Kenneth Partridge of Billboard appreciated Gwen " constantly gaining and losing the upper hand in her romantic adventures " . Thomas Bleach , writing for his self @-@ titled blog , also enjoyed the track , calling the " infectious chorus , fast pace and cheeky nature of the song appeal [ ing ] " . A critic writing for The Diamondback favored the " defiant " sound of the track , while a reviewer from Punk News titled the song a " gem " , but predicted that " on a weaker album , [ it ] would have made more of a splash . " Mike Boehm of the Los Angeles Times cited the song as an " example of the band 's improved craft " and claimed that it " help [ s ] carry the album 's thematic current " of " enthusiastic music " . Similarly , Nicholas Jones of The Odyssey Online called it a " standout track " , due to it being " lyrically clever " .
In a poll held by Rolling Stone , Brittany Spanos asked readers to vote on " The 10 Best Gwen Stefani Songs " ; " Sunday Morning " took fourth place and its consensus stated " Stefani is a powerhouse on the raucous , bitter single . [ ... ] From the moment Adrian Young 's opening drum solo builds up , the song grows more and more massive and searing . "
= = Commercial performance = =
" Sunday Morning " was moderately successful , with it charting in several countries . In the United States , the song did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 , but entered the Mainstream Top 40 component chart , where it peaked at number thirty @-@ five . In Australia , the single peaked at position twenty @-@ one , and lasted on the chart for a total of nineteen weeks ; it was later certified gold by the ARIA for sales of over 35 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada and the New Zealand , it peaked at numbers thirty @-@ three and fifty , respectively . In Europe , the track also performed moderately well , with it peaking at number fifty in the United Kingdom and at number fifty @-@ five in Sweden .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Sophie Muller and premiered in 1996 ; Muller was initially asked to produce a video for Tragic Kingdom 's lead single " Just a Girl " , but nothing came of it . " Sunday Morning " marked Muller 's second collaboration with the band , following " Don 't Speak " . In a 2012 interview with OC Weekly , Muller spoke of the result of the single 's music video :
" Of all my videos , I suppose ' Sunday Morning ' is the most like them . It 's the most honest – where they are all hang out together , that feels very real to me . They all get on and they 're very good friends and have very different lives . When I met them some of them were still living with their parents ! ( Well , some of them . ) They hang on to each other in the sense of that when they got huge across the world , there was already a sense of family between them . "
The video was filmed at Gwen Stefani 's grandparent 's house in Anaheim , California , in a one @-@ day shoot . Band member Dumont stated that the video " was really normal for us before this weird success " , listing their routine of rehearsing in a garage and later having a big dinner and how that was average for them .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video commences with a scene of the band beginning to perform the song in a house 's detached garage . When the first verse starts , Stefani 's ex @-@ lover ( Terry Hall ) walks by the house before sitting down on a swing . Stefani changes her shoes as the song 's chorus is played ; she walks away from the garage and down a street to a grocery store . At the store , she purchases four cans of tomato sauce , and quickly leaves . Meanwhile , Dumont , Kanal , and Young prepare a large dinner for the band as Stefani reenters the home . Stefani slices tomatoes , Dumont cooks some spaghetti noodles , Kanal cuts up a few onions , and Young sets the table . At the song 's bridge , Stefani accidentally cuts herself with a knife and Kanal drops a pot of pasta sauce ; both of them promptly clean up their messes as dinner is served . Dumont initiates a food fight , and touring members Gabriel McNair and Stephen Bradley join in . The video ends with the ex @-@ lover sitting alone on the swing .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Tragic Kingdom liner notes .
Personnel
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= California State Route 70 =
State Route 70 ( SR 70 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California . Connecting Sacramento with U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) near Beckwourth Pass ( lowest in the Sierra Nevada ) via the Feather River Canyon . Through the Feather River Canyon , from SR 149 to US 395 , SR 70 is the Feather River Scenic Byway , a Forest Service Byway that parallels the ex @-@ Western Pacific Railroad 's Feather River Route .
The Beckwourth Trail was the earliest predecessor of SR 70 , which was a spur of the California Trail . This was followed by the railroad , mostly built on the route of the trail ; a dirt road was needed for construction that was later converted into part of the present state highway . Construction on the highway began in 1928 , which involved the boring of three tunnels . Previously , the road was signed as U.S. Route 40 Alternate , crossing the Sierra Nevada at a lower elevation than Donner Pass on US 40 , now Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) . The road was renumbered SR 70 in the 1964 state highway renumbering . Today , portions of SR 70 have been upgraded to a four @-@ lane expressway , and even a freeway in a few locations .
= = Route description = =
State Route 70 begins at a partial interchange with SR 99 north of Sacramento , close to the Feather River Route rail line that parallels the entire highway , and heads north along a four @-@ lane mix of expressway and freeway . Just north of the Bear River crossing / Yuba County line , in Plumas Lake , SR 70 becomes a freeway for the second time , which continues to just beyond the Yuba River in Marysville . Within that city , SR 70 makes two turns and overlaps SR 20 before heading north on a two @-@ lane road . Another four @-@ lane freeway begins south of SR 162 in Oroville , and ends at SR 149 . SR 149 is a major connection northwest to SR 99 , and became the straight @-@ through movement when the construction to replace the intersection with an interchange was completed in November 2008 . The State Scenic Highway portion of SR 70 begins at SR 149 , which is where SR 70 turns northeast out of the Sacramento Valley and into the mountains . The short SR 191 spurs north to Paradise , while SR 70 crosses the West Branch Feather River on the double @-@ decker West Branch Bridge , with the Feather River Route below . A short four @-@ lane section runs over the bridge towards Jarbo Gap , where the present SR 70 merges with the old road ( Dark Canyon Road ) that was used before the Feather River was dammed to create Lake Oroville in the 1960s .
After crossing through Jarbo Gap , SR 70 drops down into the canyon of the North Fork Feather River , which it follows almost to Quincy , usually on the opposite side from the Feather River Route ; this results in two places where both transportation lines cross the river and each other . The first of these is the Pulga Bridge , an arch bridge that crosses over a lower railroad truss bridge ; soon after are the highway 's three tunnels through rock formations in the canyon . After a fair distance through the canyon , and that formed by the East Branch North Fork Feather River , SR 70 reaches the junction with State Route 89 near Paxton ; Routes 70 and 89 overlap southeast from that point , where the East Branch splits into Indian Creek and Spanish Creek .
The highway heads southeast , partly along the latter creek , past Keddie to Quincy in the American Valley . It leaves the valley via Greenhorn Creek , passing the Feather River Route 's Williams Loop and then following the small Estray Creek to Lee Summit , which the rail line passes under in the Spring Garden Tunnel . This brings SR 70 into the valley of the Middle Fork Feather River , which takes it southeast to Blairsden , where the State Scenic Highway ends and State Route 89 splits to the south , and then east , through the Plumas National Forest , to Portola and Beckwourth . The large Sierra Valley begins at the latter community , and SR 70 heads almost directly across , passing the north end of SR 49 at Vinton and the south end of SR 284 at Chilcoot before crossing Beckwourth Pass , which the railroad takes the Chilcoot Tunnel under , and descending slightly to end at U.S. 395 at Hallelujah Junction .
The portion of SR 70 west of State Route 89 near Blairsden is also eligible for the State Scenic Highway System , but has not been designated as such by Caltrans . The entire route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , though it is mostly two lanes .
= = History = =
= = = Trails = = =
James Beckwourth opened the Beckwourth Trail over Beckwourth Pass in 1851 , crossing the Sierra Nevada at a lower elevation than the existing Donner Pass route of the California Trail . This split from the Truckee Route of the California Trail near Reno and roughly followed the present SR 70 to Quincy , but , rather than passing through the Feather River Canyon , it followed Oroville @-@ Quincy Highway along ridges to Bidwell 's Bar . A company was incorporated on July 23 , 1855 to build the Quincy and Spanish Ranch Wagon Road , which bypassed the older trail from Quincy west to Spanish Ranch and began collecting tolls in November . The Pioneer Wagon Road , another toll road , was built in 1856 and 1857 , continuing the improvements southwest to Buckeye ( just before the Butte County line ) . An 1866 law authorized Plumas County to improve the portion from Quincy east to Beckwourth . The county also improved the road east from Beckwourth over the pass as part of the Red Clover Wagon Road , which began at Genesee and was completed in the 1870s .
The Western Pacific Railroad completed its main line into California in 1909 . This followed the old Beckwourth Trail east of Quincy , but to the west it reached Oroville and Marysville via the Feather River Canyon . While building the railroad , the Utah Construction Company had created a dirt road through the canyon to assist with construction ; citizens created the Plumas County Road Association in 1911 to push for improvements to this roadway and creation of a year @-@ round route between Oroville and Quincy ( the existing route over the ridges was closed for at least four months each winter ) . The first state highway bond issue , passed by the state 's voters in 1910 , included a Route 30 connecting Oroville with Quincy . Plumas County surveyor Arthur W. Keddie surveyed the Feather River Canyon route for the California Highway Commission in 1913 , but the state announced in 1916 that the existing ridge route would be improved . After much debate , the state legislative road committee included the statement that this route would follow the Feather River in the 1919 amendment authorizing a third bond issue ; instead of keeping it as Route 30 , the Highway Commission changed the designation to an extension of the short Richvale @-@ Oroville ( now SR 162 ) Route 21 , which was also part of the first bond issue .
= = = Modern route = = =
Construction began on July 1 , 1928 , with convict labor for the easier portions and contractors for the remainder , as well as bridges and tunnels , but was slowed by the Great Depression . On the most difficult portion , between Cresta and Rock Creek , three tunnels had to be built at Arch Rock , Grizzly Dome , and Elephant Butte ; at the former two , surveyors had to hang out on rope over steep granite slopes , and rockslides repeatedly caused delays . The commission dedicated the road at a ceremony at Grizzly Dome , halfway between the ends , on August 14 , 1937 . Construction had cost $ 8 @.@ 15 million for 78 miles ( 126 km ) of new road . The remainder of the old trail from Quincy to the junction with Route 29 ( now U.S. 395 ) east of Beckwourth Pass was added to the state highway system in 1931 as an extension of Route 21 , and was paved by 1936 . A new Route 87 was created in 1933 , stretching from Woodland via Marysville and Oroville to Route 3 ( State Route 99 ) southeast of Chico , including the present SR 70 between Marysville and Oroville . Route 87 from Woodland to Oroville and Route 21 from Oroville to east of Beckwourth Pass became a new State Route 24 in 1934 ; State Route 24 was extended southwest from Woodland to Oakland by the end of 1937 .
In 1954 , the original part of State Route 24 was replaced by U.S. Route 40 Alternate , which continued south on U.S. 99W from Woodland to Davis and southeast on U.S. 395 to Reno , Nevada to join U.S. 40 at both ends . A direct route from Marysville south to Sacramento was added to the state highway system in 1949 as Route 232 , and later became part of a rerouted State Route 24 . The U.S. 40 Alternate designation was short @-@ lived , and was mostly replaced by State Route 70 in the 1964 renumbering . Southwest of Marysville , former U.S. 40 Alternate instead became State Route 113 , and SR 70 ran south along former State Route 24 ( Route 232 ) to a point north of Sacramento , where the new State Route 99 came in from the northwest and continued south . Despite SR 70 always ending at State Route 99 , it was once signed along State Route 99 ( El Centro Road , Garden Highway , and the Jibboom Street Bridge ) to Sacramento .
When it was originally built , the Feather River Highway northeast from Oroville followed the present Oroville Dam Boulevard ( County Route B2 ) to the present location of the Oroville Dam , and then ran north and northeast alongside the North Fork Feather River along a route now covered by Lake Oroville . It left to the north on Dark Canyon Road , meeting the present alignment at Jarbo Gap . Since the old road would be flooded , a $ 14 @.@ 8 million new alignment , much of it four lanes , was built around the west side ; the Western Pacific Railroad was also relocated to a nearby alignment . The double @-@ decker West Branch Bridge over the West Branch Feather River northwest of the dam , carrying the highway above the rail line , was dedicated on August 15 , 1962 . Three portions of SR 70 have been upgraded to freeways : north of SR 99 to Berry and Kempton Roads in the early 2010s ; south from Marysville to the State Route 65 split in the mid @-@ 1950s , extended farther south in the late 1960s and late 2000s ; and around downtown Oroville , built in the early 1960s . In 2004 , SR 70 was upgraded to a four @-@ lane expressway between Feather River Boulevard north of the Bear River and the Yuba / Sutter county line to the freeway portion south of McGowan Parkway . A freeway interchange was constructed in 2008 at Plumas Lake Boulevard for access to the Plumas Lake development previously served at an uncontrolled intersection with Plumas Arboga Road . The removal of this intersection effectively upgraded the expressway portion to freeway south to the Feather River Boulevard intersection . In the early 2010s , the last two @-@ lane segment of SR 70 south of Marysville was expanded to a four @-@ lane expressway , with a freeway section bypassing the small town of East Nicolaus to the west . In 2015 , the interchange with Feather River Boulevard in Plumas Lake was opened to traffic , eliminating the last signalized intersection between Sacramento ( with SR 99 ) and Marysville .
= = Major intersections = =
The portion of the route from State Route 99 to State Route 149 is signed as a north – south route . Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
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= Isaac Folorunso Adewole =
Isaac Folorunso Adewole FAS ( born 5 May 1954 ) is a Nigerian professor of gynaecology and obstetrics . Since November 2015 he has been the Minister of Health in the Cabinet of President Muhammadu Buhari . He is a former vice @-@ chancellor of the University of Ibadan and president of the African Organisation for Research and Training in Cancer . Prior to his appointment as the 11th substantive vice @-@ chancellor of the university , he served as provost at the College of Medicine , University of Ibadan , the largest and oldest medical school in Nigeria . His research interest is in the area of human papillomavirus , HIV , and gynaecologic oncology , a specialised field of medicine that focuses on cancers of the female reproductive system , including ovarian cancer , uterine cancer , vaginal cancer , cervical cancer , and vulvar cancer . Adewole is a member of the governing council of Adeleke University and chairs the National Panel on Cervical Cancer Control Policy . He is the only Nigerian professor appointed as member of the Council of the Association of Commonwealth Universities . He was appointed to serve as a member of the international advisory board of the African Cancer Institute , a comprehensive cancer centre in sub @-@ Saharan black Africa .
In 2014 , he celebrated his 60th birthday . In a public lecture held at the International Conference Centre of the University of Ibadan it was recalled how traducers tried relentlessly to sabotage his appointment as the vice @-@ chancellor of the institution in 2010 . The chairman of the 60th birthday celebration was Wole Olanipekun , a legal luminary , Senior Advocate of Nigeria , former president of the Nigerian Bar Association , and a past Pro @-@ Chancellor of the university . He described Adewole as a " cat not only with nine lives , but one with 18 lives , who surmounted all the travails and conspiratorial petitions hatched against him by his traducers . " In 2012 , he was elected as a Fellow of the Nigerian Academy of Science , the apex academic organisation in Nigeria . He was inducted into the academy along with Professor Mojeed Olayide Abass , a Nigerian professor of computer science at the University of Lagos , and Professor Akinyinka Omigbodun , the president of the West African College of Surgeons and former provost of the College of Medicine , University of Ibadan .
In 2014 , he was appointed as a member of Adeleke University 's governing council and in June 2015 he was appointed as a member of Pan @-@ African University 's governing council . Pan @-@ African University is a post @-@ graduate training and research network of university nodes in five regions , supported by the African Union . On 28 March 2015 , he was appointed as Independent National Electoral Commission 's Collation Officer in Lagos State for the Nigerian general election , 2015 and on 11 April , he served as returning officer for the Lagos State gubernatorial election . On 11 November 2015 he was appointed Minister for Health of the Federal Republic of Nigeria .
= = Early life = =
Adewole was born on 5 May 1954 at Ilesa , a city in Osun State in southwestern Nigeria . His parents are traders and his choice of career was informed by his father , who was an agent of United Africa Company , a British company which principally traded in West Africa during the 20th century .
His initial plan was to choose a career in aeronautics , particularly aerospace engineering , though his school guidance counselor suggested subjects which were useful for a career in medicine . In 1960 , he attended Ogudu Methodist Primary School , Ilesa , where he spent one year , and Methodist School , Oke Ado in Ibadan , where he also spent one year before he completed his primary education at St Mathias Demonstration School Akure . He later attended Ilesa Grammar School , where he obtained a Grade I certificate with distinction in 1970 and Higher School Certificate ( HSC ) in 1972 . In October 1973 , he enrolled at the College of Medicine , University of Ibadan ; there he obtained an MBBS degree and in 1978 won the Glaxo Allenbury prize for outstanding performance in paediatrics .
= = Career = =
In 1978 , the same year he graduated from the University of Ibadan , he joined the University College Hospital , Ibadan . In 1979 , he left the hospital for Sokoto for a compulsory year of service in the National Youth Service Corps . On completion of his service , he worked for a year as a medical officer at Adeoye Maternity hospital , Ibadan , before returning to the college hospital as a senior house officer of the department of obstetrics and gynaecology . He held the position for one year before he was appointed registrar in 1982 . In 1985 , he left Nigeria for a research fellowship in the department of medical oncology at Charing Cross Hospital . Following completion of the fellowship program , he returned to Nigeria to join the Royal Crown Specialist Hospital , Ibadan , where he spent four years before returning to the College Hospital as consultant , obstetrician , and gynaecologist .
He began his academic career as lecturer grade I at the College of Medicine , University of Ibadan , where he became a senior lecturer in 1992 . On 1 October 1997 , he was appointed a professor of medicine at the University of Ibadan , the same year he was appointed as a member of the University Senate . In 1999 , he was appointed as acting head of the department of obstetrics and gynaecology . He served in that capacity for one year . On 1 August 2000 , he was appointed as the Dean , Faculty of Clinical Sciences and Dentistry , a position he held until 31 July 2002 . On 1 August 2002 he was appointed as Provost , college of medicine and was succeeded by Professor Akinyinka Omigbodun . While serving in this capacity , he was member of the committee of provost and deans as well as chairman , university campus committee on AIDS . He also served as Chairman of the committee on evaluation of academic staff in 2004 . On 1 May 2010 , he became an adjunct professor at Northwestern University in Chicago . In December 2010 , he was appointed as the 11th substantive vice @-@ chancellor of the University of Ibadan , succeeding Olufemi Bamiro , a mechanical engineering professor and member of the Nigerian Academy of Engineering .
Between 1989 and 1992 , he was an editorial adviser to the Nigerian Medical Journal and in 1997 , he became a member of editorial board of the Nigerian Journal of Medicine . He is currently serving as a member of oncology clinical reviews . He his also a member of the editorial board of The Global Santé Journal . He has published over 180 scholarly articles and tens of books and has contributed to hundreds of other books as well .
= = = Advocacy and medical politics = = =
Adewole is a health advocator . He is a coordinator of the Campaign Against Unwanted Pregnancy , a multidisciplinary not @-@ for @-@ profit organisation consisting of medical practitioners , social scientists , nurses , and teachers . He organized a free cervical cancer screening campaign and was part of the team that introduced sexual rights into the curriculum of medical schools in Nigeria . He is involved in Nigerian medical politics . He was influenced by Dr. Kayode Obembe , the former President of the Nigerian Medical Association , who encouraged him in the early 1980s to contest the seat of secretary to the Resident Doctors Association . In 1982 , Adewole was elected as the Secretary @-@ general of the University of Ibadan Chapter of the Association of Resident Doctors . He served in that capacity for one year . In 1984 he was elected president of the National Association of Resident Doctors of Nigeria and led a nationwide strike that resulted in his dismissal by the then military head of state , General Muhammadu Buhari , who is currently the President of Nigeria . When Buhari declared him a wanted man , Adewole went into exile . He worked at the Cancer Campaign Research Institute in London , where he authored four papers . He later returned to Nigeria and was elected deputy Secretary @-@ general of the Nigerian Medical Association in 1988 . In 1990 he was elected Secretary @-@ general of the Nigerian Medical Association . He held the position for two years , and in 1993 , he was elected chairman of the Oyo State chapter of the Nigerian Medical Association . In March 1992 he was elected assistant secretary @-@ general of the Confederation of African Medical Associations and Societies , and after his tenure ended in August 1997 he was elected secretary of the African regional task force on the control of gynaecological cancers .
= = Keynote speeches = =
In addition to his outstanding contributions to medicine and academics , he is also a pundit . In his welcome address at a public lecture organised by the Consortium for Advanced Research Training in Africa held at the International Conference Centre , International Institute of Tropical Agriculture , Ibadan , he lamented the decline of Africa 's contribution to global scientific output . He advocated for the commensurate expansion in doctoral training to meet the human resources needs of the new institutions as well as the existing ones .
In 2014 , during the Ebola virus outbreak in Nigeria , he led a panel of experts to brainstorm on the latest scientific information on the nature of the virus , its signs , symptoms , and prevention . At a meeting held at the University of Ibadan to mobilise against the virus , he said " Nigeria is still safe , though we suffered a biological attack when Mr. Patrick Sawyer came into Nigeria from Liberia " . He called on security agencies to investigate the bank accounts of Patrick Sawyer , who imported the virus into the country , to discover if he was paid to terrorise the country with the virus .
While receiving an award of excellence for outstanding contributions to obstetrics and gynaecology at the University of Sunderland 2015 convocation ceremonies , he said
any war against terror must be fought through collective efforts to nip it in the bud . An African proverb says ' Until you unmask it , a masquerade remains a terror ' . A war against terror – of any kind – is best achieved through collective efforts . Our modest contributions from our corner of the globe have helped in restoring hope to millions of people without hope . It has become a lamp among the armament that unmasked the monster HIV , and we shall continue to beam the light of research on all threats to human existence .
As part of efforts to end insurgency in Nigeria , the Ambassador of France to Nigeria Jacques Champagne de Labriolle visited Adewole in his office at the University of Ibadan . Adewole described the ambassador 's visit as " auspicious and timely in the history of Nigeria . " He said " our country must gladly engage the French @-@ speaking countries , if we really want to maintain security for the citizenry . I believe that creating a long @-@ term security should be our main concern just as the initiative of our president was so strategic , having recently visited France . "
= = Ministerial nomination and appointment = =
On 12 October 2015 , Adewole was nominated as Minister of the Federal Republic of Nigeria by Muhammadu Buhari . The Academic Staff Union of Universities ( ASUU ) lauded his nomination and described him as a " round peg in a round hole suitable for president 's change agenda " . In his remarks , chairman of the union Professor Olusegun Ajiboye described the nomination as a " right step towards the change that Nigeria needs by appointing change agents who have achieved global recognition in their chosen academic career and have unblemished administrative records " .
The Guardian reported that Dr. Ademola Aremu , the National Treasurer of the Union , said that
the story of Prof. Adewole ' IFA ' as we popularly called him is the story of someone who has been destined to serve humanity . His achievements as a provost of the college of medicine made him to receive overwhelming support from the university community when he indicated interest to serve on the university governing council and later on as vice chancellor . As vice chancellor , he totally turned the university around in terms of staff and student welfare , academically , University of Ibadan unarguably became the best in Nigeria and one of the best in Africa .
In the same vein , the chairman of the University of Ibadan Senior Staff Association of Universities Wale Akinremi said " the nomination of Prof. Isaac Folorunsho Adewole as a minister was received by the university of Ibadan community with great enthusiasm . We can vouch for his professional pedigree and administrative competence . "
On 11 November 2015 , Adewole was appointed as minister of health in Buhari 's administration . He called for stakeholders in the health sector to collaborate enable the ministry achieve Buhari 's health agenda . According to The Nation , Adewole said
for the apex policy on health to be achieved , we need to work together and working together means we can make a huge difference . We have been described as a generation that enjoyed better health when we were young than now and our aim is to bring back the health care system we enjoyed when we were young .
= = Scientific contributions = =
Adewole is one of Nigeria 's most prolific writers in the medical field . He has authored over 200 scholarly articles in learned journals and over 20 books in various areas of medicine . In 2005 , he authored Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV in Nigeria ; the book was published by the Harvard University Press . In April 2011 , he made a presentation on the topic at Global Health Week at Northwestern University , Chicago . In 2007 , he co @-@ authored a training manual on sexual and reproductive health and rights and HIV prevention for medical students in Nigeria . The manual is currently being used in medical colleges in Nigerian universities .
He has attended over 100 scientific conferences in more than 20 countries and has presented posters and abstracts at numerous international conferences . For instance , at the International Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections organised held in 2009 in Montreal , Adewole presented his abstract on " Mother 's Prophylaxis Regimen Strongly Predicts Risk of Early Mother @-@ to @-@ Child Transmission in Large ART Program in Nigeria " . In 2009 , he attended the International Aids Conference held in South Africa , where he presented his abstract on the " Impact of Social Support in a PMTCT programme " .
= = Honours and recognition = =
Adewole has received several fellowship awards , such as the fellowship of the Nigerian Academy of Science , the National Postgraduate Medical College of Nigeria , and fellowship of the West African College of Surgeons . He is a member of several academic organisations such as the American Society of Clinical Oncology , International Agency for Research on Cancer , Nigerian Medical Association , International AIDS Society , International AIDS Society , International Society for Infectious Diseases , and the Society of Gynaecology and Obstetrics of Nigeria . In 2013 , he became the only Nigerian professor appointed to serve as member of council of the Association of Commonwealth Universities . The association represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries . He was also appointed as a member of the international advisory board of the African Cancer Institute , a comprehensive cancer centre in sub @-@ Saharan black Africa .
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= Alta Airport =
Alta Airport ( Norwegian : Alta lufthavn ; IATA : ALF , ICAO : ENAT ) is an international airport serving Alta , a town and municipality in Finnmark county , Norway . The airport is located at Elvebakken , 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) northeast of Bossekop in Alta . It has a single , 2 @,@ 253 @-@ meter ( 7 @,@ 392 ft ) runway numbered 11 / 29 , which lies on the southern shore of the Altafjord . Alta Airport is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor , and served 368 @,@ 393 passengers in 2014 , making it the busiest airport in Finnmark .
The airport is served by Norwegian Air Shuttle and Scandinavian Airlines ( SAS ) with Boeing 737 aircraft on flights to Tromsø and Oslo . Widerøe operates services to several regional airports in Finnmark , feeding to the larger airlines 'routes . There are a limited number of international charter flights . The first airport in the area was a military airfield built by the Luftwaffe in 1943 , but was damaged beyond repair during World War II . The civilian airport opened on 4 May 1963 . At first services were provided by SAS to other primary airports in the north and to Oslo , but in the 1970s , several regional airports opened in Finnmark , with Widerøe flying connecting flights to them . Alta Airport 's regional importance increased in 1990 , when it became a hub for the newly created SAS Commuter . Norwegian started flying to Alta in 2003 and a new terminal building was opened in 2009 .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The first airport in Alta was built by the Wehrmacht during the German occupation of Norway . Alta was a central part of the German military activity during World War II , resulting in an airstrip being constructed at Elvebakken in 1943 . The airport was damaged beyond repair under Operation Nordlicht — the German withdrawal from Finnmark in 1944 . During 1945 the Royal Norwegian Air Force operated a seaplane route along the coast of Northern Norway , which included a stop at Alta . However , the route was not resumed the following summer . The municipality started lobbying the air force and the civilian aviation authorities to establish an airline route to Alta . Specifically , they argued that both the water aerodrome at Bukta and an airfield at Altagård / Elvebakken be included in the national plans for future airports . The area at Altagårdsletta was freed up by the military in 1946 and zoned for use as an airport .
However , no progress was made with the airfield for over a decade . Instead , the water aerodrome at Bukta was upgraded . Initially the passengers were transported to the aircraft with a boat , but after a few years a floating dock was built . Services were only provided during five summer months , from May through September . During the rest of the year , Alta had no airline service ; travel time to Oslo was then six days , largely by ship . The route was taken over by Widerøe in 1954 , who bought a de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 3 Otter to serve a route from Tromsø via Alta to Hammerfest , Kirkenes and Vadsø . In Tromsø , the routes connected with a Norwegian Air Lines ' seaplane service to Oslo . Bukta had 2 @,@ 000 annual passengers in 1957 , and the summer route was flown daily beginning in 1960 .
Local politicians started discussing the airfield plans again in the mid @-@ 1950s , and an airport for Alta was included in the national airport plan launched in 1956 . The municipality started preparatory work , which included expropriation of the necessary area . At that time the plans called for two runways , 1 @,@ 000 and 800 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 and 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long , respectively . By 1958 , the municipality had also built water and sewer pipes to the airport site and had spent 60 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone on the preparatory work and purchase of land . Central authorities were at the same time looking for the most suited site for an airport for western Finnmark , and were considering Lakselv Airport , Banak in Porsanger , a by @-@ then @-@ closed military air base .
The location in Elvebakken was somewhat controversial in Alta , especially as the airport would be located so close to the town center , potentially causing noise pollution . An alternative at Sokkelma was considered , but this was discarded because the surrounding mountains prevented good landing conditions . The decision to build Alta Airport was made in 1961 , followed by additional expropriation of land . Construction was carried out simultaneously with that of Banak and Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen , which combined would give Finnmark three primary airports .
Construction started in February 1962 and cost NOK 3 @.@ 2 million . The runway was completed by the fall of that year , but other parts of the construction were delayed . By late April 1963 , the airport was lacking fire fighting equipment and ground crew had still not received sufficient training . However , the issues were resolved , allowing the airport to open on schedule on 4 May 1963 . Lakselv and Kirkenes Airport also opened the same day , while Tromsø Airport opened the following year . Several important facilities were missing from Alta Airport when it opened ; the control tower and the passenger terminal were not completed until 1964 , so at first a shed was used as terminal .
= = = Operational history = = =
Services were at first operated by Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) . At the beginning the airline used 56 @-@ passenger Convair CV @-@ 440 Metropolitan aircraft , which flew flights south to Oslo and westward to Lakselv and Kirkenes — and also to Tromsø starting in 1964 . The general route scheme of flying multi @-@ legged flights from Oslo to Finnmark remained until 1990 . On 7 April 1969 , SAS introduced the 85 @-@ passenger Douglas DC @-@ 9 @-@ 21 jetliner on the Alta service ; the last Metropolitan flew on 1 April 1970 . Five regional airports opened on 1 August 1974 , Sørkjosen , Hammerfest , Mehamn , Berlevåg and Vadsø , all which were connected to Alta and other primary airports by Widerøe using de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otters . Honningsvåg Airport opened on 1 July 1977 . SAS ' traffic increased throughout the 1970s , resulting in SAS gradually increasing the frequency of its services , and later also using larger DC @-@ 9s . The McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 80 was first flown on the Alta route on 11 July 1986 .
SAS Commuter was established in 1988 and started operations in Northern Norway in May 1990 , making Alta its central hub for Finnmark . This involved a change to the operations so that all DC @-@ 9 services from Alta to Oslo were flown non @-@ stop . Conversely , all services to airports in Northern Norway were flown using the smaller Fokker 50 . Thus SAS was able to reduce costs by no longer operating local routes with the DC @-@ 9 / MD @-@ 80 and instead increased the number of flights . The change made Alta the only airport in Finnmark with direct services to Oslo . From 1989 to 1990 , the number of annual aircraft movements at Alta hiked from 7 @,@ 711 to 10 @,@ 035 .
Activity at Alta Airport peaked in the following years . SAS served Alta with up to ten daily services ; at peak hours six aircraft were at the airport simultaneously , including two from Widerøe . From 1992 , SAS reintroduced direct services from Kirkenes to Oslo , and aircraft in eastern Finnmark again started feeding into Kirkenes . The hub paradigm was thus gradually abandoned by SAS . Flights at Alta gradually decreased , hitting a low of 4 @,@ 935 movements ( landings and take @-@ offs ) in 2000 . The North Cape Tunnel opened in 1999 , connecting Honningsvåg and Nordkapp to the mainland . This reduced travel time to Alta and people from Nordkapp started using Alta more for long @-@ haul flights at the expense of Honningsvåg Airport .
SAS bought Braathens in 2001 , resulting in the latter taking over the service to Oslo starting on 1 April 2002 . All SAS Commuter services in Northern Norway were taken over by Widerøe in October 2002 . Norwegian Air Shuttle started its services from Oslo to Alta on 19 August 2003 , initially with three services daily . SAS and Braathens merged in 2004 to form SAS Braathens ; the airline changed its name back to Scandinavian Airlines in 2007 .
Plans for expanding the 1 @,@ 670 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 18 @,@ 000 sq ft ) terminal facilities were first articulated by the Civil Airport Administration in the 1990s . The upgrade was given priority in a 2000 plan , but was shortly after placed on hold in favor of upgrades of Kirkenes Airport and Svalbard Airport , Longyear . By 2005 the Civil Aviation Authority announced that the aircraft parking areas at Alta were too close to the runway and that the airport would lose its certification in 2008 unless it was upgraded . Another concern was the lack of capacity , as the airport could only handle 150 passengers simultaneously at two gates .
Avinor decided in February 2007 to build a new passenger terminal and tower for NOK 300 million . The new terminal was 5 @,@ 000 square meters ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and was located between the old terminal and the port facilities . It included improved facilities for security control and allowed international services . The new terminal was put into use on 23 October 2009 and was officially opened on 25 September .
= = Facilities = =
The airport is located at Elvebakken and Altagård , on the southern shore of the Altafjord and at the mouth of the river of Altaelva , which is about 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) east of Bossekop in the town of Alta . Operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor , it has a single 2 @,@ 253 @-@ meter ( 7 @,@ 392 ft ) runway aligned 11 – 29 ( roughly east – west ) , without a taxiway . Both directions are equipped with instrument landing system category I. The terminal building is 5 @,@ 000 square meters ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and can handle international flights . In 2013 , the airport had 368 @,@ 393 passengers , 11 @,@ 707 aircraft movements ( landings and take @-@ offs ) and 330 tonnes of cargo , making it the busiest airport in Finnmark .
The airbus bus is operated by Boreal Transport and takes ten minutes to the town center . Taxis and car rental is also available at the airport . There are 520 long @-@ term parking spaces at the airport . From Alta to Hammerfest there are both coach and fast ferry services ; travel time to Hammerfest is two hours .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Alta Airport is served by three scheduled airlines and two charter airlines , providing services to eleven destinations , including two abroad . Both Scandinavian Airlines and Norwegian Air Shuttle serve the airport using Boeing 737 aircraft , each providing two daily services to Oslo and one daily service to Tromsø . Widerøe operates regional services in Finnmark on a public service obligation contract with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . However , its seven daily services to Tromsø are not subsidized . Widerøe operates de Havilland Canada Dash 8 aircraft on their services , using the 50 @-@ passenger Dash 8 @-@ 300 aircraft to Tromsø and the 39 @-@ passenger Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft on services to regional airport .
Alta Airport 's catchment area includes Kautokeino ( 135 kilometers or 84 miles by road ) , which has no airport . The catchment area partially includes Hammerfest ( 137 kilometers or 85 miles by road ) and Kvalsund ( 106 kilometers or 66 miles ) . Both of these areas have Hammerfest Airport as their local airport , but the regional airport does not provide direct flights to Oslo and the prices to Tromsø are higher . In 2007 , an estimated 81 @,@ 000 passenger @-@ flights at Alta Airport were generated by people living in Hammerfest and Kvalsund . Also journeys to and from other parts of western Finnmark to Alta Airport are often made via Alta , for example from the area around Honningsvåg Airport . The pass at Sennalandet is sometimes closed during snow storms .
= = Future = =
A proposal by a consultant company , ordered by the Ministry of Transport and Communications in 2011 , suggested that starting in 2013 the subsidized routes in Finnmark should follow a coastal route , leaving those to Kirkenes and the county capital of Vadsø as the only subsidized routes remaining at Alta . There are proposals to build a new airport for Hammerfest at Grøtnes , either with a 1 @,@ 999 or 1 @,@ 199 meters ( 6 @,@ 558 or 3 @,@ 934 ft ) runway . If the former is selected , Hammerfest could serve direct flights to Oslo . This would severely reduce Alta 's catchment area as a primary airport and could result in a reduction in Oslo flights . The Norwegian government has decided not to build the Hammerfest @-@ Grøtnes airport , and instead improve the Alta @-@ Hammerfest road which started 2015 . Also the roads towards Kautokeino and Tromsø are being improved during the period 2010 – 2019 .
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= Grand Theft Auto III =
Grand Theft Auto III is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by DMA Design and published by Rockstar Games . It was released on 22 October 2001 for the PlayStation 2 , on 20 May 2002 for Microsoft Windows , and on 31 October 2003 for the Xbox , and re @-@ released an anniversary version on moblie platforms in 2011 . It is the fifth title in the Grand Theft Auto series , and the first main entry since 1999 's Grand Theft Auto 2 . Set within the fictional Liberty City , based on New York City , the game follows Claude after he is left for dead and quickly becomes entangled in a world of gangs , crime and corruption .
The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective and its world is navigated on foot or by vehicle . The open world design lets players freely roam Liberty City , consisting of three main islands . Development was shared between DMA Design in Edinburgh and Rockstar in New York . Much of the development work constituted transforming popular series elements into a 3D world . The game was delayed following the September 11 attacks , to allow the team to change references and gameplay deemed inappropriate .
Upon release , the game received critical acclaim , with praise particularly directed at its concept and gameplay . However , the game also generated controversy , with criticism directed at the depiction of violence and sexual content . Grand Theft Auto III became the best @-@ selling video game of 2001 , and has sold over 17 million copies . Considered one of the most significant titles of the sixth generation of video games , and by many critics as one of the greatest video games of all time , it won year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . Since its release , it has received numerous ports to many gaming platforms . Its successor , Grand Theft Auto : Vice City , was released in October 2002 .
= = Gameplay = =
Grand Theft Auto III is an action @-@ adventure game played from a third @-@ person view . Players complete missions — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . It is possible to have several active missions running at one time , as some missions require players to wait for further instructions or events . Outside of missions , players can freely roam the game 's open world , and have the ability to complete option side missions . Liberty City is composed of three boroughs : Portland , Staunton Island , and Shoreside Vale ; the islands are unlocked to players as the story progresses .
Players may run , jump or use vehicles to navigate the game 's world . In combat , auto @-@ aim can be used as assistance against enemies . Should players take damage , their health meter can be fully regenerated through the use of health pick @-@ ups . Body armour can be used to absorb gunshots and explosive damage , but is used up in the process . When health is entirely depleted , gameplay stops , and players respawn at the nearest hospital , at the expense of losing all weapons and armour , and an amount of money .
If players commit crimes while playing , the game 's law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a " wanted " meter in the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) . On the meter , the displayed stars indicate the current wanted level ( for example , at the maximum six @-@ star level , efforts by law enforcement to incapacitate players become very aggressive ) . Law enforcement officers will search for players who leave the wanted vicinity . The wanted meter enters a cooldown mode and eventually recedes when players are hidden from the officers ' line of sight .
The game lets players control the mute criminal Claude . During the story , Claude meets various new characters from gangs . As players completes missions for different gangs , fellow gang members will often defend players , while rival gang members will recognise players and subsequently shoot on sight . While free roaming the game world , players may engage in activities such as a vigilante minigame , a fire fighting activity , and a taxi cab service . Completion of these activities grants players with context @-@ specific rewards ; for example , completing the vigilante mission allows players to bribe police after committing a crime .
Players use melee attacks , firearms and explosives to fight enemies . The firearms include weapons such as the Micro Uzi , an M16 rifle and a flamethrower . The game 's three @-@ dimension environment allows a first @-@ person view while aiming with the sniper rifle and rocket launcher . In addition , the game 's combat was reworked to allow players to commit drive @-@ by shootings by facing sideways in a vehicle . The game gives players a wide variety of weapon options — they can be purchased from local firearms dealers , found on the ground , retrieved from dead enemies , or found around the city .
= = Plot = =
While robbing a bank in Liberty City , ambitious criminal Claude is shot and betrayed by his girlfriend and accomplice Catalina ( Cynthia Farrell ) . Although he survives the wound , Claude is arrested and sentenced to ten years in prison . While being transported in a prison van , Claude and fellow prisoner 8 @-@ Ball ( Guru ) are inadvertently freed after an attack on the police convoy , and escape to a safehouse . 8 @-@ Ball later introduces Claude to the Leone Mafia crime family ; Sex Club 7 owner Luigi Goterelli ( Joe Pantoliano ) , Don Salvatore Leone ( Frank Vincent ) , his Capo Toni Cipriani ( Michael Madsen ) , and the Don 's son Joey Leone ( Michael Rapaport ) . During work for the family , Claude finds himself fighting the Colombians , who are being led by Catalina in proliferating a new drug . Meanwhile , Salvatore 's trophy wife Maria ( Debi Mazar ) begins to take a liking to Claude . Salvatore grows suspicious and betrays Claude into luring him to a death trap , but Maria saves him just in time and they both flee .
Claude then begins working for the city 's Yakuza and its leader Asuka Kasen ( Lianna Pai ) , Maria 's close friend , who has Claude assassinate Salvatore and get his revenge . This cuts off all of Claude 's ties with the Leone family , who are now against him . Claude 's work leads him to allying himself with other criminal sources , such as corrupt police detective Ray Machowski ( Robert Loggia ) , an enemy of the Cartel . Claude later saves him from Internal Affairs and the CIA by helping him flee to Vice City . Claude also meets charismatic media mogul Donald Love ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , who maintains a huge media front . In an effort to start a war between the Yakuza and Cartel , Claude and Love organise the death of Asuka 's brother Kenji Kasen ( Les Mau ) and blame the Cartel . Later , Love asks Claude to rescue a man who was kidnapped by the Cartel in the prison truck that Claude was in . While on an errand , Claude finally confronts Catalina , who narrowly escapes . Asuka abducts Catalina 's partner Miguel ( Al Espinosa ) , believing him to have knowledge of her brother 's death .
With the war with the Cartel intensifying , Asuka and Maria learn of Claude 's history with Catalina and order him to attack many Cartel operations . Eventually , his exploits attract the attention of Catalina . As a result , the Cartel kidnap Maria , murder Asuka and Miguel , and demand Claude to pay a $ 500 @,@ 000 ransom in exchange for Maria 's release . When Claude confronts Catalina , she attempts to have him killed , but he escapes . In the resulting firefight , Catalina attempts to flee in a helicopter and makes a final attempt on Claude 's life . After killing the remaining Cartel members and rescuing Maria , Claude shoots down the helicopter , effectively killing Catalina . As they are leaving the scene , Maria complains to Claude about the kidnapping , particularly the state of her clothes and nails . During the credits , a gunshot is heard , and Maria 's voice is silenced .
= = Development = =
The core development team of Grand Theft Auto III consisted of about 23 people at DMA Design in Edinburgh , who worked closely with publisher Rockstar Games in New York . By early 2001 , the team had designed the city , cars , and some weapons . An online multiplayer mode was initially planned for the game , but was ultimately dropped due to time and resource limitations . Producer Leslie Benzies described Grand Theft Auto III as a " crime simulation game " . When porting the game to Microsoft Windows , the team delayed it from the PlayStation 2 release in order to ensure quality , citing issues with the simultaneous platform release of previous Grand Theft Auto games .
= = = Open world design = = =
Grand Theft Auto III is the first 3D game in the series , using Criterion Games ' RenderWare game engine . When designing the game , the development team expanded upon concepts introduced in the previous Grand Theft Auto games . Benzies stated that the intention was to recreate the " freedom and diversity " of the previous games in a " living , breathing 3D world " , using the power of the PlayStation 2 to do so . The console 's ability to use DVDs , an improvement over the PlayStation 's limit to CDs , allowed the team to store more data , such as animations , music and environments . Despite this , the team found it difficult to fit the game into 32 megabytes , due to the scale . The game 's size also created difficulties for the testers , due to the variety of options . Benzies felt that creating a living city was the " underlying principle " of the game 's concept during development . Executive producer Sam Houser felt that the game 's 3D element allowed the " chemistry of the team [ to come ] together perfectly for the first time " .
A major difficulty the team encountered was converting all game elements into a 3D world , including the sound and radio stations , as well as designing and voicing the non @-@ player characters , due to the amount that existed within the open world ; producer Dan Houser said that there was about 8 @,@ 000 lines of recorded dialogue in the game , while audio programmer Raymond Usher estimated about 18 @,@ 000 . The basic technical elements of the game began to work together in mid @-@ 2000 , with a carjacking mechanic prototype and stable streaming model . Streaming was initially intended to be reserved for music and map geometry , but other elements were eventually included when it became apparent to the team as more data was entered .
When designing the game world , the team initially created a " hybrid city " , which producer Dan Houser describes as " a post industrial Midwest slash east coast generic " city . Upon developing within this game world , the team realised that basing the design on a real location meant " you have a lot of things you can say about it " . As a result , the team redesigned Liberty City , which had been previously featured in Grand Theft Auto ( 1997 ) , basing it loosely on New York City . The city is broken into three islands : an industrial section representing Brooklyn and Queens , a commercial center resembling Manhattan , and suburbs similar to New Jersey . The islands unlock as the story progresses ; the team wanted players to " start out feeling poor and work to being richer " . Dan Houser describes Liberty City as a " hybrid of a generic American city " , including Chicago , Pittsburgh , Detroit , New York , and Philadelphia . He felt that the parallel realism of the world allowed the team to make more social commentary than previously . Sam Houser cited films and shows like Heat ( 1995 ) and The Sopranos ( 1999 – 2007 ) as inspiration for the setting , and wanted to emulate them in the game . He also cited the influence of the The Legend of Zelda series ( 1986 – present ) and the film Goodfellas ( 1990 ) , describing Grand Theft Auto III as " a cross between a gangster movie and an RPG " .
= = = Story and characters = = =
The team developed the story and design simultaneously . " We use the story to expose the mechanics , and we use the mechanics to tell the story , " said Dan Houser . Houser found it difficult to create the narrative , as the game is so strongly focused on player freedom . He wanted the story to be more nuanced and interesting than the generic " rise and fall and rise again of a superhero bad guy " . The game 's script was also focused on mission objectives , attempting to implement high amounts of interactivity . Houser felt that each mission is " its own short story " , and part of an " overarching story " . Houser and co @-@ writer James Worrall drew influence from mob films , and the mafiosi featured in films by Martin Scorsese . When writing the story , Houser and Worrall regularly met with the designers , and filled a room with post @-@ it notes to reconstruct the story components to shape the game .
Many of the game characters were animated using motion capture , filmed at a rented studio at the Brooklyn Navy Yard , though this was limited by technical restraints . The character movement was also treated as being cinematic , though limited polygons heavily inhibited this . Animating non @-@ player characters entering and driving cars proved to be difficult for the team , due to the variety of vehicle designs . " It involved chaining together dozens of different animations and altering key frames in code , " recalled software engineer Alan Campbell . The team used varying camera angles when animated the game 's cutscenes , in order to evoke different emotions . For the voice acting , the team wanted " natural , subtle performances " , which proved difficult as many of the actors " had in their head the idea that because video games are animated their performances needed to be animated " , explained motion capture director Navid Khonsari . The game 's playable protagonist is unnamed in the game , and his name is not officially revealed as Claude until his appearance in Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) . He is a silent protagonist , never speaking throughout his appearances . The team decided to make Claude silent primarily because it " did not seem like a major issue " , due to the other challenges faced during development , and also partly to allow players to identify with the character .
= = = Sound design = = =
Grand Theft Auto III features about three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours of in @-@ game radio material . For the music , the team sought a broad diversity , to recreate the real sensation of skipping through radio stations , reflecting the gangster movie culture invoked by the game . The team used the talk radio stations to add character to the city , and provide a " unique take on American life " ; Sam Houser described it as " a very iconoclastic look at America " . The team used real DJs to portray those on the radio . In doing so , the team wrote unusual dialogue for the DJs , seeking the effect of " high production values and absurd content " . Music director Craig Conner assembled the assets of the radio station — music , advertisements , DJ dialogue , station imaging .
= = = Cuts , changes , and the 9 / 11 effect = = =
Prior to the initial release , several modifications were made to the game . While changes are frequent during game development , the changes in Grand Theft Auto III were noted to be around the time of the September 11 , 2001 attacks , which led to speculation that some changes were motivated by the attacks . On September 19 , 2001 , Rockstar delayed the game 's release by three weeks , citing the attacks as an influencing factor in the delay . " Everyone had someone who had an uncle or brother [ who was impacted by the attack ] " , said Paul Eibeler , then @-@ president of distributor Take @-@ Two Interactive .
One of the changes made shortly after 9 / 11 was the colour scheme of the police cars ; the original colour scheme of blue with white stripes specifically resembled that of the New York City Police Department . It was changed to a generic black @-@ and @-@ white design common among several police departments in the United States , such as Los Angeles and San Francisco . Other changes include altering the flight path of a plane to avoid appearing to fly into or behind a skyscraper , removing a mission referencing terrorists , as well as some changes to pedestrian dialogue and talk radio .
Another cut to the game is the character of Darkel , a revolutionary urchin who vowed to bring down the city 's economy . When references to Darkel were found in the game 's code , speculation arose that the character was related to 9 / 11 , however Dan Houser explained that the character had been cut " months before [ release ] " . There are also reports and previews stating that the game featured school children as pedestrians prior to release , although Rockstar has dismissed such rumours as " nonsense " .
Rockstar stated that the game was " about 1 % different " after 9 / 11 , and that the biggest change was the cover art . They felt that the original cover , which was ultimately released as the cover in Europe , felt " too raw " after 9 / 11 , and was changed into what became the " signature style " of the series . Sam Houser claims that the cover was designed in an evening , and was instantly preferred over the original cover . The cover was inspired by the movie posters for 1960s films , such as The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1968 ) .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Initial release = = =
Grand Theft Auto III was released to critical acclaim . Metacritic calculated an average score of 97 of out 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 56 reviews . It is the sixth @-@ highest rated game on Metacritic , tied with a number of others . Reviewers liked the game 's sound , gameplay , and open world design , though some criticism was directed at the controls . Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer called Grand Theft Auto III " a luscious , sprawling epic " , and Official PlayStation Magazine named it " the most innovative , outlandish , brilliant video game " . GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann described the game as " an incredible experience that shouldn 't be missed by anyone " ; IGN 's Doug Perry named it " one of the best titles of the year , on PlayStation 2 , or on any system " .
Many reviewers found the 3D graphics a welcoming change from the 2D of the previous games . GameSpot 's Gerstmann particularly praised the character and vehicle models , and the overall texture quality of the city . GameSpy 's Andrei Alupului found the graphics " really rather impressive " , describing the car models as " greatly improved " over those in Midnight Club . Eurogamer 's Bramwell considered the graphics " generally pleasant to look at " , but considered it inferior to games like Gran Turismo 3 and Ico . Justin Leeper of Game Informer described game world as " stunning in scope and detail " , and Perry of IGN found it to be " on a scale that 's truly epic " . Game Revolution 's Ben Silverman called the city a " technological marvel ... that captures the essence of gritty city life in amazing detail " .
IGN 's Perry considered the game 's sound " unbelievably and meticulously delivered " , particularly praising the soundtrack , voice acting and sound design , stating that it was " really approached as if it were done for a movie " . Eurogamer 's Bramwell echoed similar remarks , describing the city sounds as " perfect " and the soundtrack as " monstrous " . The sound was described as " terrific " by GameSpot 's Gerstmann and Game Revolution 's Silverman , and 1UP.com appreciated the subtlety of the in @-@ game radio stations . AllGame 's Scott Alan Marriott named the music " the true star " of the game .
Reviewers considered the style of the game 's missions to be a welcoming departure from those in previous games . 1UP.com described the missions as " wonderfully creative " , while GamesMaster appreciated the diversity . IGN 's Perry similarly appreciated the variety and scale of the missions , and praised the amount of available side missions . GameSpy 's Alupului described the game 's story as " well @-@ paced " and " coherent " , featuring plot elements akin to a mob film . GameSpot 's Gerstmann found the missions entertaining and challenging , but noted that exploring the game world also offers " a great deal of fun " to players .
Reactions to the game 's controls were mixed . Alupului of GameSpy found the game " controls beautifully " , both while driving and on @-@ foot . Game Revolution 's Silverman identified the control issues as the game 's only flaw , although praised the responsiveness of the driving mechanics . Matt Helgeson of Game Informer similarly described the driving as " great " , but noted " clunky " combat . GamePro 's Four @-@ Eyed Dragon found the cars simple to manoeuvre . Edge described the game 's combat as " an awkward system that stymies play . 1UP.com noted particular flaws in the targeting system , explaining that it " often focuses on the wrong guy " .
= = = Microsoft Windows version = = =
When Grand Theft Auto III was released to Microsoft Windows in May 2002 , it received similar critical acclaim . Metacritic calculated an average score of 93 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 20 reviews . It was the highest @-@ rated Windows game on Metacritic in 2002 . Reviewers liked the visual enhancements and control improvements , but criticised the port for its demanding system requirements .
The in @-@ game features and controls in the port were generally well received . IGN 's Tal Blevins praised the higher precision of the mouse controls , finding the aiming mechanic more precise . GameSpot 's Erik Wolpaw also commended the mouse controls , but disapproved the replay system , particularly due to the lack of options with timing and camera controls . Extended Play 's Andrew Bub appreciated the addition of a custom radio station , as well as the availability of custom skins . Daniel Morris of PC Gamer praised the gameplay tweaks provided by the port , but criticised the lack of major additional features , such as an overhead map of the in @-@ game city .
The port 's visuals received a positive response from reviewers . GameSpot 's Wolpaw praised the port 's reworked textures , but criticised the frequent popup , and the advanced system requirements . IGN 's Blevins similarly criticised the necessity of an advanced system for stable play , but ultimately felt that the port looks " a bit nicer " than the original game . GameSpy 's Sal Accardo felt that the port " looks much sharper " than the PlayStation 2 version , though noted some " choppy " animations . Extended Play 's Bub mentioned that the advanced settings resulted in slowdown and crashes . Game Informer 's Matt Helgeson noticed little difference between the visuals of the original and the port .
= = = Mobile version = = =
When Grand Theft Auto III was released to mobile devices in December 2011 , it received generally positive reviews . Metacritic calculated an average score of 80 out of 100 , based on 26 reviews . Reviewers liked the enhanced visuals , but criticism was directed at the touchscreen controls .
The port 's visuals were well received . IGN 's Peter Eykemans commended the smoother textures , especially condensed on a mobile screen , while Destructoid 's Jim Sterling noted improvements in the character and vehicle models . Mark Walton of GameSpot wrote that the game runs well on high @-@ end devices like the Motorola Xoom and Samsung Galaxy S II , but noticed significant frame rate and texture issues on the Xperia Play . Pocket Gamer 's Mark Brown identified the game 's short draw distance leading to sudden popup , although still found that the models and textures " have been given a tune @-@ up " in the port .
The touchscreen controls received a mixed response . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead appreciated the driving mechanics , but felt that moving on @-@ foot is " a flaky way of navigating " the world , and criticised the " clumsy " shooting mechanics . IGN 's Eykemans felt that the controls " make half the experience frustrating " , and Destructoid 's Sterling described them as " by far the biggest barrier toward enjoying " the port . Brown of Pocket Gamer found that the touchscreen " hasn 't hindered [ the game ] too drastically " , commending simple movement and " effortless " driving mechanics . Some critics identified better controls upon the use of external gamepads , but felt that they hinder the game 's portability .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = Sales = = =
Grand Theft Auto III was the highest @-@ selling game of 2001 in the United States , selling over two million units by February 2002 . The game was also the second best @-@ selling game of 2002 , behind only its sequel . Take @-@ Two stock significantly increased following the game 's launch , and the game was included in PlayStation 's Greatest Hits selection . In the United States , the game had sold 5 @.@ 35 million units by June 2004 , and 6 @.@ 55 million units in the United States by December 2007 . In Japan , Grand Theft Auto III sold about 120 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and over 350 @,@ 000 by January 2008 . The game earned a " Diamond " award in the United Kingdom , indicating over one million sales ; it was the first game to achieve this milestone in the region . By March 2008 , the game had sold 14 @.@ 5 million units worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
Grand Theft Auto III received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications . It was awarded Game of the Year at the Game Developers Choice Awards , and from GameSpot and GameSpy . It was named the Best PlayStation 2 Game by Game Revolution , GameSpot , GameSpy and IGN . It also won Best Action Game from Game Revolution , GameSpot , and IGN , and Most Innovative from GameSpot , as well as Excellence in Game Design at the Game Developers Choice Awards . GameSpy also awarded the game Most Offensive , Best Use of Radio , and tied for Best Artificial Intelligence .
= = Controversies = =
Prior to and since the release of Grand Theft Auto III , the game generated several controversies . GameSpy awarded Grand Theft Auto III with Most Offensive Game of the Year , calling it " absolutely reprehensible " . They wrote that the game rewards players for " causing mayhem " and " killing innocent people by the dozen " , ultimately questioning its appropriateness within the industry . The notoriety of Grand Theft Auto III resulted in Wal @-@ Mart 's decision to check the identification of purchasers who appeared to be under the age of 17 , when purchasing mature titles . In an essay , assistant professor Shira Chess identified the lack of conclusion to player violence , due to the ability to respawn upon death or incarceration , and found that it denies the " reality of mortality and simultaneously [ forces ] it on players " . When speaking about the game 's depiction of violence , producer Leslie Benzies claims that is intended as comedic , and that the game is " not meant to be taken seriously " . Producer Dan Houser stated that the team was conscious of the offence that the game would attract , but " never marketed it in a way that exploited that " .
The game allows players to commit sexual activities with prostitutes , and murder them to reclaim the payment . This was met with widespread controversy . The game also received controversy for its depiction of crime , and allowing violence against police officers . Psychologist David Walsh of the National Institute on Media and the Family stated that the game " glamorizes antisocial and criminal activity " , and that " the purpose of the game is to perpetrate crime " . In response , Kotaku writer Owen Good wrote that the game does not reward players for " proficiency at crime , no matter how much it is accused of doing so " . Joanna Weiss of The Boston Globe noted the " adrenaline " that players feel when committing crimes in the game , excusing the game 's violence due to its mature classification . The National Organization for Women spoke out against the game in January 2002 , asking Rockstar and Take @-@ Two to withdraw the game from sale as it " encourages violence and the degradation of women " . Matt Richtel of The New York Times wrote that the activities within the game " crossed the line into bad taste " .
Grand Theft Auto III was initially released in Australia with an MA15 + classification . After re @-@ reviewing the game , the Office of Film and Literature Classification ( OFLC ) banned it , due to its depiction of sexual content and violence to prostitutes . This prompted distributor Take @-@ Two Interactive to appeal to the OFLC , who reaffirmed the banned status on December 11 , 2001 , after reanalysing the game and seeking the professional opinion of a forensic psychologist . This prompted Take @-@ Two to recall the game in Australia , and Rockstar to make appropriate changes to the game ; a modified version was re @-@ released with an MA15 + classification in January 2002 , removing all instances of sexual acts with prostitutes .
On 25 June 2003 , teenage stepbrothers William and Josh Buckner shot and killed Aaron Hamel and Kimberly Bede . In statements to investigators , the perpretators claimed their actions were inspired by Grand Theft Auto III . In response , on 20 October 2003 , the families of Hamel and Bede filed a US $ 246 million lawsuit against Rockstar Games , Take @-@ Two Interactive , Sony Computer Entertainment and Wal @-@ Mart . Rockstar and Take @-@ Two filed for dismissal of the lawsuit , stating in United States district court on 29 October 2003 that the " ideas and concepts " , and the " purported psychological effects " of the perpetrators , are protected by the First Amendment 's free @-@ speech clause . Jack Thompson , the lawyer representing the victims , denied Rockstar 's claims , and attempted to move the lawsuit into a state court for consideration under Tennessee 's consumer protection act .
= = Legacy = =
Grand Theft Auto III has been frequently included among the greatest video games of all time . In 2007 , GamePro called Grand Theft Auto III the most important video game of all @-@ time , explaining that the " game 's open @-@ ended gameplay elements have revolutionized the way all video games are made " . Similarly , IGN ranked the game among the Top 10 Most Influential Games , and GameSpot listed among the greatest games of all time . In 2009 , Game Informer wrote that Grand Theft Auto III " changed the gaming landscape forever with its immersive open world sandbox " , and in 2016 GamesRadar named it " the most important game of the decade " . In November 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time .
Grand Theft Auto III is considered to have a leading role in the popularisation of sandbox games , inspiring those such as True Crime ( 2003 – 05 ) , Saints Row ( 2006 – present ) and Crackdown ( 2007 ) . The term " Grand Theft Auto clone " is frequently used to describe subsequent video games released with similar open @-@ ended gameplay as Grand Theft Auto III . While previous video games used open world design , including earlier Grand Theft Auto games , Grand Theft Auto III took this gameplay foundation and expanded it into a 3D world , offering an unprecedented variety of minigames and side @-@ missions . Due to the greater success of the game over its predecessors , it is credited with popularising the open @-@ world genre ; Dan Houser felt that the game made it " one of the most vibrant genres today " .
The game also led the trend of mature video games ; Dan Houser felt that it allowed other developers to create violent shooters . Hal Halpin , president of the Entertainment Consumers Association , described Grand Theft Auto III as the " lightning rod for the violence @-@ in @-@ games debate " . Metro 's Roger Hargreaves wrote that it " emboldened a whole new wave of games that were ... fixated with violence , gang culture " . Greg Ford of Electronic Gaming Monthly felt that the game allowed the medium to handle mature subject matter in a more serious manner than previously perceived , and noted the improvement of video game classification as a result of the game 's controversy .
Following the game 's success , Rockstar developed further titles in the series . Vice City and San Andreas are set in their titular locations in 1986 and 1992 , respectively . Grand Theft Auto Advance ( 2004 ) is set in Liberty City roughly one year before the events of Grand Theft Auto III . Grand Theft Auto : Liberty City Stories ( 2005 ) takes place three years before the events of Grand Theft Auto III in the same rendition of Liberty City . A completely redesigned version of the city was later used in Grand Theft Auto IV ( 2008 ) , The Lost and Damned ( 2009 ) , The Ballad of Gay Tony ( 2009 ) and Chinatown Wars ( 2009 ) .
= = = Ports and remakes = = =
Grand Theft Auto III was released on 21 May 2002 for Microsoft Windows , supporting higher screen resolutions and draw distance , and featuring more detailed textures . The game was planned to release on the Nintendo GameCube and Xbox , but the former was later cancelled . For its release on the Xbox in December 2003 , Grand Theft Auto III was bundled with its sequel Vice City in a compilation titled Grand Theft Auto : Double Pack . The Xbox port features custom soundtrack support as well as improved audio , polygon models , and reflections over the previous ports . Double Pack was later bundled with San Andreas in a compilation titled Grand Theft Auto : The Trilogy , released in October 2005 . The Trilogy was also released for OS X on 12 November 2010 . For the game 's tenth anniversary in December 2011 , War Drum Studios ported Grand Theft Auto III to several iOS and Android devices . The port is almost identical to the Windows version of the game , in addition to enhanced textures and models and touchscreen controls . A PlayStation 3 version of Grand Theft Auto III was released on 25 September 2012 via the PlayStation Network . The original PlayStation 2 version of the game was released for the PlayStation 4 on 4 December 2015 .
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= Peña Boulevard =
Federico Peña Boulevard , named for former Denver Mayor Federico Peña , is a 11 @.@ 1 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 17 @.@ 9 km ) freeway located in Adams County and the City and County of Denver , Colorado . The freeway , which opened in 1993 , provides the primary vehicular access into Denver International Airport which opened at the same time . Peña Boulevard begins as an extension of Airport Boulevard in Aurora at an interchange with Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) and travels north , then east to end at the airport , with an intermediate interchange with the E @-@ 470 tollway .
= = Route description = =
Denver International Airport 's access highway Peña Boulevard begins at an interchange with I @-@ 70 in Aurora as a northern continuation of Airport Boulevard . The first highway interchange is at East 40th Avenue , which also provides traffic access to and from to Aurora 's Airport Boulevard running to the south . Travelers leaving the airport use this exit for access to eastbound I @-@ 70 through the adjacent Airport Boulevard / I @-@ 70 interchange . Travelers inbound to the airport from I @-@ 70 East do not have access to the first interchange . Continuing north , the highway leaves Aurora and passes into the Denver Gateway area , Aurora 's Gateway Park development is adjacent . An interchange with Green Valley Ranch Boulevard provides access to the neighborhood of the same name . The East 56th Avenue interchange is the final exit along Peña Boulevard before it turns east near the Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge , and reaches the interchange with Tower Road , which serves several airport hotels .
A full cloverleaf interchange with the tolled E @-@ 470 , which E @-@ 470 provides an alternate North @-@ South route to I @-@ 25 for travelers wishing to bypass on the eastern side of Metropolitan Denver area . E @-@ 470 also intersects I @-@ 70 and has a ten @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 16 km / h ) higher speed limit than Peña Boulevard . The interchange with E @-@ 470 is the easternmost exit before entering Denver International Airport . Once inside airport grounds , the freeway intersects the car rental return area , and connects to the parking garages and terminal access roads .
The segment of the freeway between I @-@ 70 and E @-@ 470 is listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility . The portion between E @-@ 470 and the airport is listed as a MAP @-@ 21 NHS Principal Arterial .
= = History = =
Construction of the $ 18 million ( equivalent to $ 38 million in 2015 ) freeway , which opened in 1995 , was halted for six weeks during summer 1992 due to a family of burrowing owls living in the right @-@ of @-@ way near the interchange at 56th Avenue . Ten thousand people were employed during the construction of the airport and the connecting freeway . Originally the toll booths that served the parking lots were located 3 @.@ 5 mi ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) from the entrance to the airport causing delays for persons just dropping off people at the airport . The toll booth was removed in 2000 , and new booths were installed at the exits of the airport parking garages . Peña Boulevard was named for Federico Peña because he was very influential in bringing about the construction of Denver International Airport .
= = Future = =
Construction of a westbound ramp from Tower Road is in the design process with an opening expected in 2018 .
= = Exit list = =
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= Light House : A Trifle =
Light House : A Trifle , a 2000 satirical novel by American screenwriter William Monahan . Originally serialized in the Amherst literary magazine Old Crow Review from 1993 to 1995 , Monahan sold Light House to Riverhead Books , a Penguin Group imprint , in 1998 . Warner Bros. optioned the film rights while the novel was in manuscript and hired Monahan to write the screenplay adaptation . The novel was delayed for two years , with plans to release it alongside the upcoming film ; however , the film was never produced .
In 2000 , Light House : A Trifle was finally published and garnered critical acclaim : The New York Times proclaimed " Monahan 's cocksure prose gallops along " , and BookPage Fiction called Monahan " a worthy successor to Kingsley Amis " . The story follows an artist named Tim Picasso who runs afoul of a drug lord and seeks refuge at a New England inn in the middle of a nor 'easter . It is a work intentionally referential to the satirical novels of the early 19th @-@ century British author Thomas Love Peacock , such as Headlong Hall and Nightmare Abbey .
= = Plot summary = =
The story begins with a painter named Tim Picasso who suffers critical rejection from his peers and decides to take a break in the Caribbean , where he ends up crewing on a drug smuggling sailboat . When the captain gets drunk and falls overboard , Picasso takes the boat to Florida , and meets up with Jesus Castro , the lead drug smuggler . Castro intimidates Picasso into running the drugs from Miami to Boston , however after Picasso collects the $ 1 @.@ 5 million payment from the Irish Republican Army , he escapes by train to the New England town of Tyburn , where a winter storm is picking up force . He decides to lodge at the seaside Admiral Benbow Inn for the weekend , until he can depart for Italy .
Meanwhile , Mr. Glowery , a bitter New York journalist and writer who believes that a rival author is sabotaging his literary career , arrives in Tyburn where he is to speak at a fiction workshop being held at the Admiral Benbow Inn . He is immediately tasered by one of Castro 's detectives , who mistakenly confuses him for Picasso . Back at the Admiral Benbow Inn , the innkeeper , George Hawthorne , worries about Mr. Briscoe , a cross @-@ dressing contract worker who is stranded in the abandoned lighthouse just off the coast because of the raging nor 'easter , while his unhappy wife , Magdalene Hawthorne , threatens to leave him . The next morning , Mr. Glowery is stuck in a restaurant where he is being coerced by a psychotic cook to peddle his novel in order to pay off a debt he incurred during the night . When Professor Eggman , the director of the fiction workshop , comes across Mr. Glowery , he rescues him and brings him back to the inn . However , few people show up for the fiction workshop because of the storm . Hawthorne 's wife returns from a spa with Picasso ; Mr. Hawthorne informs her that he is trying to procure a prostitute for his new arrival , Jesus Castro , who has registered under the false name of Mr. Wassermann . Mr. Hawthorne asks Picasso if he has had sex with his wife and Picasso meekly admits to it .
At the lighthouse , Mr. Briscoe decides to brave the storm in a landing craft , but is immediately swamped with water and carried by the tide towards the mainland . After Castro avails himself of the services of a prostitute , he rampages around the property searching for Picasso . The storm crashes through the inn . A guest is killed by a billiards table that falls on top of him and is dragged off into the sea . Mr. Glowery is also dragged off into the sea by the storm . Castro and his assistant round up the guests and interrogate them about the location of the $ 1 @.@ 5 million Picasso stole . In another part of the inn a fire starts . Finally , Mr. Briscoe shows up and kills Castro 's assistant before knocking Castro unconscious . While Hawthorne learns his wife is leaving him for the prostitute , the inn becomes completely engulfed in flames . Picasso , Hawthorne , and Briscoe motor a lobster boat over to the lighthouse , and dump Castro 's dead assistant into the sea along with Castro himself , weighed down with two cinder blocks chained to his ankles . When they land on the island , Briscoe runs into the lighthouse and blows himself up . Amongst the rubble of the lighthouse , Picasso notices the inscription " MORTE D 'AUTHOR " painted on one of the surrounding rocks and says to the innkeeper " He 's been thinking about this for some time , George . "
= = Publication history = =
Monahan wrote the novel while studying Elizabethan and Jacobean drama at the University of Massachusetts Amherst . Monahan completed a draft of Light House on May 18 , 1991 , but then " stuck it in a drawer " . It remained unpublished until 1993 when he gave it to the literary magazine Old Crow Review to serialize to benefit a food charity . In 1995 , a short review from an editor at Factsheet Five described the serial run of Light House as a " gritty screwball comedy set in a Massachusetts coastal hotel during a raging winter storm " that is " very , very funny " .
After the original serialization of Light House , Monahan reluctantly rewrote the novel several times at the urging of his agent in New York City . In 1998 Light House was sold to Riverhead Books , an imprint of Penguin Putnam , and Warner Bros. immediately optioned the film rights while the novel was still in manuscript . Penguin Putnam wanted to delay publishing the novel in order to release it concurrent with the anticipated film release . Warner Bros. hired Monahan to write the screenplay adaptation of Light House .
In 2000 , Light House : A Trifle was finally published in hardcover , and then , the following year , in paperback . Monahan and Bruno Maddox , a fellow former Spy editor , went on a joint book tour billed as the " Minor Novelists Tour " that was interrupted by the 9 / 11 attacks .
Less than four years after the novel 's publication , Monahan bought back the film rights to Light House " I didn 't like how the book was published . They wanted to wait for the movie to be made . I got a little hostile . When I was in Spain on Kingdom , I realized I could buy it back . It was an empty , damaging gesture . " In an interview with Collider.com he stated that , " It was demoralizing to write a really good book and to realize how little the rewards were , even though the book did quite well , as far as first novels are concerned . " Light House was available in a German edition , translated by Ulrike Seeberger .
= = = Original serialization = = =
— ( January 1993 ) . " Venus and the Rain ( part 1 ) " . Old Crow Review ( FkB Press ) ( 1 ) .
— ( June 1993 ) . " Venus and the Rain ( part 2 ) " . Old Crow Review ( FkB Press ) ( 2 ) .
— ( January 1994 ) . " Venus and the Rain ( part 3 ) " . Old Crow Review ( FkB Press ) ( 3 ) .
— ( June 1994 ) . " Venus and the Rain / Light house " . Old Crow Review ( FkB Press ) ( 4 ) .
— ( January 1995 ) . " Light house " . Old Crow Review ( FkB Press ) ( 5 ) .
= = = English and German editions = = =
— ( June 2000 ) . Light house : a trifle . New York : Riverhead Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57322 @-@ 158 @-@ 0 .
— ( 2001 ) . Light house : Roman . Berlin : Aufbau @-@ Taschenbuch @-@ Verl ( translated by Ulrike Seeberger ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 7466 @-@ 1722 @-@ 0 .
= = Literary significance and reception = =
Light House intentionally references the satirical novels of the early 19th @-@ century British author and satirist Thomas Love Peacock , such as Headlong Hall and Nightmare Abbey . Peacock 's novels have little plot and are best known for parodying the intellectual modes and pretenses of his contemporaries ; his characters normally assemble in characteristic English country houses and predominantly engage in conversation . Nightmare Abbey satirized the English romantic movement and included characters based on Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Lord Byron , and Percy Bysshe Shelley .
When Light House was published in 2000 it was critically acclaimed , however , it had lackluster sales . William Georgiades , in a review for The New York Times , called it " a sort of old English farce that allows Monahan [ … ] to skewer whatever comes to mind : modern art , magazine writing , education , the young " . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times construed the storyline as one that " allows Monahan to indulge in wisecracks , lampoons and slurs of seemingly infinite variety " with " literary and artistic pretenders [ taking ] heavy fire " . Mark Rozzo of the Los Angeles Times praised Monahan 's " refreshing disregard for believability , making Light House — which contains asides on Freud , Emerson , race and fiction itself — a seriously adult cartoon " .
BookPage Fiction 's Bruce Tierney called Monahan " a worthy successor to Kingsley Amis " and Alfred Alcorn of the Boston Herald detected " delightful echoes of Vladimir Nabokov , Kingsley Amis , Evelyn Waugh , Flann O 'Brien and other modern masters of drollery " in the novel , concluding that " [ i ] n the end , the girl gets the girl , the bad guys lose , and an old Yankee blows himself up with the eponymous lighthouse and a few chunks of the Virginia Woolf legacy " .
After describing the women in Light House as " mainly vehicles for sex " and the men as " mostly hapless " , The Boston Globe 's Jules Verdone generalized that the entire cast of characters appeared to be created " simply so that [ Monahan ] can skewer them " , allowing that " it makes for a pretty good spectator sport " .
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= Checkmate ( 1911 film ) =
Checkmate is a 1911 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . Focusing on the subject of convictions by circumstantial evidence , the plot has a French baron and an American businessman vie for the affections of an heiress . She chooses the American and the French baron conspires with the heiress 's aunt to take revenge . The American falls into their trap and is accused of stabbing the baron by the conspirators . The circumstantial evidence was enough to convict him and he is sent to prison . Through the aid of a homeless doppelgänger who looks like the fiancé , he is substituted in prison and the original forces a confession from the aunt . For his plot , the baron is convicted of perjury and sent to prison . Released on February 17 , 1911 , the film was a critical failure for its improbable plot and its prison substitution scene . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The film focuses on a young heiress who has two suitors , one a French baron and the other an American businessman named Jack . Her aunt , who favors the French noble out her desire for status , is hurt to learn that the heiress has chosen to marry the American businessman . The baron vows revenge and schemes with the aunt to aid his plot . When the businessman comes to the house to see his fiancée , he learns that she is out of the house and sits down with the baron and aunt . Moments later , the servant rushes into the room attracted by cries to see Jack bending over the wounded baron with a knife in hand . Both the aunt and the baron accuse him of the stabbing as well as the servant and a policeman , who also saw Jack with the knife . In court , the jury finds it to be a clear case and Jack is sentenced to ten years in prison .
His fiancée is determined to prove his innocence , but knows not how to establish it . She meets a homeless man , who closely resembles Jack , who is about to commit a crime by smashing a window . The man desires to go to prison , believing it to be the only way that he will have food and shelter . The girl recognizes the opportunity and plans to pay him for taking the place of her fiancée in prison . The man consents and the heiress concocts a clever substitution that proves successful via change of clothes . Jack , now free , confronts the aunt — who believes that his reappearance is a ghostly one . The aunt confesses that the baron 's wounds were self @-@ inflicted and the circumstantial evidence that the servant and policeman had seen was an erroneous . The substitute convict is pardoned and released from prison without the swap ever being known . For his plot , the French baron is convicted for perjury and sent to the state prison .
= = Production = =
The only known credit for the film is that it starred William Garwood . Film historian , Q. David Bowers notes that the plot dealing with circumstantial evidence focused on one of Lloyd Lonergan 's social issues . Lonergan would produce several scenarios featuring the problems with circumstantial evidence being used to obtain convictions . Bowers notes that such convictions were a known social issue , but not a pressing one in 1911 . The first such Thanhouser film to tackle the subject was Love and Law released in December 1910 . Love and Law was a film which garnered some criticism for an improbable plot . Checkmate wove a more tangled web of circumstantial evidence and intrigue and the resolution comes not from an astute female detective , but by the heiress 's novel substitution of a doppelgänger to the prison so that the original can get the needed confession . The serious nature of the film was highlighted with the advertising of the film by Thanhouser which states , " Checkmate carries a message and a lesson to those who value the ' circumstantial evidence ' process by which so many convictions are obtained in our criminal courts . The reel demonstrates how easily evidence of this sort may be made to entangle and ensnare a totally innocent man ... "
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on February 17 , 1911 . The film was met with a wide variety of reviews by critics ; with the majority proving to be negative . The Morning Telegraph , like others , found the story to be foolish and completely improbable on many accounts . While the reviewer stated that no magistrate would have sent the man to jail for assault with a blunt knife , it was the jail substitution via a changing of clothes which proved to be impossible . H. Jeanval of The Moving Picture News found the baron to be boorish by shading a lady 's hand with a glove on and wondered at how Thanhouser was able to film the prison scenes . Walton , also of The Moving Picture News summed up the film and stated , " Good teaching as to woman 's ' class ' , but as to details [ , ] sadly lax . " The New York Dramatic Mirror panned the film beginning with , " Nothing more improbable or inconsistent has been seen on the screen in some time ... " The reviewer concluded the review of the improbable plot as to having been " dreamed up by a ten @-@ year @-@ old girl . "
The film is presumed lost because the film is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
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= Tube Alloys =
Tube Alloys was a codename of the clandestine research and development programme , authorised by the United Kingdom , with participation from Canada , to develop nuclear weapons during the Second World War . Starting before the Manhattan Project in the United States , the British efforts were kept classified and as such had to be referred to by code even within the highest circles of government .
The possibility of nuclear weapons was acknowledged early in the war . At the University of Birmingham , Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch co @-@ wrote a memorandum explaining that a small mass of pure uranium @-@ 235 could be used to produce a chain reaction in a bomb with the power of thousands of tons of TNT . This led to the formation of the MAUD Committee , which called for an all @-@ out effort to develop nuclear weapons . Wallace Akers , who oversaw the project , chose the deliberately misleading name " Tube Alloys " . His Tube Alloys Directorate was part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research .
The Tube Alloys programme in Britain and Canada was the first nuclear weapons project . Due to the high costs , and the fact that Britain was fighting a war within bombing range of its enemies , Tube Alloys was ultimately subsumed into the Manhattan Project . Despite reaching an agreement with the United States to share nuclear weapons technology , and to refrain from using it against each other , or against other countries without mutual consent , the details were not completely provided to the United Kingdom . The Soviet Union gained valuable information through its atomic spies , who had infiltrated both the British and American projects .
The United States terminated cooperation after the war ended . This prompted the United Kingdom to ( re ) launch its own project . Production facilities were established and British scientists continued their work under the auspices of an independent British programme . Finally in 1952 , Britain performed a nuclear test under codename Operation Hurricane . In 1958 , after British demonstration of a two @-@ stage thermonuclear bomb , the United Kingdom and the United States signed an agreement that resulted in a resumption of Britain 's nuclear special relationship with the United States .
= = Origins = =
= = = Discovery of fission = = =
In December 1938 , Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann conducted experiments in Hahn 's laboratory in Berlin @-@ Dahlem that involved bombarding uranium with slowed neutrons . They discovered that barium had been produced , and therefore that the uranium nucleus had been split . Atoms had been split before , by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1932 ; but they had split lithium atoms with accelerated protons . The neutron had only been discovered by James Chadwick at Cavendish in 1932 .
Experiments with bombardment of elements by slow neutrons had always produced heavier elements and isotopes . Hahn wrote to colleague Lise Meitner . In collaboration with her nephew , Otto Frisch , Meitner developed a theoretical justification for the process , based on Niels Bohr 's liquid drop model of the atom , which they published in Nature in 1939 . This phenomenon was a new type of nuclear disintegration and was radioactively more powerful than ever seen before . Frisch and Meitner calculated this energy released by each fission to be approximately 200 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 electron volts . The process resembled the division of biological cells , so they decided to name it " fission " .
= = = Paris Group = = =
This was followed up by a group of scientists at the Collège de France in Paris : Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie , Hans von Halban , Lew Kowarski , and Francis Perrin . In February 1939 , the Paris Group showed that when fission occurs in uranium , two or three extra neutrons are given off . This important observation suggested that a self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction might be possible . It was immediately apparent to many scientists that , in theory , an extremely powerful explosive could be created , although most thought a practical bomb was an impossibility . The term " atomic bomb " was already familiar to the British public through the writings of H. G. Wells , in his 1913 novel The World Set Free .
Perrin defined a critical mass of uranium to be the smallest amount that could sustain a chain reaction . The neutrons used to cause fission in uranium are considered slow neutrons , but when neutrons are released during a fission reaction they are released as fast neutrons which have much more speed and energy . Thus , in order to create a sustained chain reaction , there existed a need for a neutron moderator to contain and slow the fast neutrons until they reached a usable energy level . The College de France found that both water and graphite could be used as acceptable moderators .
Early in 1940 , the Paris Group decided on theoretical grounds that heavy water would be an ideal moderator for how they intended to use it . They asked the French Minister of Armaments to obtain as much heavy water as possible from the only source , the large Norsk Hydro hydroelectric station at Vemork in Norway . The French then discovered that Germany had already offered to purchase the entire stock of Norwegian heavy water , indicating that Germany might also be researching an atomic bomb . The French told the Norwegian government of the possible military significance of heavy water .
Norway gave the entire stock , 187 litres ( 41 imp gal ; 49 US gal ) , to a French Secret Service agent , who secretly brought it to France , just before Germany invaded Norway in April 1940 . On 19 June 1940 , following the German invasion of France , it was shipped to England by the Earl of Suffolk and Major Ardale Golding , aboard the steamer Broompark . The heavy water , valued at £ 22 @,@ 000 , was initially kept at HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs , but was subsequently secretly stored in the library at Windsor Castle . The Paris Group moved to Cambridge , with the exception of Joliot @-@ Curie , who remained in France and became active in the French Resistance .
= = = Frisch – Peierls memorandum = = =
In Britain , a number of scientists considered whether an atomic bomb was practical . At the University of Liverpool , Chadwick and the Polish refugee scientist Joseph Rotblat tackled the problem , but their calculations were inconclusive . At the University of Cambridge , Nobel Prize in Physics laureates George Paget Thomson and William Lawrence Bragg wanted the government to take urgent action to acquire uranium ore . The main source of this was the Belgian Congo , and they were worried that it could fall into German hands . Unsure as to how to go about this , they spoke to Sir William Spens , the master of Corpus Christi College , Cambridge . In April 1939 he approached Sir Kenneth Pickthorn , the local Member of Parliament , who took their concerns to the Secretary of the Committee for Imperial Defence , Major General Hastings Ismay . Ismay in turn asked Sir Henry Tizard for an opinion . Like many scientists , Tizard was sceptical of the likelihood of an atomic bomb being developed , reckoning the odds against success at 100 @,@ 000 to 1 .
Even at such long odds , the danger was sufficiently great to be taken seriously . Lord Chartfield , Minister for Coordination of Defence checked with the Treasury and Foreign Office , and found that the Belgian Congo uranium was owned by the Union Minière du Haut Katanga company , whose British vice president , Lord Stonehaven , who arranged a meeting with the president of the company , Edgar Sengier . Since Union Minière management were friendly towards Britain , it was not considered worthwhile to immediately acquire the uranium , but Tizard 's Committee on the Scientific Survey of Air Defence was directed to continue the research into the feasibility of atomic bombs . Thomson , at Imperial College London , and Mark Oliphant , an Australian physicist at the University of Birmingham , were each tasked with carrying out a series of experiments on uranium . By February 1940 , Thomson 's team had failed to create a chain reaction in natural uranium , and he had decided that it was not worth pursuing .
But at Birmingham , Oliphant 's team had reached a strikingly different conclusion . Oliphant had delegated the task to two German refugee scientists , Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch , who could not work on Oliphant 's radar project because they were enemy aliens and therefore lacked the necessary security clearance . Francis Perrin had calculated the critical mass of uranium to be about 40 tonnes ( 39 long tons ; 44 short tons ) . He reckoned that if a Neutron reflector were placed around it , this might be reduced to 12 tonnes ( 12 long tons ; 13 short tons ) . Peierls attempted to simplify the problem by using the fast neutrons produced by fission , thus omitting consideration of moderator . He too calculated the critical mass of a sphere of uranium in a theoretical paper written in 1939 to be " of the order of tons " .
Peierls knew the importance of the size of the critical mass that would allow a chain reaction to take place and its practical significance . In the interior of a critical mass sphere , neutrons are being spontaneously produced by the fissionable material . A very small portion of these neutrons are colliding with other nuclei , while a larger portion of the neutrons are escaping through the surface of the sphere . Peierls worked at calculating the equilibrium of the system , where the number of neutrons being produced equalled the number of neutrons escaping the mass .
However Niels Bohr had theorised that the rare uranium @-@ 235 isotope , which makes up only about 0 @.@ 7 % of natural uranium , was primarily responsible for fission with fast neutrons , although this was not yet universally accepted . Frisch and Peierls were thus able to revise their initial estimate of critical mass needed for nuclear fission in uranium to be substantially less than previously assumed . They estimated a metallic sphere of uranium @-@ 235 with a radius of 2 @.@ 1 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 83 in ) could suffice . This amount resembled approximately 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of uranium @-@ 235 . These results led to the Frisch – Peierls memorandum , which was the initial step in the development of the nuclear arms program in Britain . This marked the beginning of an aggressive approach towards uranium enrichment and the development of an atomic bomb . They now began to investigate processes by which they could successfully separate the uranium isotope .
Their results were discussed with Oliphant , Tizard and Thomson . These men set up a government committee , the MAUD Committee , which in time became Britain 's Tube Alloy program . The committee ’ s purpose was to examine the potential of Frisch and Peierls ' quantitative and qualitative analysis regarding critical mass and uranium separation . After investigation the committee endorsed the Frisch and Peierls memorandum . The conclusion of their report was that a super weapon was both possible and feasible .
= = MAUD Committee = =
The MAUD Committee was founded in June 1940 . The Committee was originally a part of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare , but later gained independence with the Ministry of Aircraft Production . The committee was initially named after its chairman , Thomson , but quickly exchanged this for a more unassuming name , the MAUD Committee . MAUD is assumed by many to be an acronym , but it was not . The name MAUD came to be in an unusual way . Shortly after Germany invaded Denmark , Bohr had sent a telegram to Frisch . The telegram ended with a strange line : " Tell Cockcroft and Maud Ray Kent " . At first it was thought to be code regarding radium or other vital atomic @-@ weapons @-@ related information , hidden in an anagram . One suggestion was to replace the y with an i , producing ' radium taken ' . Regardless of how crazy it seemed it was enough to cause concern in Britain . When Bohr returned to England in 1943 , it was discovered that the message was addressed to Bohr 's housekeeper Maud Ray and Cockcroft . Maud Ray was from Kent . Thus the committee was named The M.A.U.D. Committee . Meetings were normally held in the offices of the Royal Society in London . In addition to Thomson , its original members were Chadwick , Cockcroft , Oliphant and Philip Moon . Patrick Blackett , Charles Ellis and William Haworth .
Four universities provided the locations where the experiments were taking place . The laboratory at the University of Birmingham was responsible for all the theoretical work , such as what size of critical mass was needed for an explosion . It was run by Peierls , with the help of fellow German refugee scientist Klaus Fuchs . The laboratories at the University of Liverpool and the University of Oxford experimented with different types of isotope separation . Chadwick 's group at Liverpool dealt with thermal diffusion , which worked based on the assumption that different isotopes of uranium are attracted to different temperatures . Franz Simon 's group at Oxford investigated the gaseous diffusion of isotopes . This method works on the principle that at differing pressures uranium 235 would diffuse through a barrier faster than uranium 238 . Eventually the most promising method of separation was gaseous diffusion . Egon Bretscher and Norman Feather 's group at Cambridge investigated whether another element , now called plutonium , could be used as an explosive compound . Because of the French scientists , Oxford also obtained the world 's only supply of heavy water , which helped them theorise how uranium could be used for power .
The research from the MAUD committee was complied in two reports , commonly known as the MAUD reports in July 1941 . The first report , " Use of Uranium for a Bomb " , discussed the feasibility of creating a super @-@ bomb from uranium , which they now thought to be true . The second , " Use of Uranium as a Source of Power " discussed the idea of using uranium as a source of power , not just a bomb . The MAUD Committee and report helped bring about the British nuclear program , the Tube Alloys Project . Not only did it help start a nuclear project in Britain but it helped jump @-@ start the American project . Without the help of the MAUD Committee the American program , the Manhattan Project , would have started months behind . Instead they were able to begin thinking about how to create a bomb , not whether it was possible . Historian Margaret Gowing noted that " events that change a time scale by only a few months can nevertheless change history . "
The MAUD reports were reviewed by the Defence Services Panel of the Scientific Advisory Committee . This was chaired by Lord Hankey , with its other members being Sir Edward Appleton , Sir Henry Dale , Alfred Egerton , Archibald Hill and Edward Mellanby . The panel held seven meetings in September 1941 , and submitted its report to the Lord President of the Council , Sir John Anderson . At this point it was feared that German scientists were attempting to provide their country with an atomic bomb , and thus Britain needed to finish its first . The report ultimately stated that if there were even a sliver of a chance that the bomb effort could produce a weapon with such power , then every effort should be made to make sure Britain did not fall behind . While it recommended that while a pilot separation plant be built in Britain , the production facility should be built in Canada . The Defence Services Panel submitted its report on 24 September 1941 , but by this time the final decision had already been taken . Lord Cherwell had taken the matter to the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , who became the first national leader to approve a nuclear weapons program on 30 August 1941 . The Chiefs of Staff Committee supported the decision .
= = Tube Alloys organisation = =
A directorate of Tube Alloys was established as part of Appleton 's Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , and Wallace Akers , the research director of Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) , was chosen as its head . Anderson and Akers came up with the name Tube Alloys . It was deliberately chosen to be meaningless , " with a specious air of probability about it " . An advisory committee known as the Tube Alloys Consultative Council was created to oversee its work , chaired by Anderson , with its other members being Lord Hankey , Lord Cherwell , Sir Edward Appleton and Sir Henry Dale . This handled policy matters . To deal with technical issues , a Technical Committee was created with Akers as chairman , and Chadwick , Simon , Halban , Peierls , and Roland Slade from ICI as its original members , with Michael Perrin as its secretary . It was later joined by Charles Galton Darwin , Cockcroft , Oliphant and Feather .
= = Isotopic separation = =
The biggest problem faced by the MAUD Committee was to find a way to separate the 0 @.@ 7 % of uranium @-@ 235 from the 99 @.@ 3 % of uranium @-@ 238 . This is difficult because the two types of uranium are chemically identical . Separation ( uranium enrichment ) would have to be achieved at a large scale . At Cambridge , Eric Rideal and his team investigated using a gas centrifuge . Frisch chose to perform gaseous thermal diffusion using Clusius tubes because it seemed the simplest method . Frisch ’ s calculations showed there would need to be 100 @,@ 000 Clusius tubes to extract the desired separation amount . Simon proceeded in a different direction , Peierls turned to Franz Simon , a chemist shielded in Britain , to consult methods of isotope separation . Simon preferred to find a method more suitable for mass production .
When Moon examined the suggestion that gaseous thermal diffusion be the method of choice to the MAUD committee , there was no majority agreement upon to move forward with it . The committee consulted with Peierls and Simon over the separation method and came to the agreement that “ ordinary ” gaseous diffusion was the best method to pursue . This relies on Graham 's Law , the fact that the gases diffuse through porous materials at rates that are determined by their molecular weight . Francis Ashton applied this method in 1913 when he separated two isotopes of neon by diffusing a sample thousands of times through a pipe clay . Thick materials like pipe clay proved too slow to be efficient on an industry scale . Simon proposed using a metal foil punctured with millions of microscopic holes would allow the separation process to move faster . He estimated that a plant that separated 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) per diem of uranium @-@ 235 from natural uranium would cost about £ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The MAUD Committee realised that an atomic bomb was not just feasible , but inevitable .
In 1941 , Frisch moved to London to work with Chadwick and his cyclotron . Frisch built a Clusius tube there to study the properties of uranium hexafluoride . Frisch and Chadwick discovered that it is of one the gases for which the Clusius method will not work . This was only a minor setback due to the fact that Simon was already in progress of establishing the alternative method of separation through ordinary gaseous diffusion .
The chemical problems of producing gaseous compounds of uranium and pure uranium metal were studied at the University of Birmingham and by ICI . Very early experiments were carried out by Michael Clapham , who at the time was working on print technology at the Kynoch Works in Aston in Birmingham Philip Baxter at ICI made the first small batch of gaseous uranium hexafluoride for Chadwick in 1940 . ICI received a formal £ 5 @,@ 000 contract in December 1940 to make 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) of this vital material for the future work . The prototype gaseous diffusion equipment itself was manufactured by Metropolitan @-@ Vickers ( MetroVick ) at Trafford Park , Manchester , at a cost of £ 150 @,@ 000 for four units . ICI pilot plants for producing 1 long hundredweight ( 51 kg ) of pure uranium metal and 50 to 100 kilograms ( 110 to 220 lb ) of uranium hexafluoride per diem commenced operation in Widnes in mid @-@ 1943 .
= = Plutonium = =
The breakthrough with plutonium was by Bretscher and Norman Feather at the Cavendish Laboratory . They realised that a slow neutron reactor fuelled with uranium would theoretically produce substantial amounts of plutonium @-@ 239 as a by @-@ product . This is because uranium @-@ 238 absorbs slow neutrons and forms a short @-@ lived new isotope , uranium @-@ 239 . The new isotope 's nucleus rapidly emits an electron through beta decay producing a new element with an atomic mass of 239 and an atomic number of 93 . This element 's nucleus then also emits an electron and becomes a new element with an atomic number 94 and a much greater half @-@ life . Bretscher and Feather showed theoretically feasible grounds that element 94 would be fissile — readily fissioned by both slow and fast neutrons , with the added advantage of being different from uranium , and therefore could be chemically separated from it . Bretscher even devised a chemical method to separate .
This new development was also confirmed in independent work by Edwin M. McMillan and Philip Abelson at Berkeley Radiation Laboratory also in 1940 . Nicholas Kemmer of the Cambridge team proposed the names neptunium for the new element 93 and plutonium for 94 by analogy with the outer planets Neptune and Pluto beyond Uranus ( uranium being element 92 ) . The Americans fortuitously suggested the same names . The production and identification of the first sample of plutonium in 1941 is generally credited to Glenn Seaborg , using a cyclotron rather than a reactor at the University of California . In 1941 , neither team knew of the existence of the other .
Chadwick voiced concerns about the need for such pure plutonium to make a feasible bomb . He also suspected that the gun method of detonation for a plutonium bomb would lead to proposed premature detonations . After Chadwick met Robert Oppenheimer at the Los Alamos Laboratory in 1943 , he learned of a proposed bomb design which they were calling an implosion . The sub @-@ critical mass of plutonium was supposed to be surrounded by explosives that were arranged to detonate simultaneously . This would cause the Plutonium core to be compressed and become supercritical . The core would be surrounded by a depleted uranium tamper which would reflect the neutrons back into the reaction , and contribute to the explosion by fissioning itself . This design solved Chadwick 's worries about purity because it did not require the level that would be needed for the gun @-@ type fission weapon . The biggest problem with this method was creating the explosive lenses . Chadwick took this info with him and described the method to Oliphant who then took it with him to England .
= = Montreal Laboratory = =
Halban 's heavy water team from France continued its slow neutron research at Cambridge University ; but the project was given a low priority since it was not considered relevant to bomb making . It suddenly acquired military significance when it was realised that it provided the route to plutonium . The British Government wanted the Cambridge team to be relocated to North America , in proximity to the raw materials it required , and where the American research was being done . But Sir John Anderson wanted the British team to retain its own identity , and was concerned that since the Americans were working on nuclear reactor designs using nuclear graphite as a neutron moderator instead of heavy water , that team might not receive a fair share of resources . The Americans had their own concerns , particularly about security , since only one of the six senior scientists in the group was British . They also had concerns about patent rights ; that the French team would attempt to patent nuclear technology based on the pre @-@ war work . As a compromise , Thomson suggested relocating the team to Canada .
The Canadian government was approached , and Dean Mackenzie , the president of the National Research Council of Canada , immediately welcomed and supported the proposal . The costs and salaries would be divided between the British and Canadian governments , but the British share would come from a billion dollar war gift from Canada . The first eight staff arrived in Montreal at the end of 1942 , and occupied a house belonging to McGill University . Three months later they moved into a 200 square metres ( 2 @,@ 200 sq ft ) area in a new building at the University of Montreal . The laboratory grew quickly to over 300 staff ; about half were Canadians recruited by George Laurence . A subgroup of theoreticians was recruited and headed by a Czechoslovak physicist , George Placzek . Placzek proved to be a very capable group leader , and was generally regarded as the only member of the staff with the stature of the highest scientific rank and with close personal contacts with many key physicists involved in the Manhattan project . Friedrich Paneth became head of the chemistry division , and Pierre Auger of the experimental physics division . Von Halban was the director of the laboratory , but he proved to be an unfortunate choice as he was a poor administrator , and did not work well with the National Research Council of Canada . The Americans saw him as a security risk , and objected to the French atomic patents claimed by the Paris Group ( in association with ICI ) .
The Montreal team in Canada depended on the Americans for supplies of heavy water from the US heavy water plant in Trail , British Columbia , ( which was under American contract ) , as well as technical information about plutonium . The Americans said that they would give heavy water to the Montreal group only if it agreed to direct its research along the limited lines suggested by du Pont . Despite doing much good work , by June 1943 work at the Montreal Lab had come to a complete standstill . Morale was low and the Canadian Government proposed cancelling the project . In April 1944 a Combined Policy Committee meeting in Washington agreed that Canada would build a heavy water reactor . John Cockcroft became the director . The Americans supported the project with information and visits . They also supplied material , for example , uranium and heavy water . The Chalk River Laboratories opened in 1944 , and in 1946 the Montreal Laboratory was closed . The project developed the ZEEP reactor , which went critical in September 1945 .
= = Niels Bohr 's contribution to Tube Alloys = =
Sir John Anderson was eager to invite Niels Bohr to the Tube Alloys project because he was a world @-@ famous scientist who would not only contribute his expertise to the project , but also help the British government gain leverage in dealings with the Manhattan Project . In September 1943 , word reached Bohr in Denmark that the Nazis considered his family to be Jewish , and that they were in danger of being arrested . The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September 1943 . When the news of Bohr 's escape reached Britain , Lord Cherwell sent a telegram asking Bohr to come to Britain . Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in a de Havilland Mosquito operated by the British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) .
At the invitation of the director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr , Bohr visited the Manhattan Project sites in November 1943 . Groves offered Bohr substantial pay , but Bohr initially refused the offer because he wanted to make sure that the relationship between the United States and Great Britain remained a real cooperative partnership . In December 1943 , after a meeting with Albert Einstein , Bohr and his son Aage committed to working on the Manhattan Project .
Bohr made a substantial contribution to the atomic bomb development effort . He also attempted to prevent an atomic arms race with the Soviet Union after the war , which he believed to be a serious threat . In 1944 , Bohr made several key points he believed to be essential towards international nuclear weapon control . He urged that Britain and the United States should inform the Soviet Union about the Manhattan Project in order to decrease the likelihood of it feeling threatened on the premise that the other nations were building a bomb behind their back . His beliefs stemmed from the fact that he was convinced the Russians already knew about the Manhattan Project , which therefore led him to believe that there was no point in hiding it from them .
Bohr 's evidence came from an interpretation of a letter he received from a Soviet friend and scientist in Russia , which he showed to the British security services . He reasoned that the longer the United States and Britain hid their nuclear advancements , Russia would feel increasingly threatened and more inclined to speed up their effort to produce an atomic bomb of their own . With the help of U.S. Supreme Court justice Felix Frankfurter , Bohr met with the President of the United States , Franklin D. Roosevelt , who was initially sympathetic to his ideas about controlling nuclear weapons on 26 August 1944 ; but Churchill was adamantly opposed to informing the Soviet Union of such work . At the Second Quebec Conference in September 1944 , Roosevelt sided with Churchill , deciding that it would be upon the nation 's best interest to keep the atomic bomb project a secret . Moreover , they decided Bohr was potentially dangerous and specific security measures must be made in order to prevent him from leaking information to the rest of the world , Russia in particular .
= = Tube Alloys and the United States = =
= = = Tizard mission = = =
In 1940 , a British mission , led by Tizard and with members that included Cockcroft , was sent to America to create relations and help advance the research towards war technology with the Americans . The most important device transferred through the Tizard Mission was the cavity magnetron . This inquiry from the Tizard Mission made it possible for the Americans to create a radiation laboratory . This lab would later be used as a model for the Los Alamos laboratory . Tizard Mission members were involved in advising scientists on construction of the lab and its relations with the armed forces . A barrier had been broken and a pathway to exchange technical information between the two countries had been developed . The mission did not discuss the development of nuclear fission because at the time the process of fission was deemed impractical and was not a main priority for Tizard Mission members .
= = = Oliphant 's visit to the United States = = =
The MAUD Committee reports urged the cooperation with the United States should be continued in the research of nuclear fission . Charles C. Lauritsen , a Caltech physicist working at the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) , was in London during this time and was invited to sit in on a MAUD meeting . The committee pushed for rapid development of nuclear weapons using gaseous @-@ diffusion as their isotope separation device . Once he returned to the United States , he was able to brief Vannevar Bush , the director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , concerning the details discussed during the meeting .
In August 1941 , Mark Oliphant , Director of the physics department at the University of Birmingham and original member of the MAUD Committee , was sent to the United States to assist the NDRC on radar . Upon his visit to the U.S. , Oliphant met with William D. Coolidge . Coolidge was shocked when Oliphant informed him that the British had predicted that only ten kilograms of uranium @-@ 235 would be efficient to supply a chain reaction effected by fast moving neutrons . While in America , Oliphant discovered that the chairman of the OSRD S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee , Lyman Briggs , had locked away the MAUD reports transferred from Britain entailing the initial discoveries and had not informed the S @-@ 1 Committee members of all its findings .
Oliphant took the initiative himself to enlighten the scientific community in the U.S. of the recent ground breaking discoveries the MAUD Committee had just exposed . Oliphant also travelled to Berkley to with meet with Ernest Lawrence , inventor of the cyclotron . After Oliphant informed Lawrence of his report on uranium , Lawrence met with NDRC chairman James Bryant Conant , George B. Pegram , and Arthur Compton to relay the details which Oliphant had directed to Lawrence . Oliphant was not only able to get in touch with Lawrence , but he met with Conant and Bush to inform them of the significant data the MAUD had discovered . Oliphant ’ s ability to inform the Americans led to Oliphant convincing Lawrence , Lawrence convincing Compton , and then Kistiakowsky convincing Conant to move forward with nuclear weapons . These actions from Oliphant resulted in Bush taking this report directly to the president .
= = = Information sharing ceases = = =
The American effort increased rapidly and soon outstripped the British as the American authorities were reluctant to share details with their British counterparts . However , separate research continued in each country with some exchange of information . Several of the key British scientists visited the United States early in 1942 and were given full access to all of the information available . They were astounded at the momentum that the American atomic bomb project had then assumed . The British and American exchange of information and efforts continued but the nations did not combine their efforts , leading their programmes separately . Furthermore , in 1941 the British Government rebuffed and vetoed attempts and proposals by Bush and Conant to strengthen cooperation between Great Britain and America .
In June 1942 , the United States Army Corps of Engineers took over the Manhattan Project from OSRD , and Groves became the project 's director . He tightened security , which dried up the flow of information to Britain . American officials were particularly concerned that Akers and other people from ICI involved in the Tube Alloys project were trying to exploit American nuclear scientific knowledge to create a profitable post @-@ war industry . In October 1942 , Bush and Conant convinced Roosevelt that the United States should independently develop the atomic bomb project , despite an agreement of unrestricted scientific interchange between United States and Britain .
This had a disastrous impact on British efforts as they lacked manpower , facilities , equipment and materials . Tube Alloys therefore fell behind in the race with the Manhattan Project . On 30 July 1942 , Anderson advised Churchill that : " We must face the fact that ... [ our ] pioneering work ... is a dwindling asset and that , unless we capitalise it quickly , we shall be outstripped . We now have a real contribution to make to a ' merger . ' Soon we shall have little or none " By the time Great Britain realised it , the position had worsened ; Bush decided that outside help for the Manhattan Project was no longer needed . The Military Policy Committee ( MPC ) supported Bush 's arguments and restricted access to the classified information which Britain could utilise to develop its atomic weapons programme , even if it slowed down the American efforts .
The Americans stopped sharing any information on heavy water production , the manufacture of uranium hexafluoride , the method of electromagnetic separation , the physical or chemical properties of plutonium , the details of bomb design , or the facts about fast neutron reactions . This was a major disappointment which hindered the British and the Canadians , who were collaborating on heavy water production and several other aspects of the research programme . By 1943 Britain had stopped sending its scientists to the United States , which slowed down the pace of work being done there . The British boycott had an impact on the American project , which had relied on efforts led by British scientists . In March 1943 Conant approached the Military Policy Committee , which decided that Britain 's help would benefit some areas of the project . Chadwick , Penney , Peierls , Oliphant and other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at the Los Alamos Laboratory needed them , despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets .
= = = Quebec Agreement = = =
Churchill then sought information about building Britain 's own gaseous diffusion plant , a heavy water plant and an atomic reactor in Britain , despite its immense cost . However , in July 1943 , in London , American officials cleared up some major misunderstandings about British motives , and after many months of negotiations the Quebec Agreement was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt on 19 August 1943 during the Quebec Conference . The British handed over their material to the Americans and in return received the copies of the American progress reports to the President . Tube Alloys was subsumed into the Manhattan Project .
In a section of the Quebec Agreement formally entitled " Articles of Agreement governing collaboration between the authorities of the USA and UK in the matter of Tube Alloys " , Britain and the USA agreed to share resources " to bring the Tube Alloys [ i.e. the Atomic Bomb ] project to fruition at the earliest moment . " The leaders further agreed that :
" First , we will never use this agency against each other ,
" Secondly , we will not use it against third parties without each other 's consent , and
" Thirdly , we will not either of us communicate any information about Tube Alloys to third parties except by mutual consent . "
It was also agreed that any post @-@ war advantages of an industrial or commercial nature would be decided at the discretion of the President . The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to control the Manhattan Project , consisting of Henry Stimson , Bush and Conant from the United States ; Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin were the British members , and C. D. Howe was the Canadian member . Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell , who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States , Lord Halifax , in early 1945 . Dill died in Washington , D.C. , in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson .
= = British contribution to the Manhattan Project = =
Akers summoned Chadwick , Oliphant , Simon and Peierls to the United States . They arrived the day the Quebec Agreement was signed , ready to assist the Manhattan Project in any way possible . Akers was generally disliked and the Americans refused to move forward with collaboration unless a top British scientist who was " accepted and sound of judgement " was appointed instead . British officials dug in over Britain 's right to make its own appointments to its own government agencies . A compromise was reached , with Chadwick put in charge as Britain 's technical advisor for the Combined Policy Committee , and as the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project .
With this dispute settled collaboration could once again take place . Chadwick wanted to involve as many British scientists as possible so long as Groves accepted them . Chadwick 's first choice , Joseph Rotblat refused to give up his Polish citizenship . Chadwick then turned to Otto Frisch , who to Chadwick 's surprise accepted becoming a British citizen right away and began the screening process so that he could travel to America . Chadwick spent the first few weeks of November 1943 acquiring a clear picture of the extensive Manhattan Project . He realized the scale of such sites as Oak Ridge , Tennessee , which was the new headquarters of the project , and could safely conclude that without similar industrial site being found in Germany the chances of the Nazi atomic bomb project being successful was very low .
With Chadwick involved the main goal was to show that the Quebec Agreement was a success . It was Britain 's duty to cooperate to the fullest and speed along the process . Chadwick used this opportunity to give as many young British scientists experience as possible so that they might carry that experience to post @-@ war Britain . He eventually convinced Groves of Rotblat 's integrity to the cause , and this led to Rotblat being accepted to the Manhattan Project without renouncing his nationality . Rotblat had been left in charge of the Tube Alloys research , and brought with him the results obtained since Chadwick had left .
William Penney , one of the Tube Alloys scientists , was an expert in shock waves . In June 1944 he went to America to work at the Los Alamos Laboratory as part of the British delegation . He worked on means to assess the effects of a nuclear explosion , and wrote a paper on what height the bombs should be detonated at for maximum effect in attacks on Germany and Japan . He served as a member of the target committee established by Groves to select Japanese cities for atomic bombing , and on Tinian with Project Alberta as a special consultant . Along with Group Captain Leonard Cheshire , sent as a British representative , he watched the bombing of Nagasaki from the observation plane Big Stink . He also formed part of the Manhattan Project 's post @-@ war scientific mission to Hiroshima and Nagasaki that assessed the extent of the damage caused by the bombs .
The Smyth Report was issued by the US War Department on 12 August 1945 , giving the story of the atomic bomb and including the technical details that could now be made public . It made few references to the British contribution to the bomb , and a White Paper , Statements Relating to the Atomic Bomb was hurriedly drafted by Michael Perrin . This account was issued just after Attlee had replaced Churchill as Prime Minister , and was the only official statement on the British contribution for fifteen years .
= = Soviet spies in the Tube Alloys project = =
The Soviet Union received details of British research from its atomic spies Klaus Fuchs , Engelbert Broda , Melita Norwood and John Cairncross , a member of the notorious Cambridge Five . Alan Nunn May was recruited later in Canada . Lavrenty Beria 's report to Stalin of March 1942 included the MAUD reports and other British documents passed by Cairncross . Fuchs began disclosing information to the Soviet Union about the possible production of a British atomic bomb when he joined the Tube Alloys project , although his contribution towards Soviet espionage was more severe during the Manhattan Project . Fuchs was able to contact a London @-@ based KPD leader , Jürgen Kuczynski and his courier Ursula Beurton .
= = Post @-@ war = =
The Atomic Energy Research Establishment ( AERE or the Harwell Laboratory ) near Harwell , Oxfordshire , was established by Cockcroft in 1946 as the main centre for military and civilian atomic energy research and development in Britain . Former Royal Air Force stations were selected for AERE and AWRE as they were isolated , with large hangars . Penney returned from the United States and was appointed to a professorship ( for Mathematics ) at Imperial College . He accepted the directorship position at the Armament Research Department ( ARD ) in 1946 .
With the end of the war the The Special Relationship between Britain and the United States " became very much less special " . The British government had trusted that America would share nuclear technology , which the British saw as a joint discovery . On 9 November 1945 , Mackenzie King and the British Prime Minister , Clement Attlee went to Washington , D.C. , to confer with President Harry Truman about future cooperation in nuclear weapons and nuclear power . The three leaders agreed that there would be full and effective cooperation on atomic energy , but British hopes for a full resumption of cooperation on nuclear weapons were disappointed . The Americans soon made it clear that this was restricted to basic scientific research .
The passing of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 ( McMahon Act ) in August 1946 , made it clear that the UK would no longer be allowed access to the United States ' atomic research . This partly resulted from the arrest for espionage of Alan Nunn May in February 1946 . On 8 January 1947 , Prime Minister Clement Attlee formed a secret " GEN.163 Cabinet committee " , consisting of six cabinet ministers of his government , which decided that Britain required the atomic bomb to maintain its position in world politics . In the words of Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin , " That won 't do at all ... we 've got to have this ... I don 't mind for myself , but I don 't want any other Foreign Secretary of this country to be talked to or at by a Secretary of State in the United States as I have just had in my discussions with Mr Byrnes . We 've got to have this thing over here whatever it costs ... We 've got to have the bloody Union Jack on top of it . "
Penney did not have any knowledge of such committee until he was approached by Marshal of the Air Force Lord Portal , to lead the clandestine efforts . The project was code @-@ named High Explosive Research ( or HER ) . In May 1947 , Penney was appointed as the director to lead the programme , based at the Royal Armament Research Development Establishment ( RARDE ) at Fort Halstead and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich ( AWE ) . In short span of time , Penney assembled a team to initiate the work on atomic weapons , firstly preparing a report on describing the feature , science and idea of the American Fat Man implosion bomb . Penney broke down the development tasks required to replicate it , and identifying outstanding questions that required further research on nuclear weapons . The report entitled , " Plutonium Weapon – General Description " was roughly equivalent in terms of scientific data and reports that were provided to the Soviet nuclear program by Klaus Fuchs .
In April 1950 an abandoned Second World War airfield , RAF Aldermaston in Berkshire was selected as the permanent home for Britain 's nuclear weapons programme . This was to become the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment ( AWRE ) . On 3 October 1952 , under the code @-@ name " Operation Hurricane " , the first British nuclear device was successfully detonated off the west coast of Australia in the Monte Bello Islands . The development of the independent British nuclear deterrent led to the Atomic Energy Act being amended in 1958 , and to a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship between America and Britain under the 1958 US – UK Mutual Defence Agreement .
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= Wetting =
Wetting is the ability of a liquid to maintain contact with a solid surface , resulting from intermolecular interactions when the two are brought together . The degree of wetting ( wettability ) is determined by a force balance between adhesive and cohesive forces . Wetting deals with the three phases of materials : gas , liquid , and solid . It is now a center of attention in nanotechnology and nanoscience studies due to the advent of many nanomaterials in the past two decades ( e.g. graphene , carbon nanotube ) .
Wetting is important in the bonding or adherence of two materials . Wetting and the surface forces that control wetting are also responsible for other related effects , including capillary effects .
There are two types of wetting : non @-@ reactive wetting and active wetting .
= = Explanation = =
Adhesive forces between a liquid and solid cause a liquid drop to spread across the surface . Cohesive forces within the liquid cause the drop to ball up and avoid contact with the surface .
The contact angle ( θ ) , as seen in Figure 1 , is the angle at which the liquid – vapor interface meets the solid – liquid interface . The contact angle is determined by the result between adhesive and cohesive forces . As the tendency of a drop to spread out over a flat , solid surface increases , the contact angle decreases . Thus , the contact angle provides an inverse measure of wettability .
A contact angle less than 90 ° ( low contact angle ) usually indicates that wetting of the surface is very favorable , and the fluid will spread over a large area of the surface . Contact angles greater than 90 ° ( high contact angle ) generally means that wetting of the surface is unfavorable , so the fluid will minimize contact with the surface and form a compact liquid droplet .
For water , a wettable surface may also be termed hydrophilic and a nonwettable surface hydrophobic . Superhydrophobic surfaces have contact angles greater than 150 ° , showing almost no contact between the liquid drop and the surface . This is sometimes referred to as the " Lotus effect " . The table describes varying contact angles and their corresponding solid / liquid and liquid / liquid interactions . For nonwater liquids , the term lyophilic is used for low contact angle conditions and lyophobic is used when higher contact angles result . Similarly , the terms omniphobic and omniphilic apply to both polar and apolar liquids .
= = High @-@ energy vs. low @-@ energy surfaces = =
Liquids can interact with two main types of solid surfaces . Traditionally , solid surfaces have been divided into high @-@ energy solids and low @-@ energy types . The relative energy of a solid has to do with the bulk nature of the solid itself . Solids such as metals , glasses , and ceramics are known as ' hard solids ' because the chemical bonds that hold them together ( e.g. , covalent , ionic , or metallic ) are very strong . Thus , it takes a large input of energy to break these solids ( alternatively large amount of energy is required to cut the bulk and make two separate surfaces so high surface energy ) , so they are termed “ high energy ” . Most molecular liquids achieve complete wetting with high @-@ energy surfaces .
The other type of solids is weak molecular crystals ( e.g. , fluorocarbons , hydrocarbons , etc . ) where the molecules are held together essentially by physical forces ( e.g. , van der Waals and hydrogen bonds ) . Since these solids are held together by weak forces , a very low input of energy is required to break them , thus they are termed “ low energy ” . Depending on the type of liquid chosen , low @-@ energy surfaces can permit either complete or partial wetting .
Dynamic surfaces have been reported that undergo changes in surface energy upon the application of an appropriate stimuli . For example , a surface presenting photon @-@ driven molecular motors was shown to undergo changes in water contact angle when switched between bistable conformations of differing surface energies .
= = = Wetting of low @-@ energy surfaces = = =
Low @-@ energy surfaces primarily interact with liquids through dispersion ( van der Waals ) forces . William Zisman had several key findings in the work that he did :
Zisman observed that cos θ increases linearly as the surface tension ( γLV ) of the liquid decreased . Thus , he was able to establish a linear function between cos θ and the surface tension ( γLV ) for various organic liquids .
A surface is more wettable when γLV and θ is low . Zisman termed the intercept of these lines when cos θ = 1 , as the critical surface tension ( γc ) of that surface . This critical surface tension is an important parameter because it is a characteristic of only the solid .
Knowing the critical surface tension of a solid , it is possible to predict the wettability of the surface . The wettability of a surface is determined by the outermost chemical groups of the solid . Differences in wettability between surfaces that are similar in structure are due to differences in packing of the atoms . For instance , if a surface has branched chains , it will have poorer packing than a surface with straight chains .
= = Ideal solid surfaces = =
An ideal surface is flat , rigid , perfectly smooth , and chemically homogeneous , and has zero contact angle hysteresis . Zero hysteresis implies the advancing and receding contact angles are equal . In other words , only one thermodynamically stable contact angle exists . When a drop of liquid is placed on such a surface , the characteristic contact angle is formed as depicted in Fig . 1 . Furthermore , on an ideal surface , the drop will return to its original shape if it is disturbed . The following derivations apply only to ideal solid surfaces ; they are only valid for the state in which the interfaces are not moving and the phase boundary line exists in equilibrium .
= = = Minimization of energy , three phases = = =
Figure 3 shows the line of contact where three phases meet . In equilibrium , the net force per unit length acting along the boundary line between the three phases must be zero . The components of net force in the direction along each of the interfaces are given by :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
where α , β , and θ are the angles shown and γij is the surface energy between the two indicated phases . These relations can also be expressed by an analog to a triangle known as Neumann ’ s triangle , shown in Figure 4 . Neumann ’ s triangle is consistent with the geometrical restriction that <formula> , and applying the law of sines and law of cosines to it produce relations that describe how the interfacial angles depend on the ratios of surface energies .
Because these three surface energies form the sides of a triangle , they are constrained by the triangle inequalities , γij < γjk + γik meaning that no one of the surface tensions can exceed the sum of the other two . If three fluids with surface energies that do not follow these inequalities are brought into contact , no equilibrium configuration consistent with Figure 3 will exist .
= = = = Simplification to planar geometry , Young 's relation = = = =
If the β phase is replaced by a flat rigid surface , as shown in Figure 5 , then β = π , and the second net force equation simplifies to the Young equation ,
<formula>
which relates the surface tensions between the three phases : solid , liquid and gas . Subsequently , this predicts the contact angle of a liquid droplet on a solid surface from knowledge of the three surface energies involved . This equation also applies if the " gas " phase is another liquid , immiscible with the droplet of the first " liquid " phase .
= = = = Real smooth surfaces and the Young contact angle = = = =
The Young equation assumes a perfectly flat and rigid surface often referred to as an ideal surface . In many cases , surfaces are far from this ideal situation , and two are considered here : the case of rough surfaces and the case of smooth surfaces that are still real ( finitely rigid ) . Even in a perfectly smooth surface , a drop will assume a wide spectrum of contact angles ranging from the so @-@ called advancing contact angle , <formula> , to the so @-@ called receding contact angle , <formula> . The equilibrium contact angle ( <formula> ) can be calculated from <formula> and <formula> as was shown by Tadmor as ,
<formula>
where
<formula>
= = = = The Young – Dupré equation and spreading coefficient = = = =
The Young – Dupré equation ( Thomas Young 1805 ; Anthanase Dupré and Paul Dupré 1869 ) dictates that neither γSG nor γSL can be larger than the sum of the other two surface energies . The consequence of this restriction is the prediction of complete wetting when γSG > γSL + γLG and zero wetting when γSL > γSG + γLG . The lack of a solution to the Young – Dupré equation is an indicator that there is no equilibrium configuration with a contact angle between 0 and 180 ° for those situations .
A useful parameter for gauging wetting is the spreading parameter S ,
<formula>
When S > 0 , the liquid wets the surface completely ( complete wetting ) . When S < 0 , partial wetting occurs .
Combining the spreading parameter definition with the Young relation yields the Young – Dupré equation :
<formula>
which only has physical solutions for θ when S < 0 .
= = Nonideal rough solid surfaces = =
Unlike ideal surfaces , real surfaces do not have perfect smoothness , rigidity , or chemical homogeneity . Such deviations from ideality result in phenomenon called contact @-@ angle hysteresis , which is defined as the difference between the advancing ( θa ) and receding ( θr ) contact angles
<formula>
In simpler terms , contact angle hysteresis is essentially the displacement of a contact line such as the one in Figure 3 , by either expansion or retraction of the droplet . Figure 6 depicts the advancing and receding contact angles . The advancing contact angle is the maximum stable angle , whereas the receding contact angle is the minimum stable angle . Contact @-@ angle hysteresis occurs because many different thermodynamically stable contact angles are found on a nonideal solid . These varying thermodynamically stable contact angles are known as metastable states .
Such motion of a phase boundary , involving advancing and receding contact angles , is known as dynamic wetting . When a contact line advances , covering more of the surface with liquid , the contact angle is increased and generally is related to the velocity of the contact line . If the velocity of a contact line is increased without bound , the contact angle increases , and as it approaches 180 ° , the gas phase will become entrained in a thin layer between the liquid and solid . This is a kinetic nonequilibrium effect which results from the contact line moving at such a high speed that complete wetting cannot occur .
A well @-@ known departure from ideality is when the surface of interest has a rough texture . The rough texture of a surface can fall into one of two categories : homogeneous or heterogeneous . A homogeneous wetting regime is where the liquid fills in the roughness grooves of a surface . A heterogeneous wetting regime , though , is where the surface is a composite of two types of patches . An important example of such a composite surface is one composed of patches of both air and solid . Such surfaces have varied effects on the contact angles of wetting liquids . Cassie – Baxter and Wenzel are the two main models that attempt to describe the wetting of textured surfaces . However , these equations only apply when the drop size is sufficiently large compared with the surface roughness scale . When the droplet size is comparable to that of the underlying pillars , the effect of line tension should be considered . .
= = = Wenzel 's model = = =
The Wenzel model ( Robert N. Wenzel 1936 ) describes the homogeneous wetting regime , as seen in Figure 7 , and is defined by the following equation for the contact angle on a rough surface :
<formula>
where <formula> is the apparent contact angle which corresponds to the stable equilibrium state ( i.e. minimum free energy state for the system ) . The roughness ratio , r , is a measure of how surface roughness affects a homogeneous surface . The roughness ratio is defined as the ratio of true area of the solid surface to the apparent area .
θ is the Young contact angle as defined for an ideal surface . Although Wenzel 's equation demonstrates the contact angle of a rough surface is different from the intrinsic contact angle , it does not describe contact angle hysteresis .
= = = Cassie – Baxter model = = =
When dealing with a heterogeneous surface , the Wenzel model is not sufficient . A more complex model is needed to measure how the apparent contact angle changes when various materials are involved . This heterogeneous surface , like that seen in Figure 8 , is explained using the Cassie – Baxter equation ( Cassie 's law ) :
<formula>
Here the rf is the roughness ratio of the wet surface area and f is the fraction of solid surface area wet by the liquid . It is important to realize that when f |
= 1 and rf =
r , the Cassie – Baxter equations becomes the Wenzel equation . On the other hand , when there are many different fractions of surface roughness , each fraction of the total surface area is denoted by <formula> .
A summation of all fi equals 1 or the total surface . Cassie – Baxter can also be recast in the following equation :
<formula>
Here γ is the Cassie – Baxter surface tension between liquid and vapor , the γi , sv is the solid vapor surface tension of every component and γi , sl is the solid liquid surface tension of every component . A case that is worth mentioning is when the liquid drop is placed on the substrate and creates small air pockets underneath it . This case for a two @-@ component system is denoted by :
<formula>
Here the key difference to notice is that there is no surface tension between the solid and the vapor for the second surface tension component . This is because of the assumption that the surface of air that is exposed is under the droplet and is the only other substrate in the system . Subsequently the equation is then expressed as ( 1 – f ) . Therefore , the Cassie equation can be easily derived from the Cassie – Baxter equation . Experimental results regarding the surface properties of Wenzel versus Cassie – Baxter systems showed the effect of pinning for a Young angle of 180 to 90 ° , a region classified under the Cassie – Baxter model . This liquid / air composite system is largely hydrophobic . After that point , a sharp transition to the Wenzel regime was found where the drop wets the surface , but no further than edges of the drop .
= = = = Precursor film = = = =
With the advent of high resolution imaging , researchers have started to obtain experimental data which have led them to question the assumptions of the Cassie – Baxter equation when calculating the apparent contact angle . These groups believe the apparent contact angle is largely dependent on the triple line . The triple line , which is in contact with the heterogeneous surface , cannot rest on the heterogeneous surface like the rest of the drop . In theory , it should follow the surface imperfection . This bending in triple line is unfavorable and is not seen in real @-@ world situations . A theory that preserves the Cassie – Baxter equation while at the same time explaining the presence of minimized energy state of the triple line hinges on the idea of a precursor film . This film of submicrometer thickness advances ahead of the motion of the droplet and is found around the triple line . Furthermore , this precursor film allows the triple line to bend and take different conformations that were originally considered unfavorable . This precursor fluid has been observed using environmental scanning electron microscopy ( ESEM ) in surfaces with pores formed in the bulk . With the introduction of the precursor film concept , the triple line can follow energetically feasible conformations and thereby correctly explaining the Cassie – Baxter model .
= = = = " Petal effect " vs. " lotus effect " = = = =
The intrinsic hydrophobicity of a surface can be enhanced by being textured with different length scales of roughness . The red rose takes advantage of this by using a hierarchy of micro- and nanostructures on each petal to provide sufficient roughness for superhydrophobicity . More specifically , each rose petal has a collection of micropapillae on the surface and each papilla , in turn , has many nanofolds . The term “ petal effect ” describes the fact that a water droplet on the surface of a rose petal is spherical in shape , but cannot roll off even if the petal is turned upside down . The water drops maintain their spherical shape due to the superhydrophobicity of the petal ( contact angle of about 152 @.@ 4 ° ) , but do not roll off because the petal surface has a high adhesive force with water .
When comparing the " petal effect " to the " lotus effect " , it is important to note some striking differences . The surface structure of the lotus leaf and the rose petal , as seen in Figure 9 , can be used to explain the two different effects . The lotus petal has a randomly rough surface and low contact angle hysteresis , which means the water droplet is not able to wet the microstructure spaces between the spikes . This allows air to remain inside the texture , causing a heterogeneous surface composed of both air and solid . As a result , the adhesive force between the water and the solid surface is extremely low , allowing the water to roll off easily ( i.e. " self @-@ cleaning " phenomenon ) .
However , the rose petal 's micro- and nanostructures are larger in scale than those of the lotus leaf , which allows the liquid film to impregnate the texture . However , as seen in Figure 9 , the liquid can enter the larger @-@ scale grooves , but it cannot enter into the smaller grooves . This is known as the Cassie impregnating wetting regime . Since the liquid can wet the larger @-@ scale grooves , the adhesive force between the water and solid is very high . This explains why the water droplet will not fall off even if the petal is tilted at an angle or turned upside down . However , this effect will fail if the droplet has a volume larger than 10 µl because the balance between weight and surface tension is surpassed .
= = = Cassie – Baxter to Wenzel transition = = =
In the Cassie – Baxter model , the drop sits on top of the textured surface with trapped air underneath . During the wetting transition from the Cassie state to the Wenzel state , the air pockets are no longer thermodynamically stable and liquid begins to nucleate from the middle of the drop , creating a “ mushroom state ” as seen in Figure 10 . The penetration condition is given by :
<formula>
where
θC is the critical contact angle
Φ is the fraction of solid / liquid interface where drop is in contact with surface
r is solid roughness ( for flat surface , r = 1 )
The penetration front propagates to minimize the surface energy until it reaches the edges of the drop , thus arriving at the Wenzel state . Since the solid can be considered an absorptive material due to its surface roughness , this phenomenon of spreading and imbibition is called hemiwicking . The contact angles at which spreading / imbibition occurs are between 0 and π / 2 .
The Wenzel model is valid between θC and π / 2 . If the contact angle is less than ΘC , the penetration front spreads beyond the drop and a liquid film forms over the surface . Figure 11 depicts the transition from the Wenzel state to the surface film state . The film smoothes the surface roughness and the Wenzel model no longer applies . In this state , the equilibrium condition and Young 's relation yields :
<formula>
By fine @-@ tuning the surface roughness , it is possible to achieve a transition between both superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic regions . Generally , the rougher the surface , the more hydrophobic it is .
= = Spreading dynamics = =
If a drop is placed on a smooth , horizontal surface , it is generally not in the equilibrium state . Hence , it spreads until an equilibrium contact radius is reached ( partial wetting ) . While taking into account capillary , gravitational , and viscous contributions , the drop radius as a function of time can be expressed as
<formula>
For the complete wetting situation , the drop radius at any time during the spreading process is given by
<formula>
where
γLG
= Surface tension of the fluid
V =
Drop volume
η
= Viscosity of the fluid
ρ =
Density of the fluid
g
= Gravitational constant
λ =
Shape factor λ
= 37 @.@ 1 m − 1
t0 =
Experimental delay time
re = Drop radius in the equilibrium
= = Effect of surfactants on wetting = =
Many technological processes require control of liquid spreading over solid surfaces . When a drop is placed on a surface , it can completely wet , partially wet , or not wet the surface . By reducing the surface tension with surfactants , a nonwetting material can be made to become partially or completely wetting . The excess free energy ( σ ) of a drop on a solid surface is :
<formula>
γ is the liquid – vapor interfacial tension
γSL is the solid – liquid interfacial tension
γSV is the solid – vapor interfacial tension
S is the area of liquid – vapor interface
P is the excess pressure inside liquid
R is the radius of droplet base
Based on this equation , the excess free energy is minimized when γ decreases , γSL decreases , or γSV increases . Surfactants are absorbed onto the liquid – vapor , solid – liquid , and solid – vapor interfaces , which modify the wetting behavior of hydrophobic materials to reduce the free energy . When surfactants are absorbed onto a hydrophobic surface , the polar head groups face into the solution with the tail pointing outward . In more hydrophobic surfaces , surfactants may form a bilayer on the solid , causing it to become more hydrophilic . The dynamic drop radius can be characterized as the drop begins to spread . Thus , the contact angle changes based on the following equation :
<formula>
θ0 is initial contact angle
θ ∞ is final contact angle
τ is the surfactant transfer time scale
As the surfactants are absorbed , the solid – vapor surface tension increases and the edges of the drop become hydrophilic . As a result , the drop spreads .
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= The Blackening =
The Blackening is the sixth album by American heavy metal band Machine Head . Released on March 27 , 2007 in the U.S. , The Blackening sold 16 @,@ 000 units in its first week , and became Machine Head 's second highest charting release at number 54 on the Billboard 200 , and charted in the Top 20 throughout many countries in the rest of the world . The Blackening has been certified silver by the BPI for sales in the UK in excess of 60 @,@ 000 copies .
The album 's first single " Aesthetics of Hate " , is a retaliation to an article written by William Grim for the website Iconoclast . Titled " Aesthetics Of Hate : R.I.P. Dimebag Abbott , & Good Riddance " , the article praised the murder of guitarist Dimebag Darrell . Machine Head frontman Robb Flynn said the song was written as a " fuck you " to Grim and tribute to Dimebag . The song received a Grammy Award nomination for " Best Metal Performance " at the 50th Grammy Awards . The text in the mirror of the album 's cover reads " the mirror which flatters not . " The song " Beautiful Mourning " has been featured as a playable song in the video game Guitar Hero : Metallica .
= = Background = =
The inaugural song written for Machine Head 's follow up to their 2003 release Through the Ashes of Empires was entitled " Godfather 4 " . This was in reference to a guitar riff in the song which vocalist Robert Flynn felt had " a Godfather type vibe " . The song was shelved , although the riff resurfaced in a b @-@ side . " Slanderous " was the first song finished that was in the final track listing . By February 2005 , Machine Head had penned rough versions of " Beautiful Mourning " and " Aesthetics of Hate " .
= = Recording = =
A November 2005 demo contained thirteen songs , which included rough versions of " Aesthetics of Hate " and " Halo " . " Aesthetics of Hate " contained what Flynn described as a " totally fucking lame " Angel of Death " rip off . I hated it every time we played it so I was glad to see that part go ! " In mid August 2006 , Machine Head announced that the title of their sixth studio effort would be The Blackening . Flynn and drummer Dave McClain spent August 18 and 19 jamming together , fine tuning songs chosen for the album and performing pre @-@ production . Phil Demmel resumed lead guitar duties and Adam Duce returned as bassist .
Machine Head entered Sharkbite Studios in Oakland , California on August 21 to begin recording The Blackening , with Flynn assuming production duties for the second time . From twenty six written songs , the selection was whittled down to eight . McClain completed the drum tracks to six of the eight tracks on August 25 , followed by the remaining two the next day . Tracking concluded on November 16 , 2006 .
The band was surprised at the length of " A Farewell to Arms " and " Clenching the Fists of Dissent " running over ten minutes , and wondered if their fans would " be able to get their heads around " what the band was doing . Record company Roadrunner Records hesitated the band 's decision to open the album with a ten and a half minute song ( " Clenching the Fists of Dissent " ) , and asked the band questions similar to " Are you sure you don ’ t want to get into something a little more direct ? " The band disregarded the comment and believed the song set the tone musically for the remainder of the album .
Flynn said " Clenching the Fists of Dissent " and " Wolves " were the most difficult songs to construct . For " Clenching " , he attributed the difficulty to the amount of tracks ; the introduction of the song has 90 , including multiple three @-@ part harmony with two guitars , 20 tracks of snare drum , four tracks of kick drum , and military marching cymbals . The song continues with five electric guitars , three acoustic guitars and two bass guitars . Flynn also described the song " Wolves " as difficult because " it 's all got to be super tight ; there were so many riffs that had to be just locked on down picking " . Mark Keaton provided audio engineering , and Colin Richardson mixed the record in London .
Flynn believes the band was naive about the length of songs , and was unconcerned if they would be suitable for radio or MTV , as the band purposely did not want to receive airplay . " Now I Lay Thee Down " has a chorus Flynn describes as " poppy " and added " fucked up lyrics " about one person killing another , and then committing suicide . This was to make the song not suitable for airplay as the band wanted to make a " dark epic record " .
= = Lyrical themes = =
Lyrical themes explored on The Blackening include love , war , organized religion , anger in society and Machine Head 's " winner take all " spirit . The album 's first single , " Aesthetics of Hate " , is a retaliation that captures the band 's anger towards an article written by William Grim for the conservative web site Iconoclast . Titled " Aesthetics of Hate : R.I.P. Dimebag Abbott , & Good Riddance " , the article praised the murder of Dimebag Darrell by Nathan Gale , while Darrell was performing with Damageplan on December 8 , 2004 . Grim wrote Darrell was " an ignorant , barbaric , untalented possessor of a guitar " who looks " more simian than human " and is " part of a generation that has confused sputum with art and involuntary reflex actions with emotion " . After reading the article , Flynn was furious and wrote the song to send a message to Grim implying " fuck you " , and pay tribute to Dimebag . He created a post on the band 's message board soon after the event describing his friendship with Dimebag .
" What would YOU know about love or values ? What would YOU know about giving to the world ? All that you know is teaching prejudice , and your heart is as black as the ' ignorant , filthy , and hideously ugly , heavy metal fans ' you try and paint in your twisted , fictitious ramblings . It 's because of people like YOU , that there are Nathan Gale 's in this world , NOT the Dimebags and metal musicians who work to unite people through music " .
The songs " Clenching the Fists of Dissent " , " A Farewell to Arms " ( probably a reference to Ernest Hemingway 's novel of the same title A Farewell to Arms , which is set during the first World War ) , and " Halo " deal with politics , the war in Iraq and organized religion , respectively . The band wrote the lyrics about the Iraq war after conducting research and found that " a lot of stuff does not add up " , according to Flynn , which angered the band . Machine Head 's debut album , Burn My Eyes , featured a similar song titled " A Thousand Lies " which dealt with the Gulf War . " Slanderous " deals with hate that still exists throughout society and " Wolves " addresses the band 's competitive " winner takes all " spirit . " Now I Lay Thee Down " features a Romeo and Juliet @-@ esque love story about one person killing another person , and then killing themself . The song relates to the William Shakespeare play , Romeo & Juliet , where at the end of the story , two lovers kill themselves because they assume that their lover is dead . The original lyrics to the chorus of the song were considered " poppy " by Flynn and his band @-@ mates so they intentionally changed them into the lyrics they are now so they wouldn 't get radio play .
= = Reception = =
The Blackening received critical acclaim . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Don Kaye awarded the album an almost perfect score of 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , saying : " one of the purest , finest , most powerful expressions of modern heavy metal released " . Kaye praised the guitar work of Flynn and Demmel on the tracks " Beautiful Mourning " and " Aesthetics of Hate " , and thought the band members surpassed their musical ability in an " intense and dynamic way " .
Thom Jurek of Allmusic described the album as " an over the top rage and pummelfest with all the qualities that earned the group its enormous fan base by touring and recording " and that the thrash metal element " rivals Slayer at their best " . Rock Sound magazine reviewer Eleanor Goodman awarded the album 9 out of 10 , praising the first two minutes of the opening song , " Clenching the Fists of Dissent " , as " a full @-@ on old @-@ skool thrash attack " .
" Aesthetics of Hate " received a Grammy Award nomination for " Best Metal Performance " at the 50th Grammy Awards , which took place on February 12 , 2008 . Though heavily favored , they controversially lost to eventual winners Slayer who had won the previous year for the same album . Other nominees in the category were King Diamond , Shadows Fall , and As I Lay Dying . At the fifth annual Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards and at the Kerrang ! Awards in 2007 , The Blackening won best album over albums by Slayer and Lamb of God .
Three years after the release of The Blackening , Machine Head wrapped their touring cycle for the album , finishing in Sydney , Australia on 28 March . In February 2010 , The Blackening was awarded the Album of the Decade award from Metal Hammer . On October 8 , 2011 , the album was voted Roadrunner Records " Album of the Century " in a poll .
= = Chart performance = =
The Blackening was leaked on to the Internet two weeks before its release by an American journalist who received an advanced copy . Demmel thought it unfortunate , but that it created a " pre @-@ buzz " , as did Flynn who thought the buzz was nothing like the band had before ; " There ’ s internet street buzz vs. record company hype and if the hype matches up to the street buzz , then you ’ re seeing a lot of bands selling a lot of records in the first week " . The Blackening became Machine Head 's highest charting release in the United States , where it entered the Top Rock albums at No. 9 , and the Billboard 200 at No. 54 ( their highest charting and first week ever ) , with sales of almost 16 @,@ 000 copies . This improved on the band 's 2004 release , Through the Ashes of Empires , which sold 12 @,@ 000 units in its first week , and entered the Billboard 200 at No. 88 .
The album did exceptionally well overseas where it entered the Mainstream Top 20 in the German and Belgium charts at No. 12 , No. 14 in Australia , No. 16 in the United Kingdom and No. 19 in Sweden . Charting positions below the Top 20 consisted of Ireland at No. 23 , No. 29 in the Netherlands , No. 34 in France and No. 55 in Italy . The Blackening sold more copies in two weeks than Through the Ashes of Empires sold in three years .
= = Cover art and special edition = =
The artwork for The Blackening was designed by Robb Flynn , longtime Machine Head collaborator Paul Brown , and Deanna Alcorn . Based on a metal carving in the 16th century , these carvings were used to scare people about going to Hell and for propaganda purposes . It features a skeleton on a throne that is standing on top of the world , and the words " The mirror which flatters not . " Flynn thought " this whole record is like holding up a mirror to ourselves . It 's talking about things that are going on now , but it 's not necessarily specific to this time . "
Three special editions of The Blackening were released : a two @-@ LP gatefold vinyl , a two @-@ disc special edition packaged in a silver foil @-@ enhanced slipcase , with a bonus Metallica cover added to the end of the album . The second disc was a DVD featuring a video entitled The Making of The Blackening , and a 2006 tour diary of the Sounds of the Underground Tour . Both of these versions were released in 2007 .
The third version , released in 2008 , was a 3 @-@ disc set which came with the original album , a CD featuring various covers the band had recorded in the past , demos and other unreleased material and a DVD which featured various live performances of the band at festivals , the Burn My Eyes 10th anniversary show and music videos from The Blackening accompanied by their " making 's of " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Writing , performance , and production credits were adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Personnel = = =
= = = = Machine Head = = = =
Robb Flynn – vocals , rhythm guitar
Phil Demmel – lead guitar , backing vocals
Adam Duce – bass , backing vocals
Dave McClain – drums
= = = = Production = = = =
Robb Flynn – production
Mark Keaton – engineering
Vincent Wojno – additional engineering , Pro Tools editing
Colin Richardson – mixing
Matt Hyde – mixing engineer
Lee Slater – assistant engineer
Rohan Onraet – assistant engineer
Eddy Schreyer – mastering
= = = = Visual art = = = =
Alex Solca – photography
Bau @-@ da Design – package design
Deanna Alcorn – package design
Robb Flynn – package design
= = = Studios = = =
Sharkbite Studios , Oakland , CA , USA – recording
Strongroom Studios , London , UK – mixing
Metropolis Studios , London , UK – mixing
VIP Studios , Oakland , CA , USA – Pro Tools editing
Oasis Mastering , Burbank , CA , USA , mastering
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Fort Stanton ( Washington , D.C. ) =
Fort Stanton was a Civil War @-@ era fortification constructed in the hills above Anacostia in the District of Columbia , USA , and was intended to prevent Confederate artillery from threatening the Washington Navy Yard . It also guarded the approach to the bridge that connected Anacostia ( then known as Uniontown ) with Washington . Built in 1861 , the fort was expanded throughout the war and was joined by two subsidiary forts : Fort Ricketts and Fort Snyder . Following the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia , it was dismantled and the land returned to its original owner . It never saw combat . Abandoned after the war , the site of the fort was planned to be part of a grand " Fort Circle " park system encircling the city of Washington . Though this system of interconnected parks never was fully implemented , the site of the fort is today a park maintained by the National Park Service , and a historical marker stands near the fort 's original location .
= = Planning and construction = =
Following the secession of Virginia and that state joining the Confederacy , Federal troops marched from Washington into the Arlington region of northern Virginia . The move was intended to forestall any attempt by Virginia militia or Confederate soldiers to seize the capital city of the United States . Over the next seven weeks , forts were constructed along the banks of the Potomac River and at the approaches to each of the three major bridges ( Chain Bridge , Long Bridge , and Aqueduct Bridge ) connecting Virginia to Washington and Georgetown .
While the Potomac River forts were being built , planning and surveying was ordered for an enormous new ring of forts to protect the city . Unlike the fortifications under construction , the new forts would defend the city in all directions , not just the most direct route through Arlington . In mid @-@ July , this work was interrupted by the First Battle of Bull Run . As the Army of Northeastern Virginia marched south to Manassas , the soldiers previously assigned to construction duties marched instead to battle . In the days that followed the Union defeat at Bull Run , panicked efforts were made to defend Washington from what was perceived as an imminent Confederate attack . The makeshift trenches and earthworks that resulted were largely confined to Arlington and the direct approaches to Washington .
On July 26 , 1861 , five days after the battle , Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan was named commander of the military district of Washington and the subsequently renamed Army of the Potomac . Upon arriving in Washington , McClellan was appalled by the condition of the city 's defenses . " In no quarter were the dispositions for defense such as to offer a vigorous resistance to a respectable body of the enemy , either in the position and numbers of the troops or the number and character of the defensive works ... not a single defensive work had been commenced on the Maryland side . There was nothing to prevent the enemy shelling the city from heights within easy range , which could be occupied by a hostile column almost without resistance . "
To remedy the situation , one of McClellan 's first orders upon taking command was to greatly expand the defenses of Washington . At all points of the compass , forts and entrenchments would be constructed in sufficient strength to defeat any attack . One area of particular concern was the region of Maryland south of the Anacostia River . Confederate artillery floated across the Potomac in secret and mounted south of the river could threaten the Washington Navy Yard and Washington Arsenal , both of which lay at the junction of the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers .
To prevent that threat from coming to pass , Brig. Gen. John G. Barnard , chief engineer of the defenses of Washington , directed that a line of forts be constructed on the heights southeast of the Anacostia River . From Fort Greble at the western end to Fort Mahan at the eastern end , the forts along the Eastern Branch River ( as the Anacostia was then known ) were not intended to constitute a continuous defensive line as was the Arlington Line that defended the Virginia approaches to the city . Instead , they were merely intended to deny Confederate artillery the position and to provide warning of any sneak attack upon Washington from the southeast . General Barnard illustrated this in an October 1862 report , saying , " As the enemy cannot enter the city from this direction , the object of the works is to prevent him seizing these heights , and occupying them long enough to shell the navy @-@ yard and arsenal . For this , the works must be made secure against assault , and auxiliary to this object is the construction of roads by which succor can be readily thrown to any point menaced . "
Fort Stanton , located in the Garfield Heights , was the first fort of this line to begin construction . Begun in September 1861 , the fort was located almost directly south of the Washington Navy Yard and the Navy Yard Bridge that crossed the Anacostia River and connected Uniontown , a suburb of Washington , with the city itself . Work progressed rapidly , and by Christmas , a report by General Barnard indicated the fort was " completed and armed . "
Despite that speed , not everything went in the engineers ' favor . Barnard 's report indicates " the sites of Fort ... Stanton and others were entirely wooded , which , in conjunction with the broken character of the ground , has made the selection of sites frequently very embarrassing and the labor of preparing them very great . " The experience of surveying and preparing the site of Fort Stanton would serve the engineers well in the construction of future forts around Washington and in service to the Army of the Potomac . Clearing brush and forest away from the site of Fort Stanton allowed for clear fields of fire for the fort 's cannon for several hundred yards in each direction , a technique that would be applied ( and later used ) to great effect at Fort Stevens .
= = Wartime operation = =
By the summer of 1862 , the fort was already being heavily used . A garrison had been assigned in the winter , and the 1862 report of the Commission to Study the Defenses of Washington describes Fort Stanton as " a work of considerable dimensions , well built , and tolerably well armed . Casemates for reversed fires are recommended in northwest and southwest counterscarp angles , and platforms for two or three rifled guns on the east front . The deep ravine which flanks this work on two sides requires some additional precaution , and further study of it is recommended . "
The commission had been ordered by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton to inspect each of the forts surrounding Washington in late 1862 and make a report on the deficiencies of each . In addition to examining Fort Stanton , the commission analyzed two smaller works that supported Fort Stanton . Fort Ricketts was identified in the report as " a battery intended to see the ravine in front of Fort Stanton , which it does but imperfectly , " while Fort Snyder " may be regarded as an outwork to Fort Stanton , guarding the head of one branch of the ravine just mentioned . Except additional platforms for field guns , and a ditch in front of the gorge stockade , and blockhouses , nothing further seems necessary . "
To support Fort Stanton and its two subsidiary positions , a military road was constructed from Uniontown to the fort . Tributary roads led from Fort Stanton to the other forts in the Eastern Branch line . These roads were eventually widened into a large ring road that circled most of the 37 @-@ mile perimeter of Washington , a fact that can be noted in the 1865 map of the city 's defenses . In fall 1862 , however , the commission examining the defenses noted that " the work on roads about Washington requires ten regiments for twenty days ... or an equivalent of labor in some other shape . "
An 1864 inspection by Brig. Gen. Albion P. Howe , Inspector @-@ General of Artillery , found Fort Stanton to be well @-@ equipped , but the garrison poorly trained . The fort was armed with six 32 @-@ pounder barbettes , three 24 @-@ pounder field howitzers , four 8 @-@ inch siege howitzers , one Coehorn mortar , and one 4 @-@ inch rifled mortar . The ammunition was listed as " complete and servicible , " but the 131 men of a single company of the Heavy Massachusetts Volunteer Artillery that comprised the garrison at the time were " not drilled in artillery ; some in infantry . "
Following the Confederate raid on Washington that resulted in the Battle of Fort Stevens , new assessments were made of weak spots in Washington 's defenses . In the three years between the construction of Fort Stanton and the attack on Fort Stevens , Fort Stanton 's perimeter had been greatly increased with the addition of two subsidiary forts and additional rifle pits and trenches , as well as the completion of the military ring road . A report by Maj. Gen. Christopher C. Augur of the U.S. Volunteers recommended Fort Stanton receive one 32 @-@ pounder howitzer , two 4 ½ -inch rifled guns , four 12 @-@ pounder howitzers , and two 12 @-@ pounder Napoleons to bolster its defenses and control its position at the center of the Eastern Branch defenses .
In August 1864 , Gen. Barnard was replaced in his capacity as chief engineer of the defenses of Washington by Lt. Col. Barton S. Alexander . With the war winding down , Alexander 's duties consisted primarily of maintaining and expanding the already @-@ existing defenses , rather than building new forts as Barnard had done . An October 1864 report from Col. Alexander to Brig. Gen. Richard Delafield , head of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , lists a series of improvements to Fort Stanton 's already @-@ impressive defenses . " Constructing three bastions , two new magazines , bomb @-@ proofs , traverses , platforms , embrasures , grading glacis , and renewing abatis , " the report reads .
= = Post @-@ war use = =
After the surrender of Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia on April 9 , 1865 , the primary reason for manned defenses protecting Washington ceased to exist . Initial recommendations by Col. Alexander , chief engineer of the Washington defenses , were to divide the defenses into three classes : those that should be kept active ( first @-@ class ) , those that should be mothballed and kept in a reserve state ( second @-@ class ) , and those that should be abandoned entirely ( third @-@ class ) . Fort Stanton fell into the first @-@ class category , as it was thought that the fort would be needed to defend the Washington Navy Yard .
Thanks to its status as a first @-@ class fortification , Fort Stanton continued to receive regular maintenance and was continually garrisoned even after the final armistice . Work was even done to strengthen the defenses , as a stockade was added in the summer of 1865 , and the parapets of the fort were re @-@ sodded with fresh grass for better traction and to improve the look of the fortification .
= = = Abandonment = = =
With the conclusion of the fighting , however , military budgets were slashed , and even the forts that were designated for second- and first @-@ class status were deemed surplus . The guns were removed , surplus equipment sold , and the land returned to its original owners . Fort Stanton itself was officially closed on March 20 , 1866 . Following the closure , the fort was abandoned to the elements , and the woods of Anacostia rapidly reclaimed the land .
In 1873 , journalist George Alfred Townsend published Washington , Outside and Inside . A Picture and A Narrative of the Origin , Growth , Excellences , Abuses , Beauties , and Personages of Our Governing City , a work that covered the history of Washington from its inception to the then @-@ present day . The Civil War defenses of Washington figure prominently in the later portions of the book , and he uses the state of Fort Stanton as an example of what had become of the forts a decade after they had been built .
= = = The Fort Circle Parks = = =
The fort remained in a constantly deteriorating condition until 1919 , when the Commissioners of the District of Columbia pushed Congress to pass a bill that would consolidate the aging forts into a " Fort Circle " system of parks that would ring the growing city of Washington . As envisioned by the Commissioners , the Fort Circle would be a green ring of parks outside the city , owned by the government , and connected by a " Fort Drive " road in order to allow Washington 's citizens to easily escape the confines of the capital . However , the bill allowing for the purchase of the former forts , which had been turned back over to private ownership after the war , failed to pass both the House of Representatives and Senate .
Despite that failure , in 1925 a similar bill passed both the House and Senate , which allowed for the creation of the National Capital Parks Commission ( NCPC ) to oversee the construction of a Fort Circle of parks similar to that proposed in 1919 . The NCPC was authorized to begin purchasing land occupied by the old forts , much of which had been turned over to private ownership following the war . Records indicate that the site of Fort Stanton was purchased for a total of $ 56 @,@ 000 in 1926 . The duty of purchasing land and constructing the fort parks changed hands several times throughout the 1920s and 1930s , eventually culminating with the Department of the Interior and the National Park Service taking control of the project in the 1940s .
During the Great Depression , crews from the Civilian Conservation Corps embarked on projects to improve and maintain the parks , which were still under the control of District authority at that time . At Fort Stanton , CCC members trimmed trees and cleared brush , as well as maintaining and constructing park buildings . Various non @-@ park buildings were also discussed for the land . The City Department of Education proposed building a school on park land , while authorities from the local water utility suggested the construction of a water tower would be suitable for the tall hills of the park . The Second World War interrupted these plans , and post @-@ war budget cuts instituted by President Harry S. Truman postponed the construction of the Fort Drive once more . Though land for the parks had mostly been purchased , construction of the ring road connecting them was pushed back again and again . Other projects managed to find funding , however . In 1949 , President Truman approved a supplemental appropriation request of $ 175 @,@ 000 to construct " a swimming pool and associated facilities " at Fort Stanton Park .
By 1963 , when President John F. Kennedy began pushing Congress to finally build the Fort Circle Drive , many in Washington and the National Park Service were openly questioning whether the plan had outgrown its usefulness . After all , by this time , Washington had grown past the ring of forts that had protected it a century earlier , and city surface roads already connected the parks , albeit not in as linear a route as envisioned . The plan to link Fort Stanton Park with other fort parks via a grand drive was quietly dropped in the years that followed .
= = = Continuing use = = =
Not all the land that made up the site of Fort Stanton was converted to public park land . In 1920 , local African @-@ American Catholics constructed Our Lady of Perpetual Help church on land formerly owned by Dr. J.C. Norwood , a local physician . After the remaining grounds of the fort were purchased in 1925 , nearby residents reportedly " walked family cows to Fort Stanton Park to graze before the school bell rang . " Today , the church still stands adjacent to the grounds of the park . The Washington D.C. Department of Parks and National Park Service jointly manage the 67 acres of park land that stand on the site of the fort today . D.C. authorities manage approximately 11 acres that contain a recreation center and ball fields , while the National Park Service manages the remaining acreage , which is mostly wooded and contains the remains of forts Stanton and Ricketts . The area also is site to the Anacostia Museum , a Smithsonian Institution facility devoted to the history of African @-@ Americans .
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= A Song for Simeon =
A Song for Simeon is a 37 @-@ line poem written in 1928 by American @-@ English poet T. S. Eliot ( 1888 – 1965 ) . It is one of five poems that Eliot contributed to the Ariel poems series of 38 pamphlets by several authors published by Faber and Gwyer . " A Song for Simeon " was the sixteenth in the series and included an illustration by avant garde artist Edward McKnight Kauffer . The poems , including " A Song for Simeon " , were later published in both the 1936 and 1963 editions of Eliot 's collected poems .
In 1927 , Eliot had converted to Anglo @-@ Catholicism and his poetry , starting with the Ariel Poems ( 1927 – 31 ) and Ash Wednesday ( 1930 ) , took on a decidedly religious character . " A Song for Simeon " is seen by many critics and scholars as a discussion of the conversion experience . In the poem , Eliot retells the story of Simeon from the second chapter of the Gospel of Luke , a just and devout Jew who encounters Mary , Joseph and the infant Jesus entering the Temple of Jerusalem . Promised by the Holy Ghost that he would not die until he had seen the Saviour , Simeon sees in the infant Jesus the Messiah promised by the Lord and asks God to permit him to " depart in peace " ( Luke 2 : 25 – 35 ) .
The poem 's narrative echoes the text of the Nunc dimittis , a liturgical prayer for Compline derived from the Gospel passage . Eliot introduces literary allusions to earlier writers Lancelot Andrewes , Dante Alighieri and St. John of the Cross . Several critics have debated whether Eliot 's depiction of Simeon is a negative portrayal of a Jewish figure and evidence of anti @-@ Semitism on Eliot 's part .
= = Writing and publication = =
In 1925 , Eliot became a poetry editor at the London publishing firm of Faber and Gwyer , Ltd . , after a career in banking , and subsequent to the success of his earlier poems , including " The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock " ( 1915 ) , " Gerontion " ( 1920 ) and " The Waste Land " ( 1922 ) . In these years , Eliot gravitated away from his Unitarian upbringing and began to embrace the Church of England . He was baptised into the Anglican faith on 29 June 1927 at Finstock , in Oxfordshire , and was confirmed the following day in the private chapel of Thomas Banks Strong , Bishop of Oxford . Eliot converted in private , but subsequently declared in his 1927 preface to a collection of essays titled For Lancelot Andrewes that he considered himself a classicist in literature , a royalist in politics , and an Anglo @-@ Catholic in religion . When his conversion became known , it was " an understandable choice to those around him " given his intellectual convictions , and that " he could not have done anything less than seek what he regarded as the most ancient , most sacramental , and highest expression of the Christian faith that forms the indisputable basis for the culture and civilization of modern Europe " . Eliot 's conversion and his adherence to Anglo @-@ Catholicism informed and influenced his later poetry .
Critical reviews of Eliot 's poems shifted as well , with some critics asserting that Eliot 's work suffered with the addition of Christian themes . One critic , Morton Zabel said that this " deprived his art of its once incomparable distinction in style and tone " . Other critics thought Eliot 's exploration of Christian themes was a positive development in his poetry , including Gordon Symes , who recognised it as " an evaluation of old age , an elucidation of its special grace , and an appreciation of its special function in the progress of the soul " .
In 1927 , Eliot was asked by his employer , Geoffrey Faber , to write one poem each year for a series of illustrated pamphlets with holiday themes to be sent to the firm 's clients and business acquaintances as Christmas greetings . This series , called the " Ariel Series " , consisted of 38 pamphlets published between 1927 and 1931 featuring poems and brief prose from a selection of English writers and poets . The first poem that Eliot wrote , " The Journey of the Magi " , was printed as the eighth in the series in August 1927 . For the second , " A Song for Simeon " , Eliot turned to an event at the end of Nativity narrative in the Gospel of Luke . The printing of the poem , the sixteenth in the series , was completed on 24 September 1928 . Eliot would follow these with three more poems : " Animula " in October 1929 , " Marina " in September 1930 , and " Triumphal March " in October 1931 . Four of Eliot 's five Ariel poems , including " A Song for Simeon " , were accompanied by illustrations by American @-@ born avant garde artist , E. McKnight Kauffer .
Faber and Gwyer printed " A Song for Simeon " in an 8 ½ -inch × 5 ½ -inch Demy Octavo ( 8vo ) pamphlet in blue paper wraps with title in black ink . The poem was printed on two pages , accompanied by a colour image by Kauffer , and included one page of advertisements . Faber and Gwyer contracted with the Curwen Press in Plaistow to print 3 @,@ 500 copies . The font of the cover and poem text was Walbaum , created by J. E. Walbaum of Goslar and Weimar in Germany in 1836 . According to Gilmour , the edition was printed " in batches of eight " .
In 1936 , Faber and Faber , the successor firm to Faber and Gwyer , collected " A Song for Simeon " and the four other poems under the heading " Ariel Poems " for an edition of Eliot 's collected poems . When Faber released the entire series in the 1950s , Eliot included a sixth poem , " The Cultivation of Christmas Trees " , which was added to Faber 's 1963 edition of his collected poems . Both editions of collected poems were published in the United States by Harcourt , Brace & Company .
= = Analysis = =
" A Song for Simeon " is a 37 @-@ line poem written in free verse . The poem does not have a consistent pattern of meter . The lines range in length from three syllables to fifteen syllables . Eliot uses end rhyme sporadically in 21 lines of the poem , specifically :
and , hand , stand , and land ( in lines 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 )
poor and door ( lines 10 and 12 )
sorrow and to @-@ morrow ( lines 20 and 24 )
derision and vision ( lines 27 and 30 )
stair and prayer ( lines 28 and 29 )
heart and depart ( lines 32 and 36 )
Eliot 's use of lamentation , desolation and consolation — a repetition of the two @-@ syllable -ation ending — is an example of syllable rhyme . Eliot employs forced rhyme ( also called " oblique rhyme " ) on peace and ease ( lines 8 and 11 ) , and eye rhyme on home and come ( lines 14 and 15 ) .
" A Song for Simeon " is structured as a first @-@ person dramatic monologue spoken by Simeon . Eliot 's style of monologue used in the poem ( and in many of his works ) draws heavily from the influence of English Victorian poet Robert Browning ( 1812 – 1889 ) . Literary scholar Martin Scofield directly identifies Simeon 's recitation as " the voice of the Browningesque dramatic monologue " and characterises Eliot 's use of Simeon as a speaker as a " mask that half hides and half reveals the poet " .
= = Themes and interpretation = =
= = = Gospel narrative and the Nunc dimittis = = =
Most scholars and critics addressing the poem focus on the Gospel narrative for a source of interpretation as Eliot 's poem quotes several lines verbatim from the passage in Luke , from the Nunc dimittis . Scofield says that the poem is " characterized by deliberately Biblical language , interwoven with actual phrases from the Gospels " .
The subject of Eliot 's poem is drawn from the second chapter of the Gospel of Luke ( Luke 2 : 25 – 35 ) , and the early Christian canticle Nunc dimittis derived from it . In Luke 's account , Simeon , an aged and devout Jew , stands in the Temple of Jerusalem at the time Mary and Joseph bring the infant Jesus to be presented in the temple forty days after his birth in accordance with Jewish law and custom . Luke states that Simeon is " waiting for the consolation of Israel " after being promised that " he should not see death before he had seen the Lord 's Christ " . ( Luke 2 : 25 – 26 ) Simeon , upon seeing the child , takes him into his arms and prays , prophesizing the redemption of the world by Jesus and of suffering to come . This prayer would become known later as the Nunc dimittis from its Latin incipit .
The Nunc dimittis is the traditional " Gospel Canticle " of Night Prayer that is often called the Song of Simeon or Canticle of Simeon . In the Roman Catholic tradition , it was used during the Office for Compline , the last of the Canonical hours , in the Liturgy of the Hours . The Anglican tradition combined liturgy of the Catholic offices of Vespers ( especially with the Magnificat canticle ) and Compline ( with the Nunc dimittis ) into Evening Prayer when compiling the Book of Common Prayer during the English Reformation .
In 1886 , Eliot 's grandfather , William Greenleaf Eliot , an American educator and Unitarian minister , wrote a poem titled " Nunc dimittis " . Written a few months before his death ( and two years before T. S. Eliot 's birth , ) the elder Eliot 's poem used the same gospel text and the poet asks , in his decline , " When may I humbly claim that kind award , / And cares and labors cease ? " " A Song for Simeon " has been seen by the Reverend Robin Griffith @-@ Jones , an Anglican cleric , as a tacit tribute by Eliot to his grandfather , " for the last years of a grandfather whose faith his grandson has at last taken up for himself " .
Scholars have identified allusions by Eliot to other biblical passages , including :
" Before the stations of the mountain of desolation " in line 19 and the reference to " the fox 's home " in line 15 as a reference to Calvary ( Golgotha ) , or to Lamentations 5 : 17 – 18 " the mountain of zion ... is desolate , the foxes walk upon it " . The fox reference is also thought to be connected to Mark 13 : 14 , and Mark 8 : 20 .
The stations in line 19 , and the time of cords , scourges and lamentation in line 17 refers to Christ 's passion and crucifixion , in particular his scourging at the orders of Pontius Pilate and the lamenting of women along the Via Dolorosa described in Luke 33 : 27 – 29 .
" The goat 's path " of line 15 is a reference to the scapegoat of Leviticus 16 : 22 .
" Fleeing from foreign faces and the foreign swords " is from prophesies of grief , hiding , and pursuit in Isaiah 51 : 3 ; and crucifixion events mentioned in Mark 13 : 8 and Matthew 24 : 8 . Two scholars connect this to Ezekiel 's prophesy of " death by the hands of strangers " .
The influence of Psalm 104 on the language of the poem .
= = = Conversion = = =
" A Song for Simeon " is not considered by scholars and critics to be one of Eliot 's significant poems . It is thus overshadowed by his comparatively better known works of the period — " The Hollow Men " ( 1925 ) , written before his conversion ; and " The Journey of the Magi " ( 1927 ) , " Ash Wednesday " ( 1930 ) , and the later , more substantial Four Quartets ( 1943 ) , written after his conversion . However , in " A Song for Simeon " and these poems , Eliot continues the progression of his themes of alienation in a changing world , and fuses with this the tenets of his newfound faith . Scofield states that the imagery of " A Song for Simeon " — including the symbol of a feather , its setting amid Roman hyacinths and the winter sun — conveys " a sense of wonder and fragile new life " . Robin Griffith @-@ Jones draws a connection between Eliot 's image of the feather to a statement by Hildegard of Bingen comparing herself " to ' a feather which lacks all weight and strength and flies through the wind ' ; so she was borne up by God . But Eliot 's speaker , still waiting for the wind to blow , imagines only the death wind that will bear him away " .
According to writer Joseph Maddrey , " A Song for Simeon " shares themes with his more famous conversion poem " Ash Wednesday " , the first parts of which Eliot was writing when " A Song for Simeon " was written and published . Eliot uses the biblical story of Simeon to illustrate the " contrast between appearance and reality and humbly begs God to teach him the stillness that unifies the two " . Eliot 's Ariel poems and " Ash Wednesday " explore this new experience of conversion and the progress of the soul . Scofield writes that Eliot 's depiction of Simeon presents " a figure to whom revelation has been granted but to whom it has come too late for this life " . But as he awaits the death for which he asks , Simeon sees the consequences of the turning of faith to this new child and his mission . Simeon wants nothing of this " time of sorrow " and that the fate of persecution for the consequences of faith is not for him .
According to Eliot biographer Lyndall Gordon , in " Ash Wednesday " and the Ariel poems , " Eliot wonders if he does not belong to those who espouse Christianity officially without being properly committed , whose ostentatious piety is ' tainted with a self @-@ conceit . ' " The poem is inherently tied to Eliot 's religious conversion experience , and connected to Eliot 's reading of Anglican divine Lancelot Andrewes during this time . Andrewes , in an 1619 Ash Wednesday sermon , emphasised that conversion " must come from both mind and heart , thought and feeling , ' the principall [ sic ] and most proper act of a true turning to God . ' " Andrewes ' words are channelled again , when Eliot 's Simeon " sees a faith that he cannot inhabit in " the still unspeaking and unspoken Word ' " . Eliot uses the image of the winding staircase — an image that also appears in " Ash Wednesday " — which Gordon indicates is a direct reference to Andrewes ' sermon . According to Gordon , " Eliot 's penitent ... ' turning on the winding stair ' , acts out the two mental turns Andrewes prescribed for a conversion : a turn that looks forward to God and a turn that looks backward to one ’ s sins , sentencing oneself for the past " .
The image of a winding stair has also been tied to scenes in Dante 's journey from Purgatory to Paradise in the Divine Comedy . Further , the image is thought associated with stairs as the path of mystical ascent in the writings of sixteenth @-@ century Spanish mystic Saint John of the Cross . Eliot often alludes to this symbol in several of his poems .
Eliot 's Simeon appears similar to Dante 's depiction of Virgil in the Divine Comedy , as " the seer who can see only so far ; the precursor who cannot enter the world that he makes possible " . Virgil , in the Divine Comedy , leads Dante through Hell ( Inferno ) and Purgatory ( Purgatorio ) , but cannot guide him into Paradise ( Paradiso ) . In this context , Virgil was a symbol of non @-@ Christian philosophy and humanities could not help Dante any further in his approach to God . In Eliot 's depiction , Simeon will never know the Christian culture he prophesizes , sensing " the birth @-@ pangs of a world that he will never occupy " .
= = = Arguments over anti @-@ Semitism = = =
Eliot 's poems have frequently been examined for instances of anti @-@ Semitism — prejudice or discrimination against Jews . Scholar Louis Menand states that while Simeon is treated respectfully by Eliot , his characterisation is " in the tradition of Christian condescension toward the virtuous heathen " . Comparatively , Craig Raine , a poet and an Emeritus Fellow of New College , Oxford , wrote a book @-@ length defence of Eliot against the claims of deliberate anti @-@ Semitism and argues that " A Song for Simeon " provides a sympathetic discussion of the Jewish diaspora . University of British Columbia scholar John Xiros Cooper states that the accusations of anti @-@ Semitism lodged against Eliot rest " on a few isolated lines of poetry " and a passing reference in one prose text . Indeed , Eliot denied the claim , declaring , " I am not an anti @-@ Semite and never have been . It is a terrible slander on a man . " Political theorist and author Leonard Woolf , who was both Jewish and one of Eliot 's close friends , believed that Eliot was " slightly anti @-@ Semitic in the sort of vague way which is not uncommon . He would have denied it genuinely . "
Anthony Julius , a British lawyer who is one of Eliot 's most trenchant critics on this issue , writes that " A Song for Simeon " is " exceptional in a poetry in which elsewhere Jews are dumb . The voice , however is a disciplined one and speaks lines prepared for it ... . The song is for , not of Simeon . Eliot gives the Jew lines that locate him , and by implication all Jews , wholly within the Christian drama . Incapable of denying its truth , but equally incapable of living that truth . " He accuses Eliot of animating " the topoi of the Jew acknowledging his obsolescence " — essentially employing a tired characterisation of a Jewish figure as a voice attesting that Jews have no role in the Christian future . Julius compares Simeon to Moses stating that he is " fated to see the Promised Land but not to enter it ... witness to its truth , but denied its redemptive power , the Jew stands solemnly , humbly , outside Christianity 's gates " . Further , Julius draws on a quote from Eliot 's earlier poem " Gerontion " to say that in this Christian future the Jews " may find a ledge there to squat on " .
Julius ' view is considered extreme by many critics . Comparatively , Julius tempered his harsh criticism by claiming that Eliot 's anti @-@ Semitism does not detract from the poetry and that it offers a creative force showing rare imaginative power to Eliot 's art . Literary critic and professor Christopher Ricks agreed , citing the wit and commentary of Eliot 's depictions of Jews ; he asserts that Eliot was at his most brilliant in his prejudice .
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= Davis Tarwater =
Davis Edward Tarwater ( born March 24 , 1984 ) is an American swimmer and Olympic gold medalist . He grew up in Knoxville , Tennessee and began competitive swimming at age seven . During high school , he set three state swimming records and led Webb School of Knoxville to the state title . In 2002 , he was named High School Swimmer of the Year .
Tarwater attended the University of Michigan , where he shifted his focus from the freestyle to the butterfly . He was a three @-@ time NCAA national champion and thirteen @-@ time All @-@ American . At Michigan , Tarwater set three Big Ten conference and six school records en route to six Big Ten titles . In his senior season , he won a Big Ten Medal of Honor for being the school 's top student @-@ athlete .
Tarwater has represented the United States in the World Championships three times , winning a gold medal as part of the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay team in 2009 . He has won three individual and five relay national titles , and has finished in the top three more than fifteen times . In 2011 , he set an American record in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , and as of 2012 jointly holds two additional national records in relay events . He qualified for the U.S. Olympic Trials in 2000 , 2004 , 2008 and 2012 . In 2004 , 2008 and 2012 , he narrowly missed making the Olympic team in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . In 2012 , he finished seventh in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle and missed qualifying for the U.S. 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay team by one spot . Michael Phelps elected to scratch the 200 @-@ meter freestyle from his Olympic schedule , however , allowing Tarwater to make the team . At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Tarwater won a gold medal for his contributions in the heats of the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay .
= = Early life = =
Tarwater was born March 24 , 1984 to Dwight and Mary Tarwater in Knoxville , Tennessee . He grew up in Knoxville , where his father worked as a lawyer . He is the oldest of three children . His grandfather , Richmond Flowers , Sr. , was Attorney General of Alabama from 1963 to 1967 . Tarwater 's uncle , Richmond Flowers , Jr . , was a world champion at the 110 @-@ meter hurdles and a safety in the National Football League from 1969 to 1973 .
Tarwater had his first swimming lesson at age four . He was reluctant to put his face underwater at first , but after 15 minutes he was swimming freely . By age seven , he was entering swimming competitions . As a young child , he was diagnosed with epilepsy . The family 's doctor encouraged Tarwater to keep swimming , and he eventually outgrew the condition . At age 10 , he won the Knoxville City Meet title in the 25 @-@ yard butterfly for his age group . In 1993 , Tarwater won the 10 @-@ year @-@ old and younger 50 @-@ meter butterfly at the AAU Junior Olympic Games . As a congratulations , he got a personal letter from Olympic gold medalist Melvin Stewart . His father later said the [ letter ] got Davis really excited about swimming . The next year , Tarwater joined the Pilot Aquatic Club and began to compete on the national stage .
Tarwater played baseball and basketball , and ran track before deciding the concentrate on swimming during seventh grade . In 1999 , he won both the 800- and 1500 @-@ meter freestyle events at the Junior Nationals , beating Michael Phelps in the latter . He qualified for his first U.S. Olympic Trials in 2000 at age 16 . At the Trials , Tarwater finished 32nd in the 400 @-@ meter freestyle and 30th in the 1500 @-@ meter freestyle .
In 2001 , Tarwater finished third at the Summer Nationals in the 1500 @-@ meter freestyle . He represented the United States at the 2001 Goodwill Games and was named " Athlete of the Year " by Southeastern Swimming Local Swimming Committee . The United States placed third at the Games , earning Tarwater a team bronze medal .
The following year , Tarwater led his high school – Webb School of Knoxville – to its first ( and only ) state swimming title before graduating in the spring . At the state finals , he broke the Tennessee 500 @-@ yard freestyle record by five seconds and also captured the 100 @-@ yard butterfly state record . At the U.S. Spring National Championships , Tarwater made the finals in four events . He placed third in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , sixth in the 1500 @-@ meter freestyle , and eighth in both the 400- and the 800 @-@ meter freestyle events .
Tarwater was a nine @-@ time high school All @-@ American and was the 2002 High School Swimmer of the Year . In addition to the 100 @-@ yard butterfly and 500 @-@ yard freestyle , he also set the 200 @-@ yard freestyle state record during high school . After graduation , he was inducted into the school 's hall of fame .
= = College career = =
Tarwater attended the University of Michigan from 2002 to 2006 , where he earned a bachelor 's degree in political science . During his first year , coach Jon Urbanchek began entering Tarwater in butterfly events . " I was a distance freestyler in high school , so ... at first it was a difficult adjustment " , Tarwater said of the move . " But it was what the team needed , and it let me contribute as a freshman . " During the summer , he was selected to represent the United States at the 2003 Pan American Games where he placed sixth in the 400 @-@ meter freestyle .
Urbanchek 's decision and Tarwater 's training started to pay dividends in 2004 . That year , Tarwater set his first conference record by swimming the 200 @-@ yard butterfly in 1 : 43 @.@ 46 en route to the Big Ten title . He was part of the university 's 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle team that took first place at the NCAA Championships . The group 's time of 7 : 01 @.@ 42 set a new U.S. Open record . In individual events , Tarwater took fourth place in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly and eighth in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly .
Tarwater qualified for the 2004 U.S. Olympic Trials and finished fourth in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , missing the Olympics by less than half a second . He also made the final in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , finishing seventh .
Bob Bowman took over as head coach of Michigan for the 2004 – 05 season . He put Tarwater on a new training program , with a greater focus on speed training and less on distance . " We 've also put him through weight training , and I think it 's been improving his speed " , Bowman said . " He has a very strong work ethic and always wants to improve . Instead of just getting in the pool and doing what we tell him to do , he actually thinks about it and asks questions . He wants to know the theory behind what he 's doing . " Tarwater won the 2005 NCAA championship in the 200 @-@ yard butterfly . His time of 1 : 42 @.@ 30 was a Michigan and Big Ten record , and the third fastest time in NCAA history . In the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , he placed fourth .
In the spring , Tarwater won the US National Championship in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly with a time of 1 : 51 @.@ 78 , and placed fourth in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . At Summer Nationals , Tarwater placed second in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly and was part of the National Championship winning 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team . At the 2005 World Championships , he narrowly missed out on the medals , finishing fourth in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . At the 2005 Duel in the Pool , Tarwater won the silver medal in both the 100 @-@ meter and 200 @-@ meter butterfly events . At the end of the season , he was ranked eighth in the world at the 200 @-@ meter butterfly and 20th at the 100 @-@ meter butterfly .
In 2006 , Tarwater repeated as NCAA champion in the 200 @-@ yard butterfly , swimming the race in 1 : 41 @.@ 84 and improving his own Big Ten record . He narrowly missed the NCAA record , coming up six @-@ hundredths of a second short . He also finished fourth in the 100 @-@ yard butterfly , and was part of the second place 4 × 200 @-@ yard freestyle relay team . At the end of the season , the Detroit Athletic Club named Tarwater as the " Michigan Male College Athlete of the Year " for his combined achievements in sport , academics , and community service .
During his college career , Tarwater was a 13 @-@ time All @-@ America selection . He was a first team All @-@ Big Ten member all four years of college , and received Academic All @-@ Big Ten honors in 2004 , 2005 , and 2006 . For his 2006 senior year , he was awarded the Big Ten Medal of Honor for being the top student @-@ athlete at Michigan . He finished his college career with three Big Ten individual titles , three conference relay titles , and three conference records : the 100 @-@ yard butterfly ( 46 @.@ 16 ) , the 200 @-@ yard butterfly ( 1 : 41 @.@ 84 ) , and the 4 × 200 @-@ yard freestyle relay ( 6 : 18 @.@ 11 ) . He was part of three additional school records for relay performances ( 4 × 100 @-@ yard freestyle , 4 × 50 @-@ yard medley , and 4 × 100 @-@ yard medley ) .
= = Post @-@ college swimming career = =
After graduation , Tarwater continued to train at the Michigan facilities with one goal in mind : qualifying for the 2008 Olympics . " I hadn 't intended to swim professionally after college , " he later said , " but I had continued to improve , " and it " made sense " financially to continue swimming . In August 2006 , he placed second in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly at the U.S. National Championships with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 00 , qualifying him for the 2007 World Championships . He also teamed up with Klete Keller , Matthew Patton , and Alex Vanderkaay to win the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle trophy , winning by more than six seconds . At the end of the season , Tarwater was ranked 13th in the world at the 200 @-@ meter butterfly and 34th at the 100 @-@ meter butterfly .
At the World Championships in March 2007 , Tarwater turned in the second @-@ fastest time in the opening round of the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . In the semi @-@ finals , he placed tenth , missing the finals by 0 @.@ 11 seconds . Later in 2007 , Tarwater won his second National Championship in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . He led the race from start to finish , beating Gil Stovall by 1 @.@ 1 seconds . " It was a good race , " he said . " I felt really in control . I felt a lot stronger and a lot better . " At the same event , Tarwater joined Michael Phelps and two other Wolverine Aquatics teammates to win the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay with a time of 3 : 17 @.@ 96 . Tarwater swam the team 's second @-@ fastest leg , behind Phelps . He also placed third in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly .
Tarwater won the 200 @-@ meter butterfly at the 2007 Duel in the Pool with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 12 , and placed second in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly with a time of 52 @.@ 76 at the same event . At the Short Course National Championships , Tarwater teamed up with Michael Phelps , Peter Vanderkaay , and Chris DeJong to capture the 4 × 200 @-@ yard freestyle relay title . The quartet 's time of 6 : 12 @.@ 43 broke the American record by more than five seconds . Tarwater captured the silver medal in 100 @-@ meter butterfly at the event , and won the 200 @-@ yard butterfly title with a time of 1 : 41 @.@ 94 . He was also part of the second = place 4 × 100 @-@ medley relay . He finished the year ranked 11th in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly and 22nd in the 100 @-@ meter .
= = = 2008 Olympic Trials = = =
In preparation for the 2008 U.S. Olympic Trials , Tarwater trained at Michigan with Phelps , Peter Vanderkaay , and Erik Vendt , coached by Bowman and Urbanchekf . Shortly before the trials , he went the Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs , Colorado to train at altitude . " I 'm better mentally than I 've ever been , " Tarwater said of his preparation . " Physically I 'm stronger than four years ago . " He entered the Trials as the number two seed in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly and was widely expected to make the U.S. Olympic team as the second qualifier behind Phelps . " For the last two years I have completely put everything in my life aside to try to make [ my Olympic ] dream come true , " he told a reporter . He also entered the trials as the fourth seed in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly and qualified for the 100- and 200 @-@ meter freestyle .
In the preliminary round of the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Tarwater turned in the fastest time , acknowledging that nerves played a role in his fast swim . In the semi @-@ finals , he achieved a new personal best of 1 : 54 @.@ 72 and finished with the second @-@ fastest time , just seven @-@ tenths of a second slower than Phelps . " It felt great , but there 's still no celebrating for me , " he said about the swim . In the finals , Tarwater was exactly tied with Phelps and on world @-@ record pace through the first 50 meters . He stayed near Phelps for 150 meters before fading on the last 50 . In the last 25 meters , he was passed by Gil Stovall , who beat his personal best by a second and a half , to finish third . Tarwater also swam a new personal best – 1 : 54 @.@ 46 – but it was not good enough to make the Olympic team , missing out by six @-@ tenths of a second . After the race , he briefly considered retiring before deciding to finish the meet . " I don 't know what the future is going to bring , but I didn 't want to go out knowing I didn 't get back up , " he said . He finished eighth in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly ; earlier , he failed to make the finals in the freestyle events .
Tarwater was devastated by the trial results , later saying , " It was the most empty feeling in the world . " He went home to Knoxville to reflect on swimming and life in general . He told his parents that he could not stand hearing coverage of the Olympics , so his father quickly organized a vacation to Costa Rica . After returning home , Tarwater 's uncle , Richmond Flowers Jr . , was able to help him through the experience . In 1968 , Flowers had been a gold medal favorite in the hurdles before suffering a hamstring injury two months before the Olympic Trails . " I think he knew the pain I was feeling and the disappointment I was feeling , because he felt same thing , " Tarwater recalled . Flowers offered perspective , instead of comfort : " I believe there is a God who created this , and it ain 't no accident . He 's got a plan ... maybe it just wasn 't the right thing for you . " Soon after , Tarwater met pastor Doug Banister of All Souls Church in Knoxville . After several " really tough conversions " with Banister , Tarwater decided to " [ dedicate his ] life to Christ and basically relinquished control . "
Tarwater took Flowers ' advice to heart and started to look into other possibilities for his future . He applied to graduate school to study public policy , and on a friend 's advice sent some of his undergraduate work to Oxford University . He was accepted into St Antony 's College , Oxford for the 2009 – 2010 school year .
= = = Retirement and return to swimming = = =
At the 2009 National Championships , Tarwater qualified to represent the United States team in the World Championships for the third time in his career by placing sixth in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle . He also placed fourth in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , and fifth in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . In the preliminary round of the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle , he helped the United States turn in the top qualifying time . The United States later won the event , earning Tarwater a gold medal . After the 2009 season , Tarwater decided to retire from competitive swimming and concentrate on his academic work at Oxford .
At Oxford , Tarwater found a new perspective on life : " I used to be in the sport for Davis Tarwater . Going to Oxford and seeing the selflessness and ambition of the students transitioned me to being in the sport as a mechanism to do good . " The Oxford swim team encouraged him to join its ranks , and he subsequently earned most valuable player honors and a Blue jacket , the British equivalent of a varsity letter . On his newfound perspective , Tarwater said , " Missing the Olympics in 2008 was the best thing that 's ever happened in my whole life ... [ otherwise ] I would not have gone to Oxford ; I would not have invested in my own personhood ... being able to chase an Olympic dream is a gift ... I made it a misery . It doesn 't have to be a misery . " He graduated from Oxford in 2010 with a master 's degree in Latin American studies . He described the year at Oxford as the best time of his life .
In October 2010 , responding to what he describes as a clear call from God , Tarwater returned to swimming full @-@ time . Back in the United States , he contacted David Marsh at his swimming club , SwimMAC Carolina . After talking with Marsh , Tarwater was convinced there was enough time before the 2012 Summer Olympics to make a comeback possible . " I realized that not only is there life left for me in swimming , there 's also a desire to come back [ to the Olympic Trials ] and do it the right way " , Tarwater remarked . Marsh introduced Tarwater to a new style of training which focused more on creating power rather than relying on aerobic endurance . Initially , he shifted his focus to the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , abandoning the butterfly for a while .
At his first major meet after his return , the May 2011 Charlotte UltraSwim , Tarwater placed third in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly behind China 's Wu Peng and Phelps . He also joined with three other SwimMAC Carolina members to win the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . At the National Championships in August , Tarwater placed third in the 100 @-@ meter and 200 @-@ meter butterfly . He anchored the national title @-@ winning 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay team for SwimMAC , and led off the club 's national title winning 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay . The medley relay time of 3 : 37 @.@ 70 set a new U.S. Open Record , more than six seconds ahead of the second @-@ place team . Tarwater also placed eighth in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle during the meet .
At the 2011 Duel in the Pool in December , Tarwater broke the American record in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly ( short course ) , completing the race in 1 : 51 @.@ 90 . The record was previously held by Michael Phelps with a time of 1 : 52 @.@ 26 . Tarwater finished second in the event , behind world record @-@ holder László Cseh , and also tied for third in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly during the meet .
= = = 2012 Olympic Trials = = =
Tarwater entered the June 2012 U.S. Olympic Trials with a new perspective : " I want to swim as fast as I can , be the best man I can be , and let the chips fall where they may " , he said . " If I make the team ... that would be unbelievable . If I don ’ t make this team , I plan to still be a champion . " He entered the competition ranked fourth in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , fifth in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , and also qualified in the 100 @-@ meter and 200 @-@ meter freestyle . He chose to scratch the 100 @-@ meter freestyle to concentrate on the 200 @-@ meter butterfly and freestyle . Tarwater made the 200 @-@ meter freestyle finals ; the top six finishers qualified for the Olympic 4 × 200 relay team , but Tarwater finished seventh . He missed making the Olympic team by fourteen one @-@ hundredths ( 0 @.@ 14 ) of a second .
In the 200 @-@ meter butterfly semi @-@ finals , Tarwater turned in the second @-@ fastest time behind Bobby Bollier as Phelps conserved energy . In the finals the next day , Tarwater , knowing he was facing several strong finishers , decided to go out as hard as he could and try to build a big enough lead to hold on . Tarwater led the field for the first 100 meters . Phelps passed him in the third 50 @-@ meter stretch , but Tarwater held off the rest of the field until the final 25 meters when both Bollier and Tyler Clary surged ahead , dropping Tarwater to fourth . His split on the final 50 meters was three seconds slower than his third 50 , and two seconds slower than his final lap in 2008 . A couple days later , Tarwater advanced to the 100 @-@ meter butterfly final , but finished fifth . Afterwards , he called it " the last race I 'll ever swim . "
The next morning Tarwater boarded a plane and headed home . Later that day , Phelps , facing the prospect of competing in eight events at the Olympics , elected to drop the 200 @-@ meter freestyle from his program . Phelps ' decision allowed Tarwater to move up into the sixth spot in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle and be added to the relay team . Tarwater said he was " shocked " by the news and called it a " storybook ending " to his career . " I was really content in walking away last night . I was in peace and left with my faith intact . To have this extra bout of joy is ... surreal " , he said . He immediately boarded another plane and flew back to Omaha , where the Trials were held , for a team meeting and practice . He told Olympic swim coach Gregg Troy , " you won 't see anyone show up with more focus and fire .... I will do everything I can to bolster the U.S. team . "
= = = 2012 Olympics = = =
By coincidence , Olympic team training took place in Tarwater 's hometown of Knoxville . At the Olympics , Tarwater swam the third leg of the preliminary round of the men 's 4 × 200 @-@ meter relay . His time of 1 : 46 @.@ 33 was a personal best , and the second @-@ fastest leg for Team USA , which turned in the fastest preliminary swim , and third @-@ fastest among all 64 swimmers . He attributed his performance to concentrating exclusively on the freestyle during the two months between Trials and the Games . Of his Olympic experience , Tarwater said , " Even at 28 , with a lot of international experience , nothing matches the Olympics . My heart was pumping so intensely that I was just trying to calm myself down . Standing on the blocks , waiting to take the exchange , I was just saying , ' Breathe . Breathe . Breathe . ' ... It 's such a rush . " Typically , the relay team for the finals is composed of the top two qualifiers plus the two fastest swimmers in the preliminaries . In 2012 , however , the U.S. team had its top three swimmers in reserve , as Phelps would swim the relay final despite dropping the individual 200 @-@ meter freestyle from his program . After Tarwater 's fast preliminary swim , the U.S. coaches strongly considered replacing number three Olympic Trials qualifier Ricky Berens with Tarwater in the finals , before electing to go with Berens due to Berens ' greater experience . In the finals , the U.S. relay team beat the second @-@ place French team by three seconds , winning Tarwater a gold medal .
Tarwater did not immediately announce whether he would retire again , saying , " I 'll make that decision when the meet is over . " He added , " I need a little bit of a vacation and I think during that time , I 'll decide what 's next for me and what 's best for my career and my life . "
= = Sponsorship and personal life = =
Tarwater is sponsored by Speedo and Mutual of Omaha . According to the Charlotte Observer , he was " known as one of the most versatile and gracious swimmers never to make an Olympic squad " before finally qualifying in 2012 . Webb School athletic director David Meske said he was " someone that has always been humble , has worked extremely hard and has always been so positive " . Tarwater says his biggest mentor is his father , remarking , " He taught me how to be a man , but more importantly , how to be a champion . "
Tarwater was raised in a Christian home , but growing up he " sort of went through the motions " and didn 't really hold strong beliefs . By college , he had abandoned any pretense of faith . He later said that " the Olympics had become an idol in my life . " After not making the Olympics in 2008 , he met Doug Banister who challenged Tarwater to re @-@ examine his worldview . " The ' A @-@ ha ' moments were many , " Tarwater later recalled . " [ B ] y the time I had the ability to prayerfully repent and rebuke the stuff in my life , I was finally at a good time in life .... I would say I recommitted my life because I grew up in a Christian home , but really it was the first time where I knew what I was doing and committed my life to Christ . " Tarwater credits his Christian faith for helping him get through the ups and downs of being a competitive swimmer . On his 2012 Olympic experience , he said " It was a real gift from God . I felt His presence so much the past few weeks . It was an unbelievable feeling . " Tarwater attends Hope Community Church in Charlotte .
Tarwater has engaged in fundraising for Mott Children 's Hospital in Michigan , and has donated his time visiting patients there . When his swimming career is finished , he is interested in working on third world economic development .
= = Records = =
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= Adenanthos obovatus =
Adenanthos obovatus , commonly known as basket flower or jugflower , is a shrub of the plant family Proteaceae endemic to Southwest Australia . Described by French naturalist Jacques Labillardière in 1805 , it had first been collected by Archibald Menzies in 1791 . Within the genus Adenanthos , it lies in the section Eurylaema and is most closely related to A. barbiger . A. obovatus has hybridized with A. detmoldii to produce the hybrid A. × pamela . Several common names allude to the prominent red flowers of the species . It grows as a many @-@ stemmed spreading bush up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high , and about 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) across , with fine bright green foliage . Made up of single red flowers , the inflorescences appear from April to December , and peak in spring ( August to October ) .
The shrub grows on sandy soils in seasonally wet lowland areas as well as hills and dunes . It regenerates after bushfire by resprouting from its underground lignotuber . Pollinators include honeyeaters , particularly the western spinebill , which can access the nectar with its long curved bill , and the silvereye , which punctures the flower tube . The most commonly cultivated Adenanthos species in Australia , it has a long flowering period and attracts honeyeaters to the garden . It is harvested for the cut flower industry .
= = Description = =
The growth habit of Adenanthos obovatus is that of a lignotuberous shrub , with many stems arising from a single underground lignotuber . It typically reaches about 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in height , and about 1 @.@ 5 m in width , but plants occasionally reach a height of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) .
The leaves of this species are bright green , oval in shape , up to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) long and 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) wide , sessile , and arranged in a spiral pattern on the branches . The flowers appear steadily between April and December , and are most frequent between August and October . They are red or orange , and emerge from the leaf axils . They are usually solitary , but occasionally an axil will carry two flowers . As with other Proteaceae species , each flower consists of a perianth of four united tepals , and a single style . In A. obovatus , the perianth is around 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) long , and the style around 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . Although the flowering period is lengthy ( six months ) , there are generally only a few flowers at any one time , and a seven @-@ year study at Harry Waring Marsupial Reserve south of Perth revealed fairly constant flowering from year to year , even when shrubs were cut back to ground level to simulate a bushfire .
The species is very similar to A. barbiger . There are obvious differences in typical leaf shape , with leaves of most populations of A. barbiger being very much longer and narrower than those of A. obovatus . However , leaf shape is variable in both species , and some southern populations of A. barbiger have leaves that are indistinguishable from those of A. obovatus . The most systematically important properties by which the two may be distinguished are the shape of the perianth limb , which is rounded in A. obovatus and pointed in A. barbiger ; the bracts , glabrous versus hirsute ; and the style @-@ ends , which are green and scarlet respectively . The species also differ slightly in range of flower colours : A. barbiger has scarlet to bright red flowers , whereas A. obovatus flowers are scarlet to orange .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Discovery and naming = = =
The first known botanical specimen collection of A. obovatus was made by Scottish surgeon and naturalist Archibald Menzies during the visit of the Vancouver Expedition to King George Sound in September and October 1791 . However , this collection did not result in publication of the species . Other early collections include a specimen collected by Scottish botanist Robert Brown during the visit of HMS Investigator to King George Sound in December 1801 and January 1802 ; and , thirteen months later , King George Sound specimens collected by Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour , botanist to Nicolas Baudin 's voyage of exploration , and " gardener 's boy " Antoine Guichenot . In his notes on vegetation published in the official account of the expedition , Leschenault writes :
" Sur les bords de la mer , croissent , en grande abondance , l 'adenanthos cuneata , l 'adenanthos sericea au feuillage velouté , et une espèce du même genre dont les feuilles sont arrondies . "
( " On the seashore , grows , in great abundance , Adenanthos cuneata , the softer @-@ leaved Adenanthos sericea , and a species of the same genus with rounded leaves . " )
The species with rounded leaves was A. obovatus .
A description of the species was published by Jacques Labillardière in his 1805 Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen , accompanied by a figure drawn by Pierre Antoine Poiteau and engraved by Auguste Plée . Labillardière chose the specific name obovata , in reference to the leaves of his specimen , which were obovate ( egg @-@ shaped , with the narrow end at the base ) . This leaf shape is often seen in this species . The term obovata derives from the Latin ob- ( " inverse " ) and ovum ( " egg " ) , and has feminine gender , consistent with the gender assigned by Labillardière to the genus .
Labillardière did not acknowledge any collector , and so it was long thought that Labillardière himself had collected the first botanical specimens in 1792 while naturalist to Bruni d 'Entrecasteaux 's expedition in search of the lost ships of Jean @-@ François de Galaup , comte de La Pérouse . However , this and eight other species described by Labillardière do not occur in any locations that he visited , suggesting that he obtained specimens from someone else whom he failed to credit . Though he did not specify a type specimen for A. obovata , a specimen upon which the accompanying figure in Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen appears to be based has been located ; it is annotated , apparently in Labillardière 's hand , as having been collected by Leschenault . Ernest Charles Nelson states with certainty that Labillardière based this species on specimens collected by Leschenault , and this view has been accepted by some scholars though others treat it more cautiously .
= = = Infrageneric placement = = =
In 1870 , George Bentham published the first infrageneric arrangement of Adenanthos in Volume 5 of his landmark Flora Australiensis . Bentham divided the genus into two sections , placing A. obovata in A. sect . Eurylaema , defined as containing those species with one sterile stamen , and perianth tubes that are curved and swollen above the middle .
A phenetic analysis of the genus undertaken by Ernest Charles Nelson in 1975 yielded results in which the members of A. sect . Eurylaema occurred together , with A. obovata appearing most closely related to A. barbigera ( now A. barbiger ) , and then A. detmoldii . A. obovata was therefore retained in A. sect . Eurylaema in Ernest Charles Nelson 's 1978 revision of Adenanthos , and again in his 1995 treatment of the genus for the Flora of Australia series . By this time , the ICBN had issued a ruling that all genera ending in -anthos must be treated as having masculine gender . Hence the species is now known as Adenanthos obovatus . Its placement in Nelson 's arrangement of Adenanthos may be summarised as follows :
Adenanthos
A. sect . Eurylaema
A. detmoldii
A. barbiger
A. obovatus
A. × pamela
A. sect . Adenanthos ( 29 species , 8 subspecies )
= = = Hybrids = = =
Adenanthos obovatus hybridises with A. detmoldii to produce A. × pamela . Known only from road verges in the Scott River region , it was first discovered in 1979 , and it is now known from more than twenty individual plants . The discovery of it in such large numbers , together with its recognised horticultural potential , prompted Nelson to formally describe and name it in 1986 . Morphologically it is intermediate between its parents ; that is , taller than A. obovatus , with longer leaves and light red flowers . It is fertile , raising the possibility of the establishment of a hybrid swarm .
It is also possible that A. obovatus infrequently hybridises with A. barbiger : in 1921 , Carl Hansen Ostenfeld described A. intermedia ( now A. intermedius ) , based on specimens found near Ngilgi Cave at Yallingup with leaf shape intermediate between these two species . The new species was rejected in 1924 by Charles Gardner , and again in the 1970s by Nelson , who argued that leaf shape is inappropriate grounds for erecting a new species in this context , and that , in terms of systematically important characteristics , A. intermedius is indistinguishable from A. barbiger . He therefore synonymized A. intermedius with A. barbiger , but noted the possibility that A. intermedius is of hybrid origin . Recently , however , a specimen collected by Greg Keighery was held to represent a new species , provisionally named " A. barbiger subsp. intermedius ( Ostenf . ) Keighery ms " ( later revised to " Adenanthos sp . Whicher Range ( G.J. Keighery 9736 ) " ) , suggesting that Keighery , at least , does not consider A. intermedius to be of hybrid origin .
= = = Common names = = =
Common names for this species include basket flower , glandflower , jugflower and stick @-@ in @-@ the @-@ jug . In the King George Sound vicinity the Aboriginal name Cheeuk is sometimes used .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Abundant and widespread , A. obovatus occurs on a wide range of soils , favouring soils in the acidic pH range 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 4 . Like most Adenanthos species it is common on deeply leached siliceous sandplain sand . It also occurs on gravelly quartz sand derived from rock outcrops , such as on the rocky hillslopes of the Stirling Range . It is rarely found on gravelly lateritic soils . It is also one of the few Adenanthos species to grow well in moist environments ; it will not tolerate seasonal waterlogging — that niche is filled by A. detmoldii — but thrives in damp soils not subject to waterlogging .
Consistent with these edaphic preferences , A. obovatus is widespread and common in the scrub and heath commonly found on the sandplains of Southwest Australia , and is also common in the sedgelands that develop in moister areas of the region . It is uncommon in forest or woodland areas , because these are usually associated with lateritic soils ; but it may be found in stands of jarrah or marri forest where these grow in laterite @-@ free sand . The climate in its range is mediterranean , with annual rainfall from 625 – 1 @,@ 250 mm ( 24 @.@ 6 – 49 @.@ 2 in ) .
The species occurs in coastal regions of Southwest Australia , from Gingin and Muchea north of Perth south to Augusta and east along the south coast to Green Range , east of Albany . It also occurs in the Stirling Range , a possible disjunction ; and at Narrogin , a certain and substantial disjunction . Nelson tentatively explains these disjunct populations in terms of natural climate fluctuations : during times of higher rainfall , the distribution of A. obovatus would have been much more extensive . Reductions in rainfall would cause the distribution to contract , but isolated populations could survive in favourable refugia .
= = Ecology = =
The western spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus superciliosus ) is the most frequent visitor to the flowers . A territorial species , the territories are smaller when they contain more Adenanthos obovatus bushes . Their long curved bills fit the tube @-@ like flowers exactly , so that the pollen @-@ presenter brushes against the spinebill 's head while it is probing for nectar . The birds then carry pollen from plant to plant , fertilising other plants . A field study marking the pollen with fluorescent dye found that pollen could be deposited on flowers of plants up to 20 metres ( 66 feet ) away from the original flower visited . The New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) and brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) have also been recorded with pollen from A. obovatus . The silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) drinks nectar from the flowers , but punctures the tube with its short bill . Larger honeyeaters in one field study tended to avoid A. obovatus , possibly seeking sources of more abundant nectar elsewhere . These species are too heavy for the fine branches and their bills are too large for the tubes .
Adenanthos obovatus has been recorded as a source of nectar for the honey possum ( Tarsipes rostratus ) in winter and spring ( early June to September ) , from field studies in the Scott National Park , replaced by A. meisneri in late spring and summer ( late October to February ) .
Adenanthos obovatus is highly susceptible to dieback caused by the water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi . Specimens in coastal dune vegetation were reported killed by the fungus Armillaria luteobubalina , with mycelial sheaths of the fungus beneath the bark of the root collar .
= = Cultivation = =
Described by Ken Newbey as " an outstanding ornamental species with average foliage and very attractive in flower " , A. obovatus was first grown in Great Britain in 1824 , and is the most commonly cultivated Adenanthos species in Australia . It flowers for most of the year , is an excellent attractor of honeyeaters , and grows in a range of climates . Propagation is by cuttings of the current season 's growth , from which it strikes readily , and subsequently makes fairly quick growth . Despite its natural occurrence in damp locations , in cultivation it grows best in a light , well @-@ drained soil . It prefers a sunny aspect . Regular hard pruning is recommended to maintain an attractive form . Wildflowers of this species are harvested by licensed pickers in the cut flower industry , for sale in both local and export markets . The long , curved stems with flowers in the leaf axils have been described as " excellent for picking " .
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= Ed , Edd n Eddy ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the Canadian @-@ American animated comedy television series Ed , Edd n Eddy , created by Danny Antonucci , originally aired on Cartoon Network in the United States . Although originally set to premiere in November 1998 , the season ran from January 4 , 1999 to June 11 , 1999 , and consists of 26 episodes . The series revolves around three adolescent boys collectively known as " the Eds , " who live in a suburban cul @-@ de @-@ sac . Unofficially led by Eddy , the Eds constantly scheme to make money off their peers in order to purchase their favorite confectionery , jawbreakers . However , their plans usually fail , leaving them in various predicaments .
Adult cartoonist Antonucci conceived Ed , Edd n Eddy while working on a commercial design . Antonucci pitched the series to Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon . Both studios were interested in the series , but each demanded creative control and Antonucci refused . Cartoon Network ended up commissioning the show after agreeing to let Antonucci have control of the show . After its debut , the series was a success in Nielsen ratings , popular among younger and older viewers . Met with generally positive reviews , the season earned Antonucci a Reuben Award for Best Television Animation .
The Complete First Season DVD was released in Region 1 in 2006 and Region 4 in 2007 . Both Ed , Edd n Eddy DVD volumes , Edifying Ed @-@ Ventures and Fools ' Par @-@ Ed @-@ Ise , also featured season one episodes . All the DVDs were published by Warner Home Video . The entire season can also be purchased from the iTunes Store . The season was written by Antonucci , Jono Howard , Mike Kubat and Rob Boutilier .
= = Cast = =
Matt Hill , Samuel Vincent and Tony Sampson were cast as Ed , Double D and Eddy . David Paul Grove and Keenan Christenson played the parts of Jonny 2 × 4 and Jimmy , respectively , while Sarah was voiced by Janyse Jaud . Peter Kelamis voiced Rolf , while Kathleen Barr was cast as Kevin . Nazz was voiced by Tabitha St. Germain . Erin Fitzgerald played the part of May Kanker . The other two Kanker sisters , Marie and Lee , were voiced by Kathleen Barr and Janyse Jaud .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Although originally set to premiere on November 7 , 1998 , it aired on January 4 , 1999 , as the 6th Cartoon Cartoon , due to minor post @-@ production delays . According to Cartoon Network executive Linda Simensky , the first season did " remarkably well " in ratings following its premiere , becoming one of the top @-@ rated series on the network , prompting Cartoon Network to quickly order @-@ up a second season for a November 1999 premiere , and later a third and fourth .
= = = Reviews and accolades = = =
Despite not being as acclaimed as its second season , reception of the first season was still generally positive . Despite giving the Edifying Ed @-@ Ventures DVD a negative review , IGN 's Mike Drucker praised the show , saying : " Every bit of the show is played for the maximum comic effect , and the interactions between the characters are usually very fun , " and particularly praised the season finale , " Avast Ye Eds " , saying that it is a " good example of how the animators developed a clever , surreal environment that most kids could probably relate to . They simply go wild and allow regular childhood adventures turn into comedic epics , very over @-@ the @-@ top , but still linked to the way that kids act and react to strange situations . " While calling it a " gem " and of " entertaining nature " , he criticized the storylines as " repetitive " and said the show " lacks the genius of SpongeBob " . Terrence Briggs of Animation World Magazine considered every second of the show " filler " and lamented that the main characters are drawn as " products from the school of acid @-@ trip caricature . " After Briggs ' review was published , a large number of letters supportive of the show were sent to the magazine , prompting it to " take a second look " at the show . Different reviewers then gave it a positive review , calling it a " fresh show with very different approaches . "
The season earned Antonucci a Reuben Award for Best Television Animation . The season had a slight impact on popular culture . A journalist in Tallahassee , Florida wrote a column in his local newspaper about his search for the huge jawbreakers his children saw on Ed , Edd n Eddy . During the run of the first season , a number of fansites were already being set up .
= = = Home media = = =
Warner Home Video released a number of Ed , Edd n Eddy DVDs , two of which were DVD volumes . The first , titled Edifying Ed @-@ Ventures , was released on May 10 , 2005 , in region 1 and on May 15 , 2006 , in region 2 , featuring three season one episodes , " Sire Ed @-@ a @-@ Lot " , " Who , What , Where , Ed ! " and " Avast Ye Eds " , out of a total six . It was followed by Fools ' Par @-@ Ed @-@ Ise on March 21 , 2006 , but only featured on episode from the season , " Fool on the Ed " .
The Complete First Season 1 @.@ 33 : 1 aspect ratio 294 @-@ minute two @-@ disc set was released in region 1 on October 10 , 2006 , and in region 2 on July 18 , 2007 . The DVD is in English ( Dolby Digital Stereo ) , and is dubbed in French and Spanish , with subtitles in English , Spanish and French . The set includes special features such as an interview with the creator , " How to make an Ed , Edd n Eddy cartoon " , " How to Draw Eddy " and a Cartoon Network commercial bumper featuring Jimmy and Plank .
The season is available for download on the iTunes Store . The Fools ' Per @-@ Ed @-@ Ise and The Complete First Season DVDs can also be purchased on the Cartoon Network Shop .
= = Episodes = =
Note : All episodes were directed by Antonucci
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= Scottish religion in the seventeenth century =
Scottish religion in the seventeenth century includes all forms of religious organisation and belief in the Kingdom of Scotland in the seventeenth century . During the sixteenth century , Scotland had undergone a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk , which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook . James VI favoured doctrinal Calvinism , but also episcopacy . His son Charles I authorised a book of canons that made him head of the Church and enforced the use of a new liturgy , seen as an English @-@ style Prayer Book . In the resulting rebellion the Scottish bishops were formally expelled from the Church and representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the National Covenant . In the subsequent Bishop 's Wars the Scottish Covenanters emerged as virtually independent rulers . Charles I 's failure led indirectly to the English civil war ( 1642 – 46 ) . The Covenanters intervened on the side of Parliament , who were victorious , but became increasingly alienated from the Parliamentary regime . The Scottish defeats in the subsequent Second and Third civil wars , led to English occupation and incorporation in a Commonwealth of England , Scotland and Ireland led by Oliver Cromwell from 1652 and the imposition of religious toleration for Protestants . The Scottish Covenanters divided into parties of Resolutioners and Protesters .
After the Restoration in 1660 , Scotland regained its national kirk , but also episcopacy . About a third of the clergy refused to accept the new settlement and particularly in the south @-@ west ministers took to preaching in the open fields in conventicles , often attracting thousands of worshippers . The government alternated between accommodation and persecution . There were risings in 1666 and 1679 , which were defeated by government forces . The Society People who continued to resist the government , known as the Cameronians , became increasingly radical . In the early 1680s a more intense phase of persecution began , in what was later to be known in Protestant historiography as " the Killing Time " . With the accession of the openly Catholic James VII , there was increasing disquiet among Protestants . After the Glorious Revolution of 1688 – 89 , William of Orange and Mary , the daughter of James , were , accepted as monarchs . The final settlement restored Presbyterianism and abolished the bishops , who had generally supported James . However , William , who was more tolerant than the kirk tended to be , passed acts restoring the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution .
Protestantism was focused on the Bible and family worship was strongly encouraged . The kirk sessions applied personal and moral discipline . They discouraged group celebrations . Sessions had an administrative burden in the system of poor relief , the administration of the parish school system . They also took over the pursuit of witchcraft cases . The most intense hunt was in 1661 – 62 , but improving economic conditions and increasing scepticism led the practice to peter out towards the end of the century . The numbers of Roman Catholics and the organisation of the Church probably deteriorated , but began to revive with the appointment of a Vicar Apostolic over the mission in 1694 .
= = Events = =
= = = Background : the Reformation = = =
During the sixteenth century , Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk , which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook ; the Reformation severely reduced the powers of bishops , but did not abolish them . In the earlier part of the century , the teachings of first Martin Luther and then John Calvin began to influence Scotland , particularly through Scottish scholars who had visited continental and English universities and who had often trained in the Catholic priesthood . The influence of the English was also more direct , as they supplied books and distributed Bibles and Protestant literature in the Lowlands when they invaded in 1547 . Particularly important was the work of the Lutheran Scot Patrick Hamilton . His execution with other Protestant preachers in 1528 , and of the Zwingli @-@ influenced George Wishart in 1546 , who was burnt at the stake in St. Andrews on the orders of Cardinal Beaton , did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas . Wishart 's supporters , who included a number of Fife lairds , assassinated Beaton soon after and seized St. Andrews Castle , which they held for a year before they were defeated with the help of French forces . The survivors , including chaplain John Knox , were condemned to be galley slaves , helping to create resentment of the French and martyrs for the Protestant cause .
Limited toleration and the influence of exiled Scots and Protestants in other countries , led to the expansion of Protestantism , with a group of lairds declaring themselves Lords of the Congregation in 1557 and representing their interests politically . The collapse of the French alliance and English intervention in 1560 meant that a relatively small , but highly influential , group of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the Scottish church . A confession of faith , rejecting papal jurisdiction and the mass , was adopted by Parliament in 1560 , while the young Mary , Queen of Scots was still in France . Knox , having escaped the galleys and spent time in Geneva , where he became a follower of Calvin , emerged as the most significant figure . The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the Medieval church . This gave considerable power within the new kirk to local lairds , who often had control over the appointment of the clergy , and resulting in widespread , but generally orderly , iconoclasm . At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the kirk would find it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands , but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that , compared with reformations elsewhere , was conducted with relatively little persecution .
The personal reign of the Catholic Mary , Queen of Scots ( 1561 – 67 ) eventually ended in civil war , deposition , imprisonment and execution in England . Her infant son James VI was crowned King of Scots in 1567 . He was brought up as a Protestant , while the country was run by a series of regents . After he asserted his personal rule from 1583 he favoured doctrinal Calvinism , but also episcopacy .
= = = Covenants and the Civil Wars = = =
James VI 's inheritance of the English crown in 1603 led to rule via the Privy Council from London . He also increasingly controlled the meetings of the Scottish General Assembly and increased the number and powers of the Scottish bishops . In 1618 , he held a General Assembly and pushed through Five Articles , which included practices that had been retained in England but largely abolished in Scotland , most controversially kneeling for the reception of communion . Although ratified , they created widespread opposition and resentment and were seen by many as a step back to Catholic practice .
James VI was succeeded by his son Charles I in 1625 . Charles relied heavily on the bishops , particularly John Spottiswood , Archbishop of St. Andrews , eventually making him chancellor . At the beginning of his reign , Charles ' revocation of alienated lands since 1542 helped secure the finances of the kirk , but it threatened the holdings of the nobility who had gained from the Reformation settlement . Objects were fuelled by a widespread fear of " Popery " , but Catholicism was largely confined to some nobles and the Highlands and Islands .
In 1635 , without reference to a general assembly of the Parliament , the King authorised a book of canons that made him head of the Church , ordained an unpopular ritual and enforced the use of a new liturgy . When the liturgy emerged in 1637 it was seen as an English @-@ style Prayer Book , resulting in anger and widespread rioting , said to have been set off with the throwing of a stool by one Jenny Geddes during a service in St Giles Cathedral . The Protestant nobility put themselves at the head of the popular opposition . Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the National Covenant on 28 February 1638 , objecting to the King 's liturgical innovations . The King 's supporters were unable to suppress the rebellion and the King refused to compromise . In December of the same year , at a meeting of the General Assembly in Glasgow , the Scottish bishops were formally expelled from the Church , which was then established on a full Presbyterian basis .
The Scots and the King both assembled armies and , after the two Bishop 's Wars of 1639 and 1640 , the Scots emerged the victors . Charles capitulated , leaving the Covenanters in independent control of the country . He was forced to recall the English Parliament , resulting in the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 . The Covenanters sided with Parliament and in 1643 they entered into a Solemn League and Covenant , guaranteeing the Scottish Church settlement and promising further reform in England . The Westminster Confession of Faith , drawn up by English and Scottish ministers and agreed in 1645 , became the subordinate standard of Covenanter doctrine . By 1646 a Royalist campaign in the Highlands and the Royalists in England had been defeated and the King had surrendered . Relations with the English Parliament and the increasingly independent English New Model Army became strained and control of Scotland country moved away from the hardline " Kirk Party " and fell under the control of those willing to compromise with the King . The resulting Engagement with the King led to a Second Civil War and a defeat for a Scottish invading army at the Battle of Preston , by the New Model Army led by Oliver Cromwell . After the coup of the Whiggamore Raid , the Kirk Party regained control in Scotland .
= = = Commonwealth = = =
After the execution of the King in January 1649 , England was declared a commonwealth and the Scots declared his son king as Charles II . The English responded with an invasion and , after defeats for the Scots at Dunbar in 1650 and Worcester in 1651 , the English occupied the country in 1652 , declaring Scotland part of the Commonwealth . In the period after the defeat at Dunbar the Kirk became deeply divided , partly in the search for scapegoats for defeat . Different factions and tendencies produced rival resolutions and protests , which gave their names to the two major parties as the Resolutioners , who were willing to make an accommodation with royalism , and the more hard line Protesters who wished to purge the Kirk of such associations . Subsequently the divide between rival camps became almost irrevocable . After 1655 both groups appointed permanent agents in London .
The terms of the union promised that the Gospel would be preached and promised freedom of religion . The regime accepted Presbyterianism as a valid system , but did not accept that it was the only legitimate form of church organisation . The result was that although civil penalties no longer backed up its pronouncements , Kirk sessions and synods functioned much as before . The administration tended to favour the Protesters , largely because the Resolutioners were more inclined to desire a restoration of the monarchy and because the General Assembly , where they predominated , claimed independence from the state . The act of holding public prayers for the success of the earl of Glencairn 's insurrection against the regime , led in 1653 , to the largely Resolutioner members of the Assembly being marched out of Edinburgh by an armed guard . There were no more assemblies in the period of the Commonwealth and the Resolutioners met in informal " Consultations " of clergy . The universities , largely seen as a training school for clergy , were relatively well funded and came under the control of the Protestors , with Patrick Gillespie being made Principal at Glasgow .
Toleration did not extend to Episcopalians and Catholics , but if they did not call attention to themselves they were largely left alone . It did extend to sectaries , but the only independent group to establish itself in Scotland in this period were a small number of Quakers . Some attempts were made to extend Protestantism to the largely Catholic , Gaelic @-@ speaking Highlands and Islands . The first Gaelic catechism was published in 1653 and the first Psalm book in 1659 . In general the period of the Commonwealth was looked back on as one where Protestantism flourished . Ministers , now largely barred from politics , spent more time with their flocks and placed an emphasis on preaching that emulated the sectaries . One Presbyterian noted that " there were more souls converted to Christ in that short period of time than in any season since the Reformation " .
= = = Restoration = = =
= = = = Restoration settlement = = = =
After the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 , Scotland regained its kirk , but also the bishops . Under the Rescissory Act 1661 , legislation was revoked back to 1633 , removing the Covenanter gains of the Bishops ' Wars . But an act passed later the same day renewed the discipline of kirk sessions , presbyteries and synods , suggesting that a compromise was possible . The restoration of episcopacy was proclaimed by the Privy Council of Scotland on 6 September 1661 . James Sharp , minister of Crail , who was in London to represent the interests of the Resolutioners , changed sides and accepted the position of Archbishop of St. Andrews . He was consecrated along with Robert Leighton as Bishop of Dunblane and two other bishops . Soon an entire bench of bishops had been constructed . During the parliamentary session of 1662 the Church of Scotland was restored as the national church and all office @-@ holders were required to renounce the Covenants . Church ministers were forced to accept the new situation or lose their livings . Up to a third , at least 270 , of the ministry refused . Many ministers chose voluntarily to abandon their own parishes rather than wait to be forced out by the government . Most of the vacancies occurred in the south @-@ west of Scotland , an area particularly strong in its Covenanting sympathies . Some of the ministers also took to preaching in the open fields in conventicles , often attracting thousands of worshippers .
= = = = Toleration and persecution = = = =
The government responded with alternating policies of force and toleration . In 1663 an act was passed that declared dissenting minsters to be seditious persons and allowed the imposition of heavy fines on those who failed to attend the parish churches of the " King 's curates " . In 1666 a group of men from Galloway captured the government 's local military commander and marched on Edinburgh . They were defeated at the Battle of Rullion Green and 50 prisoners were captured . 33 were executed , two after torture , and the rest were transported to Barbados . There were then a series of arrests of suspected persons . The rising resulted in the fall of the king 's commissioner John Leslie , 1st Duke of Rothes .
The new commissioner John Maitland , 1st Duke of Lauderdale attempted a more conciliatory policy , issuing Letters of Indulgence in 1669 , 1672 and 1679 . These allowed evicted ministers to return to their parishes , if they would avoid political dissent . 150 refused to accept the offer and some episcopalians were alienated by the compromise . Leighton , now bishop of Glasgow , attempted to engage with dissenters , but to no avail . The failure to reach an accommodation led to a return to severity . Preaching at a conventicle was made punishable by death and attendance was punishable by severe sanctions . In 1674 heritors and masters were made responsible for their tenants and servants and from 1677 they had to enter bonds for the conduct of everyone living on their land . In 1678 3 @,@ 000 Lowland militia and 6 @,@ 000 Highlanders , known as the " Highland Host " , were billeted in the Covenanting shires as a form of punishment .
= = = = Rebellion and the Killing Time = = = =
In 1679 a group of Covenanters killed Archbishop Sharp . The incident led to a rising that grew to 5 @,@ 000 men . They were defeated by forces under James , Duke of Monmouth , the King 's illegitimate son , at the Battle of Bothwell Bridge . Two ministers were executed and 250 followers shipped to Barbados , 200 drowning when their ship went down off Orkney . The rebellion eventually led to the fall of Lauderdale , who was replaced by the King 's brother , the openly Catholic James , known in Scotland as the Duke of Albany . The dissenters , led by Donald Cargill and Richard Cameron called themselves the Society People , but would be become known after their leader as the Cameronians . Reduced in number , hiding out in the moors , they became increasingly radical . On 22 June 1680 , the Sanquhar Declaration was posted in Sanquhar , renouncing Charles II as king . Cameron was killed the next month . Cargill excommunicated the King , Duke of Albany and other royalists at the Torwood Conventicle and his followers now separated themselves from all other Presbyterian ministers . Cargill was captured and executed in May 1681 .
The government passed a Test Act , forcing every holder of public office to take an oath of non @-@ resistance . Eight Episcopal clergy and James Dalrymple , Lord President of the Court of Session resigned and the leading nobleman Archibald Campbell , 9th Earl of Argyll was forced into exile . In 1684 the remaining Society People posted an Apologetical Declaration on several market crosses , which informed servants of the government that they pursued the lives of its members at the risk of their own . In response to this new element of outright political sedition , the Scottish Privy Council authorised extrajudicial field executions of those caught in arms or those who refused to swear loyalty to the King . This more intense phase of persecution , later known in Protestant historiography as " the Killing Time " , led to dissenters being summarily executed by the dragoons of James Graham , Laird of Claverhouse or sentenced to transportation or death by Sir George Mackenzie , the Lord Advocate .
= = = Glorious Revolution = = =
= = = = Regime change = = = =
Charles died in 1685 and his brother succeeded him as James VII of Scotland ( and II of England ) . James put Catholics in key positions in the government and even attendance at a conventicle was made punishable by death . He disregarded parliament , purged the Council and forced through religious toleration for Roman Catholics , alienating his Protestant subjects . The failure of an invasion , led by the Earl of Argyll and timed to co @-@ ordinate with the Duke of Monmouth 's rebellion in England , demonstrated the strength of the regime . However a riot in response to Louis XIV 's Revocation of the Edict of Nantes indicated the strength of anti @-@ Catholic feeling . The King 's attempts to obtain toleration for Catholics led to the issuing of Letters of Indulgence in 1687 , which also allowed freedom of worship to dissident Protestants , allowing " outed " Presbyterian ministers to return to their parishes . This did not extend to field conventicles and the Society People continued to endure hardship , with their last minister , James Renwick , being captured and executed in 1688 .
It was believed that the King would be succeeded by his daughter Mary , a Protestant and the wife of William of Orange , Stadtholder of the Netherlands , but when in 1688 , James produced a male heir , James Francis Edward Stuart , it was clear that his policies would outlive him . An invitation by seven leading Englishmen led William to land in England with 40 @,@ 000 men on 5 November . In Edinburgh there were rumours of Orange plots and on 10 December the Lord Chancellor of Scotland , the Earl of Perth , quit the capital for Drummond Castle , planning an abortive escape to Ireland ( he was later captured as he embarked for France ) . As rioters approached Holyrood Abbey they were fired on by soldiers , resulting in some deaths . The city guard was called out , but the Abbey was stormed by a large mob . The Catholic furnishings placed there when it was restored as a chapel for James were torn down and the tombs of the Stuart kings desecrated . A crowd of students burnt the Pope in effigy and took down the heads of executed Covenanters that were hanging above the city gates . The crisis was resolved when James fled from England on 23 December , leading to an almost bloodless revolution . Although there had been no significant Scottish involvement in the coup , most members of the Scottish Privy Council went to London to offer their services to William . On 7 January 1689 , they asked William to take over the responsibilities of government .
= = = = Revolution settlement = = = =
William called a Scottish Convention , which convened on 14 March in Edinburgh . It was dominated by the Presbyterians . There was a faction that supported James , including many episcopalians , but these were divided by James ' attempts to achieve tolerance for Roman Catholics . A letter from James , received on 16 March , contained a threat to punish all who rebelled against him and declaring the assembly illegal , resulted in his followers to abandon the Convention , leaving the Williamites dominant . On 4 April the Convention formulated the Claim of Right and the Articles of Grievances . These suggested that James had forfeited the crown by his actions ( in contrast to England , which relied on the legal fiction of an abdication ) and offered it to William and Mary , which William accepted , along with limitations on royal power . On 11 May William and Mary accepted the Crown of Scotland as co @-@ regents , as William II and Mary II . The final settlement , completed by William 's Second parliament in 1690 , restored Presbyterianism and abolished the bishops , who had generally supported James . Remaining ministers outed in 1662 were restored . The General Assembly of 1692 refused to reinstate even those Episcopalian ministers who pledged to accept Presbyterianism . However , the King issued two acts of indulgences in 1693 and 1695 , allowing those who accepted him as king to return to the church and around a hundred took advantage of the offer . All but the hardened Jacobites would be given toleration in 1707 , leaving only a small remnant of Jacobite episcopalians .
= = Popular Protestantism = =
Scottish Protestantism in the seventeenth century was highly focused on the Bible , which was seen as infallible and the major source of moral authority . In the early part of the century the Genevan translation was commonly used . In 1611 the Kirk adopted the Authorised King James Version and the first Scots version was printed in Scotland in 1633 , but the Geneva Bible continued to be employed into the late seventeenth century . Many Bibles were large , illustrated and highly valuable objects . They often became the subject of superstitions , being used in divination . Family worship was strongly encouraged by the Covenanters . Books of devotion were distributed to encourage the practice and minsters were encouraged to investigate whether this was being carried out .
The seventeenth century saw the high @-@ water mark of kirk discipline . Kirk sessions were able to apply religious sanctions , such as excommunication and denial of baptism , to enforce godly behaviour and obedience . In more difficult cases of immoral behaviour they could work with the local magistrate , in a system modelled on that employed in Geneva . Public occasions were treated with mistrust and from the later seventeenth century there were efforts by kirk sessions to stamp out activities such as well @-@ dressing , bonfires , guising , penny weddings and dancing . Kirk sessions also had an administrative burden in the system of poor relief . An act of 1649 declared that local heritors were to be assessed by kirk session to provide the financial resources for local relief , rather than relying on voluntary contributions . By the mid @-@ seventeenth century the system had largely been rolled out across the Lowlands , but was limited in the Highlands . The system was largely able to cope with general poverty and minor crises , helping the old and infirm to survive and provide life support in periods of downturn at relatively low cost , but was overwhelmed in the major subsistence crisis of the 1690s , known as the seven ill years . The kirk also had a major role in education . Statutes passed in 1616 , 1633 , 1646 and 1696 established a parish school system , paid for by local heritors and administered by ministers and local presbyteries . By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands , but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas .
In the seventeenth century the pursuit of witchcraft was largely taken over by the kirk sessions and was often used to attack superstitious and Catholic practices in Scottish society . Most of the accused , some 75 per cent , were women , with over 1 @,@ 500 executed , and the witch hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women . The most intense witch hunt was in 1661 – 62 , which involved some 664 named witches in four counties . From this point prosecutions began to decline as trials were more tightly controlled by the judiciary and government , torture was more sparingly used and standards of evidence were raised . B. P. Levack suggests that there may also have been a growing scepticism and with relative peace and stability the economic and social tensions that contributed to accusation may have reduced . There were occasional local outbreaks like that in East Lothian in 1678 and 1697 at Paisley . The last recorded executions were in 1706 and the last trial in 1727 . The British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736 .
= = Catholicism = =
The numbers of practising Catholics probably continued to reduce in the seventeenth century and the organisation of the Church deteriorated . Some were to convert to Roman Catholicism , as did John Ogilvie ( 1569 – 1615 ) , who went on to be ordained a priest in 1610 , later being hanged for proselytism in Glasgow and often thought of as the only Scottish Catholic martyr of the Reformation era . An Irish Franciscan mission in the 1620s and 1630s claimed large numbers of converts , but these were confined to the Western Isles and had little impact on the mainland . A college for the education of Scots clergy was opened at Madrid in 1633 , and was afterwards moved to Valladolid . In 1653 the remaining five or six clergy were incorporated under William Ballantine as prefect of the mission . There were a small number of Jesuits active in Strathgrass from the 1670s . The Pope appointed Thomas Nicolson as the first Vicar Apostolic over the mission in 1694 and the situation of Catholicism began to improve . Nicholson divided Scotland into districts , each with its own designated priests and he undertook visitations to ensure the implementation of Papal legislation . In 1700 his Statuta Missionis , which included a code of conduct for priests and laymen , were approved by all the clergy . By 1703 there were 33 Catholic clergy .
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= Solomon Butcher =
Solomon D. Butcher ( January 24 , 1856 – March 18 , 1927 ) was an itinerant photographer who spent most of his life in central Nebraska , in the Great Plains region of the United States . A settler under the Homestead Act , he began in 1886 to produce a photographic record of the history of white settlement in the region . Over 3 @,@ 000 of his negatives survive ; more than 1 @,@ 000 of these depict sod houses . Butcher wrote two books incorporating his photographs : Pioneer History of Custer County and Short Sketches of Early Days in Nebraska ( 1901 ) , and Sod Houses , or the Development of the Great American Plains ( 1904 ) .
Butcher was unable to achieve financial success as a farmer , as a photographer , or in a number of other schemes later in his life , and at the time of his death felt that he had been a failure . However , the number and scope of his photographs of Nebraska pioneer life have made them a valuable resource to students of that period of history , and they have become a staple of historical texts and popular works alike . His oeuvre has been described as " the most important chronicle of the saga of homesteading in America " .
= = Early life = =
Solomon D. Butcher was born on January 24 , 1856 , the oldest child of Thomas Jefferson Butcher and Esther ( Ullom ) Butcher , in Burton in Wetzel County , in what was then the state of Virginia but later became part of West Virginia . In 1860 , his family moved to LaSalle County , Illinois , where his father worked for the Illinois Central Railroad . The family remained there for nearly twenty years . Butcher finished high school in 1874 and was briefly apprenticed to a tintypist , who taught him the business of photography . In the winter term of 1875 – 76 , he attended the Henry Military School in Henry , Illinois . He then worked as a travelling salesman for a firm in Clyde , Ohio until 1880 .
In 1880 , Thomas Jefferson Butcher announced that he was leaving his secure job with the railroad and moving west , to establish a homestead in Custer County , Nebraska . Although Solomon Butcher had a good job , he had grown tired of his work , and " had already thought seriously of seeking my fortune in the great west " . In March 1880 , a party consisting of Butcher , his father , his brother George , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law J. R. Wabel started westward in two covered wagons . After seven weeks , they arrived in northeastern Custer County , where they occupied homesteads near the north bank of the Middle Loup River , west @-@ northwest of present @-@ day Sargent .
The party began construction of a sod house , and Butcher quickly came to rue his decision to go west : " I soon came to the conclusion that any man that would leave the luxuries of a boarding house , where they had hash every day , and a salary of $ 125 a month to lay Nebraska sod for 75 cents a day ... was a fool . " Upon the completion of the house , Butcher and his father returned to Illinois to bring his mother and his youngest brother to Nebraska . However , Butcher did not return with them : he stayed in Illinois for several months , returning to Nebraska with only three days left to construct a dwelling on his homestead ; failure to do so would mean forfeiting his claim . Butcher , his father , and two of his brothers built and occupied a dugout , saving the claim . Two weeks later , however , he once again went back east , moving to Milwaukee , Wisconsin and abandoning his homestead . " I would not have remained and kept batch for five years for the whole of Custer county , " he declared .
Butcher attended medical college in Minneapolis in the winter and spring of 1881 – 2 . There , he met Lillie M. ( Barber ) Hamilton , a young widow working as a nurse at the hospital . The two were married in May 1882 .
Soon thereafter , Butcher once again decided that the West was the place for him . " I had just seen enough of the wild west to unfit me for living contentedly in the East " , he wrote . In October 1882 , the couple returned to Custer County , where they moved in with his father . During that winter , he worked as a schoolteacher .
= = Photographer on the Plains = =
Butcher was able to save some of his teacher 's salary , and to borrow enough more to open the first photography studio in Custer County . The studio was housed in a lath @-@ and @-@ adobe building , measuring 18 by 28 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m × 8 @.@ 5 m ) , with a dirt floor and with cotton sheeting in lieu of glass to cover the windows and the skylights . As a backdrop for the photos , he used an old cloth wagon cover . The cloth had been gnawed by rats and was full of holes , which Lillie patched . To keep the patches from showing up in photographs , Butcher attached two coil springs from an old bed to the ceiling , then hung the backdrop from them . Before taking a picture , he plucked the backdrop so that it oscillated on the springs ; the motion , combined with the long exposure time required , blurred the backdrop so that the patches would not be visible in the photograph .
Photography alone was not enough to pay the bills . Butcher opened a post office in his studio , which he named " Jefferson " after his father . This proved less than lucrative : his postal income came from stamp cancellations , and in the first three months amounted to 68 cents . He also did farm work for his father , at a wage of 50 to 75 cents per day .
In December 1884 , the town of Walworth was established near Butcher 's homestead . Butcher , his wife , and their two children moved there and built a sod house . In Walworth , Butcher found a business partner , A. W. Darling , who supplied the money to put up a frame building for a studio . However , Walworth did not last : it had been established at a time when rains had been unusually good , and the resumption of normal dry conditions led to the town 's demise . Butcher 's family had to leave their sod house after six weeks of residence . He and Darling were forced to sell their building , which was moved to the town of West Union ; there , they rented it for five years .
= = Pioneer History = =
In the spring of 1886 , Butcher conceived the idea of writing an illustrated history of Custer County . This , he thought , would be the key to fame and riches . " At last , Eureka ! Eureka ! I had found it . I was so elated that I lost all desire for rest and had to take morphine to make me sleep . " To embark upon this project , he needed financing . Unlike Butcher , his father had succeeded as a farmer , running a gristmill and a freighting business as well ; it was to him that Butcher turned for assistance . Thomas Jefferson Butcher was initially skeptical ; but after his son had arranged to photograph 75 homesteads , he agreed to provide a team and wagon for the project .
In June 1886 , Butcher took the first photograph for the book . He met a certain amount of skepticism — " Some called me a fool , others a crank ... " He began his work only thirteen years after the establishment of the first homestead in the county , when it could hardly be said to have a history . He persevered : from 1886 to 1892 , he took over 1 @,@ 500 photographs and recorded over 1 @,@ 500 narratives .
Hard times struck Custer County in the early 1890s . Crops failed in 1890 ; good crops in the following two years were offset by low prices . The harvest was small in 1893 , and the spring and summer of 1894 were almost entirely devoid of rain . The county also partook of the nationwide depression that began with the Panic of 1893 . Butcher was an early victim of this agricultural and economic collapse : in 1892 , he lost his farm , and was forced to suspend his history project .
The Populist Party and its predecessor , the Farmers ' Alliance , were strong in Custer County in the 1890s , carrying elections for a decade beginning in 1889 . Butcher attached himself to the movement and , in 1896 , was elected Justice of the Peace and Clerk of the Election for West Union . Rising farm prices and a generally improving economy allowed him to secure a home and to get himself nearly out of debt , and in 1899 he was about to resume work on the history .
In 1899 , however , Butcher 's house burned down , destroying its entire contents , including the pioneer narratives and the photographic prints . Fortunately for the history project , the glass negatives were stored in a granary , and escaped the fire . The house had carried no insurance , however , and Butcher was once again left penniless .
Butcher persevered , again setting himself to the task of compiling pioneer narratives . He secured the assistance of George B. Mair , the editor of the Callaway Chronicle , in editing these accounts and in preparing the manuscript . To cover the cost of engraving , typesetting , and publishing , he recruited Ephraim Swain Finch , an early settler of Custer County and now a wealthy rancher . Finch , whom Butcher knew through his Populist activities , agreed to underwrite these expenses ; moreover , he placed an advertisement in the Custer County Chief , assuring readers that orders for Butcher 's forthcoming book would be filled .
Orders for the book began flowing in . The first edition of 1000 copies sold out before its delivery date , in the summer of 1901 ; a second printing , of either 500 or 1000 copies , was issued before Christmas of that year . The book , titled Pioneer History of Custer County and Short Sketches of Early Days in Nebraska , included 200 engravings in its more than 400 pages .
= = Later career = =
Encouraged by the success of Pioneer History , Butcher began planning similar photographic histories of Buffalo and Dawson counties , which border Custer County on the south . He moved to Kearney , the county seat of Buffalo County , in 1902 ; there , he opened a photography studio together with his son Lynn . He roamed more widely still , through Colorado , Utah , and Wyoming ; carrying his equipment in a wagon , he made negatives on the site , then shipped these to Kearney , where Lynn and several women employees made the prints and mailed them back to the customers . Butcher pere et fils also ran a postcard business , making over 2 million cards for the local trade . In 1904 , he published a second book , Sod Houses ; or , The Development of the Great American Plains , at the urging of a lawyer who hoped to use Butcher 's photographs and accounts to sell land in Nebraska . In 1909 , he visited Yellowstone National Park and produced a set of 100 stereographic postcards .
Butcher abandoned the history of Buffalo and Dawson counties after spending more than a thousand dollars on the project . Discontented with his profession as photographer , which had failed to make him a fortune or even to put him on a sound financial footing , he turned his efforts elsewhere . In 1911 , he turned the Kearney studio over to his son and began work as an agent for the Standard Land Company . He gave stereopticon lectures throughout Buffalo and Dawson counties promoting the company 's irrigated lands in south Texas , and made plans to move there himself .
Before he could move , however , he had to dispose of his thousands of 6 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 8 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 170 mm × 220 mm ) glass @-@ plate negatives . He also had to get himself out of debt once again . In an attempt to accomplish both of these at once , he offered his collection of negatives to the Nebraska State Historical Society . To Addison Sheldon , head of the Society 's Legislative Reference Bureau , he wrote , " Now is the time to buy me cheap , when I need the money so badly . " In November 1911 , he and Sheldon signed a contract for the sale of the negatives for $ 1000 . Butcher was to receive $ 100 down ; the rest would be paid after the Nebraska legislature passed a bill appropriating funds for the purchase .
Unfortunately for Butcher , a feud was raging between Sheldon and Clarence S. Paine , secretary of the Historical Society . Sheldon was an ardent Populist ; Paine , a follower of conservative Democrat J. Sterling Morton . Sheldon believed that Paine had used underhanded tactics to displace his predecessor as secretary ; Paine believed that Sheldon was scheming to bring the Society under control of the University of Nebraska regents . At the legislature 's next biennial session , in 1913 , Sheldon had an appropriations bill introduced to pay for the Butcher purchase . The bill passed the House unanimously , but ran into stiff opposition in the Senate , probably at Paine 's instigation . In the end , Butcher was forced to accept a compromise payment of only $ 600 .
Butcher 's Texas land deals came to nothing . In 1915 , he moved to Broken Bow , back in Custer County . In December of that year , Lillie Butcher , who had suffered ill health for many years , died . For a short time in early 1916 , Butcher worked for Sheldon , annotating his collection of negatives and adding narratives that had not been included in Pioneer History . In 1917 , he married Mrs. Laura M. ( Brachear ) Nation .
Butcher briefly worked as a travelling salesman for a grain and flour mill . However , he abandoned this for less practical schemes . He invented what he described as an " electromagnetic oil detector " , applying the principles of dowsing to the discovery of oil . In 1921 , he planned a photographic expedition to Central America to produce material for a series of travelogue lectures , and tried to interest Sheldon in it ; Sheldon was skeptical , and the expedition was never launched . In about 1924 , he began marketing a patent medicine , consisting chiefly of alcohol , dubbed " Butcher 's Wonder of the Age " .
In 1926 , the Butchers moved to Greeley , Colorado ; Butcher died there on March 18 , 1927 .
= = Works = =
Butcher 's work received little notice outside of Nebraska during his lifetime . Although there was a market for photos depicting the romance of the Wild West , the public preferred mountains and canyons to open prairie . Later in his life , popular taste inclined toward the modern and the sophisticated ; images of rustics gathered around sod houses were out of fashion . His photographs had little to recommend them from an artistic standpoint . Biographer John Carter describes him as unconcerned with aesthetics , and with no more than adequate technical abilities . " Unquestionably he was not a prairie Stieglitz . "
Recognition of Butcher 's work came only later , when the history of the settlement of the Plains began to be written . His photographs became staples of textbooks and popular works dealing with the homestead era . According to Carter , " They are the images that we conjure up when we think of plains settlement . "
Butcher has been compared to painter George Catlin , who painted Native Americans in the 1830s , and to Nebraska writer and photographer Wright Morris , who depicted rural Nebraska in the 1930s and 1940s . Like them , Butcher recognized that an era in Plains history was passing , and tried to document it visually before it was gone . Even during his short career , the face of Nebraska changed ; the sod houses of his earlier photographs are increasingly supplanted by frame buildings in his later ones .
Butcher did not confine himself to recording events that took place when he was present . He was not above re @-@ enacting historical events for a photo : for example , the 1878 lynching of two Custer County homesteaders at the behest of rancher Print Olive , or the cutting of another rancher 's fences by homesteaders . The latter photograph has been uncritically accepted by many historians as documentation of the actual event , although a closer examination reveals that the wire @-@ cutters are made out of wood . Butcher also did not hestitate to retouch photos . He photographed a hill in Cherry County that had been important to early setters because of its cedar trees ; since the trees had been cut long before he got there with his camera , he scratched trees on the bare hill on his negative . To illustrate Ephraim Swain Finch 's account of how he had battled an 1876 infestation of grasshoppers , he posed Finch in his cornfield , then incised scores of dots and specks into the negative to depict the flying insects . When he sought to illustrate a large flock of ducks , but realized that the birds were flying too fast for his camera to record , he photographed the scene without the waterfowl and then scratched dozens of ducks into the negative .
Butcher retouched for his own purposes as well . On one occasion , he damaged a spot on a negative , producing a hole in a photograph of a sod house . Rather than undertaking a round trip of sixty miles ( 100 km ) to re @-@ shoot the scene , he concealed the damage by inking a crudely drawn turkey on the negative . Upon seeing the finished product , the homesteader expressed wonderment , declaring that he owned no white turkeys ; but he was persuaded to put aside his doubts , since the camera was incapable of lying .
Butcher 's determination to record a vanishing era led him to photograph every detail of life in the homestead era . According to the editor of a 1965 edition of Pioneer History , " There was nothing too inconsequential for him to direct his camera upon . " The Butcher collection at the Nebraska State Historical Society consists of nearly 3 @,@ 500 negatives ; nearly 1 @,@ 500 were taken in Custer County , and more than 1 @,@ 000 show sod houses .
The number and scope of Butcher 's photographs has made them a valuable resource to the historian of the period . Nebraska folklorist Roger Welsch conducted a detailed analysis of Butcher 's sod @-@ house photos , including furnishings , farm equipment , animals , etc . , for his 1968 Sod Walls , which initiated present @-@ day investigations of sod @-@ house construction and living . Studies based on the photographs continue : in the 21st century , digital image processing enabled researchers to see details inside doors and windows , which appeared as nothing more than dark oblongs in the original prints .
Although Butcher never achieved financial success or artistic recognition , and died believing himself a failure , his work has endured . According to one writer , " No other photographer captured settlement in the Great Plains with such insight into the experience of homesteading . "
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= Holden =
GM Holden Ltd , commonly known as Holden , is an Australian automobile manufacturer that operates in Australasia and is headquartered in Port Melbourne , Victoria . The company was founded in 1856 as a saddlery manufacturer in South Australia . In 1908 it moved into the automotive field , before becoming a subsidiary of the United States @-@ based General Motors ( GM ) in 1931 . After becoming a subsidiary of GM , the company was named General Motors @-@ Holden 's Ltd , becoming Holden Ltd in 1998 — the current name was adopted in 2005 .
Holden is responsible for GM vehicle operations in Australasia , and on their behalf , held partial ownership of GM Daewoo in South Korea between 2002 and 2009 . Holden has offered a broad range of locally produced vehicles , supplemented by imported GM models . Holden has offered the following badge engineered models in sharing arrangements : Chevrolet , Isuzu , Nissan , Opel , Suzuki , Toyota and Vauxhall Motors . As of 2013 , the vehicle lineup consists of models from GM Korea , GM Thailand , GM in the US , and self @-@ developed Commodore , Caprice , and Ute . Holden also distributed the European Opel brand in Australia in 2012 until the brand 's Australian demise in mid @-@ 2013 .
All Australian @-@ built Holden vehicles are manufactured at Elizabeth , South Australia , and engines are produced at the Fishermans Bend plant in Port Melbourne , Victoria . Historically , production or assembly plants were operated in all mainland states of Australia , with GM 's New Zealand subsidiary Holden New Zealand operating a plant until 1990 . The consolidation of car production at Elizabeth was completed in 1988 , but some assembly operations continued at Dandenong until 1994 .
Although Holden 's involvement in exports has fluctuated since the 1950s , the declining sales of large cars in Australia has led the company to look to international markets to increase profitability . On 11 December 2013 , Holden announced that it will cease vehicle and engine production by the end of 2017 , however , the company will continue to have a large and ongoing presence in Australia importing and selling cars as national sales company . Holden will retain their design centre , but with reduced staffing . In the last few years , Holden incurred losses due to the strong Australian dollar , with government grants being reduced in future . In May 2014 GM reversed their decision to abandon the Lang Lang Proving Ground and have decided to keep it as part of their engineering capability in Australia .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
In 1852 , James Alexander Holden emigrated to South Australia from Walsall , England and in 1856 established J.A. Holden & Co , a saddlery business in Adelaide . In 1885 , German @-@ born H. A. Frost joined the business as a junior partner and J.A. Holden & Co became Holden & Frost Ltd . Edward Holden , James ' grandson , joined the firm in 1905 with an interest in automobiles . From there , the firm evolved through various partnerships and , in 1908 , Holden & Frost moved into the business of minor repairs to car upholstery . The company began to produce complete motorcycle sidecar bodies in 1913 , and Edward experimented with fitting bodies to different types of carriages . After 1917 , wartime trade restrictions led the company to start full @-@ scale production of vehicle body shells . J.A. Holden founded a new company in 1919 , Holden 's Motor Body Builders Ltd ( HMBB ) specialising in car bodies and utilising a facility on King William Street in Adelaide .
By 1923 , HMBB were producing 12 @,@ 000 units per year . During this time , HMBB was the first company to assemble bodies for Ford Australia until their Geelong plant was completed . From 1924 , HMBB became the exclusive supplier of car bodies for GM in Australia , with manufacturing taking place at the new Woodville , South Australia plant . These bodies were made to suit a number of chassis imported from manufacturers such as Chevrolet and Dodge . In 1926 General Motors ( Australia ) was established with assembly plants at Newstead , Queensland ; Marrickville , New South Wales ; City Road , Melbourne , Victoria ; Birkenhead , South Australia ; and Cottesloe , Western Australia utilising bodies produced by Holden Motor Body Builders and imported complete knock down ( CKD ) chassis . In 1930 alone , the still independent Woodville plant built bodies for Austin , Chrysler , DeSoto , Morris , Hillman , Humber , Hupmobile and Willys @-@ Overland as well GM cars . The last of this line of business was the assembly of Hillman Minx sedans in 1948 . The Great Depression led to a substantial downturn in production by Holden , from 34 @,@ 000 units annually in 1930 to just 1 @,@ 651 units one year later . In 1931 General Motors purchased Holden Motor Body Builders and merged it with General Motors ( Australia ) Pty Ltd to form General Motors @-@ Holden 's Ltd ( GM @-@ H ) . Throughout the 1920s Holden also supplied tramcars to Melbourne and Metropolitan Tramways Board . Several have been preserved in both Australia and New Zealand .
= = = 1940s = = =
Holden 's second full @-@ scale car factory , located in Fishermans Bend ( Port Melbourne ) , was completed in 1936 , with construction beginning in 1939 on a new plant in Pagewood , New South Wales . However , World War II delayed car production with efforts shifted to the construction of vehicle bodies , field guns , aircraft and engines . Before the war ended , the Australian Government took steps to encourage an Australian automotive industry . Both GM and Ford provided studies to the Australian Government outlining the production of the first Australian @-@ designed car . Ford 's proposal was the government 's first choice , but required substantial financial assistance . GM 's study was ultimately chosen because of its low level of government intervention . After the war , Holden returned to producing vehicle bodies , this time for Buick , Chevrolet , Pontiac and Vauxhall . The Oldsmobile Ace was also produced from 1946 to 1948 .
From here , Holden continued to pursue the goal of producing an Australian car . This involved compromise with GM , as Holden 's managing director , Laurence Hartnett , favoured development of a local design , while GM preferred to see an American design as the basis for " Australia 's Own Car " . In the end , the design was based on a previously rejected post @-@ war Chevrolet proposal . The Holden was launched in 1948 , creating long waiting lists extending through 1949 and beyond . The name " Holden " was chosen in honour of Sir Edward Holden , the company 's first chairman and grandson of J.A. Holden . Other names considered were " GeM " , " Austral " , " Melba " , " Woomerah " , " Boomerang " , " Emu " and " Canbra " , a phonetic spelling of Canberra . Although officially designated " 48 @-@ 215 " , the car was marketed simply as the " Holden " . The unofficial usage of the name " FX " originated within Holden , referring to the updated suspension on the 48 @-@ 215 of 1953 .
= = = 1950s = = =
During the 1950s , Holden dominated the Australian car market . GM invested heavily in production capacity , which allowed the company to meet increased post @-@ war demand for motor cars . Less expensive four @-@ cylinder cars did not offer Holden 's ability to deal with rugged rural areas . 48 @-@ 215 sedans were produced in parallel with the 50 @-@ 2106 coupé utility from 1951 ; the latter was known colloquially as the " ute " and became ubiquitous in Australian rural areas as the workhorse of choice . Production of both the utility and sedan continued with minor changes until 1953 , when they were replaced by the facelifted FJ model , introducing a third panel van body style . The FJ was the first major change to the Holden since its 1948 introduction . Over time it gained iconic status and remains one of Australia 's most recognisable automotive symbols . A new horizontally slatted grille dominated the front @-@ end of the FJ , which received various other trim and minor mechanical revisions . In 1954 Holden began exporting the FJ to New Zealand . Although little changed from the 48 @-@ 215 , marketing campaigns and price cuts kept FJ sales steady until a completely redesigned model was launched . At the 2005 Australian International Motor Show in Sydney , Holden paid homage to the FJ with the Efijy concept car .
Holden 's next model , the FE , launched in 1956 ; offered in a new station wagon body style dubbed " Station Sedan " in the company 's sales literature . In the same year Holden commenced exports to Malaya , Thailand and North Borneo . Strong sales continued in Australia , and Holden achieved a market share of more than 50 percent in 1958 with the revised FC model . This was the first Holden to be tested on the new Holden Proving Ground based in Lang Lang , Victoria . 1957 saw Holden 's export markets grow to 17 countries , with new additions including Indonesia , Hong Kong , Singapore , Fiji , Sudan , the East Africa region and South Africa . The opening of the Dandenong , Victoria , production facility in 1956 brought further jobs ; by 1959 Holden employed 19 @,@ 000 workers country @-@ wide . In 1959 complete knock down assembly began in South Africa and Indonesia .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1960 , Holden introduced its third major new model , the FB . The car 's style was inspired by 1950s Chevrolets , with tailfins and a wrap @-@ around windshield with " dog leg " A @-@ pillars . By the time it was introduced , many considered the appearance dated . Much of the motoring industry at the time noted that the adopted style did not translate well to the more compact Holden . The FB became the first Holden that was adapted for left @-@ hand @-@ drive markets , enhancing its export potential , and as such was exported to New Caledonia , New Hebrides , the Philippines , and Hawaii .
In 1960 , Ford unveiled the new Falcon in Australia , only months after its introduction in the United States . To Holden 's advantage , the Falcon was not durable , particularly in the front suspension , making it ill @-@ suited for Australian conditions . In response to the Falcon , Holden introduced the facelifted EK series in 1961 ; the new model featured two @-@ tone paintwork and optional Hydramatic automatic transmission . A restyled EJ series came in 1962 , debuting the new luxury oriented Premier model . The EH update came a year later bringing the new Red motor , providing better performance than the previous Grey motor . The HD series of 1965 saw the introduction of the Powerglide automatic transmission . At the same time , an " X2 " performance option with a more powerful version of the 179 @-@ cubic @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 9 L ) six @-@ cylinder engine was made available . In 1966 , the HR was introduced , including changes in the form of new front and rear styling and higher @-@ capacity engines . More significantly , the HR fitted standard front seat belts ; Holden thus became the first Australian automaker to provide the safety device as standard equipment across all models . This coincided with the completion of the production plant in Acacia Ridge , Queensland . By 1963 , Holden was exporting cars to Africa , the Middle East , South @-@ East Asia , the Pacific Islands , and the Caribbean .
Holden began assembling the compact HA series Vauxhall Viva in 1964 . This was superseded by the Holden Torana in 1967 , a development of the Viva ending Vauxhall production in Australia . Holden offered the LC , a Torana with new styling , in 1969 with the availability of Holden 's six @-@ cylinder engine . In the development days , the six @-@ cylinder Torana was reserved for motor racing , but research had shown that there was a business case for such a model . The LC Torana was the first application of Holden 's new three @-@ speed Tri @-@ Matic automatic transmission . This was the result of Holden 's A $ 16 @.@ 5 million transformation of the Woodville , South Australia factory for its production .
Holden 's association with the manufacture of Chevrolets and Pontiacs ended in 1968 , coinciding with the year of Holden 's next major new model , the HK . This included Holden 's first V8 engine , a Chevrolet engine imported from Canada . Models based on the HK series included an extended @-@ length prestige model , the Brougham , and a two @-@ door coupé , the Monaro . The mainstream Holden Special was rebranded the Kingswood , and the basic fleet model , the Standard , became the Belmont . On 3 March 1969 Alexander Rhea , managing director of General Motors @-@ Holden 's at the time , was joined by press photographers and the Federal Minister of Shipping and Transport , Ian Sinclair as the two men drove the two millionth Holden , an HK Brougham off the production line . This came just over half a decade since the one millionth car , an EJ Premier sedan rolled off the Dandenong line on 25 October 1962 . Following the Chevrolet V8 fitted to the HK , the first Australian @-@ designed and mass @-@ produced V8 , the Holden V8 engine debuted in the Hurricane concept of 1969 before fitment to facelifted HT model . This was available in two capacities : 253 cubic inches ( 4 @.@ 1 L ) and 308 cubic inches ( 5 @.@ 0 L ) . Late in HT production , use of the new Tri @-@ Matic automatic transmission , first seen in the LC Torana was phased in as Powerglide stock was exhausted , but Holden 's official line was that the HG of 1971 was the first full @-@ size Holden to receive it .
Despite the arrival of serious competitors — namely , the Ford Falcon , Chrysler Valiant , and Japanese cars — in the 1960s , Holden 's locally produced large six- and eight @-@ cylinder cars remained Australia 's top @-@ selling vehicles . Sales were boosted by exporting the Kingswood sedan , station wagon , and utility body styles to Indonesia , Trinidad and Tobago , Pakistan , the Philippines , and South Africa in complete knock down form .
= = = 1970s = = =
Holden launched the new HQ series in 1971 . At this time , the company was producing all of its passenger cars in Australia , and every model was of Australian design ; however , by the end of the decade , Holden was producing cars based on overseas designs . The HQ was thoroughly re @-@ engineered , featuring a perimeter frame and semi @-@ monocoque ( unibody ) construction . Other firsts included an all @-@ coil suspension and an extended wheelbase for station wagons , while the utilities and panel vans retained the traditional coil / leaf suspension configuration . The series included the new prestige Statesman brand , which also had a longer wheelbase , replacing the Brougham . The Statesman remains noteworthy because it was not marketed as a " Holden " , but rather a " Statesman " .
The HQ framework led to a new generation of two @-@ door Monaros , and , despite the introduction of the similar sized competitors , the HQ range became the top @-@ selling Holden of all time , with 485 @,@ 650 units sold in three years . 14 @,@ 558 units were exported and 72 @,@ 290 CKD kits were constructed . The HQ series was facelifted in 1974 with the introduction of the HJ , heralding new front panel styling and a revised rear fascia . This new bodywork was to remain , albeit with minor upgrades through the HX and HZ series . Detuned engines adhering to government emission standards were brought in with the HX series , whilst the HZ brought considerably improved road handling and comfort with the introduction of " Radial Tuned Suspension " ( RTS ) . As a result of GM 's toying with the Wankel rotary engine , as used by Mazda of Japan , an export agreement was initiated in 1975 . This involved Holden exporting with powertrains , HJ , and later , HX series Premiers as the Mazda Roadpacer AP . Mazda then fitted these cars with the 13B rotary engine and three @-@ speed automatic transmission . Production ended in 1977 , after just 840 units sold .
During the 1970s , Holden ran an advertising jingle " Football , Meat Pies , Kangaroos and Holden cars " , based on the " Baseball , Hot Dogs , Apple Pies and Chevrolet " jingle used by Chevrolet in the United States . Also , development of the Torana continued in with the larger mid @-@ sized LH series released in 1974 , offered only as a four @-@ door sedan . The LH Torana was one of the few cars worldwide engineered to occupy four- , six @-@ and eight @-@ cylinder engines . This trend continued until Holden introduced the Sunbird in 1976 ; essentially the four @-@ cylinder Torana with a new name . Designated LX , both the Sunbird and Torana introduced a three @-@ door hatchback variant . A final UC update appeared in 1978 . During its production run , the Torana achieved legendary racing success in Australia , achieving victories at the Mount Panorama Circuit in Bathurst , New South Wales .
In 1975 , Holden introduced the compact Gemini , the Australian version of the " T @-@ car " , based on the Opel Kadett C. The Gemini was an overseas design developed jointly with Isuzu , GM 's Japanese affiliate ; and was powered by a 1 @.@ 6 @-@ litre four @-@ cylinder engine . Fast becoming a popular car , the Gemini rapidly attained sales leadership in its class , and the nameplate lived on until 1987 .
Holden 's most popular car to date , the Commodore , was introduced in 1978 as the VB . The new family car was loosely based on the Opel Rekord E body shell , but with the front from the Opel Senator grafted to accommodate the larger Holden six @-@ cylinder and V8 engines . Initially , the Commodore maintained Holden 's sales leadership in Australia . However , some of the compromises resulting from the adoption of a design intended for another market hampered the car 's acceptance . In particular , it was narrower than its predecessor and its Falcon rival , making it less comfortable for three rear @-@ seat passengers . With the abandonment of left @-@ hand drive markets , Holden exported almost 100 @,@ 000 Commodores to markets such as New Zealand , Thailand , Hong Kong , Malaysia , Indonesia , Malta and Singapore .
Holden discontinued the Torana in 1979 and the Sunbird in 1980 . After the 1978 introduction of the Commodore , the Torana became the " in @-@ between " car , surrounded by the smaller and more economical Gemini and the larger , more sophisticated Commodore . The closest successor to the Torana was the Camira , released in 1982 as Australia 's version of GM 's medium @-@ sized " J @-@ car " .
= = = 1980s = = =
The 1980s were challenging for Holden and the Australian automotive industry . The Australian Government tried to revive the industry with the Button car plan , which encouraged car makers to focus on producing fewer models at higher , more economical volumes , and to export cars . The decade opened with the shut @-@ down of the Pagewood , New South Wales production plant and introduction of the light commercial Rodeo , sourced from Isuzu in Japan . The Rodeo was available in both two- and four @-@ wheel drive chassis cab models with a choice of petrol and diesel powerplants . The range was updated in 1988 with the TF series , based on the Isuzu TF . Other cars sourced from Isuzu during the 1980s were the four @-@ wheel drive Jackaroo ( 1981 ) , the Shuttle ( 1982 ) van and the Piazza ( 1986 ) three @-@ door sports hatchback . The second generation Holden Gemini from 1985 was also based on an Isuzu design , although , its manufacture was undertaken in Australia .
While GM Australia 's commercial vehicle range had originally been mostly based on Bedford products , these had gradually been replaced by Isuzu products . This process began in the 1970s and by 1982 Holden 's commercial vehicle arm no longer offered any Bedford products .
The new Holden WB commercial vehicles and the Statesman WB limousines were introduced in 1980 . However , the designs , based on the HQ and updated HJ , HX and HZ models from the 1970s were less competitive than similar models in Ford 's lineup . Thus , Holden abandoned those vehicle classes altogether in 1984 . Sales of the Commodore also fell , with the effects of the 1979 energy crisis lessening , and for the first time the Commodore lost ground to the Ford Falcon . Sales in other segments also suffered when competition from Ford intensified , and other Australian manufacturers : Mitsubishi , Nissan and Toyota gained market share . When released in 1982 , the Camira initially generated good sales , which later declined because buyers considered the 1 @.@ 6 @-@ litre engine underpowered , and the car 's build and ride quality below @-@ average . The Camira lasted just seven years , and contributed to Holden 's accumulated losses of over A $ 500 million by the mid @-@ 1980s .
In 1984 Holden introduced the VK Commodore , with significant styling changes from the previous VH . The Commodore was next updated in 1986 as the VL , which had new front and rear styling . Controversially , the VL was powered by the 3 @.@ 0 @-@ litre Nissan RB30 six @-@ cylinder engine and had a Nissan @-@ built , electronically controlled four @-@ speed automatic transmission . Holden even went to court in 1984 to stop local motoring magazine Wheels from reporting on the matter . The engine change was necessitated by the legal requirement that all new cars sold in Australia after 1986 had to consume unleaded petrol . Because it was unfeasible to convert the existing six @-@ cylinder engine to run on unleaded fuel , the Nissan engine was chosen as the best engine available . However , changing exchange rates doubled the cost of the engine and transmission over the life of the VL . The decision to opt for a Japanese @-@ made transmission led to the closure of the Woodville , South Australia assembly plant . Confident by the apparent sign of turnaround , GM paid off Holden 's mounted losses of A $ 780 million on 19 December 1986 . At GM headquarters ' request , Holden was then reorganised and recapitalised , separating the engine and car manufacturing divisions in the process . This involved the splitting of Holden into Holden 's Motor Company ( HMC ) and Holden 's Engine Company ( HEC ) . For the most part , car bodies were now manufactured at Elizabeth , South Australia , with engines as before , confined to the Fishermans Bend plant in Port Melbourne , Victoria . The engine manufacturing business was successful , building four @-@ cylinder Family II engines for use in cars built overseas . The final phase of the Commodore 's recovery strategy involved the 1988 VN , a significantly wider model powered by the American @-@ designed , Australian @-@ assembled 3 @.@ 8 @-@ litre Buick V6 engine .
Holden began to sell the subcompact Suzuki Swift @-@ based Barina in 1985 . The Barina was launched concurrently with the Suzuki @-@ sourced Holden Drover , followed by the Scurry later on in 1985 . In the previous year , Nissan Pulsar hatchbacks were rebadged as the Holden Astra , as a result of a deal with Nissan . This arrangement ceased in 1989 when Holden entered a new alliance with Toyota , forming a new company : United Australian Automobile Industries ( UAAI ) . UAAI resulted in Holden selling rebadged versions of Toyota 's Corolla and Camry , as the Holden Nova and Apollo respectively , with Toyota re @-@ branding the Commodore as the Lexcen .
= = = 1990s = = =
The company changed throughout the 1990s , increasing its Australian market share from 21 percent in 1991 to 28 @.@ 2 percent in 1999 . Besides manufacturing Australia 's best selling car , which was exported in significant numbers , Holden continued to export many locally produced engines to power cars made elsewhere . In this decade , Holden adopted a strategy of importing cars it needed to offer a full range of competitive vehicles . During 1998 , General Motors @-@ Holden 's Ltd name was shortened to " Holden Ltd " .
On 26 April 1990 , GM 's New Zealand subsidiary Holden New Zealand announced that production at the assembly plant based in Trentham would be phased out and vehicles would be imported duty @-@ free — this came after the 1984 closure of the Petone assembly line due to low output volumes . During the 1990s , Holden , other Australian automakers and trade unions pressured the Australian Government to halt the lowering of car import tariffs . By 1997 , the federal government had already cut tariffs to 22 @.@ 5 percent , from 57 @.@ 5 percent ten years earlier ; by 2000 , a plan was formulated to reduce the tariffs to 15 percent . Holden was critical , saying that Australia 's population was not large enough , and that the changes could tarnish the local industry .
Holden re @-@ introduced its defunct Statesman title in 1990 — this time under the Holden marque , as the Statesman and Caprice . For 1991 , Holden updated the Statesman and Caprice with a range of improvements , including the introduction of four @-@ wheel anti @-@ lock brakes ( ABS ) ; although , a rear @-@ wheel system had been standard on the Statesman Caprice from March 1976 . ABS was added to the short @-@ wheelbase Commodore range in 1992 . Another returning variant was the full @-@ size utility , and on this occasion it was based on the Commodore . The VN Commodore received a major facelift in 1993 with the VR — compared to the VN , approximately 80 percent of the car model was new . Exterior changes resulted in a smoother overall body and a " twin @-@ kidney " grille — a Commodore styling trait that remained until the 2002 VY model and , as of 2013 , remains a permanent staple on HSV variants .
Holden introduced the all @-@ new VT Commodore in 1997 , the outcome of a A $ 600 million development programme that spanned more than five years . The new model featured a rounded exterior body shell , improved dynamics and many firsts for an Australian @-@ built car . Also , a stronger body structure increased crash safety . The locally produced Buick @-@ sourced V6 engine powered the Commodore range , as did the 5 @.@ 0 @-@ litre Holden V8 engine , and was replaced in 1999 by the 5 @.@ 7 @-@ litre LS unit .
The UAAI badge @-@ engineered cars first introduced in 1989 sold in far fewer numbers than anticipated , but the Holden Commodore , Toyota Camry , and Corolla were all successful when sold under their original nameplates . The first generation Nova and the donor Corolla were produced at Holden 's Dandenong , Victoria facility until 1994 . UAAI was dissolved in 1996 , and Holden returned to selling only GM products . The Holden Astra and Vectra , both designed by Opel in Germany , replaced the Toyota @-@ sourced Holden Nova and Apollo . This came after the 1994 introduction of the Opel Corsa replacing the already available Suzuki Swift as the source for the Holden Barina . Sales of the full @-@ size Holden Suburban SUV sourced from Chevrolet commenced in 1998 — lasting until 2001 . Also in 1998 , local assembly of the Vectra began at Elizabeth , South Australia . These cars were exported to Japan and Southeast Asia with Opel badges . However , the Vectra did not achieve sufficient sales in Australia to justify local assembly , and reverted to being fully imported in 2000 .
= = = 2000s = = =
Holden 's market surge from the 1990s reversed in the 2000s decade . In Australia , Holden 's market share dropped from 27 @.@ 5 percent in 2000 to 15 @.@ 2 percent in 2006 . From March 2003 , Holden no longer held the number one sales position in Australia , losing ground to Toyota .
This overall downturn affected Holden 's profits ; the company recorded a combined gain of A $ 842 @.@ 9 million between 2002 and 2004 , and a combined loss of A $ 290 million between 2005 and 2006 . Factors contributing to the loss included the development of an all @-@ new model , the strong Australian dollar and the cost of reducing the workforce at the Elizabeth plant , including the loss of 1 @,@ 400 jobs after the closure of the third @-@ shift assembly line in 2005 , after two years in operation . Holden fared better in 2007 , posting an A $ 6 million loss . This was followed by an A $ 70 @.@ 2 million loss in the 2008 , an A $ 210 @.@ 6 million loss in 2009 , and a profit of A $ 112 million in 2010 . On 18 May 2005 , " Holden Ltd " became " GM Holden Ltd " , coinciding with the resettling to the new Holden headquarters on 191 Salmon Street , Port Melbourne , Victoria .
Holden caused controversy in 2005 with their Holden Employee Pricing television advertisement , which ran between October and December 2005 . The campaign publicised , " for the first time ever , all Australians can enjoy the financial benefit of Holden Employee Pricing " . However , this did not include a discounted dealer delivery fee and savings on factory fitted options and accessories that employees received . At the same time , employees were given a further discount between 25 and 29 percent on selected models .
Holden revived the Monaro coupe in 2001 . Based on the VT Commodore architecture , the coupe attracted worldwide attention after being shown as a concept car at Australian auto shows . The VT Commodore received its first major update in 2002 with the VY series . A mildly facelifted VZ model launched in 2004 , introducing the High Feature engine . This was built at the Fishermans Bend facility completed in 2003 , with a maximum output of 900 engines per day . This has reportedly added A $ 5 @.@ 2 billion to the Australian economy ; exports account for about A $ 450 million alone . After the VZ , the High Feature engine powered the all @-@ new Holden Commodore ( VE ) . In contrast to previous models , the VE no longer utilised an Opel @-@ sourced platform adapted both mechanically and in size , but was based on the GM Zeta platform that was earmarked to become a " Global RWD Architecture " , until plans were cancelled due to the 2007 / 08 global financial crisis .
Throughout the 1990s , Opel had also been the source of many Holden models . To increase profitability , Holden looked to the South Korean Daewoo brand for replacements after acquiring a 44 @.@ 6 percent stake — worth US $ 251 million — in the company in 2002 as a representative of GM . This was increased to 50 @.@ 9 percent in 2005 , but when GM further increased its stake to 70 @.@ 1 percent around the time of its 2009 Chapter 11 reorganisation , Holden 's interest was relinquished and transferred to another ( undisclosed ) part of GM .
The commencement of the Holden @-@ branded Daewoo models began with the 2005 Holden Barina , which based on the Daewoo Kalos , replaced the Opel Corsa as the source of the Barina . In the same year , the Viva , based on the Daewoo Lacetti , replaced the entry @-@ level Holden Astra Classic , although the new @-@ generation Astra introduced in 2004 continued on . The Captiva crossover SUV came next in 2006 . After discontinuing the Frontera and Jackaroo models in 2003 , Holden was only left with one all @-@ wheel drive model : the Adventra , a Commodore @-@ based station wagon . The fourth model to be replaced with a South Korean alternative was the Vectra by the mid @-@ size Epica in 2007 . As a result of the split between GM and Isuzu , Holden lost the rights to use the " Rodeo " nameplate . Consequently , the Holden Rodeo was facelifted and relaunched as the Colorado in 2008 . Following Holden 's successful application for a A $ 149 million government grant to build a localised version of the Chevrolet Cruze in Australia from 2011 , Holden in 2009 announced that it would initially import the small car unchanged from South Korea as the Holden Cruze .
Following the government grant announcement , Kevin Rudd , Australia 's Prime Minister at the time , stated that production would support 600 new jobs at the Elizabeth facility ; however , this failed to take into account Holden 's previous announcement , whereby 600 jobs would be shed when production of the Family II engine ceased in late 2009 . In mid @-@ 2013 , Holden sought a further A $ 265 million , in addition to the A $ 275 million that was already committed by the governments of Canberra , South Australia and Victoria , to remain viable as a car manufacturer in Australia . A source close to Holden informed the Australian news publication that the car company is losing money on every vehicle that it produces and consequently initiated negotiations to reduce employee wages by up to A $ 200 per week to cut costs , following the announcement of 400 job cuts and an assembly line reduction of 65 ( 400 to 335 ) cars per day .
= = = 2010s = = =
In March 2012 , Holden was given a $ 270 million lifeline by the Gillard , Weatherill and Baillieu ministries . In return , Holden planned to inject over $ 1 billion into car manufacturing in Australia . They estimated the new investment package would return around $ 4 billion to the Australian economy and see GM Holden continue making cars in Australia until at least 2022 .
Industry Minister Kim Carr confirmed on 10 July 2013 that talks had been scheduled between the Australian government and Holden . On 13 August 2013 , 1 @,@ 700 employees at the Elizabeth plant in northern Adelaide voted to accept a three @-@ year wage freeze in order to decrease the chances of the production line 's closure in 2016 . Holden 's ultimate survival , though , depended on continued negotiations with the Federal Government — to secure funding for the period from 2016 to 2022 — and the final decision of the global headquarters in Detroit , US .
On 10 December 2013 , General Motors announced that Holden would cease engine and vehicle manufacturing operations in Australia by the end of 2017 . As a result , 2 @,@ 900 jobs would be lost over four years . Beyond 2017 Holden 's Australian presence will consist of : a national sales company , a parts distribution centre and a global design studio .
In 2015 , Holden again began selling a range of Opel @-@ derived cars comprising the Astra VXR and Insignia VXR ( both based on the OPC models sold by Vauxhall ) and Cascada . Later that year , Holden also announced plans to sell the European Astra and the Korean Cruze alongside each other from 2017 .
In December 2015 , Belgian entrepreneur Guido Dumarey commenced negotiations to buy the Commodore manufacturing plant in South Australia , with a view to continue producing a rebadged Zeta @-@ based premium range of rear and all @-@ wheel drive vehicles for local and export sales . The proposal was met with doubt in South Australia , and it later came to nothing .
= = Corporate affairs and identity = =
As of 8 May 2015 , Jeff Rolfs , Holden 's CFO , is interim chairman and managing director . Holden announced on 6 February 2015 that Mark Bernhard would return to Holden as chairman and managing director , the first Australian to hold the post in 25 years . Vehicles are sold countrywide through the Holden Dealer Network ( 310 authorised stores and 12 service centres ) , which employs more than 13 @,@ 500 people .
In 1987 , Holden Special Vehicles ( HSV ) was formed in partnership with Tom Walkinshaw , who primarily manufactures modified , high @-@ performance Commodore variants . To further reinforce the brand , HSV introduced the HSV Dealer Team into the V8 Supercar fold in 2005 under the naming rights of Toll HSV Dealer Team .
The logo , or " Holden lion and stone " as it is known , has played a vital role in establishing Holden 's identity . In 1928 , Holden 's Motor Body Builders appointed Rayner Hoff to design the emblem . The logo refers to a prehistoric fable , in which observations of lions rolling stones led to the invention of the wheel . With the 1948 launch of the 48 @-@ 215 , Holden revised its logo and commissioned another redesign in 1972 to better represent the company . The emblem was reworked once more in 1994 .
= = = Exports = = =
Holden began to export vehicles in 1954 , sending the FJ to New Zealand . Exports to New Zealand have continued ever since , but to broaden their export potential , Holden began to cater their Commodore , Monaro and Statesman / Caprice models for both right- and left @-@ hand drive markets . The Middle East is now Holden 's largest export market , with the Commodore sold as the Chevrolet Lumina since 1998 , and the Statesman since 1999 as the Chevrolet Caprice . Commodores are also sold as the Chevrolet Lumina in Brunei , Fiji and South Africa , and as the Chevrolet Omega in Brazil . Pontiac in North America also imported Commodore sedans from 2008 through to 2009 as the G8 . However , Pontiac went bankrupt in late 2009 and GM had to shut down Pontiac in 2010 . The G8 's cessation was a consequence of GM 's Chapter 11 bankruptcy resulting in the demise of the Pontiac brand .
Sales of the Monaro began in 2003 to the Middle East as the Chevrolet Lumina Coupe . Later on that year , a modified version of the Monaro began selling in North America as the Pontiac GTO , and under the Monaro name through Vauxhall dealerships in the United Kingdom . This arrangement continued through to 2005 when the car was discontinued . The long @-@ wheelbase Statesman sales in the Chinese market as the Buick Royaum began in 2005 , before being replaced in 2007 by the Statesman @-@ based Buick Park Avenue . Statesman / Caprice exports to South Korea also began in 2005 . These Korean models were sold as the Daewoo Statesman , and later as the Daewoo Veritas from 2008 . Holden 's move into international markets has been profitable ; export revenue increased from A $ 973 million in 1999 to just under $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in 2006 .
Since 2011 the WM Caprice has been exported to North America as the Chevrolet Caprice PPV , a version of the Caprice built exclusively for law enforcement in North America sold only to police . Since 2007 , the HSV @-@ based Commodore has been exported to the United Kingdom as the Vauxhall VXR8 .
In 2013 , it was announced that exports of the Commodore would resume to North America in the form of the VF Commodore as the Chevrolet SS sedan for the 2014 model year . The Chevrolet SS Sedan was imported to the United States again for 2015 with only minor changes , notably the addition of Magnetic Ride Control suspension and a Tremec TR @-@ 6060 manual transmission . For the 2016 model year , the SS sedan received a facelift based on the VF Series II Commodore unveiled in September 2015 .
= = = Leadership = = =
Edward Holden ( 1917 – 1934 )
Laurence Hartnett ( 1934 – 1946 )
Harold E. Bettle ( 1946 – 1953 )
Earl C. Daum ( 1953 – 1959 )
Harlow C. Gage ( 1959 – 1962 )
David L. Heglund ( 1962 – 1966 )
Max C. Wilson ( 1966 – 1968 )
Alexander D. Rhea ( 1968 – 1970 )
A. C. " Bill " Gibbs ( 1970 – 1973 )
Damon Martin ( 1973 – 1976 )
Charles S. " Chuck " Chapman ( 1976 – 1987 )
John G. Bagshaw ( 1987 – 1990 )
William J. Hamel ( 1990 – 1997 )
James R. Wiemels ( 1997 – 1999 )
Peter Hanenberger ( 1999 – 2003 )
Denny Mooney ( 2003 – 2007 )
Chris Gubbey ( 2007 – 2008 )
Mark Reuss ( 2008 – 2009 )
Alan Batey ( 2009 – 2010 )
Michael Devereux ( 2010 – 2014 )
Gerry Dorizas ( 2014 – 2014 )
Jeff Rolfs ( Interim chairman and managing director ) ( 2014 – 2015 )
Mark Bernhard ( 2015 – present )
= = Motorsport = =
Holden has been involved with factory backed teams in Australian touring car racing since 1968 . The main factory @-@ backed teams have been the Holden Dealer Team ( 1969 – 1987 ) and the Holden Racing Team ( 1990 – present ) . Holden has won the Bathurst 1000 thirty times , more than any other manufacturer , and has won the Australian Touring Car and Supercars Championship title nineteen times . Along with the Holden Racing Team , Holden also supports Triple Eight Race Engineering in Supercars , while Brad Jones Racing , Britek Motorsport , Charlie Schwerkolt Racing , Erebus Motorsport , Lucas Dumbrell Motorsport and Tekno Autosports run Holden Commodores in the series .
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= Nemesis ( Resident Evil ) =
The Nemesis , also called the Pursuer or Chaser ( 追跡者 , Tsuisekisha ) , is a fictional character in Capcom 's Resident Evil franchise . Although smaller than other tyrant models , the creature dwarfs a typical human , and possesses vastly superior intelligence and physical dexterity than its undead peers . It features in Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis as a titular main villain before later emerging in other titles and cameo roles . It is also featured on various merchandise and in the 2004 film Resident Evil : Apocalypse . The character is voiced by Tony Rosato in the game , and portrayed by Matthew G. Taylor in the film .
Since the Nemesis ' introduction , the character has received a positive reception , and has come to be regarded as one of the series ' most popular characters . Some publications have praised its role as an intimidating villain , while others have noted it as one of their favourite and most terrifying monsters in video games .
= = Conception and design = =
Introduced in Resident Evil 3 , the Nemesis was designed under the concept of a " huge , overpowering monster that could use weapons and intelligently track you anywhere " . During development , many different designs were considered . Although some elements remained constant among them , the early designs featured several different degrees of surface damage , as well as different options for clothing such as a protective vest instead of a coat or a nude design similar to the original Tyrant from Resident Evil .
In the series ' story , the Nemesis is the result of infecting a Tyrant — a humanoid bio @-@ weapon created to be the ultimate lifeform — with a parasitic organism designed to increase its intelligence . Upon infection , the parasite takes control of the Tyrant 's nervous system , forming its own brain and enabling it to follow precise instructions and make decisions without a need for constant direction . Clothed in black trousers , an overcoat , boots , and gloves , the Nemesis is armed with a rocket launcher mounted on its left arm . To emphasize its design as a prototype , the game developers left exposed muscles on its body and added stitches to cover the right eye . Upon spotting its target , it says the target 's name out loud and attacks .
The secretions from the parasite give the Nemesis massively heightened regenerative abilities , which result in the creature being almost impervious to damage ; although it can be put down with enough fire from small arms , eventually it will repair itself and resume the pursuit of its targets . However , this resulted in unexpected side effects , including damage to the skin and the emergence of additional tentacles , as well as unpredictable mutations caused by further attacks . In Resident Evil 3 , the creature 's survival instincts eventually override Nemesis ' programming , causing the host 's body to reject the parasite and transform into a giant digestive organ . Featuring large central bone protrusions and elongated tentacles , it crawls looking for prey , yet continues trying to complete its mission despite its now diminished intelligence . This design proved to be the most difficult for the game 's development team , as they worked to try to make it appear as unique as possible .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
The Nemesis , named after the Goddess of Vengeance from Greek mythology , first appears in the 1999 PlayStation game Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis as the game 's title character and primary antagonist . The product of years of research , the prototype is deployed by the Umbrella Corporation to hunt and kill the STARS police team as a field test , and as revenge for the destruction of the original Tyrant . The game ’ s protagonist , Jill Valentine , first encounters the Nemesis outside Raccoon City ’ s police station where it kills Brad Vickers and then pursues her , uttering " STARS ... " on sight . The Nemesis continues to stalk Valentine throughout the game , attacking with physical blows and grabs , and later , armed with a rocket launcher . After losing its overcoat as a result of heavy damage , the Nemesis mutates , and gains the ability to attack with long , extendable tentacles . Despite later being doused in acid , the Nemesis continues its pursuit , and mutates into a much larger monster after absorbing a dead Tyrant , gaining the ability to spew poison . Jill finally defeats the Nemesis using a rail cannon , and then depending on the choice of the player , she either kills it once and for all by unloading her weapons into it , or leaves it to die in the nuclear explosion that destroys Raccoon City .
The Nemesis also appears in Resident Evil Survivor 2 Code : Veronica , chasing the player if they fail to complete a level before the time limit expires and killing them instantly if it hits them ; it can also be fought as a secret boss armed with a rocket launcher if the player has met the proper conditions upon completing the game . The Nemesis returns for the Resident Evil 3 chapter of Resident Evil : The Umbrella Chronicles , in which it pursues Jill in the same manner as the original game and mutates into its secondary form as a boss . Alongside Jill , the Nemesis also appears in the Capcom title Under the Skin , and serves as a boss the player must steal coins from in a Raccoon City @-@ inspired level . Character cards for the Nemesis additionally appear in SVC : Card Fighters ' Clash 2 Expand Edition and its Nintendo DS sequel . In an interview , Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds producer Ryouta Niitsuma stated a desire to use the Nemesis in the title as a " monster @-@ type " character from the Resident Evil series , but was dropped after considering it too " grotesque and disgusting " and in consideration of ESRB ratings . The character would instead appear briefly in the game 's ending sequence for the Hulk . However , despite the initial concerns about his inclusion , the Nemesis appears as a playable character in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , an updated version of Marvel vs. Capcom 3 . The Nemesis also appears in Resident Evil : Operation Raccoon City . In the game , the Nemesis ' programming is damaged and the USS is tasked with finding a parasite to repair it . Once the parasite is found , the players must defeat the Nemesis and inject it with the parasite . The Nemesis in the game uses a gatling gun for the fight and is mainly based on his film counterpart , however once the mission is completed , the Nemesis awakes to find his rocket launcher and utters his famous line , " STARS ... " The Nemesis also appears in the tactical role @-@ playing game Project X Zone as a rival unit .
= = = In film = = =
The Nemesis is featured in the 2004 film , Resident Evil : Apocalypse , portrayed by Matthew G. Taylor . The character 's design was left relatively unchanged , brandishing a rocket launcher and similar attire , but with the addition of a forearm @-@ mounted rail gun , modeled after a heavily modified minigun . Director Paul W. S. Anderson noted that the gun 's addition was inspired by the idea of the Nemesis " walking around with a gigantic , powerful weapon in each hand and almost indecisive as to which one to use " . The costume for Nemesis was created by Kropserkel Inc. and PJFX Studios , and stands roughly 7 feet 3 inches ( 2 @.@ 21 m ) tall , weighing nearly 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) . After production of Apocalypse was completed , the costume was restored and put on display at Kropserkel 's offices .
While The Nemesis ' design remained similar , the character itself was expanded upon , now portrayed as a tragic villain . Formerly Matt Addison ( portrayed by Eric Mabius ) , a survivor of the events of the first film , he was infected with the T @-@ virus after being scratched by a Licker and later captured and experimented upon by the Umbrella Corporation . Transformed into the Nemesis , it is sent to kill the surviving members of STARS , but remembers its humanity after fighting Alice , and fights alongside the protagonists towards the film 's conclusion . The Nemesis is eventually crushed beneath a crashing helicopter , and is later killed by the nuclear explosion that destroys Raccoon City .
= = = In printed adaptations = = =
The Nemesis appears in a 1999 Hong Kong manhua adaptation of Resident Evil 3 by Lee Chung Hing , Biohazard 3 : Last Escape , which is named after the game 's Japanese title . The 27 @-@ issue series adds to the Nemesis ' backstory , detailing its origin by showing the infection and transformation of the original Tyrant by the Nemesis parasite . Some elements are changed for its design , such as the Nemesis retaining both eyes initially , and then losing the right eye and gaining cranial staples only after an encounter with Jill . The comic also introduces characters from Resident Evil 2 into the storyline , which results in a face @-@ off between the Nemesis and the mutated William Birkin towards the end of the series .
In 2000 , Simon & Schuster published a novelization of Resident Evil 3 , written by S. D. Perry . Though left unchanged for the most part , the Nemesis is immediately recognized as a modified Tyrant in the novel , which Jill Valentine dubs the " Nemesis " after thinking about why it hunts her . Instead of mutating due to having taken damage , the Nemesis transforms voluntarily towards the conclusion of the story in its pursuit of Jill , with its second form from the game being its actual appearance beneath the coat .
A novelization of Apocalypse was released in 2004 , written by Keith R. A. DeCandido . In the book , Matt and the Nemesis act as separate personalities in the same body , both aware , but with the Nemesis dominant . Matt eventually regains control after his body is impaled on a metal shard while fighting Alice , by showing the Nemesis his memories of Umbrella 's experimentation upon " them " . The Nemesis is later mentioned in the 2007 novelization of Resident Evil : Extinction , in which antagonist Doctor Isaacs considers the Nemesis both his greatest success and his greatest failure , hating mention of it and blaming its defection and destruction upon Umbrella 's desire to immediately field test it .
= = Promotion and merchandise = =
Nemesis appears on the cover of every version of Resident Evil 3 , and is mentioned prominently on flyers for Resident Evil : Survivor 2 . Capcom has also released commercial products modeled on the character , such as an adult size Halloween mask , and later a silver ring modeled after Nemesis 's head available for purchase through their Japanese online store . Palisades Toys used its likeness to create a posable action figure , which was released alongside several other Resident Evil @-@ based action figures , packaged with a base and equipable rocket launcher . Moby Dick released its own line of Resident Evil action figures bundled in pairs of a playable character and enemy . Included in the series were Nemesis 's first and second form , with the first form featuring an alternate head and equipable rocket launcher . Each set additionally includes a part of an action figure of Nemesis 's third form , which measures 24 inches ( 60 cm ) long when completed .
= = Reception = =
Following the game 's debut in 1999 , the Nemesis became one of the most recognizable and popular characters in the Resident Evil series . G4 's Filter named the Nemesis one of the top ten videogame villains of all time as selected by viewers , placing fifth on the list . IGN noted it as their favorite aspect of Resident Evil 3 , stating , " The point is , he 's a bad @-@ ass , and he 's got plenty of surprises in store for you besides just fast feet and a big gun " . In another article , IGN noted the Nemesis as one of their favorite video game monsters of all time , but felt disdain for its presentation in the film . They also named him one of the series ' best bosses , calling it " what may be Umbrella 's most fearsome creation ever " and comparing it to Terminator 2 : Judgment Day 's T @-@ 1000 , and later one of the top 100 video game villains of all time , placing 59th and described as horrific not for its appearance or attacks but its persistence . 1UP.com named the battle against the Nemesis one of the " 25 of the Most Badass Boss Fights of All Time " , saying " There are plenty of bosses worth mentioning from the Resident Evil series ... but the one that to this day most people point to as the biggest badass of the bunch is Nemesis [ sic ] " .
GamePro ranked the Nemesis 29th on their list of the " 47 Most Diabolical Video Game Villains of All Time " , noting the character " made RE3 memorable even among the other , superior installments in the series " . It ranked fourth on Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Top Ten Badass Undead " article , which described its role as a simple , yet effective villain . GameSpot featured Nemesis in a " Reader 's Choice " edition of their " Top 10 Video Game Villains " article , placing eighth on the list and noting the character 's high popularity among fans when compared to the Tyrant . He has also been voted by GamesRadar 's readers as the 99th " most dastardly ne 'er @-@ do @-@ wells " villain in video games in their " top 100 " . GameDaily listed it as one of their favorite Capcom characters of all time , stating " The Resident Evil series has a slew of memorable bad guys to choose from ... but Nemesis is our favorite . " The Nemesis additionally ranked fifth on their list of " Top 25 Scariest Video Game Monsters " .
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= Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) =
" Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Janet Jackson with Carly Simon from Jackson 's seventh studio album , All for You ( 2001 ) . It was written and produced by Jackson , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , with additional lyrics by Simon . The R & B and hip hop song is built around a sample of 1972 's " You 're So Vain " by Simon , who also added some new spoken parts into the song ; it talks about an unidentified man who attempted to extort money from Jackson . An official remix featuring Missy Elliott was released as the third single from the album on December 11 , 2001 by Virgin Records .
The album version of " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " received mixed reviews from music critics , with some calling it a highlight from the album , while others criticized Simon 's rapping . The remix version also received a mixed reaction from reviewers . The song reached number 28 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Jackson 's lowest @-@ charting single since 1983 , and also reached low positions worldwide . Its accompanying music video directed by Francis Lawrence depicts Jackson stalking a man in a hotel . " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " was performed on the 2001 – 02 All for You Tour .
= = Background and release = =
According to Jackson , she phoned American singer @-@ songwriter Carly Simon , asking for permission to use samples of her song " You 're So Vain " , but Simon wanted to re @-@ record her vocals . She agreed , with Simon wanting to write new lines . Jackson 's producer Jimmy Jam sent her the tracks they were already working on , and she went into a studio on Martha 's Vineyard to record some material . She rapped , initially thinking that Jackson and the producers would not use it , but they eventually liked it . They decided to marry both tracks , as the singers thought it " worked perfectly " , and it became a duet . Simon expressed that Jackson " could not have been sweeter or more appreciative " .
" Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " generated media speculation of who exactly the man described in the song was . Many journalists believed the song was about Jackson 's ex @-@ husband René Elizondo , Jr . Jackson responded : " Everybody says that . Actually , that song 's about a few people , not one person in particular . Everyone likes to [ say ] , ' Ah , I know that 's about Rene . ' It 's about a few people that have entered and exited my life . " Simon created a similar controversy when she released " You 're So Vain " . It was speculated to be about Warren Beatty or Mick Jagger , both of which she denied .
In 2000 , Jackson called American rapper Missy Elliott to reveal that she loved her work . She asked the rapper to work with her on a remix of the song " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " . Elliott then wrote and rapped for the remix , and became the third single from All for You on December 11 , 2001 .
= = Composition = =
" Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " is an R & B and hip hop song which features a " rap poem " from Simon and samples her song " You 're So Vain " . Its composition excoriates an unfaithful lover for attempting to extort money , described as a " mean @-@ spirited duet that rails against enemies . " Jackson unveils anger and deceit , saying " Thought you 'd get the money too / Greedy motherfuckers try to have their cake and eat it too " . She also offers a comeuppance to a " baby gigolo " who hollers at " everything that walks / No substance , just small talk . " Simon also cited the claims of sampled song " You 're So Vain " to be written about Mick Jagger , singing " The apricot scarf was worn by Nick / There 's nothing in the words that refer to Mick " . In response to critics regarding it about her divorce , Jackson explained it was directed towards several people , while Jimmy Jam revealed it to be written in regards to music executives and lawyers .
= = Critical reception = =
Both the album and remix versions of " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " received mixed reviews from music critics . While reviewing All for You , Dan Aquilante from New York Post commented that the track would be remembered as one of the highlights from the album . Michael Paoletta from Billboard magazine called the song a " clever sister @-@ to @-@ sister " song . The New Rolling Stone Album Guide called the duet between Jackson and Simon " harsh " , and found Simon 's rap " silly " . John Mulvey of Yahoo ! Music referred to it as " bizarre " , and criticized Simon 's rap , classifying it as " incompetent " . AllMusic 's contributor Stephen Thomas Erlewine also was one of the reviewers who were unsatisfied with rapping by Simon . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine considered the song the album 's biggest misstep . He likened it to a car wreck : " impossible not to be horrified yet strangely intrigued " , and called Simon 's spoken @-@ word verses " embarrassing " .
Chuck Taylor from Billboard reviewed the remix version of " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " and considered it " more of a breakdown than anything we might regard as a standard composition , but the ingredients somehow make musical gumbo " . Contactmusic.com criticized the number of guests on the single version , but said it created a " soulful and very catchy version " , and noted that its " Grover Washington style sax break and the kind of infectious percussion vibe that Masters at Work are so adept at making " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " debuted at number 72 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , before reaching a peak of number 28 . This peak became her lowest since 1983 , when " Come Give Your Love to Me " reached number 58 . Since the release of Control in 1986 , every single released by the singer had peaked within the top 10 , with the exception of " The Pleasure Principle " . The song additionally reached numbers 7 , 20 and 26 on the Hot Dance Club Play , Mainstream Top 40 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs component charts , respectively . In the United Kingdom , the song peaked at number 13 , remaining for 10 weeks inside the chart . The song debuted at its peak of number 20 in Australia , and reached number 49 in New Zealand . In Europe , " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " failed to gain success . It peaked at number 69 in Germany , 54 in Romania , and 56 in Switzerland , although it achieved moderate success in Denmark , reaching the top 20 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " was directed by Francis Lawrence , with The Original Flyte Tyme Remix of the song being used . It was filmed at the Millennium Biltmore Hotel in Downtown Los Angeles . In the video , Jackson is stalking a man ( played by Jerell Scott ) in an abandoned hotel . She summons Elliott and a legion of zombies , including one that was created from a toilet . Jackson is also seen eating a spider , smashing jugs of water with a baseball bat , and taunting the man using telekinetic powers . Simon does not appear in the music video . A video for the P. Diddy Remix also was released , and uses the same footage of The Original Flyte Tyme Remix , with P. Diddy appearing in some parts .
The video was nominated for " Best Cinematography " at the MVPA Awards in 2002 . It was also placed as the seventh best music video of 2001 by Slant Magazine , who said " it 's been a while since we 've seen the reigning Jackson crank up a little attitude . It 's her own mini- ' Thriller ' , if you will " . The video was included on the 2004 video compilation From Janet to Damita Jo : The Videos . In 2002 , American singer Britney Spears referenced and was inspired by " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " music video in her " Overprotected ( Darkchild Remix ) " video . It is seen in scenes of Spears walking down the hotel lobby and while in the elevator . Both videos also use the same hotel setting .
= = Live performance = =
" Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " was performed by Jackson during the All for You Tour in 2001 and 2002 . Gina Vivinetto from St. Petersburg Times , while reviewing the concert , noted that fans cheered with the performance . The February 16 , 2002 final date of the tour at the Aloha Stadium in Hawaii , was broadcast by HBO , and had an appearance by Elliott on the performance of the song . This rendition was also added to the setlist at its DVD release , Janet : Live in Hawaii , in 2002 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Japanese promo CD single liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Park Safety =
" Park Safety " is the 19th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 25th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 18 , 2010 . In the episode , Jerry is apparently mugged , which forces his co @-@ workers to be nicer to him , and prompts Leslie to seek stronger safety measures for the city 's parks .
The episode was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Michael Trim . The writers sought to establish in " Park Safety " that the other characters liked Jerry , even though they often make jokes at his expense . It featured a guest appearance by comedian Andy Samberg , who previously worked with Parks star Amy Poehler on the sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live , as a parks ranger named Carl . It also featured Mo Collins in her recurring guest role as Joan Callamezzo , host of the morning news program Pawnee Today .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Park Safety " was seen by 4 @.@ 7 million household viewers . Among audiences between ages 18 and 49 , it experienced a slightly lower rating than the previous week 's episode , " The Possum " , in part due to competition from the 2010 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . " Park Safety " received generally positive reviews , with several reviewers praising the comedic scene in which Jerry gives an embarrassing presentation to his co @-@ workers . Samberg 's performance , however , received mostly negative reviews .
= = Plot = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) holds a drawing to determine who will fill the park 's hummingbird feeders , a job reviled by the parks and recreation department . Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) , who is often mocked by his co @-@ workers , is chosen because everybody writes down Jerry 's name instead of their own . Later , Leslie receives a call from Ann ( Rashida Jones ) that Jerry is in the hospital with a dislocated shoulder . Jerry claims to have been mugged in the park , and Leslie decides nobody should tease Jerry anymore . When Jerry returns , he acts particularly buffoonish during a slideshow presentation , and ends up farting and splitting his pants , but everyone holds back laughter at Leslie 's request . Leslie meets with Carl Lorthner ( Andy Samberg ) , a park security ranger who is incredibly loud but oblivious to the fact . Leslie suggests Carl get more help for the park to be safe . Meanwhile , Ron ( Nick Offerman ) teaches a self @-@ defense course to the rest of the department so they don 't end up like Jerry .
Leslie , Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , and Jerry join Carl to take a tour of the park where Jerry was mugged . Carl says the area is largely unprotected due to budget cuts , so Leslie vows to get more funding . She appears on Pawnee Today , the local news show , saying the Pawnee government failed the parks and that security is poor . Paul ( Phil Reeves ) , the city manager , is angry over the television appearance , but informs Leslie the stunt worked and the mayor is offering $ 2 @,@ 500 to help fix the park . While at a press conference about the money , Jerry confesses to Leslie that he wasn 't mugged : he dropped a breakfast burrito in a creek , then fell while trying to grab it and dislocated his shoulder . He fabricated the mugger story because he was embarrassed and didn 't want everyone to make fun of him . Leslie angrily relates Jerry 's story to Mark , but he stops her short when he says that Jerry was too scared of his co @-@ workers to be honest with them . Leslie soon discovers Carl was offended by Leslie 's statements about park security and plans to show footage of Jerry falling into the creek on Pawnee Today . Leslie negotiates with Carl to not show the event , and instead they talk during the show about how much they enjoyed the film Avatar , much to the anger of host Joan Callamezzo ( Mo Collins ) . As part of their deal to not show the tape , Leslie buys Carl a brand new security cart . Carl hands over the tape , which she agrees to throw away after she watches it one last time . The office goes back to mocking Jerry , but with less venom than before , while Jerry confides that he doesn 't really care because he 's just two years away from retiring on a full pension and enjoying a peaceful retirement .
In a side plot , a love triangle develops between Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) and Ann . In an interview , Ann says Andy is a fun person but was a terrible boyfriend because he is completely reliant on others . When learning self @-@ defense from Ron , Ann takes down Andy with a wrist grab , impressing Andy but making April jealous . After Andy is accidentally knocked out by Ron , Ann later approaches Andy at his shoe shine stand and brings him gifts to help him feel better . April arrives and Andy gives her a vegetarian muffin . Surprised Andy got something for someone other than himself , Ann believes Andy has changed .
= = Production = =
" Park Safety " was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Michael Trim . It featured a guest appearance by comedian Andy Samberg as Carl , the park ranger . Samberg and Parks and Recreation star Amy Poehler previously appeared together as regular cast members in the NBC sketch comedy series , Saturday Night Live . The role of Carl was written with Samberg in mind because the writing staff knew they could get him as a guest appearance as long as filming corresponded with his Saturday Night Live schedule , although the character was tweaked slightly when it was confirmed Samberg would definitely play him . Samberg also knew most of the supporting cast , writers and staff when the episode was filmed . During an interview about his performance in the episode , Samberg jokingly responded :
" Well , I don 't want to jinx it , but I 'm pretty sure it 's the best episode , and maybe not just of this show but of any show on television ever , any theater show , any staged show , movie , or any , like , campfire ritual performed by cavemen . Take it all the way back . I think this is going to be the thing everyone talks about for the rest of their lives , and it will live on in infamy and history . If aliens came down and wanted one artifact to learn about human life , I think it would be this episode of Parks and Recreation . And you can take that to the bank . "
The idea of a Jerry @-@ centered episode arose when the writers decided one of the characters would get mugged . Muharrar said , " Once we thought about it , it was obvious it had to be Jerry . He 's the Parks Department punching bag , and it seemed like it was time for Jerry 's revenge . " Muharrar said the script tried to convey that although his co @-@ workers mock him , they do not hate him , and that Jerry does not take the jokes against him personally . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur said once it was established in the episode " Practice Date " that Jerry was the co @-@ worker everyone else picked on , he felt it was important to write an episode that established the other characters actually liked Jerry , despite their jokes at his expense .
For the scenes involving self @-@ defense courses , the supporting cast underwent stunt training with the help of stunt coordinator Sean Graham . Ron wears a back support belt during the course , which was actor Nick Offerman 's idea . Offerman has many fight choreography skills from his past work in the Chicago theater , and he combined those skills with his training in Kabuki dance and theater . Offerman said , " I threw in a couple of Kabuki moves that we all had a hard time keeping a straight face through . " It was a reference to the episode " The Stakeout " , in which Ron suffered a hernia , and Muharrar said , " The idea [ is ] that Ron has the belt in his car trunk and is ready to go at a moment 's notice . "
" Park Safety " also featured Mo Collins as Pawnee Today host Joan Callamezzo , who previously appeared in the episodes " Pawnee Zoo " and " Christmas Scandal " . Poehler was pregnant when " Park Safety " was filmed , and some commentators said it was visibly clear in certain scenes . A newspaper clipping with a story and photo of Andy is taped to the wall of his shoeshine stand . This is a reference to the Pawnee Journal article written about him in the previous episode , " The Possum " . A stand selling Sweetums nutrition bars is visible during one of the park scenes . This is a reference to the previous episode " Sweetums " , where the company lobbies to sell its unhealthy snacks at the parks . A downloadable version of the " Safe Parks Now ! " poster Leslie made in the episode , which featured a photo of Jerry with a black eye , was also featured on the website .
= = Cultural references = =
When Leslie and Carl agree not to discuss Jerry on Pawnee Today , they instead discuss the quality of the film Avatar , the 2009 James Cameron epic science fiction film released a few months before the episode first aired . Ann explains her proficiency during Ron 's self @-@ defense training courses results from her strong interest in female @-@ centric original movies on the women 's television network Lifetime . While describing how Tom would react to the news that Jerry dislocated his shoulder reaching for a breakfast burrito , Leslie said , " What would you do for a Klondike bar ? Kill your wife ? " This is a reference to the commercial jingle for the ice cream snack : " What would you do for a Klondike bar ? "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 18 , 2010 , " Park Safety " was seen by 4 @.@ 7 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . Although an increase in viewership over the 4 @.@ 6 million household viewers of the previous episode , " The Possum " , " Park Safety " marked a five percent drop in the Nielsen rating itself . It drew a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , compared to 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 share the previous week . " Park Safety " suffered from competition from CBS footage of the first round of the 2010 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , which drew 10 @.@ 32 million household viewers during the 8 : 30 p.m. timeshot it shared with Parks and Recreation . " Park Safety " also drew less viewers ( although a higher Nielsen rating ) than the ABC drama series FlashForward , which drew 6 @.@ 3 million households , and a repeat of the Fox crime drama Bones , which drew 6 @.@ 6 million household viewers . Parks and Recreation outperformed a repeat of the CW supernatural – fantasy horror series The Vampire Diaries , which drew 1 @.@ 49 million household viewers .
" Park Safety " received generally positive reviews , with several reviewers particularly praising the scene in which Jerry gives an embarrassing presentation to his co @-@ workers . Andy Samberg 's performance , however , received mostly negative reviews . Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez called " Park Safety " a great episode , and complimented the scenes involving Jerry and the growing romance between Andy and April . Gonzalez said the only negative aspect was Samberg , of whom she said , " the scream @-@ talking gag got old fast " . Alan Sepinwall , television columnist with The Star @-@ Ledger , also enjoyed the scene with Jerry 's presentation , and praised the show for fleshing out its minor characters , comparing it to The Office and its similar treatment of supporting characters during its second season . Sepinwall said Samberg 's character was " a little too broad for the show 's buttoned @-@ down style " but led to some funny moments .
Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club called Jerry 's presentation " one of the most amazing scenes in Parks & Rec history " . Heisler also praised Pratt 's performance and felt Ann was unusually sympathetic in " Park Safety " , but felt Samberg was poorly used and his loud talking quickly grew tiresome . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell said " Park Safety " continued an ongoing development of the mythology of the Pawnee community , comparing it to " a live @-@ action Springfield " , the setting of the animated comedy series The Simpsons . Kandell said Samberg 's character " could have been irritating but somehow wasn 't " . Matt Fowler of IGN called Jerry 's presentation " one of the best , most pointed moments of crude humor that we 've ever seen on the show " . Fowler also said Swanson 's expertise in self @-@ defense " fits perfectly " to his character . Kona Gallagher of TV Squad said the constant mocking of Jerry made him feel uncomfortable , and that Samberg " just seemed like the personification of an SNL skit instead of a real character " . But Gallagher praised Ron Swanson 's role in the episode , as well as the apparent rekindling of Ann 's feelings for Andy .
= = DVD release = =
" Park Safety " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= The Allman Brothers Band ( album ) =
The Allman Brothers Band is the debut studio album by American rock band the Allman Brothers Band . It was released in the United States by Atco Records and Capricorn Records on November 4 , 1969 and produced by Adrian Barber . Formed in 1969 , the Allman Brothers Band came together following various musical pursuits by each individual member . Following his session work in Muscle Shoals , Alabama , Duane Allman moved to Jacksonville , Florida where he led large jam sessions with his new band , one he had envisioned as having two guitarists and two drummers . After rounding out the lineup with the addition of his brother , Gregg Allman , the band played free shows in public parks and moved to Macon , Georgia , where they were to be one of the premiere acts on Capricorn .
The album was recorded and mixed in two weeks at Atlantic Studios in New York City . Much of the material presented was premiered live over the preceding months and combines blues , jazz and country music to varying degrees . It includes re @-@ workings of " Trouble No More " and " Don 't Want You No More , " as well as notable originals such as " Dreams " , which highlighted the band 's jazz influence , and " Whipping Post " , which soon became a crowd favorite . Although the group was arranged to work with producer Tom Dowd ( whose credits included Cream and John Coltrane ) , he was unavailable , and they instead recorded with house engineer Adrian Barber . The album 's artwork was photographed at various places in Macon and surrounding areas .
The record initially received a poor commercial response , charting in the lower levels of Billboard 's Top 200 Pop Albums chart . Despite this , the album received critical acclaim from publications such as Rolling Stone , who called it " consistently [ ... ] subtle , and honest , and moving . " Following the release of the album , the band remained on the road for an extended period of time . They chose to remain in Macon , despite suggestions from label executives to move to larger cities for a better shot at commercial acceptance .
= = Background = =
The Allman Brothers Band was formed in March 1969 , during large jam sessions with various musicians in Jacksonville , Florida . Duane Allman and Jai Johanny Johanson ( Jaimoe ) had recently moved from Muscle Shoals , where Duane participated in session work at FAME Studios for artists such as Aretha Franklin , King Curtis , and Wilson Pickett , with whom he recorded a cover of the Beatles ' " Hey Jude " that went to number 23 on the national charts . Duane began to put together a new band , and invited bassist Berry Oakley to jam with the new group ; the pair had met in a Jacksonville , Florida club some time earlier , and became quick friends . The group had immediate chemistry , and Duane 's vision for a " different " band — one with two lead guitarists and two drummers — began evolving . Meanwhile , Phil Walden , the manager of the late Otis Redding and several other R & B acts , was looking to expand into rock acts . Rick Hall became frustrated with the group ’ s recording methods , and offered the tracks recorded and their contract to Walden and Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records , who purchased them for $ 10 @,@ 000 . Walden intended the upcoming group to be the centerpiece of his new Atlantic @-@ distributed label , Capricorn .
After the duo moved to Jacksonville , they began to put together large jam sessions . Dickey Betts had played in Oakley ’ s previous band , the Second Coming , and became the group ’ s second lead guitarist , while Butch Trucks , with whom Duane and Gregg had cut a demo less than a year prior , fulfilled the role of the second drummer . The Second Coming ’ s Reese Wynans played keyboards , and Duane , Oakley and Betts all shared vocal duties . The unnamed group began to perform free shows in Willow Branch Park in Jacksonville , with an ever @-@ changing , rotating cast of musicians . Duane felt strongly his brother should be the vocalist of the new group ( which effectively eliminated Wynans ' position , as Gregg also played keyboards ) . Gregg accepted the invitation and entered rehearsal on March 26 , 1969 , when the group was rehearsing " Trouble No More " by Muddy Waters . Although initially intimidated by the musicians , Duane pressured his brother " into singing [ his ] guts out . " Four days later , the group made their début at the Jacksonville Armory . Although many names were suggested including Beelzebub , the six @-@ piece eventually decided on the Allman Brothers Band .
The group moved to Macon , Georgia by May 1 , where Walden was establishing Capricorn Records . The band performed locally , as well as eighty miles north in Atlanta 's Piedmont Park , and practiced at the newly minted Capricorn nearly each day . The group forged a strong brotherhood , spending countless hours rehearsing , consuming psychedelic drugs , and hanging out in Rose Hill Cemetery , where they would write songs . Their first performances outside the South came on May 30 and 31 in Boston , opening for the Velvet Underground . In need of more material , the group remade old blues numbers like “ Trouble No More ” and “ One Way Out ” , in addition to improvised jams such as “ Mountain Jam . ” Gregg , who had struggled to write in the past , became the band ’ s sole songwriter , composing songs such as “ Whipping Post " and “ Black @-@ Hearted Woman . ” Much of the material collected on The Allman Brothers Band was written between the period of May to August 1969 and premiered live . According to Johanson , the group gauged crowd reaction to the numbers and adjusted the songs accordingly . " Before we went into the studio , we had a very clear idea of what we were all trying to do musically and that it was unique , totally different from anything else that anyone was playing , " said Betts . " From the earliest rehearsals , we all had the same mind @-@ set . "
= = Recording and production = =
The band set off from Macon for New York City in August 1969 , and faced setbacks along the way , such as their equipment truck breaking down in South Carolina . In addition , they had arranged to work with Cream producer Tom Dowd , who was unavailable ; Atlantic Records house engineer Adrian Barber recorded the sessions instead , and was credited as producer . Recalled Dowd , " I was supposed to have done the first album with the band up in New York , but some way or other I got detoured . Jerry Wexler made a deal to keep them in the studio for three or four days when they were supposed to be with me . " The band had no commercial success in mind , having had troublesome experiences individually in the past with producers and labels that pushed for radio hits . The band felt that with time they would develop a small , devoted following and be strong enough to collect $ 3 – 4 @,@ 000 dollars per night .
The Allman Brothers Band was recorded and mixed in two weeks , and according to biographer Alan Paul , " virtually no outtakes exist from the sessions . " The band had performed their songs countless times in the preceding months and " [ had ] them down cold . " Numerous artists , including Ray Charles , had recorded on the studio 's house Hammond organ , but Gregg Allman set up his own instead , feeling unable to play on the same instrument as Charles . A red light on the recording board would go on when the band began recording , and it made Gregg Allman nervous ; in order to perform takes as needed , he unscrewed the light . The two @-@ week booking was initially designed for laying down basic tracks , with overdubs following later , but the group ended up cutting the entire record in six non @-@ consecutive days . They first entered Atlantic Studios that Sunday night ( August 3 ) to " get sounds " ; the band laid down the album 's openers , " Don ’ t Want You No More " and " It 's Not My Cross to Bear " , as well as " Dreams , " which the band set aside . " Dreams " had previously been recorded as a demo at Macon ’ s new Capiricorn Studios in April .
On August 5 , the band cut " Black Hearted Woman " and " Trouble No More " , and the group completed " Whipping Post " after another day off on August 7 ( it took the entirety of that day ’ s session to complete the recording , despite the fact that they had performed the number countless times ) . The next day , the band attempted to record " Statesboro Blues , " which was the song that influenced Duane Allman to begin slide playing . Unable to achieve the same energy as it would performed live , the band scrapped the recording and session for the day . " Every Hungry Woman " was recorded on August 11 , and their last day in the studio on Tuesday , August 12 produced a final version of " Dreams " . Johnson remembered the process as only taking four days ; " We went in there , played our asses off , and that was it ; we were done in four days and they spent the rest of the time mixing , " said Johnson .
Although Butch Trucks recalls the entire ensemble as comfortable with studio recording , another source claims that Johnson , Betts and Oakley were unfamiliar with studio recording , but nevertheless not intimidated . " They were out of their element in New York , hustled by a chap with an English accent , " said Dowd of Barber . He spoke of Barber 's direction as " perhaps intimidating , or push @-@ push , shove @-@ shove . ' Do what the guy says and let ’ s get out of here . ' " " Dreams " , which later gained regard among band members as the high point of the record , was the only song in which the group got stuck , due to Duane Allman 's displeasure with his guitar solo . The performance captured on record came when Duane instructed the other members to turn off all the lights in the studio after the day 's session , and sat in a corner beside his amp and baffle . Allman played slide guitar ( which was not employed in previous attempts ) and improvised the overdubbed performance , bringing all of the members to tears . " It was unbelievable , " recalled Trucks . " It was just magic . It ’ s always been that the greatest music we played was from out of nowhere , that it wasn ’ t practiced , planned , or discussed . "
During their tenure in New York , the group made their debut over three non @-@ consecutive nights at Ungano 's in Manhattan , a club that would eventually become regarded within the ensemble as their " second home . " Gregg Allman felt the band had rushed through their debut recording and was later unhappy with his vocal sound on the record ; " They were recorded with the regular old tape echo " Heartbreak Hotel " setting , " he recalled . Barber disagreed with this assessment , and , not wanting to cause any quarrels , Allman backed away .
= = Composition = =
The songs on the album were largely arranged after Gregg Allman joined the band in Jacksonville , Florida in March 1969 . Most of the songs were devised from longer , impromptu jam sessions . The group 's style evolved from a mix of jazz , country music , blues and rock , which was the result of each individual member turning the others onto their particular interests . Trucks introduced Johnson to the Grateful Dead and the Rolling Stones ; Johnson likewise introduced the group to jazz musicians such as Miles Davis and John Coltrane , and Betts did the same with country music and Chuck Berry . Duane Allman had previously listened to Davis and Coltrane before Johnson 's suggestion , and his two favorite songs — Coltrane 's version of " My Favorite Things " and Miles Davis ' " All Blues " — were the basis for the majority of the band 's modal jamming , " without a lot of chord changes . "
The album opens with an instrumental , a cover of Spencer Davis ' " Don 't Want You No More , " which had previously been employed on set lists of the Second Coming , Oakley and Betts ' former band . Allman and Betts ' guitars perform in unison on a five @-@ note melody while Johnson concentrates on his hi @-@ hat , and the song includes an organ solo . The song contains two guitar solos , with the latter " [ coming ] in behind the first one for a darting buildup that sound [ s ] like something taken from Brahms . " It segues into a " lazy blues shuffle " titled " It 's Not My Cross to Bear , " which Allman had written in Los Angeles for a former lover . " Black Hearted Woman , " also penned on the same subject , follows , and the album returns to a blues @-@ based sound with a cover of " Trouble No More , " featuring Duane ’ s debut bottleneck guitar performance . Songs such as " Black Hearted Woman " and " Every Hungry Woman " were written about Allman 's experiences with a girl named Stacy in Los Angeles .
Among the most changed were two songs that would become the basis for two of the Allman Brothers ' most famed epic concert numbers : " Dreams " and " Whipping Post " . Oakley " played a huge role in the band ’ s arrangements , " changing numbers such as " Whipping Post " from a ballad structure to a more hard @-@ rocking song . " Dreams " developed from a jam in which the band toyed with the theme to the film 2001 : A Space Odyssey , and has been referred to by Johnson as Coltrane 's " My Favorite Things " with lyrics . Johnson 's drum fills were pulled from Jimmy Cobb 's performance on " All Blues " ; he later commented that he " did a lot of copying , but only from the best . " " Dreams " begins with " intricate , subdued drums playing under a soft organ with only the hint of guitars before Gregg begins singing about disillusionment and broken dreams . "
The final song on the record , " Whipping Post , " was written shortly after Allman returned to Jacksonville . The song came to him shortly before bed , but he was unable to acquire a pencil and paper to write down his ideas , as there was a child asleep in the room and he could not turn on the lights . Turning to his next best alternative , he struck two kitchen matches ( one for light and one , later blown out , as a charcoal writing utensil ) and wrote down his lyrics on a bedside ironing board . " Whipping Post " was similar in composition to " Dreams " in its first incarnation , with Oakley later creating the heavy bassline that starts off the track . Duane and Betts take quick solos before the track builds to an " anguished climax , " leading to Gregg Allman 's solo voice , singing the song 's refrain : " Good Lord , I feel like I 'm dyin ' . " Allman had no idea the intro was written in 11 / 4 time — " I just saw it as three sets of three , and then two to jump on the next three sets with " — until his brother pointed it out for him . " My brother told me — I guess the day I wrote it — he said , ' That 's good , man . I didn ’ t know you understood 11 / 4 . ' Of course I said something intelligent like , ' What 's 11 / 4 ? ' Duane just said , ' Okay , dumbass , I 'll try to draw it up on paper for you . ' "
Gregg Allman 's lyrical contributions to the band 's debut album have been called " remarkably mature lyrical conceptions for such a young man , expertly executed in a minimalist , almost haiku style . " Allman 's inspiration came from his time in Los Angeles as a part of Hour Glass , " getting fucked by different land sharks in the business , " experiencing great frustration among fierce competition . The traditional blues songs were , likewise , regarded as " songs that were so good they couldn ’ t be left off the album . " On the writing of the record , Allman wrote in his memoir My Cross to Bear , " I wrote most of that whole first record in that one week . I had total peace of mind . L.A. and all its changes didn ’ t even cross my mind . I felt like I was starting all over , which I was . " Most of the songs on the album were written at Rose Hill Cemetery .
= = Artwork = =
The cover for the album was taken by photographer Stephen Paley . Paley had gotten to know Duane Allman during photo shoots for Atlantic . Paley stayed for " about a week " in Macon with the band , partying with the group . They approached any areas about the town that appeared photogenic , such as " fields , old houses , railroad tracks , [ and ] the cemetery . " The front album cover photo was taken at the entrance of the College House ( now owned by Mercer University ) next door at 315 College Street . The back cover photo of the album was taken at the Bond Tomb at Rose Hill Cemetery , located at 1091 Riverside Drive in Macon .
The gatefold cover of the vinyl LP features the band posing nude in a brook . The shot was original manager Phil Walden 's idea , and the brook was on his brother Alan 's property . Alan later recalled , " The [ inner sleeve ] photo was taken in Round Oak , Georgia , down behind my log cabin there , which is also the back of Otis Redding 's Big O Ranch " . Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner was present with Boz Scaggs , whom he was producing at the time . They brought bubbles to cover themselves up , but the bubbles were washed away by the stream . Trucks had sliced his leg open earlier that day , requiring thirteen stitches , and was unable to get in the water ; he is standing behind Oakley in the shot . Walden suggested the band take a few shots standing full @-@ frontal ; the band was reluctant but he assured them they would never see the light of day . At their first performance at the Fillmore East that December , Trucks discovered the full @-@ frontal shots were printed in a broadsheet alternative newspaper .
Paley later said of the cover shoot , " I never liked a band more . I was one of them . It was like being a rock star . I hung out with a lot of rock stars but no one ever did that to the same extent . There was just an ease to the whole thing . They really were the kindest , most fun band I ever worked with . "
= = Release and reception = =
The Allman Brothers Band was released in November 1969 through Atco and Capricorn Records . Atco was a subsidiary label of Atlantic Records , and Walden had not even created a logo for Capricorn Records ; instead , the LP featured an Atco label with a " barely noticeable " line reading " Capricorn Records Series . " The record received a poor commercial response , selling fewer than 35 @,@ 000 copies upon initial release . Executives suggested to Walden that he relocate the band to New York or Los Angeles to " acclimate " them to the industry . " They wanted us to act " like a rock band " and we just told them to fuck themselves , " remembered Trucks . For their part , the members of the band remained optimistic , electing to stay in the South . " Everyone told us we ’ d fall by the wayside down there , " said Gregg Allman , but the collaboration between the band and Capricorn Records " transformed Macon from this sleepy little town into a very hip , wild , and crazy place filled with bikers and rockers . "
The band played shows along the East Coast in December 1969 , attempting to kick @-@ start the record onto Billboard 's Top 200 Pop Albums chart . In January , the band performed at the Electric Factory in Philadelphia and the Fillmore West in San Francisco before debuting at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles , representing the Allmans ' first engagement there since their days in the Hour Glass . On the third day of their Whisky residency , the album logged at number 188 on the top 200 , " enough to prove that the ABB was more than a regional outfit . " Capricorn issued " Black Hearted Woman " as the album ’ s single , edited down to nearly two minutes shorter in an effort to place on top 40 radio . Despite Ed Och 's rave review in Billboard , the single failed to register on pop radio . Rather than employing the standard cover shot for the advertising campaign , marketing rather emphasized the nude group shot , alongside a quote from Och 's Billboard review , describing the group as a " bad bunch of electric Southern longhairs . "
Rolling Stone 's Lester Bangs called the album " consistently [ ... ] subtle , and honest , and moving , " describing the band as " a white group who 've transcended their schooling to produce a volatile blues @-@ rock sound of pure energy , inspiration and love . " A retrospective review from Bruce Eder at Allmusic stated it " might be the best debut album ever delivered by an American blues band , a bold , powerful , hard @-@ edged , soulful essay in electric blues with a native Southern ambience . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Gregg Allman , except where noted .
Side one
" Don 't Want You No More " ( Spencer Davis , Edward Hardin ) – 2 : 25
" It 's Not My Cross to Bear " – 5 : 02
" Black Hearted Woman " – 5 : 08
" Trouble No More " ( McKinley Morganfield aka Muddy Waters ) – 3 : 45
Side two
" Every Hungry Woman " – 4 : 13
" Dreams " – 7 : 18
" Whipping Post " – 5 : 17
= = Personnel = =
All credits adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
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= 1905 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1905 Atlantic hurricane season featured five known tropical cyclones , two of which made landfall in the United States . The first system was initially observed near the Windward Islands on September 6 . The last system to dissipate , the fourth storm , transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 11 , while located well southeast of Newfoundland . These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . Between October 5 and October 10 , the fourth and fifth system existed simultaneously .
Of the season 's five tropical cyclones , only one reached hurricane status , the fewest since 1890 . Furthermore , that storm strengthened into major hurricane , which is Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . This storm , which was the fourth and strongest hurricane of the season , peaked at Category 3 strength with 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) winds . It was also attributed to at least six fatalities after sending a rogue wave across the steerage of the steamer Campania . The first storm also resulted in two deaths after a schooner wrecked in Barbados .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 28 , the lowest value since 1864 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first storm of the season , already at tropical storm intensity , was identified on September 6 to the east of Grenada . A small storm , it quickly passed through the southern Lesser Antilles early on September 7 . The next day , the storm weakened to a tropical depression before dissipating as a shallow but large system . A schooner sailing from Bridgetown to Suriname encountered heavy seas just a day out of port and turned back . It was thrown onto the pierhead and wrecked . The captain and a crewman were swept overboard and drowned .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
HURDAT indicates that a tropical storm originated to the northeast of the Windward Islands on September 11 . Steadily tracking towards the west @-@ northwest , the storm gradually intensified , reaching its peak intensity with winds estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on September 13 . After turning northwestward , the system slowed and began to weaken . By September 16 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated shortly thereafter .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
Based on weather reports from the Weather Bureau Office in New Orleans , Louisiana , a tropical storm was first observed about 20 miles ( 30 km ) north @-@ northwest of Swan Island on September 24 . The storm strengthened slightly before making landfall near Punta Allen , Quintana Roo around 1200 UTC on September 25 . Early on the following day , the system emerged into the Gulf of Mexico and headed north @-@ northwestward . At midday on September 26 , it peaked with sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm re @-@ curved north @-@ northeastward late on September 28 , while approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States . At 1000 UTC the next day , this system made landfall in extreme southwest Vermilion Parish , Louisiana at the same intensity . The storm slowly weakened inland and dissipated over Arkansas on September 30 . Strong winds and rough seas were reported along the central Gulf Coast of the United States , forcing ships to remain in port .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
On October 1 , a tropical depression developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea . Moving slowly north @-@ northeastward , it reached tropical storm status early on October 3 . The following day , the storm curved northeastward . Kingston , Jamaica recorded rainfall as the system bypassed the island . Late on October 5 and early on October 6 , the storm passed through the Windward Passage . Eastern Cuba was affected " with some force " , but damage was not significant . Entering the Atlantic Ocean , the system passed through the southeastern Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands without causing damage . While centered about halfway between Bermuda and Turks and Caicos Islands , the storm strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale .
Later on October 8 , it deepened to a Category 2 hurricane , while passing south of Bermuda . The island experienced gale force winds with gusts reaching hurricane force , but damage was apparently minimal . Early on October 9 , the storm intensified into a Category 3 hurricane and peaked with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . On October 10 , it weakened to a Category 2 and then became extratropical early the next day . The steamer Campania encountered the remnants of the storm and was reported to have been struck by a large rogue wave , which was described as " disastrous . " The ship roll and water moved across the steerage , sweeping five passengers into the ocean , they presumably drowned . At least 30 other people were injured , one of them fatally . The extratropical remnants dissipated over the Labrador Sea on October 13 .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
A tropical storm was first observed in the Gulf of Mexico on October 5 , while located about 105 miles ( 170 km ) north of the Yucatán Peninsula . The storm strengthened slowly while crossing the Gulf of Mexico and peaked with sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) early on October 8 . At 1700 UTC on the following day , it made landfall near Morgan City , Louisiana at the same intensity . The system quickly weakened inland and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Mississippi on October 10 . The extratropical remnants dissipated over Virginia on October 11 . The remnants of this storm brought heavy rains to the Eastern United States and Atlantic Canada .
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= Pennsylvania Route 663 =
Pennsylvania Route 663 ( PA 663 ) is a 22 @.@ 98 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 36 @.@ 98 km ) state highway in Bucks and Montgomery counties in southeast Pennsylvania . Its northern terminus is at PA 309 and PA 313 in Quakertown , where it continues eastward as PA 313 , and its southern terminus is at PA 100 in Pottstown . Along the way , PA 663 also passes through the town of Pennsburg . It is called John Fries Highway between Pennsburg and Quakertown . It has an interchange with Interstate 476 ( I @-@ 476 , the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike ) at exit 44 west of Quakertown . The route was assigned in 1930 , and it has had several realignments since its commissioning , including two major ones .
= = Route description = =
PA 663 begins at an intersection with PA 100 in Pottstown , Montgomery County , heading east on four @-@ lane undivided West King Street . The road passes through commercial areas and crosses the Colebrookdale Railroad and Manatawny Creek . The route becomes two @-@ lane undivided King Street and is lined with residences . PA 663 turns north onto Charlotte Street and continues past homes , curving to the northeast . The road crosses into Upper Pottsgrove Township and runs through a mix of residential and commercial areas as North Charlotte Street . The route turns east before it curves back to the northeast . PA 663 continues through wooded areas with a few homes and enters New Hanover Township . The road runs through more rural areas with some development and passes to the east of New Hanover Airport at the Swamp Pike intersection .
Farther northeast , PA 663 intersects PA 73 and turns east to form a concurrency with that route on Big Road . The road crosses Swamp Creek before PA 663 splits from PA 73 by heading northeast on Layfield Road . The route runs through farmland and woodland with some development . Farther northeast , the road heads into Upper Hanover Township and crosses the Green Lane Reservoir along the Perkiomen Creek . PA 663 heads into Pennsburg , where it becomes Pottstown Avenue and runs past homes and a few businesses . In the center of town , the route intersects PA 29 . Past this intersection , the road becomes Quakertown Avenue and passes more development before leaving Pennsburg for Upper Hanover Township again . At this point , the route becomes John Fries Highway and heads through farm fields and woods .
Past the Geryville Pike intersection , PA 663 enters Milford Township in Bucks County and continues through more rural areas . The road passes to the southeast of Spinnerstown and widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway at the Spinnerstown Road / Krammes Road intersection , where it curves to the east . The route becomes undivided and comes to an interchange with I @-@ 476 ( Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension ) . PA 663 becomes a divided highway again and passes businesses . The route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road again and continues back into rural areas , where it crosses Allentown Road . The road passes to the north of Milford Square and passes near some development . The route enters Richland Township at the Portzer Road intersection and passes homes , becoming the border between Richland Township to the north and Quakertown to the south at the Milford Square Pike intersection . PA 663 heads into commercial areas and fully enters Quakertown , where it widens back into a four @-@ lane divided highway and comes to its northern terminus at an intersection with PA 309 . Past this intersection , the road continues east as PA 313 .
= = History = =
PA 663 was once part of the Steinsburg and Milford Square Turnpike . The turnpike was chartered in March 1858 . When Pennsylvania legislated routes in 1911 , what is now PA 663 was not given a number . PA 663 was designated in 1930 to run from in US 422 ( High Street ) in Pottstown north to PA 73 in New Hanover Township . At this time , the entire length of the route was paved , along with the unnumbered road between PA 73 and Quakertown . In 1936 , PA 663 was extended north to an intersection with PA 309 and PA 313 in Quakertown . The route followed its current alignment between PA 73 and Pennsburg before it followed Quakertown Road and Sleepy Hollow Road to Spinnerstown , where it turned east and followed Spinnerstown Road and Milford Square Pike to Quakertown . By 1967 , the southern terminus of PA 663 was rerouted to PA 100 in Pottstown , heading west on King Street . In the 1960s , PA 663 was shifted from Milford Square Pike to a new alignment to the north between the Northeast Extension and Quakertown . After construction began in 1973 , a new alignment of PA 663 to the south from Pennsburg to the Northeast Extension opened a year later , with the route moved off Quakertown Road , Sleepy Hollow Road , and Spinnerstown Road .
= = Major intersections = =
= = PA 663 Alternate Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 663 Alternate Truck is a truck route around a weight @-@ restricted bridge over the Manatawny Creek in Pottstown , on which trucks over 25 tons and combination loads over 28 tons are prohibited . It follows PA 100 and PA 73 and was signed in 2013 .
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= Phagocyte =
Phagocytes are cells that protect the body by ingesting ( phagocytosing ) harmful foreign particles , bacteria , and dead or dying cells . Their name comes from the Greek phagein , " to eat " or " devour " , and " -cyte " , the suffix in biology denoting " cell " , from the Greek kutos , " hollow vessel " . They are essential for fighting infections and for subsequent immunity . Phagocytes are important throughout the animal kingdom and are highly developed within vertebrates . One litre of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes . They were first discovered in 1882 by Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov while he was studying starfish larvae . Mechnikov was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery . Phagocytes occur in many species ; some amoebae behave like macrophage phagocytes , which suggests that phagocytes appeared early in the evolution of life .
Phagocytes of humans and other animals are called " professional " or " non @-@ professional " depending on how effective they are at phagocytosis . The professional phagocytes include many types of white blood cells ( such as neutrophils , monocytes , macrophages , mast cells , and dendritic cells ) . The main difference between professional and non @-@ professional phagocytes is that the professional phagocytes have molecules called receptors on their surfaces that can detect harmful objects , such as bacteria , that are not normally found in the body . Phagocytes are crucial in fighting infections , as well as in maintaining healthy tissues by removing dead and dying cells that have reached the end of their lifespan .
During an infection , chemical signals attract phagocytes to places where the pathogen has invaded the body . These chemicals may come from bacteria or from other phagocytes already present . The phagocytes move by a method called chemotaxis . When phagocytes come into contact with bacteria , the receptors on the phagocyte 's surface will bind to them . This binding will lead to the engulfing of the bacteria by the phagocyte . Some phagocytes kill the ingested pathogen with oxidants and nitric oxide . After phagocytosis , macrophages and dendritic cells can also participate in antigen presentation , a process in which a phagocyte moves parts of the ingested material back to its surface . This material is then displayed to other cells of the immune system . Some phagocytes then travel to the body 's lymph nodes and display the material to white blood cells called lymphocytes . This process is important in building immunity , and many pathogens have evolved methods to evade attacks by phagocytes .
= = History = =
The Russian zoologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov ( 1845 – 1916 ) first recognized that specialized cells were involved in defense against microbial infections . In 1882 , he studied motile ( freely moving ) cells in the larvae of starfishes , believing they were important to the animals ' immune defenses . To test his idea , he inserted small thorns from a tangerine tree into the larvae . After a few hours he noticed that the motile cells had surrounded the thorns . Mechnikov traveled to Vienna and shared his ideas with Carl Friedrich Claus who suggested the name ‘ ‘ phagocyte ’ ’ ( from the Greek words phagein , meaning " to eat or devour " , and kutos , meaning " hollow vessel " ) for the cells that Mechnikov had observed .
A year later , Mechnikov studied a fresh water crustacean called Daphnia , a tiny transparent animal that can be examined directly under a microscope . He discovered that fungal spores that attacked the animal were destroyed by phagocytes . He went on to extend his observations to the white blood cells of mammals and discovered that the bacterium Bacillus anthracis could be engulfed and killed by phagocytes , a process that he called phagocytosis . Mechnikov proposed that phagocytes were a primary defense against invading organisms .
In 1903 , Almroth Wright discovered that phagocytosis was reinforced by specific antibodies that he called opsonins , from the Greek opson , " a dressing or relish " . Mechnikov was awarded ( jointly with Paul Ehrlich ) the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on phagocytes and phagocytosis .
Although the importance of these discoveries slowly gained acceptance during the early twentieth century , the intricate relationships between phagocytes and all the other components of the immune system were not known until the 1980s .
= = Phagocytosis = =
Phagocytosis is the process of taking in particles such as bacteria , parasites , dead host cells , and cellular and foreign debris by a cell . It involves a chain of molecular processes . Phagocytosis occurs after the foreign body , a bacterial cell , for example , has bound to molecules called " receptors " that are on the surface of the phagocyte . The phagocyte then stretches itself around the bacterium and engulfs it . Phagocytosis of bacteria by human neutrophils takes on average nine minutes . Once inside this phagocyte , the bacterium is trapped in a compartment called a phagosome . Within one minute the phagosome merges with either a lysosome or a granule to form a phagolysosome . The bacterium is then subjected to an overwhelming array of killing mechanisms and is dead a few minutes later . Dendritic cells and macrophages are not so fast , and phagocytosis can take many hours in these cells . Macrophages are slow and untidy eaters ; they engulf huge quantities of material and frequently release some undigested back into the tissues . This debris serves as a signal to recruit more phagocytes from the blood . Phagocytes have voracious appetites ; scientists have even fed macrophages with iron filings and then used a small magnet to separate them from other cells .
A phagocyte has many types of receptors on its surface that are used to bind material . They include opsonin receptors , scavenger receptors , and Toll @-@ like receptors . Opsonin receptors increase the phagocytosis of bacteria that have been coated with immunoglobulin G ( IgG ) antibodies or with complement . " Complement " is the name given to a complex series of protein molecules found in the blood that destroy cells or mark them for destruction . Scavenger receptors bind to a large range of molecules on the surface of bacterial cells , and Toll @-@ like receptors — so called because of their similarity to well @-@ studied receptors in fruit flies that are encoded by the Toll gene — bind to more specific molecules . Binding to Toll @-@ like receptors increases phagocytosis and causes the phagocyte to release a group of hormones that cause inflammation .
= = Methods of killing = =
The killing of microbes is a critical function of phagocytes that is performed either within the phagocyte ( intracellular killing ) or outside of the phagocyte ( extracellular killing ) .
= = = Oxygen @-@ dependent intracellular = = =
When a phagocyte ingests bacteria ( or any material ) , its oxygen consumption increases . The increase in oxygen consumption , called a respiratory burst , produces reactive oxygen @-@ containing molecules that are anti @-@ microbial . The oxygen compounds are toxic to both the invader and the cell itself , so they are kept in compartments inside the cell . This method of killing invading microbes by using the reactive oxygen @-@ containing molecules is referred to as oxygen @-@ dependent intracellular killing , of which there are two types .
The first type is the oxygen @-@ dependent production of a superoxide , which is an oxygen @-@ rich bacteria @-@ killing substance . The superoxide is converted to hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen by an enzyme called superoxide dismutase . Superoxides also react with the hydrogen peroxide to produce hydroxyl radicals , which assist in killing the invading microbe .
The second type involves the use of the enzyme myeloperoxidase from neutrophil granules . When granules fuse with a phagosome , myeloperoxidase is released into the phagolysosome , and this enzyme uses hydrogen peroxide and chlorine to create hypochlorite , a substance used in domestic bleach . Hypochlorite is extremely toxic to bacteria . Myeloperoxidase contains a heme pigment , which accounts for the green color of secretions rich in neutrophils , such as pus and infected sputum .
= = = Oxygen @-@ independent intracellular = = =
Phagocytes can also kill microbes by oxygen @-@ independent methods , but these are not as effective as the oxygen @-@ dependent ones . There are four main types . The first uses electrically charged proteins that damage the bacterium 's membrane . The second type uses lysozymes ; these enzymes break down the bacterial cell wall . The third type uses lactoferrins , which are present in neutrophil granules and remove essential iron from bacteria . The fourth type uses proteases and hydrolytic enzymes ; these enzymes are used to digest the proteins of destroyed bacteria .
= = = Extracellular = = =
Interferon @-@ gamma — which was once called macrophage activating factor — stimulates macrophages to produce nitric oxide . The source of interferon @-@ gamma can be CD4 + T cells , CD8 + T cells , natural killer cells , B cells , natural killer T cells , monocytes , macrophages , or dendritic cells . Nitric oxide is then released from the macrophage and , because of its toxicity , kills microbes near the macrophage . Activated macrophages produce and secrete tumor necrosis factor . This cytokine — a class of signaling molecule — kills cancer cells and cells infected by viruses , and helps to activate the other cells of the immune system .
In some diseases , e.g. , the rare chronic granulomatous disease , the efficiency of phagocytes is impaired , and recurrent bacterial infections are a problem . In this disease there is an abnormality affecting different elements of oxygen @-@ dependent killing . Other rare congenital abnormalities , such as Chediak @-@ Higashi syndrome , are also associated with defective killing of ingested microbes .
= = = Viruses = = =
Viruses can reproduce only inside cells , and they gain entry by using many of the receptors involved in immunity . Once inside the cell , viruses use the cell 's biological machinery to their own advantage , forcing the cell to make hundreds of identical copies of themselves . Although phagocytes and other components of the innate immune system can , to a limited extent , control viruses , once a virus is inside a cell the adaptive immune responses , particularly the lymphocytes , are more important for defense . At the sites of viral infections , lymphocytes often vastly outnumber all the other cells of the immune system ; this is common in viral meningitis . Virus @-@ infected cells that have been killed by lymphocytes are cleared from the body by phagocytes .
= = Role in apoptosis = =
In an animal , cells are constantly dying . A balance between cell division and cell death keeps the number of cells relatively constant in adults . There are two different ways a cell can die : by necrosis or by apoptosis . In contrast to necrosis , which often results from disease or trauma , apoptosis — or programmed cell death — is a normal healthy function of cells . The body has to rid itself of millions of dead or dying cells every day , and phagocytes play a crucial role in this process .
Dying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display molecules , such as phosphatidylserine , on their cell surface to attract phagocytes . Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane , but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a hypothetical protein known as scramblase . These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells that possess the appropriate receptors , such as macrophages . The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response and is an important function of phagocytes .
= = Interactions with other cells = =
Phagocytes are usually not bound to any particular organ but move through the body interacting with the other phagocytic and non @-@ phagocytic cells of the immune system . They can communicate with other cells by producing chemicals called cytokines , which recruit other phagocytes to the site of infections or stimulate dormant lymphocytes . Phagocytes form part of the innate immune system , which animals , including humans , are born with . Innate immunity is very effective but non @-@ specific in that it does not discriminate between different sorts of invaders . On the other hand , the adaptive immune system of jawed vertebrates — the basis of acquired immunity — is highly specialized and can protect against almost any type of invader . The adaptive immune system is not dependent on phagocytes but lymphocytes , which produce protective proteins called antibodies , which tag invaders for destruction and prevent viruses from infecting cells . Phagocytes , in particular dendritic cells and macrophages , stimulate lymphocytes to produce antibodies by an important process called antigen presentation .
= = = Antigen presentation = = =
Antigen presentation is a process in which some phagocytes move parts of engulfed materials back to the surface of their cells and " present " them to other cells of the immune system . There are two " professional " antigen @-@ presenting cells : macrophages and dendritic cells . After engulfment , foreign proteins ( the antigens ) are broken down into peptides inside dendritic cells and macrophages . These peptides are then bound to the cell 's major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) glycoproteins , which carry the peptides back to the phagocyte 's surface where they can be " presented " to lymphocytes . Mature macrophages do not travel far from the site of infection , but dendritic cells can reach the body 's lymph nodes , where there are millions of lymphocytes . This enhances immunity because the lymphocytes respond to the antigens presented by the dendritic cells just as they would at the site of the original infection . But dendritic cells can also destroy or pacify lymphocytes if they recognize components of the host body ; this is necessary to prevent autoimmune reactions . This process is called tolerance .
= = = Immunological tolerance = = =
Dendritic cells also promote immunological tolerance , which stops the body from attacking itself . The first type of tolerance is central tolerance , that occurs in the thymus . T cells that bind ( via their T cell receptor ) to self antigen ( presented by dendritic cells on MHC molecules ) too strongly are induced to die . The second type of immunological tolerance is peripheral tolerance . Some self reactive T cells escape the thymus for a number of reasons , mainly due to the lack of expression of some self antigens in the thymus . Another type of T cell T regulatory cells can down regulate self reactive T cells in the periphery . When immunological tolerance fails , autoimmune diseases can follow .
= = Professional phagocytes = =
Phagocytes of humans and other jawed vertebrates are divided into " professional " and " non @-@ professional " groups based on the efficiency with which they participate in phagocytosis . The professional phagocytes are the monocytes , macrophages , neutrophils , tissue dendritic cells and mast cells . One litre of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes .
= = = Activation = = =
All phagocytes , and especially macrophages , exist in degrees of readiness . Macrophages are usually relatively dormant in the tissues and proliferate slowly . In this semi @-@ resting state , they clear away dead host cells and other non @-@ infectious debris and rarely take part in antigen presentation . But , during an infection , they receive chemical signals — usually interferon gamma — which increases their production of MHC II molecules and which prepares them for presenting antigens . In this state , macrophages are good antigen presenters and killers . However , if they receive a signal directly from an invader , they become " hyperactivated " , stop proliferating , and concentrate on killing . Their size and rate of phagocytosis increases — some become large enough to engulf invading protozoa .
In the blood , neutrophils are inactive but are swept along at high speed . When they receive signals from macrophages at the sites of inflammation , they slow down and leave the blood . In the tissues , they are activated by cytokines and arrive at the battle scene ready to kill .
= = = Migration = = =
When an infection occurs , a chemical " SOS " signal is given off to attract phagocytes to the site . These chemical signals may include proteins from invading bacteria , clotting system peptides , complement products , and cytokines that have been given off by macrophages located in the tissue near the infection site . Another group of chemical attractants are cytokines that recruit neutrophils and monocytes from the blood .
To reach the site of infection , phagocytes leave the bloodstream and enter the affected tissues . Signals from the infection cause the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels to make a protein called selectin , which neutrophils stick to on passing by . Other signals called vasodilators loosen the junctions connecting endothelial cells , allowing the phagocytes to pass through the wall . Chemotaxis is the process by which phagocytes follow the cytokine " scent " to the infected spot . Neutrophils travel across epithelial cell @-@ lined organs to sites of infection , and although this is an important component of fighting infection , the migration itself can result in disease @-@ like symptoms . During an infection , millions of neutrophils are recruited from the blood , but they die after a few days .
= = = Monocytes = = =
Monocytes develop in the bone marrow and reach maturity in the blood . Mature monocytes have large , smooth , lobed nuclei and abundant cytoplasm that contains granules . Monocytes ingest foreign or dangerous substances and present antigens to other cells of the immune system . Monocytes form two groups : a circulating group and a marginal group that remain in other tissues ( approximately 70 % are in the marginal group ) . Most monocytes leave the blood stream after 20 – 40 hours to travel to tissues and organs and in doing so transform into macrophages or dendritic cells depending on the signals they receive . There are about 500 million monocytes in one litre of human blood .
= = = Macrophages = = =
Mature macrophages do not travel far but stand guard over those areas of the body that are exposed to the outside world . There they act as garbage collectors , antigen presenting cells , or ferocious killers , depending on the signals they receive . They derive from monocytes , granulocyte stem cells , or the cell division of pre @-@ existing macrophages . Human macrophages are about 21 micrometers in diameter .
This type of phagocyte does not have granules but contains many lysosomes . Macrophages are found throughout the body in almost all tissues and organs ( e.g. , microglial cells in the brain and alveolar macrophages in the lungs ) , where they silently lie in wait . A macrophage 's location can determine its size and appearance . Macrophages cause inflammation through the production of interleukin @-@ 1 , interleukin @-@ 6 , and TNF @-@ alpha . Macrophages are usually only found in tissue and are rarely seen in blood circulation . The life @-@ span of tissue macrophages has been estimated to range from four to fifteen days .
Macrophages can be activated to perform functions that a resting monocyte cannot . T helper cells ( also known as effector T cells or Th cells ) , a sub @-@ group of lymphocytes , are responsible for the activation of macrophages . Th1 cells activate macrophages by signaling with IFN @-@ gamma and displaying the protein CD40 ligand . Other signals include TNF @-@ alpha and lipopolysaccharides from bacteria . Th1 cells can recruit other phagocytes to the site of the infection in several ways . They secrete cytokines that act on the bone marrow to stimulate the production of monocytes and neutrophils , and they secrete some of the cytokines that are responsible for the migration of monocytes and neutrophils out of the bloodstream . Th1 cells come from the differentiation of CD4 + T cells once they have responded to antigen in the secondary lymphoid tissues . Activated macrophages play a potent role in tumor destruction by producing TNF @-@ alpha , IFN @-@ gamma , nitric oxide , reactive oxygen compounds , cationic proteins , and hydrolytic enzymes .
= = = Neutrophils = = =
Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte , constituting 50 % to 60 % of the total circulating white blood cells . One litre of human blood contains about five billion neutrophils , which are about 10 micrometers in diameter and live for only about five days . Once they have received the appropriate signals , it takes them about thirty minutes to leave the blood and reach the site of an infection . They are ferocious eaters and rapidly engulf invaders coated with antibodies and complement , and damaged cells or cellular debris . Neutrophils do not return to the blood ; they turn into pus cells and die . Mature neutrophils are smaller than monocytes and have a segmented nucleus with several sections ; each section is connected by chromatin filaments — neutrophils can have 2 – 5 segments . Neutrophils do not normally exit the bone marrow until maturity but during an infection neutrophil precursors called myelocytes and promyelocytes are released .
The intra @-@ cellular granules of the human neutrophil have long been recognized for their protein @-@ destroying and bactericidal properties . Neutrophils can secrete products that stimulate monocytes and macrophages . Neutrophil secretions increase phagocytosis and the formation of reactive oxygen compounds involved in intracellular killing . Secretions from the primary granules of neutrophils stimulate the phagocytosis of IgG @-@ antibody @-@ coated bacteria .
= = = Dendritic cells = = =
Dendritic cells are specialized antigen @-@ presenting cells that have long outgrowths called dendrites , that help to engulf microbes and other invaders . Dendritic cells are present in the tissues that are in contact with the external environment , mainly the skin , the inner lining of the nose , the lungs , the stomach , and the intestines . Once activated , they mature and migrate to the lymphoid tissues where they interact with T cells and B cells to initiate and orchestrate the adaptive immune response . Mature dendritic cells activate T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells . The activated helper T cells interact with macrophages and B cells to activate them in turn . In addition , dendritic cells can influence the type of immune response produced ; when they travel to the lymphoid areas where T cells are held they can activate T cells , which then differentiate into cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells .
= = = Mast cells = = =
Mast cells have Toll @-@ like receptors and interact with dendritic cells , B cells , and T cells to help mediate adaptive immune functions . Mast cells express MHC class II molecules and can participate in antigen presentation ; however , the mast cell 's role in antigen presentation is not very well understood . Mast cells can consume and kill gram @-@ negative bacteria ( e.g. , salmonella ) , and process their antigens . They specialize in processing the fimbrial proteins on the surface of bacteria , which are involved in adhesion to tissues . In addition to these functions , mast cells produce cytokines that induce an inflammatory response . This is a vital part of the destruction of microbes because the cytokines attract more phagocytes to the site of infection .
= = Non @-@ professional phagocytes = =
Dying cells and foreign organisms are consumed by cells other than the " professional " phagocytes . These cells include epithelial cells , endothelial cells , fibroblasts , and mesenchymal cells . They are called non @-@ professional phagocytes , to emphasize that , in contrast to professional phagocytes , phagocytosis is not their principal function . Fibroblasts , for example , which can phagocytose collagen in the process of remolding scars , will also make some attempt to ingest foreign particles .
Non @-@ professional phagocytes are more limited than professional phagocytes in the type of particles they can take up . This is due to their lack of efficient phagocytic receptors , in particular opsonins — which are antibodies and complement attached to invaders by the immune system . Additionally , most nonprofessional phagocytes do not produce reactive oxygen @-@ containing molecules in response to phagocytosis .
= = Pathogen evasion and resistance = =
A pathogen is only successful in infecting an organism if it can get past its defenses . Pathogenic bacteria and protozoa have developed a variety of methods to resist attacks by phagocytes , and many actually survive and replicate within phagocytic cells .
= = = Avoiding contact = = =
There are several ways bacteria avoid contact with phagocytes . First , they can grow in sites that phagocytes are not capable of traveling to ( e.g. , the surface of unbroken skin ) . Second , bacteria can suppress the inflammatory response ; without this response to infection phagocytes cannot respond adequately . Third , some species of bacteria can inhibit the ability of phagocytes to travel to the site of infection by interfering with chemotaxis . Fourth , some bacteria can avoid contact with phagocytes by tricking the immune system into " thinking " that the bacteria are " self " . Treponema pallidum — the bacterium that causes syphilis — hides from phagocytes by coating its surface with fibronectin , which is produced naturally by the body and plays a crucial role in wound healing .
= = = Avoiding engulfment = = =
Bacteria often produce proteins or sugars that coat their cells and interfere with phagocytosis ; these are called capsules . Some examples are the K5 capsule and O75 O antigen found on the surface of Escherichia coli , and the exopolysaccharide capsules of Staphylococcus epidermidis . Streptococcus pneumoniae produces several types of capsule that provide different levels of protection , and group A streptococci produce proteins such as M protein and fimbrial proteins to block engulfment . Some proteins hinder opsonin @-@ related ingestion ; Staphylococcus aureus produces Protein A to block antibody receptors , which decreases the effectiveness of opsonins .
= = = Survival inside the phagocyte = = =
Bacteria have developed ways to survive inside phagocytes , where they continue to evade the immune system . To get safely inside the phagocyte they express proteins called " invasins " . When inside the cell they remain in the cytoplasm and avoid toxic chemicals contained in the phagolysosomes . Some bacteria prevent the fusion of a phagosome and lysosome , to form the phagolysosome . Other pathogens , such as Leishmania , create a highly modified vacuole inside the phagocyte , which helps them persist and replicate . Some bacteria are capable of living inside of the phagolysosome . Staphylococcus aureus , for example , produces the enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase , which break down chemicals — such as hydrogen peroxide — produced by phagocytes to kill bacteria . Bacteria may escape from the phagosome before the formation of the phagolysosome : Listeria monocytogenes can make a hole in the phagosome wall using enzymes called listeriolysin O and phospholipase C.
= = = Killing = = =
Bacteria have developed several ways of killing phagocytes . These include cytolysins , which form pores in the phagocyte 's cell membranes , streptolysins and leukocidins , which cause neutrophils ' granules to rupture and release toxic substances , and exotoxins that reduce the supply of a phagocyte 's ATP , needed for phagocytosis . After a bacterium is ingested , it may kill the phagocyte by releasing toxins that travel through the phagosome or phagolysosome membrane to target other parts of the cell .
= = = Disruption of cell signaling = = =
Some survival strategies often involve disrupting cytokines and other methods of cell signaling to prevent the phagocyte 's responding to invasion . The protozoan parasites Toxoplasma gondii , Trypanosoma cruzi , and Leishmania infect macrophages , and each has a unique way of taming them . Some species of Leishmania alter the infected macrophage 's signalling , repress the production of cytokines and microbicidal molecules — nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species — and compromise antigen presentation .
= = Host damage by phagocytes = =
Macrophages and neutrophils , in particular , play a central role in the inflammatory process by releasing proteins and small @-@ molecule inflammatory mediators that control infection but can damage host tissue . In general , phagocytes aim to destroy pathogens by engulfing them and subjecting them to a battery of toxic chemicals inside a phagolysosome . If a phagocyte fails to engulf its target , these toxic agents can be released into the environment ( an action referred to as " frustrated phagocytosis " ) . As these agents are also toxic to host cells , they can cause extensive damage to healthy cells and tissues .
When neutrophils release their granule contents in the kidney , the contents of the granule ( reactive oxygen compounds and proteases ) degrade the extracellular matrix of host cells and can cause damage to glomerular cells , affecting their ability to filter blood and causing changes in shape . In addition , phospholipase products ( e.g. , leukotrienes ) intensify the damage . This release of substances promotes chemotaxis of more neutrophils to the site of infection , and glomerular cells can be damaged further by the adhesion molecules during the migration of neutrophils . The injury done to the glomerular cells can cause renal failure .
Neutrophils also play a key role in the development of most forms of acute lung injury . Here , activated neutrophils release the contents of their toxic granules into the lung environment . Experiments have shown that a reduction in the number of neutrophils lessens the effects of acute lung injury , but treatment by inhibiting neutrophils is not clinically realistic , as it would leave the host vulnerable to infection . In the liver , damage by neutrophils can contribute to dysfunction and injury in response to the release of endotoxins produced by bacteria , sepsis , trauma , alcoholic hepatitis , ischemia , and hypovolemic shock resulting from acute hemorrhage .
Chemicals released by macrophages can also damage host tissue . TNF @-@ α is an important chemical that is released by macrophages that causes the blood in small vessels to clot to prevent an infection from spreading . However , if a bacterial infection spreads to the blood , TNF @-@ α is released into vital organs , which can cause vasodilation and a decrease in plasma volume ; these in turn can be followed by septic shock . During septic shock , TNF @-@ α release causes a blockage of the small vessels that supply blood to the vital organs , and the organs may fail . Septic shock can lead to death .
= = Evolutionary origins = =
Phagocytosis is common and probably appeared early in evolution , evolving first in unicellular eukaryotes . Amoebae are unicellular protists that separated from the tree leading to metazoa shortly after the divergence of plants , and they share many specific functions with mammalian phagocytic cells . Dictyostelium discoideum , for example , is an amoeba that lives in the soil and feeds on bacteria . Like animal phagocytes , it engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis mainly through Toll @-@ like receptors , and it has other biological functions in common with macrophages . Dictyostelium discoideum is social ; it aggregates when starved to form a migrating pseudoplasmodium or slug . This multicellular organism eventually will produce a fruiting body with spores that are resistant to environmental dangers . Before the formation of fruiting bodies , the cells will migrate as a slug @-@ like organism for several days . During this time , exposure to toxins or bacterial pathogens has the potential to compromise survival of the species by limiting spore production . Some of the amoebae engulf bacteria and absorb toxins while circulating within the slug , and these amoebae eventually die . They are genetically identical to the other amoebae in the slug ; their self @-@ sacrifice to protect the other amoebae from bacteria is similar to the self @-@ sacrifice of phagocytes seen in the immune system of higher vertebrates . This ancient immune function in social amoebae suggests an evolutionarily conserved cellular foraging mechanism that might have been adapted to defense functions well before the diversification of amoebae into higher forms . However , a common ancestry with mammalian phagocytes has not been proven . Phagocytes occur throughout the animal kingdom , from marine sponges to insects and lower and higher vertebrates . The ability of amoebae to distinguish between self and non @-@ self is a pivotal one , and is the root of the immune system of many species of amoeba .
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= Puerto Rican Campaign =
The Puerto Rican Campaign was an American military sea and land operation on the island of Puerto Rico during the Spanish – American War . The offensive began on May 12 , 1898 , when the United States Navy attacked the archipelago 's capital , San Juan . Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal , the Americans were able to establish a blockade in the city 's harbor , San Juan Bay . On June 22 , the cruiser Isabel II and the destroyer Terror delivered a Spanish counterattack , but were unable to break the blockade and the Terror was damaged .
The land offensive began on July 25 , when 1 @,@ 300 infantry soldiers led by Major General Nelson A. Miles disembarked off the coast of Guánica . After controlling the first skirmish , the Americans advanced to Coamo , where they engaged Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in battle . The battle concluded when the allied soldiers retreated after the battle left two dead on their side , and four on the American side . The United States was able to seize control of Fajardo on August 1 , but were forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican @-@ Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city , while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse . The Americans encountered larger opposition as they advanced towards the main island 's interior . They engaged in two crossfires in Guamani River and Coamo , both of which were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated . A battle in San Germán concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares .
On August 9 , 1898 , American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured . They returned three days later , reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack . In the subsequent crossfire , confused soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and five American officers were gravely injured , which prompted a retreat order . All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13 , after U.S. President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon , acting on behalf of the Spanish government , signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territories of Puerto Rico , Cuba , the Philippines and Guam .
= = Prelude = =
In 1890 , Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan , a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker , wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy . Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and naval stations , and which would serve as strategical points of defense upon the construction of a canal in the Isthmus .
This idea was not new , since William H. Seward , the former Secretary of State under the administrations of various presidents , among them Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant , had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras , Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba . The idea of annexing the Dominican Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba . Mahan made the following statement to the War Department :
Since 1894 , the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain . By 1896 , the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters . Not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval station , Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked : sugar .
Following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor , Cuba , the United States forwarded an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw from Cuba . In response , Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States , and on April 23 , 1898 , Spain declared war . On April 25 , the U.S. Congress declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 20 . One of the United States ' principal objectives in the Spanish – American War was to take control of Spanish possessions in the Atlantic — Puerto Rico and Cuba — and their possessions in the Pacific — the Philippines and Guam .
On April 27 , U.S. ships , the monitor USS Puritan , the armored cruisers USS New York , and the USS Cincinnati , bombarded the Spanish fortifications at Matanzas Bay in Cuba . By July 16 , an armistice was signed at the Arbol de La Paz ( a large ceiba tree ) in Santiago de Cuba by U.S. and Spanish forces ending hostilities in Cuba and its waters . The United States then directed its undivided military resources to Puerto Rico . Two leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party , Dr. Julio J. Henna and Roberto H. Todd , had written to U.S. President McKinley asking that Puerto Rico be included in whatever intervention was planned for Cuba as early as March 10 . They even provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island .
= = = Spanish preparations = = =
With the outbreak of war , the Spanish Crown sent the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican provisional battalions to defend Cuba against the American invaders , depleting the Puerto Rican troops in the island . The 1st Puerto Rican Provisional Battalion , composed of the Talavera Cavalry and Krupp artillery , was sent to Santiago de Cuba where they battled the American forces in the Battle of San Juan Hill . After the battle , the Puerto Rican battalion suffered a total of 70 casualties which included their dead , wounded , MIA 's and prisoners . The Spanish appointed Governor of Puerto Rico , Manuel Macías y Casado , declared martial law , resolving to resist the American forces . He declared : ' Providence will not permit that in these countries which were discovered by the Spanish nation the echo of our language should ever cease to be heard , nor that our flag should disappear before the eyes … . Long live Puerto Rico , always Spanish . Long live Spain . " Macías y Casado hoped that a grant of autonomy would ensure that Puerto Ricans would remain loyal to the Spanish crown .
= = = American preparations = = =
The Spanish Crown was unaware that , at the time , the United States had successfully infiltrated the island with a number of spies , among them Henry Howard Whitney , Henry Ward , George Bronson Brea , William Freeman , James Dewel , Frederick Ober and Edwin Emerson , Jr .
According to a story published in Century magazine in September 1898 , Edwin Emerson , Jr . , was pretending to be a German journalist . He presented himself to the German Consul in St. Thomas and asked for the names of Puerto Ricans of German descent whom he could interview . Among the names which the consul gave him were that of the Riefkohl family of the town of Maunabo . Upon his arrival in the town of Maunabo he met 14 @-@ year @-@ old Rudolph W. Riefkohl and asked the lad in German if he had a map of Puerto Rico ( Emerson had lost his ) . Riefkohl answered that he did , however it was decidedly too big for Emerson 's use . Riefkohl returned home , not knowing that Emerson was a spy , and quickly drew another with a depiction of the major ports and harbors of Puerto Rico . Emerson used the map and it is believed by some that he may have given the map to the U.S. Army Commanding General , Nelson A. Miles , influencing Mile 's decision on the landing points for the invasion of Puerto Rico . A photostatic copy of Riefkohl 's map was published in the Century article .
= = The naval campaign in Puerto Rico ( May 8 – August 13 ) = =
= = = First actions = = =
The first engagement between the belligerents occurred on May 8 , 1898 , when the converted liner USS Yale captured a Spanish freighter , the Rita in San Juan Bay . On May 9 , Yale fought a brief battle with an unknown Spanish auxiliary cruiser , resulting in a Spanish victory . Around this time , Captain Ángel Rivero Méndez was assigned the command of the Spanish forces at the fortress of San Cristóbal in San Juan . On May 10 , when Yale returned to San Juan Bay , Rivero @-@ Méndez ordered his men to open fire on the steamer with an Ordoñez 15 centimeter cannon , in the first attack against American forces in Puerto Rico during the Spanish – American War . For his actions , Rivero @-@ Mendez was awarded the " Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar " ( The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit ) first class .
= = = Bombardment of San Juan = = =
The Bombardment of San Juan or the First Battle of San Juan ( not to be confused with the Battle of San Juan Hill or the Battle for the Río San Juan de Nicaragua ) refers to an American naval attack on the fortifications of San Juan , Puerto Rico during the Spanish – American War . The American Naval commanders believed the bulk of the Spanish Fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete was steaming from the Cape Verde Islands to the Antilles and ultimately to Puerto Rico . With this understanding , Rear Admiral William T. Sampson and a squadron of ten American warships , the battleships USS Iowa , Indiana , New York , cruisers USS Montgomery and Detroit , monitors USS Amphitrite and Terror , torpedo boat USS Porter , two unidentified auxiliary cruisers , and an unarmed collier had stood out from Havana at noon on May 2 bound for Puerto Rico . Sampson intended to intercept and destroy the Spanish squadron and then move on to attack secondary shore targets- San Juan 's castles , forts and batteries and was unaware that Topete had already eluded them and slipped his squadron into the Bay of Santiago .
On May 12 , Sampson 's squadron arrived at San Juan , finding an empty harbor instead of the anticipated Spanish fleet . Making the best of the situation and as an exercise for his untested gunners , Sampson ordered the bombardment of the city 's citadels . Captains Ramón Acha Caamaño and José Antonio Iriarte were among those who defended the city form Fort San Felipe del Morro . They had three batteries under their command , which were armed with at least three 15 cm Ordóñez cannons . The battle lasted three hours and resulted in the death of Justo Esquivies , the first Puerto Rican soldier to die in the Puerto Rican Campaign . Caamaño was awarded the " Cruz de la Orden de Merito Militar " ( The Cross of the Order of the Military Merit ) first class for his actions .
After causing much damage to the Spanish defenses and receiving minor damage , low on coal and ammunition , Sampson ordered a cease fire and returned to Havana , Cuba and then on to Key West , Florida for repairs and supplies .
= = = Second Battle of San Juan = = =
On June 22 , 1898 , the USS Saint Paul under the command of Captain Charles Sigsbee arrived at San Juan Bay from Cuba and joined the blockade . Shortly after midday the old Spanish cruiser Isabel II set off from San Juan to engage the Saint Paul with support from shore batteries . Isabel opened fire on Saint Paul at long range without success in an attempt to break the blockade . Terror , a Spanish destroyer docked in San Juan for repairs , attempted to cover the cruiser 's escape with a torpedo attack but was thwarted when her rudder was damaged by a direct hit from the Saint Paul . Losing steerage , Terror inadvertently turned broadside , allowing Saint Paul to score direct hits near Terror 's waterline , disabling one of her engines and causing her to list . Terror abandoned the attack and returned to port , followed by Isabel II . On June 26 , USS Saint Paul was relieved by USS Yosemite , which continued the blockade of San Juan Bay .
= = = Third Battle of San Juan = = =
On June 28 , 1898 , the American auxiliary cruiser USS Yosemite fought with a squadron of Spanish warships . This squadron consisted of one cruiser , two gunboats and one blockade runner . During the engagement , the SS Antonio López , a transoceanic steamer belonging to the Compañía Transatlántica Española carrying a cargo of needed military supplies , was pursued by Yosemite until and the Spanish freighter ran aground at Ensenada Honda , Puerto Rico with her valuable cargo . Capt. Caamaño was in charge of retrieving the ship 's cargo and the men under his command quickly removed as much of the stranded ship 's cargo as possible . The desperate efforts proved fruitful , and nearly the entire cargo was salvaged from the hulk with only minor articles and a cannon that had fallen overboard during salvage attempts being lost .
On 15 July , the cruiser USS New Orleans arrived to relieve Yosemite , and the quickly finished off the Antonio Lopez the next day by firing twenty incendiary shells into the vessel and sinking it . Though Antonio Lopez had been sunk , her cargo was successfully delivered and ensured that any American assault on San Juan would be met with stronger resistance . Caamaño was awarded the " Cruz de la Orden de Merito Naval " ( The Cross of the Order of the Naval Merit ) by the Spanish government .
The residents of San Juan were furious with Capt. Rivero @-@ Méndez and blamed him for the destruction wreaked on their city by American bombardments . Nothing came of those recriminations and Capt. Rivero @-@ Méndez was ordered to turn over the keys of all the military installations in San Juan to Captain Henry A. Reed of the U.S. Army after the Treaty of Paris of 1898 was signed .
= = The land campaign in Puerto Rico ( July 25 – August 13 ) = =
= = = Landing in Guánica = = =
The Spanish forces expected the Americans to attack the northern region of the island and concentrated their defenses around San Juan and Arecibo . The Spanish government was also aware of a planned landing by the Americans at Fajardo , located on the east coast and had that town fortified . However , the southern and western regions of Puerto Rico were left with little or no defenses at all .
After Cuba was taken , President William McKinley approved the land invasion of Puerto Rico by way of Fajardo , taking into consideration that the Spaniards had fortified San Juan , where they expected the initial attack . A convoy of ships left Tampa , Florida and on July 21 another convoy , which included the USS Yale , USS Massachusetts , USS Gloucester and the USS Dixie , departed from Guantánamo for a 4 @-@ day journey to Puerto Rico .
Major General Miles traveled aboard the USS Yale . While approaching the Mona Passage that separates Puerto Rico from the island of Hispaniola to the east , Miles opted to land his troops in the southern region of the island , choosing Guánica as his landing zone . Miles dispatched patrol boats to notify all other convoys of his decision and to order them to proceed to Guanica . Miles ' decision to change the invasion site was based on his belief that the town of Fajardo would be fortified and he feared that Spanish coastal gun boats would disrupt a landing at Fajardo .
On July 25 , General Miles , 1 @,@ 300 infantry soldiers of the 3 @,@ 300 total that were assigned for the initial invasion and a convoy of ships , under the command of Naval Captain Francis J. Higginson of the USS Massachusetts arrived at Guánica Bay . The following Navy ships and Army troopships were part of the convoy : USS Yale with Generals Miles and George A. Garretson embarked , USS Windom carrying General Guy V. Henry , USS Columbia , USS Gloucester , USS Dixie , USS Wasp and the U.S. Army transports Lampasas , Unionist , Stillwater and Specialist . Two captured Spanish ships , Nueces and Rita that had been confiscated by USS Yale as war prizes were also used .
In 1898 , Guánica was a small barrio within the jurisdiction of the town of Yauco . It had 60 houses in all and its only defense was eleven members of the 4th Volante de Yauco , a Puerto Rican militia unit , under the command of Lieutenant Enrique Méndez López . When the Guánica lighthouse keeper Robustiano Rivera spotted the approaching convoy , he immediately gave the alert to the residents of the barrio . All of the residents , with the exception Agustín Barrenechea , Vicente Ferrer , Juan María Morciglio , Simón Mejil , Salvador Muñoz , Cornelio Serrano and Pascual Elena who welcomed the invaders , abandoned their homes and joined Rivera on his journey to Yauco where he broke the news of the invading forces to the city 's mayor .
= = = First skirmish = = =
The Gloucester was the first ship to set anchor in the Bay of Guánica . Twenty @-@ eight sailors and Marines , under the command of Lieutenants H. P. Huse and Wood , departed from the ship on rafts and landed on the beach . The Marines lowered the Spanish flag from the beach flagpole and replaced it with the American flag . They then proceeded to set up a machine gun nest and placed barbed wire around their perimeter . The first land skirmish in Puerto Rico between the Puerto Rican militia and the American forces occurred when Lt. Méndez López and his men attacked and opened fire on the Americans . During the small battle which followed , the Americans returned fire with their machine gun and the Gloucester began to bombard the Spanish position . Lt. Méndez López and three of his men were wounded and the militia unit was forced to retreat to the town of Yauco .
= = = Invasion = = =
After the skirmish was over , men from the Lampasas landed on the beach to secure the area and to build a landing dock . 3 @,@ 300 American soldiers under the command of General Miles landed . The units that landed were the 6th Volunteer Regiments of Illinois and Massachusetts , an Artillery battalion , five battery companies , two engineer companies and a medical unit . The men who had not abandoned the barrio of Guanica swore allegiance to the United States . Garretson named Agustín Barrenechea mayor of Guanica and Simón Mejil the chief of police . On the afternoon of the 25th , Garretson left Guánica with seven companies of the 6th Massachusetts and one company of the 6th Illinois and headed towards Yauco .
Secretary of War Russell A. Alger learned about the landing at Guanica the next day when he read an Associated Press report in a local Washington , D.C. newspaper . The War Department had ordered Miles to invade Puerto Rico by way of San Juan and therefore Alger was completely surprised with the report . Miles would have been subject to disciplinary actions had the invasion not gone so smoothly . Alger received the following cable from Miles three days after the invasion :
= = = Battle of Yauco = = =
After Rivera , the keeper of the Guánica lighthouse , notified Atilio Gaztambide , the mayor of the town of Yauco , located six miles ( 10 km ) north of Guánica , of the American invasion of Guánica , the mayor in turn notified Governor Macías via telegraph . Governor Macías ordered Captain Salvador Meca and his 3rd company of the 25th Patria Battalion from Yauco to head for Guánica . Meca and his men were joined by Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Puig , who assumed command of the Spanish forces at Hacienda Desideria two miles ( 3 km ) from Guánica . Puig arrived with two companies known as " Cazador Patria Battalion " , and they were joined by Puerto Rican volunteers , the Civil Guards , and mounted guerrillas from the towns of Yauco and Sabana Grande . Puig had the men positioned on both sides of the road that ran from Guánica to the coffee Hacienda Desideria ( owned by Antonio Mariani ) in Yauco , as well as an infantry company positioned on a hill south of the hacienda .
In the meantime , Garretson , set out of Guánica with his men towards Yauco with the intention of capturing the Yauco rail terminus that ran between that town and the City of Ponce , the largest city in the southern region of the island . Garretson and his men arrived in the darkness of night and was informed by his scouts of the possibility of a hostile situation at the Hacienda Desideria . He ordered the Illinois company and two companies ( companies L and M ) of the 6th Massachusetts to occupy a small hill on his right that overlooked the hacienda .
Captain San Pedro detected the movements of the American troops from his positions on a nearby hill and ordered his men to open fire . Garretson then ordered a direct attack on the Spanish and Puerto Rican forces in the hacienda . At day break , the 6th Massachusetts overran the Spanish forces and suffered four casualties . Puig was expecting reinforcements from Yauco which did not arrive and was ordered to disengage and retreat . Before retreating the right wing of the Spanish force , which was not overrun , initiated a flanking attack against two positions held by the Illinois and Massachusetts companies . The unexpected strength of the Spanish force caused some of the 6th Massachusetts troops to momentarily panic , but the Spanish forces were eventually driven off . Puig and his forces suffered two officers and three soldiers wounded and two soldiers dead .
Puig and his men retreated towards Yauco , but failed to destroy the rail terminus which connected the town to the city of Ponce , and proceeded to march towards the town of Peñuelas . Garretson 's troops entered Yauco in the afternoon of July 26 and on July 27 Puig 's men continued their march , leaving their artillery and heavy equipment behind , passing the towns of Adjuntas and Utuado and finally arriving at the town of Arecibo on the northern coast of the island on July 29 . Col. Puig , believing that he would be dishonored and accused by the Spanish Government of abandoning military equipment during his retreat , committed suicide on August 2 .
Miles , upon learning about the lack of discipline of the 6th Massachusetts during the battle , ordered an investigation . The 6th Massachusetts was sent on a hard march from Guánica to Ponce as punishment and the regimental commander , a lieutenant colonel , a major , and a captain resigned upon request .
= = = Battle of Fajardo = = =
On August 1 , the monitors USS Puritan , USS Amphitrite , armed tug USS Leyden , and collier USS Hannibal were sailing off the coast of Fajardo on the northeast corner of Puerto Rico , when Captain Frederick W. Rodgers , Puritan 's commanding officer and senior officer afloat , spotted the " Faro de Las Cabezas de San Juan " ( Cape San Juan Lighthouse ) that had been designated the landing site for the US Army 's invasion of Puerto Rico . Rodgers ordered a reconnaissance landing party ashore , including Puerto Rican volunteers . The sailors advanced to within a half mile of Fajardo , about five miles from the coast , but withdrew when they encountered Spanish troops .
The 25 @-@ man Spanish garrison stationed in Fajardo was alerted to the American presence and ordered to withdraw after notifying their superiors in San Juan . When Dr. Santiago Veve Calzada , a Fajardan , realized that the garrison was abandoned and his town defenseless against the invading Americans , he implored the Spanish authorities in San Juan to dispatch troops to defend Fajardo . Losing hope that Spanish troops would come to the town 's aid , Veve went to the lighthouse to seek protection for the town from the Americans . On the afternoon of August 5 , Veve entered Fajardo with a contingent of bluejackets and United States flags were hoisted over the Fajardo Customs House at the harbor and City Hall . On the evening of August 6 , Captain Charles J. Barclay of Amphitrite ordered 28 sailors and 7 officers commanded by Lt. Charles N. Atwater and Assistant Engineer David J. Jenkins ashore to relight and occupy the Fajardo Light . They were also ordered to quarter 60 women and children of the town 's families that were deemed in danger for having sided with the Americans . As the first group of sailors was entering the darkened lighthouse , Naval Cadet William H. Boardman was mortally wounded when his revolver fell from a faulty holster and discharged into his thigh , cutting the femoral artery . His was one of only two Navy deaths during the Puerto Rican campaign .
On August 4 , Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado sent Colonel Pedro del Pino and about 220 troops , including civil guardsmen to recapture the city . When Colonel Pino entered Fajardo on August 7 , he found it nearly deserted because the residents , fearing a battle , had fled to the Fajardo Light and the surrounding hills . At close to midnight on August 8 , Pino 's troops began their assault on the lighthouse . The landing party of Amphitrite 's sailors occupying the lighthouse doused the light and signaled the ships offshore , initiating shore bombardment as the naval guns began firing a protective pattern . After two hours , the Spanish forces retreated back to the town . The Americans suffered no casualties , despite a close call when a wayward naval shell smashed through the 2 @-@ foot thick walls of the lighthouse within touch of 6 men but failed to explode . The Spanish losses were 2 dead and 3 wounded , including a lieutenant .
Early the next morning , Barclay decided the continued occupation of the lighthouse was of marginal value and ordered his men back to the ship . A landing party of 30 sailors from Amphitrite and a similar number of U.S. Marines from the USS Cincinnati under Lieutenant John A. Lejeune came ashore to secure the area while the 60 Fajardan civilians boarded the Leyden for passage to Ponce and the lighthouse was abandoned to the Spaniards . In Fajardo , Pino 's men tore down the U.S. flags that flew over the harbor Customs House and City Hall , returning to San Juan after verifying that the lighthouse was abandoned . The contingent of about 20 civil guards that had accompanied Pino , were left to maintain order in the town . The skirmish at Fajardo was the only time that American forces withdrew from a position during the Puerto Rican Campaign .
= = = Battle of Guayama = = =
After the town of Yauco was taken , Miles decided to attack the City of Ponce by sea and by land . Garretson 's 6th Illinois and 6th Massachusetts had returned to Guanica and after the troops rested , Garretson and his men were ordered to move eastward to Ponce . Lt. Col. Rafael Martinez Illecas , in charge of the Spanish forces in that city , had pulled out , leaving behind a small garrison of 300 volunteers to hold the town . When the American forces arrived in Ponce they met no resistance and the Spanish volunteers surrendered to the invaders . The American forces were not the only ones who participated in the taking of Ponce . Members of the Puerto Rican Commission , which included the leader of the Intentona de Yauco revolt , Antonio Mattei Lluberas and his group , arrived in Ponce aboard the USS St. Louis and were assigned to the headquarters of General Miles . From this group Miles organized the " Porto Rican Scouts " , which was later assigned to General Theodore Schwan , under the command of Edwardo Lugo Viñas . Miles then ordered Brigadier General Peter G. Hains and the men of the 3rd Illinois , 4th Ohio and 4th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiments to take Arroyo , a small port 60 miles east of Ponce that served the larger , nearby coastal town of Guayama . Arroyo was taken on August 2 and on August 5 Hanes ordered the 4th Ohio , the 3rd Illinois and a battery of Sims @-@ Dudley guns , manned by Company G of the 4th Ohio , to capture Guayama .
Spanish forces were entrenched on the crest of two small hills , between which the road from Arroyo to Guayama ran . The Americans had crossed a stream in front of the hills when suddenly the Spanish opened fire . The Americans protected their position by the stream and increased their firepower as more reinforcements arrived . The outnumbered Spanish troops retreated to Guayama as the Americans made their advance on the hills . The firefight , which lasted half an hour , left three American wounded . When the 4th Ohio entered the town they discovered that the Spaniards had fled north and abandoned the city , ending the Battle of Guayama . General John Rutter Brooke used the Cautiño Residence ( Casa Cautiño ) by the town square in Guayama as his military headquarters .
= = = = Battle of the Guamaní River Bridge = = = =
On August 6 , Colonel Coit sent two companies of the 4th Ohio on a reconnaissance mission across and beyond a cast iron bridge that crossed the Río Guamaní ( Guamaní River ) . The road beyond the bridge was essential for General Hains ' projected advance to the town of Cayey . The 4th Ohio observed elements of Spain 's 6th Provisional Battalion under the command of Julio Cervera Baviera entrenched in Guamaní Heights , six miles north of the bridge . The 4th felt that they were too strongly entrenched to attempt an assault at the time . The 4th Ohio requested reinforcements and on August 9 , attacked the Spaniards and a short firefight erupted . The numerical superiority of the Americans forced the Spanish to retreat from Guamaní Heights . This battle was the costliest battle yet for the Americans since their landing at Guánica , as it resulted in seven wounded . The Spanish forces suffered 2 dead and 15 wounded .
= = = Battle of Coamo = = =
Shortly after the American soldiers disembarked , a group of Spanish and Puerto Rican units began moving from Ponce to Aibonito , marching through the Carretera Central ( Central Road ) . The caravan was composed of two companies of the Batallón de Cazadores de la Patria ( Battalion of the Motherland 's Hunters ) and some members of the Civil Guard and a Puerto Rican guerilla force . A total of 248 infantry men and 42 members of the cavalry formed the battalions under the command of Lt. Col. Rafael Martínez Illescas , the same commander who was in charge of the Ponce garrison . Traveling by foot , the journey would last two days . The group decided to spend one night in the resort of the town of Coamo known as the Baños de Coamo before continuing their march in the morning . Martínez Illescas immediately ordered the construction of several trenches ; while building these , the soldiers were ambushed by an anti @-@ Spanish guerilla force , led by Pedro María Descartes , who managed to kill a member of the Civil Guard .
Meanwhile , two battalions of volunteers from Wisconsin and Pennsylvania , led by Generals Oswald H. Ernst and James H. Wilson , settled on opposite sides of the road to Coamo . On August 9 , 1898 , the Americans began their offensive , opening cannon fire against the city and completing their attack with artillery fire , the 3rd and 4th Regular Pennsylvania Artillery to provide artillery support for the frontal assault on the Baños , damaging the resort . The Americans intended to encircle and defeat the defenses in the city . A group of soldiers entered the city from the backside , having advanced through a river nearby . The rear assault was reinforced by Wilson 's army under General Ernst , attempting to trap the allied soldiers in a crossfire , employing a tactic known as the pincer movement . Martínez Illescas was surprised by the attack and led an improvised attack , but he was killed in the crossfire along with his second @-@ in @-@ command , leaving Captain Hita in charge ; he ordered his men to surrender . Half of the allied troops ignored the order , and continued the attack , Troop C galloped at top speed north from the Baños de Coamo , after finding the resort abandoned by the Spanish . Hita 's men were sent to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp located at Río Descalabrado , while the men who continued to attack retreated to Aibonito when they realized that the Americans were using a pincer movement .
= = = Battle of Silva Heights = = =
Brigadier General Theodore Schwan and 2 @,@ 896 men of his Independent Brigade had landed in Guanica and marched towards occupied Yauco . Schwan and his men were ordered to move westward and to capture the city of Mayagüez . Colonel Julio Soto Villanueva ordered 1 @,@ 500 Spanish Regulars of the 24th Rifle Battalion , six companies of the Alfonso XIII auxiliaries , and other scattered Spanish and Puerto Rican guerilla forces dispatched from the garrison at Mayagüez to meet and defeat Schwan . The Spanish forces entrenched themselves at a high ridge called Silva Heights , located at a road near the town of Hormigueros .
Schwan 's troops arrived in the town of San Germán and continued the march towards their objective . Troop A of Schwan 's 5th Cavalry approached Silva Heights and were soon engaged in a firefight when the Spanish forces opened fire . The Americans were aided by two companies of the 19th Infantry , supported by artillery and Gatling guns , as well as the 11th Infantry . The Spanish forces retreated after the American reinforcements brought them under intense fire . Schwan 's men set up camp on Silva Heights for the night and the following day they continued their drive to Mayagüez . They arrived the following morning to find that the Spanish forces had abandoned the city to retreat to the east towards Lares . Schwan did not follow Soto Villanueva , but instead was ordered to take the town of Las Marías . The outcome of the Silva Heights Battle left 3 Spanish dead , 6 wounded , and 136 prisoners . Schwan 's brigade suffered 15 wounded and 2 killed in action .
= = = Battle of Asomante = = =
The American cavalry pursued the soldiers that had retreated from Coamo , but were not able to reach them until the units had entered Aibonito Pass , a region more commonly known as Asomante . The region had been prepared by allied Puerto Rican and Spanish troops , who had built a trench and placed soldiers and equipment around the foliage . As soon as the soldiers noticed the presence of the invading unit they opened cannon fire . The cavalry received infantry reinforcements , which were received by battery fire . Six American soldiers were injured in the crossfire , prompting a retreat order . The allied units ( Spanish and Puerto Rican ) lost five soldiers and two civil guards . During the following two days the Americans decided to do a battlefield reconnaissance and Colonel S. Reber , developed a croquis of the Aibonito Pass . Spies were deployed throughout Coamo , including a Puerto Rican separatist named Carlos Patterne , who was able to enter the city without suspicion and contact Rufino Huertas , a separatist teacher . Huertas gave Patterne a series of defense plans that were previously developed and organized by Martínez Illescas . While inactive , the Puerto Rican soldiers deployed in Asomante completed rounds every two hours , working four hours daily . They mostly ate beans , some rice and meat , while conserving several cracker packs for Spanish reinforcements that were supposed to arrive . They slept in improvised huts that did not protect them from the rain .
The American commanders decided to attack the trenches with artillery , while sending a large group to Barranquitas , from which they would try to attack the allied troops from the back . At 10 : 30 a.m. Captain R.D. Potts led part of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment through the central highway to Aibonito . Lieutenants Bliss and O 'Hern led two units with similar equipment . At 1 : 00 p.m. the allied troops opened cannon fire as the Americans entered their range . Potts ordered the deployment of two batteries while O 'Hern received orders from Commander Landcaster to set a cannon at a distance of a 100 yards to the vanguard 's right . They intended to defeat a small group led by Captain Hernaíz . Shrapnel from allied cannon fire was falling close to Lancaster 's location , and he asked Potts to help him by deploying a battery nearby . One of Hernaíz 's Placensias cannons overheated , which forced him to order a temporary cease to the offensive . Landcaster believed that the opposition had been annihilated , ordered an advance . However the allied fire was renewed , this time supported by Mauser rifle fire . The sudden attack caused confusion among some soldiers , who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby . Fearing that the allied units could capture the American equipment , Landcaster ordered a retreat . Lieutenant Hains was gravely injured by a Mauser bullet , being replaced by Sergeant John Long . Meanwhile , most of Potts ' men fled the battlefield . In the crossfire the allied forces overpowered the American infantry , using Mauser fire to disorganize their artillery , during which time four American officials were gravely injured including Long , Lieutenant Harris , Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar Sawanson . Private Frederick Yough , Corporal August Yank , George J. Bruce and Private Sices also received injuries , with Yough subsequently dying . Harris ' position was filled by O 'Hern , while Sawanson was fatally shot while trying to support the artillery . In total the allied units had only an injured artillery man , while the American side had two dead and five injured . Wilson 's camp was the first to receive a telegram from General Miles notifying him that the war had ended . The Americans sent Bliss to Asomante , but Nouvilas refused to suspend the hostilities after receiving a telegram from Macías denying any peace treaty . All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended August 13 , after President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon , acting on behalf of the Spanish government , signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the territory of Puerto Rico .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Treaty of Paris of 1898 = = =
The Puerto Rico Campaign , which began with the Yales 's capture of the Rita on May 8 and ended on August 13 after the Treaty of Paris was signed , was short compared to the other campaigns in the Spanish – American War , because the war came to an end before the military objective of the campaign was completed . Among the factors which benefited the invaders in the short campaign was that the Puerto Ricans who resided in the southern and western towns and villages resented Spanish rule and tended to view the Americans as their liberators . Some Puerto Rican leaders such as José de Diego and Eugenio María de Hostos expected the United States to grant the island its independence and in the case of Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and the committee which he headed , greeted General Miles and the invaders in Ponce with banquets . Believing that Puerto Rico would gain its independence , a group of men staged an uprising in Ciales which became known as " El Levantamiento de Ciales " or the " Ciales Uprising of 1898 " and proclaimed Puerto Rico to be a republic . The Spanish authorities who were unaware that the cease fire had been signed brutally suppressed the uprising Another reason which can explain why the campaign was short and not as violent as the others is that the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Puerto Rican Provisional Battalions were in Cuba defending that island against the American invaders .
As stated in the introduction , the Puerto Rican Battalion suffered a total of 70 casualties which included their dead , wounded , MIA 's and prisoners . The Spanish , Puerto Ricans and Americans that participated in the campaign totaled 33 @,@ 472 . Of this total 18 @,@ 000 were Spanish , 10 @,@ 000 were Puerto Rican and 15 @,@ 472 were American military personnel . The Spanish and Puerto Rican suffered 429 casualties which included 17 dead , 88 wounded and 324 captured . The American forces suffered 43 casualties : 3 dead and 40 wounded . The commander of Spain 's 6th Provisional Battalion , Julio Cervera Baviera gained notoriety as the author of a pamphlet called La defensa de Puerto Rico , which supported Governor General Manuel Macías y Casado and in an attempt to justify Spain 's defeat against the United States , falsely blamed the Puerto Rican volunteers in the Spanish Army of the fiasco A group of angry Sanjuaneros agreed to challenge Cervera to a duel if the commander did not retract his pamphlet . The men drew lots for this honor ; it fell to José Janer y Soler and was seconded by Cayetano Coll y Toste y Leonidas Villalón . Cervera 's seconds were Colonel Pedro del Pino and Captain Emilio Barrera . The duel never took place , as Cervera explained his intentions in writing the pamphlet , and all parties were satisfied .
Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 , ratified on December 10 , 1898 , Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States . Spain had lost its last colony in the Western Hemisphere and the United States gained imperial strength and global presence . The United States established a military government and appointed Miles the first head of the military government established on the island , acting as both head of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs . Members of the Spanish forces and civilians who were loyal to the Spanish Crown were allowed to return to Spain . By October 18 , the Spanish withdrawal from Puerto Rico was completed as the final troops left San Juan for Spain . Those who belonged to the Spanish military who decided to stay in Puerto Rico were offered the option by the United States to serve in the newly formed " Porto Rico Regiment " . Some took the offer , such as Teófilo Marxuach , a former Lieutenant in the Spanish Army who joined the regiment , and others , such as Capt. Angel Rivero Méndez , declined the offer and retired from the military .
= = = ' Americanization " of Puerto Rico = = =
From 1898 to 1900 , Puerto Rico was governed by four military officers , Commanding General Nelson A. Miles ( 1898 ) , Major General John R. Brooke ( 1898 – 1898 ) , Major General Guy Vernon Henry ( 1898 – 1899 ) and Major General George Whitefield Davis ( 1899 – 1900 ) . Some of these men , such as Miles , Brooke and Henry were experienced veterans of the Indian Wars and , even though they were accustomed to the pacification and administration of the Native Americans , the U.S. Army had no previous experience in the administration of overseas territories . Henry stated : " It was an entirely new duty for American Army officers . There was no precedent in the experience of these so suddenly placed in charge of this our first real colony , upon which their policy could be based . "
The administration of Puerto Rico was the responsibility of the United States Department of War 's Division of Insular Affairs which was molded after the Bureau of Indian Affairs . Almost immediately , the United States began the ' Americanization " process of Puerto Rico . The U.S. occupation brought about a total change in Puerto Rico 's economy and polity and did not apply democratic principles to the colony . Puerto Rico was classified as an ' unincorporated territory " which meant that the protections of the United States Constitution did not automatically apply because the island belonged to the U.S. , but was not part of the U.S.
In 1899 , U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar described Puerto Ricans as " uneducated , simple @-@ minded and harmless people who were only interested in wine , women , music and dancing " and recommended that Spanish should be abolished in the island 's schools and only English should be taught . Schools became the primary vehicle of Americanization , and initially all classes were taught in English , which also made for a large dropout rate .
On January 15 , 1899 , the military government changed the name of Puerto Rico to Porto Rico ( On May 17 , 1932 , U.S. Congress changed the name back to " Puerto Rico " ) and the island 's currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the American dollar , integrating the island 's currency into the U.S. monetary system . The United States exerted its control over the economy of the island by prohibiting Puerto Rico from negotiating commercial treaties with other nations , from determining tariffs , and from shipping goods to the mainland on other than U.S. carriers .
= = = Civil disorder = = =
A state of civil disorder existed in the island 's mountainous region after the invasion of the United States . The local Criollo , who now found themselves unemployed and felt that they had been exploited by their former employers , formed bands called ' Partidas " . The Partidas , at first attacked and robbed many of the wealthy plantation owners , who were loyal to the Spanish Crown , in vengeance , however they later began to attack the businesses owned by the local natives . One of the most notable leaders of the Partidas was José Maldonado Román a.k.a. ' Aguila Blanca " . Maldonado , who operated in the areas of Juana Díaz and Ponce , harassed the Spanish Civil Guard and later did the same to the American Forces . Another factor contributing to the state of civil disorder on the island was the lack of discipline of the American troops who were stationed on the island . These troops were not professional soldiers and were composed of volunteers . Many instances were reported where these men would act disorderly , under the influence of alcohol , and get into fights with the local residents . The state of civil disorder came to a halt on the island after the military government began to rebuilt Puerto Rico 's infrastructure , thereby providing employment for many of the discontented and unemployed population , and when the volunteer troops were replaced by the regular Army .
= = = End of military rule and rise of the sugar economy = = =
Military rule was replaced by a civilian government by way of the Foraker Act of 1900 . However , the Act stipulated that the governor , chief of police and top officials were presidentially appointed and they were all to be Americans .
In 1901 , the first civilian U.S. governor of Puerto Rico , Charles Herbert Allen , installed himself as president of the largest suger @-@ refining company in the world , the American Sugar Refining Company . This company was later renamed as the Domino Sugar company . In effect , Charles Allen leveraged his governorship of Puerto Rico into a controlling interest over the entire Puerto Rican economy .
= = = 54 years after the end of the Puerto Rican Campaign = = =
In 1947 , the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor , which it first exercised in 1948 . The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6 , 1952 , ratified by the U.S. Congress , and approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year . Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre Asociado ( literally translated as " Free Associated State " ) , officially translated into English as Commonwealth , for its body politic .
= = Markers , monuments and tombstones = =
In Puerto Rico there are no monuments to commemorate the Spanish – American War as such . There are various markers where some of the historical events took place and some tombstones which honor both the American invaders and the Spanish and Puerto Rican defenders of the island . In the town of Guánica there is a rock on the coastal port with an inscription indicating that Major General Nelson A. Miles and his men landed on that spot . There is also a monument in the town dedicated to the veterans of the Spanish – American War , however said monument fails to specify to which veterans it is dedicated to , the Americans or the Spanish / Puerto Ricans . In Yauco there is a monument / tombstone dedicated to an unknown Spanish soldier who had fallen in combat and was left there on that very spot . In Coamo there are two markers that indicate where Rafael Martínez Illescas and Frutos López died . López 's tomb is located in the old cemetery of Coamo next to that of the tomb of the three unknown Puerto Rican soldiers who perished in that conflict . Martínez Illescas ' body was transferred in 1916 , to his hometown Cartagena in Spain where he is buried . The town of Guayama has a monument dedicated to the members of the 4th Ohio Infantry . In Asomante , there is a marker which indicates the place where the " Battle of Asomante " took place .
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= Thrive ( Casting Crowns album ) =
Thrive ( stylized as THRIVE ) is the sixth studio album by American contemporary Christian music band Casting Crowns . Released on January 28 , 2014 through Beach Street and Reunion Records , the album was produced by Mark A. Miller . Musically , the album , whose concept was inspired by Psalms 1 from the Bible , has a rock and contemporary Christian sound with influences from folk and bluegrass . The album received mostly positive reviews from music critics for its lyrics and musical diversity , but some critics felt that some songs were too similar to the work of other artists or to their own previous work .
Thrive sold 43 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week of release ; although this was short of projections to sell 75 @,@ 000 copies , it peaked at No. 6 on the Billboard 200 and No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , while also charting in Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , and the UK . The album was preceded by the lead single " All You 've Ever Wanted " , which peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart . It has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Background and composition = =
Thrive was recorded at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee , with producer Mark A. Miller . According to lead vocalist Mark Hall , the idea behind Thrive came from the student ministry he is involved in . As a youth pastor , Hall frequently uses Psalms 1 , which metaphorically compares the concept of a righteous man to a prosperous tree planted by a river . Hall said that many people he has talked with are simply surviving , which he feels contrasts with this — he felt that , although hard times can come upon anyone , people are not put in these situations to simply survive through them , but rather to thrive through the adversity . Using the metaphor , Hall noted that , if one were to pull away all the dirt from around a tree , one would find roots digging into the ground in addition to the limbs of the tree reaching out . Hall elaborated that " you need to get your strength from God ; you don ’ t get it on your own . If you ’ re all limbs , the thorns of life will knock you over . You need to dig your roots in and let God reach out through you " . Accordingly , half of the record focuses on ' reaching out ' , while the other half focuses on ' digging deep ' . Hall described the record as being " an effort to draw a picture of what a believer , a follower of Jesus , would look like if they dug into their roots and understood God and themselves more , and then instead of trying to go be Christian for God , they just let God give them chances to be a Christian " .
The music on Thrive has been described as contemporary Christian ; and rock it was also described as " mid ' 90s grunge rock with country flair " and the album as having " rock , pop , and worship " songs . Thrive was also noted to have influences from folk and bluegrass at times . The main instruments used on the album include the electric guitar , acoustic guitar , and piano . The songs have been called anthems that are intended for people in both jovial and trying times .
The first song on the album , the title track " Thrive " , has been described as having a folk pop sound similar to Mumford and Sons or Phillip Phillips . The banjo and mandolin are used in its arrangement in addition to electric guitars and backing vocals . " All You 've Ever Wanted " is led by a piano riff , and displays an adult contemporary sound similar to much of the rest of the band 's discography . " Just Be Held " also incorporates adult contemporary elements , with one critic comparing the song 's string arrangement to those on Downton Abbey , while " You Are the Only One " is a worship song . " Broken Together " , described as " Coldplay pop " , is a piano ballad ; the song 's protagonist " smashes the facade of a fairy @-@ tale relationship , forgoing the happy ending with the realization that ' maybe you and I were never meant to be complete ' " .
" Love You with the Truth " is a orchestral rock song , and has been described as a softer version of the music of Skillet . " This Is Now " and " Dream for You " utilize a mix of electric and acoustic guitars , with the latter noted as having a " bluesy " sound . " Follow Me " , a ballad with folk influences , is sung by Megan Garrett . " House of Their Dreams " thematically revolves around a family that has pursued material interests at the expense of being together ; musically , the song was compared to a softer version of the band 's song " American Dream " . " Waiting on the Night to Fall " is a warning against Satan , urging listeners not to become complacent .
= = Release and promotion = =
Prior to the release of Thrive , " All You 've Ever Wanted " was released as the album 's lead single . The song was released to Christian AC radio on September 14 , 2013 and as a digital download on September 24 , 2013 . The song has peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart , No. 10 on the Christian Airplay chart , and No. 2 on the Christian Digital Songs chart . Two other songs were released as downloads prior to the album 's release : " Thrive " , which peaked at No. 10 on the Christian Songs chart and No. 3 on the Christian Digital Songs chart , and " This Is Now " , which peaked at No. 15 on the Christian Songs chart and No. 3 on the Christian Digital Songs chart . Following the release of the album , two other songs ( " Broken Together " and " Just Be Held " ) charted on the Christian Songs chart at No. 45 and 50 , respectively .
Thrive was released on January 28 , 2014 . Billboard projected the album would sell around 75 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week , enough for a top @-@ ten debut on the Billboard 200 and a No. 1 debut on the Christian Albums chart . The album ultimately sold 43 @,@ 000 units , debuting at No. 1 on the Christian Albums chart , No. 6 on the Billboard 200 , and No. 8 on the Digital Albums chart . It went on to become the best @-@ selling Christian album of 2014 , shifting 339 @,@ 000 copies throughout the year .
The album also charted internationally . It debuted at No. 23 on the Billboard Canadian Albums Chart and No. 52 on the Dutch Albums chart . Although it did not chart on the main UK Albums Chart , it did reach No. 1 on the UK 's Official Christian & Gospel Albums Chart ; it also appeared on the Australia Hitseekers Albums chart , which ranks the top albums by artists who have not yet reached the top 50 on the main Australian Albums Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Thrive received mostly positive reviews from music critics . The album 's songwriting and musical diversity were generally praised . Joshua Andre of Christian Music Zine awarded the album four and a half out of five stars , describing the lyrics as " profound " while praising the music as the most innovative and varied the band had put out to date . Lins Honeyman of Cross Rhythms rated the album nine out of ten squares , calling it " outstanding " and praising its musically diversity . He also praised the band , saying they were " refreshingly willing to take a chance and most certainly at the top of the game " . Jonathan Andre of Indie Vision Music rated Thrive four out of five stars , calling it the band 's " most personal and musically diverse album to date " . Kate Padilla of The Daily Reporter praised both the album 's songwriting and sound , and felt that the album could be appreciated , regardless of whether or not the buyer listens to Christian radio .
Other critics praised the album 's overall quality , both in comparison to the band 's previous work and the Christian music genre . Ed Cardinal of Crosswalk.com described Thrive as " top quality " and described the majority of the album was marked by " intensity " , and said " It may not be the easiest , breeziest listen ... but this album can help fight that dark enemy with every play " . Kevin Davis of New Release Tuesday rated Thrive four and a half stars , ranking the album 's songs as among the best he had heard from group and saying that it is " sure to be one of the year 's best [ albums ] " . Laura Chambers of Christian Music Review rated the album 4 @.@ 9 out of 5 , describing it as " one of the best albums I ’ ve heard in a long time " . Although she noted the album covered some lyrical topics the band had discussed before , she felt this was not a bad thing , considering it " less of a rehash and more of a reminder " . Jeremy Armstrong of Worship Leader rated Thrive three and a half out of five stars , praising the band as having a " broad appeal " and describing the album as a " fine release " . At CM Addict , Brianne Bellomy rated the album four stars out of five , remarking that the release " is another power packed album full of songs that speak to everyone " . At About.com , Kim Jones rated Thrive four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , praising the album as being " delivered with [ ... ] passion " and saying that it has " arrows [ pointed ] straight to the heart " .
Other critics presented a more mixed response ; Mark Rice of Jesus Freak Hideout rated the album three out of five stars , arguing it was an improvement over their previous efforts in some respects but feeling it was , for the most part , either " stagnation or regression " . Although Piet Levy of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel praised the songwriting , saying it " stands out [ ... ] at times featuring troubled protagonists and earned redemption " , he felt several songs sounded too similar to the work of other artists . Brian Mansfield of USA Today rated it two and a half out of four stars , describing the band as " chameleonic " but praising " House of Their Dreams " and " Broken Together " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel and credits = =
Credits taken from Allmusic
= = Charts = =
Billboard named the album No. 1 for 2014 on its Christian Albums chart .
= = = Single charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
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= Ampelosaurus =
Ampelosaurus ( / ˌæmpᵻloʊˈsɔːrəs / AM @-@ pi @-@ lo @-@ SAWR @-@ əs ; meaning " vine lizard " ) is a titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur hailing from the Late Cretaceous Period of what is now Europe . Its type species is A. atacis , named by Le Loeuff in 1995 . A possible unnamed species has given Ampelosaurus an age reaching to the latest Cretaceous , from about 70 to 66 million years ago .
Like most sauropods , it would have had a long neck and tail but it also carried armor in the form of osteoderms . Over 500 bones have been assigned to Ampelosaurus and all but the braincase ( assigned to A. sp . ) has been assigned to A. atacis . They are assigned to the same species because all the differences in the limb proportions have been linked to individual variation . A. atacis is known from a few , well @-@ preserved teeth and some cranial material . A right scapula was discovered associated with a coracoid . The blade of the scapula , contrary to most titanosaurs , is triangular . The blade narrows at one end instead of showing an expansion like most other genera . A. atacis is also known from a pubis about 75 centimetres ( 30 in ) long and an ilium . Aside from that , it is known from a partial forelimb , and many femora .
Titanosaurians were a flourishing group of sauropod dinosaurs during Cretaceous times . The Spanish locality from the latest Cretaceous of “ Lo Hueco ” yielded a relatively well preserved , titanosaurian braincase , which shares a number of unique features with A. atacis from France . However , it appeared to differ from A. atacis in some traits also . The specimen has been provisionally identified as Ampelosaurus sp .. A. sp. is most likely a mature titanosaurian since the bones of the braincase have largely fused together .
Ampelosaurus lived alongside many other animals . Over 8500 specimens have been found alongside it , including gastropods , bivalves , crocodiles , other sauropods , plants and invertebrates in the Villalba de la Sierra , Gres de Saint @-@ Chinian , Marnes Rouges Inférieures and Gres de Labarre formations . Recent attention has made Ampelosaurus one of the most well @-@ known dinosaurs known from France .
= = Description = =
Like most sauropods , Ampelosaurus would have had a long neck and tail , but it also carried armor in the form of osteoderms 25 to 28 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 to 11 @.@ 0 in ) long . The four osteoderms found have three different morphologies , they are plate , bulb , and spine @-@ shaped . This dinosaur would have stretched up to about 15 metres ( 49 ft ) from snout to tail . Ampelosaurus atacis is known from many unattached bones and teeth . It is one of the best @-@ known dinosaurs from France . It is considered to be a dwarf sauropod by Coria et al . ( 2005 ) because it has a smaller size in comparison with its ancestors .
= = = Skeleton = = =
Ampelosaurus is one of the most completely known titanosaurian sauropods from Europe . Since 1989 , over 500 bones discovered at the Upper Cretaceous Bellevue locality of southern France have been assigned to A. atacis . An abundant amount of well @-@ preserved elements have been uncovered at Bellevue . In the original description , only a tooth and some vertebrae were examined . In 2005 , a complete description was made by Le Loueff of all known material , allowing Ampelosaurus to be much better understood . All the material has been assigned to the species , and even though there are some differences in limb proportions , it has all been linked to individual variation .
A. atacis is known from a few , well @-@ preserved teeth and some cranial material , a tooth of which was described in its original description . The teeth differentiate Ampelosaurus from Magyarosaurus and Lirainosaurus , both of which are also from Europe . The teeth are different from the two later genera as Ampelosaurus has teeth that are roughly cylindrical in the top with thin expansions at the bottom . They are 21 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 83 in ) high and about 6 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) wide . Those expansions give its teeth a slight constriction between the root and the crown . The teeth are also quite different from the peg @-@ like teeth of titanosaurids . The teeth , have a general morphology similar to titanosaurians Antarctosaurus and a braincase from Dongargaon . Another skull was described from southern France , but showed some differences , meaning there could have been at least two different titanosaurians in France during the Late Cretaceous .
The scapula was found attached to a coracoid . In the longer direction , the bone is 72 centimetres ( 28 in ) long . The blade of the scapula , contrary to titanosaurs , is triangular , larger closer to the base . The blade narrows distally instead of showing an expansion . Differing from Magyarosaurus and Saltasaurus , the scapula does not have the dorsal crest at the base of the scapular blade . The shape of the coracoid is quadrangular , and the coracoid has a thickened cranial margin .
Ampelosaurus is also known from a pubis , about 75 centimetres ( 30 in ) long . It has a strong distal expansion , that is similar to a titanosaur from Brazil , and a large foramen . Contrary to the South American titanosaurs , the ilium does not have an expansion on the side . The ischium , known from a shaft , is unexpanded distally and very well developed . It is also very flat . An incomplete radius is also known . It lacks the proximal and distal ends , and possesses a very prominent ridge along it . The largest and best @-@ preserved specimens are both ulnas . The right ulna has a total length of 395 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 6 in ) . The right ulna is small and slender , is missing an olecranon , and has a well @-@ marked ridge . The left ulna is larger , with a length of 725 millimetres ( 28 @.@ 5 in ) . The ulna has a deep radial fossa .
About 27 femora are known from Bellevue , making them the most common bone , most of them more @-@ or @-@ less complete . They are very flat craniocaudally but otherwise , lack any unusual features . In a study of its bone physiology , it was found that the maximum known femur length was 1 @,@ 100 millimetres ( 43 in ) , which is much larger than previously known ( 802 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 6 in ) ) . That means , that the ancestors Ampelosaurus were slightly smaller than itself . 18 humeri are also known , but none of them approach the size of the largest femur . The humeri do not have a free medullary cavity . The humeri are robust , about 63 centimetres ( 25 in ) long , with very expanded distal and proximal ends .
Three different types of osteoderms have been recovered at Bellevue . Two with large spines have been uncovered . At the base of each spine , which is about 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) tall , are two large foramina . The internal faces are all concavo @-@ convex and have a ridge opposite the spine . In side view , they have two sections , a low half that progressively thickens , and a spine .
= = = = Vertebrae = = = =
The holotype specimen of A. atacis is a group of three connected dorsal vertebrae . Cervical vertebrae are uncommon from Bellevue and most of them are poorly preserved . The vertebrae are opisthocoelous , with centra that lengthen toward the rear . Neural spines have been preserved on the vertebrae , and they face toward the rear . Two dorsal vertebrae were preserved with a complete , but very crushed neural arch , a neural spine with a characteristic shape : it is very widened distally and narrows downwards . The vertebrae also have an internal structure that is spongy , with very large cells . The caudal vertebrae are all strongly procoelous and are compressed on the sides . The neural spines of the caudal vertebrae are very narrow and very tall and point toward the rear . The middle caudal vertebrae are more compressed on the sides that the others . Also , the centrum of middle caudal vertebrae is longer proportionally . Two sacral vertebrae were known from Bellevue . They are poorly preserved , and are thought to belong to a juvenile . A complete sacrum was also found in 2002 .
= = = Distinguishing anatomical features = = =
This set of characters was identified by Le Loeuff in his description of Ampelosaurus to distinguish it from all other genera : teeth that weakly spatulate ; a laterally widening distal extremity of neural spines on the dorsal vertebrae ; neural arch of the dorsal vertebrae inclining strongly towards the rear ; the lack of a distal expansion on the scapular blade ; the presence of a light , ventral crest on top of the scapula ; the presence of plate , bulb , and spine shaped osteoderms ; and , in 2005 , Le Loeuff added that the constriction of the neural spine on the dorsal and cervical vertebrae was also probably a characteristic of Ampelosaurus .
= = = Ampelosaurus sp . = = =
A fossil braincase from Lo Hueco was tentatively assigned to an unnamed species of Ampelosaurus , A. sp . , in a 2013 article in the journal PLoS ONE . The braincase was found to share many features with A. atacis , such as a back of the skull that is flat . The braincase , MCCM @-@ HUE @-@ 8741 , is small in size overall , with a front @-@ to @-@ back length of 100 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 97 in ) , and the maximum width of the left half being 64 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 53 in ) . Parts of the bottom half of the braincase are missing . Even though section are missing , the specimen does not appear to have been deformed much , as the left and right halves are not very different .
Two frontals are preserved . They are each 57 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 26 in ) long and 64 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 53 in ) wide . The upper surface of each frontal is not smooth . One crest runs along the each frontal , and the together the two crests make up the orbital roof . Both parietals have also been found . The connection between them is marked by a ω @-@ shaped crest . Viewed from the side , the parietal has two extensions . These extensions are not fully preserved , but they would have been on the border of the upper temporal fenestrae in their middle . Each parietal was preserved as 79 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 13 in ) wide . The basioccipital of the specimen from Lo Hueco is unique as it has an occipital condyle that is much wider than tall . The occipital condyle has an irregular surface that was probably caused by the loss of the original cartilaginous covering . The complete braincase was especially low in the skull , and was oriented to the side . The occipital condyle is 28 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 13 in ) wide and 15 @.@ 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 62 in ) tall . The braincase floor is made by the parabasisphenoid . The prootic is a tall but not long bone . The basisphenoid is mostly on the side of it , along with the laterosphenoid , the parietal , and the otoccipital . The length of the prootic from the front to the back is around 10 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 42 in ) .
= = = = Neuroanatomy = = = =
Compared with the Giraffititan , the inner ear of A. sp. shows a more basal morphology . That feature is possibly related to a restricted range of possible movements that involve head @-@ turning .
Like in Jainosaurus and most other non @-@ avian archosaurs , the hindbrain and midbrain of A. sp. is relatively poorly preserved in the endocast . In contrast with TMM 40435 and a few other taxa such as cf . Cetiosaurus oxoniensis and Giraffatitan , no characteristic " nub " of the cerebellum can be seen . As in TMM 40435 and many other archosaurs , the back of the brain is especially narrow in A. sp .
The cerebral region of the brain is separated from the rest of the brain by a distinct compression caused in the endocranial cavity . The rearmost part of the cerebral region of the braincase has a top with a small expansion . This is different from Jainosaurus . However , relatively much larger expansions are known in the diplodocoid sauropods Dicraeosaurus and Diplodocus . In MCCM @-@ HUE @-@ 8741 , the small opening in the skull roof middle is responsible for a swelling on the endocast that is suggestive of a pineal system . It is in the exact position where the pineal gland is expected to have been , between the forebrain and the midbrain .
The semicircular canals are contracted , and they are highly curved . The semicircular system of MCCM @-@ HUE @-@ 8741 shows also a basal morphology , because the semicircular canals do not attach to each other .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Ampelosaurus was originally found near the commune of Campagne @-@ sur @-@ Aude in the Aude département of France . It was recovered in the lower levels of the Marnes Rouges Inférieures Formation , which belong to the early Maastrichtian epoch of the Late Cretaceous Period , ~ 70 million years ago . These sediments represent an ancient floodplain with numerous river channels . French paleontologist Jean Le Loeuff first described and named this dinosaur in 1995 . Ampelosaurus is derived from the Greek αμπελους , " the vineyard " and the Latin saurus , " reptile " . Therefore , Ampelosaurus means " vineyard lizard " after the Blanquette de Limoux vineyard . The vineyard is located on the south side of the region Ampelosaurus was found in . The specific name is based on the Latin ajax , the " Aude river " .
The first remains were found in a bonebed discovered in 1989 , which produced numerous ribs and vertebrae from the back and tail , as well as many limb bones , but no skull material aside from one tooth . Four osteoderms of different sizes and shapes were also recovered from this bonebed . This material comes from several different individuals . Since 1989 , more material has been uncovered in the same region of France , including a relatively complete skeleton with some elements of the skull and lower jaw .
Later , in 2001 , the Campagne @-@ sur @-@ Aude site was explored again , this time by Gerard Chauvet , Jean @-@ Luc Le Douarec , Colette Rives and Yvonne Vidoux . After 13 years of searching , they had uncovered a mostly complete skeleton that contained much more material , including bones unknown from the holotype . The material all went to the Musee des Dinosaures , and together took about 10 years to assemble .
The A. sp. was discovered in 2007 . It was found in the course of the construction of a high @-@ speed rail track connecting Madrid with Valencia , in a fossil site that many animals were found in , in the Villalba de la Sierra Formation . The site was at a locality named “ Lo Hueco , ” near the village of Fuentes , Castile @-@ La Mancha , Spain . Over the course of several months , a large @-@ scale emergency excavation by over 60 paleontologists and 100 manual workers allowed thousands of specimens of plants , invertebrates , and vertebrates of late Campanian @-@ early Maastrichtian age to be saved , including A. sp .
= = Classification = =
Characteristics of the tail vertebrae and the presence of osteoderms indicate that Ampelosaurus belongs to Lithostrotia , a group of derived titanosaurians which also includes Alamosaurus and Saltasaurus . Many other paleotologists have classified Ampelosaurus as belonging to Titanosauria , Saltasauridae , and Titanosauridae . Ampelosaurus may have an uncertain classification , but it is clearly a titanosaur , with many features found in titanosaurs .
Below is a cladogram by Klein et al. in 2012 , placing Ampelosaurus as a derived titanosaur :
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Growth = = =
Ampelosaurus seems to have grown in a way similar to more basal sauropods . After a certain point in its development , the microscopic material of the bone became very different from more basal Sauropoda . Ampelosaurus grew more slowly once the bone microstructure became unique among sauropods . Although Diplodocoidea and basal Macronaria also show an increase in bone growth and a decrease in growth rate around the presumed onset of sexual maturity , it is much more gradual than Ampelosaurus . The process of growing , which in other sauropods started around sexual maturity , was clearly delayed in Ampelosaurus . The period of growth after sexual maturity seems to be shortened in Ampelosaurus and is dominated by slow bone building instead of fast growth . Growth marks are generally rare in sauropods or appearing only late in ontogeny , if at all . The lack of growth marks is suggestive of fast and continuous growth in sauropods , which supports the hypothesis that they achieved large body size through because of fast growth . Ampelosaurus does not show growth marks on any bone sample . This is unusual to be found with the apparently reduced growth rate and high level of bone growth seen in it , as those features are often associated with the occurrence of growth marks .
= = = Histology = = =
EFS , a system found on the surface of bones , is thought to show a growth plateau which indicates that maximum body size and skeletal maturity is reached in an individual . Ampelosaurus has not been known to have EFS , found on most non @-@ titanosaurian sauropods . Magyarosaurus , a closely related titanosaur , Lirainosaurus , a titanosaur related to saltasaurids , Alamosaurus , a saltasaurid , and Phuwiangosaurus , a very basal titanosaur , were also found to have lacked EFS . However , the basal macronarian Europasaurus has been shown to have had EFS , so it was likely just titanosaurians that did not have them . The outer edge of the bones , were EFS would have been found , was well @-@ preserved , and still lacked any fossilized proof of them being present for Ampelosaurus . However , in the PLoS ONE study that found the lack of EFS , the larger specimens were not tested , so Ampelosaurus might have had EFS . This is characteristic of titanosaurs , as diplodocoids and basal macronarians seem to have EFS . A majority of all Ampelosaurus specimens have been found with secondary osteons placed densely in the inner regions of bones , and lightly in outer regions . The osteon orientation found in Ampelosaurus of osteons not only facing across the bone is not typical of Neosauropoda . Also , there is no medullary cavity in any bones of Ampelosaurus . Ampelosaurus seems to have had many ontogenetic stages in its life based on its bone histology .
= = Paleoecology = =
Ampelosaurus atacis is known from a specimen from the Marnes Rouges Inférieures Formation . More specifically , it is known from the Bellevue layer , which has produced many vertebrate fossils . Even though it produced many vertebrates , the formation only has a few elements of plants and invertebrates . The vertebrates consist of numerous remains of Ampelosaurus , scales of Lepisosteus , shell fragments of an indeterminate turtle , cranial fragments and teeth of a crocodile , isolated theropod teeth , classified as Dromaeosauridae indet . , an indeterminate ankylosaur , and a dentary and many postcranial elements of Rhabdodon priscus . The bird Gargantuavis philoinos , and dinosaur eggs have also been recovered .
Another formation A. atacis is known from is Gres de Saint @-@ Chinian . Along with Ampelosaurus , Rhabdodon priscus , Rhabdodon septimanicus , dinosaur eggs , a Nodosauridae indet . ( previously known as Rhodanosaurus lugdunensis ) , " Megalosaurus " pannoniensis , Variraptor mechinorum , an Avialae indet . , an Enantiornithes indet . , and a possible Abelisauridae indet. are known from this formation .
A. atacis is one of few vertebrates known from the Gres de Labarre Formation . The only other fossils from the formation belong to Rhabdodon priscus and a Nososauridae indet .
= = = Villalba de la Sierra Formation = = =
The A. sp. is from the latest Cretaceous aged Lo Hueco region in the Villalba de la Sierra Formation . A study shows that the area around Lo Hueco dates to the late Campanian and early Maastrichtian , although a more recent study revised the later date to the latest Maastrichtian . The study showed that Lo Hueco was near the coast of the Tethys Sea , a large seaway through southern Europe and northern Africa . The area directly on the coast was shown to be a brackish @-@ freshwater aquatic environment , with a muddy flood @-@ plain beside it . Lo Hueco was found to be inside the flood @-@ plain . The flood plain was found to have distributary channels of sand and terrigenous material .
About 8500 different marcoremains have been found in Lo Hueco . Sauropods make up the largest amount of the remains with many articulated individuals , caudal vertebrae and teeth . The caudal vertebrae have been identified as being from a titanosaur closely related to Lirainsaurus , but with some differences . The teeth , were assigned to Ampelosaurus atacis . Apart from sauropods , the Villalba de la Sierra Formation has a good representation of carbonized plants , mostly known from branches and leaves , and invertebrates , mostly bivalves and gastropods . Fishes from the formation include lepisosteid , which have plenty of material , and unidentified actinopterygians and teleosteans . Turtle fossils are very common , even more common than fishes . Of all this material , only two different groups have been identified , the bothremydids Polysternon and Rosasia , along with an uncommon undetermined Pancryptodiran . Squamate lizards are known only from a few undetermined specimens , and eusuchian crocodiles are known from a specimen with similarities to Allodaposuchus and Musturzabalsuchus . Ornithischias and theropod dinosaurs are not as common as sauropods but still consist of much material . Basal euornithopods and probable ankylosaurians are known from Lo Hueco . The ankylosaurian remains consist of a few vertebrae . Rhabdodon sp. is known from the formation , and is known from a fair amount of elements . Only two theropods have been identified , both Dromaeosauridae indet . , one dromaeosaurine and one velociraptorine .
= = = Biogeography = = =
Titanosaurians were a flourishing group of sauropod dinosaurs during Cretaceous times . Fossils of titanosaurians have been found on all continents and their remains are abundant in a number of Late Cretaceous sites . Nonetheless , the cranial anatomy of titanosaurians is still very poorly known . Ampelosaurus is now the best known sauropod from Europe . Others include Magyarosaurus from Hungary and an unnamed species from Catalonia , Spain . Numerous other fragments and isolated bones may or may not belong to any of these forms . While most titanosaurs are found in the southern continents of Gondwana , several derived species are known from Maastrichtian sediments in the Northern Hemisphere , including Alamosaurus in North America and Opisthocoelicaudia in Asia , indicating that there must have been at least intermittent connections between the northern and southern continents . This seems to be corroborated by the European find of Tarascosaurus , a Late Cretaceous theropod dinosaur similar to the abelisaurids , otherwise known only from the southern continents .
Ampelosaurus sp. is a distinct sauropod as it is known from just a braincase . Although the number of sauropod braincases from the Late Cretaceous European archipelago found to date is limited , it shows a significant diversity . The specimen from Lo Hueco resembles the braincase of A. atacis MDE C3 – 761 .
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= Quinn Fabray =
Quinn Fabray is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actress Dianna Agron , and has appeared in Glee since its pilot episode , first broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . She is a former cheerleader at the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio , as well as a member of school 's glee club . In the first episode , Quinn is introduced as an antagonistic queen bee stock character . She joins the school glee club to keep an eye on her boyfriend Finn ( Cory Monteith ) and becomes a spy for cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) ; she remains part of the club after she is removed from the cheerleading team , the " Cheerios " , due to her pregnancy . Over the course of the first season , her character matures and builds friendships with the other outcasts who make up the glee club . Quinn gives birth to a baby girl , Beth , whom she gives up for adoption .
In the second season , she forms a bond with newcomer Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , and later romances her first boyfriend Finn , reigniting her animosity with club co @-@ captain Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) . In the third season , Quinn intends to get full custody of her daughter , Beth , and her attempts to prove Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) — the adoptive mother of Beth — an unfit mother fail ; eventually , she realizes that Shelby is Beth 's true mother . Quinn subsequently receives a college acceptance letter from Yale , and while driving to Finn and Rachel 's wedding , her car is struck by a truck and she suffers a spinal injury that requires her to use a wheelchair for many weeks . She is eventually able to walk again .
Quinn was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . The last character to be cast , initial responses to her were positive , though they soured during season one as the pregnancy storyline continued . Songs performed by Agron as Quinn have been released as singles , available for download , and also feature on the show 's soundtrack albums . The role saw Agron nominated for the Teen Choice Award for " Breakout Female Star " in 2009 , and a Screen Actors Guild award that same year . She was initially described by Agron as Rachel 's enemy , and " terrible , the meanest girl " .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Quinn is introduced as the captain of the cheerleading squad at William McKinley High School , the " Cheerios " , coached by Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) . She comes from a conservative Christian family , and is president of the celibacy club . When her teenage boyfriend Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) joins the glee club , New Directions , Quinn worries about his interaction with the group 's star , Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , and joins New Directions herself along with her fellow Cheerios Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) . Sue then enlists the three of them to help her destroy the glee club from the inside .
Upon discovering her pregnancy , Quinn convinces Finn that he is the father , despite the fact that they never actually had a sexual encounter . Quinn claims that due to his premature ejaculation problem , and during their time in a hot @-@ tub , Finn had ejaculated in the tub and Quinn had received the sperm . The real father is Finn 's best friend Puck ( Mark Salling ) , who offers to support Quinn and the baby , but is rejected for his irresponsibility . Quinn decides to have the baby adopted , and agrees to give it to Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , the wife of glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , who is faking a pregnancy . When news of her pregnancy is revealed to the school , Quinn is cut from the cheerleading squad and her popularity declines . Her parents evict her , and Quinn moves in with Finn and his mother . She begins to reconsider having the baby adopted , and gives Puck a chance to prove himself , but he is not reliable so she returns to her plan of giving the baby to Terri . Quinn blackmails Sue into letting her rejoin the Cheerios , but ultimately decides against it , preferring to remain with the glee club , where she feels accepted . Finn learns the truth about the baby 's paternity from Rachel , and breaks up with Quinn . Puck again offers to support her , but she turns him down and tells him that she wants to handle the pregnancy by herself . She moves in with Puck 's family , but after forming a friendship with fellow New Directions member Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , Quinn lives with her family instead . She gives birth to a daughter , named Beth by Puck , who is adopted by Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) , coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline and Rachel 's biological mother .
= = = Season 2 = = =
At the beginning of the new school year , Quinn is reinstated as head cheerleader . She begins dating new glee club member Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , and later accepts a promise ring from him . When Sue forces Quinn , Santana and Brittany to choose between cheerleading and the glee club , all three initially go with the Cheerios to retain their popularity , but are later convinced by Finn to defect to New Directions . Quinn cheats on Sam with Finn , and Sam dumps Quinn after she lies to him about her time with Finn . She and Finn reunite , and Quinn starts campaigning for junior prom king and queen elections . Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , Puck 's new girlfriend and one of Quinn 's rivals for prom queen , discovers that before transferring to McKinley High , Quinn was known by her first name , Lucy . She was overweight and unpopular , and after slimming down and having rhinoplasty , reinvented herself as Quinn , using her middle name . At prom , Finn is thrown out for fighting with Rachel 's date Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) . Quinn is not named prom queen , and blames Rachel for her loss . She slaps her , but immediately regrets it and apologizes . Finn later breaks up with Quinn when he realizes he has a deeper connection with Rachel .
= = = Season 3 = = =
At the start of her senior year , Quinn has completely reinvented herself and refuses to rejoin either the Cheerios or New Directions . Shelby lets Puck see Beth , but rejects Quinn 's desire to do likewise due to Quinn 's bad @-@ girl attitude , appearance and behavior . After seeing a picture of a happy Beth and Puck , Quinn resumes her normal appearance , and Will and the New Directions welcome her back into the club , but Quinn reveals to Puck she is only pretending to behave in order to take Beth back from Shelby , and intends to pursue full custody . After Puck tells Shelby of Quinn 's true intentions , Shelby informs Quinn that she does not want her in Beth 's life . Quinn later reveals a desire to have a second baby with Puck . Puck refuses , and tries to comfort her ; he offers to share an important secret if she promises not to tell anyone , which ultimately results in Quinn planning to get Shelby fired for sleeping with a student , Puck . Quinn decides not to reveal Shelby 's secret for Beth 's sake .
Quinn advises Rachel to refuse Finn 's marriage proposal and leave her past behind . Quinn has done so , and she has been accepted at Yale . Quinn asks to allow her to rejoin the Cheerios , but Sue refuses . However , following Regionals , she changes her mind . Quinn also changes her mind about Finn and Rachel 's marriage and supports it . Rachel is reluctant to start the subsequent wedding without Quinn , and texts Quinn . Quinn is responding to Rachel 's text when a truck crashes into the driver 's side of her car .
Quinn 's car accident has left her in a wheelchair , suffering from a severely compressed spine . By " Prom @-@ asaurus " she is able to stand and to walk a few steps in the sessions . When Quinn is nominated for prom queen , Finn agrees to campaign with her , but is outraged when he discovers that she has been hiding the fact that she can now stand for the sympathy vote . When Quinn and Santana count the votes , they discover that Finn has won and so has Quinn . Quinn realizes that the victory means nothing . She and Santana falsely report the prom queen results as a write @-@ in victory for Rachel . Her recovery is rapid enough to allow her to dance in the " Nationals " competition episode , which New Directions wins . Quinn helps Puck study for the test he needs to pass in order to graduate . She tells him that with all they went through , they are bonded for life , and she kisses him . Emboldened , Puck passes his test . Later , Quinn returns her cheerleading uniform to Sue , and the two have a tearful farewell .
= = = Season 4 = = =
Quinn returns to Lima for Thanksgiving in the eighth episode of the season , and helps to mentor the new members of New Directions as they prepare for Sectionals competition . Quinn is partnered with Kitty Wilde ( Becca Tobin ) . Kitty convinces Quinn , whom she idolizes , that Jake Puckerman ( Jacob Artist ) , Puck 's half brother , is pressuring Marley into having sex with him . Quinn becomes hostile towards Jake , Santana confronts Quinn about having discovered that Kitty has given Marley laxatives in order to further Marley 's bulimia . Quinn , who is dating one of her teachers at Yale , accuses Santana of being jealous of her and projecting her hostility in their surrogates , leading to a fight before Quinn storms out of the choir room . Quinn travels to New York to give Rachel helpful advice over whether or not to do a nude scene in a short film in " Naked " . Quinn returns to Lima for Will and Emma 's wedding in " I Do " , and evidently single again , vents her frustrations about men . She and Santana get drunk at the wedding reception and sleep together , which they agree was a fun one @-@ time , and then two time , experimentation for Quinn .
= = = Season 5 = = =
Quinn returns to Lima with a new boyfriend , Biff , for the special 100th episode . Puck is jealous of their relationship , because he still loves her . Quinn is lying to him because she does not want him to know about her past yet . Puck convinces her to tell Biff the truth , which she does . Biff reacts wrongly and insults her , which causes a fight between Puck and Biff . They later break @-@ up . Puck and Quinn talk about Finn and their relationship , and she realizes that she still loves him . They later start a relationship again , which is later confirmed in the next episode .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Quinn along with the New Directions alumni return in the episode " Homecoming " to help Rachel and Kurt rebuild the New Directions . Quinn , Santana , and Brittany attempt to recruit new members by performing in Cheerios Alumni outfits , but only recruit twins Mason and Madison when former Glee new member , Kitty , who was the only member not to be transferred as Sue saw her as a star player , announced she wouldn 't return because of the way Artie treated her and everyone else when he left . Puck is still her boyfriend . She appears in " Jagged Little Tapestry " along with Tina to help Becky convince her new boyfriend that she is in every club of the school . Quinn , Tina , Sue , and Coach Roz get a huge surprise when they find out that Becky 's boyfriend , Darrell , does not have Down syndrome like Becky does . They all get a big lesson when they confront him and realize that a person with Down syndrome should be treated like everyone else . Despite being Santana and Brittany 's best friend , she is notably absent during their wedding in " A Wedding " . She is mentioned several times during the Pilot 's parallel episode " 2009 " , as Finn 's cheerleader girlfriend . She is later seen during Don 't Stop Believin ' watching the performance with Sue and Santana . She returns in the last minutes of the series finale " Dreams Come True " performing backing vocals for I Lived with the rest of the Glee Cast for the re @-@ dedication of the Auditorium .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Quinn is portrayed by actress Dianna Agron . In casting Glee , series creator Ryan Murphy sought out actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . Instead of using traditional network casting calls , he spent three months on Broadway looking for unknown actors . Agron was the last primary actor to be cast , having won the role only days before the pilot began filming . Agron auditioned for Glee coming from a background in dancing and acting . She has been taking dance classes since the age of three , appeared in many music theatre productions and has appeared in television roles for Skidmarks , CSI : NY , and Heroes . Agron said in a 2009 interview pertaining to her casting session : " I nearly bailed on my audition for the show . I was so nervous " . With her wholesome good looks , Agron certainly looked the part , but the producers wondered if she appeared too innocent . Agron said in an interview : " They told me to come back with straight hair and to dress sexier . Later that week , I started work . " Agron auditioned with Frank Sinatra 's " Fly Me to the Moon " . The Glee producers said " we really lucked out in finding Agron to play Quinn " .
In December 2010 , Ryan Murphy announced that the cast of Glee would be replaced at the end of the third season to coincide with their graduation . Murphy said : " Every year we 're going to populate a new group . There 's nothing more depressing than a high schooler with a bald spot . " He also revealed that some of the original cast will leave as early as 2012 : " I think you have to be true to the fact that here is a group of people who come and go in these teachers ' lives . " Although four graduating seniors were confirmed in January 2012 as returning in the fourth season — Rachel , Finn , Kurt and Santana — there had been no announcement regarding Quinn or any other seniors as of the end of February 2012 . As of May 2012 , Murphy stated that all graduating seniors will come back for season 4 but , not all will be doing " all 22 episodes " .
= = = Characterization = = =
Quinn is described by Agron as Rachel Berry 's ( Lea Michele ) enemy , and " terrible , the meanest girl " . Agron said that her favorite part of Quinn is that " she 's smart . But she 's also human , and through her tough exterior , she 's often a little girl lost . " Interviewmagazine.com 's Lauren Waterman has described her as being " lovable , but occasionally a manipulative deposed queen bee . " Agron commented : " Yes , there is a stereotype with these characters and it wouldn 't be fair if [ those stereotypes ] didn 't exist a little bit . But [ co @-@ creator ] Ryan Murphy has a way of taking everything and turning it upside down . That 's the great thing about this show and these characters : nobody is one note , which is amazing . " Quinn was originally conceived as the antagonistic queen bee head cheerleader , a departure from Agron 's actual high school experience . Agron said in an interview with HitFix : " I definitely wasn 't cool in high school . I really wasn 't . I did belong to many of the clubs and was in leadership on yearbook and did the musical theater route , so I had friends in all areas , but I certainly did not know what to wear , did not know how to do my hair , all those things . " She added : " I think that it shows that regardless of who you are and what group you belong to , that there are so many emotions behind each person in high school . Sometimes with teens , writers or directors , anybody , short @-@ changes them and makes them be simple , simple individuals , you 're either the jock or the popular kid or the nerd . They don 't show those shades . Everybody has those shades to them . This show , it really expands upon vulnerability and excitement and anger all the experiences that you probably actually go through in high school . "
Quinn 's role as head cheerleader is central to understanding her character . Agron said that she had never had any prior cheer experience before the Pilot . " If I had been [ a cheerleader ] , I would 've ended up on crutches , " she told Emmy magazine . In an interview with HitFix she said , " I have new respect for the craft , because I slightly hurt myself during the pilot , coming down from one of the stunts . It 's better now . I didn 't tear something in my knee , but I strained it . Knees are very sensitive , I 've learned . It 's crazy , because I 've been dancing since I was three on my toes and all these things . And you should never say this , but I 've never injured myself ever . I 'd seen gnarly injuries with dance and all these things . You shouldn 't say that , though , because every day is an opportunity to fall , hurt yourself , so that was my experience . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Quinn has received positive reviews from critics . The role saw Agron nominated for the Teen Choice Award for " Female Breakout Star " in 2009 . She and the other cast members were awarded the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2010 , and nominated in the same category the following year .
The character 's accidental pregnancy storyline received mixed reviews from critics . Tim Stack for Entertainment Weekly deemed it " a good dramatic twist " , but hoped that it would not be a long @-@ lasting storyline . Reviews of her storyline became increasingly negative , though Agron was praised for her dramatic acting during the confrontation scene with Quinn 's parents in " Ballad " . Gerrick D. Kennedy , writing for the Los Angeles Times , was critical of the ongoing pregnancy plot in the episode " Hairography " , and noted that he cringed whenever Quinn appeared on screen . Conversely , Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle enjoyed Quinn in the episode , and wrote : " I love that she can keep her Mean Girls edge while being heartbreakingly sad or as joyful as she was singing " Papa Don 't Preach " . Reviewing the episode " Journey to Regionals " , Entertainment Weekly 's Darren Franich called Quinn 's birthing scenes — interspersed with Vocal Adrenaline performing Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " — both " brilliant " and " terrible " . He wrote , " If nothing else , it was definitely the most visually arresting way to represent the birthing process I 've ever seen outside of The Miracle of Life . But I kind of liked it . Somewhere , Freddie Mercury is nodding proudly , and saying , ' World , I forgive you for We Will Rock You . ' "
Brett Berk , writing for Vanity Fair , was positive about the scripting of the Quinn character in the second season premiere , now that the pregnancy storyline was over , and was happy to see the return of " evil Quinn " . Joel Kelly of TV Squad criticized the decision to pair Quinn with Finn again in the Valentine 's Day oriented episode . He saw it as a regression of the characters , and commented : " Yes , it feels like Glee Classic , because the series started with the two of them together . But both of them have changed — Quinn more so than Finn — and having them dating again seems like they 're going back to the days when Quinn was the icy lead Cheerio and Finn was the nice but dumb star quarterback . "
Quinn 's season three reinvention attracted mixed reviews . Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter listed her change as a highlight of the episode , and hoped to see more of her new attitude . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon called it " the most interesting thing Quinn has done since giving birth to a baby to the soundtrack of ' Bohemian Rhapsody ' " , but VanDerWerff suggested the development hinged on the fact the producers no longer knew how to utilize Agron .
She was ranked No. 13 in AfterEllen.com 's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters .
= = = Musical performances = = =
Several songs performed by Agron as Quinn have been released as singles , available for digital download , also featured on the show 's soundtrack albums . Agron made her musical debut at the end of the episode " Showmance " where she performed Dionne Warwick 's " I Say a Little Prayer " . Quinn 's next solo was in the episode " Throwdown " , where she performed The Supremes ' " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " . The song was released on Glee : The Music , Volume 1 . Flandez deemed the cover of " Keep Holding On " , the ensemble performance on the episode , an " emotionally satisfying showstopper " , however was critical of Quinn 's cover of " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " , which he called " thin and jarring " . Aly Semigran of MTV observed that Quinn spontaneously bursting into song brought Glee " dangerously close to High School Musical territory " . Agron later performed a solo in the episode " Hairography " singing Madonna 's " Papa Don 't Preach " after her father learns she is pregnant . This performance by Agron was released as a single . She performed a rendition of James Brown 's " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World " in the episode " Funk " . CNN 's Lisa Respers France was " slightly disturbed " by Quinn 's " weird " performance of " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World " using pregnant teenagers as backing dancers .
In season two , Quinn performs " Lucky " with Sam Evans in the episode " Duets " , which was named by some critics as " the most impressive number of the evening " ; others called it " absolutely fantastic " with particular praise for Agron , who was said to be often overlooked . " Lucky " debuted at number twenty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 ; it was at number seventeen on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 . Quinn 's duet performance with Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) of the mash @-@ up " I Feel Pretty / Unpretty " was the highest charted single featured in the episode " Born This Way " , debuting at number twenty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also peaked at number thirteen on the Digital 100 charts and sold 112 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States in its first week of release . It was the highest charting Glee single on the Billboard charts since " Loser Like Me " , which debuted at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over 210 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week .
In season three , Quinn sings her first solo number since the first season , " Never Can Say Goodbye " by The Jackson 5 , which received mostly positive reviews . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post gave the song a " B − " , and said it " worked much better than every track that preceded it " because it adapted the song to the show " instead of trying to out @-@ Jackson Jackson " . Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch called it " a nice summation of her character 's journey , but not vocally impressive enough to justify listening to outside of the episode " and gave it a " B " . Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV described it as a " blah performance " , but Kate Stanhope of TV Guide said it was " sweet and reflective " . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone wrote that it was " a tune well @-@ suited for Quinn 's sultry voice and the flipped meaning she gives the lyrics " , and TVLine 's Michael Slezak had a similar take : he gave it an " A " and called it a " remarkably lovely fit " for her voice .
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= National War Memorial ( South Australia ) =
The National War Memorial is a monument in the city centre of Adelaide , South Australia , commemorating those who served in the First World War . Opened in 1931 , the memorial is located on the corner of North Terrace and Kintore Avenue , on the edge of the central business district and adjacent to the grounds of Government House . Memorial services are held at the site throughout the year , with major services on both Anzac Day ( 25 April ) and Remembrance Day ( 11 November ) .
First proposed in 1919 , the memorial was funded by the Parliament of South Australia , making it the first Australian state war memorial to be confirmed after the war . The design of the memorial was selected through two architectural competitions . The first competition , in 1924 , produced 26 designs — all of which were lost before judging could be completed after fire destroyed the building in which they were housed . A second competition , in 1926 , produced 18 entries , out of which the design by the architectural firm Woods , Bagot , Jory & Laybourne @-@ Smith was selected as the winner .
The design — effectively a frame for two scenes depicted through Rayner Hoff 's marble reliefs and bronze statues — shows the prelude and the epilogue to war , depicting both the willingness of youth to answer the call of duty and the extent of the sacrifices which they made . In this , the work is not displaying a material victory , but instead a victory of the spirit . At the insistence of W. F. J. McCann , president of the Returned Soldiers ' League , bronze tablets were cast to line the walls of an inner shrine , on which are listed the names of all South Australians who died during the Great War .
= = History = =
Almost 35 @,@ 000 South Australians served in the First World War . This number amounted to 8 @.@ 5 % of the South Australian population at the time , or 37 @.@ 7 % of men between the ages of 18 and 44 . Of those who served , over 5 @,@ 000 South Australians died . In response to these deaths , Archibald Peake , the premier of South Australia , asked the state parliament to fund a memorial commemorating the victory and the sacrifice of those who had fought and fallen . The motion was presented in March 1919 , and it received unanimous support in the House of Assembly and the Legislative Council . With the passing of this motion , the South Australian Government became the first in Australia to elect to build a memorial to the soldiers of the First World War .
It was decided by parliament that the new memorial should be referred to as the " National War Memorial " , even though it was to be a purely South Australian monument , and in spite of the term already being used to describe the memorial to the South African War of 1899 – 1902 . There have been at least two perspectives offered as to why the term National was employed . First , as Donald Richardson observed , the name may have been chosen to emphasise the government 's intention that the memorial should commemorate all who served during the war , not just those who came from South Australia ; and second , Ken Inglis argued that the name may have reflected the perception ( still held in spite of federation ) that the " province is a nation " .
= = = 1924 competition = = =
The National War Memorial Committee was formed in order to bring the proposal to fruition , and in February 1924 the committee announced an architectural competition to find the design of the new memorial . In the preamble to the conditions of entry , it was stated that the new memorial was to serve the purpose of " perpetually commemorating the Victory achieved in the Great War , 1914 – 1918 , the Supreme and personal sacrifice of those who participated in that War , and the National effort involved in such activities " .
Entry was open to South Australians who were British subjects , and those intending to submit designs were required to file a statement of intent prior to 29 February 1924 . The competition closed on 30 September 1924 , and there was a one @-@ guinea entry fee . Three assessors were nominated to judge the entries : the South Australian Architect @-@ in @-@ Chief , A. E. Simpson ; local architect Herbert Louis Jackman ( representing the South Australian Institute of Architects ) ; and Sir William Sowden .
The committee specified a budget of £ 25 @,@ 000 ( previously figures of both £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 100 @,@ 000 had been discussed ) , and the conditions of entry stated that the memorial was to be situated at the entrance to Government House on the corner of King William Street and North Terrace , placing it just behind the existing memorial to the South African War . This location was counter to previous suggestions : a 1919 survey of architects had proposed that the memorial should be built on Montefiore Hill , while in 1923 the plans for the memorial involved erecting it at the rear of Government House , rather than at the front .
The committee left open the form that the memorial would take , beyond stating that the memorial was not to be " utilitarian in character " , and debate over the form led to the emergence of a number of suggestions , many of which were covered in the media of the day . These included Dame Nellie Melba 's proposal to build a carillon of bells ; a suggestion by Simpson Newland to turn Anzac Highway into a " Way of Honour " by adding triumphal arches to each end ; and Walter Charles Torode 's plan to build a 30 meter high " metal and marble " monument on the top of Mount Lofty with an electric car to carry people to the summit .
In the end a total of 28 architectural firms registered their intent to submit entries to the competition — a lower number than expected , but Richardson suggests this may have been due to work on proposals for the new Adelaide railway station . Out of those 28 , a total of 26 firms submitted designs by the deadline . On 10 November 1924 , before judging could be completed , the Richards Building in Currie Street was destroyed by fire , taking with it all 26 proposals .
Although most of the judging had been completed before the fire , suggestions at the time that the committee could use what they had learned from the entrants to propose a new competition with greater clarity as to the requirements led to naught : a 1925 letter to the then Premier John Gunn reveals that there was little to be learned from the competition , as the assessors had found that none of the designs were suitable .
= = = 1926 competition = = =
Little progress had been made on the memorial by 1926 . While some debate occurred in respect to the form that the memorial would take , the focus of the discussions concerned the location of the memorial , and this centered on the future of Government House and the role of the Governor . A number of left @-@ wing politicians argued that the grounds of Government House should be turned over to the State and used to build the memorial while the conservatives desired to retain the status quo . By 1925 the National War Memorial committee was prepared to accept the Government House grounds as the site of the memorial , but they delayed making an announcement . This proved to be fortuitous , as legal issues prevented the plan from going ahead . Instead a portion of the grounds , located at the corner of North Terrace and Kintore Avenue , was put aside for the purpose . ( The plan to move the Governor and to use the grounds as part of a larger war memorial were revisited , over 80 years later , in 2007 ) .
In 1926 , after pressure from the returned soldiers , a second competition was announced . Once again the budget was set at £ 25 @,@ 000 . As per the first competition , all entrants had to be South Australian British subjects , and all entries were to be judged anonymously , but this time there was to be only one assessor : John Smith Murdoch , the chief architect for the Commonwealth of Australia . In deference to the previous competition , the top five entrants from 1924 were each given £ 75 upon the submission of a new design , and all of the designs were insured by the government for £ 100 each .
With entries restricted to South Australians , only 18 designs were received — a figure that was " correspondingly fewer " than those received in other states where the competitions were open to all Australians . Nevertheless , in his Assessor 's Report , Murdoch acknowledged that the quality of some of the proposals was such that they " probably would not have been exceeded had the competition been more open " . After examining the submissions , on 15 January 1927 , the design by Louis Laybourne Smith , ( one of the principals at the architectural firm Woods , Bagot , Jory & Laybourne – Smith ) , was selected by Murdoch as the winner .
Woods , Bagot , Jory & Laybourne @-@ Smith had entered the 1924 competition with an arch designed by Walter Bagot , but in 1926 Bagot was away in Europe . Thus Laybourne @-@ Smith was responsible for drawing and submitting the final design , although he was clear to highlight the role Bagot played in the " architectural conception " of the monument . While the firm was to be awarded 6 % of the cost of the memorial , they refused all but enough to cover their own expenses , asking instead that residues ( approximately £ 1000 ) be placed in a trust fund to pay for the upkeep of the work . While this is seen as an altruistic act , Richardson noted that Laybourne @-@ Smith was both a member of the National War Committee and sat on the sub @-@ committee which drafted the rules of the competition , and thus it may have been considered " improper " to accept the money .
When announced to the public the design was " universally hailed as a masterpiece " . Nevertheless , in writing his report on the result of the judging , Murdoch stated of the winning architect that he " depends almost entirely on the sculptor to tell the story of the memorial , employing in his design no more architecture than that required to successfully frame and set his sculptural subjects , and to provide accommodation to the extent asked for by the conditions " . This view was echoed by Inglis , who described the architecture as " essentially a frame for statuary " — an approach that he felt was " unusual " for an architect . As a result of this dependency on the sculpture , some of the other contestants expressed concerns , arguing that the contest was about architectural works rather than sculptural ones , even though the conditions of the competition specifically allowed for sculpture in the proposals .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction of the memorial began in 1928 with the cut and placement of marble blocks from Macclesfield and Angaston . The South Australian Monumental Works were chosen to work on the construction , with Alan Tillett as the principal . Although no sculptor was named in the winning proposal , it did make mention of a possible candidate — who later proved to be Rayner Hoff , a Sydney @-@ based sculptor born in England . Rayner Hoff produced the designs for the sculptures from his Sydney studio , with the bronze castings from Hoff 's plaster models being produced by the South Australian firm A. W. Dobbie and Company . ( Hoff had expressed reservations that a South Australian company would be capable of handling bronzes of the required size , but a test casting of the lion 's head from the memorial was sufficient to overcome his concerns ) . The two angel reliefs sculpted from the Angaston marble were produced by Julius Henschke in situ from Hoff 's designs , expressed through one @-@ third sized plaster models which Henschke then scaled to suit .
Significant delays occurred during construction after a strike by the stonemasons . The stonemasons were demanding a 44 @-@ hour week and to be paid at " outside rates " , ( rates of pay for stonemasons were based on whether or not the work was to be constructed on site in the open air , or inside under cover — Tillet was paying the lower " inside rates " , even though most of the work was to be conducted on the site ) . However , Tillet had tendered on the basis of a 48 @-@ hour week at inside rates , and paying extra would have caused significant financial problems . Tillet eventually won after the dispute went before the courts , but the strike had caused considerable financial damage to Tillet 's company , which went into receivership in 1930 and stayed in that state until after the memorial was completed .
The South Australian Government had dedicated £ 25 @,@ 000 for the memorial . It was estimated that bulk of the expense would be masonry at £ 15 @,@ 300 with sculptural work and landscaping requiring £ 8 @,@ 500 and £ 1 @,@ 200 respectively . However , the final cost of construction pushed this out to approximately £ 30 @,@ 000 .
= = = Opening = = =
The National War Memorial in South Australia became the fourth state World War I memorial to be opened when it was unveiled in 1931 . Inglis notes that this is in keeping with the size of the constituency , arguing that " [ t ] he larger the constituency that each of these collective tributes had to represent , the later it was built " . It was unveiled before a crowd of almost 75 @,@ 000 on Anzac Day , 25 April 1931 , ( the 16th anniversary of the Gallipoli landing ) , by the Governor Sir Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven . The crowd , " as huge a crowd as anyone could remember assembling in the city " , was unable to fit in front of the memorial , so many thousands assembled at the Cross of Sacrifice in Pennington Gardens to await a later ceremony . Hore @-@ Ruthven was introduced by the acting state premier , Bill Denny MC , whose involvement in the unveiling , according to Inglis , was unusual for a Labor politician .
= = = Commemorative activities = = =
The first dawn service to be conducted at the memorial was held on Anzac Day 1935 , and was attended by 200 – 300 people .
= = = Restoration work = = =
In 2001 , the memorial 's 70th anniversary year , a three @-@ month remedial project was undertaken , restoring the bronze and stonework details and reinforcing the foundations . The work was completed just days before the Remembrance Day services . In 2002 the architects responsible for the restoration , Bruce Harry & Associates , were awarded a Heritage merit award for their work on the memorial by the Royal Australian Institute of Architects .
= = Design = =
The rules of the competition limited the space for the memorial to the " one half acre " of land that was excised from the grounds of Government House . The design submitted by Woods , Bagot , Jory & Laybourne Smith easily met this requirement , as the memorial was designed to fit on an ellipse with a major axis of 18 @.@ 3 m ( 60 ft ) in length and a minor axis of 15 @.@ 5 m ( 51 ft ) . Standing at a height of over 14 m ( 46 ft ) , the structure was carefully placed back from North Terrace to provide space for " public gatherings of a ceremonial nature " and to allow for the proposed widening of the street .
The monument has two sides , referred to by the architects as the reverse and the obverse of the work , which they likened to the two sides of a coin . These two aspects represent the prologue and the epilogue of war . Each side features a relief carved from Angaston marble and framed by the " rough @-@ hewn " arch carved out of marble from Macclesfield , while the granite steps leading up to the monument are constructed of Harcourt granite , as specified in the original proposal . ( The architects had preferred the local West Island granite , but acknowledged that the Harcourt granite was " the best available " unless the government would agree to reopen the quarry on West Island ) . The materials were chosen in order to provide continuity with Parliament House , located a short distance away along North Terrace .
To represent the prologue to the war , the obverse of the monument ( the side facing North Terrace ) features a relief of the Spirit of Duty appearing as a vision before the youth of South Australia , represented in the work by a sculptural group consisting of a girl , a student and a farmer abandoning the " symbols of their craft " . The three are depicted in normal dress , as they are not yet soldiers and are currently unprepared for the war that is to come , and they are facing away from the world as they look to the vision before them . In Bagot 's original plan , submitted for the 1924 competition , there was to be but a single nude figure kneeling before the vision ( for which Bagot posed while in Europe ) , but Laybourne @-@ Smith 's 1926 submission became grander in its scope . In addition , Bagot 's original designs were naturalistic , with the Spirit of Duty depicted as a female figure , but under Hoff 's direction the figure was changed to male , and the style of the reliefs was changed to Art Deco — a " radically new " art style for Australia at the time . Hoff , however , presented the sculptural group in the original naturalistic style , thus providing a " bridge between the Renaissance @-@ style architecture and the Art Deco of the reliefs " .
On the reverse side of the monument , facing away from the traffic , is a relief carved into the marble representing the epilogue of the war and depicting the Spirit of Compassion as a winged spirit of womanhood bearing aloft a stricken youth . Beneath the figure is situated the Fountain of Compassion , the flow of water representing the " constant flow of memories " , while the lion 's head from which it emerges , ( and which bears the Imperial Crown ) , is representative of the British Commonwealth of Nations .
The designers acknowledged that the symbolism — especially that of the reverse side — does not represent " victory " in the traditional sense . They stated that the " Arch of Triumph which was built in honour of a Caesar , a Napoleon , no longer expresses the feelings of modern democracy after an international struggle " . Instead , the memorial represented a spiritual victory , in which was displayed a " willingness to serve and to sacrifice " .
Within the memorial the architects added an inner shrine , or Record Room , in which could be recorded the names of the South Australians who fell during the war . While the design did not specify the exact form that this would take , in the completed memorial these names are inscribed in the bronzes that line the walls . The design also allowed for a cenotaph within the inner shrine , which the designers suggested could either be used as a symbolic representation of the unknown soldier or as the marker to an actual grave , although this aspect was never realised .
The monument is designed to honour both the war dead and all who served in the war — one face being inscribed to those who died in the war , while the other is dedicated to " all who served " . On the obverse side is inscribed the words " To perpetuate the courage , loyalty , and sacrifice of those who served in the Great War 1914 – 1918 " , while the reverse states " All honour give to those who , nobly striving , nobly fell that we might live " . Above the two entrances to the inner shrine were to be inscribed the names of the major theaters in which Australians served in the Great War . Originally it was suggested that this was to be Egypt , Gallipoli and Palestine on one side , with France on the other , but in the final work Belgium was added to the list .
Although the central square mile of the City of Adelaide is designed to the points of the compass , the monument sits at a 45 degree angle to North Terrace . The architects provided two reasons for this . First , it was observed that " monuments suffer materially from monotonous lighting " when they face to the south ; and second , the placing of the monument to face a north @-@ west direction allows it to be in line with both the Cross of Sacrifice and St. Peter 's Cathedral . In addition to these two arguments , Richardson also notes that the diagonal positioning of the memorial permits the dawn sun to fall on the facade .
= = Adjacent memorials = =
Although the National War Memorial was initially proposed as a memorial to those who served in " The Great War " , the site has since grown to incorporate a number of smaller memorials . These include a memorial to the Battle of Lone Pine ; the " French Memorial " , which commemorates those who fought and died in France during the first and second World Wars ; an honour roll of those who died in World War II ; and the " Australian Armed Forces Memorial " , encompassing the Malayan Emergency of 1948 – 1960 , the Korean War , the Indonesia @-@ Malaysia confrontation in Borneo , and the Vietnam War . In addition , the wall which surrounds the northern and western sides of the site features the six " Crosses of Memory " — a series of " simple wooden crosses " commemorating the Siege of Tobruk from 1941 and the 10th , 27th , 48th and 50th battalions of 1916 .
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= Things Which Have Never Yet Been Done =
" Things Which Have Never Yet Been Done " is the ninth episode of the second season , and the nineteenth episode overall , of the Canadian science fiction television series Orphan Black . It first aired in Canada on Space and the United States on BBC America on 14 June 2014 . The episode was written by Alex Levine and directed by TJ Scott .
The series focuses on a number of identical human clones , all of whom are played by Tatiana Maslany : Sarah Manning , Alison Hendrix , Cosima Niehaus , Rachel Duncan , and Helena . In this episode , Sarah 's daughter Kira ( Skyler Wexler ) undergoes bone marrow extraction to donate to Cosima in an attempt to cure Cosima 's illness . Alison and her husband Donnie ( Kristian Bruun ) attempt to bury Dr. Aldous Leekie 's body , while Helena attempts to escape from the ranch of the Proletheans , a religious extremist group .
" Things Which Have Never Yet Been Done " marked the first on @-@ screen appearance of Kathryn Alexandre , who also works on the show as Maslany 's " clone double " when filming scenes where multiple clones interact . The episode was filmed at various locations in Toronto and the title was taken from Francis Bacon 's work Novum Organum . It was watched by 613 @,@ 000 viewers in the United States and received mostly positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
At the Dyad Institute , Rachel appoints Delphine Cormier ( Évelyne Brochu ) the interim director of the cloning program following the death of Dr. Aldous Leekie . Delphine meets with Sarah to ask if her young daughter , Kira , will donate her bone marrow to help cure Cosima 's illness , and Kira agrees . Meanwhile , Cosima works with her lab assistant Scott ( Josh Vokey ) and Rachel 's adoptive father Ethan ( Andrew Gillies ) , a founder scientist of the cloning program , to find the genetic sequence that has caused her illness . Rachel , who is usually stoic , laughs and sobs whilst watching home videos of her childhood , lamenting her own infertility . Disguised as Sarah , she tricks her way into the pediatric clinic where Kira is recovering and sedates Sarah 's foster brother Felix ( Jordan Gavaris ) . She abducts Kira and takes her to a young girl 's bedroom in the Dyad Institute , telling Kira that she " may even grow to like it here , just as I did " .
After confessing that he accidentally murdered Dr. Leekie , Donnie Hendrix and his wife Alison decide to dispose of the dead body under the cement of their garage floor . They are interrupted by Vic ( Michael Mando ) , whom Alison met in rehab and who is acting as an informant to Detective Angie DeAngelis ( Inga Cadranel ) . Donnie threatens to shoot Vic , who confesses that Angie is parked nearby , before walking into Angie 's van and threatening to destroy her career if she continues to stalk his family , taking a picture of her with Vic as blackmail . After burying Leekie 's body and re @-@ laying the cement , Alison confesses her sudden attraction to Donnie and they have sex in the garage .
At the ranch inhabited by the Proletheans , a religious extremist group , following her impregnation , Helena is introduced to the group 's nursery where she bonds with a young girl . The Prolethean leader , Henrik Johanssen ( Peter Outerbridge ) , impregnates his teenage daughter Gracie ( Zoé de Grand 'Maison ) with his and Helena 's embryos . Sharing their displeasure with what Henrik has done , Helena and Gracie decide to flee the ranch together , but are caught by Henrik as they are preparing to leave . Henrik 's protégé and Gracie 's lover , Mark ( Ari Millen ) , arrives to defend Gracie . Mark and Gracie flee together as Helena attacks Henrik . Helena tortures Henrik with his own medical instruments before burning down the ranch and running away herself .
= = Production = =
Kathryn Alexandre appeared for the first time in this episode as Alexis , a Prolethean midwife . After working as a script reader during Orphan Black 's initial auditions , Alexandre began working as Maslany 's " clone double " : playing opposite Maslany in any scene when multiple clones interact and being replaced with Maslany in post @-@ production . Fawcett and Manson had planned to cast Alexandre in her own role from the start of the show 's second season , and had considered casting her as Gracie before deciding that , due to the amount of interaction between Gracie and Helena ( played by Maslany ) , it would " turn into a mess if we cast her " . They decided to find a smaller role for Alexandre and eventually settled on the part of Alexis .
The scenes in the Hendrixes ' garage were filmed on a set ; the set replicated the real garage of a house in Markham , Ontario which had been used for filming in the show 's first season . The set was built 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above the ground so that it could be excavated with a jackhammer on film . Bridgepoint Health Centre stood in as the clinic where Kira underwent bone marrow extraction , and was also used for exterior shots of the Dyad Institute . Scenes at Cosima 's laboratory were filmed at the Don Jail , now an administrative facility connected to Bridgepoint . The montage of Rachel drinking martinis and watching home videos from her childhood was not originally included in the episode 's script , nor was it filmed with the rest of the episode . According to Fawcett , when he and Manson viewed the final cut of the episode , they felt that something was missing from Rachel 's subplot . Manson then scripted the short sequence and Fawcett filmed it over two days during the production of the next episode . Due to time constraints while filming the scene in which Helena tortures Henrik , the scene was shot with a handheld camera by the episode 's director , TJ Scott , with Maslany and Outerbridge improvising the dialogue and use of props . The subsequent shot of the barn on fire was created by the visual effects company Intelligent Creatures . The title of the final two episodes , " Things Which Have Never Yet Been Done " and " By Means Which Have Never Yet Been Tried " , are taken from a Francis Bacon quotation in his philosophical work Novum Organum : " It would be an unsound fancy and self @-@ contradictory to expect that things which have never yet been done can be done except by means which have never yet been tried . "
= = Reception = =
The episode was aired in the United States on 14 June 2014 on BBC America . It was watched by 613 @,@ 000 viewers , with a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 27 in the demographic of adults aged 18 – 49 .
Matt Brennan of Slant Magazine summarised the episode as being " among the best hours of television I 've seen so far this year " and an example of " unrelenting brilliance " . He praised the exploration of Rachel 's character and especially Maslany 's " nothing short of masterful " performance in the role , and described the satire of suburbia presented through Alison and Donnie as " impeccably wry " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Caroline Framke gave the episode an A – grade and found it much more focused and with more of an " emotional core " than the preceding episode . She highlighted the " gorgeous " cinematography , the chemistry between Maslany and Bruun as Alison and Donnie , and the " stunning " montage of Rachel 's emotional breakdown . IGN 's Eric Goldman has described the episode as a " very busy , very strong " episode and among the best of the season . He praised the " darkly funny " storyline involving Alison and Donnie , although he found the pacing of some of the subplots to be rushed .
Paste critic Mark Rozeman gave the episode a rating of 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , commending Bruun 's performance as Donnie and the " wonderful bit of Coen Brothers @-@ esque dark comedy " provided by Alison 's subplot . However , he criticised the predictability of the episode and opined that Kira 's abduction by Rachel felt like a recycled plot point from the first season . Vlada Gelman gave the episode a mixed review for TVLine , writing that it was the first episode of the show 's second season " that didn 't quite work " and " it didn 't have the momentum and progress you 'd expect from a penultimate hour " . Similarly , The New York Times 's Adam W. Kepler opined that the episode displayed Orphan Black 's " finest qualities ( strong characterisation , dark satire and shocking moments ) and its worst ( odd pacing and ropey plotting ) " . He enjoyed Alison and Donnie 's comedic subplot and praised Maslany 's performance as Rachel , but found the conclusion to Helena 's storyline with the Proletheans " baffling " and " haphazard " .
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= Lemme See =
" Lemme See " is a song by American recording artist Usher , released through RCA Records , as the third single from his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . The track features vocals from rapper Rick Ross . It was written by Usher , Eric Bellinger , Jim Jonsin , Danny Morris , Nickolas Marzouca and Lundon Knighten with its production helmed by Jonsin and Morris . It was digitally released on May 4 , 2012 and sent to urban radio on May 8 , 2012 . " Lemme See " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song that makes heavy use of synthesizers . Its lyrics depict Usher contemplating on what he is going to do when he " gets a certain female clubgoer into his bedroom " .
" Lemme See " received positive acclaim from contemporary music critics , who praised its production and Rick Ross ' verse . The song peaked at number 46 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It has also reached number two on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , the second single from Looking 4 Myself to peak in the top three on the chart , following its lead single " Climax " . Internationally " Lemme See " reached number six on the South Korea Gaon International Chart , number 88 on the French Singles Chart and number ninety on the UK Singles Chart . The song 's music video was directed by Philip Andelman , and shows Usher inside his estate with his love interest in several risqué scenes . Usher performed the song live during the 2012 iTunes Festival .
= = Release and composition = =
" Lemme See " was digitally released on May 4 , 2012 as the third single from Usher 's seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself , following " Scream " . The following week , on May 8 , 2012 " Lemme See " was released to SoundCloud . On the same day , it was sent to urban radio and on May 22 , to rhythmic radio .
" Lemme See " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song that heavily incorporates synthesizers , and has a running duration of four minutes and 15 seconds . It contains elements of hip hop music , and its production was compared to the one in Kelly Rowland 's " Motivation " ( 2011 ) . Lyrically , Usher is contemplating on what he is going to do when he " gets a certain female clubgoer into his bedroom " , in the line : Hey girl , I ’ m debating if I should take you home . During the pre @-@ chorus , he comes to the conclusion : I decided to take my shirt off / and show my chest .
= = Critical reception = =
" Lemme See " received positive acclaim from music critics . The Observer 's Killian Fox called the song a hit . Andy Kellman of AllMusic described the track as " a slithering , low @-@ slung jam " noting it as one of Usher 's best songs and a stand @-@ out from Looking 4 Myself . DJ Booth commended its production , writing that it contains " sultry , slow @-@ burning synth grooves " . Erika Ramirez of Billboard also praised the song 's production , calling it " seductive " while showing a positive response to Rick Ross ' verse . Several other reviewers showed similar responses to Ross ' appearance on " Lemme See " , including Sobhi Youssef of Sputnikmusic who noted it as a " welcome " surprise . Los Angeles Times 's Randall Roberts wrote that the song " finds its groove when Rick Ross parks his Lamborghini on the track ’ s lawn for a cameo " . By contrast , BBC Music 's Natalie Shaw disapproved of Rick Ross ' verse , saying that it consists of " tasteless mentions of Trayvon Martin " .
= = Chart performance = =
Due to digital downloads , " Lemme See " entered the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number ten on May 27 , 2012 , with sales of 17 @,@ 445 digital copies . The following week , it rose to number six , selling a further 19 @,@ 632 copies . In its third week , with the release of Looking 4 Myself in South Korea , it sold 10 @,@ 914 units and was charted at number 18 . In its fourth week , " Lemme See " dropped 23 positions to number 41 , with 5 @,@ 493 digital copies sold . It was knocked off the chart the proceeding week . In the US , " Lemme See " peaked below the top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 46 . The song peaked at number two on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and remained in the top five for eleven weeks . In the UK , following the release of Looking 4 Myself , the song entered and peaked at number ninety on the week of June 23 , 2012 . It also reached number 21 on the UK R & B chart . In France , the song entered and peaked at number 88 , while dropping to number 110 the following the week before dropping off the chart in its third week .
= = Music video and live performances = =
The official music video for " Lemme See " was released on June 14 , 2012 , and was directed by Philip Andelman . The video opens with a close @-@ up of Usher 's estate , and a woman bound by ropes . Usher is stood by a swimming pool singing the first verse , with the pool reflecting on him . During the pre @-@ chorus , Usher is leaning against a wall while pulling up his top to reveal his chest . Entering the chorus , the video intercuts to Usher preparing drinks for himself and the tied up woman – his love interest . With the second verse , Usher is admiring his still tied up love interest . In the second pre @-@ chorus , leaned against a wall Usher removes his shirt , while the video intercuts to him approaching his love interest to make love . Entering Rick Ross ' verse , Ross is sat down shirtless , accompanied by two women sat by him left and right . Touching Ross ' back , their tattoos transfer on to Ross and bloom . Him and Usher are both by a pool with Ross performing his rap , while in an intercut scene Usher 's love interest is being released from her tied up predicament . In the final chorus , Usher and his love interest make love in a risqué scene , with both their tattoos moving and blooming on to each other in a similar way to Ross ' scene . This alternates with the latter scene , Usher leaned against the wall and him and Ross by the pool , with Usher singing the verse . The video ends with Ross and Usher echoing the song 's title .
American magazine Rap @-@ Up praised the music video , calling it " seductive " while Billboard 's David Greenwald compared it to Barbadian singer Rihanna 's " S & M " , and noted parts of " Lemme See " ' s video as " less edgy " compared to its love scene . Opening the 2012 iTunes Festival , Usher performed the song for the first time along with " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " , " Twisted " , " Dive " and " Numb " and other songs .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Vocal recording – Parkland Playhouse , Parkland , FL ; Silent Sound Studios , Atlanta , GA
Mixing – Parkland Playhouse , Parkland , FL
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Mullum Malarum =
Mullum Malarum ( English : Thorn and Flower ) is a 1978 Indian Tamil @-@ language drama film written and directed by J. Mahendran and produced by Venu Chettiar and V. Mohan , with a soundtrack by Ilaiyaraaja . The film , starring Rajinikanth , Sarath Babu , Fatafat Jayalaxmi and Shoba , marked Mahendran 's directorial debut and is loosely based on Umachandran 's novel of the same name . It tells the story of Kali , a winch operator who dotes on his sister and clashes with Kumaran , his superior , at a power plant ; the dispute eventually costs him his left arm and his job .
The film 's production was tumultuous . Chettiar opposed casting Rajinikanth as the protagonist because of his dark skin and typecasting as a villain at the time , but Mahendran refused to direct the film without the actor and Chettiar capitulated . Since Mahendran had no previous directing experience , cinematographer Balu Mahendra ( a director himself ) assisted Mahendran with the screenplay , dialogue , camera angles , casting and editing . The film significantly deviates from the novel , with Mahendran having read only a part of it . Filming lasted for roughly 30 days , and primarily took place in Sringeri , Ooty , Glenmorgan and Kundha . Chettiar was surprised that the finished film had less dialogue than visuals , which he did not expect from Mahendran .
Although Mullum Malarum opened to a tepid box office reception at its 15 August 1978 ( Independence Day ) release , positive reviews from critics and favourable word of mouth helped make it a success . Rajinikanth 's performance as Kali received unanimous praise , and it is widely considered the best performance of his career . The film won the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil and two Tamil Nadu State Film Awards : Best Film and a Special Prize for Rajinikanth , who also won the Arima Sangam Award for Best Actor
Mullum Malarum , a breakthrough for Rajinikanth , became a milestone in Tamil cinema ; it focused on visual realism , without excessive melodrama , fights , duets or dialogue . The film 's success inspired remakes in 1979 ( Venalil Oru Mazha in Malayalam ) and 1985 ( Pyari Behna in Hindi ) .
= = Plot = =
Kali is a winch operator at a village power plant . Although a reputed troublemaker , he occasionally does good deeds for the local community . Kali and his younger sister Valli — to whom he is devoted — were orphaned during their childhood and have no close family . When a poor wanderer named Manga and her aged mother arrive in the village with no assets and no @-@ one to assist them , Valli helps them set up their home in the village . Although Manga becomes fond of Kali , he is disgusted by her fondness for food .
The power plant 's new supervising engineer is Kumaran , an austere but fair boss . His relationship with Kali is difficult , worsening after he sees the latter 's negative side in a series of incidents , which included Kali allowing people to ride the winch in violation of the power plant 's rules . Kali calls Kumaran " Law Point " because of his strict application of the rules . One day when Kali is on duty , Manga teases him ; he abandons the winch and chases her . In his absence , an emergency arises at the plant . An enraged Kumaran suspends Kali from his job the following day for dereliction of duty , ignoring his protests and threats .
Kali becomes drunk and faints in the middle of the road ; a lorry runs over his left arm , which is later amputated . He cannot perform his job with one arm , and is fired . Now unemployed , Kali directs his anger and frustration at Kumaran ; Manga feels guilty because she is responsible for Kali 's plight . At Valli 's request , she marries Kali and takes care of him .
Kumaran is attracted to Valli , and asks Kali for permission to marry her . Because he hates his former boss , Kali arranges for Valli to marry Murugesa , a philandering grocer . Although Manga opposes Kali 's decision , he stubbornly refuses her plea to allow his sister to marry Kumaran . Manga decides to arrange the marriage without his consent .
On the day Murugesa is supposed to marry Valli at his house , Kali learns that the entire village has left to attend Valli 's marriage to Kumaran . He intercepts Valli 's group , reminding her that he loves her and how difficult it would be to live without her . Although everyone else ignores him , Valli runs to him and assures him that she would never abandon him . Kali then tells Kumaran that although he still dislikes his former boss , he and Valli have his permission to marry .
= = Cast = =
Rajinikanth as Kali , a winch operator
Sarath Babu as Kumaran , the new supervising engineer
Fatafat Jayalaxmi as Manga , Kali 's wife
Shoba as Valli , Kali 's younger sister and Kumaran 's love interest
Venniradai Moorthy as Murugesa , a philandering grocer
Samikannu as one of Kali 's henchmen
Male supporting roles were played by S. A. Kannan , Pazhaniyappan , Dasaradan , Rangamani , Sarathi , Santhanam , Kumarimuthu , Jothi Shanmugham , Chellappa , Amalraj , Poondigiri and Vairam Krishnamoorthy . Female supporting roles were played by Santhamma , Jayakumari , Vijaya , Jaya , Pushpa , Radha , Prema , Vasanthi , Leela and Kala .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Mullum Malarum is based on a novel of the same name by Umachandran which was published in the Tamil magazine , Kalki . The story , about the love between a brother and sister , won the first prize in Kalki 's Novel Short Story Competition celebrating the magazine 's 1966 silver jubilee . Screenplay and dialogue writer J. Mahendran read only a part of Umachandran 's novel , but was particularly impressed by the winch operator Kali and his affection for his sister , as well as the loss of his arm . He outlined Mullum Malarum to producer Venu Chettiar , who was impressed . Adapting Umachandran 's novel for the screen , Mahendran made his directing debut and wrote the film 's dialogue . His screenplay diverged from the novel 's plot , and he decided to make a minimalist , visually @-@ rich film without melodrama , overacting , excessive dialogue or duets . A significant difference is that in the novel , Kali loses his arm to a tiger while in the film , he loses it due to it being run over by a lorry .
Chettiar and V. Mohan produced Mullum Malarum for Ananthi Films , although only Mohan was credited in the opening credits . Ramasamy was signed as art director , and D. Vasu as editor . Ashok Kumar and Ramachandra Babu were the initial choices for cinematographer , but actor Kamal Haasan recommended Balu Mahendra for the job , which Mahendran accepted , leading to Mahendra making his debut in Tamil cinema .
= = = Casting = = =
Chettiar disagreed with Mahendran 's wish to cast Rajinikanth in the lead role because of the actor 's dark skin and his then typecasting as a villain . Mahendran refused to direct the film if Rajinikanth was not cast , not because Rajinikanth was his close friend , but because he felt that the actor was 100 % close to the character , and Chettiar capitulated . He was still unhappy with the director 's decision and called it " ridiculous " and " preposterous " every time he visited the set . Rajinikanth , dismayed at the producer 's lack of confidence in his acting , promised to " put his heart and soul into the character Kali " . The actor received ₹ 13 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 1 @,@ 579 @.@ 59 in 1978 ) for his part in the film .
Shoba was cast as Kali 's sister Valli , Sarath Babu as the engineer Kumaran and Fatafat Jayalaxmi as Kali 's love interest , Manga . Mahendran decided to characterise Manga as a " foodie who loves fish " after being inspired by Sringeri 's marine environment . Latha said that she had to refuse a part in the film due to scheduling conflicts . Mahendran cast Venniradai Moorthy as Murugesa , the philandering grocer , and Samikannu was the given the part as one of Kali 's henchmen .
= = = Filming = = =
Mullum Malarum was filmed on 35 mm ORWO colour film . The film intentionally defied traditional Tamil cinema conventions , discarding elements which Mahendran disliked . Mahendra later professed to avoid incorporating the usual hero @-@ heroine dancing into the film as he thought it was like " watching two drunken monkeys dancing " . Instead , he allocated music to the background only , at times when the lead characters were expressing their emotions . Since Mahendran had no previous directing experience , Mahendra assumed principal responsibility and responded to Mahendran 's specifications for the screenplay , dialogue , camera angles , casting and editing .
Although Chettiar held up production by not financing a scene set before the song " Senthazham Poovil " , Kamal Haasan funded the scene . Mullum Malarum was shot in Sringeri , Ooty , Kundha and Chennai in about 30 days , with the winch @-@ operating scenes filmed in Glenmorgan . Sarath Babu was originally supposed to lip sync the full " Senthazham Poovil " scene involving him and Shoba , but Balu Mahendra and Mahendran agreed on a montage after the actor performed a line or two , much to his disappointment . Chettiar was perplexed by the finished film 's lack of dialogue , since he hired Mahendran as director due to his successful stint as a screenplay and dialogue writer , and did not expect such a visually @-@ rich film from him . Mullum Malarum 's final length was 3 @,@ 915 @.@ 46 metres ( 12 @,@ 846 @.@ 0 ft ) .
= = Themes = =
Naman Ramachandran notes in Rajinikanth : The Definitive Biography ( 2012 ) that Umachandran 's novel and Mahendran 's film metaphorically liken the sibling relationship to flowers which need sharp thorns to protect them . Vikram Venkateswaran of The Quint described Kali as the " thorn " protecting his sister , the " flower " . S. Rajanayagam wrote in the 2015 book Popular Cinema and Politics in South India : The Films of MGR and Rajinikanth that Kali is both a thorn and a flower throughout the film : an " angry young man with a kind heart " , who does not admit mistakes ( despite many , such as breaking car headlights and allowing people to ride the winch in violation of the power plant 's rules ) . He also noted that films like Mullum Malarum stereotype the poor as representing " all that is pristine and traditional " , adding , " The overall socio @-@ economic system , which has made them poor , is unchallenged . Within the system , however , the hero will be ' richer ' in terms of his moral uprightness . " The 2012 book Grand Brand Rajini by P. C. Balasubramanian and Ram N. Ramakrishnan describes Kali as " the loving brother , the angry worker and despondent physically challenged person rolled into one . "
According to French film historian Yves Thoraval , the film 's theme is " the Oedipal possessiveness of a married brother for his younger sister " . Ramachandran notes that like the characters in Bairavi ( 1978 ) , Kali and his sister have abusive parents in childhood and he is responsible for his sister 's welfare . Unlike Bairavi , the siblings in Mullum Malarum are not separated ; this leads Kali 's protectiveness of Valli to the brink of obsession . In one scene , after he violently berates her during the day , he puts henna on her feet at night while she is asleep .
Ramachandran regards egotism as one of the central themes in Mullum Malarum , with Kali , the community 's alpha male , surrounded by sycophants who compliment him . He plays God in allowing the villagers to ride the winch ( saving them the exertion of walking ) , and is jolted when the supervising engineer Kumaran arrives . As a subordinate , Kali cannot oppose Kumaran ; his frustration threatens to erupt several times before it finally does and he is suspended . His feelings can be summed up in the line , " Raman aandalum , Ravanan aandalum , enakku oru kavalai illai , naan thaan da en manasukku raaja " ( English : " It doesn 't matter whether Rama or Ravana is reigning , I am king of my conscience " ) , in resistance to Kumaran 's authoritarian yoke .
According to Cinema Vision India , the film 's theme is " that people change — and they must " . Ramachandran notes that when Kali 's arm is amputated , he feels helpless and emasculated ; Kumaran , his bête noire , becomes an easy target , adding that Kali refuses to see the benefits of his sister marrying a wealthy , educated man ( even when Valli and his wife Manga ask for his consent ) , but sees the error of his ways when Valli abandons her defiant wedding preparations to join her brother : " My sister has shown all of you that I am the most important person in her life . I need only that happiness for the rest of my life . And it is with that pride and arrogance that I give my permission for my sister to marry . "
= = Music = =
Mullum Malarum 's soundtrack was composed by Ilaiyaraaja , with lyrics by Panchu Arunachalam , Gangai Amaran and Kannadasan . The soundtrack album , released by EMI Records , includes only four of the film 's five songs ; " Maan Iname " was omitted . Mullum Malarum features no duets , which is considered rare in Tamil cinema . Elements from " Raman Aandaalum " were later used in " Machi Open the Bottle " , composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja for Mankatha ( 2011 ) . " Senthazham Poovil " was the title track of a compilation album of K. J. Yesudas songs which was released by Saregama .
The soundtrack and score were received positively . A 25 August 1978 review in The Hindu described Ilaiyaraja 's melodies as " delicious " and a folk @-@ dancing scene had a " delightful rhythm " . According to a 1978 issue of the Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan , Ilaiyaraaja composed his four songs with " strands of sweetness " . Director Mani Ratnam said in a conversation with film critic Baradwaj Rangan that there was " something really special " about Mullum Malarum 's music , and because of it the film " really stood out " . D. Karthikeyan of The Hindu singled out the film 's re @-@ recording in July 2011 , ranking it with the music director 's other films Uthiripookkal ( 1979 ) , Moondram Pirai ( 1982 ) , Nayakan ( 1987 ) and Thalapathi ( 1991 ) .
= = Release and reception = =
Although Mullum Malarum was passed by the Central Board of Film Certification on 4 August 1978 , there were problems with its release . After Kamal Haasan 's intervention , it was released on 15 August , India 's Independence Day . The film 's commercial performance during its first few weeks was poor . Chettiar , who despaired of the film 's success and thought he was " doomed " , refused to underwrite any more publicity : " A good product needs no publicity , whereas a bad product cannot be pushed in the market however much you publicise it " . During its third or fourth week of release , positive magazine reviews and word of mouth spread ; Mullum Malarum became a commercial success , with a 100 @-@ day theatrical run . Chettiar apologised to Mahendran and offered him a blank cheque , to which he politely refused . The director instead thanked him for " letting him make a movie with Rajinikanth " .
After he saw the film , Rajinikanth 's mentor , director K. Balachander , wrote a letter of appreciation : " I 'm proud to have introduced you as an actor . " Balachander 's letter has been described by Sify as Rajinikanth 's " most prized moment and possession " . Following its success , Mullum Malarum was remade in Malayalam by Sreekumaran Thampi as Venalil Oru Mazha ( 1979 ) and in Hindi by Bapu as Pyari Behna ( 1985 ) .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
Mullum Malarum received positive reviews upon release . The Name is Rajinikanth ( 2008 ) by Gayathri Sreekanth states that the critics said , " Finally Tamil cinema is coming of age . Movies are getting more visual . " A 25 August 1978 review in The Hindu stated that the film " reflects the healthy trend towards a simple short story , vivid picturisation of sylvan scenery , arresting characterisation , catchy folk tunes and picturesque rustic dances that seem to have caught on among our film producers , instead of the usual formula of fights , duets , intrigues and cabaret dances ... Mahendran has handled the theme deftly . [ Rajinikanth ] shows his mature artistry in a portrayal of a turbulent illiterate worker with a blind passion for his sister . " It also praised the performances of Shoba and Jayalaxmi , and called Balu Mahendra 's camera work a " feast for the eyes " , noting that although the first half of the film moves at a " leisurely pace " , the second half is " eventful " .
Ananda Vikatan said in a 3 September 1978 review , " Mahendran has demonstrated amazing film making skills in this film ... He has told the story in a sharp manner without long dialogues and makes us expect the same quality of films from him in future ... The film exhibits Tamil culture throughout . The characters created history in a village atmosphere . We get the satisfaction of travelling to our village after seeing the film . This flower is one of those rarest Kurinchi flowers in Tamil Cinema . " After seeing Mullum Malarum , the @-@ then Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M. G. Ramachandran told the director :
I have no words to express my happiness . With this film , you have set a new trend in Tamil Cinema . You have achieved a milestone , which even if l had desired , l could not have achieved . You have demonstrated clearly that Cinema is a visual medium and have succeeded in that also . The films which came till now on brother @-@ sister relationships were full of dramatics , including mine . However , this film stands apart and stands tall in realism . The last scene is new not only to Tamil Cinema but also to Indian Cinema. l felt like getting up and clapping . Rajni has acted wonderfully and realistically and this film will mark a big turnaround in his film career .
= = = Retrospective reviews = = =
Film critic Baradwaj Rangan said in 2004 that Mahendran " proved himself a sublime storyteller " ; the following year he said that Rajinikanth , in films like Mullum Malarum , " still made the occasional attempt at being an actor . " In May 2013 , director Dhanapal Padmanabhan told K. Jeshi of The Hindu that Mullum Malarum " scores on content , craft and extraordinary screenplay . " In October 2010 , Amrith Lal of The Times of India wrote that Mullum Malarum " revealed the potential of Rajini , the character actor . " Also in The Times of India , Kamini Mathai wrote : " The fact that Mahendran and Balachander entered the world of cinema as writers shows in the strong storylines and dialogues of their films such as Mahendran 's Mullum Malarum ( 1978 ) and Balachander 's Apoorva Raagangal ( 1975 ) and Thanneer Thanneer ( 1981 ) . "
In August 2009 , M. Suganth of The Times of India rated the film 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Naman Ramachandran considered Rajinikanth 's Kali an effective portrayal of a challenging , complex character . He praised Balu Mahendra 's cinematography , especially his use of natural light . In December 2014 , Gautaman Bhaskaran of the Hindustan Times wrote : " On watching [ Apoorva Raagangal and Mullum Malarum ] recently , there was no mistaking the brilliance of [ Rajinikanth 's ] acting ability . In both , he essays shades of deep grey , and yet there was something captivating about Rajinikanth . "
In December 2011 , the Press Trust of India said that Rajinikanth also " proved his acting mettle in challenging roles " in films such as Mullum Malarum . Rediff described the film in August 2015 as one of Rajinikanth 's best of the 20 he released in 1978 . According to Maalai Malar , Rajinikanth lived through his role as Kali . The newspaper praised Shoba 's acting , described Balu Mahendra 's cinematography as on an international level and called Mullum Malarum one of those few films which could not be destroyed by time . S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu called Shoba 's performance " brilliant " in 2002 , and in December 2012 , film journalist Sreedhar Pillai said that Mullum Malarum was Rajinikanth 's best performance and the film was among his most " memorable movies " . D. Karthikeyan of The Hindu wrote in December 2009 that Mullum Malarum would " remain etched in every film lover 's memory by showing the best of Rajnikanth 's acting skills . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Although the producer did not enter Mullum Malarum in any award competitions , it won the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil and two Tamil Nadu State Film Awards : Best Film and a Special Prize for Rajinikanth . The actor won the Arima Sangam Award for Best Actor . The film was screened at the 1979 Indian International Film Festival as a part of the Indian Panorama .
Mullum Malarum consistently ranks as one of Rajinikanth 's best films in polls . In December 2012 , Aishwarya Bhattacharya of Koimoi included the film on her list of " Top 10 Rajinikanth Movies " . In May 2007 , K. Balamurugan of Rediff ranked Mullum Malarum fifth on his list of " Rajni 's Tamil Top 10 " films . Writer Sujatha Rangarajan included the film on his June 2005 list of ten best Indian films , stating : " Mahendran 's triumph was making superstar Rajnikanth act naturally . " In December 2013 , The Times of India ranked the film fifth on its list of " Top 12 Rajinikanth movies " , commenting : " With this film , the talented actor dispelled whatever doubts remained about his acting ability " . In July 2016 , The Hindu included Mullum Malarum in its list of " roles that defined Rajinikanth the actor " , commenting , " Rajini played the role of the quick @-@ tempered , lovable brother with ease , and Kali is surely one of his most revered roles . "
= = Legacy = =
In addition to its critical and commercial success , Mullum Malarum became a milestone in Tamil cinema . Discarding traditional melodrama , fights , duet songs and extensive dialogue , the film focused on visual realism . Gayathri Sreekanth wrote in The Name is Rajinikanth that it " gave a new dimension to brother and sister relations on screen " and established Rajinikanth as an " actor par finesses " . Although he was praised for his performance in what was seen as an experimental film , during the 1990s he stopped acting in similar films because he had become a " larger @-@ than @-@ life " hero .
Director Prabhu Solomon said that Rajinikanth 's character inspired Vikram Prabhu 's protagonist in Kumki ( 2012 ) . " Kali " became Rajinikanth 's most @-@ frequent onscreen name ; his characters in Murattu Kaalai ( 1980 ) , Kai Kodukkum Kai ( 1984 ) , Kaali ( 1980 ) and Athisaya Piravi ( 1990 ) were also named Kali . Mani Ratnam called Mullum Malarum " the benchmark in terms of [ Rajinikanth 's ] performance " , adding that although it was not Parallel Cinema it was " very realistic , and was performed very , very realistically . The dialogues were real . " Director C. S. Amudhan said , " In Mullum Malarum , which happens to be one of my favourite [ films , Rajinikanth ] has proved he can be subtle and yet make an impact . " Asked which of his films he loved best , according to The New Indian Express Rajinikanth told Gayathri Sreekanth that it was Mullum Malarum ; he considers Mahendran his favourite director . G. Dhananjayan wrote that Mullum Malarum is one of five films Rajinikanth considers " close to his heart " .
Sarath Babu told S. R. Ashok Kumar in 2006 , " My grandchildren can watch all my movies . But I would like them to watch the best among the lot — Nool Veli , Mullum Malarum , Udiripookal , Salangai Oli and Amirthavarshini ( Kannada ) " . In 2006 , director S. Shankar said that he entered the film industry " with dreams of directing films such as Mullum Malarum " , though he never got to make such films . Asked for her favourite scene in any film , actress Sripriya replied : " For me , that would be an entire movie – Mullum Malarum . " In July 2007 , S. R. Ashok Kumar asked eight Tamil directors to list ten of their favourite films ; four — K. Balachander , K. Bhagyaraj , Mani Ratnam and K. S. Ravikumar — named Mullum Malarum . Director Kathir said in July 2012 that Mullum Malarum inspired him to enter the film industry . The title of G. V. Prakash Kumar 's film , Ketta Paiyan Da Indha Karthi , is a play on the line " Ketta Paiyan Sir Indha Kaali " from Mullum Malarum . In October 2015 , director Pa . Ranjith stated that Rajinikanth 's characterisation in Mullum Malarum was a " lesson " of sorts for him , and the actor 's character in Ranjith 's film Kabali was influenced by Kali in Mullum Malarum .
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= Christchurch , Dorset =
Christchurch / ˈkraɪst.tʃɜːrtʃ / is a borough and town on the south coast of England . The town adjoins Bournemouth in the west and the New Forest lies to the east . Historically in the county of Hampshire , it became part of the administrative county of Dorset in the 1974 reorganisation of local government . Covering an area of 19 @.@ 5 square miles ( 51 km2 ) , Christchurch had a 2011 population of 54 @,@ 210 , making it the fourth most populous town in Dorset , closely behind Weymouth which has a population of 54 @,@ 539 .
Founded in the 7th century at the confluence of the rivers Avon and Stour which flow into Christchurch Harbour , the town was originally named Twynham but became known as Christchurch following the construction of the priory in 1094 . The town developed into an important trading port and was fortified in the 9th century . Further defences were added in the 12th century with the construction of a castle which was destroyed by the Parliamentarian Army during the English Civil War . During the 18th and 19th centuries smuggling flourished in Christchurch and became one of the town 's most lucrative industries . The town was heavily fortified during Second World War as a precaution against an expected invasion and in 1940 an Airspeed factory was established on the town 's airfield which manufactured aircraft for the Royal Air Force .
The town 's harbour , beaches , nature reserves and historically important buildings have made Christchurch a popular tourist destination attracting some 1 @.@ 5 million visitors a year . Bournemouth Airport , an international airport which handles approximately 800 @,@ 000 passengers a year , is located within the borough boundary at Hurn . The airport 's industrial park contains a number of aerospace and engineering businesses and is one of the largest employment sites in Dorset . Christchurch is a popular destination for retirees and has one of the oldest populations in the country with 30 per cent of residents aged over 65 .
= = History = =
Christchurch was founded in approximately 650 AD by missionaries sent to Wessex by St Birinus , the first Bishop of Dorchester ( Oxfordshire ) . They settled on a stretch of raised land between the rivers Avon and Stour which carried people and their wares to and from settlements such as Blandford and Old Sarum ( Salisbury ) . The harbour became one of the most important in Saxon England as it was easily reached from the continent and boats could travel up the river Avon to Salisbury . The town appears in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle entry of 901 as Tweoxneam ( Twynham ) from Old English betweoxn ( between ) and éam ( rivers ) . In around 890 AD , Alfred the Great considered Twynham to be of such strategic importance that , with the threat of invasion by the Danes , he made it a burh and defensive walls were erected around the town . In 1094 a chief minister of King William II , Ranulf Flambard , then Dean of Twynham , began the building of a priory on the site of the original mission church . Soon after the construction of the priory the town became known as Christchurch .
Some time in the early 12th century , a castle was built within the town . Originally a wooden fort built by Richard de Redvers , first cousin to King Henry I , it was rebuilt in stone by Baldwin de Redvers to resist King Stephen during the civil war with the Empress Matilda . The castle again saw action during the Civil War of 1642 – 1651 when occupied by the Parliamentarians . Christchurch changed hands a number of times : originally under Royalist control , it was captured by Sir William Waller 's Parliamentary army in 1644 . Lord Goring briefly retook the town in 1645 but was obliged to withdraw and returned with a larger force days later and laid siege to the castle . However , the Parliamentarians withstood the siege and maintained their hold on the town . Fearing such a powerful stronghold might once again fall into Royalist hands , Cromwell ordered the castle to be destroyed in 1652 .
Although the fishing industry thrived in Christchurch , the importance of the harbour declined as it became inaccessible to vessels of a large draught . The harbour entrance was particularly troublesome with constantly shifting sandbars . In 1665 Edward Hyde , Earl of Clarendon , bought the Lordship of the Manor of Christchurch . As part of his plans to improve trade in the town , he attempted to resolve the problems with the harbour entrance by cutting a new one through the sandspit at the foot of Hengistbury Head . However , upon completion the new entrance repeatedly silted up and in 1703 a large storm damaged a groyne which blocked the entrance entirely . Over the following 150 years alternative schemes were proposed but none were ever taken up .
Smuggling was one of Christchurch 's most lucrative industries during the 18th and 19th centuries due to easy access to neighbouring towns and the difficult harbour entrance which acted as a barrier to customs cutters . Many townspeople were involved in this illegal trade and large quantities of wealth were accumulated . In 1784 a confrontation between a gang of local smugglers and Customs and Excise officers led to the Battle of Mudeford in which a Royal Navy officer was killed and a smuggler subsequently executed . Another important industry during this period was the manufacture of fusee chains for watches and clocks . In 1790 , Robert Cox began to manufacture fusee chains in workshops in the High Street . By 1793 Cox gained a monopoly on chain production in Britain , supplying watch , clock and chronometer makers throughout the country . In 1845 William Hart opened a similar factory in Bargates . However , by 1875 the chains were no longer required due to changes in watch designs and the factories were closed .
The railway came to Christchurch in 1847 although the nearest station , Christchurch Road , was at Holmsley and passengers were taken the rest of the way by omnibus . In 1862 a new station was built in the town close to where it stands today and was served by a branch line from Ringwood . Christchurch joined the mainline in 1883 and a third station had to be built . Christchurch , and in particular Mudeford , had been enjoying a modest tourist trade since King George III had patronised the town in the 1790s but the arrival of the railways made Christchurch accessible to more potential visitors . A power station was built in Christchurch in 1903 to power the public trams . The excess generated was sufficient to light the town and in 1940 it was added to the national grid .
In 1930 , the Fisher Aviation Company began to provide flights from fields at the eastern end of Somerford Road and by 1933 the company had flown over 19 @,@ 000 passengers . In 1934 they obtained permission to establish an aerodrome on the site which became known as Christchurch Airfield . During the Second World War an Airspeed factory was built on the airfield and began manufacturing aircraft for the RAF and in 1944 the USAAF Ninth Air Force established a base there . A second aerodrome opened at Hurn in 1944 which became Bournemouth Airport . In 1940 , with the German 6th Army at Cherbourg , Christchurch was fortified against an expected invasion : the construction of pillboxes , gun emplacements and tank traps in and around the town , made Christchurch an " anti @-@ tank island " . Between 1941 and 1942 Donald Bailey developed the Bailey bridge at the Military Engineering Experimental Establishment at Christchurch Barracks .
Much development with a large increase in housing occurred from the mid @-@ 18th century . In 1873 , 300 acres ( 120 ha ) of common land north of the town known as Portfield was enclosed and built upon and the town 's population rapidly expanded . During the 20th century further development has seen the population grown from a little over 11 @,@ 000 to more than 45 @,@ 000 . In the 1950s a large housing estate was built to the east of the town centre and in 1958 a bypass was constructed which redirected traffic using the town 's high street as the main thoroughfare to and from London and Southampton . In 1974 the town was transferred from the county of Hampshire to Dorset following local government reorganisation and was granted borough status by a Royal Charter .
= = Governance = =
Christchurch is a local government district which has borough status . It is the smallest of Dorset County Council 's six districts and one of the smallest boroughs in England by population . The district was formed by the merger of the Municipal Borough of Christchurch with part of Ringwood and Fordingbridge Rural District in 1974 . Since then it has been part of the non @-@ metropolitan county of Dorset . It has some large rural areas including Bournemouth International Airport and the parishes of Burton and Hurn . For local elections the borough is divided into 12 wards containing 24 councillors . Elections take place every four years ; the last election took place in 2015 resulting in the Conservatives retaining overall control with 21 seats . The Mayor of Christchurch for 2014 – 2015 is Conservative councillor Denise Jones and the Deputy Mayor is Nick Geary ( Conservative ) . In existence since at least 1297 , Christchurch 's Office of Mayor is now mainly a ceremonial role with little power . The Council Leader is Ray Nottage who has served as a Conservative councillor since 2007 .
Christchurch is represented by a single parliamentary constituency in the House of Commons . The seat was created in 1983 from parts of the Christchurch and Lymington , North Dorset and New Forest constituencies . It had been held by Robert Adley ( Conservative ) since its creation until his death in 1993 . At the by @-@ election Diana Maddock ( Liberal Democrat ) was elected in one of the largest ever swings ( 35 @.@ 4 % ) against the sitting party . The seat was retaken by Conservative candidate Christopher Chope in 1997 and retained in 2001 and 2005 . In the 2010 general election , Chope retained his seat with a considerable majority of 15 @,@ 410 and 56 @.@ 4 % of the vote , making Christchurch one of the safest Conservative constituencies in the country . The Liberal Democrats won 25 @.@ 3 % of the vote , Labour 9 @.@ 8 % and the Independence Party 8 @.@ 5 % . Christchurch is part of the South West England constituency for elections to the European Parliament .
= = Geography = =
Christchurch is the most easterly coastal town of Dorset and lies within the historic county boundaries of Hampshire . The town abuts Bournemouth to the west and is approximately 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of Poole , 20 miles ( 32 km ) west of Southampton , 23 miles ( 37 km ) south of Salisbury . The town centre lies between the rivers Avon and Stour which flow directly into Christchurch Harbour . The borough boundaries stretch to Hurn Forest in the north encompassing Bournemouth Airport and eastwards along the coast as far as Walkford . The River Stour forms a natural boundary to the west ; the estuary and harbour form the southern boundary .
Christchurch Harbour contains large areas of salt marsh and is protected by a sandbar known as Mudeford Spit which has fine sandy beach on both sides of a walkway lined with beach huts . The harbour is protected by a natural headland ( Hengistbury Head ) at the start of the sandbanks , and is a special site for sand martins which nest annually in the sandy cliffs . The harbour is only accessible to shallow draught boats drawing up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) due to the sandbars at the entrance . The entrance , known as the Run , has Mudeford Quay on one side and the spit on the other . Considerable tides flow here : up to 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) during spring tides . The harbour is a protected wildlife refuge and is home to large populations of swans , waders and other bird life . On the south side , the harbour is enclosed by Hengistbury Head which was the site of the earliest settlement here dating back to the Bronze Age . The landward end of the headland has a bank and ditch known as Double Dykes , built in about 700 BC , to protect the ancient settlement .
Stanpit Marsh is a 65 @-@ hectare ( 160 @-@ acre ) nature reserve situated just below the confluence of the Rivers Avon and Stour . During the 18th century it was notorious for smugglers landing tobacco and rum in the narrow channels of Christchurch Harbour . It contains areas of salt marsh and freshwater marsh with reed beds and is home to grazing horses , rare birds , and 14 species of rare or endangered plants . It was designated as a Local Nature Reserve in 1964 and a Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1986 .
To the north of Christchurch is St. Catherine 's Hill , the highest part of the borough at 53 metres ( 174 ft ) above sea level . This hill is the most southerly of a chain of three hills , some 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long with 35 @-@ hectare ( 86 @-@ acre ) area of heathland and coniferous forest . The New Forest , Christchurch Priory , Hengistbury Head , Avon Valley , Christchurch Bay , The Solent and The Needles of the Isle of Wight can be seen from viewpoints on the east side of the Hill . Stour Valley way , Poole Bay and the Isle of Purbeck can be viewed from the south west side of the Hill . Due to its commanding views , St. Catherine 's Hill has been in use since prehistoric times as a look @-@ out area and beacon and in more recent years served as a military training ground . The hill is home to protected and rare wildlife species including the Dartford warbler , nightjar , and the sand lizard .
The geology of the borough is unremarkable ; the bedrock is mainly composed of sand with patches of clay to the east and west , and superficial deposits ( drift ) of sand and gravel cover the entire area . The extraction of sand and gravel for construction purposes is carried out in the borough and the opening of more sites is planned .
= = = Climate = = =
Christchurch , like the rest of the country , has a temperate climate with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures . The presence of the Gulf Stream ensures that the British Isles maintain an all @-@ year @-@ round ambient temperature , and , because of its position on the south coast of England , Christchurch has slightly warmer winters and cooler summers than settlements further inland . The warmest months in Christchurch are July and August , which have an average temperature range of 12 to 22 ° C ( 54 to 72 ° F ) , and the coolest months are January and February , which have a range of 2 to 8 @.@ 3 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 to 46 @.@ 9 ° F ) . The average annual rainfall of 594 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 23 @.@ 41 in ) is well below the UK average of 1 @,@ 126 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Demography = =
Christchurch has a population of 45 @,@ 080 according to a 2007 census , making it the fourth most populous settlement in Dorset . It lies in the South East Dorset conurbation which is one of the South Coast 's major urban areas with a total population of over 400 @,@ 000 . Over the three decades between 1971 and 2001 , Christchurch 's population increased by 32 % from 33 @,@ 768 to 44 @,@ 865 ; and between 1991 and 2001 by 8 @.@ 5 % . This was more than three times the average for England and Wales ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , and it is expected to grow by a further 16 % to 52 @,@ 100 by 2028 . Between 1999 and 2006 there was a net gain of 4 @,@ 200 people from migration alone ( i.e. excluding births and deaths ) . On average 3 @,@ 100 people enter the borough and 2 @,@ 500 leave each year , giving a net average gain of 600 migrants . The population density of Christchurch is four times the UK average with 873 people per square kilometre ( 2 @,@ 307 per sq mi ) .
Christchurch has one of the oldest populations in the country with significant proportion of residents wealthy senior citizens . The percentage of the population aged over 65 in Christchurch is 30 @.@ 4 % , almost double the national average of 16 @.@ 5 % . Highcliffe on the borough 's eastern boundary possesses the highest percentage of elderly residents in the entire United Kingdom at 69 % . The Office for National Statistics predicted that by 2031 , the percentage of residents over 65 will rise to 37 @.@ 9 . In 2005 , the life expectancy of female residents was 83 @.@ 4 years and male residents 79 @.@ 7 years . This was an increase on ten years previous ( 1995 ) when the life expectancy was 82 @.@ 6 years and 77 @.@ 0 years for females and males respectively .
In common with the rest of Dorset , Christchurch has low numbers of black and minority ethnic groups : the vast majority ( 96 @.@ 83 % ) consider themselves to be White British . Other white groups account for a further 2 @.@ 09 % and those of mixed race 0 @.@ 44 % . Asian and British Asian make up the next largest group with 0 @.@ 25 % of the local population , followed by Chinese , 0 @.@ 16 % , black , 0 @.@ 13 % and 0 @.@ 11 % from other ethnic groups . Over 55 % of the economically active population are in full @-@ time employment ; a further 22 % work on a part @-@ time basis . Of those in employment , over 40 % of the borough 's residents have a high skill level occupation and 17 % have a low level one . Some 28 @.@ 18 % have no formal qualifications but 16 @.@ 63 % have a level 4 qualification or above ( first or higher degree , HNC , HND , NVQ levels 4 or 5 ) .
Christchurch contains around 22 @,@ 800 properties . In 2005 the average price of a detached house in Christchurch was £ 323 @,@ 416 . On average property in Christchurch is 24 % more expensive than anywhere else in England and Wales . Nearly 80 % of residences are owner occupied , 3 % are vacant and a further 3 % are second homes . The borough has around 25 @,@ 000 cars : an average of 1 @.@ 21 per household . Christchurch , in common with the rest of Dorset , has lower crime rates than average for the UK . Reported crime rates per 1 @,@ 000 of the population in 2006 ( with figures for 2001 in brackets ) are as follows : violence against the person 10 @.@ 4 ( 4 @.@ 8 ) , sexual offences 0 @.@ 7 ( 0 @.@ 3 ) , robbery 0 @.@ 2 ( 0 @.@ 3 ) , burglary 2 @.@ 2 ( 4 @.@ 0 ) , theft of vehicles 0 @.@ 9 ( 2 @.@ 5 ) , theft from vehicles 3 @.@ 6 ( 7 @.@ 2 ) .
= = Economy = =
Between 2000 and 2007 the total Gross Value Added ( GVA ) of the borough grew by 37 % from £ 552 million to £ 757 million . The biggest contributor to the local economy through the period 2000 – 2007 was the transport and communication sector which in 2007 brought in £ 145 million GVA ; £ 64 million more than in 2000 . The sector which saw the largest growth during that period however , was metals and engineering which increased by 140 % . The food , textiles and wood industries experienced the largest negative change at − 42 % whereas the electronics industry experienced the biggest fall with £ 16 @.@ 2 million less than seven years previous .
An aircraft manufacturing industry was established in the town with the construction of an Airspeed factory at Christchurch Airfield in 1942 . In 1948 the factory became part of de Havilland and manufactured a wide range of aircraft such as the Vampire , Sea Venom and Sea Vixen . In the 1950s , Bournemouth Airport , a former RAF base situated on the outskirts of borough boundaries at Hurn , also became heavily involved in aircraft production after Vickers Armstrong — which later became the British Aircraft Corporation ( BAC ) — established a factory at the airport .
Although the de Havilland factory closed down in 1962 and aircraft manufacturing at Bournemouth Airport ceased by the late 1970s , the aircraft and engineering industries remained important to the local economy . The BAC works at Bournemouth Airport were converted into a 80 @-@ hectare ( 200 @-@ acre ) industrial estate which has become one of the largest employment sites in the county with over 140 businesses and a working population of some 2 @,@ 000 people . The town has a number of smaller trading estates including : Airfield Way Industrial Estate , Sea Vixen Trading Estate , Silver Business Park , Hughes Business Park , Priory Park and Somerford Road , all situated on the old Christchurch Airfield ; Fairmile / Avon Trading Park , once the old railway yard ; and Groveley Road and Stony Lane .
Bournemouth Airport is among the busiest international airports in the country and is an important economic generator for the region . Owned and operated by Manchester Airports Group , the airport handles 800 @,@ 000 passengers annually and supports around 900 full @-@ time equivalent jobs which contribute more than £ 24 million to the local economy . Between 2007 and 2010 the airport underwent a £ 45 million upgrade which included the construction of a new departure terminal . Other major employers in Christchurch include : BAE Systems , Bournemouth Aviation Services Company ( BASCO ) , Beagle Aerospace , Bournemouth International Airport Ltd , Channel Express , College of Air Traffic Control , Data Track Process Instruments , European Aviation , FR Aviation , Honeywell , Reid Steel , Revvo Castor Company , Sainsbury 's , Siemens VAI and SELEX Communications .
The town 's High Street contains 48 shops with 61 @,@ 847 square feet ( 5 @,@ 745 @.@ 8 m2 ) of retail space . The addition of the Saxon Square shopping precinct in 1982 added a further 41 @,@ 748 square feet ( 3 @,@ 878 @.@ 5 m2 ) of shop floor to the town centre — an increase of 67 @.@ 5 % . The combined number of shops and floor space makes Christchurch the fifth largest shopping centre in Dorset .
Christchurch attracts some 837 @,@ 000 staying visitors and 792 @,@ 000 day visitors each year and tourism generates £ 76 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for the local economy . Although important to the local economy with spending generating over £ 53 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 GVA , Christchurch is not so heavily dependent on tourism as some of its neighbours . Tourism 's contribution to the local economy is about 9 % compared to 18 % for Weymouth and Portland , 15 % for Purbeck and 12 % for Bournemouth . Visitor accommodation consists of 11 caravan and camping parks and some 900 bed spaces in eight hotels and 75 guest houses and bed and breakfast establishments .
= = Culture = =
A weekly market was granted to the town by Baldwin de Redvers and the first market took place in 1149 at the junction of Castle Street and High Street . These weekly markets stopped in 1872 but resumed a century later in a car park next to the town hall , now the site of Saxon Square . When construction of the square began in 1983 , the market was moved to a car park in Bank Close . Today it is held every Monday in High Street which is then closed to traffic . Periodically there are food fairs and a French market in the town .
Every year since 2000 the town has held a food and wine festival during May . It includes an international food market with over 100 stalls selling food and drink , and a large marquee with a kitchen area erected in Saxon Square . Here cooking demonstrations are given , sometimes by a celebrity chef : past guests have included Gary Rhodes and Jean @-@ Christophe Novelli . The week @-@ long festival is a community event which aims to educate people in healthy eating as well as the availability of foods . During the festival local chefs are invited into schools to demonstrate recipes ; and throughout the weekend the marquee hosts a cookery workshop for 7 – 10 @-@ year olds .
Christchurch holds an annual music festival on the first weekend in July . Originally a folk festival , the event has evolved to cater for a wider variety of tastes : clog and morris dancing groups and salsa and belly dancing exhibitions have featured . Rock bands and soul groups have been included alongside the more traditional types of music . The festival 's format changes annually but usually focuses around the town quay where a large marquee contains the main stage . Local bars often host smaller bands and dancing and exhibitions take place throughout the town centre .
Another annual event is the regatta which has been held every year since 1909 . It takes place around the second week in August and involves rowing competitions on the River Stour and a travelling funfair sited on the adjacent town quay . A carnival procession and large firework display takes place at the weekend . The part of the quay by the priory is known as The Quomps and was conveyed to the town in 1911 by Lord Malmesbury . A 19th @-@ century bandstand situated in the Quomps was an anonymous gift to the town in 1938 . During the summer months it is used for free open @-@ air concerts on Saturdays , one of the most popular being " Stompin ' on the Quomps " , a smooth jazz festival . On Sunday afternoons brass bands often play there .
The town has a museum : The Red House Museum in Quay Road . Once the town 's workhouse , the Red House contains permanent and temporary exhibitions pertaining to local history , costume , geology , natural history and archaeology . The museum grounds contain formal and informal gardens . The old power station in Bargates , owned by Scottish and Southern Energy , housed the Museum of Electricity . This is no longer open to the public , although the company is working on new ways to share the museum 's collection more widely across the UK .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Town centre = = =
Christchurch 's town centre encompasses a mixture of traditional public houses , restaurants , coffee shops , antiquated cottages and historic listed buildings . The older part of the town dates from Saxon times and retains its Saxon street layout . The Grade II listed Mayor 's Parlour was built as the market hall in 1745 at the far end of the High Street but was moved to its present position in 1849 . It was enclosed and extended , and used as the town hall until the civic offices were built in the mid @-@ 1970s . It was restored to its former condition circa 1982 when the Saxon Square shopping precinct was built .
High Street contains two Grade II listed public houses : Ye Olde George Inne , once a coach house , and the Ship Inn which has the oldest licence in Christchurch . A known haunt of smugglers , the Ship Inn 's history can be traced back to 1688 . At the end of High Street is Church Street which contains Church Hatch , a Grade II * listed Georgian residence . Once the home of Sir Owen Tudor Burne , it was saved from demolition in 1929 by public appeal . Ye Olde Eight Bells , a Grade II listed gift shop in Church Street , was once another alehouse frequented by smugglers and central to a number of local legends . Close by in Castle Street is the Perfumery , a 14th @-@ century thatched property often referred to as the old courthouse ; although some local historians maintain that this was next door and long gone .
The town centre contains three Grade I listed bridges . The Town Bridge is a 15th @-@ century ashlar stone bridge composed of two portions separated by a narrow strip of land . The eastern portion crosses the narrower of two branches of the River Avon that pass through the town and features five low round @-@ headed arches . The western bridge features two arches and crosses the millstream which runs adjacent to the Avon . To the east of the Town Bridge on the same route from the town centre the Waterloo Bridge spans the larger branch of the Avon . Built circa 1816 – 1817 in the mediaeval tradition with dressed Portland stone , its design incorporates five wide segmental arches , circular piers and capped cutwaters . On the northern side of the bridge a modern steel pedestrian footbridge is cantilevered to the older structure .
= = = Castle = = =
The Grade I listed Christchurch Castle is of Norman origin and was originally of a motte and bailey construction . The castle once dominated the town but now lies in ruins and only a couple of the keep walls remain . A castle has stood in Christchurch since approximately 924 AD when Edward the Elder fortified the town with a wooden fort on a motte . After the Norman conquest in 1066 the castle 's defences were strengthened with a ditch and bailey surrounded by a wooden palisade . The wooden fort was replaced ; at first with another wooden structure and then a stone keep which was constructed in the 12th century . Within the curtain wall of the castle stands the Constable 's House , a Grade I listed Norman dwelling . Much of the building 's stonework remains , including a rare example of a Norman chimney ( one of only five in the country ) and the privy which extends out across the mill stream . The castle was slighted by the Parliamentary army during the English Civil War to prevent the stronghold from falling into Royalist hands .
= = = Priory = = =
Christchurch town centre and the Harbour are overlooked by the 11th century Grade I listed Christchurch Priory . Once a monastery , it was given to the town for use as a parish church by Henry VIII after the dissolution in 1540 . It is the longest parish church in England with a nave over 311 feet ( 95 m ) long . The nave and transepts are Norman with heavy columns and round arches , whereas the lady chapel is from the 14th century and more Perpendicular in style . The great choir is even later , having been rebuilt in the 16th century . The Priory is noted for its Miraculous Beam , which attracts pilgrims from all over the world . Within the Priory grounds stands Priory House , a Grade II listed mansion built in 1777 by Gustavus Brander . The Priory is in active use for worship and forms part of the Church of England Diocese of Winchester .
= = = Place Mill = = =
Place Mill is a Grade II * listed Anglo @-@ Saxon watermill located a short distance to the south of the Priory on Christchurch Quay . It is mentioned in the Domesday Book and features a mediaeval stone base underneath red brickwork . The mill belonged to the Priory but stopped working in 1908 and stood derelict until purchased by the council and restored in 1981 . It is unique in that it takes water from one river ( the Avon ) and spills it into a second river ( the Stour ) . A millstream is supplied from the Royalty Fisheries near to the Electricity Museum behind Bargates , and flows for nearly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to the mill between the Avon and the Priory grounds before joining the River Stour . A mediaeval Grade II listed bridge known as the Place Mill Bridge crosses the millstream nearby .
= = = Highcliffe Castle = = =
Situated on the cliffs at Highcliffe is Highcliffe Castle , a Grade I listed mansion . The building was designed by William Donthorne for Charles Stuart , 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay , and built between 1831 and 1835 . It stands on the site of " High Cliff " , a demolished Georgian mansion which belonged to Charles Stuart 's grandfather John Stuart , 3rd Earl of Bute . An important remaining example of the Gothic Revival architecture , Donothorne 's design incorporated French mediaeval stonework , stained glass and 18th @-@ century French panelling . The house was sold in 1950 and was briefly used as a children 's home and a Catholic seminary . After a devastating fire and years of neglect the castle was sold to Christchurch Borough Council in 1977 and underwent restoration . Highcliffe Castle is open to the general public throughout the year and is used for weddings , private functions , exhibitions and other public events .
= = Sports and recreation = =
The town 's football team , Christchurch F.C. , play at Hurn Bridge Sports Club situated at the junction of the Avon Causeway and Matchams Lane . Established in 1885 the club was a founding member of the Hampshire Football Association in 1887 . Christchurch F.C. were promoted as champions to Hampshire League One in 1938 , 1948 and 1986 , and in 1970 , became the first team to win the Bournemouth Senior Cup three times in succession . The club joined the Wessex League ( the ninth tier of the English football league system ) in 1988 and are one of the few clubs in the league that maintain amateur status .
Hurn Bridge is also the home of Christchurch Cricket Club who have teams in the Saturday and Sunday Dorset Leagues . In 2009 the first XI won Division 3 having been newly promoted from Division 4 . In those two seasons the team lost only four games . Hurn Bridge houses the Dorset Cricket Centre , an indoor training facility run by the Dorset Cricket Board .
Christchurch has a council run leisure centre situated at the end of Stony Lane South . The complex contains a swimming pool , golf course and indoor bowling facility which is home to the East Dorset Indoor Bowls Club . Christchurch has a lawn bowling club , Christchurch Bowling Club , that play on the green adjacent to the castle ruins . The town has two other lawn bowling clubs and golf courses ; at Iford and Highcliffe .
Sailing is a popular leisure pursuit in Christchurch and the harbour is home to three sailing clubs : Highcliffe Sailing Club , Mudeford Sailing Club and Christchurch Sailing Club which are situated at Mudeford Quay , Fisherman 's Bank and the Town Quay respectively . The other end of the Town Quay is home to the local rowing club .
= = Transport = =
Christchurch has some 199 kilometres ( 124 mi ) of highway of which 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) are A roads , 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) are B and C roads . The town is served by the A35 road which runs from Devon through to Southampton via Poole , Bournemouth and the New Forest . To the north of the town the A35 connects to the A31 , the major trunk road in central southern England which provides access to the M27 motorway at Southampton . The A338 road runs northwards from Bournemouth through Christchurch to Ringwood in Hampshire .
Two bus companies operate within the borough : Wilts & Dorset buses and Transdev Yellow Buses . Together they provide direct routes from Christchurch to : Alderney , Beaulieu , Boscombe , Bournemouth , Burley , Burton , Highcliffe , Lymington , Milford on Sea , Mudeford , New Milton , Parkstone , Poole , Ringwood , and Westbourne . During the summer months , it is possible to travel directly to Chichester , Dorchester , Hedge End , Paultons Park , Portsmouth , Salisbury , Southsea , and Weymouth .
Christchurch railway station is on the South Western Main Line from London Waterloo to Weymouth . Services are operated by South West Trains and depart for London Waterloo twice an hour , Monday to Saturday ; and hourly on Sunday . Weymouth , Dorchester , Wareham , Poole , Bournemouth , Brockenhurst , Southampton and its airport , Eastleigh , Winchester , Basingstoke , Farnborough , Woking , Waterloo can be accessed directly from Christchurch station .
Bournemouth Airport is situated in Hurn ( a small village within the Christchurch Borough boundary ) and is around 3 @.@ 75 miles ( 6 @.@ 04 km ) north @-@ west of Christchurch town centre . Originally an RAF airfield , the airport began commercial services in the late 1950s and now serves around 800 @,@ 000 passengers annually . Ryanair , EasyJet , Thomson Airways and Palmair operate from the airport and provide scheduled flights to European , North African and Caribbean destinations .
During the summer months small passenger ferries travel between Tuckton and Mudeford Spit via the town quay . Another ferry crosses the Stour between Wick and the Quay just below Tuckton Bridge . This ferry was running before the bridge was built in 1882 and was then , the only crossing below Iford . Another ferry service operates across the harbour entrance from Mudeford Sandbank to Mudeford Quay . This ferry was operated by rowing boats until the 1960s ; payment being at the discretion of the passenger .
= = Education = =
Christchurch has two infant schools , two junior schools , five primary schools ( combined infant and junior ) and three secondary schools . The secondary schools are , in order of size : Twynham School ( 1 @,@ 515 pupils ) , Highcliffe School ( 1 @,@ 347 pupils ) and the Grange School ( 637 pupils ) . The secondary schools share a sixth form with the three sites providing different courses .
Schools in Christchurch fall under the jurisdiction of Dorset County Council . From the 2008 General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) results , Dorset was ranked 32nd out of 148 local authorities in England based on the percentage of pupils attaining at least five A * to C grades at GCSE level including maths and English . Twynham was the best performing school in Christchurch in 2009 : 67 % of pupils gained five or more GCSEs at A * to C grade including maths and English compared to the national average of 49 @.@ 8 % . Highcliffe achieved 62 % but the Grange School was less successful : only 40 % of pupils achieved five or more A * to C grade results . Twynham was also the best performing school for A @-@ level results with an average score of 727 @.@ 8 points per student , slightly below the national average of 739 @.@ 3 . Highcliffe School School students averaged 618 @.@ 4 points and the Grange School 571 @.@ 9 points .
= = Notable residents = =
Christchurch has been the birthplace and home of notable people including Benjamin Ferrey , a renowned architect who was one of the earliest members of the Royal Institute of British Architects , of which he was twice Vice @-@ President , and a Royal Gold Medallist in 1870 . Ferrey 's works include the restorations of Christchurch Priory and Wells Cathedral . Edmund Lyons was a Royal Navy admiral and diplomat who was born and lived in the parish of Burton . He served in the Crimean War and was elevated to the peerage in 1856 as Baron Lyons , of Christchurch in the County of Southampton .
Gustavus Brander , curator at the British Museum and governor of the Bank of England lived at Priory House which he had built in 1777 in the grounds of Christchurch Priory . Prince Louis Phillipe , the future King of France took refuge there during the Napoleonic Wars . Robert Southey , writer , poet and Poet Laureate ; lived in Burton between 1797 and 1799 . Many other writers and poets of the day visited him there including his brother in law , poet Samuel Coleridge , and the Scottish novelist and poet Sir Walter Scott .
John Stuart , 3rd Earl of Bute , Prime Minister 1762 – 63 , amateur botanist and one of the founders of Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew ; built a mansion , High Cliff House , on his Christchurch estate close to the cliff top in 1773 . The area is now known as Highcliffe . Charles Stuart , 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay , diplomat and grandson of John Stuart , 3rd Earl of Bute ; built Highcliffe Castle a grand , romantic style mansion house on the site of his grandfather 's house .
Sir George Rose , Member of Parliament for Christchurch and close friend and advisor to the Prime Minister William Pitt , built a home , ' Sandhills ' , at Mudeford . His other great friend , King George III often visited , helping to promote Christchurch as a tourist destination . Sandhills was home to George Rose 's two sons : politician and diplomat Sir George Henry Rose , and poet William Rose , who both served as Members of Parliament for Christchurch . Field Marshal Hugh Rose , 1st Baron Strathnairn , son of Sir George Henry Rose spent time living at the family home .
Sir Donald Bailey , a civil engineer , developed the Bailey bridge while he worked in Christchurch during the Second World War . Bailey lived in Christchurch after he retired in 1966 until his death in 1985 . Former England football international and Liverpool player Jamie Redknapp attended Twynham School when his father , Harry Redknapp , managed A.F.C. Bournemouth . Another footballer , retired Arsenal and Scotland goalkeeper Bob Wilson , has a home near the town centre .
= = Twin towns = =
Christchurch is twinned with :
Aalen , Germany
Tatabánya , Hungary
Christchurch , New Zealand
Saint @-@ Lô , France
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= Polonium =
Polonium is a chemical element with symbol Po and atomic number 84 . A rare and highly radioactive metal with no stable isotopes , polonium is chemically similar to selenium and tellurium , though it also shows resemblances to its horizontal neighbors thallium , lead , and bismuth due to its metallic character . Due to the short half @-@ life of all its isotopes , its natural occurrence is limited to tiny traces of the fleeting polonium @-@ 210 in uranium ores , as it is the penultimate daughter of natural uranium @-@ 238 : it has a half @-@ life of 138 days . Though slightly longer @-@ lived isotopes exist , they are much more difficult to produce . Today , polonium is more often produced in milligram quantities by the neutron irradiation of bismuth . Due to its intense radioactivity , that results in radiolysis of chemical bonds and immense radioactive self @-@ heating , its chemistry has mostly been investigated on the trace scale only .
Polonium was discovered in 1898 by Marie and Pierre Curie , when it was chemically separated out of uranium ore and identified solely by its strong radioactivity : it was the first element to be so discovered . It was named after Marie Curie 's homeland of Poland . Applications of polonium are sparse and dependent on its radioactivity : they include heaters in space probes , antistatic devices , and sources of neutrons and alpha particles . Its intense radioactivity makes it dangerously toxic to life .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Isotopes = = =
Polonium has 33 known isotopes , all of which are radioactive . They have atomic masses that range from 188 to 220 u . 210Po ( half @-@ life 138 @.@ 376 days ) is the most widely available . The longer @-@ lived 209Po ( half @-@ life 125 @.@ 2 ± 3 @.@ 3 years , longest @-@ lived of all polonium isotopes ) and 208Po ( half @-@ life 2 @.@ 9 years ) can be made through the alpha , proton , or deuteron bombardment of lead or bismuth in a cyclotron .
210Po is an alpha emitter that has a half @-@ life of 138 @.@ 4 days ; it decays directly to its stable daughter isotope , 206Pb . A milligram ( 5 curies ) of 210Po emits about as many alpha particles per second as 5 grams of 226Ra . A few curies ( 1 curie equals 37 gigabecquerels , 1 Ci = 37 GBq ) of 210Po emit a blue glow which is caused by ionisation of the surrounding air .
About one in 100 @,@ 000 alpha emissions causes an excitation in the nucleus which then results in the emission of a gamma ray with a maximum energy of 803 keV .
= = = Solid state form = = =
Polonium is a radioactive element that exists in two metallic allotropes . The alpha form is the only known example of a simple cubic crystal structure in a single atom basis , with an edge length of 335 @.@ 2 picometers ; the beta form is rhombohedral . The structure of polonium has been characterized by X @-@ ray diffraction and electron diffraction .
210Po ( in common with 238Pu ) has the ability to become airborne with ease : if a sample is heated in air to 55 ° C ( 131 ° F ) , 50 % of it is vaporized in 45 hours to form diatomic Po2 molecules , even though the melting point of polonium is 254 ° C ( 489 ° F ) and its boiling point is 962 ° C ( 1 @,@ 764 ° F ) . More than one hypothesis exists for how polonium does this ; one suggestion is that small clusters of polonium atoms are spalled off by the alpha decay .
= = = Chemistry = = =
The chemistry of polonium is similar to that of tellurium , although it also shows some similarities to its neighbor bismuth due to its metallic character . Polonium dissolves readily in dilute acids , but is only slightly soluble in alkalis . Polonium solutions are first colored in pink by the Po2 + ions , but then rapidly become yellow because alpha radiation from polonium ionizes the solvent and converts Po2 + into Po4 + . This process is accompanied by bubbling and emission of heat and light by glassware due to the absorbed alpha particles ; as a result , polonium solutions are volatile and will evaporate within days unless sealed .
= = = = Compounds = = = =
Polonium has no common compounds , and almost all of its compounds are synthetically created ; more than 50 of those are known . The most stable class of polonium compounds are polonides , which are prepared by direct reaction of two elements . Na2Po has the antifluorite structure , the polonides of Ca , Ba , Hg , Pb and lanthanides form a NaCl lattice , BePo and CdPo have the wurtzite and MgPo the nickel arsenide structure . Most polonides decompose upon heating to about 600 ° C , except for HgPo that decomposes at ~ 300 ° C and the lanthanide polonides , which do not decompose but melt at temperatures above 1000 ° C. For example , PrPo melts at 1250 ° C and TmPo at 2200 ° C. PbPo is one of the very few naturally occurring polonium compounds , as polonium alpha decays to form lead .
Polonium hydride ( PoH
2 ) is a volatile liquid at room temperature prone to dissociation ; it is thermally unstable . The two oxides PoO2 and PoO3 are the products of oxidation of polonium .
Halides of the structure PoX2 , PoX4 and PoF6 are known . They are soluble in the corresponding hydrogen halides , i.e. , PoClX in HCl , PoBrX in HBr and PoI4 in HI . Polonium dihalides are formed by direct reaction of the elements or by reduction of PoCl4 with SO2 and with PoBr4 with H2S at room temperature . Tetrahalides can be obtained by reacting polonium dioxide with HCl , HBr or HI .
Other polonium compounds include potassium polonite as a polonite , polonate , acetate , bromate , carbonate , citrate , chromate , cyanide , formate , ( II ) and ( IV ) hydroxides , nitrate , selenate , selenite , monosulfide , sulfate , disulfate and sulfite .
= = History = =
Also tentatively called " radium F " , polonium was discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898 , and was named after Marie Curie 's native land of Poland ( Latin : Polonia ) . Poland at the time was under Russian , German , and Austro @-@ Hungarian partition , and did not exist as an independent country . It was Curie 's hope that naming the element after her native land would publicize its lack of independence . Polonium may be the first element named to highlight a political controversy .
This element was the first one discovered by the Curies while they were investigating the cause of pitchblende radioactivity . Pitchblende , after removal of the radioactive elements uranium and thorium , was more radioactive than the uranium and thorium combined . This spurred the Curies to search for additional radioactive elements . They first separated out polonium from pitchblende in July 1898 , and five months later , also isolated radium .
In the United States , polonium was produced as part of the Manhattan Project 's Dayton Project during World War II . It was a critical part of the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon design used in the Fat Man bomb on Nagasaki in 1945 . Polonium and beryllium were the key ingredients of the ' urchin ' detonator at the center of the bomb 's spherical plutonium pit . The urchin ignited the nuclear chain reaction at the moment of prompt @-@ criticality to ensure the bomb did not fizzle .
Much of the basic physics of polonium was classified until after the war . The fact that it was used as an initiator was classified until the 1960s .
The Atomic Energy Commission and the Manhattan Project funded human experiments using polonium on five people at the University of Rochester between 1943 and 1947 . The people were administered between 9 and 22 microcuries ( 330 and 810 kBq ) of polonium to study its excretion .
= = Occurrence and production = =
Polonium is a very rare element in nature because of the short half @-@ life of all its isotopes . 210Po , 214Po , and 218Po appear in the decay chain of 238U ; thus polonium can be found in uranium ores at about 0 @.@ 1 mg per metric ton ( 1 part in 1010 ) , which is approximately 0 @.@ 2 % of the abundance of radium . The amounts in the Earth 's crust are not harmful . Polonium has been found in tobacco smoke from tobacco leaves grown with phosphate fertilizers .
Because it is present in such small concentrations , isolation of polonium from natural sources is a very tedious process . The largest batch of the element ever extracted , performed in the first half of the 20th century , contained only 40 Ci ( 1 @.@ 5 TBq ) ( 9 mg ) of polonium @-@ 210 and was obtained by processing 37 tonnes of residues from radium production . Polonium is now obtained by irradiating bismuth with high @-@ energy neutrons or protons .
In 1934 , an experiment showed that when natural 209Bi is bombarded with neutrons , 210Bi is created , which then decays to 210Po via beta @-@ minus decay . The final purification is done pyrochemically followed by liquid @-@ liquid extraction techniques . Polonium may now be made in milligram amounts in this procedure which uses high neutron fluxes found in nuclear reactors . Only about 100 grams are produced each year , practically all of it in Russia , making polonium exceedingly rare .
This process can cause problems in lead @-@ bismuth based liquid metal cooled nuclear reactors such as those used in the Soviet Navy 's K @-@ 27 . Measures must be taken in these reactors to deal with the unwanted possibility of 210Po being released from the coolant .
The longer @-@ lived isotopes of polonium , 208Po and 209Po , can be formed by proton or deuteron bombardment of bismuth using a cyclotron . Other more proton @-@ rich and more unstable isotopes can be formed by the irradiation of platinum with carbon nuclei .
= = Applications = =
Polonium @-@ based sources of alpha particles were produced in the former Soviet Union . Such sources were applied for measuring the thickness of industrial coatings via attenuation of alpha radiation .
Because of intense alpha radiation , a one @-@ gram sample of 210Po will spontaneously heat up to above 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) generating about 140 watts of power . Therefore , 210Po is used as an atomic heat source to power radioisotope thermoelectric generators via thermoelectric materials . For instance , 210Po heat sources were used in the Lunokhod 1 ( 1970 ) and Lunokhod 2 ( 1973 ) Moon rovers to keep their internal components warm during the lunar nights , as well as the Kosmos 84 and 90 satellites ( 1965 ) .
The alpha particles emitted by polonium can be converted to neutrons using beryllium oxide , at a rate of 93 neutrons per million alpha particles . Thus Po @-@ BeO mixtures or alloys are used as a neutron source , for example in a neutron trigger or initiator for nuclear weapons and for inspections of oil wells . About 1500 sources of this type , with an individual activity of 1 @,@ 850 Ci ( 68 TBq ) , have been used annually in the Soviet Union .
Polonium was also part of brushes or more complex tools that eliminate static charges in photographic plates , textile mills , paper rolls , sheet plastics , and on substrates ( such as automotive ) prior to the application of coatings . Alpha particles emitted by polonium ionize air molecules that neutralize charges on the nearby surfaces . Some anti @-@ static brushes contain up to 500 microcuries ( 20 MBq ) of 210Po as a source of charged particles for neutralizing static electricity . In USA , the devices with no more than 500 µCi ( 19 MBq ) of ( sealed ) 210Po per unit can be bought in any amount under a " general license " , which means that a buyer need not be registered by any authorities . Polonium needs to be replaced in these devices nearly every year because of its short half @-@ life ; it is also highly radioactive and therefore has been mostly replaced by less dangerous beta particle sources .
Tiny amounts of 210Po are sometimes used in the laboratory and for teaching purposes — typically of the order of 4 – 40 kBq ( 0 @.@ 11 – 1 @.@ 08 µCi ) , in the form of sealed sources , with the polonium deposited on a substrate or in a resin or polymer matrix — are often exempt from licensing by the NRC and similar authorities as they are not considered hazardous . Small amounts of 210Po are manufactured for sale to the public in the United States as ' needle sources ' for laboratory experimentation , and are retailed by scientific supply companies . The polonium is a layer of plating which in turn is plated with a material such as gold , which allows the alpha radiation ( used in experiments such as cloud chambers ) to pass while preventing the polonium from being released and presenting a toxic hazard . According to United Nuclear , they typically sell between four and eight such sources per year .
= = Biology and toxicity = =
= = = Overview = = =
Polonium is highly dangerous and has no biological role . By mass , polonium @-@ 210 is around 250 @,@ 000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide ( the LD50 for 210Po is less than 1 microgram for an average adult ( see below ) compared with about 250 milligrams for hydrogen cyanide ) . The main hazard is its intense radioactivity ( as an alpha emitter ) , which makes it very difficult to handle safely . Even in microgram amounts , handling 210Po is extremely dangerous , requiring specialized equipment ( a negative pressure alpha glove box equipped with high performance filters ) , adequate monitoring , and strict handling procedures to avoid any contamination . Alpha particles emitted by polonium will damage organic tissue easily if polonium is ingested , inhaled , or absorbed , although they do not penetrate the epidermis and hence are not hazardous as long as the alpha particles remain outside the body . Wearing chemically resistant and intact gloves is a mandatory precaution to avoid transcutaneous diffusion of polonium directly through the skin . Polonium delivered in concentrated nitric acid can easily diffuse through inadequate gloves ( e.g. , latex gloves ) or the acid may damage the gloves .
It has been reported that some microbes can methylate polonium by the action of methylcobalamin . This is similar to the way in which mercury , selenium and tellurium are methylated in living things to create organometallic compounds . Studies investigating the metabolism of polonium @-@ 210 in rats have shown that only 0 @.@ 002 to 0 @.@ 009 % of polonium @-@ 210 ingested is excreted as volatile polonium @-@ 210 .
= = = Acute effects = = =
The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) for acute radiation exposure is generally about 4 @.@ 5 Sv . The committed effective dose equivalent 210Po is 0 @.@ 51 µSv / Bq if ingested , and 2 @.@ 5 µSv / Bq if inhaled . So a fatal 4 @.@ 5 Sv dose can be caused by ingesting 8 @.@ 8 MBq ( 240 µCi ) , about 50 nanograms ( ng ) , or inhaling 1 @.@ 8 MBq ( 49 µCi ) , about 10 ng . One gram of 210Po could thus in theory poison 20 million people of whom 10 million would die . The actual toxicity of 210Po is lower than these estimates , because radiation exposure that is spread out over several weeks ( the biological half @-@ life of polonium in humans is 30 to 50 days ) is somewhat less damaging than an instantaneous dose . It has been estimated that a median lethal dose of 210Po is 15 megabecquerels ( 0 @.@ 41 mCi ) , or 0 @.@ 089 micrograms , still an extremely small amount . For comparison , one grain of table salt is about 0 @.@ 06 mg = 60 μg . [ 1 ]
= = = Long term ( chronic ) effects = = =
In addition to the acute effects , radiation exposure ( both internal and external ) carries a long @-@ term risk of death from cancer of 5 – 10 % per Sv . The general population is exposed to small amounts of polonium as a radon daughter in indoor air ; the isotopes 214Po and 218Po are thought to cause the majority of the estimated 15 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 lung cancer deaths in the US every year that have been attributed to indoor radon . Tobacco smoking causes additional exposure to polonium .
= = = Regulatory exposure limits and handling = = =
The maximum allowable body burden for ingested 210Po is only 1 @.@ 1 kBq ( 30 nCi ) , which is equivalent to a particle massing only 6 @.@ 8 picograms . The maximum permissible workplace concentration of airborne 210Po is about 10 Bq / m3 ( 3 × 10 − 10 µCi / cm3 ) . The target organs for polonium in humans are the spleen and liver . As the spleen ( 150 g ) and the liver ( 1 @.@ 3 to 3 kg ) are much smaller than the rest of the body , if the polonium is concentrated in these vital organs , it is a greater threat to life than the dose which would be suffered ( on average ) by the whole body if it were spread evenly throughout the body , in the same way as caesium or tritium ( as T2O ) .
210Po is widely used in industry , and readily available with little regulation or restriction . In the US , a tracking system run by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission was implemented in 2007 to register purchases of more than 16 curies ( 590 GBq ) of polonium @-@ 210 ( enough to make up 5 @,@ 000 lethal doses ) . The IAEA " is said to be considering tighter regulations ... There is talk that it might tighten the polonium reporting requirement by a factor of 10 , to 1 @.@ 6 curies ( 59 GBq ) . " As of 2013 , this is still the only alpha emitting byproduct material available , as a NRC Exempt Quantity , which may be held without a radioactive material license .
Polonium and its compounds must be handled in a glove box , which is further enclosed in another box , maintained at a slightly higher pressure than the glove box to prevent the radioactive materials from leaking out . Gloves made of natural rubber do not provide sufficient protection against the radiation from polonium ; surgical gloves are necessary . Neoprene gloves shield radiation from polonium better than natural rubber .
= = = Well @-@ known poisoning cases = = =
= = = = 20th century = = = =
Polonium was administered to humans for experimental purposes from 1943 to 1947 ; it was injected into four hospitalised patients , and orally given to a fifth . Studies such as this were funded by the Manhattan Project and the AEC , and conducted at the University of Rochester . The objective was to obtain data on human excretion of polonium to correlate with more extensive data from rats . Patients selected as subjects were chosen because experimenters wanted persons who had not been exposed to polonium either through work or accident . All subjects had incurable diseases . Excretion of polonium was followed , and an autopsy was conducted at that time on the deceased patient to determine which organs absorbed the polonium . Patients ' ages ranged from ' early thirties ' to ' early forties . ' The experiments were described in Chapter 3 of Biological Studies with Polonium , Radium , and Plutonium , National Nuclear Energy Series , Volume VI @-@ 3 , McGraw @-@ Hill , New York , 1950 . Not specified is the isotope under study , but at the time polonium @-@ 210 was the most readily available polonium isotope . The DoE factsheet submitted for this experiment reported no follow up on these subjects .
It has also been suggested that Irène Joliot @-@ Curie was the first person to die from the radiation effects of polonium . She was accidentally exposed to polonium in 1946 when a sealed capsule of the element exploded on her laboratory bench . In 1956 , she died from leukemia .
According to the 2008 book The Bomb in the Basement , several deaths in Israel during 1957 – 1969 were caused by 210Po . A leak was discovered at a Weizmann Institute laboratory in 1957 . Traces of 210Po were found on the hands of professor Dror Sadeh , a physicist who researched radioactive materials . Medical tests indicated no harm , but the tests did not include bone marrow . Sadeh died from cancer . One of his students died of leukemia , and two colleagues died after a few years , both from cancer . The issue was investigated secretly , and there was never any formal admission that a connection between the leak and the deaths had existed .
= = = = 21st century = = = =
The cause of death in the 2006 murder of the Russian KGB agent who defected to the British MI6 intelligence agency , Alexander Litvinenko was determined to be 210Po poisoning . According to Prof. Nick Priest of Middlesex University , an environmental toxicologist and radiation expert , speaking on Sky News on December 3 , 2006 , Litvinenko was probably the first person to die of the acute α @-@ radiation effects of 210Po .
Abnormally high concentrations of 210Po were detected in July 2012 in clothes and personal belongings of the Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat , a heavy smoker , who died on 11 November 2004 of uncertain causes . The spokesman for the Institut de Radiophysique in Lausanne , Switzerland , where those items were analyzed , stressed that the " clinical symptoms described in Arafat 's medical reports were not consistent with polonium @-@ 210 and that conclusions could not be drawn as to whether the Palestinian leader was poisoned or not " , and that " the only way to confirm the findings would be to exhume Arafat 's body to test it for polonium @-@ 210 . " On 27 November 2012 Arafat 's body was exhumed and samples were taken for separate analysis by experts from France , Switzerland and Russia . On 12 October 2013 , The Lancet published the group 's finding that high levels of the element were found in Arafat 's blood , urine , and in saliva stains on his clothes and toothbrush . The French tests later found some polonium but stated it was from " natural environmental origin . " Following later Russian tests , Vladimir Uiba , the head of the Russian Federal Medical and Biological Agency , stated in December 2013 that Arafat died of natural causes , and they had no plans to conduct further tests .
= = = Treatment = = =
It has been suggested that chelation agents such as British Anti @-@ Lewisite ( dimercaprol ) can be used to decontaminate humans . In one experiment , rats were given a fatal dose of 1 @.@ 45 MBq / kg ( 8 @.@ 7 ng / kg ) of 210Po ; all untreated rats were dead after 44 days , but 90 % of the rats treated with the chelation agent HOEtTTC remained alive after 5 months .
= = = Detection in biological specimens = = =
Polonium @-@ 210 may be quantified in biological specimens by alpha particle spectrometry to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to provide evidence in a medicolegal death investigation . The baseline urinary excretion of polonium @-@ 210 in healthy persons due to routine exposure to environmental sources is normally in a range of 5 – 15 mBq / day . Levels in excess of 30 mBq / day are suggestive of excessive exposure to the radionuclide .
= = = Occurrence in humans and the biosphere = = =
Polonium @-@ 210 is widespread in the biosphere , including in human tissues , because of its position in the uranium @-@ 238 decay chain . Natural uranium @-@ 238 in the Earth 's crust decays through a series of solid radioactive intermediates including radium @-@ 226 to the radioactive gas radon @-@ 222 , some of which , during its 3 @.@ 8 @-@ day half @-@ life , diffuses into the atmosphere . There it decays through several more steps to polonium @-@ 210 , much of which , during its 138 @-@ day half @-@ life , is washed back down to the Earth 's surface , thus entering the biosphere , before finally decaying to stable lead @-@ 206 .
As early as the 1920s Antoine Lacassagne , using polonium provided by his colleague Marie Curie , showed that the element has a very specific pattern of uptake in rabbit tissues , with high concentrations particularly in liver , kidney and testes . More recent evidence suggests that this behavior results from polonium substituting for sulfur in sulfur @-@ containing amino @-@ acids or related molecules and that similar patterns of distribution occur in human tissues . Polonium is indeed an element naturally present in all humans , contributing appreciably to natural background dose , with wide geographical and cultural variations , and particularly high levels in arctic residents , for example .
= = = Tobacco = = =
Polonium @-@ 210 in tobacco contributes to many of the cases of lung cancer worldwide . Most of this polonium is derived from lead @-@ 210 deposited on tobacco leaves from the atmosphere ; the lead @-@ 210 is a product of radon @-@ 222 gas , much of which appears to originate from the decay of radium @-@ 226 from fertilizers applied to the tobacco soils .
The presence of polonium in tobacco smoke has been known since the early 1960s . Some of the world 's biggest tobacco firms researched ways to remove the substance — to no avail — over a 40 @-@ year period . The results were never published .
= = = Food = = =
Polonium is also found in the food chain , especially in seafood .
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= United States presidential election , 1880 =
The United States presidential election of 1880 was a contest between Republican James A. Garfield and Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock in which the Republican Garfield prevailed . It was the 24th quadrennial presidential election , held on Tuesday , November 2 , 1880 . The voter turnout rate was one of the highest in the nation 's history . In the end , the popular vote totals of the two main candidates were separated by fewer than 2 @,@ 000 votes , the smallest victory in the popular vote ever recorded . In the electoral college , however , Garfield 's victory was decisive ; he won nearly all of the populous Northern states to achieve a majority of 214 electoral votes to 155 for Hancock . Hancock 's sweep of the Southern states was not enough for victory , but it cemented his party 's dominance of the region for generations .
Incumbent president Rutherford B. Hayes did not seek re @-@ election , keeping a promise made during the 1876 campaign . After the longest convention in the party 's history , the divided Republicans chose Garfield as their standard @-@ bearer , another Ohioan who had earlier served as a Congressman and Civil War general . The Democratic Party selected Pennsylvania @-@ born Civil War general and career army officer Winfield Scott Hancock as their nominee . The dominance of the two major parties began to fray as an upstart left @-@ wing party , the Greenback Party , nominated another Civil War general for president , Iowa Congressman James B. Weaver . In a campaign fought mainly over issues of Civil War loyalties , tariffs , and Chinese immigration , Garfield and Hancock each took just over 48 percent of the popular vote . Weaver and two other minor candidates , Neal Dow and John W. Phelps , together made up the remaining percentage .
The election of 1880 was the sixth consecutive presidential election won by the Republicans , a record equaled in American history only by the Democratic @-@ Republican Party during the period 1800 @-@ 1820 .
= = Background = =
Since before the Civil War , the two major parties were the Republicans and the Democrats , and after the end of the Reconstruction Era in 1877 , the national electorate was closely divided between them . Party membership was only partly based on ideology ; party identification often reflected ethnic and religious background , as well as Civil War loyalties that were still keenly felt by many voters . Most Northern Protestants voted Republican , as did black Southerners . On the other hand , white Southerners and Northern Catholics generally voted Democratic .
Tariff reform and the gold standard also divided the country and the major parties . The monetary debate was over the basis for the value of the United States dollar . Nothing but gold and silver coin had ever been legal tender in the United States until the Civil War , when the mounting costs of the war forced the United States Congress to issue " greenbacks " ( dollar bills backed by government bonds ) . Greenbacks helped pay for the war , but resulted in the most severe inflation since the American Revolution . After the war , bondholders and other creditors ( especially in the North ) wanted to return to a gold standard . At the same time , debtors ( often in the South and West ) benefited from the way inflation reduced the real value of their debts , and workers and some businessmen liked the way inflation made for easy credit . The issue cut across parties , producing dissension among Republicans and Democrats alike and spawning a third party , the Greenback Party , in 1876 , when both major parties nominated " hard money " candidates ( i.e. , candidates who favored the gold @-@ backed currency instead of " soft money " greenbacks that generated inflation ) . Monetary debate intensified as Congress effectively demonetized silver in 1873 and began redeeming greenbacks in gold by 1879 , while limiting their circulation . As the 1880 election season began , the nation 's money was backed by gold alone , but the issue was far from settled .
Tariff policy was a source of conflict in late 19th @-@ century American politics . During the Civil War , Congress raised protective tariffs to new heights . This was done partly to pay for the war , but partly because high tariffs were popular in the North . A high tariff meant that foreign goods were more expensive , which made it easier for American businesses to sell goods domestically . Republicans supported high tariffs as a way to protect American jobs and increase prosperity . Democrats generally condemned them as a source of higher prices for goods , whereas the higher revenues that they generated for the federal government were not needed after the conclusion of the Civil War . Many Northern Democrats supported high tariffs , however , for the same economic reasons that Northern Republican did . In the interest of party unity , they often sought to avoid the question as much as possible .
Four years earlier , in the election of 1876 , Republican Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio defeated Democrat Samuel J. Tilden of New York in one of the most hotly contested presidential elections in the nation 's history . The results initially indicated a Democratic victory , but the electoral votes of several states were disputed until just a few days days before the new president was to be inaugurated . Members of both parties in Congress agreed to convene a bipartisan Electoral Commission , which ultimately decided the race for Hayes .
For Democrats , the " stolen election " became a rallying cry , and the Democratic majority in the House of Representatives spent much of 1878 investigating it , although they failed to turn up any new evidence against their Republican foes . At first , Tilden was seen as the front @-@ runner for the 1880 nomination . For leading Republicans , Hayes 's inauguration in 1877 signaled the start of backroom maneuverings for the nomination in 1880 . Even before his election , Hayes had pledged not to run for a second term , leaving the path to the White House open in 1880 . His cabinet selections alienated many party leaders , as well , deepening the growing divide within the Republican party between forces loyal to New York Senator Roscoe Conkling and those loyal to Maine Senator James G. Blaine .
= = Conventions = =
The parties agreed on their respective platforms and nominees at conventions , which met in the summer before the election .
= = = Republicans = = =
The Republican convention met first , convening in Chicago , Illinois , on June 2 . Of the men vying for the Republican nomination , the three strongest candidates leading up to the convention were former president Ulysses S. Grant , Senator James G. Blaine and Treasury Secretary John Sherman . Grant was the leading military commander for the Northern forces during the Civil War and had served two terms as president. from 1869 to 1877 . He was seeking an unprecedented third term in the office . He was backed by Conkling 's faction of the Republican Party , now known as the Stalwarts . They are mainly known for their opposition to the civil service reforms sought by President Hayes . Blaine , a senator and former representative from Maine , was backed by the Half @-@ Breed faction of the party , which did support civil service reform . Sherman , the brother of Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman , was a former Senator from Ohio serving in Hayes 's cabinet . He was backed by a smaller delegation that supported neither of the major factions .
On the first ballot , Grant and Blaine gleaned 304 and 285 votes , respectively , while Sherman received 93 . None of the candidates were close to victory , and the balloting continued in order to determine a winner . Many more ballots were taken , but no candidate prevailed . After the thirty @-@ fifth ballot , Blaine and Sherman delegates switched their support to the new " dark horse " candidate , Representative James A. Garfield of Ohio . On the next ballot , Garfield won the nomination when he received 399 votes , most of them former Blaine and Sherman delegates . To placate the Grant faction , Garfield 's Ohio supporters suggested Levi P. Morton for vice president . Morton declined , based on Conkling 's advice . They next offered the nomination to Chester A. Arthur , another New York Stalwart . Conkling also advised him to decline , but he accepted nonetheless . He was nominated , and the longest @-@ ever Republican National Convention was adjourned on June 8 , 1880 .
= = = Democrats = = =
Later that month , the Democrats held their convention in Cincinnati , Ohio . Six men were officially candidates for nomination at the convention , and several others also received votes . Of these , the two leading candidates were Major General Winfield Scott Hancock of Pennsylvania and Senator Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware . Tilden was not officially a candidate , but he wielded a heavy influence over the convention . Tilden was ambiguous about his willingness to participate in another campaign , leading some delegates to defect to other candidates , while others stayed loyal to their old standard @-@ bearer .
As the convention opened , some delegates favored Bayard , a conservative Senator , while others supported Hancock , a career soldier and Civil War hero . Still others flocked to men they saw as surrogates for Tilden , including Henry B. Payne of Ohio , an attorney and former congressman , and Samuel J. Randall of Pennsylvania , the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives . The first round of balloting was inconclusive , with Hancock and Bayard leading the count . Before the second round , Tilden 's withdrawal from the campaign became known for certain and delegates shifted to Hancock , who was nominated . William Hayden English , a conservative politician and businessman from the swing state of Indiana , was nominated for vice president .
= = = Others = = =
The Greenback Party convention gathered in Chicago in mid @-@ June , using the hall recently vacated by the Republicans . The party was a newcomer to the political scene in 1880 , having arisen as a response to the economic depression that followed the Panic of 1873 , mostly in the nation 's West and South . During the Civil War , Congress had authorized " greenbacks , " a form of money redeemable in government bonds , rather than in gold , as was traditional . After the war , many Democrats and Republicans in the East sought to return to the gold standard , and the government began to withdraw greenbacks from circulation . The reduction of the money supply , combined with the economic depression , made life harder for debtors , farmers , and industrial laborers ; the Greenback Party hoped to draw support from these groups . Beyond their support for a larger money supply , they also favored an eight @-@ hour work day , safety regulations in factories , and an end to child labor .
Six men were candidates for the Greenback nomination . James B. Weaver , an Iowa congressman and Civil War general , was the clear favorite , but two other congressmen , Benjamin F. Butler of Massachusetts and Hendrick B. Wright of Pennsylvania , also commanded considerable followings . Weaver triumphed quickly , winning a majority of the 850 delegates ' votes on the first ballot . Barzillai J. Chambers , a Texas businessman and Confederate veteran , was likewise nominated on the initial vote . More tumultuous was the fight over the platform , as delegates from disparate factions of the left @-@ wing movement clashed over women 's suffrage , Chinese immigration , and the extent to which the government should regulate working conditions .
A convention of the Prohibition Party also met that month in Cleveland , Ohio . The Prohibitionists , more of a movement than a party , focused their efforts on banning alcohol . Most party members came from pietist churches , and most were former Republicans . Only twelve states sent delegates to the convention , and the platform they agreed on was silent on most issues of the day , focusing instead on the evils of alcohol . For president , the Prohibitionists nominated Neal Dow , a Civil War general from Maine . As mayor of Portland , Dow helped to pass the " Maine law " , which banned the sale of alcohol in the city ; it became the model for temperance laws around the country . Finally , a revived Anti @-@ Masonic Party nominated John W. Phelps , another Civil War general , on a platform of opposition to Freemasonry . Political prognosticators gave Weaver little chance of victory , and Dow and Phelps none at all .
= = Candidates = =
= = = Garfield = = =
James Abram Garfield was raised in humble circumstances on an Ohio farm by his widowed mother . He worked at various jobs , including on a canal boat , in his youth . Beginning at age 17 , he studied at Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts , from which he graduated in 1856 . A year later , Garfield entered politics as a Republican . He married Lucretia Rudolph in 1858 , and served as a member of the Ohio State Senate ( 1859 – 1861 ) . Garfield opposed Confederate secession , served as a major general in the Union Army during the Civil War , and fought in the battles of Middle Creek , Shiloh , and Chickamauga . He was first elected to Congress in 1862 to represent Ohio 's 19th District . Throughout Garfield 's extended congressional service after the Civil War , he firmly supported the gold standard and gained a reputation as a skilled orator . Garfield initially agreed with Radical Republican views regarding Reconstruction , but later favored a moderate approach for civil rights enforcement for freedmen .
After his nomination , Garfield met with party leaders in an attempt to heal the schism between the Stalwarts and Half @-@ Breeds . In his formal letter to the party accepting his nomination , written with advice from party leaders , he endorsed the ideas of high tariffs and sound money , but drew particular attention to the issues of Chinese immigration and civil service reform . On both , Garfield sought a moderate path . He called for some restrictions on the former , through treaty renegotiation with the Chinese government . He straddled the divide on civil service reform , saying that he agreed with the concept , while promising to make no appointments without consulting party leaders , a position 20th @-@ century biographer Allan Peskin called " inconsistent " . As was traditional at the time , Garfield conducted a " front porch campaign " , returning to his home for the duration of the contest , and leaving the actual campaigning to surrogates .
= = = Hancock = = =
Winfield Scott Hancock was born and raised in Pennsylvania . He attended the United States Military Academy at West Point and served in the Army for four decades , including service in the Mexican @-@ American War and as a Union general in the Civil War . Known to his Army colleagues as " Hancock the Superb " , he was noted in particular for his personal leadership at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 , where he led the defense of Pickett 's Charge . His military service continued after the Civil War , as Hancock participated in the military Reconstruction of the South and the Army 's presence at the Western frontier . During Reconstruction , he sided with then @-@ President Andrew Johnson in working for a quick end to military occupation of the South and a return to government by the pre @-@ war establishment . Hancock 's reputation as a war hero at Gettysburg , combined with his status as a prominent Democrat with impeccable Unionist credentials and pro @-@ states ' rights views , made him a quadrennial presidential possibility .
Hancock was officially notified of his nomination in July , and responded with the traditional letter of acceptance . As Garfield had , the Democratic nominee sought to cause no controversy in his statement , which according to biographer David M. Jordan was " bland and general " . After scorning the previous years of Republican rule , Hancock sought to tamp down fears that election of a Democrat would overturn the results of the war and Reconstruction , a common Republican campaign theme . Unlike Garfield , Hancock had no record in elected office , but the acceptance letter gave no further indication of his political preferences . Hancock remained on active duty during the campaign at his post on Governors Island in New York Harbor .
= = = Weaver = = =
James Baird Weaver was born in Ohio , and moved to Iowa as a boy when his family claimed a homestead on the frontier . He became politically active as a young man and was an advocate for farmers and laborers , joining and quitting several political parties in the furtherance of the progressive causes in which he believed . After serving in the Union Army in the Civil War , Weaver returned to Iowa and worked for the election of Republican candidates . After making several unsuccessful attempts at Republican nominations to various offices , and growing dissatisfied with the conservative wing of the party , in 1877 Weaver switched to the Greenback Party , advocating an increased money supply and stricter regulation of big business . As a Greenbacker with Democratic support , Weaver won election to the House of Representatives in 1878 .
Unlike the major party candidates , Weaver planned to take the field himself , giving speeches around the country . His running mate , Chambers , was to do the same , until a fall from a train in July disabled him for the duration of the campaign . As the Greenbackers had the only ticket that included a Southerner , he hoped to make inroads in that region . Weaver 's path to victory , already unlikely , was made more difficult by his refusal to run a fusion ticket in states where Democratic and Greenbacker strength might have combined to outvote the Republicans . His party 's message of racial inclusion also presaged difficulty in the South , as the Greenbackers would face the same obstacles the Republicans did in the face of increasing black disenfranchisement .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Bloody shirt = = =
Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the Solid South , while much of the North was considered safe territory for Garfield and the Republicans ; most of the campaign would involve a handful of close states , including New York and a few of the Midwestern states ( national elections in that era were largely decided by closely divided states there ) . Practical differences between the major party candidates were few , and Republicans began the campaign with the familiar theme of waving the bloody shirt : reminding Northern voters that the Democratic Party was responsible for secession and four years of civil war , and that if they held power they would reverse the gains of that war , dishonor Union veterans , and pay Confederate soldiers ' pensions out of the federal treasury . With fifteen years having passed since the end of the war , and Union generals at the head of all of the major and minor party tickets , the appeal to wartime loyalties was of diminishing value in exciting the voters .
The Democrats , for their part , campaigned on the character of the candidates . They attacked Garfield for his connection with the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal of the early 1870s , in which many members of Congress were bribed by the Crédit Mobilier corporation , a railroad construction company . Garfield 's precise involvement was unknown , but modern biographers agree that his account of his dealings with the construction syndicate were less than perfectly honest . Democrats used the incident as a contrast with Hancock who , as a career army officer , stood apart from Congress and lobbyists . Many in the Republican Party were reluctant to directly criticize the " hero of Gettysburg , " but they did characterize Hancock as uninformed on the issues , and some of his former comrades @-@ in @-@ arms gave critical speeches regarding his character . Democrats never made clear what about their victory would improve the nation ; Jordan later characterized their message as simply " our man is better than your man " .
The Greenbackers saw the impact of Civil War loyalties more acutely as they vied for Southern votes . Weaver embarked on a speaking tour of the South in July and August . Although the local Greenback parties had seen some recent success , the national party , with an ex @-@ Republican Union general at the head of the ticket , faced more opposition . The party 's courtship of black voters , too , threatened the white Democratic establishment , leading to violent outbursts at Weaver 's rallies and threats against his supporters . As Weaver campaigned in the North in September and October , Republicans accused him of purposely dividing the vote to help Democrats win a plurality in marginal states . Although Weaver refused to cooperate with Democrats in running fusion slates of presidential electors , in state @-@ level races , Greenback candidates did often combine with Democrats to defeat Republican candidates . In the September gubernatorial race in Maine , one such fusion ticket nominated Harris M. Plaisted , who narrowly defeated the incumbent Republican in what was thought to be a safe state for that party . The surprise defeat sent a shock through the Garfield campaign , and caused them to rethink their strategy of waving the bloody shirt .
= = = Tariffs and immigration = = =
After their defeat in Maine , the Republicans began to emphasise policy differences more . One significant difference between them and the Democrats was a purposely vague statement in the Democratic platform endorsing " a tariff for revenue only . " Garfield 's campaigners used this statement to paint the Democrats as unsympathetic to the plight of industrial laborers , a group that benefited from a high protective tariff . The tariff issue cut Democratic support in industrialized Northern states , which were essential in establishing a Democratic majority . Hancock made the situation worse when , attempting to strike a moderate stance , he said " the tariff question is a local question " . While not completely inaccurate — tariff preferences often reflected local concerns — the statement was at odds with the Democrats ' platform and suggested that Hancock did not understand the issue .
The change in tactics appeared to be effective , as October state elections in Ohio and Indiana resulted in Republican victories there , discouraging Democrats about their chances the following month . Democratic party leaders had selected English as Hancock 's running mate because of his popularity in Indiana . With their state @-@ level defeat there , some talked of dropping English from the ticket , but he convinced them that the October losses owed more to local issues , and that the Democratic ticket could still carry Indiana , if not Ohio , in November .
In the last weeks before the election , the issue of Chinese immigration entered the race . Both major parties ( as well as the Greenbackers ) pledged in their platforms to limit immigration from China , which native @-@ born workers in the Western states believed was depressing their wages . On October 20 , however , a Democratic newspaper published a letter , purportedly from Garfield to a group of businessmen , pledging to keep immigration at the current levels so that industry could keep workers ' wages low . Garfield denounced the letter as a ruse , but not before one hundred thousand copies of the newspaper were mailed to California and Oregon . Once the letter was exposed as a forgery , Garfield biographer Peskin believes it may even have gained votes for the Republican in the East , but it likely weakened him in the West .
= = Results = =
When all the ballots were counted , fewer than 2 @,@ 000 votes separated Garfield and Hancock , the closest popular vote of any American presidential election before or since . The voters showed their interest in the election by turning out in record numbers ; 78 percent of eligible voters cast a ballot , among largest percentages in American history . Each major party candidate earned just over 48 percent of the vote . Weaver won more than 3 percent , tripling the Greenback total of four years earlier . The other minor party candidates fared far worse , as Dow and Phelps earned 0 @.@ 1 and 0 @.@ 01 percent , respectively . The narrow victory carried over into the Congressional vote , as the Republicans won the House by a twelve @-@ seat margin and the Senate was evenly divided . Garfield carried the crucial state of New York by 20 @,@ 000 votes out of 1 @.@ 1 million cast there . Other states were much closer ; Hancock 's margin of victory in California was only 22 votes .
In the electoral college , the vote was more decisive . As expected , Hancock carried the South , but Garfield swept all but one of the Northern states ( the exception , New Jersey , was lost by just two thousand votes ) . Both candidates carried nineteen states , but Garfield 's triumphs in the more populous North translated into a 214 – 155 electoral college victory . The sectional divide of the vote more deeply enforced the Republicans ' retreat from the South after Reconstruction , and demonstrated that they could win without competing there . Weaver 's resistance to fusion had no effect on the result ; the combined Democratic and Greenback vote would have carried Indiana , but not any other of the states Garfield won , and the result would still have been a Republican majority in the electoral college . Hancock was convinced that the Republicans won New York by fraud . Lacking evidence , and mindful of the turmoil caused by the disputed election four years earlier , the Democrats did not pursue the matter .
= = Aftermath = =
As Garfield entered office in March 1881 , the Republican party schism that had been patched up for the election tore apart once more . Garfield appointed Blaine to the cabinet , and Conkling 's Stalwart faction became irked at their lack of control over patronage , even in Conkling 's home state of New York . Garfield appointed William H. Robertson , a civil service reform supporter , to the most lucrative government post in New York and refused to withdraw the nomination despite Conkling 's protests ; in response , Conkling and his allies brought all legislative action in the closely divided Senate to a halt . In May , Conkling and fellow New York Senator Thomas C. Platt resigned from the Senate in protest . The two Stalwarts expected the New York legislature to reelect them in triumph ; instead , the legislature deadlocked for months , eventually declining to return either man to the Senate . Before that result was known , however , tragedy struck as Charles Guiteau , a mentally unstable man disappointed at being unable to secure a patronage appointment , shot Garfield on July 2 , 1881 .
Garfield lingered for two and a half months before dying on September 19 , 1881 . Vice President Chester A. Arthur , the New York Stalwart , was sworn in as president that night . Garfield 's murder by a spoilsman inspired the nation to reform the civil service and Arthur , erstwhile member of the Conkling machine , joined the cause . In 1883 , a bipartisan majority in Congress passed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act to reform the worst of the office @-@ seeking system , and Arthur signed the measure into law .
Congress also settled the issue of Chinese immigration , passing the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 . Arthur initially vetoed a similar measure , which he believed contradicted the United States ' treaty with China , but eventually signed a later compromise bill , which banned immigration from China for ten years . Tariffs , a major issue in the campaign , remained largely unchanged in the four years that followed , although Congress did pass a minor revision that reduced them by an average of less than 2 percent . After a half @-@ hearted attempt at the nomination in 1884 , Arthur retired and died two years later .
Hancock did not long survive his electoral opponent . After the election , he remained on duty as commander of the Division of the Atlantic . He attended Garfield 's inauguration and served loyally under him and Arthur . In 1885 , he visited the Gettysburg battlefield , the site of his most famous triumph two decades earlier . The following year , 1886 , Hancock died after an abscess in his leg became infected . Weaver survived both of his more popular opponents , returning to Congress for four years in the 1880s and running for president again as the nominee of the Populist Party in 1892 .
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= Gita Gutawa =
Aluna Sagita Gutawa ( born 11 August 1993 in Jakarta ) , better known as Gita Gutawa , is an Indonesian soprano , actress , and songwriter . She is also the daughter of composer Erwin Gutawa .
Although she originally studied piano , Gutawa later switched to vocals . She was discovered in 2004 while practising her vocals , then booked to sing a duet with ADA Band . After Heaven of Love ( 2005 ) , featuring the duet , sold 800 @,@ 000 copies , Gutawa was approached by Sony Music Indonesia with an offer to record a solo album . The success of that album , the self @-@ titled Gita Gutawa , led to numerous acting and marketing job offers . Since her debut , she has recorded two more albums , the well @-@ received Harmoni Cinta in 2009 and the Islamic @-@ themed Balada Shalawat in 2010 . As an actress , she has starred in two Indonesian soap operas , Ajari Aku Cinta and Ajari Lagi Aku Cinta . She voiced a character for the animated Meraih Mimpi , and made her feature film debut in 2010 's Love in Perth .
Personality @-@ wise , Dian Kuswandini of The Jakarta Post has described Gutawa as being " sweet like cotton candy and warm like a kiss " ; however , Gutawa has noted that there are people who believe she succeeded through nepotism . Gutawa has received several awards , including Best Newcomer at the 2008 Anugerah Musik Indonesia . She also won the 6th International Nile Children Song Festival in Cairo .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Gutawa was born Aluna Sagita Gutawa – Aluna Sagita meaning " song rhythm " – in Jakarta , Indonesia on 11 August 1993 to Erwin Gutawa , a composer , and Luthfi Andriani . The first child of the couple , she enjoyed watching her father work on his compositions . As a result , he enrolled her in a classical piano course , later sending her to a vocal course to develop her soprano voice . She received full support from her father , who assisted her as an adviser . In Chrisye 's 2003 Dekade Concert , Gutawa performed in public for the first time , after Chrisye – who often collaborated with her father – invited her on stage . She later described him as her idol .
= = = Music career = = =
In 2004 Gutawa was approached by the manager of ADA Band , who had heard her practising at her singing lessons from the band 's studio next door . She was asked to sing a duet with the band 's lead singer ; Gutawa , although at the time only singing as a hobby , accepted . The duet , titled " Yang Terbaik Bagimu " ( " The Best for You " ) , was included on ADA Band 's 2005 album Heaven of Love , which sold 800 @,@ 000 copies . After singing other duets with different singers , including religious singer Haddad Alwi , Gutawa was asked to record a solo album by Sony Music Indonesia .
After a year in production , Gutawa 's self @-@ titled debut album was released in February 2007 . The album was produced by her father and featured songs written by Glenn Fredly and Melly Goeslaw . Well @-@ received , Gita Gutawa sold 150 @,@ 000 copies in four months and was eventually certified triple platinum . After the success of the album , Gutawa 's previously school @-@ oriented schedule was filled with requests for media appearances and sponsorships . This led to Gutawa 's mother stepping in and serving as her manager , in which role she continued until she became pregnant . Other members of Gutawa 's family then assisted in managing her , with her mother scheduling Gutawa 's media appearances and recording sessions .
Gutawa soon began singing in music festivals to gain experience . In 2008 , she won the 6th International Nile Children Song Festival in Cairo with Ria Leimena 's " To Be One " , which she had previously sung on her debut album . That same year she attended a song festival in Italy . She later assembled a girl band to support her after several performances had to be cancelled due to an inability to find musicians at short notice .
After her return from Italy , Gutawa began production of her second album , Harmoni Cinta ( Love 's Harmony ) , in June 2008 . She played a larger role in its production than in her debut album , choosing the concepts behind the album as well as the track listing ; she eventually wrote five of the album 's twelve songs . The album was released in May 2009 @.@ selling well . In August of that year , she released her biography , Kota Musik Gita Gutawa ( Gita Gutawa 's Music Box ) .
Gutawa followed Harmony Cinta in August 2010 with a third album , the Islamic religious album Balada Shalawat ( Ballads for Salah ) . During recording , Gutawa received coaching from an Islamic scholar , or ustad , regarding the correct pronunciation of Arabic lyrics used in some songs . The album was launched during Ramadhan , with profits donated to Indonesia 's poor .
Gutawa has expressed concern that the public sees her rise to fame as being dependent on her already @-@ famous father ; she has stated in an interview with The Jakarta Post that she learned that " nepotism wouldn 't work in the music industry " . As such , Gutawa has attempted to emphasise that her duet with ADA Band and contract with Sony Music was won entirely on her own merits , with the band 's manager not knowing that she was Erwin Gutawa 's daughter when he approached her . She also cites the " negative sentiments against [ her ] sudden popularity " as pushing her to do her best .
In 2011 , Gutawa announced that she would be retiring from music in order to study abroad . As a farewell celebration , her father held the concert " A Masterpiece of Erwin Gutawa " in Jakarta . She announced that she planned to take a degree in economics . On 5 April 2012 , during a visit to Indonesia from her university in England , she performed Chrisye 's song " Baju Pengantin " ( " Wedding Dress " ) in the Kidung Abadi Chrisye concert at Plenary Hall , Jakarta Convention Center . She and her father also wrote a new song for the concert , entitled " Kidung Abadi " ( " Eternal Ballad " ) , which was made by stringing together 246 syllables in Chrisye 's voice .
= = = Acting career = = =
After the success of Gita Gutawa , Gutawa performed in numerous television commercials . She later received an offer to act in an upcoming sinetron ( Indonesian soap opera ) entitled Ajari Aku Cinta ( Teach Me About Love ) , which used her song " Bukan Permainan " ( " Not a Toy " ) as its theme . Gutawa accepted the offer , viewing it as a mainly promotional role . She later starred in its sequel , Ajari Lagi Aku Cinta ( Teach Me More About Love ) .
In 2009 , Gutawa voiced a character in Meraih Mimpi ( Chasing Dreams ) , the Indonesian adaptation of Sing to the Dawn ; the voice recording took four months . She later cited it as a good learning experience . The following year , she appeared in her first feature @-@ length film , Love in Perth , in which she played a shy student studying in Perth , Australia . She considered it challenging ; for the most difficult part , a scene in which she had to cry , she practised in front of a mirror . In May 2011 she began dating her Love in Perth costar Derby Romero ; the couple split up sometime before January 2012 .
= = Education = =
While in elementary school and junior high school , she was chosen as the best student for five consecutive years . After becoming famous , she continued to attend Al @-@ Izhar Junior High School instead of being home schooled like most Indonesian child stars because she felt that " attending a normal school is more fascinating , " with more friends and chances to socialise . She later attended Bina Nusantara Senior High School . In 2009 , Gutawa was chosen by the education @-@ oriented Sampoerna Foundation – run by the investment company Sampoerna Strategic – as its first youth ambassador , taking a direct part in the company 's initiatives . As one of her first acts , she promised that part of the sales of Harmoni Cinta would be used to send poor Indonesian children to school ; every twenty albums sold would be enough for one child .
1996 – 1999 : TK Bakti Mulya , Jakarta
1999 – 2005 : SD Bakti Mulya , Jakarta
2005 – 2008 : SMP Al @-@ Izhar Pondok Labu , Jakarta
2008 – 2011 : SMA Bina Nusantara Simprug , Jakarta
2011 @-@ 2014 : University of Birmingham , UK
2014 - Present : London School of Economics and Political Science , UK
= = Styles = =
In a 2011 interview with the Jakarta Globe , Gutawa said that she continued to treat singing as a hobby despite it being her career .
= = Songwriting = =
Gutawa often draws her inspiration from her own experiences , as well as those of her friends . When she receives inspiration , she will write the lyrics down and work out a melody immediately .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Gutawa 's debut album was well received by both the Indonesian public and critics , being certified triple platinum and winning four national awards ; the 2007 SCTV award for Best Singer , as well as Best Album from SCTV and Best Newcomer and Best Album from Anugerah Musik Indonesia in 2008 . Juliani Harsianti of The Jakarta Post describes Gutawa as having a " clear voice and fresh style " on the album .
= = Nonmusical Awards = =
Winner of Fashion Show at Hotel Mercantile , Jakarta ( 1996 )
Class Star of TK Bakti Mulya 400 , Jakarta ( 1996 )
Runner Up of Casual Fashion " Pesona Anak Indonesia " , Ancol – Jakarta ( 1997 )
Winner of praying reading TK Bhakti Mulya , Jakarta ( 1997 )
Runner Up of lomba menari " Hari Ibu " , Taman Mini Indonesia Indah ( 1997 )
Winner of Lomba mewarnai " Hari Kemerdekaan " , Cinere Jakarta ( 1998 )
Runner Up of Lomba renang gaya bebas , Cilandak Sport Center ( 1998 )
5th Position of coloring pictures for Jabodetabek Area , Jakarta ( 1998 )
Runner Up of lomba ' Abang None Cilik Jakarta Selatan ' , Jakarta ( 1999 )
Runner Up of lomba Karaoke TK , Bakti Mulya 400 Jakarta ( 1999 )
Runner Up of lomba Busana Nasional SD , Bakti Mulya 400 , Jakarta ( 2000 )
3rd Rank of Lomba Menggambar Karyawisata , P & K Jakarta ( 2001 )
High Level Achiever of ' KUMON ' math system , Grand Melia , Jakarta ( 2001 )
High Level Achiever of ' KUMON ' math system , JCC – Jakarta ( 2002 )
Winner of Science Race of Doctor Rabbit , Jakarta ( 2003 )
= = Discography = =
2007 : Gita Gutawa
2009 : Harmoni Cinta ( Love 's Harmony )
2010 : Balada Shalawat ( Ballads for Salah )
2014 : The Next Chapter
= = Filmography = =
Ajari Aku Cinta ( Teach Me about Love )
Ajari Lagi Aku Cinta ( Teach Me More about Love )
Meraih Mimpi ( Chasing Dreams , based on Sing to the Dawn )
Love in Perth
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= The ArchAndroid =
The ArchAndroid is the second studio album and major label debut by American recording artist Janelle Monáe , released on May 18 , 2010 , by Wondaland Arts Society and Bad Boy Records . Production for the album took place at Wondaland Studios in Atlanta and was primarily handled by Monáe , Nate " Rocket " Wonder , and Chuck Lightning , with only one song without production by Monáe .
It consists of the second and third parts to Monáe 's Metropolis concept series . Incorporating conceptual elements of Afrofuturism and science fiction , The ArchAndroid continues the series ' fictional tale of a messianic android and features lyrical themes of love , identity , and self @-@ realization . The album has been compared to the work of artists such as David Bowie , Outkast , Prince and Michael Jackson . The album features multiple collaborations with artists ; Saul Williams , Big Boi , Of Montreal and Deep Cotton .
The album debuted at number 17 on the US Billboard 200 , selling 21 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It achieved moderate chart success and produced three singles : " Come Alive ( The War of the Roses ) " , " Tightrope " and " Cold War " . Upon its release , The ArchAndroid received widespread acclaim from music critics , earning praise for its conceptual themes and Monáe 's eclectic musical range . It was named the best album of 2010 by several critics and earned Monáe a Grammy Award nomination for Best Contemporary R & B Album . As of February 23 , 2011 , The ArchAndroid has sold 141 @,@ 000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = Background and recording = =
The ArchAndroid serves as the follow @-@ up to Janelle Monáe 's debut EP Metropolis : Suite I ( The Chase ) ( 2007 ) and consists of the second and third parts to her Metropolis concept series . Partly inspired by the 1927 film of the same name , the series involves the fictional tale of Cindi Mayweather , a messianic android sent back in time to free the citizens of Metropolis from The Great Divide , a secret society that uses time travel to suppress freedom and love .
In an interview for the Chicago Tribune , Monáe said that she was inspired by the quote " The mediator between the hand and the mind is always the heart " for the record . She discussed her incorporation of the android as a metaphor for a minority , whilst being the role of the story 's protagonist also . In an interview for Blues & Soul , Monáe said " she represents the MEDIATOR between the haves and the have @-@ nots , the minority and the majority . So in that way she ’ s very similar to Neo , the Archangel from ' The Matrix ' . And basically her return will mean freedom for the android community " .
Monáe has said about the recording sessions " Over the last year and a half when we were recording the ArchAndroid I went through a very transformative period in my life " . Monáe completed the album in Atlanta at the Wondaland Studios and the famous asylum The Palace of the Dogs . Monáe has stated that the album signifies " breaking the chains that enslave minorities of all types " . She has said of recording the album , " Overall , this music came from various corners of the world — from Turkey to Prague to Atlanta — places we were on tour . While recording , we ’ d experiment with different sounds . Once we became engulfed in the sound , we all had an emotional connection to the album . It has definitely transformed my way of thinking , the way that I approach the stage and overall , my life " .
= = Composition = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Monáe has noted that the album 's musical influences encompass " all the things I love , scores for films like Goldfinger mixed with albums like Stevie Wonder ’ s Music of My Mind and David Bowie ’ s Ziggy Stardust , along with experimental hip hop stuff like Outkast ’ s Stankonia " . Huw Jones of Slant Magazine described her sound as " a unique gray area between neo @-@ soul , funk , and art @-@ rock " . Music writer Greg Kot noted that the album " touches on " musical genres such as funk , hip hop , folk , electro @-@ pop , glam rock , big @-@ band jazz , rock and classical music . Conceptually , Kot described the album as " a self @-@ empowerment manifesto couched inside a futuristic ' emotion @-@ picture ' about an android ’ s battle to overcome oppression . The notion of space travel and ' new worlds ' becomes a metaphor for breaking the chains that enslave minorities of all types – a theme that has a long tradition in African @-@ American music , from Sun Ra and Parliament @-@ Funkadelic to Cannibal Ox and OutKast " . The Atlantic 's Brentin Mock called The ArchAndroid " unique , forward @-@ looking , and apoplectic ... something of a jitterbug between Prince 's 1986 movie Under the Cherry Moon and the 1977 Watts movie Killer of Sheep , and Daughters of the Dust " . Seth Colter Walls of Newsweek described the album as " rocking in parts like Dirty Mind – era Prince , unfolding in a suite form that recalls Abbey Road 's side two , and bumping throughout with the best innovations of contemporary hip @-@ hop " .
= = = Songs = = =
Monáe has stated that the album 's lyrical themes and storyline were heavily influenced by Fritz Lang 's Metropolis . The song " Dance or Die " features performer Saul Williams and contains neo soul influences . It then transitions into " Faster " , which has new wave , gospel and retro pop influences . The song " Locked Inside " features a rhythm similar to the opening break from " Rock with You " by Michael Jackson , and it has been compared to Jackson 's music with Quincy Jones . It has also been noted for similarities to artists such as Estelle and The Jackson 5 , the track features a more mellow R & B style in contrast to the previous tracks . " Sir Greendown " continues with this theme and has been noted for its " old @-@ fashioned " pop themes . The track " Cold War " is a song with new wave tendencies which has been noted to have big hooks and " sugar fuelled " beat influences . It has been described by a few media outlets as being the next James Bond film theme tune . The track " Tightrope " features vocals from Outkast star Big Boi and it has been noted as having influences from their single " Hey Ya ! " , and a sound described as " funky soul " and neojump blues . The album 's ninth track is " Oh , Maker " , a song with English pastoral folk influences . " Come Alive ( The War of the Roses ) " has been described as having rock and punk themes . " Mushrooms & Roses " is the next track on the album and it has themes of psychedelic music and it has been noted for its influences by such songs as The Beatles ' " Strawberry Fields Forever " and Prince 's " Purple Rain " . The next track , " Make the Bus " , features Of Montreal on vocal parts and it has been compared to such artists as Placebo and George Clinton . The song " Wondaland " has a synthpop sound and has been compared to the work of Tom Tom Club . Then Deep Cotton guest stars on the song " 57821 " which has been described as " space @-@ folk " and has been compared to such works by Simon & Garfunkel . This is followed by the track " Say You 'll Go " and features an segment from " Clair de lune " by Claude Debussy .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was released on May 18 , 2010 on Wondaland Arts Society and Bad Boy Records . For promoting the album , Monáe hosted a listening session for press and VIPs at Rubin Museum of Art in New York City on March 4 , 2010 . A short film , teaser trailer style , was released on April 14 on YouTube showing an aerial view of the fictional futuristic city of Metropolis . She joined recording artist Erykah Badu on the latter 's Out My Mind , Just in Time Tour during May to June 2010 . Monáe performed to her television debut on the Late Show with David Letterman where she performed the album 's lead single " Tightrope " to acclaim from critics . Monáe also performed the single on the television show So You Think You Can Dance . She also performed the same track on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and her mentor Sean " Diddy " Combs joined her on stage to introduce her to the show . Monáe also performed at the 2010 ESPY Awards and during her performance she was joined on stage by comedian Will Ferrell . Monáe also took to the stage on the Live with Jools Holland show where she performed the non @-@ released track " Faster " . She also performed her single " Tightrope " on the Mo 'Nique Show . After performing her single " Tightrope " in the majority of her performances she performed her track " Cold War " live on the Last Call with Carson Daly . She has spent time supporting such acts as ; No Doubt , Paramore , and Erykah Badu . In February 2011 , Hooligans in Wondaland [ sic ] , a joint co @-@ headlining tour with Bruno Mars was announced . The concert tour was performed in North America in May and June 2011 .
= = = Singles = = =
The first official single " Tightrope " ( featuring Big Boi ) premiered on February 11 on Pitchfork Media 's website , with a companion song entitled " Cold War " debuting the following day via Monáe 's official website . On March 31 , 2010 , the video for " Tightrope " was released presenting Monáe dancing in the Palace of the Dogs also starring Big Boi . Monáe performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman on May 18 , 2010 , The Ellen DeGeneres Show on May 26 , Lopez Tonight on May 27 , Last Call with Carson Daly on May 28 , and The Mo 'Nique Show on June 9 , 2010 . Rolling Stone named " Tightrope " the eighth best single of 2010 in its year @-@ end list .
= = Critical reception = =
The ArchAndroid received widespread acclaim from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 91 , based on 28 reviews . One of 2010 's best @-@ reviewed releases , the album received praise for its Afrofuturistic concept and Monáe 's eclectic musical range . Michael Cragg of The Guardian found its " sheer musical scope " " spellbinding " . AllMusic writer Andy Kellman praised Monáe 's creativity and called it " an extravagant 70 @-@ minute album involving more imagination , conceptual detail , and stylistic turnabouts than most gatefold prog rock epics " . Barry Walters of Spin noted German Expressionism and Afrofuturism as conceptual elements on the album and stated " She 's venturing so far away from soul that she 's come back around to it " . Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot called it " an audacious , sometimes bewildering statement " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that " Monáe gets away with most of her metamorphoses , and the sheer ambition is exhilarating even when she stretches too far " . Matthew Cole from Slant Magazine described it as " an elaborately performed and consummately freaky cyberpunk epic ... so stylistically leftfield in terms of its sound " . The A.V. Club 's Genevieve Koski wrote that " Monáe ’ s inexhaustible swagger and singular style sell both the high @-@ concept theatrics and the schizophrenic sonics " . Pitchfork Media 's Matthew Perpetua called the album " about as bold as mainstream music gets , marrying the world @-@ building possibilities of the concept album to the big tent genre @-@ mutating pop of Michael Jackson and Prince in their prime " . Perpetua elaborated on Monáe 's incorporation of science @-@ fiction and Afrofuturist concepts and the album 's " basic appeal " , stating :
Her imagination and iconography deepen the record as an experience and give her license to go far out , but it ultimately serves as a fun , flashy framework for pop songs with universal lyrical sentiments . The first of the two suites mainly deals with identity and self @-@ realization ; the second is essentially a set of love songs . As with all the musical genres blended into The ArchAndroid , Monáe uses the conventions of science fiction as a means of communication , tapping into mythic archetypes for their immediate resonance and power . And where many concept albums run a high risk of being pompous , cryptic , and self @-@ important , Monáe keeps things playful , lively , and accessible . It 's a delicate balancing act [ ... ] resulting in an eccentric breakthrough that transcends its novelty .
URB 's Dan Vidal called the album " a spectrum of sound — packed and arranged perfectly into a masterfully composed ( debut ) full @-@ length body of work ... [ a ] genre @-@ defying masterpiece " . Comparing it to singer Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 ( 1989 ) , Brentin Mock of The Atlantic called The ArchAndroid " a smothered funk , though perhaps at times too thick , too inaccessible , but not so much I didn 't want to shake my ass " and viewed it as musically progressive , stating " Monáe has given pop music its first Toni Morrison moment , where fantasy , funk , and the ancestors come together for an experience that evolves one 's soul ... You really don 't know whether you want to diagram it , dance to it , or just be dumbstruck . It owes as much to Parliament @-@ Funkadelic as it does to Samuel R. Delany and Octavia E. Butler . She is finally doing what a number of artists — particularly black artists — have not been able to do in years , and that 's move pop music forward " .
= = Accolades = =
The album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R & B Album , presented at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards in 2011 . The ArchAndroid appeared on several music critics ' and publications ' end @-@ of @-@ year albums lists . It was named the year 's best album by several critics in their year @-@ end lists . Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot ranked it number one on his top albums list . Nitsuh Abebe of New York ranked the album number six on his top albums list . Paste named it the second best album of 2010 in its end @-@ of @-@ year albums list . Chris Yuscavage of Vibe ranked it number five on his list of the 10 Best Albums of 2010 . NME ranked the album number 21 on its list of 75 Best Albums of 2010 . Spin placed The ArchAndroid at number six on its 40 Best Albums list for 2010 . Pitchfork Media included the album at number 12 on its year @-@ end list and called it a " hugely ambitious full @-@ length debut — more Sign o ' the Times than Kid A " .
PopMatters named it the best album of 2010 in its year @-@ end list . MTV and Entertainment Weekly placed it at number eight on their lists of the 20 Best Albums of 2010 . The Guardian ranked the album number one on its list of 2010 's top 40 albums , stating in conclusion " No other album this year seems so alive with possibility . Monáe is young and fearless enough to try anything , gifted enough to pull almost all of it off , and large @-@ hearted enough to make it feel like a communal experience : Us rather than Me " . The ArchAndroid was voted the fourth @-@ best album in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 2010 . Five songs from the album were included in the poll 's singles list , including " Tightrope " ( number two ) , " Cold War " ( number 22 ) , " Wondaland " , " Locked Inside " , and " Sir Greendown " ( all tied for number 549 ) .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number 17 on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 21 @,@ 000 copies . The album dropped to number 40 in its second week on the Billboard 200 , and fell to number 49 on the chart in its third week , selling 7 @,@ 000 copies . Whilst its fourth week , the album moved to number 71 on the Billboard 200 . It has spent seventeen weeks on the Billboard 200 . In the week of February 23 , 2011 , the album re @-@ entered the Billboard 200 at number 171 , after selling an additional 3 @,@ 000 copies . As of February 23 , 2011 , The ArchAndroid has sold 141 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It also entered at number four on Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums and at number seven on its Digital Albums chart .
In the United Kingdom , The ArchAndroid debuted at number 51 on the UK Albums Chart . The album also reached number 12 in Germany , number 15 in Denmark , number 22 in Norway , number 24 in Ireland , number 36 in Switzerland , and number 63 in Austria .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks produced by Nate " Rocket " Wonder , Chuck Lightning , and Janelle Monáe , except track 14 by Kevin Barnes and tracks 1 , 12 , and 18 by Roman GianArthur Irvin .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for The ArchAndroid adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Musicians = = =
= = = Production = = =
= = Charts = =
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= Halo : The Flood =
Halo : The Flood is a military science fiction novel by William C. Dietz , based on the Halo series of video games and based specifically on the 2001 video game Halo : Combat Evolved , the first game in the series . The book was released in April 2003 and is the second Halo novel . Closely depicting the events of the game , The Flood begins with the escape of a human ship Pillar of Autumn from enemy aliens known as the Covenant . When the Pillar of Autumn unexpectedly discovers a massive artifact known as " Halo " , the humans must square off against the Covenant and a second terrifying force in a desperate attempt to uncover Halo 's secrets and stay alive . Though the book roughly follows the same events of the Xbox game , featuring identical dialogue , Dietz also describes events not seen by the game 's protagonist , the super @-@ soldier Master Chief .
After the success of the first Halo novel , Halo : The Fall of Reach , publisher Del Rey and Halo publisher Microsoft signed a deal for new books based on Xbox games , including another entry in the Halo series . Del Ray approached author Dietz to write the next book . Dietz incorporated his first @-@ hand experience in the military for the additional scenes of The Flood not found in the game .
Upon release , Halo : The Flood cracked the Publishers Weekly Top Ten Bestsellers List for Paperbacks , but critical reception to the novel was less positive than Eric Nylund 's Fall of Reach or other Halo novels . The repetitive fight scenes and dramatically different characterization of the protagonist compared to Nylund 's work were seen as major flaws , and Dietz 's style of writing was alternatively praised and lambasted . The next Halo novel , Halo : First Strike , would serve to bridge the gap between Combat Evolved and its sequel , Halo 2 .
The book was re @-@ released on October 12 , 2010 with new content and editorial corrections .
= = Background = =
The first Halo book , Halo : The Fall of Reach , sold more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies and prompted an extended agreement between Del Rey Books and Microsoft to produce more Halo novels . William C. Dietz , a Seattle @-@ based science fiction author , was approached to write the next Halo novel . Though he had never played the game , he immediately bought an Xbox console and a copy of Halo . When he learned that the game was selling rapidly at his local retailer , he agreed to pen the book .
Dietz , a former United States Navy Hospital Corpsman , incorporated elements of what he fondly called " The Green Machine " into his work ; despite being in the 26th century , the marines of The Flood are very similar to their modern counterparts . To assist Dietz in writing , Bungie provided what Dietz referred to as " a tremendous " amount of background information on the Halo universe . Once Dietz had finished his draft , Bungie checked it over to make sure it complied with the plot established in the games and novels , as Bungie considers all Halo novels canon .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Halo : The Flood is set in the year 2552 . Humanity has colonized hundreds of worlds across the galaxy , using faster @-@ than @-@ light drives and cryonic sleep to travel between worlds . Without warning , a collective of alien races known as the Covenant began attacking the outlying colonies , brutally exterminating all life by vitrifying the surface of the planets . Humanity , outnumbered and outclassed by the alien 's superior technology , wages a losing war against the enemy . After the human bastion of Reach falls to the Covenant , the human ship Pillar of Autumn jumps into Slipspace to lead the Covenant away from Earth .
= = = Plot = = =
The novel , like the video game it is based on , begins as the Pillar of Autumn exits slipspace , discovering an unexpected massive ringworld hidden by a moon in orbit around a gas giant . In the system are a host of Covenant , who notice the lone ship . A Covenant leader forbids the fleet to fire on the Autumn , for fear of damaging the ring . Instead , they board and capture the ship . Meanwhile , technicians on the Autumn prepare for battle and awaken a single soldier from cryo sleep — a Spartan known as the Master Chief .
The Covenant board the Autumn ; deprived of defensive options , the Autumn 's captain , Jacob Keyes , tells the crew to abandon ship . The Master Chief is entrusted with the artificial intelligence Cortana ; given the wealth of tactical information the A.I. contains , Keyes cannot allow Cortana to fall into enemy hands . The Master Chief leaves for the surface of Halo in a lifeboat ; other soldiers , including a squad of shock troops led by Antonio Silva and his second @-@ in @-@ command , Melissa McKay , land by special drop pods , and take a strategic bluff from the Covenant to use as a base of operations . Captain Keyes is captured by the Covenant , and taken aboard the Covenant cruiser Truth and Reconciliation ; the Master Chief and a squad of Marines board the Truth and Reconciliation , rescuing the captain . Keyes has learned that the ringworld they are on has vast significance to the Covenant- they believe that " Halo " , as they call the ring , is a weapon of unimaginable power . Escaping from the Covenant cruiser , Keyes gives the Master Chief the mission of finding the Control Room of Halo before the Covenant . The Master Chief and Cortana discover the location of the Control Room , and with the help of some Marines , insert Cortana into Halo 's computer network . However , Cortana realizes that the ring is not a weapon as they understood at all- but before the Chief can press her with questions , Cortana tells the Master Chief to find Captain Keyes .
Dropped into the swamp where Keyes and his squad disappeared , the Master Chief discovers that the Captain has been captured and both human and Covenant soldiers have been turned into zombie @-@ like creatures by bulbous aliens . One soldier , Private Wallace Jenkins , is left still semi @-@ conscious and painfully aware of his predicament , unable to control his movement or actions as his former friends and he attack McKay 's troops . Jenkins intends on ending his life , but is instead captured by McKay for study . The Chief is approached by Halo 's resident A.I. , 343 Guilty Spark , who informs the Chief that the creatures he has encountered are called the Flood , a virulent parasite that infects hosts and converts them into either forms for combat , or for reproduction . To activate Halo 's defenses , Guilty Spark needs the Master Chief 's help . In Halo 's Control Room , Guilty Spark gives the Master Chief the key to activate Halo , but is stopped by a furious Cortana . Cortana explains that Halo is a weapon , but it doesn 't kill the Flood- it kills their food , meaning humans , Covenant , and any other sentient life . Realizing that they have to stop Guilty Spark from activating Halo , Cortana and the Master Chief decide to destroy Halo by detonating the crash @-@ landed Pillar of Autumn 's fusion reactors . In order to do this , they need Captain Keyes ' neural implants . Cortana discovers the Captain is still alive , held prisoner once again aboard the Truth and Reconciliation , now in the hands of the Flood who are trying to escape Halo . The Chief fights Covenant and Flood to the Captain , but finds out he is too late — the Captain has been assimilated into the parasite . The Chief retrieves the implants and leaves the Truth for the Autumn .
While the Chief and Cortana head to the Autumn , Alpha Base is evacuated . Silva decides to retake the Truth and Reconciliation and pilot the ship away in order to avoid being on Halo when the Autumn blows . The ship is taken successfully , but McKay realizes that Silva is blinded by the thought of promotion and glory to the danger of the Flood ; if even one Flood specimen escaped containment on Earth , the entire planet could fall . Jenkins draws McKay 's attention to a vital energy line on the ship , and realizing that the destruction of the Flood is more important than Silva 's promotion , cuts the cable , sending the Truth and Reconciliation crashing into Halo , killing all aboard .
At the Autumn , the Master Chief is forced to destabilize the fusion reactors manually as 343 Guilty Spark and his robotic drones try to stop them . Once the countdown until detonation has begun , Cortana directs the Chief to a fighter still docked in the Pillar of Autumn hangar . Gunning the engines , the Chief and Cortana escape the ring just as the Autumn explodes , ending the threat of the Flood . Cortana scans for survivors and realizes that they are seemingly the only two who have survived . Cortana tells the Master Chief that the fight is finished , to which the Chief replies , " No . The Covenant is still out there , and Earth is at risk . We 're just getting started . "
= = Reception = =
Reception to the book was mixed . Some reviewers found William C. Dietz 's style of writing subpar when compared to that of Eric Nylund . Dietz 's interpretation of the Master Chief was very different from Nylund 's . Other critics took issue with how the novel did not depart enough from the game 's storyline ; Fans complained about inconsistencies with the other novels and the game itself .
Responding to criticism about the book , including his interpretation of the Chief , Dietz replied :
... of [ the book reviews ] that I have read , the negative ones often say something to the effect that the book is just like the game , so why read it ? What those readers may not realize is that I was hired to novelize the game . That means taking the game and turning it into a book [ ... ] or , put another way , I did what I was hired to do . ... there must be some folks who feel that I wrote the Chief out of character . That 's news to me . All I can tell you is that the Bungie folks , who care deeply about the character and the universe never raised that issue , and approved the book as written . However , there 's no doubt that every author is different , and will approach characters differently . So if Nylund 's rendition of the Chief is different from my own in subtle ways that would be understandable .
Despite the less enthusiastic response The Flood garnered than its predecessor , the book still sold well . Soon after release , The Flood made the Publishers Weekly top ten bestsellers paperback list . The next book in the series , Halo : First Strike , would be written by Eric Nylund and bridge the gap between Halo : Combat Evolved and Halo 2 .
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= First Battle of Naktong Bulge =
The First Battle of Naktong Bulge was an engagement between United States and North Korean forces early in the Korean War from August 5 – 19 , 1950 in the vicinity of Yongsan ( Yeongsan , Changnyeong county ) and the Naktong River in South Korea . It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the United States after large numbers of US reinforcements destroyed an attacking North Korean division .
On August 5 , 4th Infantry Division , North Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) , crossed the Naktong River in the vicinity of Yongsan , attempting to cut US supply lines to the north as well as gaining a bridgehead into the Pusan Perimeter . Opposing it was the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army . Over the next two weeks , American and North Korean forces fought a bloody series of engagements inflicting heavy casualties on one another in a confusing series of attacks and counterattacks , but neither side was able to gain the upper hand . In the end , the US forces , aided by reinforcements , air support and heavy weapons , destroyed the invading North Korean force which was hampered by lack of supply and high desertion rates .
The battle was a turning point in the war for North Korean forces , which had seen previous victories owing to superior numbers and equipment . The American forces now had a numerical superiority and more equipment , including tanks and weapons capable of defeating the powerful North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the 25 June 1950 outbreak of the Korean War after the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States , a member of the UN , subsequently committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th was ordered to South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive . The division was consequently alone for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 1st Cavalry and the 7th and 25th Infantry Divisions , along with other Eighth Army supporting units , to move into position . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , where it was almost completely destroyed but delaying North Korean forces until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With Taejon captured , North Korean forces began surrounding the Pusan Perimeter from all sides in an attempt to envelop it . The 4th and 6th North Korean Infantry Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver . The two divisions attempted to envelop the UN 's left flank , but became extremely spread out in the process . They advanced on UN positions with armor and superior numbers , repeatedly pushing back U.S. and South Korean forces .
American forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , opening a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju to the west , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan open for more North Korean attacks . US formations were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 . Suffering mounting losses , the KPA force in the west withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = = Naktong Bulge = = =
About 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of the point where it turns east and is joined by the Nam River , the Naktong River curves westward opposite Yongsan in a wide semicircular loop . For most of this span , the Naktong is around 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) wide and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep , allowing infantry to wade across with some difficulty but preventing vehicles from crossing without assistance . This perimeter was defended by a network of observation posts on the high ground , manned by 24th Infantry . Forces in reserve would counterattack any attempted crossings by KPA . Artillery and mortar fire units were also deployed so large amounts of fire could be delivered on any one spot . The division was extremely dispersed . Already understrength , it presented a very thin line .
= = Battle = =
The 24th US Infantry Division , under the command of Major General John H. Church , occupied a region some 16 miles ( 26 km ) long along the Naktong River . The 34th US Infantry Regiment occupied the southern half , west of Yongsan while the 21st US Infantry Regiment occupied the northern half , west of Changyong . The 19th US Infantry Regiment , meanwhile , was re @-@ equipping in the rear of the lines . In all , the 24th and its supporting units had a strength of 14 @,@ 540 on August 5 .
Opposing the 24th Infantry was the 4th North Korean Infantry Division , under the command of Major General Lee Kwon Mu . Both Mu and his division were highly decorated for their exploits so far in the war , particularly during the First Battle of Seoul . By August 4 the 4th Division had concentrated all of its regiments in the vicinity of Hyopch 'on . It stood at a strength of about 7 @,@ 000 with 1 @,@ 500 in each infantry regiment .
= = = North Korean attack = = =
At midnight on the night of August 5 – 6 , 800 North Korean soldiers of the 3rd Battalion , 16th Regiment waded across the river at the Ohang ferry site , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) south of Pugong @-@ ni and west of Yongsan , carrying light weapons and supplies over their heads or on rafts . A second force attempted to cross further north but was hit with machine gun and artillery fire , falling back in confusion . At 0200 on August 6 , the North Koreans began engaging the forces of 3rd Battalion , 34th Infantry and moved forward after a small fight , attempting to penetrate the lines to Yongsan . North Korean infantry forced 3rd Battalion back , and the American battalion abandoned its command post to consolidate its position . The attack caught the Americans by surprise as US commanders expected the North Koreans to attempt a crossing further north . The landing threatened to split the American lines and disrupt supply lines to positions further north . Subsequently the North Koreans were able to capture a large amount of American equipment .
= = = US counterattack = = =
The 34th Infantry 's regimental headquarters ordered the 1st Battalion to counterattack the North Koreans . When 1st Battalion arrived at 3rd Battalion 's former command post , it was ambushed by KPA troops on the high ground . C Company , the first to arrive , suffered over fifty percent casualties . A and B Companies counterattacked with tanks and armor , eventually rescuing the beleaguered C Company . At around 20 : 00 , A Company made contact with L Company , 3rd Battalion , still in its positions on the river , radioing that the North Koreans had penetrated eastward north of the Yongsan @-@ Naktong River road to Cloverleaf Hill , but had not yet crossed south of the road to Obong @-@ ni Ridge . The North Koreans had penetrated 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of the Naktong and halfway to Yongsan .
Several units of the 34th Regiment began to retreat north and into the 21st Infantry 's lines , but Church ordered them turned around . He also ordered the 19th Infantry to counterattack west along the northern flank of the 34th Infantry to help oppose the KPA . Although the 24th Infantry was repulsed closer to the river , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) inland the 19th Infantry trapped about 300 North Koreans in a village and killed most of them .
The 1st Battalion , 34th Infantry , had managed to block the North Korean 's advance to Yongsan while the 19th Infantry was able to push it back and inflict substantial casualties . However , by the evening of August 6 , KPA held firmly on to their bridgehead . Attempted crossings that night were repulsed to the south by South Korean forces , but an unknown number of reinforcements were moved across the river the night of August 6 – 7 . On August 7 – 8 , the North Koreans tried to move two more battalions across the river to the north , but were repulsed by 21st Infantry , which was still in place . The KPA battalions were shifted south to cross at the bridgehead , instead . By August 8 , an estimated regiment of North Korean troops were across the Naktong .
= = = Counterattacks = = =
American counterattacks continued into the morning of August 7 , but the gains were slow , hampered by the hot weather and a lack of food and water . The North Koreans were able to press forward and regain the Cloverleaf Hill and Oblong @-@ ni Ridge , critical terrain astride the main road in the bulge area . By 16 : 00 that day , the 9th Infantry Regiment , 2nd US Infantry Division , a unit newly arrived in Korea , was sent to the region . Church immediately ordered it to attack the North Korean salient at the bulge . 9th Infantry was fresh and well @-@ equipped . They were also inexperienced , many of their number being reservists . Despite a tenacious attack , the 9th Infantry was only able to regain part of Cloverleaf Hill before intense fighting stalled its movement .
North Korean forces began making gains in the hills along the river adjacent to their bridgehead , against positions of the 34th Infantry . Coordinated attacks pushed A Company to the north back from their hills with heavy casualties on August 7 . K Company to the south was also attacked but held its line , reinforced by L Company on August 10 . Fighting continued for several days , resulting in heavy casualties as both sides captured and recaptured the hills along the Naktong , neither side able to gain a decisive advantage against the other .
= = = Task Force Hill = = =
In an attempt to destroy the North Korean bridgehead , Church assembled a large force under the 9th Infantry Regiment . Dubbed " Task Force Hill " , this force comprised the 9th , 19th , and 34th Infantry Regiments as well as 1st Battalion , 21st Infantry , plus supporting artillery and other attached units . It was assigned to drive the North Koreans from the east bank of the river on August 11 . Commanding the task force was Colonel John G. Hill , the Commanding Officer of the 9th Infantry Regiment .
The 4th North Korean Division , meanwhile , had constructed underwater bridges of sandbags , logs , and rocks , finishing the first on August 10 . 4th Division used it to move trucks and heavy artillery as well as additional infantry and a few tanks across the river . By the morning of August 10 , an estimated two KPA regiments were across the river and occupying fortified positions . Supplies continued to stream in through rafts . Task Force Hill mounted its attack , but was once again unable to make progress due to the newly established artillery . Its directive to attack quickly became one to dig in and hold its ground , and by nightfall the entire 4th North Korean Division was across the river . On August 10 , elements of 4th North Korean began to move south , outflanking Task Force Hill . The next day , scattered North Korean elements attacked Yongsan . KPA repeatedly attacked at night , when American soldiers were resting and had greater difficulty resisting .
= = = Reinforcements = = =
On August 12 , General Walton Walker , in command of the Eighth Army , dispatched part of the 27th Infantry Regiment , 25th US Infantry Division , to attack north from the 25th Division 's zone to drive off 4th North Korean Division troops moving into Yongsan . Simultaneously , Church assembled all the combat service support soldiers he could and formed them into a combat unit to block further penetration of North Korean forces , which were setting up roadblocks on the roads from Yongsan .
Additional reinforcements poured in . The rest of the 27th Infantry moved in , as well as a battalion from the 23rd Infantry Regiment , 2nd US Infantry Division . These were able to push North Korean infiltrators out of Yongsan and back to their firmly held positions at Cloverleaf Hill . On August 14 , following an artillery barrage , Task Force Hill launched a direct assault on these positions . Fighting continued the entire day in a fierce series of attacks and counterattacks in which both sides , already at far reduced strength , inflicted large numbers of casualties . However , Task Force Hill 's second attack was just as unsuccessful as its first . Casualties among officers was high in the fight , and the disorganization that followed meant most of the units in the fight could not communicate to coordinate any large actions . It became a battle of attrition by August 15 as neither 4th North Korean Division nor Task Force Hill were able to get the upper hand in the fight , which in several cases erupted in desperate hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . Casualties mounted and a frustrated Walker ordered the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ man 1st Provisional Marine Brigade to the area to turn the tide . The brigade moved from the Masan region in the middle of a counteroffensive being conducted by the 25th US Infantry .
The 4th North Korean Division in the meantime was suffering serious logistical setbacks from lack of food , equipment , ammunition and , weapons . Conscripts from local South Korean villages were brought in to replace mounting losses . There was also virtually no provision for the wounded in the division , and the North Korean forces began to come apart under these stresses . Still , the division 's morale remained relatively high and General Lee refused to withdraw .
= = = Destruction of the bridgehead = = =
The 1st Marine Provisional Brigade , in conjunction with Task Force Hill , mounted a massive offensive on Cloverleaf Hill and Obong @-@ ni on August 17 . The offensive began at 0800 on August 17 , with US forces unleashing all heavy weapons available to them against the North Korean positions ; artillery , mortars , M26 Pershing tanks , and airstrikes .
At first , tenacious KPA defense halted the Marines who responded with artillery , raking Cloverleaf Hill . Heavy indirect fire forced the North Koreans out of their positions before the Marines and Task Force Hill eventually overwhelmed them , one hill at a time . The Marines approached Obong @-@ ni first , destroying resistance on the slope with an airstrike and a barrage from US tanks , but strong resistance caused heavy casualties , and they had to withdraw . The 18th North Korean Regiment , in control of the hill , mounted a disastrous counterattack in hopes of pushing the Marines back . The division 's tactics of cutting off supplies and relying on surprise , which had provided them so much success up to this point , failed in the face of massive US numerical superiority .
By nightfall on August 18 , 4th North Korean Division had been annihilated ; huge numbers of deserters had weakened its numbers during the fight , but by that time , Obong @-@ ni and Cloverleaf Hill had been retaken by the US forces . Scattered groups of North Korean soldiers fled back across the Naktong , pursued by American planes and artillery fire . The next day , the remains of 4th Division had withdrawn across the river . In their hasty retreat , they left a large number of artillery pieces and equipment behind which the Americans later pressed into service .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle caused massive casualties for both sides . By the end of the fight , 4th North Korean Division had been completely destroyed , with only 300 or 400 men in each of its regiments . Of its original 7 @,@ 000 men , the regiment now had a strength of only 3 @,@ 500 , having suffered over 1 @,@ 200 killed . Several thousand of the members of the division deserted during the fight . Most of these men were South Korean civilians forcibly conscripted into the North Korean army . 4th Division would not recover until much later in the war . The battle represented a new phase in the war for the North Koreans . Their numerical superiority was gone , and their strategy of attacking supply lines and rear formations of US units was no longer effective without overwhelming numbers . Additionally , the advantage the T @-@ 34 tank had once provided was also gone ; American units were now well equipped with effective anti @-@ tank weapons , as well as larger numbers of tanks of their own . Subsequently , all 4th Division 's T @-@ 34s were quickly knocked out before they could inflict much damage .
The 9th Infantry and supporting units sustained 57 killed , 106 wounded , two captured , and 13 missing , a total of 180 casualties . The 21st Infantry suffered around 30 killed and 70 wounded , the 19th Infantry around 450 casualties , and the 34th Infantry around 400 . The 27th Infantry reported around 150 . The 1st Provisional Brigade reported 66 Marines dead , 278 wounded , and one missing . In total , American forces suffered around 1 @,@ 800 casualties during the conflict , including about a third them killed .
In memory of the battle at Naktong Bulge , as well as other conflicts along the Pusan Perimeter and the Battle of Taegu , the South Korean government set up the Nakdong River Battle Museum along the river in the vicinity of the conflict in 1979 , which includes a number of artifacts from the Korean War as well as a memorial to those killed during the war .
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= Battle of Karameh =
The Battle of Karameh ( Arabic : معركة الكرامة ) was a 15 @-@ hour military engagement between the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) and combined forces of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) and the Jordanian Armed Forces ( JAF ) in the Jordanian town of Karameh on 21 March 1968 , during the War of Attrition . It was planned by Israel as one of two concurrent raids on PLO camps , one in Karameh and one in the distant village of Safi — codenamed Operation Inferno ( Hebrew : מבצע תופת ) and Operation Asuta ( מבצע אסותא ) , respectively — but the former turned into a full @-@ scale battle .
After the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 , the PLO and Fatah stepped up their guerrilla attacks against Israel from Jordanian soil , using the border town of Karameh as their headquarters . Though the Israeli invasion , whose purpose was to destroy the Palestinian militant camps at Karameh and capture Yasser Arafat , was primarily motivated as a reprisal for these new attacks , the two operations had been prepared a year earlier . It is also believed that Israel wanted to punish Jordan for its support to the PLO . The Jordanian assessment of the dimensions of the force Israel had dispatched for the raid was that Israel entertained a further goal , that of capturing the Balqa Governorate to create a similar situation to that in the Golan Heights . Though Israel assumed the Jordanian Army would choose to not get involved in the battle , the latter deployed heavy fire on the attacking Israeli forces while fighting alongside the Palestinians . The engagement marked the first known deployment of suicide bombers by Palestinian forces . The Israelis withdrew , or were repulsed , after a day long battle , having destroyed most of the Karameh camp and taken around 140 PLO members prisoner . The battle resulted in the issuance of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 248 , which condemned Israel for violating the cease @-@ fire line and its disproportionate use of force .
Both sides declared victory . On a tactical level , the battle went in Israel 's favor , and the aim of destroying the Karameh camp was achieved . On the other hand , the relatively high casualties sustained came as a considerable surprise for the Israel Defense Forces and stunned the Israelis . On a rare occasion , Israel failed to retrieve three dead soldiers , who were left behind in Karameh along with several damaged Israeli vehicles and tanks , later paraded in Amman by the Jordanians . Although the Palestinians had limited success in inflicting Israeli casualties , King Hussein let them take the credit . Palestinians used the battle 's wide acclaim and recognition in the Arab world to establish their national claims . After the battle , King Hussein proclaimed , " I think we may reach a position where we are all fedayeen " . As the PLO 's strength began to grow in the aftermath of the battle , Fedayeen began to speak openly of taking over Jordan , and the ensuing tensions eventually precipitated in Black September in 1970 .
= = Background = =
Palestinian groups used to initiate few attacks on Israeli targets from both the West Bank and Jordan before the Six @-@ Day War , some of which caused Israel to retaliate which became known as the Reprisal operations . Following the seizure of the West Bank from Jordan in the June 1967 Six @-@ Day War , Israel destroyed the existing Palestinian group Fatah networks there . In early 1968 , however , Fatah guerrillas began raiding Israel from bases on the Jordanian side of the river . Most of these attacks were blocked by the Israel Defense Forces . At times , Jordanian Army infantry and artillery units gave the Fatah squads covering fire , leading to frequent direct skirmishes between the IDF and the Jordanian Army . On 14 – 15 February , Jordanian mortars hit several Israeli settlements in the Beit Shean Valley and Jordan Valley . Israeli artillery and air forces retaliated against Jordanian bases and artillery batteries , as well as the American @-@ financed East Ghor Canal ( now known as the King Abdullah Canal ) . As a result , thousands of Jordanian farmers fled eastwards , and fedayeen ( agents willing to sacrifice themselves for the Palestinian cause ) moved into the valley . An American @-@ sponsored ceasefire was arranged , and King Hussein declared he would prevent these groups from using Jordan as a base for attack .
In February , King Hussein sent twenty carloads of troops and police to order a Fatah unit to leave the town of Karameh . When it arrived , the column found itself surrounded by men wielding machine guns ; their commander said " You have three minutes to decide whether you leave or die " . They withdrew . By March , several hundred civilians lived in the camp , along with about 900 guerrillas , mostly from Fatah , and PLO leader Yasser Arafat , who had his headquarters there .
In Israel , Chief of the Military Intelligence Directorate Aharon Yariv stated that a raid would damage Fatah 's prestige . On the other hand , Israeli Foreign Minister Abba Eban and his chief of bureau Gideon Rafael — mindful of an adverse American reaction due to the good relationship between Jordan and the US — worried a raid could result in innocent civilian deaths and be a political disservice to Israel . Chief of Staff Haim Bar @-@ Lev promised a " clean action " . Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan asked for a " principal approval " for a raid , but this was denied by the cabinet . On 13 December , Operation Karameh was scheduled for the next night , it was placed in the hands of both Brigade 35 of the Paratroop Corps and the Sayeret Matkal special @-@ operations force . The operation was called off , rescheduled for 12 March and then called off again . Dayan warned the other ministers that a bus might strike a mine . On 18 March , an Israeli school bus was blown up by a mine near Be 'er Ora in the Arava , killing two adults and wounding ten children . This was the 38th Fatah operation in little more than three months . That night , the cabinet approved the attack . The U.S. tried to prevent it by forwarding Israel a message from King Hussein . Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol called in the cabinet for further counseling ; only the National Religious Party leader Haim @-@ Moshe Shapira vocally opposed the attack , while Education Minister Zalman Aran opposed it too but remained silent . There was an intelligence informant who was a former Fatah member , code @-@ named " Grotius " who was said to be familiar with the base in Karameh and its surroundings . Grotius is said to have arrived in Jordan as a member of the 421st Commando Battalion of the Palestine Liberation Army , on the eve of the Six @-@ Day War . After deserting his battalion , he trained in Syria at the Hama camp and later slipped into the West Bank . Israel assumed that the Jordanians would ignore the invasion , however , the Israelis were met with heavy resistance from them .
= = Prelude = =
On 4 March , Jordanian intelligence began to detect Israeli activity near the border , as IDF troops began to concentrate near the Allenby Bridge ( known now as King Hussein Bridge ) and Damia Bridge ( known now as Adam Bridge ) . Jordan ordered the 1st Infantry Division to take up positions near those bridges and around Karameh . On 17 March , Dayan warned that the fedayeen were preparing for a " new wave of terror , " which Israel would take steps to contain if King Hussein of Jordan could not . Eshkol repeated that message to the Knesset , and on the same day , Israeli Ambassador Yosef Tekoah filed two complaints with the United Nations against what he termed " the Arabs ' repeated acts of aggression . "
By 20 March , Jordan had identified parts of the Israeli 7th Armored Brigade , 60th Armored Brigade , 35th Paratroop Brigade , 80th Infantry Brigade , a combat engineer battalion and five artillery battalions between Allenby and Damia bridges . The Jordanians assumed the Israelis were planning an attack with a drive on Amman , and the army took up positions near the bridges , with the 60th Armored Brigade joining the 1st Infantry Division . Jordan also added most of its armored car , antitank and artillery units to the 1st Infantry Division . The total firepower was 105 Patton tanks and 88 artillery pieces . The infantry divisions were deployed near the bridges , each with a tank company . The artillery was mostly deployed on the higher Jordan Valley ridges overlooking Karameh for topological advantage .
The Israeli forces amounted to less than a brigade of armor , an infantry brigade , a paratroop battalion , an engineering battalion and five battalions of artillery . The units were divided into four task forces . The largest of these was to cross the Allenby Bridge and reach Karameh from the south ; a second one was to cross the Damiyah Bridge , and reach Karameh from the north , thus completing a pincer move . Meanwhile , paratroopers were to be lifted by helicopters into the town while the fourth force would make a diversionary attack at King Abdullah Bridge to draw the Jordanian forces from Karameh and to cover the main attack .
Prior to the attack , the Israeli Air Force ( IAF ) dropped leaflets telling the Jordanian army that Israel had no intention to hurt them , and that they should not intervene ; the leaflets went unheeded . Time magazine reported the fedayeen had been warned in advance by Egyptian intelligence , and most of the 2 @,@ 000 Arab commandos who used Karameh as a training base had pulled back into the surrounding hills to snipe at the Israelis . Some 200 guerrillas stayed inside to defend the town . Later , Arafat 's deputy , Abu Iyad , claimed in his memoirs that he and Arafat had been tipped off about the Israeli attack by Jordanian officers , who learned it from the CIA .
= = Battle = =
At 5 : 30 AM on 21 March , the Israeli forces attacked simultaneously on the three bridges . Combat engineers built a pontoon bridge in the north and the troops crossed the river . The Israeli spearheads pushed across the Allenby Bridge and advanced towards Shunat Nimreen .
At 6 : 30 AM , Israeli helicopters started landing the bulk of the paratrooper battalion north of Karameh . An Israeli aircraft was supposed to drop leaflets addressed to Fatah , after the paratroopers had surrounded the town ; however , due to difficult weather conditions , the helicopters flying the paratroopers arrived twenty minutes too late . Met with resistance by Fatah commandos and Jordanian regulars supported by Jordanian artillery , the paratroopers suffered heavy losses . When the southern task force began their drive north towards Karameh , they encountered a Jordanian infantry brigade supported by armor , artillery and antitank weapons . The Israeli Air Force launched airstrikes , but was only able to inflict minor damage on the dug @-@ in Jordanians . Fighting from their entrenched positions , the Jordanians repelled several Israeli assaults .
In the south , Jordanian artillery shelling prevented the Israelis from erecting another pontoon bridge on the site of the Abdullah bridge , halting the Israeli advance there . After crossing the Allenby Bridge , the 7th Armored Brigade spread in three directions from Shuna : One or more companies drove north to Karameh . An infantry battalion and a tank battalion moved east to block the Salt road . And another infantry battalion moved south to assist the force trying to break across the Abdullah Bridge . Meanwhile , the force that crossed the Damia Bridge established itself on the east bank . Engineers began constructing a new bridge , and the force advanced east to the Musri junction . After taking Musri , their intended advance south to Karameh was repulsed by the northern brigade of the Jordanian 1st Division .
The force driving on Karameh via the Allenby bridge broke through and proceeded to the town , arriving shortly before 7 : 00 . By 8 : 00 the Israeli forces had taken control of the town , which turned out to be a bigger PLO base than the Israelis expected . Combined with the paratroopers , this Israeli force engaged in heavy fighting against the central brigade of the 1st division and a number of Fatah fighters . Some of the paratroopers and armor drove north to operate in the Fatah camp . The paratroopers destroyed most of the camp ; many of the Palestinians , including Arafat , fled eastward . The rest of the Allenby Bridge force was blocked to the east and south of Shuna , by elements of the 1st Division 's central and southern brigades , and by a tank battalion from Salt . A small force of Israeli infantry and armor , on the right flank of Israeli forces invading from the south , tried to protect the allenby bridge force from attacks by the Jordanian forces deployed near the King Abdullah bridge . The Jordanians attacked with some armor , but the Israelis put up resistance , and the battle turned into a stalemate .
A large force of Israeli infantry and armor went east to block the road from Salt to the Allenby bridge , and they encountered the Jordanian 60th Armored Brigade trying to join the defense of Karameh . In the resulting battle , the Jordanians lost eight Patton tanks without destroying any Israeli tanks , then withdrew to the hills to dig in and continue firing down on the Israelis . The Israeli Air Force launched airstrikes against Jordanian armor and artillery positions , but was unable to stop the firing . Within the next two hours , Israeli artillery fire and airstrikes were launched against Jordanian defenses on the Musri @-@ Karameh road , the Salt road , and east of Abdullah Bridge . The Israelis also consolidated their hold on Karameh with airstrikes and artillery , and began demolishing the camp . A total of 175 houses were blown up .
Meanwhile , Operation Asuta was mounted against a few smaller guerrilla bases south of the Dead Sea , near Safi , where the school bus had struck the mine . The bases were raided by Israeli ground forces with close air support . About 20 Jordanian soldiers and policemen and 20 Fatah fighters were killed , and 27 were taken prisoner . The Israelis suffered no casualties . Frustrated in their hope to entrap the entire PLO force , the Israelis soon pulled out , but had to fight their way back to Israeli territory . At 11 : 00 the Israelis began to withdraw , with Sikorsky H @-@ 34 helicopters evacuating the troops . Because orders came down to recover as many vehicles as possible , they only completed their withdrawal by 20 : 40 . They had planned a rescue for its two tanks which were left in Jordan , but later withdrew the plan .
= = = Casualties = = =
Jordanian soldiers surrounding Israeli abandoned or destroyed trucks and tanks which were paraded across Amman and were put on display at the Hashemite Plaza .
Casualties estimates vary :
Israel : Chaim Herzog and Kenneth Pollack estimate 28 dead and 69 wounded ; Shabtai Teveth gives 32 killed and 70 wounded out of a force of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers . Benny Morris writes that Israel lost 33 dead and 161 wounded . 27 Israeli tanks were damaged by Jordanian artillery , 4 of which were left behind , two half @-@ tracks , six armored cars and Dassault Ouragan aircraft , although the pilot succeeded in parachuting to safety . A Mirage had to crash land .
Jordan : Zeev Maoz and Benny Morris cite a figure of some 84 Jordanian soldiers killed and another 250 wounded . Four were captured . 30 tanks were damaged . Other estimates claim 40 dead and 108 wounded .
PLO : Herzog : 200 dead , 150 captured ; Morris : 156 dead , 141 captured ; Pollack : 100 dead , 100 wounded , 120 – 150 captured . According to Morris , a further 20 PLO guerillas were killed and 27 captured during the corresponding Operation Asuta . Teveth states 170 killed and 130 taken prisoner .
= = Aftermath = =
Israel accomplished its objective of destroying the Fatah camp , and on a tactical level , the battle did indeed end in Israel 's favor . " The Karama operation exposed the vulnerability of PLO units deployed along the Jordan River and so they moved their concentrations up into the mountains . This imposed additional strains on them and made their operations into the West Bank even more involved and difficult than they had been hitherto . " Politically however , Israel was heavily condemned by the world opinion . U.S. Ambassador to the UN , Arthur Goldberg , said " We believe that the military counteractions such as those which have just taken place , on a scale out of proportion to the acts of violence that preceded it , are greatly to be deplored . " US Ambassador to Israel , Walworth Barbour , said that in twenty years time , a historian would write that day down as the beginning of the destruction of Israel . Eban reported the Ambassabor 's statement to the cabinet , and Menachem Begin said such an utterance must not be cited in a cabinet meeting .
The relatively high casualties were a considerable surprise for the IDF and was stunning to the Israelis . Although the Palestinians were not victorious on their own , King Hussein let the Palestinians take credit . However , the battle of Karameh provided Fatah with a propaganda boost . The chief of bureau of the then Israeli Foreign ministry Gideon Rafael later said that " The operation gave an enormous lift to Yasser Arafat 's Fatah organization and irrevocably implanted the Palestine problem onto the international agenda , no longer as a humanitarian issue of homeless refugees , but as a claim to Palestinian statehood " . Uzi Narkis , who commanded the operation , resigned as chief of the Central Command for a position in the Jewish Agency shortly after the battle .
Jordan claimed to have won the battle and stopped an Israeli drive on Balqa Governorate in intentions of occupying it and turning into a security buffer zone , which was supposed to serve as a punishment , due to the Jordanian support to the PLO . The Jordanians made this assumption as they saw the size of the raiding Israeli forces entering the battle . Arafat said " What we have done is to make the world ... realize that the Palestinian is no longer refugee number so and so , but the member of a people who hold the reins of their own destiny and are in a position to determine their own future " . Palestinians and Arabs generally considered the battle a psychological victory over the IDF , which had been seen as ' invincible ' until then , and recruitment to guerilla units soared . Fatah reported that 5 @,@ 000 volunteers applied to join within 48 hours of the battle . By late March , there were nearly 20 @,@ 000 fedayeen in Jordan .
Iraq and Syria offered training programs for several thousand guerrillas . The Persian Gulf states , led by Kuwait , raised money for them through a 5 % tax on the salaries of their tens of thousands of resident Palestinian workers , and a fund drive in Lebanon raised $ 500 @,@ 000 from Beirut alone . The Palestinian organizations began to guarantee a lifetime support for the families of all guerrillas killed in action . Within a year after the battle , Fatah had branches in about eighty countries .
After the battle , Fatah began to engage in communal projects to achieve popular affiliation . The battle of Karameh and the subsequent increase in the PLO 's strength are considered to have been important catalysts for the 1970 events of the civil war known as Black September , in which the kingdom managed to expel the Palestinian groups to Lebanon after they had started to gain control over Jordan .
Later , the United Nations Security Council issued resolution 248 which condemned the Israeli raid on Jordanian territory and the violation of the cease @-@ fire line , it recalled on resolutions 237 which had encouraged Israel to ensure the safety of civilians in military areas . The resolution affirmed that reprisals were not to be tolerated and that repetitions of such violations would have forced the Security Council to take further steps .
The battle was the first engagement between the Israelis and Palestinians , in which the latter used suicide bombers .
In a 2011 report by Haaretz , files released by the IDF had contradicted the official Israeli story that claimed that the operation was a retaliatory for the bus incident . The files revealed that the IDF had plans for the two operations , prepared in 1967 , one year before the bus incident . Files also revealed that the IDF had practiced crossing the Jordan River in 1966 during the Jordanian occupation of the West Bank .
= = Historiography = =
= = = Israeli historiography = = =
Israel maintains that it had performed a coordinated withdrawal after achieving its goal of destroying the Karameh camp . However , few Israeli military personnel who participated in Karameh agree . According to Lt. Col. Arik Regev , chief of Central Command 's operations branch ,
Moshe Brblt , a sergeant in the Israeli Armored Corps later talked about his participation in Karameh " Everything was burning around me , and whenever I tried I could not get up . "
Dr. Asher Porat stated " lessons of the operation became clear that it was a mistake to fight the Jordanian army . "
Muki Betser , a commander in the Sayeret Matkal unit of the Israel Defense Forces wrote in his book ,
= = = Jordanian and Palestinian historiography = = =
Arab history of the war mentions that Israel had entered the Battle of Karameh with too much confidence , since it took place just after Israel had defeated the Arabs in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War . The size of the Israeli forces entering Karameh made the Jordanians assume that Israel was also planning to occupy the eastern plateau of the Jordan River basin , namely Balqa Governorate , in order to create a Golan Heights similar situation so as to be used a bargaining chip . Jordanians claim that Moshe Dayan invited Israeli journalists on the previous day for lunch in western Jordan after occupying it .
The Battle of Karameh was the subject of many artworks , stamps and posters .
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= Shapes ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Shapes " is the nineteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on April 1 , 1994 . " Shapes " was written by Marilyn Osborn , and directed by David Nutter . It featured guest appearances by Michael Horse , Ty Miller and Donnelly Rhodes . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Shapes " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 6 , being watched by 7 @.@ 2 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mixed reviews , with varied reaction to the episode 's handling of the werewolf genre and of its Native American themes .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully are called to Montana after a shooting on a farm near a Native American reservation . Investigating the case , the agents find that the dead man , and those that he attacked , may be capable of shapeshifting into ferocious beasts — a phenomenon which was documented in the very first X @-@ File .
" Shapes " was written after executives at Fox had suggested that the series should feature a " more conventional " type of monster , and producers James Wong and Glen Morgan began looking into Native American legends of the Manitou to form the basis of the episode 's concept . Much of the episode was filmed in Maple Ridge and Pitt Meadows , British Columbia .
= = Plot = =
FBI agents Dana Scully and Fox Mulder travel to Browning , Montana to investigate the killing of a Native American man , Joseph Goodensnake , by local ranch owner Jim Parker . The present killing appears to be motivated by a dispute over the ownership of a tract of land , although Parker claims that he fired on a monstrous animal rather than a human . Parker 's son , Lyle , bears scars that lend credence to the story .
At the scene of the shooting , Scully reasons that at the short range from which Goodensnake was shot , it would have been impossible to mistake him for an animal . However , Mulder finds tracks leading to the area that appear to change from human to something more animal in nature . Scully dismisses this , but finds a large section of shed human skin nearby . She believes that the Parkers knowingly killed Goodensnake , but knows that they could not have skinned him since no signs of such injury were found on the body .
The matter is complicated by the difficulties Mulder and Scully have with dealing with the Native American population , stemming from the experience of the locals with the FBI at the Wounded Knee incident in 1973 . Goodensnake 's sister Gwen is also bitter that her neighbors are too frightened of native legends to confront his death . Despite these misgivings , the agents find a seeming ally in Sheriff Charles Tskany , who permits Scully to make a cursory examination of Goodensnake 's body , but forbids a full autopsy . They discover that he had elongated canines , similar to those of an animal , and bears long @-@ healed scars similar to those borne by Lyle . After parting ways with the Sheriff , Scully asks Mulder why it seems he is expecting every piece of evidence they have come across . Mulder informs Scully that forty years previously there was a similar incident in the area , which was investigated by J. Edgar Hoover and became the FBI 's first X @-@ File case .
Goodensnake 's body is cremated in a traditional ceremony , while the agents watch from a distance . Mulder shares with Scully his belief that both the culprits in both the current case and Hoover 's investigation are werewolves . Scully dismisses this theory and instead credits the belief to clinical lycanthropy . The elder Parker is subsequently ripped apart by an unseen animal outside his home , and Lyle is found naked and unconscious a few hundred yards away .
Ish , one of the elder men of the reservation , explains to Mulder the legend of the manitou , a creature which can possess and transform a man and which can pass to a new host , through a bite , or upon the death of the original host . Ish believes he had seen the creature in his youth , but was too frightened to confront it . He says it happens every eight years to someone in the region , and that it has been that long since the last sighting of a possible manitou .
An examination of Lyle reveals his father 's flesh in his stomach , though not before Scully brings him home from the hospital . After the medical examiner calls , Mulder and Tskany hurry to the Parker ranch . The beast has already arrived at the ranch house , and has stalked Scully into the attic of the Parker home . Just as the creature lunges from the shadows to attack Scully , she shoots it , thinking it was the Parker 's pet mountain lion , escaped . Outside , Mulder and Tskany see that the mountain lion is still in its cage , and discover Lyle 's body in the attic . As the agents leave , they learn that Gwen has left town , while Ish cryptically warns Mulder , " See you in about eight years " .
= = Production = =
" Shapes " was written after executives at Fox had suggested that the series should feature a " more conventional " type of monster , and producers James Wong and Glen Morgan began looking into Native American legends of the Manitou to form the basis of the episode 's concept , believing that " a horror show should be able to do these legends that have been around since the thirteen hundreds " . The episode made mention of the first X @-@ File case to have been opened , apparently initiated by J. Edgar Hoover in 1946 ; whilst it also references the events of the earlier first season episode " Beyond the Sea " , as Scully is seen discussing her father 's death . " Shapes " marked the first time an episode of The X @-@ Files had made use of Native American themes and folklore . Whilst this episode was a stand @-@ alone ' monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week ' story , later episodes beginning with the second season finale " Anasazi " , would begin to incorporate Navajo cultural references into the show 's overarching mythology .
Guest star Michael Horse , who plays Sheriff Charles Tskany , is the third guest star of the series to have previously appeared alongside David Duchovny in Twin Peaks , after fellow alumni Claire Stansfield , who played the Jersey Devil in the episode of the same name , and Don Davis who had portrayed Agent Scully 's father William in the earlier episode " Beyond the Sea " . Davis would reappear in the second season 's " One Breath " , whilst other Twin Peaks actors would appear in later episodes of the series — Michael J. Anderson in the second season 's " Humbug " , Kenneth Welsh in the third season 's " Revelations " and Richard Beymer in " Sanguinarium " from the fourth season .
Much of the episode was filmed in Maple Ridge and Pitt Meadows , British Columbia , on a site named Bordertown — a " classic western " town that had been built specifically for film sets , located just a " ten @-@ minute drive " from first assistant director Tom Braidwood 's home . The area was chosen as it provided locations for the exterior shots of the reservation , plus all of the interior areas that were needed for the episode . Despite covering the area in gravel , heavy rains left the ground sodden and muddy enough to bog down equipment and vehicles . Similar weather conditions would hinder the filming of the next episode , " Darkness Falls " . The funeral pyre scene was lit mostly using the natural light of the bonfire used ; whilst the extras who sang and prayed were cast by director David Nutter after a visit to a weekly meeting of Native Americans in Vancouver , who felt that casting non @-@ professionals would lend the scene more authenticity .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Shapes " premiered on the Fox network on April 1 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 2 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 6 with a 14 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 7 @.@ 2 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated a D + , being described as having a " garden @-@ variety werewolf plot " that offered " nothing much to sink your teeth into " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , described the episode as " thoroughly predictable " . He found the plot to be unoriginal , believing that it existed " more out of a sense of tradition than any real desire to tell a specific story " ; however , he praised the acting in the episode , especially that of guest star Michael Horse . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , described " Shapes " as being " a very basic and slightly drawn @-@ out werewolf and detective story " , though overall finding that the episode 's visual effects and atmosphere meant that it " mostly comes out good in the end " . " Shapes " has been criticized for seeming like a " werewolf tale with Native American trappings " , with its attempts at political correctness being seen as forced . However , it was praised for not adhering to the " noble savage " archetype in its portrayal of the Native American characters . Jane Goldman , in The X @-@ Files Book of the Unexplained , feels that the episode seriously misrepresents the folklore it portrays , noting that " for many natives , calling a crazed , man @-@ eating beast ' Manitou ' is like calling Charles Manson ' God ' " . The plot for " Shapes " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1996 by Ellen Steiber .
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= 2012 FA Cup Final =
The 2012 FA Cup Final was a football match between Chelsea and Liverpool on 5 May 2012 . It was the final match of the 2011 – 12 FA Cup , the 131st season of the world 's oldest football knockout competition , the FA Cup . Chelsea were participating in their eleventh final , they had previously won six and lost four . Liverpool were appearing in their fourteenth final , they had won seven times and lost six . Scheduled to provide a clear four @-@ week period between the end of the English season and the start of UEFA Euro 2012 , the date of the final clashed with Premier League fixtures . To avoid having the final played at the same time as league games , the match kicked off at the later time of 5 : 15 p.m. , rather than the usual 3 : 00 p.m. , by which time the other fixtures had ended .
As both teams were in the highest tier of English football , the Premier League , they entered the competition in the Third Round . Matches up to the semi @-@ final were contested on a one @-@ off basis , with a replay taking place if the match ended in a draw . Chelsea 's matches ranged from comfortable victories to close affairs . They beat Tottenham Hotspur 5 – 1 in the semi @-@ final , while they beat Queens Park Rangers 1 – 0 in the Fourth Round . Liverpool 's matches were similar , with three ending in a 2 – 1 scoreline , while the other two against Oldham Athletic and Brighton & Hove Albion were won by at least four goals .
Watched by a crowd of 89 @,@ 102 , Ramires put Chelsea in front in the 11th minute after he disposed Liverpool midfielder Jay Spearing and beat Pepe Reina in the Liverpool area . They extended their lead in the 52nd minute when striker Didier Drogba scored . Liverpool substitute Andy Carroll scored in the 64th minute to reduce the deficit to one goal . Carroll thought he had scored a second in the 81st minute , but his header was saved on the line by Chelsea goalkeeper Petr Čech . Carroll ran off celebrating , as he thought the ball had crossed , but referee Phil Dowd did not award the goal and Chelsea held on to win the match 2 – 1 .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Chelsea = = =
As a Premier League team , Chelsea entered the competition in the Third Round , where they were drawn at home to Portsmouth . After a goalless first half Juan Mata struck early in the second , before Ramires hit two in two minutes and Frank Lampard scored in stoppage time to give Chelsea a 4 – 0 win . Chelsea then travelled to face local rivals Queens Park Rangers at Loftus Road in the Fourth Round , where a controversial Mata penalty was enough to see them through .
Chelsea were drawn to play at home against Birmingham City in the Fifth Round , with Birmingham dominating the first half through a David Murphy goal . Daniel Sturridge scored in the second half to force a replay , which was played on 6 March at Birmingham , just two days after André Villas @-@ Boas was relieved of his duties as Chelsea manager . Birmingham held Chelsea throughout the first half , and looked the stronger side at times , but after Mata and Raul Meireles scored twice in five minutes , Chelsea dominated the remainder of the game until the final whistle . In the Sixth Round , Chelsea overcame Leicester City at home in a 5 – 2 thriller . Gary Cahill scored his first FA Cup goal for Chelsea from a corner in the 12th minute , with Salomon Kalou following up five minutes later . In the second half , Fernando Torres ended a goal drought of over 25 hours to score , before Jermaine Beckford gave Leicester a late lifeline . Torres scored again in the 85th minute to put the result beyond doubt , although Ben Marshall grabbed one back three minutes later , before Meireles scored in the 90th minute to send Chelsea through to the semi @-@ final .
In the semi @-@ final , Chelsea faced local rivals Tottenham Hotspur at Wembley . The first half was even , with both sides enjoying long spells of possession , until Didier Drogba put Chelsea ahead just before the break . Chelsea scored at the start of the second half . However , Juan Mata 's goal that did not appear to cross the line , but referee Martin Atkinson awarded the goal . Gareth Bale put Tottenham back in it with a goal shortly after a Petr Čech challenge on Emmanuel Adebayor . Despite the goal , Tottenham never took control of the game and Ramires scored in the 77th minute , followed minutes later by a Frank Lampard free kick , and a Florent Malouda strike in the fourth minute of added time . This secured Chelsea 's place in their first FA Cup Final since their 2010 triumph over Portsmouth .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool – also a Premier League team – entered the competition in the Third Round too . Their opening match was a 5 – 1 home win against Oldham Athletic . Robbie Simpson opened the scoring for Oldham in the 28th minute , but Craig Bellamy equalised just two minutes later , with Steven Gerrard scoring a penalty to give Liverpool the lead . Jonjo Shelvey scored his first goal for the club in the second half , before late goals from Andy Carroll and Stewart Downing ensured progression to the Fourth Round .
For the Fourth Round , Liverpool were drawn at their home ground , Anfield against Manchester United . The match took place in the wake of the racial abuse row between Luis Suárez and Patrice Evra , for which Suárez was serving an eight @-@ match ban . Daniel Agger opened the scoring with a header from a corner , before Park Ji @-@ sung equalised for United before half @-@ time . With the match approaching full @-@ time , Dirk Kuyt scored in the 88th minute to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 victory and secured their place in the Fifth Round . Their opponents were Brighton & Hove Albion , whom Liverpool beat 6 – 1 at Anfield , courtesy of goals from Martin Škrtel , Carroll and Suárez , as well as three own goals .
Liverpool faced Stoke City in the Sixth Round at Anfield . Suárez scored in the 23rd minute to give Liverpool the lead , before former player Peter Crouch equalised three minutes later . Downing scored in the second half to secure a 2 – 1 for the club and ensure their place in the semi @-@ finals . Local rivals Everton were the opponents in the semi @-@ final , held at Wembley Stadium . Nikica Jelavić scored in the 24th minute after a Liverpool defensive error , to give Everton a 1 – 0 lead . Liverpool equalised in the second half when Suárez scored after a back @-@ pass from Everton defender Sylvain Distin . The match looked to be heading towards extra time , before Carroll headed in a Craig Bellamy free kick in the 87th minute to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 victory and secure their place in the final for the first time since 2006 , when they defeated West Ham United .
= = Background = =
Appearing in the final for the fourteenth time , Liverpool had won the FA Cup seven times previously ( in 1965 , 1974 , 1986 , 1989 , 1992 , 2001 and 2006 ) , and had been beaten in the final six times ( in 1914 , 1950 , 1971 , 1977 , 1988 and 1996 ) . Chelsea were appearing in the final for the eleventh time . They had won the FA Cup six times previously ( in 1970 , 1997 , 2000 , 2007 , 2009 and 2010 ) , and had been beaten in the final four times ( in 1915 , 1967 , 1994 and 2002 ) . Liverpool and Chelsea had previously met nine times in the FA Cup , including two semi @-@ finals ( most recently in 2006 ) , although they had never met in the final before . Chelsea had the upper hand in those nine meetings , winning five times to Liverpool 's four ; however , Liverpool won both semi @-@ finals between the two clubs , both on neutral grounds . The only domestic cup final to feature both teams was the 2005 League Cup final , which Chelsea won 3 – 2 at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff .
Liverpool and Chelsea had faced each other twice during the season , with Liverpool winning on both occasions . Liverpool won the first meeting in the 2011 – 12 Premier League 2 – 1 , they won their second meeting in the 2011 – 12 Football League Cup 2 – 0 , before winning the final against Cardiff City . As Liverpool and Chelsea had been due to play one another in the Premier League at Anfield on 5 May 2012 , the same day as the final , the FA announced that the league game would be postponed until Tuesday 8 May , meaning that the two sides would play each other twice in four days .
Both teams had injury concerns ahead of the final . Liverpool were expected to be without midfielders Charlie Adam and Lucas Leiva , who were both out with knee injuries , while Chelsea were missing defenders David Luiz and Gary Cahill to hamstring injuries . Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard was determined to claim a domestic double with victory in the final : " The FA Cup is special , but we got a taste of success from winning the Carling Cup . That will help the younger players in the squad . Winning breeds confidence and you want more . " Gerrard believed success in the final would compensate for a poor season in the Premier League : " We are all aware we have underachieved in the league and the squad of players is certainly better than where we are . We will assess the season and if we win two trophies I think it would alleviate the pressure slightly . " Chelsea captain John Terry was hopeful Chelsea would win the final , to help caretaker manager Roberto Di Matteo 's hopes of getting the job full @-@ time : " To win it [ the Cup ] will put himself in a very good position . He 's not thinking of that at the moment , he 's not letting the players get distracted by anything . He 's very passionate , he 's Chelsea through and through , and that 's certainly rubbed off on the players . So , if we can do it with the added bonus that Robbie can get the job at the end , that 'd be great . "
In addition to the later kick @-@ off time , travelling supporters from Liverpool faced major difficulties getting to and from the final after Virgin Trains cancelled the majority of its direct services between Liverpool Lime Street Station and London Euston with maintenance work taking place over the May Day bank holiday weekend . Both teams were allocated 25 @,@ 074 tickets for the final , which was 7 @,@ 000 fewer than they received for the semi @-@ finals . 17 @,@ 000 tickets went to Club Wembley members , who are effectively season ticket holders at Wembley Stadium , while the remainder went to the grassroots football community .
= = Match = =
= = = First half = = =
Chelsea kicked off the match and had the first shot off the match in the first minute , with a Didier Drogba shot going over the crossbar . Liverpool had more of the possession in the opening minutes , but striker Luis Suárez was struggling to maintain possession of the ball against the Chelsea defence . Chelsea scored in the 10th minute when Liverpool midfielder Jay Spearing lost possession of the ball to Ramires , he subsequently went past defender José Enrique into the Liverpool penalty area , where his shot went through goalkeeper Pepe Reina 's legs and into the goal to give Chelsea a 1 – 0 lead . Liverpool responded by going on the attack ; a Glen Johnson pass found striker Craig Bellamy , whose shot was cleared off the line by Chelsea defender Branislav Ivanović . Liverpool were struggling to maintain possession , with Steven Gerrard , playing deep in midfield , there was a lack of support for striker Suárez . Chelsea midfielder Frank Lampard profited from Liverpool 's failure to hold on to possession , as he received the ball from a misplaced Jordan Henderson pass , but his shot 40 yards ( 37 m ) away from goal went wide .
In the 33rd minute , a Chelsea free @-@ kick , awarded after Ramires was brought down by Enrique , but it was cleared by the Liverpool defence . Enrique had the chance to counter Chelsea 's attack , but he delayed his run and was dispossessed . The first yellow card of the match was shown to Chelsea midfielder John Obi Mikel in the 36th minute , after a mistimed tackle on Gerrard . A cross from midfielder Stewart Downing was headed out for a Liverpool corner in the 40th minute , but the subsequent corner is cleared by Chelsea goalkeeper Petr Čech . Liverpool had another chance straight afterwards , but Suárez was unable to direct his header at goal after receiving the ball from Henderson . Towards the end of the half , Liverpool was shown a yellow card for his challenge on Mikel .
= = = Second half = = =
Liverpool kicked off the second half , but it was Chelsea who had the first attack . Chelsea defender Ashley Cole had space in the Liverpool penalty area , but his pass to Juan Mata was intercepted by the Liverpool defence . They subsequently went on the attack and won a corner , but the ball into the Chelsea penalty area by Bellamy was cleared . Liverpool continued to attack , but were denied a penalty in the 50th minute , when Gerrard went down in the Chelsea penalty area . The ball was subsequently put back into the Chelsea penalty area by Downing , but Henderson could only head the ball to Chelsea players . Liverpool were made to rue their missed chances , as two minutes later Chelsea had extended their lead . Lampard got away from Spearing and passed to Drogba on the edge of the Liverpool penalty area , he advanced past Liverpool defender Martin Škrtel and shot through the legs of Reina and into the Liverpool goal to make the score 2 – 0 . Liverpool went on the offensive after the Chelsea goal . A Suárez shot was saved by Čech and manager Kenny Dalglish replaced midfielder Spearing with striker Andy Carroll . The substation worked , as in the 64th minute Carroll had scored . Downing won a tackle on the left hand side of the pitch , which resulted in the ball breaking to Carroll . His subsequent shot beat Čech in the Chelsea goal to reduce the deficit to 2 – 1 .
Liverpool continued to press forward following their goal . Carroll found Gerrard with a headed pass in the 71st minute , but Gerrard 's shot went over the crossbar . Two minutes later a shot by Suárez was saved by Čech and out for a Liverpool corner , but Agger 's header from the resulting corner went wide . Carroll had a number of chances in the subsequent minutes , but none of his headers were on target . Chelsea replaced goalscorer Ramires with midfielder Raul Meireles in the 76th minute and a minute later Bellamy was replaced by Dirk Kuyt for Liverpool . A minute after the substitution Suárez worked his way into the Chelsea half , his pass to Kuyt was cleared , but it fell to Henderson , whose shot went over the Chelsea goal . Carroll thought he equalised in the 81st minute when his header from a Suárez cross was then palmed by Čech onto the underside of the bar and away to safety . Carroll ran away celebrating his second goal , but after consulting with his assistant , referee Phil Dowd did not award the goal . Replays later appeared to indicate that the whole of the ball had not crossed the line . Liverpool continued to push forward for the equaliser in the closing minutes , but they were unable to score and the match finished 2 – 1 to Chelsea .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Chelsea 's victory meant they won the FA Cup for the seventh time . Caretaker manager Roberto Di Matteo was relaxed about his prospects of securing the full @-@ term following their victory : " The boss [ Roman Abramovich ] will make a decision at the end of the season . I 'm very relaxed about it and the players will be fine , I am a very fortunate person so it is not an issue . " Di Matteo was delighted with his players , as they survived Liverpool 's attacks in the final minutes to secure victory : " I am very pleased for the players , " said Di Matteo . " We have had a difficult season with a lot of criticism but they have responded to all the adversity we have faced . I 'm very pleased and satisfied with our performance today . " Chelsea captain John Terry was equally pleased with the performance , but turned his attention to the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final , where they would face Bayern Munich : " It 's fantastic , it 's what we live for . We 've still got a massive trophy , the Champions League - that 's the target for the owner from day dot . We 've done Robbie the world of good and it can do him no harm . "
Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish was adamant that his players would improve following the defeat : " They 've been in two cup finals in this season – they 'll have enjoyed the first one more than the second , the lads will benefit from the experience . You can 't give a team like Chelsea a two @-@ goal head start . " When asked about his future as manager of the club Dalglish stated : " We 'll assess the season at the end of the season . " Captain Steven Gerrard echoed Dalglish 's sentiments : " With the players we have in that dressing room , we could have done better . But we are Liverpool . We will bounce back . We will strengthen in the summer and come back fighting again . That 's what Liverpool Football Club does . " Striker Andy Carroll , who scored one goal and had another disallowed , thought the ball had crossed the line : " I thought it was over the line and you know better than me but I thought it was . I thought it hit the other side of the bar but I haven 't seen it back . "
The two sides met in the Premier League three days after the final , a match that Liverpool won 4 – 1 . Liverpool finished the season in eighth place and Dalglish was subsequently sacked and replaced by Swansea City manager Brendan Rodgers . Chelsea would finish the season in sixth place ; however , they won the 2011 – 12 UEFA Champions League , beating Bayern Munich 4 – 3 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after the final finished 1 – 1 after extra time . Chelsea 's victory in the FA Cup final set up a Community Shield match against Manchester City , the winners of the 2011 – 12 Premier League .
The match was broadcast live in the United Kingdom , in HD on ITV1 and also on ESPN . A peak of 11 @.@ 2 million saw the climax of the game on ITV1 with 8 @.@ 9 million viewers on average watching the live match coverage . It was the highest @-@ rated final since the 2007 final . ESPN had 397 @,@ 000 viewers for its coverage of the final .
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= 2006 New Jersey state government shutdown =
The 2006 New Jersey state government shutdown was the first shutdown in the history of the U.S. state of New Jersey . The shutdown occurred after the New Jersey Legislature and Governor Jon Corzine failed to agree on a state budget by the constitutional deadline . Furthermore , Corzine and the Legislature clashed on the issue of raising the state sales tax to help balance budget . Exercising his constitutional powers as governor , Corzine ordered the shutdown as a means of pressuring the Legislature to pass a budget . The shutdown began at midnight on July 1 , 2006 , when Corzine called for an orderly shutdown of non @-@ essential government services , which was followed by a second round of shutdowns three days later on July 4 .
The shutdown officially concluded after the legislature adopted a budget on July 8 , 2006 . All government services were restored by 8 : 30 am on July 10 , 2006 .
= = Background = =
During the 2005 gubernatorial election Corzine , a former executive at Goldman Sachs , claimed he was " not encumbered by an old culture , historical entanglements and the status quo " and had a plan to use his experience to overhaul the budget process and trim spending . When he introduced his first budget as governor , the $ 30 @.@ 9 billion plan included $ 2 billion in spending cuts as well as increases in taxes on tobacco , alcohol , and luxury cars . The most controversial item in the budget was an increase in the state sales tax .
The President of the New Jersey Senate , former Governor Richard Codey , had stated his support for Corzine 's budget including the tax increase . The stalemate in the negotiations had been with the New Jersey General Assembly , whose Speaker , Joseph J. Roberts , strongly rejected the Governor 's plan . At the time Roberts said , " Our caucus feels overwhelmingly that there are much more appealing alternatives to balance the budget than a sales tax increase . "
The New Jersey State Constitution , under Article VIII , Section II , paragraph 2 , requires that the state 's expenses for " as far as can be ascertained or reasonably foreseen " ( i.e. , the fiscal year ) be provided for in a single budget act . If this does not occur before the previous budget lapses , the same section also outlaws any expenditure of money . The constitution also includes a provision in the previous paragraph preventing appropriations from going into red ink ; the New Jersey Supreme Court had interpreted this to exclude loans made to cover shortfalls , and Corzine claimed that the state had a poor credit rating anyway .
In three of the previous five years , the legislature had failed to meet the June 30 deadline . On each of those occasions an agreement had been reached by the morning of July 2 . Aides to Corzine claimed that the governor felt he had no choice but to order the shutdown under the state 's Constitution .
= = Causes = =
Corzine , in attempting to pass his conceptual budget , came into conflict with fellow state Democrats in the New Jersey General Assembly , particularly over their refusal to implement his proposed increase of the state 's sales tax from 6 % to 7 % to fill a $ 4 @.@ 5 billion budget gap . Corzine maintained that the gap could not be filled by any other means due to the state 's constitution and a ruling of New Jersey 's Supreme Court . Long before the deadline date , Corzine had stated that he would not accept a budget that did not include a sales tax increase . Due to Corzine 's insistence , the state 's General Assembly , which was dominated by Democrats , refused to pass a budget before the deadline .
= = The shutdown = =
After the legislature failed to pass a budget by midnight July 1 when the old budget ended , the governor signed executive order number 17 that immediately stopped numerous non @-@ essential government functions , with more to come after the Independence Day holiday on July 4 , 2006 .
State functions that ceased immediately included the New Jersey Lottery ( the interstate Mega Millions game continued although players temporarily could not buy tickets in New Jersey ) , the New Jersey Motor Vehicle Commission , MVC offices and inspection stations , the New Jersey Department of Education and parts of the New Jersey Judiciary . Approximately 45 @,@ 000 state employees who were listed as " non @-@ essential " were told to stay home .
Later ( post @-@ July 4 ) shutdowns included state beaches , public parks , historic sites , gambling in New Jersey 's casinos in Atlantic City as well as horse racing in the Meadowlands Sports Complex and Monmouth Park Racetrack .
Casinos and race tracks were closed because official monitors from the New Jersey Casino Control Commission and the New Jersey Racing Commission , respectively , were categorized as non @-@ essential . At the time , New Jersey law precluded gambling establishments from operating absent state oversight . Originally , the race tracks were scheduled to close with the first wave on July 1 , but a State Court order allowed them to close later . The casinos attempted a similar case , arguing that the state monitors overseeing the casinos were not paid by the state but by the casinos themselves , but the appeal was rejected at the New Jersey Supreme Court ; therefore they were forced to close .
According to The Philadelphia Inquirer , " New Jersey Transit , prisons , state police , developmental centers , veterans ' homes , mental hospitals , health and disease @-@ prevention offices , child welfare , work on transportation safety , response to environmental contamination , [ and ] inspectors of amusement parks " were not affected by the order to shut down .
= = Post @-@ shutdown governmental action = =
To restore government services , on July 3 , 2006 , Corzine signed an executive order calling for an unprecedented Independence Day session of the General Assembly to work on presenting him with a budget . Immediately after listening to the governor 's speech , the legislature voted by voice vote to adjourn the session . The General Assembly met again , without proposing a budget , the following day .
Meeting on the third day of the special session , Democratic factions within the General Assembly reached a compromise budget . That tentative budget proposed an increase in the state sales tax from 6 % to 7 % , which was estimated to generate an additional $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in revenue . The plan also included a requirement to use half of that for direct relief toward New Jersey 's property tax — highest of all states . The plan also called for the same dedicated purpose for all of the money raised by this sales tax increase in subsequent years . The new budget law included a provision for a constitutional amendment which was required , like all such amendments in the state , to be approved in an Election Day referendum . On November 7 , 2006 New Jersey voters approved this measure by a two to one margin statewide .
Early in the morning of July 8 , 2006 , both houses of the legislature passed the proposed budget . At 6 : 00 am that day , Corzine signed executive order number 19 to restore government services . The casinos in Atlantic City opened for business at 7 : 00 am Remaining government services , including race tracks and the state lottery , also reopened on July 8 , 2006 . State courts and motor vehicle offices resumed normal operations on July 10 , 2006 , fully ending the shutdown .
Corzine used his line @-@ item veto authority to reduce the budget by over $ 51 @.@ 3 million by eliminating or reducing over 50 spending items .
= = Effects = =
During the casino shutdown , 36 @,@ 000 casino workers were given leave . The shutdown of casinos resulted in lost revenue for the state , as an estimated $ 1 @.@ 3 million per day was collected in gambling taxes plus an additional $ 2 million per day due to the closure of the lottery system . However , the sum of revenue not collected during the shutdown from gambling amounted to just a small fraction of the state 's annual budget . Atlantic City 's 12 casinos suffered losses estimated at $ 16 – 20 million per day during the shutdown . Revenue losses to lottery vendors and casino employees have not been calculated . Legislation signed by Governor Corzine in June 2008 would keep casinos and racetracks open in the event of a future budget showdown , with the Governor noting that the casino industry is vital to the New Jersey economy and that it should not operate under the threat of closure as it did in 2006 .
All driver 's licenses and vehicle registrations that were to expire at the end of July were extended one month .
The increase in the rate of the state sales tax from 6 % to 7 % took effect on July 15 , 2006 , and also increased the sales tax rate in the state 's Urban Enterprise Zones ( UEZs ) from 3 % to 3 @.@ 5 % . A significant change was made in the payment of sales taxes by businesses operating in the UEZs in that they would be required to pay the entire amount of the full tax rate to the state on all appropriate purchases , and wait for the state to rebate them the difference .
The budget also included changes to products and services that are subject to the sales tax , effective October 1 , 2006 . The newly taxable items included downloaded music , ringtones , movies and books ; shipping and handling ; drapery and carpet dry cleaning ; floor installation ; contracted landscaping ; self @-@ storage ; tanning ; massages ; tattooing ; magazines ; investigation and security services such as armored cars and alarm systems ; limousines , except for those used in funerals ; memberships in health , athletic and shopping clubs ; and parking , except for employee parking , parking at municipal meters and parking already subject to municipal parking taxes .
Other immediate tax increases in the budget included an increase in the cigarette tax by $ 0 @.@ 175 per pack ; a 0 @.@ 4 % surcharge on automobile purchases of over $ 45 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 and on vehicles with an average combined city highway miles per gallon 19 or less ; a new 6 % tax on fur clothing ; an increase in the rental @-@ car tax from $ 2 to $ 5 per day ; and increases on several business taxes .
These additional revenues were expected , when combined with spending cuts including a reduction of $ 200 million in higher education spending , to meet the state 's balanced @-@ budget requirement . A clause was also inserted into the budget cutting state aid for schools that hold over $ 1 billion in endowments . The only school in New Jersey that fell into this category was Princeton University , which had an endowment with assets over $ 11 billion in 2006 . The university that had the largest endowment next to Princeton at the time was Drew University which had a $ 225 million endowment fund .
= = Political influences = =
Corzine 's shutdown of state government had some effect on New Jersey and national politics . According to Clay F. Richards , assistant director of a poll by the Quinnipiac University Polling Institute , Corzine had a 44 % approval rating , his highest since January 2006 . The poll also indicated that 71 % of respondents disapproved of the legislature 's handling of its job . According to Richards , " New Jersey voters clearly blame the state legislature for the budget crisis , and say the property @-@ tax relief that the legislature insisted on in the compromise is more politics than real reform . " Of those polled , 23 % indicated that they would not vote for those representatives who voted for the sales @-@ tax hike in the future . The legislature 's next election was in November 2007 , but Corzine did not face re @-@ election until 2009 .
There was also speculation that the U.S. Senate race , already seen as tight , would be affected . Republican candidate Thomas Kean , Jr. said Democratic Senator Bob Menendez did not oppose Corzine 's tax hike because Corzine appointed Menendez to serve out the remainder of his own term in the Senate .
According to Peter Woolley , director of Fairleigh Dickinson University 's PublicMind poll , the situation of the election was similar to the 1990 election , when underdog Senate candidate Christie Whitman , a Republican , nearly defeated well @-@ known Senator Bill Bradley due to Democratic Governor Jim Florio 's sales- and income @-@ tax increases . By August , Woolley concluded that the tax increase had had no effect on Menendez 's re @-@ election chances .
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= Nairobi National Park =
Nairobi National Park is a national park in Kenya . Established in 1946 , the national park was Kenya 's first . It is located approximately 7 kilometres ( 4 mi ) south of the centre of Nairobi , Kenya 's capital city , with an electric fence separating the park 's wildlife from the metropolis . Nairobi 's skyscrapers can be seen from the park . The proximity of urban and natural environments has caused conflicts between the animals and local people and threatens animals ' migration routes .
Still , despite its proximity to civilisation and relative small size for an African national park , Nairobi National Park boasts a large and varied wildlife population . Migrating herbivores gather in the park during the dry season , and it is one of Kenya 's most successful rhinoceros sanctuaries .
= = History = =
Colonists arrived in the area where the park is located in the late 19th century . At this time , the Athi plains east and south of what is today Nairobi had plentiful wildlife . Nomadic Maasai lived and herded their cattle among the wildlife . Kikuyu people farmed the forested highlands above Nairobi . As Nairobi grew — it had 14 @,@ 000 residents by 1910 — conflicts between humans and animals increased . Residents of the city carried guns at night to protect against lions . People complained that giraffes and zebras walked on and ruined their flower beds . Animals were gradually confined to the expansive plains to the west and south of Nairobi , and the colonial government set this area aside as a game reserve . Settlers from Nairobi including Isak Dinesen , author of Out of Africa , rode horses among gazelles , impala , and zebras in this reserve .
The conservationist Mervyn Cowie was born in Nairobi . Returning to Kenya after a nine @-@ year absence in 1932 , he was alarmed to see that the amount of game animals on the Athi plains had dwindled . Expanding farms and livestock had taken the place of the game . He later recalled this place as a paradise that was quickly disappearing . At this time , the area that would later become Nairobi National Park was part of the Southern Game Reserve . Hunting was not permitted in the reserve , but nearly every other activity , including cattle grazing , dumping , and even bombing by the Royal Air Force was allowed . Cowie started to campaign for the establishment of a national park system in Kenya . The government formed a committee to examine the matter .
Officially opened in 1946 , Nairobi National Park was the first national park established in Kenya . Maasai pastoralists were removed from their lands when the park was created . Cowie was named as director of Nairobi National Park and held this position until 1966 . In 1989 , Kenyan President Daniel arap Moi burned twelve tons of ivory on a site within the park . This event improved Kenya 's conservation and wildlife protection image .
= = Geography = =
The park covers an area of 117 @.@ 21 square kilometres ( 28 @,@ 963 acres ) and is small in comparison to most of Africa 's national parks . The park 's altitude ranges between 1 @,@ 533 metres ( 5 @,@ 030 ft ) and 1 @,@ 760 metres ( 5 @,@ 774 ft ) . It has a dry climate . The park is the only protected part of the Athi @-@ Kapiti ecosystem , making up less than 10 % of this ecosystem . The park has a diverse range of habitats and species .
The park is located about 7 kilometres ( 4 mi ) from the Nairobi 's centre . There is electric fencing around the park 's northern , eastern , and western boundaries . Its southern boundary is formed by the Mbagathi River . This boundary is not fenced and is open to the Kitengela Conservation Area ( located immediately south of the park ) and the Athi @-@ Kapiti plains . There is considerable movement of large ungulate species across this boundary .
The fence that separates the park from the city runs along a high way leaving the airport , this is one fact many Kenyans are proud of – this park is the only natural safari park that has a city scape background that can be seen from almost any part of the park , as seen in the picture of the giraffe and the sky scrapers .
= = Flora = =
The park 's predominant environment is open grass plain with scattered Acacia bushes . The western uplands of the park have highland dry forest with stands of Olea africana , Croton dichogamus , Brachylaena hutchinsii , and Calodendrum . The lower slopes of these areas are grassland . Themeda , cypress , Digitaria , and Cynodon species are found in these grassland areas . There are also scattered yellow @-@ barked Acacia xanthophloea . There is a riverine forest along the permanent river in the south of the park . There are areas of broken bush and deep rocky valleys and gorges within the park . The species in the valleys are predominantly Acacia and Euphorbia candelabrum . Other tree species include Apodytes dimidiata , Canthium schimperiana , Elaeodendron buchananii , Ficus eriocarpa , Aspilia mossambicensis , Rhus natalensis , and Newtonia species . Several plants that grow on the rocky hillsides are unique to the Nairobi area . These species include Euphorbia brevitorta , Drimia calcarata , and Murdannia clarkeana .
= = Fauna = =
The park has a large and diverse wildlife population . Species found in the park include Cape buffaloes , baboons , black rhinos , gazelles , zebras , cheetahs , Coke 's hartebeest , hippopotami , leopards , lions , elands , impala , Masai giraffes , ostriches , vultures and waterbucks .
Herbivores , including wildebeest and zebra , use the Kitengela conservation area and migration corridor to the south of the park to reach the Athi @-@ Kapiti plains . They disperse over the plains in the wet season and return to the park in the dry season . The concentration of wildlife in the park is greatest in the dry season , when areas outside the park have dried up . Small dams built along the Mbagathi River give the park more water resources than these outside areas . They attract water dependent herbivores during the dry season . The park is the northern limit for wildlife migrations in the dry season . The park has a high diversity of bird species , with up to 500 permanent and migratory species in the park . Dams have created a man @-@ made habitat for birds and aquatic species .
The David Sheldrick Trust runs a sanctuary in the park that hand @-@ rears orphaned elephant and rhinoceros calves , and later releases them back into secure sanctuaries . Orphaned and sick animals are brought to the sanctuary from all over Kenya . The sanctuary is located close to the park 's main entrance . It was opened in 1963 . It was set up by Daphne Sheldrick after the death of her husband David Sheldrick , the anti @-@ poaching warden of Tsavo National Park . Nairobi National Park is sometimes called Kifaru Ark , which means " Rhinoceros Sanctuary " . It is one of Kenya 's most successful rhinoceros sanctuaries , and it is one of only a few parks where visitors can be certain of seeing a black rhinoceros in its natural habitat .
= = Conservation = =
Mervyn Cowie oversaw the development of several of Kenya 's national parks and designed them with human visitors in mind . This emphasis helped to make tourism Kenya 's primary industry . However , it exacerbated problems between the human population and wildlife . Farmers living next to the parks did not have input into the establishment of the parks . Locals received very little benefit from the game animals . Livestock is threatened by lions , and some landowners think that Kenya 's wildlife is not good for them . In 1948 188 @,@ 976 people lived in Nairobi , and by 1997 the city 's population had grown to 1 @.@ 5 million . The park is under pressure from the city 's growing population and need for farmland . People live right next to the park 's boundaries , which creates human @-@ animal conflicts . The human population also creates pollution and garbage . Effluent and industrial waste from factories located along the park 's northern boundary contaminate the park 's surface and ground water systems .
Treaties with the Maasai in 1904 and 1911 forced them to give up all of their northern grazing lands on the Laikipia escarpment near Mount Kenya . Some of the people that lost land there were resettled in the Kitengela area . The Maasai 's pastoral life did not create any conflicts with the wildlife . Today the Kitengela 's former Maasai group @-@ ranches have been privatized and some of the land has been sold to Kikuyu farmers . Houses , cultivated plots , schools , shops , and bars are found on the Kitengela plains . Some of the park 's revenues have been used for community projects in order for the people living on the Kitengela to benefit from the presence of the national park . Many Maasai landowners have formed the Kitengela Landowners Association , which works with the Kenyan Wildlife Service to both protect the wildlife and find benefits for the locals .
The park and the Athi @-@ Kapiti Plains are linked by the migrations of wild herbivore populations . The plains to the south of the park are important feeding areas during the wet season . Before the city was established , herds of animals followed the rains and moved across the plains from Mount Kilimanjaro to Mount Kenya , a migration as great as the migration that takes place on the Serengeti . However , as the city grew the park became the northernmost limit of the animal 's migration . Migrating animals can reach their southern pastures by travelling through the part of the Athi plains called the Kitengela . This land is very important to their migration routes , but growth in the human population and the accompanying need for land threaten to cut off this traditional migration route from the park to land further south . The park 's migratory species are also threatened by changing settlement patterns , fencing , and their closeness to Nairobi and other industrial towns . These activities fragment their ecosystems and occupy their habitat .
= = Tourism and education = =
Nairobi National Park is the main tourist attraction for visitors to Nairobi . Visitor attractions include the park 's diverse bird species , cheetah , hyena , leopard , and lion . Other attractions are the wildebeest and zebra migrations in July and August , the Ivory Burning Site Monument , and the Nairobi Safari Walk and animal orphanage . Inhabitants of Nairobi visit the park and thousands of African children on school field trips visit the park each week .
The park 's Wildlife Conservation Education Centre has lectures and video shows about wildlife and guided tours of the park and animal orphanage . These tours are primarily , but not exclusively , to educate schools and local communities . There has been criticism about animals ' housing , and they now have more spacious housing in a more natural environment . The Kenya Wildlife Service has created a Safari Walk that highlights the variety of plants and animals that are in Kenya , and how they affect Kenya 's population .
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= In Rainbows =
In Rainbows is the seventh studio album by the English rock band Radiohead , first self @-@ released on 10 October 2007 as a pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want download , followed by a physical release internationally by XL Recordings starting on 3 December 2007 and in the United States on 1 January 2008 by TBD Records . In Rainbows was Radiohead 's first release after the end of their contract with EMI labels Parlophone and Capitol Records . Recording with their longtime producer Nigel Godrich , Radiohead worked on the album for more than two years , beginning in early 2005 . Between recording , the band toured Europe and North America for three months during mid @-@ 2006 , performing many new songs from the album . The songwriting of the songs on In Rainbows is more personal than other Radiohead albums , with the band 's lead singer Thom Yorke describing most of the songs as his versions of " seduction songs " . With this album Radiohead also incorporated a variety of musical styles and instruments , using electronic music , string arrangements , pianos , and the ondes Martenot .
The pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want release , which was the first for a major act , made headline news all around the world and sparked debate about the implications for the music industry . Time called it " easily the most important release in the recent history of the music business " . Upon its physical release , In Rainbows entered the UK Albums Chart and the US Billboard 200 at number one . By October 2008 , it had sold more than three million copies worldwide in both digital and physical formats . The album received critical acclaim and was ranked one of the best of 2007 and of the decade by several publications . In 2009 , it won two Grammy Awards for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Special Limited Edition Package . In 2012 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked the album number 336 on their updated version of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time .
= = Background = =
In 2004 , after finishing the world tour in support of their sixth studio album Hail to the Thief ( 2003 ) , Radiohead went on hiatus . As Hail to the Thief was the last album released on Radiohead 's six @-@ album contract with Parlophone and Capitol Records , the band had no contractual obligation to release new material . Drummer Phil Selway said : " It was definitely time to take a break . There was still a desire amongst us to make music , but also a realisation that other aspects of our lives were being neglected . And we ’ d come to the end of our contract , which gives you a natural point to look back over at what you 've achieved as a band . " Singer and songwriter Thom Yorke worked on his first solo album , The Eraser ( 2006 ) , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Jonny Greenwood worked on soundtracks for the films Bodysong ( 2004 ) and There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) .
= = Recording = =
In March 2005 , Radiohead entered their Oxfordshire studio and began writing and recording new music . In an effort to " get out of the comfort zone " , they decided against involving producer Nigel Godrich , with whom they had recorded five albums . Regular recording sessions began in August 2005 , with the band updating fans on their progress intermittently on their new blog , Dead Air Space . The sessions were slow , and the band struggled to regain confidence ; according to Yorke , " we spent a long time in the studio just not going anywhere , wasting our time , and that was really , really frustrating . " Guitarist Ed O 'Brien said the band considered splitting up , but kept working " because when you got beyond all the shit and the bollocks , the core of these songs were really good . " They attributed their slow progress to a lack of momentum after their break and the lack of deadline and producer .
In December 2005 , Radiohead asked producer Spike Stent , who had worked with artists including U2 and Björk , to help them work through their material . O 'Brien told Mojo : " Spike listened to the stuff we 'd been self @-@ producing . These weren 't demos , they ’ d been recorded in proper studios , and he said , ' The sounds aren 't good enough . ' " The collaboration with Stent was unsuccessful and ended in April 2006 . In an effort to break the deadlock , Radiohead decided to tour for the first time since 2004 ; according to Yorke , " We basically had all these half @-@ formed songs , and we just had to get it together . And rather than it being a nightmare , it was really , really good fun , because suddenly everyone is being spontaneous and no one 's self @-@ conscious because you 're not in the studio ... It felt like being 16 again . " In May and June 2006 , Radiohead toured major cities in Europe and North America and returned to Europe for several festivals in August , performing many new songs .
After the tour , Radiohead re @-@ enlisted Godrich , who , according to Yorke , " gave us a walloping kick up the arse " . In October 2006 , recording started at Tottenham House in Marlborough , Wiltshire , a country house scouted by Godrich where Radiohead worked for three weeks . The band members lived in caravans , as the building was in a state of disrepair ; Yorke described it as " derelict in the stricter sense of the word , where there 's holes in the floor , rain coming through the ceilings , half the window panes missing ... There were places you just basically didn 't go . It definitely had an effect . It had some pretty strange vibes . " The sessions were productive , and the band recorded " Jigsaw Falling into Place " and " Bodysnatchers " . In October , Yorke wrote on Dead Air Space that Radiohead had " started the record properly now ... starting to get somewhere I think . Finally . "
In December 2006 , further sessions took place at Halswell House , Taunton and Godrich 's Hospital Studios in Covent Garden , where the band recorded " Videotape " and " Nude " . In January 2007 , Radiohead resumed recording in their Oxfordshire studio and started to post photos , lyrics , videos and samples of new songs on Dead Air Space . In June , having wrapped up recording , Godrich posted clips of songs on Dead Air Space .
Not including " Last Flowers " , which Yorke recorded in the Eraser sessions , the In Rainbows sessions produced 16 songs . After the 56 @-@ minute , 14 @-@ track Hail to the Thief , Radiohead wanted their seventh album to be concise ; they settled on ten songs , saving a further six tracks ( not counting short instrumentals ) for the limited edition " discbox " release . The album was mastered by Bob Ludwig in July 2007 at Gateway Mastering , New York City .
= = Music and lyrics = =
In Rainbows features many tracks debuted on Radiohead 's 2006 tour , including " 15 Step " , " Bodysnatchers " , " All I Need " , " Videotape " , " Arpeggi " ( retitled " Weird Fishes / Arpeggi " ) and " Open Pick " ( retitled " Jigsaw Falling Into Place " ) . Radiohead first performed " Nude " during the OK Computer world tour in a different arrangement . The band performed a song with the working title of " Reckoner " in 2001 ; working on the song in the In Rainbows sessions , they abandoned the original material and created a new song with the same name . Yorke released the song originally known as " Reckoner " as a solo single , " Feeling Pulled Apart by Horses " , in 2009 .
On the opening track " 15 Step " , the band enlisted the help of a group of children from the Matrix Music School & Arts Centre in Oxford . Colin Greenwood and Godrich originally set out to record handclaps for the song , but when the clapping proved " not quite good enough " , they decided to record the children cheering instead . " Bodysnatchers " , a song Yorke described as sounding like Wolfmother and " Neu ! meets dodgy hippy rock " , was recorded when he was in a period of " hyperactive mania " . On " All I Need " , Jonny Greenwood wanted to recapture the white noise generated by a band playing loudly in a room , a sound which never occurs in the studio . His solution was to have a string section play every note of the scale , blanketing the frequencies . Yorke described the process of composing " Videotape " as " absolute agony " , stating that the song " went through every possible parameter " . One day , Yorke left the studio , returning to find that Godrich and Jonny Greenwood had stripped the song down to the version found on the album , a minimal piano ballad .
Yorke has said that the album 's lyrics are based on " that anonymous fear thing , sitting in traffic , thinking , ' I 'm sure I 'm supposed to be doing something else ' ... it 's similar to OK Computer in a way . It 's much more terrifying . " At the same time , Yorke felt " there 's very little anger in In Rainbows . It 's in no way political , or , at least , doesn 't feel that way to me . It very much explores the ideas of transience . It starts in one place and ends somewhere completely different . " In another interview , Yorke said the album was " about the fucking panic of realising you 're going to die ! And that any time soon [ I could ] possibly [ have ] a heart attack when I next go for a run . "
Ed O 'Brien described the lyrics , saying " They were universal . There wasn 't a political agenda . It 's being human . " The song " Bodysnatchers " is inspired by Victorian ghost stories , the 1972 novel The Stepford Wives and Yorke 's feeling of " your physical consciousness trapped without being able to connect fully with anything else . " " Jigsaw Falling into Place " is about a set of observations and different experiences , partly of the chaos witnessed by Yorke when he used to go out on the weekend in Oxford . Yorke said " The lyrics are quite caustic — the idea of ' before you 're comatose ' or whatever , drinking yourself into oblivion and getting fucked @-@ up to forget ... [ there ] is partly this elation . But there 's a much darker side . "
= = Artwork = =
The In Rainbows artwork was designed by Stanley Donwood , who has worked with Yorke in designing Radiohead 's album art since 1994 . Donwood worked in the studio as Radiohead were working on the album , which allowed the mood of the music to be conveyed in the album artwork , and regularly put up images in the studio and on the studio computer for the band to interact with and comment on . He also posted images daily on the band 's website , though none of the images were used in the final album artwork . Donwood experimented with a photographic etching technique , putting prints into acid baths with various results , and throwing wax at paper , creating images influenced by NASA 's space photographs . Donwood originally planned to explore suburban life , but realised it did not fit the album 's sound , saying " it 's a sensual record and I wanted to do something more organic . " Describing the album cover , Donwood said : " It 's very colourful — I 've finally embraced colour ! It 's a rainbow but it is very toxic , it 's more like the sort of one you 'd see in a puddle . " The band decided not to release the cover for the digital release of the album , preferring to hold it back for the physical release . The " discbox " release of the album includes a booklet containing additional artwork by Donwood .
= = Release = =
As Radiohead 's six @-@ album record contract with EMI ended after the 2003 release of Hail to the Thief , Radiohead recorded In Rainbows without a record contract . In 2005 , Yorke told Time : " I like the people at our record company , but the time is at hand when you have to ask why anyone needs one . And , yes , it probably would give us some perverse pleasure to say ' Fuck you ' to this decaying business model . " In 2006 , the New York Times described Radiohead as " by far the world 's most popular unsigned band " .
In August 2007 , as Radiohead were finishing In Rainbows , EMI was acquired by the private equity firm Terra Firma in a $ 6 @.@ 4 billion ( £ 4 @.@ 7 billion ) public @-@ to @-@ private buyout transaction . Radiohead were still negotiating with EMI , but were critical of the new Terra Firma management and no agreement was reached . O 'Brien said : " It was really sad to leave all the people [ we 'd worked with ] ... But Terra Firma don 't understand the music industry . "
On 1 October 2007 , Jonny Greenwood announced Radiohead 's seventh album on Radiohead 's blog , Dead Air Space , writing : " Well , the new album is finished , and it 's coming out in 10 days . . . We 've called it In Rainbows . " The post contained a link to inrainbows.com , where users could pre @-@ order an MP3 version of the album for any amount they wanted , including £ 0 — a landmark use of the pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want model for music sales . Colin Greenwood explained the internet release as a way of avoiding the " regulated playlists " and " straitened formats " of radio and TV , ensuring listeners around the world would experience the music at the same time , and preventing leaks in advance of a physical release . In a Wired interview with David Byrne , Yorke said :
We were trying to avoid that whole game of who gets in first with the reviews . These days there 's so much paper to fill , or digital paper to fill , that whoever writes the first few things gets cut and pasted . Whoever gets their opinion in first has all that power . Especially for a band like ours , it 's totally the luck of the draw whether that person is into us or not . It just seems wildly unfair , I think .
= = = Reaction = = =
The pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want release , the first for a major act , made headlines worldwide and sparked debate about the implications for the music industry . According to Mojo , the release was " hailed as a revolution in the way major bands sell their music " , and the media 's reaction was " almost overwhelmingly positive " . Time called it " easily the most important release in the recent history of the music business " and Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that " for the beleaguered recording business Radiohead has put in motion the most audacious experiment in years . " The NME wrote that " the music world seemed to judder several rimes off its axis " , and praised the fact that everyone , from fans to critics , had access to the album at the same time on release day : " the kind of moment of togetherness you don ’ t get very often . " Singer Bono of U2 praised Radiohead as " courageous and imaginative in trying to figure out some new relationship with their audience " .
The release also drew criticism . Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails , who independently released his sixth album Ghosts I @-@ IV under a Creative Commons licence the following year , thought it did not go far enough , calling it " very much a bait and switch , to get you to pay for a MySpace quality stream as a way to promote a very traditional record sale . " Singer Lily Allen called it " arrogant " , saying : " [ Radiohead have ] millions of pounds . It sends a weird message to younger bands who haven 't done as well . You don 't choose how to pay for eggs . Why should it be different for music ? " In the Guardian , journalist Will Hodgkinson wrote : " Spare a thought for the thousands upon thousands of bands and singers who , nowhere near Radiohead 's levels of fame and fortune , now have pretty much no chance of ever making a living from their music . " Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth told the Guardian the release " seemed really community @-@ oriented , but it wasn 't catered towards their musician brothers and sisters , who don ’ t sell as many records as them . It makes everyone else look bad for not offering their music for whatever . " Radiohead 's managers defended the release as " a solution for Radiohead , not the industry " , and doubted " it would work the same way [ for Radiohead ] ever again . " Radiohead did not repeat the pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want release for subsequent releases .
= = = Formats and distribution = = =
For the In Rainbows download release , Radiohead employed the network provider PacketExchange to bypass public internet servers , using a less @-@ trafficked private network . The download was packaged as a ZIP file containing the album 's ten tracks encoded in 160 kbit / s DRM @-@ free MP3 format . The staggered online release began at about 5 : 30am GMT on 10 October 2007 . On 10 December , the download was removed .
Fans could also order a limited " discbox " edition from inrainbows.com , containing the album on CD and two 12 " heavyweight 45 rpm vinyl records with artwork and lyric booklets , plus an enhanced CD with eight additional tracks , digital photos and artwork , packaged in a hardcover book and slipcase . The " discbox " edition was shipped on 3 December 2007 . In June 2009 , Radiohead made the second In Rainbows disc available for download on their website for £ 6 .
Radiohead ruled out an internet @-@ only distribution for fear that some fans would not have internet access . In Rainbows was released on CD and vinyl in Japan by BMG on 26 December 2007 , in Australia on 29 December 2007 by Remote Control Records , and in the United States and Canada on 1 January 2008 by ATO imprint TBD Records and MapleMusic / Fontana respectively . Elsewhere , the album was released on 31 December 2007 by independent record label XL Recordings . The CD release came in a cardboard package containing the CD , lyric booklet , and several stickers that could be placed on the blank jewel case to create cover art . In Rainbows was the first Radiohead album available for download in several digital music stores , such as the iTunes Store and Amazon MP3 . On 10 June 2016 , it was added to the free streaming service Spotify .
Radiohead retained ownership of the recordings and compositions for In Rainbows . The download and " discbox " versions of the album were self @-@ released ; for the physical release , Radiohead licensed the music to record labels . Licensing agreements for all releases were managed by the band 's publisher , Warner Chappell Music Publishing .
= = = Promotion = = =
On New Year 's Eve 2007 , Current TV streamed a webcast performance filmed at Radiohead 's Oxford studios featuring In Rainbows songs , poetry and additional footage . In March 2008 , Radiohead partnered with animation site Aniboom to create a contest whereby entrants submitted storyboards for an animated music video for an In Rainbows song . The winner , who would receive $ 10 @,@ 000 to create a full @-@ length music video , was chosen by AniBOOM , Radiohead , TBD Records , and Adult Swim ; Adult Swim aired the winning video . The band awarded $ 10 @,@ 000 each to four different winners , plus $ 1 @,@ 000 to each of ten semifinalists to create a one @-@ minute clip . Radiohead toured North America , Europe , South America and Japan in support of In Rainbows from May 2008 until March 2009 .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In early October 2007 , a Radiohead spokesperson reported that most downloaders paid " a normal retail price " for the download version , and that most fans had pre @-@ ordered the " discbox " edition . Citing a source close to the band , Gigwise.com reported that the album had sold 1 @.@ 2 million digital copies before its retail release ; however , this was dismissed by Radiohead manager Bryce Edge as " exaggerated " . In December 2007 , Yorke stated that Radiohead had made more money from digital sales of In Rainbows than the digital sales of all previous Radiohead albums combined .
In October 2008 , one year after the album 's release , Warner Chappell reported that although most people paid nothing for the download , pre @-@ release sales for In Rainbows were more profitable than the total sales of Hail to the Thief , and that the " discbox " had sold 100 @,@ 000 copies . In 2009 , Wired reported that Radiohead had made an " instantaneous " £ 3 million from the album . In 2016 , Pitchfork wrote this " proved Radiohead could release a record on the most secretive terms , basically for free , and still be wildly successful , even as industry profits continued to plummet . They were able to take that risk partly due to the fan sites and their communities , which offered a solid bedrock of support . "
Because inrainbows.com is not a chart @-@ registered retailer , In Rainbows download and " discbox " sales were not eligible for inclusion in the UK Albums Chart . On the week of its retail release , In Rainbows peaked at number one on the UK Album Chart , with first week sales of 44 @,@ 602 copies . After some record stores broke street date agreements , the album entered the Billboard 200 at number 156 , but in the first week of its official release reached number one and sold 122 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , making it the 10th independently distributed album to reach number 1 on the Billboard 200 . In October 2008 , Warner Chappell Music Publishing reported that In Rainbows had sold three million copies ( 1 @.@ 75 million of which were physical format sales ) since its physical release in January . The vinyl edition of In Rainbows was the best @-@ selling vinyl album of 2008 .
In the US , " Nude " reached number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was also Radiohead 's first single to appear on the Billboard Pop 100 chart . " Bodysnatchers " reached number eight on the US Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart . " Jigsaw Falling into Place " peaked at number 69 in airplay on alternative rock @-@ oriented stations . " All I Need " was serviced to US adult album alternative radio by TBD Records on 5 January 2009 .
= = Critical reception = =
In Rainbows received widespread critical acclaim , earning a rating of 88 out of 100 on Metacritic , which indicates " universal acclaim " . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone felt that the album contained " no wasted moments , no weak tracks : just primo Radiohead . " A review by NME described the album as " Radiohead reconnecting with their human sides , realising you [ can ] embrace pop melodies and proper instruments while still sounding like paranoid androids ... this [ is ] otherworldly music , alright . " Will Hermes , writing in Entertainment Weekly , called the album " the gentlest , prettiest Radiohead set yet " and stated that it " uses the full musical and emotional spectra to conjure breathtaking beauty " . Andy Kellman of AllMusic , in a positive review , wrote that the album " will hopefully be remembered as Radiohead 's most stimulating synthesis of accessible songs and abstract sounds , rather than their first pick @-@ your @-@ price download . " Robert Christgau , writing for MSN Music , gave it a two @-@ star " honourable mention " and noted that the album , having been developed in concert , was " more jammy , less songy and less Yorkey , which is good . "
Various reviewers , such as The Guardian 's Alexis Petridis , attributed the album 's quality to Radiohead 's performance in the studio and that the band sounded like they were enjoying themselves . Others , such as Billboard 's Jonathan Cohen , commended the album for not being overshadowed by its marketing hype .
Blender 's review , although mostly positive , felt the album seemed " to be primarily composed of love songs ... that are starving for human connection but generate all the interpersonal warmth of a GPS system " . The Wire was also critical , finding " a sense here of a group magisterially marking time , shying away ... from any grand , rhetorical , countercultural purpose . "
= = = Awards and " best @-@ of " lists = = =
In Rainbows was ranked one of the best albums of 2007 by many music publications . It was ranked number one by Billboard , Mojo and PopMatters ; NME and The A.V. Club ranked it third , Pitchfork Media and Q fourth , and Rolling Stone and Spin sixth . It was also ranked one of the best albums of the decade by several publications : the NME ranked it 10th , Paste ranked it 45th , Rolling Stone ranked it 30th , and the Guardian ranked it 22nd . Newsweek ranked the album fifth on its list of the ten best albums of the decade . In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 336 on their updated version of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
In Rainbows was nominated for the short list of the 2008 Mercury Music Prize and was nominated for several awards at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards : Album of the Year , Best Alternative Music Album , Producer of the Year , Non @-@ Classical and Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package . Three Grammy nominations also went to " House of Cards " and its video . In Rainbows won awards for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Special Limited Edition Package .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Radiohead .
" 15 Step " – 3 : 58
" Bodysnatchers " – 4 : 02
" Nude " – 4 : 15
" Weird Fishes / Arpeggi " – 5 : 18
" All I Need " – 3 : 48
" Faust Arp " – 2 : 09
" Reckoner " – 4 : 50
" House of Cards " – 5 : 28
" Jigsaw Falling into Place " – 4 : 09
" Videotape " – 4 : 42
= = = Bonus disc = = =
The original discbox release of the album included a second disc , which contains eight additional tracks . On 9 June 2009 , Radiohead made the tracks from this disc available for download at their " w.a.s.t.e. " online store , and a pressing released contains both CDs without the original box .
" MK 1 " – 1 : 03
" Down Is the New Up " – 4 : 59
" Go Slowly " – 3 : 48
" MK 2 " – 0 : 53
" Last Flowers " – 4 : 26
" Up on the Ladder " – 4 : 17
" Bangers + Mash " – 3 : 19
" 4 Minute Warning " – 4 : 04
= = Personnel = =
Radiohead
Colin Greenwood
Jonny Greenwood
Ed O 'Brien
Phil Selway
Thom Yorke ( also credited for artwork as ' Dr. Tchock ' )
Additional personnel
Stanley Donwood – cover art
Nigel Godrich – production , mixing , engineering
Dan Grech @-@ Marguerat – engineering
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Matrix Music School children 's choir – choir on " 15 Step "
The Millennia Ensemble – strings ( on tracks 3 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 )
Hugo Nicolson – engineering
Graeme Stewart – preproduction
Richard Woodcraft – engineering
= = Charts = =
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= Shades of Cool =
" Shades of Cool " is a song by American singer and songwriter Lana Del Rey , taken from her third studio album , Ultraviolence ( 2014 ) . It was written by Del Rey and Rick Nowels , and produced by Dan Auerbach . The song was released on May 26 , 2014 by Interscope Records as the second single from Ultraviolence . Lyrically , the single talks about an " unfixable " man .
" Shades of Cool " received general acclaim from music critics , who praised its musical style . A few of whom opined that the track would be appropriate for a James Bond film . Commercially , the single peaking at number 79 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and entered the top @-@ 40 of a few record charts , including Belgium , France , Italy , and Spain . A music video for " Shades of Cool " was directed by Jake Nava and was described as a film noir visual .
= = Composition = =
" Shades of Cool " was written by Del Rey and Rick Nowels , and produced by Dan Auerbach . Composed in the key of D minor , the song runs at a moderate slow tempo of 46 beats per minute . It was described as a waltz instrumented by " slow @-@ burn " bassline , guitar , and string instruments ; the track features a guitar solo delivered by Auerbach . Del Rey 's vocals span from A3 to B5 . Her " operatic " soprano vocals blending with " trademark wailing vibrato " create a ghostly atmosphere on " Shades of Cool " . Chris Coplan from Consequence of Sound described the song as " a slow and slightly gloomy ballad . " Meanwhile , " Shades of Cool " was characterized as a " seeping , atmospheric " ballad that contrasts the more " pop @-@ savvy swaggering ' West Coast ' " by Billboard 's Colin Stutz . On the single , Del Rey sings about an " unfixable " man : " But you are unfixable / I can ’ t break through your world / ‘ Cause you live in shades of cool / Your heart is unbreakable . "
= = Reception = =
" Shades of Cool " received positive reviews from music critics . Coplan of Consequence of Sound complimented the song for its " grace and sophistication " . Saran Shetty of Slate called " Shades of Cool " " a beautiful , brooding return to form [ for Del Rey ] " , and opined that the single would " fit perfectly " in a James Bond theme track . Likewise , Rolling Stone 's Calyn Ganz wrote that the track " would be perfect for a James Bond film directed by Quentin Tarantino . " Lathan Ryan from PopMatters positively compared Del Rey 's vocals on " Shades of Cool " to those of Cocteau Twins vocalist Elizabeth Fraser , observing that " Del Rey has never sounded better " .
The single peaked at number 79 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . It managed to enter the top 40 of a few record charts : Belgian Wallonia ( number 40 ) , France ( number 37 ) , Hungary ( number 19 ) , and Spain ( number 31 ) . The single peaked at number three on the Greece Digital Songs , a chart operated by Billboard magazine .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Shades of Cool " was directed by Jake Nava and was released on June 17 , 2014 . The video features tattoo artist Mark Mahoney , who also appeared in the music video for " West Coast " , as Del Rey 's love interest . Filmed in Los Angeles , California , the clip is a " romantic " film noir visual depicting the streets of Los Angeles at night , a 1970s @-@ themed neighborhood , and a pool . In the video , Del Rey dances for her love interest in " flowing " dresses . An alternative version of the visual for " Shades of Cool " , which was also directed by Nava , was released in July 2014 . This version , in which Del Rey is seen dead , was described as " darker " than the original video .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Shades of Cool " – 5 : 42
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Ultraviolence .
Performance credits
Lana Del Rey – vocals
Instruments
Technical and production
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Aden Jefferies =
Aden Jefferies is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Todd Lasance . He debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 4 August 2005 . Aden was introduced in 2005 as a recurring character and as part of Cassie Turner 's ( Sharni Vinson ) storylines . Lasance was offered the role after previously auditioning for a separate character . In 2007 , Lasance was asked to return on another guest contract , though was promoted to the regular cast soon after .
Aden is characterised as a " bad boy " who goes on a journey to become one of the " good guys " . Aden 's backstory played a substantial role in his early material . His childhood was plagued with sexual abuse at the hands of his grandfather , while Aden 's father , Larry Jefferies ( Paul Gleeson ) became an alcoholic . Lasance and scriptwriters have both pointed out that these events impacted on Aden 's life and contribute to his destructive personality . As Aden begins to trust others again , he gains a close circle of friends including Nicole Franklin ( Tessa James ) , Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) and Morag Bellingham ( Cornelia Frances ) . He also has a nemesis throughout his tenure in the form of Geoff Campbell ( Lincoln Lewis ) . However , his main relationship is with Belle Taylor ( Jessica Tovey ) ; when the actors first heard that their on @-@ screen counterparts would enter a relationship , they both complained to producers . Both felt like it would not work out and be ill received by viewers . However , the two realised they had chemistry as a duo and took a chance . The couple became popular with viewers and fans coined the term " Adelle " to refer to the pair .
Other storylines include holding those closest to him as hostages and being admitted to a psychiatric ward . He is also forced to cope with Belle 's death after their wedding and a subsequent relationship with his best friend Nicole . Certain media outlets enjoyed Aden and Belle 's romance citing the moment they were torn apart as a " sad loss " . Aden also gained recognition as being a popular " bad boy " from Inside Soap . For his portrayal of Aden , Lasance won the award for the " Most Popular Actor " at the 2009 Logie Awards .
= = Casting = =
In 2005 , Todd Lasance auditioned for the role of Jack Holden ; however , actor Paul O 'Brien secured the role . The serial 's producers called Lasance back , offering him the part of Aden , which was a guest role lasting six weeks . Aden was brought into the serial to play a part of Cassie Turner 's ( Sharni Vinson ) storylines . Lasance had not previously watched the serial , but upon learning of his part he said he watched it " religiously " and carried out research on the net . In April 2007 , The Newcastle Herald announced that Lasance would return to filming with Home and Away . He was signed another guest contract . While filming the stint programme , bosses decided that Aden should become a regular character and Lasance signed a new contract . At the time there was a possibility of Lasance securing a role in the television series The Pacific . However , he chose to re @-@ join Home and Away because did not want to take the risk of losing both roles .
In August 2009 , TV Week reported that Lasance had quit Home and Away to pursue a career overseas when he signed with a Los Angeles talent agency . However , a spokesperson for the serial said there were no immediate plans for Lasance to be written out . His official departure was later made public and he filmed his final scenes on 15 January 2010 . Lasance said he was glad Aden was not killed off because it was a " realisation of his potential " . While he had no immediate plans to return , he also said he would like to return one day to " see what Aden 's up to " .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
When Lasance secured the role , he said " Aden causes a bit of mischief in the Bay but he 's really a good guy . " Aden has been described as a " good looking guy with a smile that melts every heart . " Aden is initially portrayed as a " anti @-@ social bully with a huge chip on his shoulder " where authority figures are concerned . Aden 's mother died while he was young and he was raised by his father Larry Jefferies ( Paul Gleeson ) . Aden is a keen football player , though Larry did not approve or support his ambitions . When Lasance returned to the serial in 2007 , he described Aden as being " an absolute bad @-@ arse " . When he read the scripts , he thought Aden seemed like an idiot and that viewers would take a dislike to the character . He added that Aden is a strong character and he enjoyed making him " believable " . Lasance said that he did not want Aden to turn into a " good guy " . The good thing about Aden is the fact " he never quite shakes off the bad @-@ boy image " despite his " different facets " .
= = = Abuse = = =
One of Aden 's most notable storylines highlighted the issue of sexual abuse . In the story Aden struggles to cope with the sexual abuse inflicted on him by his grandfather . Lasance and the serial 's writing team worked hard to raise awareness of the " taboo issue " . Lasance said he felt he had to do the storyline " one hundred percent justice " because there are people , " more than we probably realise " in real life who have suffered the same as Aden . He felt it was a challenge to play as he did not want victims to think it was unrealistic . Lasance said he had to come onto set each morning in Aden 's frame of mind . To research Aden 's storyline , he spoke to a relative who had been through a similar situation . He drew inspiration for his portrayal from how his relative had coped and the effects it had on him growing up . Lasance said like his relative , Aden goes though " the huge rebellion years " and the subsequent attempts to " reconnect with those people who had betrayed you . " Lasance also received extra training from an acting coach , where he used " haunting " techniques to make himself feel vulnerable like Aden . He also used the storyline to show US agents his acting abilities .
Lasance explained that a common theme in Aden 's life is something bad happening just after each time he rebuilds his life . One such bad event is the re @-@ emergence of his alcoholic father , Larry . His arrival sets Aden " on the back foot " again , as most of Aden 's childhood issues stemmed from his father 's addiction to alcohol . He also explained that alcohol abuse is often seen in victims of abuse , so Aden is angered when Larry admits Aden 's grandfather abused him too . " Aden loses it " with Larry , because he has had his last chance in Aden 's view . Aden holds his father hostage and withdraws his medication to punish him . Aden has had so much trouble from Larry that those " experiences have made him the way he is now " , and the story comes to a culmination with Aden giving up on his father . Aden is admitted into psychiatric care after the incident . However he initially makes little progress and prefers to help fellow patient Melody Jones ( Celeste Dodwell ) with her treatment . Lasance said that Aden had been " protective of Melody after Axel Hay ( Trent Dalzell ) took advantage of her . " The pair share an " unspoken bond " because of their past experiences and he " understands exactly what she 's going through . "
In one storyline Aden 's colleague Joey Collins ( Kate Bell ) is sexually assaulted by Robbo Cruze ( Aidan Gillett ) . Aden and Joey do not get on with each other , however when he finds out about Joey 's rape he becomes protective of her . The incident leaves Aden " tormented by his childhood abuse " and he sets out to gain justice for Joey . Lassance said that Aden nearly gives up until he finds out she is a lesbian , and says " he thinks he can prove her case " . However , when Robbo threatens Joey , " It 's the final straw and Aden snaps " , attacking Robbo .
= = = Friends and enemies = = =
Aden 's main enemy throughout his duration is Geoff Campbell ( Lincoln Lewis ) . Aden did not like Geoff because he is talented at football . As Geoff is a strict Christian , Aden sees Geoff representing the " hypocrisy of society " . He also believes Geoff is as " full of sin " and " flawed " as everyone else . While their characters clashed on @-@ screen Lasance and Lewis were close friends in real life and learned lines together while they critiqued each other 's performances .
In one storyline , Aden loans money from " shady bookie " Clint Mailer ( Matt Zeremes ) . Clint then forces Aden to throw football matches so Clint can win bets . Aden is described as being desperate for money so goes along with the plan . Geoff finds out and is " appalled " by Aden 's behaviour , as the storyline progresses Clint tries to force him to end Geoff 's career . Lasance added , " Aden tries to get him off the field , but that backfires - and Geoff scores the winning try . " This results in Aden being badly assaulted by Clint .
Aden forms an unlikely friendship with Morag Bellingham ( Cornelia Frances ) . In the storyline , Morag wants to know why he has problems because she had " taken a bit of a shine to him " . Aden initially doesn 't want her help . Whilst interviewed by Digital Spy Frances stated : " There 's lots of lovely dialogue that goes on between him and I - I take him under my wing and I find out what 's wrong with him . " He eventually looks up to her and moves in with her . Frances said : " So I sort of adopt him in a way . " Morag is known for her feisty persona , Lasance said Frances was one of his favourite colleagues to work with because she is the complete opposite of Morag . As a pairing they have " collision chemistry " because " they don 't really get along , but they do have respect for each other . "
= = = Relationship with Belle Taylor = = =
Aden 's main relationship in the programme is with Belle Taylor ( Jessica Tovey ) . When Lasance and Tovey found out their characters would become involved together , both did not think it would work . They both separately approached producer Cameron Welsh and unbeknownst to each other , told him of their concerns about the pairing . However the pair discovered they shared a " great " dynamic while working together and Lasance said when their storylines intertwined it was " fantastic " . Lasance also said they found much of their early screen time comical because " one minute they 're in bed , the next they 're fighting in the diner . " Aden and Belle became so popular with viewers that they " coined a phrase " to name the couple , which was " Adelle " . Lasance said that " The Adelle mayhem is crazy . I get a lot of feedback on the internet about it . " For the couple to have such a following , he felt like it was a compliment to his and Tovey 's work .
After Aden 's breakdown and admission to psychiatric care , Belle grows close to Angelo Rosetta ( Luke Jacobz ) . Tovey said Aden will always be " the love of Belle 's life " , but she is traumatised by the previous events . Aden witnesses Belle kissing Angelo , which destroys their relationship . Belle is left unsure what to do because she sees Angelo has her " safety net " and Aden " brings out the passion in her " . She added that Angelo doesn 't compare with her love for Aden , that her relationship with Aden was the " most beautiful " on the programme and that she would never escape her feelings for Aden . Aden later " jumps on Belle " and tells her they are in love and should be together . Tovey said Belle gets " caught in the moment " and they make love . Tovey was unhappy with the fact that Belle cheated , as she thought it was out of character . When Angelo finds out the truth , he publicly humiliates Belle . He later goes around to her home and becomes violent . Belle is later found badly beaten and although Angelo is not responsible , he gets the blame . Jacobz said the under the circumstances he would have thought the same . He added that Aden " hates " Angelo . After Angelo verbally abused Belle , Aden does not " see eye to eye with Angelo " and decides to testify as a witness against Angelo .
Aden and Belle are involved in a storyline where the school 's formal is set on fire . Belle becomes trapped and her injuries have " consequences that change their relationship " forever . Lasance had previously been in caught up in a real house fire ; he said the director of the episode " milked " the fictional situation to make it seem more dramatic than a real fire . He also stated that in the months following there would be a lot of " tense moments " between the pair . Aden and Belle can acknowledge what they have found in each other - so " it would be hard to split them up " . After the attack and fire , Belle refuses to leave the hospital , even with Aden supporting her , because it is the only place she " feels secure " . Belle is prescribed with painkillers to help combat her anxiety disorder . However she becomes addicted to them . Tovey said she does not want Aden to know because of the " shame " and she doesn 't want him to know she has failed . She further explained that " addicts withdraw from those around them - which is exactly what she is doing . "
When Aden discovers the truth he ends their relationship . Following on with theme of those closest to him battling addiction , Lasance said it reminds Aden of his father 's relationship with alcohol . Though Lasance previously said it " would take a lot " to break Belle and Aden up forever , he opined addiction might be the one thing that could . Though Aden later gives Belle a second chance when she recovers . With this Lasance later reaffirmed his belief that " no matter what there is always a deep @-@ rooted connection that can 't be broken " between Aden and Belle . Belle is the first person Aden " trusted and fully gave his heart to after the abuse from his grandfather . " Aden gives up the chance of attending university to stay with Belle and takes up a " job of convenience " working on the prawn trawler .
= = = Marriage and Belle 's death = = =
Belle finds out Aden borrowed money from Clint to pay for her ring . Lasance said it is a " heart @-@ felt moment " and a turning point in their stories , because Belle realises " how far he 's willing to go for her " . Belle asks Aden to marry her , Lasance explained that it is hard for Aden because " he is blown away " as he wants to marry Belle , but he has traditional values and thought that " the man " should have asked .
In May 2009 , Tovey announced that she had filmed her final scenes with Home and Away . Lasance said he was sad but " fortunate " to work alongside Tovey . He credited their off @-@ screen friendship as making Aden and Belle 's dynamic develop successfully . In the weeks before filming her final scenes , Tovey asked Welsh how Belle would be written out . It was then she found out that Belle would die shortly after her wedding with Aden . Tovey said she was teary , but pleased with the way Belle would depart . Tovey said that filming her exit scenes were more emotional . Her last scene with Lasance required her to portray Belle 's death scene . She added " I had my eyes closed and he was holding me really tight " , after the director cut the scene they pair could not separate themselves .
The storyline played out on @-@ screen when Belle discovers she has cancer . Aden only discovers the truth just before their wedding . Belle refuses treatment because her cancer is so advanced she does not want to " prolong her agony " . Aden is " confused , devastated , and completely and utterly heartbroken " . Lasance said Aden is " destroyed " and feels like he is also dying in the process , because Aden has never given himself to anyone - he feels Belle is a part of him . Tovey explained that Belle is worried about Aden 's frame of mind on their wedding day . The scriptwriters played the scenes in a way that kept viewers unsure whether or not Aden would attend his wedding . While Belle " truly believes he will show up " , Tovey explains the tone and mood of the wedding is unhappy . Aden marries Belle , and she dies a couple of weeks later .
= = = Relationship with Nicole Franklin = = =
Aden 's best friend during most of his duration was Nicole Franklin ( Tessa James ) . Nicole is the daughter to his surrogate father Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) . When Roman is blinded in a car accident , he takes his anger out on Aden and Nicole . Subsequently they become " each other 's support network " and Lasance said it was not long until they " slipped between the sheets " . One of the conditions of Aden 's tenancy was to never sleep with Nicole , this makes the pair feel guilty that they had deceived Roman . Lasance felt the storyline was controversial because of the strong fan base for his relationship with Belle - which meant he knew it would " cause a stir " and divide the audience . In January 2010 , Nicole and Aden " get up close and personal " and they decided to spend Aden 's remaining time in the Bay together .
When the two share another kiss , James told TV Week that there are " a lot of complications " for them . She said that no one knew what was going to happen next and that Nicole felt guilty for betraying Belle because she was her friend . James explained that the pairing with Aden was " a bit more serious and in @-@ depth than Nicole 's usual relationships . " James opined that Aden was also the one of the " nicer guys " for Nicole . When the pair embarked on a relationship . James opined that Aden and Nicole were great together and explained , " they started out having a kind of brother @-@ sister relationship , and that developed into something more . " Nicole declared her love for Aden early on in their romance , so he did not reciprocate the gesture . Lasance described the moment whilst interviewed by TV Week stating : " They 've always had an awesome connection and Nicole gets into a bit of a comfortable state and blurts out that she loves Aden . " Aden appreciated her love for him , however cannot say it back until he felt the same way . It is this that made their relationship " awkward " , Nicole tried to withdraw her declaration though Aden realises she meant it .
= = Storylines = =
Aden meets Cassie and flirts with her . He ensures that her previous relationship with Ric Dalby ( Mark Furze ) is definitely over , then asks Cassie out . Her acceptance makes Ric jealous , so during a game of rugby , he tackles Aden so hard that he is knocked unconscious and hospitalised . Aden 's brother Sean ( Gabriel Egan ) attacks Ric in retaliation , and when Aden recovers , he gives Sean a false alibi . Cassie discovers the truth and breaks up with him . Aden next appears as a rival of Geoff 's on the school football team . Annoyed that PE teacher Tony Holden ( Jon Sivewright ) favours Geoff , Aden spikes Geoff 's drink and locks him in the boot of Tony 's car . Tony throws Aden off the team , so Aden vandalises Geoff 's grandfather 's farm , and bullies Geoff and his younger sister Annie ( Charlotte Best ) .
After a party Aden attends with his classmate Matilda Hunter ( Indiana Evans ) , Cassie drives them home . She is under the influence of alcohol , and when Aden becomes high on marijuana and taunts her , she crashes . Aden sustains a leg injury that ends his chance of becoming a professional footballer . When Geoff refuses the chance to take up professional football , Aden intensifies his bullying of him . In return , Geoff punches Aden and knocks him out . Aden later helps an inebriated Annie , who has had her drink spiked . Tony and Geoff presume that Aden was responsible as he was previously involved in similar prank with Tamsyn Armstrong ( Gabrielle Scollay ) , and Annie lies to get Aden into trouble . The rest of the town believe he is to blame , so he seeks help from local lawyer Morag . Annie 's guardian Irene Roberts ( Lynne McGranger ) hits Aden and injures his bad leg , which prompts him to file a claim against her . Annie admits that she lied , hoping that Aden will drop the lawsuit , but he refuses . He speaks to a journalist about Irene , which annoys Belle , Irene 's lodger who is also a journalist . Belle writes an article of her own about Aden 's war veteran grandfather , Stan , much to Aden 's distress . He attacks Belle , sets fire to her article and cries .
Alf Stewart ( Ray Meagher ) tells Aden that he should behave in a manner his grandfather would be proud of . This upsets Aden , and he tries to cause trouble at school . When Cassie discovers she has HIV , Aden becomes irate at the prospect that she may have infected him in the car accident . After his tests come back negative , he cries in disappointment . His doctor , Rachel Armstrong ( Amy Mathews ) , suggests that Aden may need counselling , but he refuses . When Aden 's alcoholic father Larry throws him out , he is taken in by his friend Roman . Aden is upset to learn that Roman was in the army like his grandfather , and visits the structurally damaged local diner to be alone . The ceiling collapses and Aden is seriously injured . In the aftermath , Larry tells Rachel that Aden was abused by his grandfather as a child . Aden cannot face going home , so moves in with Roman more permanently . He is attracted to Roman 's daughter Nicole , but does not pursue her out of respect for Roman . Instead , Aden kisses Belle , but deflects her attempts to take things further . She goes on a date with Angelo Rosetta ( Luke Jacobz ) , which prompts a jealous Aden to admit that he could not sleep with her because of the abuse he suffered as a child . When Larry injures himself while drunk , he is found by his son , and admits that Aden 's grandfather also abused him . Aden holds Larry , Rachel and Belle hostage so that his father cannot receive medical assistance , but they are rescued by Angelo . Aden is forced into counselling , and begins to come to terms with his abuse .
Belle and Aden grow close again , and begin seeing one another in secret , as Belle is still dating Angelo . Aden 's relationship with her deteriorates when Belle develops post @-@ traumatic stress disorder after being attacked . She later refuses to leave hospital after being injured in a fire , and becomes addicted to the prescription medication that she takes for anxiety . Aden 's feelings for Nicole are reignited , and they have sex several times before being caught together by Belle . Roman throws Aden out for sleeping with his daughter . Drug addict Liam Murphy ( Axle Whitehead ) deepens the rift between Aden and Belle , but they eventually reconcile and become engaged . In order to pay for a wedding ring , Aden takes a loan from corrupt bookmaker Clint , and loses several football matches on Clint 's instruction . He refuses to ruin Geoff 's career by injuring him , however , so Clint has Aden beaten up . Belle learns that she has terminal cancer and pushes the wedding forward , but does not tell Aden . He is devastated to learn of her condition the day before the ceremony , but is convinced to go ahead with the wedding by Roman . He and Belle spend four weeks together as husband and wife before she dies . Following her death , Aden becomes reclusive . He eventually returns to work , and is saved by Geoff when he almost drowns in an accident , which results in them becoming friends .
Several months after Belle 's death , Aden and Nicole begin a relationship , which becomes strained when Nicole tells him that she loves him , but Aden does not return the sentiment . A repentant Aden pays Nicole more attention and they are able to get their romance back on track . Aden 's brother Justin ( Matthew Walker ) is involved in a car accident , which causes short @-@ term memory loss , but prompts him to admit that he too was abused by their grandfather . He regains his memory , and recalls that Larry was in the car at the time of the accident . He and Aden find their father dead . Convinced that the police will think Justin killed him , Aden decides that they should bury Larry . The police become suspicious nonetheless , and the two are arrested for murder , until a phone call made to Aden 's phone from Larry confirms that he caused his own death by irresponsible driving . Justin convinces Aden to move to the city . When Nicole refuses to go with him , he leaves anyway .
= = Reception = =
Lasance was nominated in the category of " Best Bad Boy " at the 2008 Inside Soap Awards . Lasance won the award for " Most Popular Actor " at the 2009 Logie Awards , for his portrayal of Aden . He was nominated in the same category at the 2010 ceremony . The Daily Record said that Aden and Belle were " star @-@ crossed lovers " . That if " there 's one thing guaranteed to ruin a wedding it 's the news that the bride has got weeks to live . " They opined that Aden was " blissfully unaware " for weeks and it " burst his bubble " , which led them to question if he would actually turn up for the wedding . They later said they felt sympathy for Aden and Justin , because they have been " through an awful lot " . They added Aden should feel " slightly relieved " when Charlie questions him about his car accident . Also adding that they were " thankful " Aden was there to give Justin some " much needed support " .
Amy Edwards of The Newcastle Herald opined that Aden and Belle 's wedding was a " tear @-@ jerker of an episode " . She added that losing Belle was a " sad loss for many fans " because Aden and Belle were a popular couple of the show . While Victoria Jack from the publication said Aden is the serial 's " bad @-@ boy @-@ turned @-@ good " . TV Week readers voted Aden as the character they were most concerned about in the aftermath of the formal explosion . Holy Soap said Aden 's most memorable moment was " having a breakdown and threatening to kill his father while holding Belle and Rachel hostage . "
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= USS Catawba ( 1864 ) =
USS Catawba was a single @-@ turreted Canonicus @-@ class monitor built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . Completed shortly after the end of the war , Catawba was laid up until sold to her builders in 1868 , and then resold to Peru . Renamed Atahualpa , the ship participated in the defense of Callao during the War of the Pacific . When the town was taken by Chilean troops in 1881 , she was scuttled to prevent her capture . Atahualpa was later refloated and used as a storage hulk until scrapped in the early 20th century .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 225 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 3 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . Catawba had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Catawba was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Catawba 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened to earlier monitors during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel ( ship ) was protected to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 8 inches ( 203 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protect the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven , captain of her sister ship Tecumseh .
The contract for Catawba , the first Navy ship to be named after the Catawba River in North Carolina , was awarded to Alexander Swift & Company ; the ship was laid down in 1862 at their Cincinnati , Ohio shipyard . She was launched on 13 April 1864 and turned over to the Navy on 7 June 1865 . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor . Completion of the ship was further delayed by the low depth of the Ohio River , which prevented its movement from Cincinnati in December 1864 to finish its fitting out . The river finally rose in March 1865 , allowing the ship to reach Mound City , Illinois , on 7 March . Catawba was placed in ordinary there after completion , together with two of her sisters .
The ships needed a deep @-@ water berth and were moved opposite Cairo , Illinois , in mid @-@ 1865 even though they still had to be anchored in the main channel , where they were often struck by debris , drifting ice , and vulnerable to accidents . Tippecanoe 's anchor chain was broken on 27 March 1866 when she was struck by a steamboat towing barges ; the monitor collided with Oneota and the two ships were dragged 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream before they could be brought under control . This was a persistent problem and the Navy finally decided to move the ships down to New Orleans in May 1866 . In August 1867 , the Navy turned over Catawba and Oneota to Swift & Co. contingent on a guarantee that they would be returned in good shape if they could not be sold , and the company began refitting them for Peruvian service .
In October 1867 , an agent for Swift & Co. negotiated a deal with Peru to purchase Catawba and her sister for a million dollars apiece . Gideon Welles , Secretary of the Navy , initially indicated that the company could repurchase the pair if it refunded the government 's costs to build them , but changed his mind and said that he had no authority to do that . Congress debated the issue and ultimately decided that they would be appraised by a board of officers and that the highest competitive bid in equal to or in excess of the appraised value would be accepted . The ship was appraised at $ 375 @,@ 000 and sold for that amount , possibly after a rigged bid , on 11 April 1868 .
= = BAP Atahualpa = =
Catawba was renamed Atahualpa , after the Emperor Atahualpa , the last ruler of the Inca Empire . To prepare the ship for her lengthy voyage to Peru around Cape Horn , Swift & Co. added a breakwater on the bow , stepped two masts with a fore @-@ and @-@ aft rig to supplement her engine , and provided closures to make vents and deck openings water tight .
While this was going on , the United States was negotiating with Great Britain over compensation for losses inflicted by British ships knowingly sold to the Confederacy during the Civil War ( the Alabama Claims ) . Peru had been involved in an undeclared war with Spain ( the Chincha Islands War ) in 1864 – 66 and the US was not willing to prejudice its claims against the United Kingdom by performing a similar action for a belligerent power . Negotiations over the issue delayed the departure of the two monitors until January 1869 , after Peru bought two steamers , Reyes and Marañon to tow the monitors . They only reached Pensacola , Florida , before machinery breakdowns forced them to wait 30 days for repairs to be completed . En route from Key West to the Bahamas , the ships were separated in heavy weather . Atahualpa reached Great Inagua in the Bahamas and was able to resupply , although her officers had to pay for themselves . The ships finally reunited at St. Thomas in the Virgin Islands and had to wait for the Pachitea to arrive from Peru to tow Manco Cápac , as the monitor had accidentally rammed and sunk Reyes during the storm . While entering Rio de Janeiro on the night of 15 September , Manco Cápac ran aground ; she was refloated the following day , but the damage required three months to repair . The ships were joined by the steam corvette Unión during this time . They reached the Strait of Magellan on 29 January 1870 and Callao on 11 May .
Atahualpa was towed from Callao to Iquique , then part of Peru , from 11 – 22 May 1877 to defend that port from the rebel ironclad Huáscar during the Peruvian Civil War . When the War of the Pacific with Chile began in 1879 , Atahualpa was stationed in Callao . On 11 December 1880 , the Chilean fleet started firing at Callao at ranges of up to 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) . Atahualpa , escorted by a tug , sortied to fight a long @-@ range battle with the Chilean fleet , but failed to inflict any damage on the Chilean ships . On 16 January 1881 , her crew was forced to scuttle the ship to prevent her capture by Chilean forces as they advanced into the city . After the war , the monitor was salvaged and she became a storage hulk until she was finally broken up sometime in the early 20th century .
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= Operation Vrbas ' 92 =
Operation Vrbas ' 92 ( Serbian : Операција Врбас ' 92 ) was a military offensive undertaken by the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) in June – October 1992 , during the Bosnian War . The goal of the operation was the destruction of a salient around the central Bosnian town of Jajce , which was held by the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) . The intensity of fighting varied considerably and involved several major VRS offensive efforts interspersed by relative lulls in fighting . Jajce fell to the VRS on 29 October 1992 , and the town 's capture was followed by the destruction of all its mosques and Roman Catholic churches .
The fighting improved the safety of VRS lines of communication south of the Bosnian Serb capital of Banja Luka , and displaced between 30 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 people , in what foreign observers called " the largest and most wretched single exodus " of the Bosnian War . The ARBiH and the HVO in Jajce were not only outnumbered and outgunned , but their units were also plagued by inadequate staff work , compounded by lack of coordination between separate command and control structures maintained by the two forces throughout the battle . The defence of Jajce also suffered from worsening Croat – Bosniak relations and skirmishes between the ARBiH and the HVO along the resupply route to Jajce . Ultimately , the outcome of the battle itself fueled greater Bosniak – Croat animosities , which eventually led to the Croat – Bosniak War . The VRS saw the cracking of the ARBiH – HVO alliance as a very significant outcome of the operation .
= = Background = =
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . On 4 April , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo . At the same time , the JNA and the Bosnian Serb forces clashed with the HVO at the Kupres Plateau , capturing Kupres by 7 April .
The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) , which occasionally supported HVO operations . In late April , the VRS was able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces . The HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons , while the ARBiH was largely unprepared with nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops , small arms for less than a half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons . Arming of the various forces was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September 1991 . By mid @-@ May 1992 , when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina .
Even though the Graz agreement , negotiated by Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats aiming to partition Bosnia and Herzegovina in early May , proclaimed cessation of hostilities between the two groups , heavy fighting broke out between the HVO and the VRS in June , in eastern Herzegovina ( Operation Jackal ) , and in the Sava River basin ( Operation Corridor 92 ) , in the north of Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = Timeline = =
While the fighting related to Operation Corridor 92 was still in progress , the VRS prepared to attack and destroy a salient around the town of Jajce in central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina , held jointly by the HVO and the ARBiH . The salient threatened Bosnian Serb lines of communication south of VRS @-@ held Banja Luka and contained two hydroelectric power plants critical for electrical supply of Banja Luka region . The salient was held by between 3 @,@ 400 and 5 @,@ 500 HVO and ARBiH troops manning strong fortifications in difficult terrain . The VRS committed 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 troops of the 30th Infantry Division of the 1st Krajina Corps to the offensive codenamed Operation Vrbas ' 92 . The 30th Division was under command of Colonel Stanislav Galić , until he was replaced by Colonel Dragan Marčetić in early September . The VRS troops included the 1st , 11th and 17th Light Infantry Brigades and 1st Mixed Antitank Artillery Battalion . Besides the numerical superiority , the VRS held a clear advantage in armour , deploying 20 – 30 tanks and adding 30 – 50 heavy artillery pieces to the force . Defence of Jajce was organised at municipal crisis headquarters level by mayor Midhat Karadžić , while the HVO force in Jajce was commanded by Stjepan Blažević .
= = = Initial combat = = =
The Jajce salient was supported via a 40 @-@ kilometre ( 25 mi ) road running through a narrow corridor to the town of Travnik . In July , the VRS attempted to cut the supply corridor and isolate Jajce from Travnik before any effort was made to capture the salient , but the attacks failed to accomplish any significant headway . This prompted the VRS to switch to a gradual advance along three separate axes converging on Jajce directly instead . The move was designed to minimize VRS casualties and allow a systematic elimination of HVO and ARBiH defences around the town . ARBiH @-@ HVO successfully defended Jajce from the VRS , in part thanks to the area 's mountainous surroundings . In the same month , feuding between the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) and the Party of Democratic Action ( SDA ) over political control began and the HVO forcibly disbanded the Bosniak @-@ led war presidency in Jajce in exchange for one that was pro @-@ Croat .
The VRS launched the first major attack along the western approach to Jajce in mid @-@ August . The attack pushed through the town 's defences and the VRS arrived to within two kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 miles ) of Jajce . After this breakthrough , the frontline stabilised for nearly a month before the VRS made another push towards Jajce . The advance came from the southwest of the town and the defenders were pushed back to within one kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 miles ) from the town . In order to relieve Jajce , the ARBiH and the HVO launched a joint attack north of Bugojno and Novi Travnik against a flank of the VRS force attacking Jajce , but the offensive failed — gaining no ground at all and hardly making any impact on the VRS deployments around Jajce . The VRS continued shelling Jajce and started small @-@ scale airstrikes in the area . That led the United Nations ( UN ) to declare the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina a no @-@ fly zone . A Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) analysis concluded that it is possible that the failure of the ARBiH – HVO counterattack prompted the HVO to agree on a truce with the VRS on 9 October . Besides a ceasefire , the agreement promised the Bosnian Serbs unrestricted power supply from the hydroelectric power plants in Jajce salient . The agreement was signed by Mate Boban , president of the self @-@ proclaimed Croatian Republic of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia , and Radovan Karadžić , president of the self @-@ proclaimed Republika Srpska , and the ARBiH took no part .
= = = The final attack = = =
The distrust generated by the separate agreement was compounded by deteriorating relations between the ARBiH and the HVO in the area of nearby town of Prozor , and Novi Travnik in late summer . The strained relations escalated rapidly and led to an armed clash between the two forces in Novi Travnik on 18 October . Low @-@ scale conflicts spread in the region , and the two forces engaged each other along the supply route to Jajce three days later , on 21 October , as a result of an ARBiH roadblock set up the previous day on authority of the " Coordinating Committee for the Protection of Muslims " rather than the ARBiH command . Just as the roadblock was dismantled , a new skirmish occurred in the town of Vitez the following day . The developments also meant that supply of ammunition for Jajce defenders was unable to move further than Prozor , and prompted the commander of the HVO Central Bosnia Operational Zone Colonel Tihomir Blaškić to consider pulling a part of the HVO troops from Jajce to reopen the Jajce – Prozor route . Blaškić 's position was weakened by the HVO headquarters since 18 October , when a quarter of heavy weapons at his disposal were removed to Čapljina , ahead of HV 's Operation Vlaštica aimed at Dubrovnik hinterland . The overall poor situation culminated in the Battle of Prozor fought between the HVO and the ARBiH . The battle began on 23 October , just after the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) managed to calm the situation in Vitez and Novi Travnik . End of fighting in and around Prozor was arranged on 26 October , coming into effect two days later .
The VRS seized the opportunity to launch a fresh advance towards Jajce amid ARBiH – HVO clashes , attacking along three axes towards the town on 25 October . Putting their conflict aside , the HVO and the ARBiH deployed in Jajce fought back for four days before the VRS entered the town on 29 October . As the VRS capture of the town appeared inevitable , the defending force pulled out . Following its capture , Serb radio and television declared Jajce a " liberated town " and a part of " the free Serbian republic " .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Exodus and destruction of religious sites = = =
After the VRS entered Jajce , the HVO and the ARBiH pulled out from the remainder of the salient towards Travnik . They were joined by the civilian population of Jajce , forming a column of between 30 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 refugees that stretched 16 kilometres ( 10 miles ) , and among which thousands were vulnerable to VRS sniping and shelling . Foreign observers described this as " the largest and most wretched single exodus " of the Bosnian War . Upon their arrival in Travnik , the refugees were attended to by UNHCR staff assisted by UNPROFOR troops . At least seven died at the Travnik hospital , while about 60 were treated for injuries . Approximately 20 @,@ 000 Bosniak refugees from Jajce were resettled in central Bosnia , providing manpower for several new ARBiH brigades . Croat refugees headed toward Croatia due to rising tensions between Bosniaks and Croats in central Bosnia and overcrowding in Travnik . By November the pre @-@ war population of Jajce had shrunk from 45 @,@ 000 to just several thousand . Bosniaks had previously accounted for 39 percent of the population , Croats 35 percent , and Serbs 19 percent .
In the weeks following its capture , all of the mosques and Roman Catholic churches in Jajce were demolished as retribution for the HVO 's destruction of the town 's only Serbian Orthodox monastery in mid @-@ October . The VRS converted the town 's Franciscan monastery into a prison and its archives , museum collections and artworks were looted ; the monastery church was completely destroyed . By 1992 , all religious buildings in Jajce had been destroyed , save for two mosques whose perilous positioning on a hilltop made them unsuitable for demolition .
= = = Legacy = = =
While the conflict between the HVO and the ARBiH contributed to the weakening defence of Jajce , the military superiority of the VRS was the principal reason behind the town 's capture . Besides the advantage in troop size and firepower , VRS staff work and planning was significantly superior to the organisational efforts of the defenders of Jajce . The principal problem for the defence of Jajce was that the town was defended by two separate command structures , one having authority over ARBiH troops and the other over HVO units .
Humanitarian workers and foreign military observers had suspicions that the Croats deliberately abandoned Jajce , as well as territories lost in Operation Corridor 92 , to the VRS in exchange for the Prevlaka Peninsula south of Dubrovnik . Even though Croatia and several Western diplomats denied this claim , European Community envoy David Owen urged the UN to impose sanctions against Croatia . The suspicion was fueled by an October 1992 agreement between Croatian President Franjo Tuđman and Yugoslav President Dobrica Ćosić to withdraw the JNA from Prevlaka . However , the JNA withdrawal from Croatian soil had also been a part of the Vance plan , which was accepted by both Croatia and Yugoslavia .
It is unclear who pulled out of Jajce first and it remains a point of " mutual recrimination " . Bosniaks complained that the HVO was to blame for the loss of Jajce since its units were the first to pull out when the VRS entered the town . Conversely , the Bosnian Croat leader , Božo Raić , publicly complained about the conduct of the ARBiH in central Bosnia , blaming extremists among the ARBiH personnel for hindering the resupply of Jajce . His stance was reflected in the Croatian daily Večernji list . The newspaper assumed a confrontational position regarding Bosniaks while maintaining that the Bosniak leadership was not entirely anti @-@ Croat . Croat – Bosniak relations gradually deteriorated , leading to the Croat – Bosniak War in 1993 . In October 1993 , VRS Major General Momir Talić , commander of the 1st Krajina Corps during Operation Vrbas ' 92 , said that the capture of Jajce was the first step in dismantling of the alliance between the Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks . The Croat – Bosniak rift would not be mended before the Washington Agreement signed in March 1994 , but not completely . After the HVO recaptured Jajce in the HV @-@ led Operation Mistral 2 on 13 September 1995 , the town was Croatised , and Bosniak refugees were not allowed to return . By 1998 , most Croat refugees had returned to Jajce , while only 5 @,@ 000 Bosniaks did so .
The ARBiH and HVO lost 103 soldiers defending Jajce ; a further 492 were wounded and five remain missing . In 2008 , the Prosecutor 's Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina indicted two members of the VRS for war crimes committed against Bosniaks in September 1992 , citing the killing of 23 Bosniak civilians and wounding of a number of others . In 2010 , the Prosecutor 's Office began an investigation against seven members of the ARBiH , HVO , and HOS on suspicion that they committed war crimes between 27 May and 29 October 1992 against 35 Serb civilians , including the murder of at least 15 .
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= Marquinhos =
Marcos Aoás Corrêa ( born 14 May 1994 ) , commonly known as Marquinhos , is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a defender for French club Paris Saint @-@ Germain and the Brazil national team . Mainly a central defender , he can also play as right @-@ back .
He began his career at Corinthians , and after winning the 2012 Copa Libertadores he moved to Roma for an eventual fee of € 3 million . Marquinhos was a regular in his only season as Roma reached the Coppa Italia Final . In July 2013 he moved to Paris Saint @-@ Germain for € 31 @.@ 4 million on a five @-@ year contract , one of the highest fees for a player under the age of 20 . He won ten items of silverware at the club , including the Ligue 1 title in each of his first three seasons , but played less frequently after the acquisition of compatriot David Luiz .
Marquinhos made his full international debut for Brazil in 2013 , and was part of their Under @-@ 21 side which won the 2014 Toulon Tournament . He also represented the nation at the 2015 Copa América and the following year 's Copa América Centenario , as well as the 2016 Olympics .
= = Club career = =
= = = Corinthians = = =
Marquinhos joined Corinthians at the age of eight in 2002 . After winning the state junior cup , he was first included in a senior matchday squad on 29 January 2012 , remaining an unused substitute in their 1 – 0 home win over Clube Atlético Linense in the Campeonato Paulista . He made his professional debut in the competition on 18 February , playing the full 90 minutes of a victory by the same score at Associação Desportiva São Caetano . He made eight appearances across the season , as the Timão topped the table in the regular season but were defeated by Associação Atlética Ponte Preta in the play @-@ offs quarter @-@ finals .
After the conclusion of the state championship , Marquinhos made his Campeonato Brasileiro Série A debut on 20 May 2012 , playing from start to finish in a 0 – 1 loss to Fluminense at the Paulo Machado de Carvalho Stadium ; both teams were resting players in the first game of the season due to concentration on the Copa Libertadores . He played six games in the national championship , and was an unused substitute as the club won the 2012 Copa Libertadores Finals against Boca Juniors .
= = = Roma = = =
In July 2012 Marquinhos was signed by Roma from Corinthians . The transfer was initially a one @-@ year loan for a fee of € 1 @.@ 5 million , rising to € 3 million after he made 8 first @-@ team appearances of at least 45 minutes each . At Roma , he wore the number 3 and played under the name " Marcos " .
He made his debut on 16 September in a 2 – 3 loss against Bologna at the Stadio Olimpico , sent on by manager Zdeněk Zeman to replace Iván Piris for the final 15 minutes . By October , Zeman decided to partner Marquinhos for his speed alongside former Corinthians teammate and fellow Brazilian Leandro Castán in central defence , demoting former starter Nicolás Burdisso to the substitutes ' bench . He given a straight red card in a 4 – 2 victory over AC Milan on 22 December when he was judged to have denied Stephan El Shaarawy a clear goalscoring opportunity .
Marquinhos played 26 Serie A games in his only season , and four in the Coppa Italia . This included the full 90 minutes of the final on 26 May , playing at right back as Roma lost 0 – 1 to rivals Lazio .
= = = Paris Saint @-@ Germain = = =
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
On 19 July 2013 , Marquinhos signed a five @-@ year deal with French side Paris Saint @-@ Germain for a fee of € 31 @.@ 4 million . According to BBC Sport , this was then the highest transfer fee for a teenager , although Sky Sports report it as then the fifth @-@ highest such transfer , and France 's Le 10 Sport record it as the third @-@ highest . French news channel BFM TV described the transfer as the fifth most expensive of all time for a defender , after those of Rio Ferdinand , Thiago Silva , Lilian Thuram and Daniel Alves .
His transfer was threatened by anomalies in his medical exam , and he missed the team 's pre @-@ season visit to Sweden . His mother said that he had caught a virus , with PSG denying claims circulated by Le Parisien that he had hepatitis .
On his official debut for the club on 17 September , he scored his first professional goal to confirm a 4 – 1 win against Olympiacos at the Karaiskakis Stadium in the group stage of the 2013 – 14 UEFA Champions League . Five days later , Marquinhos made his Ligue 1 debut as a starter in a 1 – 1 draw against AS Monaco . His first league goal for the club came on 28 September , the first in a 2 – 0 win over Toulouse . On 2 October he scored the second goal in a 3 – 0 Champions League group victory against Benfica . Marquinhos , who was playing due to injury to Thiago Silva , expressed surprise at his goalscoring form at the start of his PSG career .
Marquinhos scored the last goal of PSG 's 6 – 1 aggregate win over Bayer Leverkusen in the last 16 of the Champions League on 12 March 2014 , and was an unused substitute as they won the Coupe de la Ligue Final against Lyon on 19 April . On 10 May , he scored the opening goal of a 3 – 1 win over Lille , which put by @-@ then league champions PSG to a record league points tally of 86 with a game left to play .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Marquinhos began the 2014 – 15 season on 2 August in the Trophée des Champions , playing the whole 90 minutes as PSG won 2 – 0 against Guingamp at the Workers Stadium in Beijing . In the 32nd minute , he gave away a penalty kick by fouling Claudio Beauvue , but Salvatore Sirigu saved the penalty shot from Mustapha Yatabaré . His first goal of the season came in a 2 – 0 win at Caen on 24 September , heading in Javier Pastore 's corner .
On 26 March 2015 , he signed a one @-@ year contract extension to keep him at the team until 2019 . Club President Nasser Al @-@ Khelaifi said that " The biggest European clubs were interested in signing Marquinhos , so this contract extension further reinforces Paris Saint @-@ Germain ’ s ambitious long @-@ term project . " As the left @-@ back in an all @-@ Brazilian defence ( alongside Maxwell , Silva and David Luiz ) , Marquinhos featured in PSG 's 3 – 2 win at Marseille in Le Classique , scoring the equaliser . Six days later he started in the 4 – 0 victory over Bastia in the 2015 Coupe de la Ligue Final , his 34th consecutive game without a defeat for the club , surpassing a record set by George Weah . On 16 May , PSG won their third consecutive league title with a 2 – 1 victory at Montpellier HSC , Marquinhos playing the final twelve minutes in place of Yohan Cabaye . Two weeks later , he was an unused substitute as the team finished a perfect domestic season with victory in the Coupe de France Final against Auxerre .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
PSG began the season with a 2 – 0 victory over Lyon in the 2015 Trophée des Champions , with Marquinhos an unused substitute as Serge Aurier played at right back . At the end of the summer transfer window , Chelsea had two bids rejected for his signature , of amounts between £ 25 @.@ 7 – £ 40 @.@ 4 million .
Marquinhos played rarely during the season , due to the partnership of his compatriots Silva and David Luiz in the centre of the PSG defence . One of the team 's former defenders , Alex , recommended that Marquinhos leave the team , as he was in demand from big teams in which he would have an opportunity to play . In February 2016 , Silva criticised the agency representing Marquinhos and David Luiz for having led two players of the same position to the same club , thus limiting Marquinhos ' opportunities ; Silva mentioned FC Barcelona 's interest in the player . Blanc stated that he would be open for Marquinhos to leave at the end of the season , while agent Giuliano Bertolucci confirmed that Marquinhos would be leaving .
On 2 March , Marquinhos scored his first goal of the season as PSG won 3 – 1 at Saint @-@ Étienne in the cup quarter @-@ finals . Following Aurier 's expulsion from the team , he took over at right @-@ back , earning praise for his performances against Chelsea in the last 16 of the Champions League . On 23 April , he played the entirety of a 2 – 1 win over Lille in the 2016 Coupe de la Ligue Final , and he did so again on 21 May in the Coupe de France Final , a 4 – 2 win over Marseille , as PSG won all four domestic trophies for the second consecutive season .
= = International career = =
Marquinhos played every minute of Brazil 's campaign at the 2011 South American Under @-@ 17 Football Championship , as they won and qualified for that year 's World Cup in that category . He was again an undisputed starter except for one match at that tournament , as the team took fourth place in Mexico .
In October 2013 , Marquinhos , who is of dual Portuguese and Brazilian nationality , stated that he would be open to representing the Portugal national team . However , later that month , he received his first call @-@ up for Brazil when Luiz Felipe Scolari named his squad for friendly matches against Honduras and Chile to be played that November . He made his debut against Honduras in Miami on 17 November , replacing David Luiz for the last 20 minutes of a 5 – 0 win .
Marquinhos played for Brazil Under @-@ 21 at the 2014 Toulon Tournament , featuring in all 5 of their matches as the country won the tournament . He scored to put Brazil 3 – 2 up in their eventual 5 – 2 win in the final over France .
After missing the 2014 FIFA World Cup on home soil , Marquinhos returned to the senior side in September 2014 under new manager Dunga . He featured in friendly wins over Colombia and Ecuador in Miami , making his first start against the latter . Marquinhos was included in the Brazilian squad for the 2015 Copa América in Chile , his first major international tournament . He made his competitive debut – and only appearance in the tournament – on 21 June in their final group match at the Estadio Monumental David Arellano , replacing Robinho for the final 14 minutes of a 2 – 1 win over Venezuela which sent Brazil into the quarter @-@ finals as group winners .
In 2016 , Marquinhos was named in the Brazilian squad for the Copa América Centenario in the United States , an " experimental " selection lacking his club defensive partners Thiago Silva and David Luiz . He played in the first two games at centre @-@ back alongside Gil before being replaced by Miranda for the last group game , a 1 – 0 loss to Peru at Gillette Stadium that eliminated his team . Later that year , he was included in the squad for the team 's hosting of the Olympic tournament .
= = Playing style = =
In terms of position , Marquinhos is predominantly a central defender , but as also been used at right @-@ back , and in defensive midfield .
On signing for Roma , Marquinhos described himself as a quick player with a good sense of position who knew how to impose himself on a game . He named his new teammate Thiago Silva as his role model . In March 2015 , Marquinhos told FourFourTwo that despite his average height , he compensated with honing his strength and timing , attributes he learnt from PSG assistant manager Claude Makélélé . He praised manager Laurent Blanc , a former defender himself , for encouraging the PSG defenders to attack in set pieces and teaching them the correct positioning in that situation .
Fellow Roma defender Nicolás Burdisso said in August 2012 that Marquinhos was " a little phenomenon . He has speed , heading ability , he knows what to do , he is humble . He is a little Thiago Silva " .
In January 2014 , Marquinhos was named by British newspaper The Observer as one of the ten most promising young players in Europe . They wrote " He has the temperament to remain undaunted , the talent to succeed , and could benefit from playing alongside his club team @-@ mate , Thiago Silva , with whom he enjoys a solid understanding at wealthy Paris Saint @-@ Germain " .
= = Personal life = =
In May 2015 , Marquinhos told Le Parisien that he had become engaged to Brazilian singer and reality television contestant Carol Cabrino . He proposed to her underneath the Eiffel Tower .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 14 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 9 June 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Corinthians
Copa Libertadores : 2012
Roma
Coppa Italia : Runner @-@ up 2012 – 13
Paris Saint @-@ Germain
Ligue 1 : 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Coupe de France : 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Coupe de la Ligue : 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Trophée des Champions : 2014 , 2015
= = = International = = =
Brazil U17
South American Under @-@ 17 Football Championship : 2011
Brazil U21
Toulon Tournament : 2014
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= Crash Nitro Kart =
Crash Nitro Kart , released in Japan as Crash Bandicoot : Bakusou ! Nitro Kart ( クラッシュバンディクー ： 爆走 ！ ニトロカート Kurasshu Bandikū : Bakusō ! Nitoro Kāto lit . " Crash Bandicoot : Let 's Go ! Nitro Kart ! " ) , is a 2003 racing video game developed by Vicarious Visions and Universal Interactive . It is published by Vivendi Universal Games ( along with Konami in the Japanese release ) for the PlayStation 2 , Nintendo GameCube , Xbox , Game Boy Advance and N @-@ Gage . The home console and Game Boy Advance versions were released in North America on November 11 , 2003 , in Europe on November 28 , 2003 , in Australia on December 4 , 2003 ; and in Japan on July 8 , 2004 for the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo Gamecube and August 26 , 2004 for the Game Boy Advance version . The PlayStation 2 version was rereleased for the Sony Greatest Hits line @-@ up on December 2004 and for the Platinum Range on August 27 , 2004 . The Xbox version was rereleased for the Platinum Family Hits line @-@ up in 2005 . The N @-@ Gage version of the game was released in Europe on June 30 , 2004 and in North America on July 28 , 2004 . The mobile phone version was released on September 20 , 2004 . The PlayStation 2 version was re @-@ released in the three @-@ disc " Crash Bandicoot Action Pack " compilation ( alongside Crash Twinsanity and Crash Tag Team Racing ) in the United States on June 12 , 2007 and in Europe on July 20 , 2007 .
The game is the ninth installment in the Crash Bandicoot series . It is an indirect sequel to Crash Team Racing and the first game in the series to have full motion video . The game 's story centers on the abduction of Crash Bandicoot , along with other characters in the series , by the ruthless dictator Emperor Velo XXVII . Threatening to destroy the Earth if they refuse , he forces them all to race in his gigantic coliseum for the entertainment of his subjects . Crash Nitro Kart received mixed reviews , with reviews varying from version to version . The home console version was met with generally fair reviews . Reviewers dismissed the game as a generic kart racer , but commented positively on its " power slide " system . The Game Boy Advance version earned slightly better reviews than the console version , while reviews for the N @-@ Gage version were middling , with much of the criticism going to the game 's " tunnel vision " .
= = Gameplay = =
Crash Nitro Kart is a racing game in which the player controls characters from the Crash Bandicoot universe , most of whom race in karts . While racing , the player can accelerate , steer , reverse , brake , hop or use weapons and power @-@ ups with the game controller 's analog stick and buttons . Four distinct types of crates are scattered throughout the tracks and arenas of Crash Nitro Kart . " Item Crates " are marked with a question mark ( ? ) and usually come in sets of four . The player can obtain a weapon or power @-@ up by driving through an Item Crate and breaking it apart . The player can only carry one weapon or power @-@ up at a time . " Multiplier Crates " are marked with an " X " and are usually found in hard @-@ to @-@ reach spots on the tracks . These special crates contain three of a certain weapon or power @-@ up . " Wumpa Crates " are unmarked and carry " Wumpa Fruit " that strengthens the player 's weapons and power @-@ ups if ten of them are obtained . " Activation Crates " are marked with an exclamation point ( ! ) and don 't give the player anything when they are driven through ; instead , they activate either a trap that can slow down the other racers or a boost pad .
Boosting is an important part of Crash Nitro Kart 's gameplay . When the player boosts , their kart will momentarily go slightly faster than its normal top speed . Boosts are achieved by driving over boost pads scattered across the tracks , pumping the gas at the starting line , and holding the gas button at the right time when being reset on the track . Another technique used for boosting is the " power slide " . To execute a power slide , the player holds down one of the shoulder buttons to perform a hop and steer before the kart lands . While sliding , a curved " boost gauge " appears next to the player 's kart . When the gauge goes from green to red , the player presses the opposite shoulder button to obtain a boost . The higher the boost gauge goes , the more powerful the boost will be .
= = = Racing modes = = =
Crash Nitro Kart features six racing modes : Adventure , Race Time Trial , Lap Time Trial , Quick Race , Team Race and Cup Tournament . Some modes are free @-@ for @-@ all , while others can be played as a team . The " Adventure Mode " is a single @-@ player game in which the player must race through all of the tracks and arenas in the game and collect as many Trophies , Relics , Boss Keys , CNK Tokens and Gems as possible . The objective of the Adventure Mode is to win all the races of the five different worlds and win the freedom of the playable characters from the tyrannical Emperor Velo XXVII . The hub world of the game is Velo 's Coliseum , from which the player can access any of the five other worlds through special gates . Most of these gates are initially locked ; the player must complete the races of one world to gain access to the next world . When inside a world , the player may access a race by driving the selected character onto a " Warp Pad " . By winning a race , the player will receive a Trophy . When the player receives all three Trophies in a world , the player will be able to race against that world 's champion , who acts as a boss character . If the player manages to defeat the world 's champion , the champion will relinquish a World Key . This allows the player to engage in the special modes of that world and enables access to the next world .
The special modes of each race consist of the " Relic Race " , the " CNK Challenge " , the " Crystal Arena " and the " Gem Cups " . In the Relic Race , the player must race through a track alone and complete three laps in the fastest time possible . To aid the player , " Time Crates " are spread throughout the track . When the player drives the character through a Time Crate , the clock freezes for whatever number of seconds are indicated on the Crate . If all of the Time Crates on a track are destroyed , the player 's final time will be reduced by ten seconds . The player wins a Relic by beating the time indicated on the screen . The CNK Challenge is played like a normal race , except that the player must also collect the letters C , N and K scattered throughout the track . If the player manages to collect all three letters and come in first place , a " CNK Token " is awarded . These tokens come in four different colors . If the player collects four tokens of the same color , the player will be able to access the Gem Cup of the corresponding color . Gem Cups are racing tournaments held against computer @-@ controlled opponents , and are accessible through a special gate at Velo 's Coliseum . If one of these cups is won , a Gem is awarded . When the player collects all the Trophies , World Keys and Relics , the player will be able to race against Emperor Velo on his personal racing track . If the player manages to defeat Velo in this race , the game is won .
The " Race Time Trial " is a single @-@ player mode where the player attempts to set the best time on any of the tracks in the game . There are no other racers to hinder the player , but no item @-@ bearing crates are present to aid the player . When the three @-@ lap race is finished , the player can save a " ghost " , a replay of that race . The next time that track is accessed in this mode , the player can load the ghost , allowing the player or others to compete with the ghost in a race . If the player finishes each of the tracks in a set time , the player will be able to compete against the ghosts of the game 's boss characters . The " Lap Time Trial " plays like the Race Time Trial except that the player races to get the best time for a single lap around the track . When one lap is finished , the player 's " ghost " ( a replay of the lap that was just completed ) will appear . Whenever a better time on the lap is accomplished , the old ghost will be replaced by the faster one . In the " Quick Race " , the player selects a character , a track and races . The player can adjust the computer 's skill level and the number of laps .
In the " Team Race " , the player joins forces with a computer @-@ controlled partner to win a race . When the player and the partner are in close proximity of each other , the " Team Meter " will rise . When the Team Meter is full , the player may activate the " Team Frenzy " , in which the player and partner have temporary access to unlimited weapons and power @-@ ups . In the " Cup Tournament " , the player competes against other racers on three different tracks . At the end of a track , the racer in first place gets nine points , the second place racer is awarded six points , third place gets three points and fourth place gets one point ; the rest get no points . When all three tracks are completed , the racer with the most points wins . This is the only racing mode that can be played by more than one human player .
= = = Battle modes = = =
In the battle modes , instead of racing on tracks , the player speeds around battle arenas while collecting weapons and attacking opponents . There are five battle modes in Crash Nitro Kart . Each mode can be played by two to four players . In the " Limit Battle " , the objective is to attack opponents with weapons and traps while avoiding attacks unleashed by the opponents . Offensive and defensive weapons can be collected by smashing special crates . A point and time limit can be set by the player before the game begins . Whoever earns enough points or has enough points when time runs out wins . This mode can be played free @-@ for @-@ all or with teams . In " Last Kart Driving " , the contestants compete until they run out of lives . A contestant loses a life every time they are hit by a weapon or hazard or fall into a pit . A contestant who runs out of lives will be eliminated . As the title suggests , the last kart driving wins . This mode can be played free @-@ for @-@ all or with teams .
In " Crystal Grab " , the contestants must fight to collect all the Crystals in the arena . When a contestant is attacked , they will drop any Crystals they 've gathered , allowing opponents to steal them . This mode can be played free @-@ for @-@ all or with teams . In " Capture the Flag " , two teams attempt to capture each other 's flag and bring it back to their respective flags . Players must race to their opponents ' side of the map and drive over their flag to grab it . They must then drive over their own flag 's base to score a point from the flag they 've captured . A flag that has been stolen can be dropped if the thief is hit with any weapon . Stolen flags that have been dropped can be returned to their respective bases . Due to the weight of the flags , any kart with a flag will be slowed down . The game ends when time runs out or when one of the teams has gotten enough points . This mode can only be played in teams . " Steal the Bacon " is a variation of " Capture the Flag " in which two teams fight over one flag that is situated in the middle of the arena . The teams must attempt to take the flag and bring it to their respective base .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Crash Nitro Kart features around twenty @-@ seven characters , sixteen of which are playable . The sixteen characters are split into four teams of four with each team driving karts of a matching color .
" Team Bandicoot " , which pilots blue karts , is led by Crash Bandicoot , the titular protagonist of the series . His kart is an all @-@ round performer with exceptional acceleration . Coco Bandicoot , Crash 's younger genius sister , programmed her kart 's wheels to balance their speed better , improving her kart 's turning ability . Crunch Bandicoot , a member of the Bandicoot family originally created by Doctor Neo Cortex to destroy Crash , pilots a kart with amazing momentum and speed but slow acceleration . Fake Crash , an imperfect duplicate of Crash , becomes accessible as a playable character if the player performs 50 consecutive speed boosts on any track in Adventure Mode as a member of Team Cortex .
" Team Cortex " , which pilots red karts , is led by Doctor Neo Cortex , Crash 's archenemy and main antagonist of the series . Like Crash , Cortex pilots a kart that excels in acceleration . Doctor N. Gin , Doctor Cortex 's right @-@ hand man , is a mechanical genius who pilots a kart that specializes in turning ability . Tiny Tiger , Doctor Cortex 's most faithful henchman , is a hulking giant who pilots a kart with a high top speed like Crunch . Doctor Nefarious Tropy , the self @-@ proclaimed master of time , becomes accessible as a playable character if the player beats all the time records in Race Time Trial Mode .
" Team Oxide " , which pilots yellow karts , is led by Crash Team Racing 's main antagonist Nitrous Oxide . His henchmen , Zam and Zem , becomes accessible as playable characters if the player wins the Purple and Green Gem in Adventure Mode respectively . " Real Velo " , the form Emperor Velo is seen at the end of Adventure Mode , is a part of the Yellow Team and becomes accessible as a playable character if the player wins the Adventure Mode twice : once as a member of Team Bandicoot and once as a member of Team Cortex .
" Team Trance " , which pilots green karts , is led by N. Trance , the egg @-@ like master of hypnotism . Dingodile and Polar , whom N. Trance has hypnotised , becomes accessible as playable characters if the player wins the Red and Blue Gem in Adventure Mode respectively . Pura , whom Trance has also hypnotised , becomes accessible as a playable character if the player performs 50 consecutive speed boosts on any track in Adventure Mode as a member of Team Bandicoot . Pura was replaced in the GBA version by fellow Universal / Sierra character Spyro the Dragon .
The main antagonist of the story , Emperor Velo XXVII , is the confident , dominating , bullying and contemptuous ruler of his own galaxy ; he threatens to destroy Earth if Crash and Cortex 's teams refuse to compete in his Galaxy Circuit . Velo is the final boss character of the game and races alongside two advisors who lay down offensive measures to slow the player down . Preceding Velo are four boss characters who possess " World Keys " that are needed to race against Velo . In order , the bosses consist of the following : Krunk , a hulking creature who feels that Earth is a copy of his home planet and races to prove which planet is superior ; Nash , a genetically engineered shark @-@ like creature who was created to always move ; Norm , a goblin @-@ like mime who races alongside a larger and more obnoxious version of himself ; and Geary , a robot as much obsessed with perfection as he is with cleaning .
= = = Story = = =
Crash , Coco and Crunch Bandicoot are relaxing while their nemesis , Doctor Neo Cortex , ponders his next course of action in regards to defeating the Bandicoots and achieving world domination . Suddenly , both groups are abducted by a mysterious white light that takes them to a large coliseum somewhere in another galaxy . This galaxy is ruled by Emperor Velo XXVII , who plans on having the teams race for the entertainment of his subjects . He promises the Earthlings that winning the races will win their freedom , but threatens them with the destruction of Earth if they refuse to race .
After both teams accept the challenge , Velo explains that the racers will compete on four worlds of his choosing , and promises a race against the galactic champion if the champions of those worlds are defeated . When Krunk , Nash , Norm , and Geary , the champions of Terra , Barin , Fenomena , and Teknee respectively , are defeated , the Earth racers go up against the galactic champion : Emperor Velo himself . The racers defeat Velo , but he refuses to send them back to Earth unless they win all of the time relics and defeat him again . Velo loses again to the Earth racers and literally explodes in a bout of fury , revealing himself to be a robot suit controlled by a small gremlin @-@ like version of himself .
If Crash , Coco or Crunch win the race , Velo , having lost his influence over his subjects , dejectedly relinquishes his empire to the Bandicoots . Crash considers becoming the next emperor of the galaxy , but decides otherwise and gives control back to Velo in exchange for sending the Bandicoots back to Earth . If Cortex , N. Gin or Tiny win the race , Velo struggles with Cortex over the possession of his scepter , only to be stopped by Tiny . Cortex uses the scepter 's power in an attempt to return to Earth , but the scepter breaks and sends Cortex , N. Gin and Tiny to Terra instead . When they are confronted by the natives ( all of which resemble Krunk ) , Tiny repairs the scepter and is subsequently revered as a king , much to Cortex 's annoyance .
= = Development = =
The game was tentatively titled Crash Team Racing 2 during its pre @-@ production phase . The characters of the game were designed by series veteran Charles Zembillas , while the environments were designed by Joe Pearson ( another veteran of the series ) , John Nevarez , Alan Simmons and Di Davies . The karts were designed by Perry Zombolis Jr. and Andy Lomerson . Recognizing that full motion video sequences have become the new norm in state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art video games , Universal Interactive decided that Crash Nitro Kart would be the first game in the Crash Bandicoot series to feature such cinematics . The cutscenes of Crash Nitro Kart were created by Red Eye Studios ; pre @-@ production of the cutscenes was handled by Epoch Ink . The screenplay of the cutscenes was written by Dan Tanguay . The studio 's eight artists were given four months to create 32 minutes of pre @-@ rendered cinematics . The actual animation phase was to be completed in 15 weeks , breaking down to almost five shots a day or 15 seconds of animation per day for each artist . The in @-@ game versions of the character models were built using 3ds Max and were outfitted with full inverse kinematic setups , morph targets and UV texture maps by Vicarious Visions . These models could not be ported directly into the cinematics due to their lower resolution for optimal real @-@ time interactivity . Instead , the artists of Red Eye Studios worked from concept sketches provided by Vicarious Visions and used Alias Systems ' Maya ( with which the artists were more familiar ) to enhance the detail of the 27 character models in the game , including the Crash Bandicoot character .
Given the task of forming the personalities of the Crash Nitro Kart cast through the full @-@ motion videos , the Red Eye Studio artists set certain rules for how each character would carry itself by default . As animator Thomas Happ noted , " N. Gin , for example , would always default to twitchy , side @-@ to @-@ side glances , while Tiny would often scratch his head in confusion . There were a lot of scenes where the characters are just standing around listening to Emperor Velo talk , and we had to invent ways to personalize their mannerisms and create a uniquely ' thinking character ' . " To achieve the bold and deeply saturated colors and textures for the characters and environments , the artists used Maya as well as Adobe Photoshop and Corel Painter . While the artists adapted many of the sets and props in the cinematics from in @-@ game counterparts , they recreated the majority of these objects from scratch in order to add surrealism to the scenery . The cinematics were completed well in advance of the four @-@ month deadline . The console version of Crash Nitro Kart was announced by Vivendi Universal prior to the Electronic Entertainment Expo of 2003 , while the N @-@ Gage version was announced on February 16 , 2004 .
The soundtrack of the game was composed by Ashif Hakik and Todd Masten of Womb Music , while the sound design was created by New Media Audio , a subsidiary of Technicolor Creative Services . Masten was contracted to create the score for the game after leaving Vicarious Visions and returning to California from New York . Based on his research of the Crash Bandicoot series ' " very recognizable " sound palette , Masten incorporated numerous percussive tonal instruments into the score of Crash Nitro Kart . Masten extensively used the then @-@ recently released Reason program by Propellerhead Software in the writing of his score for the game , making Crash Nitro Kart Masten 's first entirely digital score . Universal Interactive was so satisfied with the score Masten created that he was asked to remix a custom soundtrack disc as part of a special package deal with Walmart ; Crash Nitro Kart is the second video game composed by Masten to receive a soundtrack release . The game is also among the first to support the 5 @.@ 1 surround sound format .
= = Voice cast = =
Steven Blum as Crash Bandicoot and Emperor Velo XXVII
Debi Derryberry as Coco Bandicoot and Polar
Kevin Michael Richardson as Crunch Bandicoot and an advisor of Velo
Mel Winkler as Aku Aku
Clancy Brown as Dr. Neo Cortex and Uka Uka
Quinton Flynn as Doctor N. Gin and Nitrous Oxide
John DiMaggio as Tiny Tiger
Dwight Schultz as Dingodile and Fake Crash
Michael Ensign as Dr. Nefarious Tropy
Tom Bourdon as N. Trance and an advisor of Velo
Marshall R. Teague as Krunk
Billy West as Nash and Zam
André Sogliuzzo as Norm and Zem
Paul Greenberg as Geary and Pura
= = Reception = =
The console version of Crash Nitro Kart received mixed to positive reviews upon release . Manny LaMancha of GamePro concluded that the gameplay of Crash Nitro Kart was addictive though not innovative . PlayStation : The Official Magazine said that Crash Nitro Kart was " satisfying and challenging at the same time " and " a great way to fill that need for speed . " Nintendo Power praised the karts as " fast " and the power @-@ ups as " creative " . Official PlayStation Magazine concluded that " Vicarious Visions did all it could to emulate the Naughty Dog classic ( Crash Team Racing ) and just added a PS2 coat of paint . " Play magazine said that the game was " a little generic and heavily recycled , but the powerslide system from CTR pulls it together . " Matt Helgeson of Game Informer dismissed the game as " probably one of the least exciting racing titles I 've played recently . " Demian Linn of Electronic Gaming Monthly noted that the gameplay was " nearly identical to Crash Team Racing 's , even down to the speed @-@ boosting wumpa fruits , so if you loved it before , you 'll still love it , and if not ... not . "
The game 's controls were well received . Manny LaMancha of GamePro concluded that the controls were easy to pick up , but hard to master . Official Xbox Magazine praised the game 's " solid control " and " innovative boost system " . Michael Laffery of GameZone said that the interface was " simple to use " and that the game requires no learning curve . Tony Guidi of TeamXbox noted that the " simplistic " controls allowed the game to be played by anyone and that due to the different boosting and sliding techniques , " mastering the control will separate the great racers from the newbs . " Ryan Davis of GameSpot stated that while the powerslide system " can give you a serious advantage in the race ... [ it ] is also very difficult to pull off , requiring flawless timing . " Steven Rodriquez of Nintendo World Report said that the karts " control pretty nicely , but can be hard to handle consistently at top speed , " and added that power sliding was " easy to do " .
The graphics of the game were positively received . Manny LaMancha of GamePro said that the visuals were brightly colored and smoothly animated and noted that the Xbox version 's graphics were slightly cleaner than the PlayStation 2 version . Michael Lafferty of GameZone praised the environments as " lush and richly textured " and the cutscenes as " very well done " . Tony Guidi of TeamXbox commended the graphics as " clean and crisp " and added that the cutscenes were " beautifully polished " . Ryan Davis of GameSpot noted that " Crash Nitro Kart maintains the brightly colored , cartoony look that has been the hallmark of past Crash Bandicoot games , though with slightly upgraded graphics . Ed Lewis of IGN said that the graphics for the single @-@ player modes were " bright and cheery and smooth " , but decreased in quality in the multiplayer modes . Kristan Reed of Eurogamer concluded that " CNK stays in exactly the cutesy ballpark you 'd expect from the Day @-@ Glo series , neither straying in any way from the generic cartoon worlds of old nor providing any graphical trickery that surprises hardened gamers looking for a splash of eye candy with their cartoon frippery . " Steven Rodriquez of Nintendo World Report noted that " if you 've played any of the other Crash Bandicoot games out there , then you have a pretty good idea what this one looks like . " Russ Fischer of GameSpy said that the game " some nice graphics , which use a solid framerate and loads of color to capture the old Crash magic . "
The audio received mixed reception . Manny LaMancha of GamePro said that the in @-@ game voice acting ( provided by such stars as Debi Derryberry and Billy West ) was " clear and entertaining " . Tony Guidi of TeamXbox also noted that the character voices were " done well " and that the music " isn 't annoying " . However , Michael Lafferty of GameZone stated that the music can become " a little tiring " and " annoying " after a while . Ryan Davis of GameSpot concluded that the sound was " respectable " , but added that the " attitude " of the character sounds bites seemed " forced " . Ed Lewis of IGN said that the " saving grace " of the " Looney Tunes @-@ style repartee and sound effects " is that " it was done professionally and while it 's pretty silly if you listen to it , it doesn 't grate and get under the skin as other games can . " He added that the music was " bouncy and peppy and , once again , cartoony " . Steven Rodriguez of Nintendo World Report described the music and sound effects as " generic " and " plain " respectively , and noted that the best part of the game 's audio was " that sexy talking mask that gives you advice between races , but even he gets rather annoying . "
The Game Boy Advance version was reviewed positively . Frank Provo of GameSpot stated that " the characters aren 't nearly as popular as those in Nintendo 's Mario Kart game , but the deeper gameplay makes up for that to an extent . " Craig Harris of IGN criticized the patches of slowdown in the game , but thought that otherwise it " would be a close contender for best kart racer on the handheld . " Nintendo Power concluded that " although Crash Nitro Kart doesn 't bring anything new to the kart @-@ racing genre , it 's a fast and amusing play that Crash Bandicoot fans will enjoy . "
The N @-@ Gage version received middling reviews . Levi Buchanan of IGN , in a positive review , praised the game 's large selection of characters , tracks and gameplay modes . Ryan Davis of GameSpot commended the game for its fundamentally solid gameplay , smooth and sharp graphics and the amount of " stuff to do " , but stated that " the narrow field of vision has a dramatically negative effect on the whole experience , cross @-@ canceling many of the game 's positive traits . " Louis Bedigian of GameZone felt that " the variety of courses , power @-@ ups , and the decent sense of speed are not enough to make up for a camera , which literally makes you feel sick . " Justin Leeper of GameSpy criticized the chuggy framerate and tunnel vision of the screen and delivered a final message of " If the N @-@ Gage library was a classroom , then Crash Nitro Kart would be the cross @-@ eyed kid who eats paste and thinks the answer to every math problem is ' cat ' " .
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= Beautiful ( Christina Aguilera song ) =
" Beautiful " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for her fourth studio album , Stripped ( 2002 ) . It was released as the album 's second single on November 16 , 2002 . A pop ballad , " Beautiful " was written and produced by Linda Perry . Lyrically , it discusses inner beauty , as well as self @-@ esteem and insecurity issues . Aguilera commented that she put " her heart and her soul " into the track , which she felt represented the theme of Stripped . The song was later re @-@ recorded in an electronic style for her first greatest hits album Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits ( 2008 ) .
Upon its release , " Beautiful " received universal acclaim from music critics , who have ranked it among Aguilera 's strongest material . It won a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and was also nominated for Song of the Year at the 2004 ceremony . " Beautiful " was also a commercial success , topping the charts in Australia , Belgium , Canada , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . The song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States , where it was certified Gold for 500 @,@ 000 units shipped .
" Beautiful " has been widely embraced as an anthem by the LGBT community for its message of self @-@ empowerment and inner beauty . An accompanying music video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund , and earned Aguilera a GLAAD Media Award for its positive portrayal of gay and transgender people . In 2011 , UK LGBT rights organization Stonewall named " Beautiful " the most empowering song of the previous decade for gay , lesbian , and bisexual people . In 2009 , Rolling Stone and VH1 listed it as one of the best songs of the 2000s ( decade ) . The song is widely recognized as one of Aguilera 's signature songs and has been covered on numerous occasions and featured on several television shows .
= = Background and recording = =
" Beautiful " was written and produced by Linda Perry . Aguilera recorded the song at two studios : The Enterprise Studios in Burbank , California , and Conway Recording Studios in Hollywood . Prior to the collaboration with Aguilera , Perry had written the song and originally wished to keep the " personal " record for her own singing career . Perry initially previewed the song for Pink during the recording sessions of Pink 's second studio album Missundaztood ( 2001 ) , on which Perry is a producer . However , after hearing Aguilera sing the song at Perry 's house to " break the ice " , Perry was very impressed and allowed Aguilera to include the track on her then upcoming record Stripped , effectively deciding not to pursue a solo career . The choice resulted in a feud between Pink against Aguilera and Perry , with the former commenting that it was " annoying " for the latter to collaborate with artists " [ she ] didn 't like " . Perry later revealed to ASCAP , " When Christina came over to my house to start working , she asked me to play some songs to break the ice . [ ... ] I had a long conversation with my manager about it . We both decided to hear Christina sing it . We demoed the song with her singing it , and I was like , ' Wow ' . That rough vocal is what is out there on radio . It was that vocal that got her the song " . Perry 's wife Sara Gilbert confirmed on her show The Talk that the final version was " just a demo " and Aguilera wanted to rerecord the song which Perry denied the request because the song is supposed to be about imperfection and being vulnerable .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Beautiful " is a gentle pop ballad that discusses issues of self @-@ esteem and insecurity , promoting a message of self @-@ empowerment and embracing inner beauty . Larry Flick of Billboard added that the song talks about " overcoming life 's trials " , Chuck Taylor also of Billboard observed that it has a message of " holding oneself up against criticism from the outside , " and Todd Burns of Stylus noted that the song " also explores the main theme of the record , being stripped bare in front of the public . " Its instrumentation incorporates bass guitar , cello , drum kits , keyboards , piano , and violin . " Beautiful " was composed in the key of E ♭ major and moving at a slow 76 beats per minute . Aguilera 's vocal range spans over two octaves from E ♭ 3 to G5 ; she uses several melismas in the song , fitting as many as seven notes in one syllable .
= = Release and reception = =
" Beautiful " was released as the second single from Stripped . It was first sent to American contemporary hit and rhythmic radio stations on November 16 , 2002 . The song was later released as a CD single on January 27 , February 24 , and February 25 , 2003 , in Germany , the United Kingdom , and France , respectively . Also on February 25 , a digital remix EP of " Beautiful " was released worldwide . Two days later , the single was released as a maxi single in Canada . On March 11 , 2003 , the single was released as a CD in the United States .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon its release , " Beautiful " received universal acclaim from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic complimented the song for not following the " club and street @-@ level R & B , which fit her poorly " . Similarly , a reviewer from Billboard recognized " Beautiful " as a " single @-@ worthy ballad " from a record of " pleasantly surprising depth " . In a separate review , Chuck Taylor from the same magazine labeled the song " breathtaking " , and recognized its melody and lyrical message . Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne called the song one of Stripped 's " moments " , noting that it is " more restrained " than the other songs from the album . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that the collaboration with Linda Perry found Aguilera " truly naked " and reflective of the album 's title . Stylus Magazine 's Todd Burns gave Stripped a negative review , but complimented " Beautiful " for " tastefully [ reining ] in Aguilera 's frequent vocal acrobatics " . Jane Dark of The Village Voice compared the song to the works of Mariah Carey " made back when she was a natural " . In contrast , Amanda Murray from Sputnikmusic criticized the " platitude @-@ drenched " lyrics but praised the overall production . At the 2004 Grammy Awards , " Beautiful " won the award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and was nominated for Song of the Year .
" Beautiful " is considered to be Aguilera 's signature song and has been recognized as being among her strongest tracks . The song was recognized as her third @-@ best single by Rachel McRady of Wetpaint , who commented that " Xtina 's inspiration ballad motivated an entire generation " . PopCrush 's Alexandra Capotorto named it as her favorite track by Aguilera , opining that the song is " definitely one of the most memorable and greatest Christina Aguilera songs to date " . Rolling Stone ranked " Beautiful " at number 52 on their list of the 100 best songs of the 2000s ( decade ) , elaborating that it is " delivered with full @-@ fathom force by the bottle @-@ blond with the biggest voice " . Similarly , VH1 positioned the track at number 18 on their list of the 100 greatest songs of the past decade .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Beautiful " was quickly released after the underperformance of the album 's first single , " Dirrty " . It achieved international success and was the highest @-@ charting single from Stripped in several territories . The song peaked at number 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and became Aguilera 's longest @-@ charting solo track , spending twenty @-@ seven weeks on the chart . The song additionally topped Billboard Adult Contemporary , Hot Dance Club Songs , and Pop Songs component charts . By March 2006 , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies .. As of August 2014 , the single has sold 1 @,@ 512 @,@ 000 digital copies in that country . In Canada , the song reached number 1 on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 .
" Beautiful " proved similarly successful in Europe , where it peaked within the top five of most markets in which it was released . Spending a total of fifty @-@ one weeks on the UK Singles Chart , the song eventually peaked atop the chart ; it was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry . It peaked at numbers 3 and 18 on the Belgian Ultratop 50 and Ultratop 40 , respectively . In Germany , the song peaked at number 9 after charting for thirteen weeks on the Media Control Charts . However , " Beautiful " proved less successful on the French Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique , where it reached number 27 . In the Pacific regions , the song failed to chart in any Asian markets , but maintained a strong performance in Oceania . It peaked at number 1 on the Australian ARIA Charts , where it spent a total of thirteen weeks . " Beautiful " was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . The song also charted on the New Zealand Top 40 Singles Chart for twenty @-@ three weeks , during which period it peaked at number 1 . After passing 7 @,@ 500 shipments , " Beautiful " was recognized with a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Beautiful " was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and premiered on December 9 , 2002 . It opens with Aguilera speaking the line " Don 't look at me " , followed by scenes of her singing alone in a room intercut with self @-@ image @-@ related sequences of other people . An anorexic girl examines herself in a mirror , eventually punching through it ; a thin teenage boy stands lifting weights in a room plastered with images of bodybuilders ; and an African @-@ American girl rips out pages of women 's magazines including photos of only white women and throws them into a fire . In one sequence , a girl is physically bullied by several peers , and in another , a goth man sits at the back of a bus while several people get up and move . The video also touches on LGBT issues ; one scene features a gay couple , portrayed by Jordan Shannon and Justin Croft , kissing on a bench and ignoring the stares of people who pass them . Another shows a transgender person , played by Robert Sherman , putting on makeup , a wig , and women 's clothing . The music video debuted at number 2 on Total Request Live , spending a total of fifty days on the chart and retiring at number 6 . It topped MuchMusic 's Countdown for two consecutive weeks and remained on the countdown for fifteen weeks . The video received a Special Recognition award , presented by David LaChapelle , from the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation at its 14th GLAAD Media Awards . After an a cappella performance of the song , Aguilera stated in her acceptance speech that " this song is definitely a universal message that everybody can relate to – anyone that 's been discriminated against or unaccepted , unappreciated or disrespected just because of who you are . "
= = Live performances = =
Recognized as one of her signature songs , Aguilera has performed " Beautiful " at a number of venues and events . During the promotion of Stripped , she appeared on VH1 's Big In Awards , Top of the Pops , and the 46th Grammy Awards . The song was included on the setlists of The Stripped Tour , the Justified and Stripped Tour in 2003 and the Back to Basics Tour in 2006 . " Beautiful " was also sung on the television special VH1 Storytellers in 2010 . " Beautiful " has also been performed on charity events and fundraisings , such as CNN Heroes introduced by Anderson Cooper saying , " It 's my pleasure to introduce a performer with unparalleled range and passion ; her song is a reminder that out of great trials and tribulations we can all create something beautiful " ; Justin Timberlake & Friends in 2010 , and Hurricane Sandy : Coming Together in 2012 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Recognition = = =
" Beautiful " has been embraced by the LGBT community as an anthem . On October 5 , 2010 , several hundred people gathered in front of the Massachusetts State House and sang " Beautiful " as a tribute to the teenagers who had committed suicide due to anti @-@ gay bullying during the previous months . In March 2011 , the Columbus Children 's Choir and Columbus Gay Men 's Chorus joined to perform the song as a contribution to the It Gets Better Project . UK LGBT rights charity Stonewall named " Beautiful " the most empowering song of the decade for lesbian , gay and bisexual people ; media personality and Stonewall contributor Paul Gambaccini called the song " a major achievement that has inspired millions of young people around the world . " The result is based on the choice from 1 @,@ 007 readers . Aguilera commented of the song 's reception , " I cannot express in words how much the LGBT community means to me . On my darkest day their support lifts me up . I feel honored that some of my songs become anthems to them as well . "
= = = Cover versions = = =
Since its release , " Beautiful " has been covered by many performers . In 2003 , indie rock band Clem Snide released the song as part of their A Beautiful EP recording . Kidz Bop covered the original version for Kidz Bop 4 in 2003 , and later recorded a dance edit three years later for Kidz Bop 6 . Kenny G and Chaka Khan performed the song for the former 's 2003 project At Last ... The Duets Album . In 2004 , it appears on the French girl band L5 's live album Le Live , recorded during their concert tour in 2003 . In 2012 David Archuleta included his rendition on his fifth studio album Begin . Other performers that have recorded their own versions of the song are G4 in 2005 , Girl Authority in 2006 , The Lemonheads in 2009 , Zebrahead in 2009 , The Rebeatles Project in 2010 , Insane Clown Posse in 2012 , Me First and the Gimme Gimmes in 2014 , and Jordan Smith in 2016 . Many performers have also played " Beautiful " live on shows and concerts . British rock band The Zutons performed the song on their BBC Radio 1 Live Launch show , on May 28 , 2008 ; this version of the song was later released as part of the compilation album Radio 1 's Live Lounge – Volume 3 . In 2011 , child singer Savannah Robinson performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , and in 2012 American singer Kelly Clarkson sang " Beautiful " during her Stronger Tour , by audience request . Other notable performers that have covered the song are Gloria Gaynor , Jason Mraz , Brett Anderson , and The All @-@ American Rejects .
The song has also been performed by contestants on televised talent competitions . In 2003 , Alex Parks , the eventual winner of the first season of Fame Academy , covered the song on the series and re @-@ recorded a version for her debut studio album Introduction . In 2007 , Angy Fernández sang " Beautiful " during the inaugural season of Factor X in Spain . In 2010 , Sally Chatfield chose the song during the second season of the Australian version of The X Factor . The following year , Aguilera performed the song alongside her finalist Beverly McClellan on the first season finale of The Voice . The following week , it debuted at number 74 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at number 52 on the Hot Digital Songs diagram with first @-@ week sales of 42 @,@ 000 downloads on the iTunes Store . Later in 2011 , both Janet Devlin and Little Mix covered the song during the eighth series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom . Additionally , cover versions of the song have been featured on scripted television series such as A.N.T. Farm , Glee , House , Smash , and Orange Is the New Black .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording locations
Mixed at The Enterprise Studios , Burbank , CA
Engineered at Mad Dog Studios , Burbank , CA
Additional recording at The Enterprise Studios , Burbank , CA
Mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering
Personnel
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Elvis Is Back ! =
Elvis Is Back ! is the tenth studio album by Elvis Presley . It was released on RCA Victor Records in mono and stereo in April 1960 . Recorded over two sessions in March and April , the album marked Presley 's return to recording after his discharge from the U.S. Army .
In 1957 , as Presley 's fame was soaring , he received a draft notice from the Memphis Draft Board , but was given a deferment so he could finish his latest film production , King Creole . During Presley 's two @-@ year military service in Germany , RCA Victor and Paramount Pictures progressively released material he had completed prior to enlistment . During his last months in the Army , Presley experimented with new sounds and worked on further improving his performance . He also prepared material for his first session in Nashville , which was scheduled to take place upon his return . Presley returned to the United States on March 2 , 1960 . The singer reunited with his original band The Blue Moon Boys , excepting bassist Bill Black . The first session was held on March 20 – 21 and the second session was held on April 3 – 4 , completing the album .
Elvis Is Back ! topped the UK Albums Chart and reached number two in Billboard 's Top LP 's . Initially , the release received mixed reviews , but over subsequent years its critical reception became progressively more positive . The album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1999 .
= = Background and Army years = =
Following his third and last appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show , Presley received a notice from the Memphis draft board on January 8 , 1957 . The board announced his 1A classification and his possible draft before the end of the year . During the first half of 1957 , Presley had three number one hits with " Too Much " , " All Shook Up " , and " ( Let Me Be Your ) Teddy Bear " . His second film , Loving You , opened on July 30 to box office success . His Christmas album was released on October 15 and his third film , Jailhouse Rock , opened on October 17 .
On December 20 , Presley received his draft notice . He was granted a deferment so he could to finish the forthcoming film King Creole , which had already received an investment of $ 350 @,@ 000 from Paramount Pictures and producer Hal Wallis . At the beginning of 1958 , Presley 's single " Don 't " topped the charts .
Presley was inducted into the Army on March 24 , 1958 . Soon after starting basic training at Fort Hood , Texas , he received a visit from Eddie Fadal , a businessman he had met on tour in January 1956 . According to Fadal , Presley " firmly believed " his career was finished . After completing training , he joined the 3rd Armored Division in Friedberg , Germany , on October 1 .
Media reports echoed Presley 's concerns about his career , but RCA producer Steve Sholes and Freddy Bienstock of Hill and Range had carefully prepared for his two @-@ year absence . Prepared with unreleased material , they kept up a stream of regular , successful releases . Between his induction and discharge , Presley had ten top 40 hits , including " Wear My Ring Around Your Neck " , the best @-@ selling " Hard Headed Woman " , and " One Night " in 1958 , and " ( Now and Then There 's ) A Fool Such as I " and the number one hit " A Big Hunk o ' Love " in 1959 . RCA also released four albums compiling old material during this period , most successfully Elvis ' Golden Records ( 1958 ) ( which rose to third position on the LP chart ) and 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Elvis Fans Can 't Be Wrong .
= = Return to music = =
During his final months in the Army , Presley started to experiment with new material and thinking ahead to his anticipated return to recording . For his first scheduled recording session , Presley considered The Four Fellow 's " Soldier Boy " , the Golden Gate Quartet 's " I Will Be Home Again " , The Drifters ' " Such a Night " and Jesse Stone 's " Like a Baby " . His friend Charlie Hodge taught Presley techniques to improve his breathing and expand his range . For inspiration , Presley used Roy Hamilton 's " I Believe " and his version of " Unchained Melody " , the traditional Irish song " Danny Boy " , and Tony Martin 's " There 's No Tomorrow " ( an English adaptation of " ’ O sole mio " ) . Presley also studied the phrasing and notes of records by The Inkspots and the Mills Brothers . By the end of his time in Germany , Presley had added a full octave to his vocal range .
Presley returned to the United States on March 2 , 1960 , and was honorably discharged with the rank of sergeant on March 5 . While Presley was in Germany , manager Colonel Tom Parker negotiated new terms with RCA Victor for Presley to fulfill his contractual obligations with film soundtracks . Parker also obtained an increase in Presley 's salary and a profit share from producer Wallis , and negotiated an appearance on The Frank Sinatra Show . Meanwhile , to assure publishing royalties , Bienstock commissioned new lyrics for " O Sole Mio " since the tune was already in the public domain .
= = Recording = =
On March 20 , Parker sent a chartered Greyhound bus to transport Presley and his entourage from Memphis , Tennessee to Nashville . The session personnel consisted of guitarist Scotty Moore , drummer D.J. Fontana , pianist Floyd Cramer , guitarist Hank Garland , bassist Bobby Moore , percussionist Buddy Harman and the backing group The Jordanaires . Presley 's original bassist Bill Black declined to join the sessions as he was enjoying success with the Bill Black Combo . To prevent possible disruption by fans , the musicians were initially told they were going to play on a Jim Reeves session . RCA executives Sholes and Bill Bullock were joined in the control booth by Parker , his assistant Tom Diskin , A & R head Chet Atkins , engineer Bill Porter and Hill and Range 's Bienstock .
RCA 's Studio B had recently been equipped with a new three @-@ track recorder . To further improve the recording of Presley 's voice , Porter had Telefunken U @-@ 47 microphones placed in the studio . The U @-@ 47 was the first condenser microphone that could switch between omnidirectional and cardioid patterns . The microphone could be used for vocals , instruments and full area coverage . The first song recorded was Otis Blackwell 's " Make Me Know It " , which was mastered in nineteen takes . " Soldier Boy " was later recorded in fifteen takes , followed by the non @-@ album cuts " Stuck on You " and " Fame and Fortune " . The last song recorded during the March session was a non @-@ album cut , " A Mess of Blues " . A new session was arranged for April . Presley then left for Miami , Florida , where he taped The Frank Sinatra Timex Show : Welcome Home Elvis .
The original musicians returned to the studio on the evening of April 3 ; they were joined by saxophonist Boots Randolph . Presley started the session with " Fever " , accompanied only by the bass and drums . He followed with the reworded version of " O Sole Mio " , now titled " It 's Now or Never " . After Presley failed several times to achieve the full voice ending of the song , Porter offered to splice it for him . Presley refused and tried the song until he archived the desired ending . " Girl Next Door Went A @-@ Walking " , was recorded in ten takes , followed by " Thrill of Your Love " . The non @-@ album cut " Are You Lonesome Tonight " was followed by " I Will Be Home Again " — a duet with Hodge . For the last song of the session , Lowell Fulson 's " Reconsider Baby " , Presley played the lead using his Gibson Super 400 guitar .
= = Content = =
Elvis is Back ! represented a new sound for Presley ; it moved him further toward pop music , a direction he continued to take over much of the decade . The album features a mixture of genres , including rock , rhythm and blues and pop ballads . Critics generally agreed that Presley had acquired a " deeper , harder voice quality " , and said his interpretations were " increasingly sophisticated " . The album includes a variety of material ; Presley and the session musicians , known as the " The Nashville A @-@ Team " , had the benefit of recording equipment that was state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art for its time . Elvis is Back ! was the first Presley album to be released in stereo . The album 's front cover shows Presley standing in front of a blue stage curtain , dressed in an Army trench coat and smiling as he glances to his left . The back cover features an image of Presley grinning ; he is dressed in an Army regulation fatigue jacket and cap . The inside of the gatefold cover features fifteen photographs of Presley taken at various times during his Army service .
The album contains twelve tracks ; it opens with " Make Me Know It " . The second track is a cover of " Fever " , which Presley based on Peggy Lee 's version , although his recording incorporates finger @-@ snapping and the sounds of the two percussionists are divided between the two channels of the stereo mix . On " The Girl of My Best Friend " , Presley is supported with doo @-@ wop backing vocals by The Jordanaires . The fourth track is " I Will Be Home Again " , a slow ballad performed as a duet with Charlie Hodge . The fifth track is " Dirty , Dirty Feeling " , a song characterized by its " raunchy rock sound " and satirical humor ; it was written by Leiber and Stoller , and had been previously discarded from the soundtrack of King Creole . The final track on side one is " Thrill of Your Love " , on which Presley is accompanied by Cramer on the piano .
The second side opens with " Soldier Boy " , which featuring a change of key in the chorus . This is followed by " Such a Night " , which has saxophone accompaniment by Randolph . The next track is the blues number " It Feels So Right " , which features lead guitar and heavy use of percussion . The following track is " Girl Next Door Went A @-@ Walking " , which was brought in by Moore . The album closes with the rhythm and blues songs " Like a Baby " and " Reconsider Baby " . Presley played the lead guitar on both tracks , the latter of which features long saxophone and piano solos .
= = Release and reception = =
The first single from Elvis Is Back ! , " Stuck on You " , was released two days after its recording with " Fame and Fortune " on the B @-@ side , attracting 1 @.@ 4 million advanced orders . The pre @-@ printed single sleeve said , " Elvis ' 1st New Recording For His 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Fans All Over The World " . It was the first Presley single to be released in stereo .
Elvis Is Back ! was released on April 8 , 1960 , in stereo and monaural versions . The album reached number two on Billboard 's Top LP 's and topped the UK Albums Chart . Despite this , its commercial performance was a disappointment , with fewer than 300 @,@ 000 copies sold in the United States .
= = = Initial reviews = = =
Billboard magazine said , " Elvis is back and singing better than ever in the rock and roll style he made famous " . The New York Times called the record " drab and lackluster " . Referencing Presley 's change of style , High Fidelity magazine said : " Presley obviously finds it hard to record his old gusto ... Perhaps [ the recordings ] are the first attempts to master new styles " . Hi @-@ Fi Stereo Review magazine also remarked on the change in Presley 's style , calling the album " musically schizoid " despite deeming the overall recording " good " . The review said Presley 's ballads were " the worst he 's ever made " but lauded " his former vitality " in the " commercial rockabilly romps " .
= = = Retrospective reviews = = =
In his review for AllMusic , Bruce Eder wrote that the album " shows a mature Elvis Presley [ who ] displayed the rich , deep vocalizing that would challenge critics ' expectations of Elvis Presley playing rhythm guitar throughout " . Eder concluded : " [ Elvis is Back ! ] comes off better than on any of his other albums since arriving at RCA " . Will Hermes of Rolling Stone praised its " wildly varied material , revelatory singing , impeccable stereo sound " . Writing for Rough Guides in 2004 , Paul Simpson commented : " Among the 1800 or so records in Elvis 's collection at Graceland is a copy of Elvis Is Back ! , almost white from the number of times it was played . You can understand why this would be his favourite album . " Simpson admired Presley 's blues singing on " Like a Baby " and " Reconsider Baby " , and added , " it 's hard to believe that this commitment and exhilaration was to be heard only fitfully for most of the 1960s , often on songs buried on B @-@ sides or as bonuses on dodgy soundtrack albums . "
PopMatters ' Steve Horowitz said the album helped Presley grow from " teen idol " to " adult entertainer " . Horowitz continued : " Presley ’ s voice was still strong and clear . He could belt out the blues one minute ... and then sound sophisticated the next ... without changing character . " The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer also gave a favorable review , saying , " Elvis is Back ! finds [ Presley ] demonstrating both versatility and an affinity for handling a range of song styles " .
Writing in The Daily Telegraph in January 2015 , Neil McCormick included Elvis Is Back ! among the artist 's essential works . McCormick wrote : " It is almost universally accepted that Elvis , who never saw active service , ' died ' in the army . Yet Elvis Is Back … is arguably Presley 's masterpiece , in which he tackles ballads , blues , rock , pop and gospel with a quality of control that somehow makes his innate sensuality even more potent . " Simon Gage of Britain 's Daily Express described the album as " [ Presley 's ] finest " .
= = Legacy = =
Elvis is Back ! was certified Gold on July 15 , 1999 , by the Recording Industry Association of America . Critic Robert Dimery included the album in his book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . RCA reissued the original album on Compact Disc in 1990 , and in 1999 re @-@ released it with bonus tracks . In 2005 Elvis is Back ! was reissued on the Follow That Dream label in a 2 @-@ disc CD collection . This edition contains previously unreleased outtakes of the studio album and combines all previously released versions of the masters and outtakes . Legacy Recordings released a remastered version of the album together with Something for Everybody in 2011 .
= = Personnel = =
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original release = = =
= = = 1999 reissue bonus tracks = = =
= = = 2005 Follow That Dream reissue = = =
= = = 2011 Legacy edition reissue = = =
= = Chart positions = =
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= Cyclone Lin ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Cyclone Lin ( RSMC Nadi designation : 14F , JTWC Designation : 15P ) formed on March 31 , 2009 as a tropical depression within a monsoon trough to the northwest of Fiji . Over the next few days , the depression moved towards the southeast through the Fijian archipelago until late on April 3 , when the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Nadi reported that the depression had intensified into a category one cyclone , and named it Lin . The JTWC did not start issuing warnings on Lin until the next day as it was approaching its 10 @-@ minute peak windspeeds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) and 1 @-@ minute peak windspeeds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Cyclone Lin then reached its peak windspeeds early on April 5 as it passed directly over Tonga . Later that day as it approached the edge of RSMC Nadi 's area of responsibility Lin started to go through an extratropical transition with the JTWC issuing their last advisory on it . As it crossed into TCWC Wellington 's area of responsibility the cyclone was declared extratropical , however TCWC Wellington kept issuing warnings on Lin until late on April 8 .
In Tonga initial reports , suggested that only vegetation had been impacted . However , it was later reported that power lines had been knocked down by high winds and the heavy rains triggered minor flooding in Nuku 'alofa . Power stations in Tongatapu were also forced to close to protect the system . No one was injured by the storm but there were reports of significant crop losses . The Tongan Meteorological Service also reported that about $ 2 @,@ 000 2009 TOP , ( $ 1 @,@ 000 2009 USD ) worth of damage had been done to property owned by the service .
= = Meteorological history = =
During April 1 , RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 14F , had developed along an active monsoon trough to the north of Fiji . During the next day the disturbance gradually developed into a tropical depression , as it moved eastwards and interacted with a shallow tropical disturbance that was located to the east of 14F . The disturbance was subsequently absorbed by 14F ’ s circulation early on April 3 , while the system was located between Tonga and Fiji . Overall organization at this time was still poor with convection struggling to consolidate under shear and diurnal influences . Overnight of the 3rd , though , convection erupted over the centre with the primary band to the east wrapping tightly around the centre . On re @-@ analysis , TD14F attained cyclone status around 031800 UTC while located to the north @-@ northwest of Nukualofa and gradually accelerating towards the southeast . Through April 4 , the cyclone moved into minimal shear with good outflow channels aloft . 12 hours later , at 040600 UTC , Lin was upgraded to a storm with 50 knots close to the centre . The cyclone intensified further under favourable conditions and reached a peak intensity of 60 knots while located about 15 nautical miles south @-@ southeast of Nukualofa . As it left Tonga , interaction with drier air and shear increased . This was aided by an approaching upper @-@ trough from the west . At 051800 UTC , intensity was reduced to 45 knots with further weakening anticipated due to stronger shear and cooler waters . Wellington took over warnings for the cyclone from 060000 UTC and downgraded Lin to an extra @-@ tropical system in their first warning . TCWC Wellington subsequently continued to monitor the system until it was last noted on April 8 .
= = = Differences among warning centers = = =
The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Nadi , Fiji uses the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale which is based on 10 @-@ minute sustained winds and three second gusts for its tropical cyclone tracking information , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses 1 @-@ minute sustained winds . The conversion factor between the two is 1 @.@ 14 . RSMC Nadi 's peak intensity for Lin was 110 km / h , ( 70 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Lin was 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained , or 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations = =
Late on April 2 , RSMC Nadi reported that a tropical cyclone alert had been issued for Wallis and Futuna and for the whole of Tonga this came as the tropical depression was located about 500 km ( 310 mi ) to the west of Nukualofa . Early the next day RSMC Nadi reported that a tropical cyclone alert had been declared for Vanua Levu , the Lau Islands , Taveuni , as well as other nearby islands , while later that morning Wallis and Futuna were placed under a tropical cyclone warning . Later that day RSMC Nadi reported that Northern Tonga had now been placed under a tropical cyclone warning , while the tropical cyclone alert for Vanua Levu and the cyclone warning for Wallis had been canceled . Later that day as the depression had been relocated and had been named as Cyclone Lin , RSMC Nadi canceled the tropical cyclone alert for Taveuni , and other nearby islands as well as the tropical cyclone warning for Futuna . RSMC Nadi also reported at this time that a tropical cyclone gale warning had been declared for the Lau group and the whole of Tonga . During the next morning the tropical cyclone warnings for the Lau group and the Niuas in Tonga were canceled , while the gale warnings for Tonga were upgraded to storm warnings . Over the next 24 hours the remaining warnings for Tonga were gradually canceled , with the last warning being issued at 1100 UTC on April 5 .
= = Impact = =
On April 4 , Lin passed directly over Tonga with winds up to 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) and heavy rains . Initial reports of damage stated that only vegetation had been impacted . However , later reports stated that power lines had been knocked down by high winds and the heavy rains triggered minor flooding in Nuku 'alofa . Some houses lost their rain gutters from the storm . Due to strong winds , officials were forced to shut down power stations in Tongatapu to protect the system . Most of the power lines in Tonga were either downed or damaged by the storm and numerous trees fell across the island . Several roads were also blocked by downed trees and billboards were broken . No one was injured by the storm but there were reports of significant crop losses .
The Tongan Meteorological Service reported that some of its property and equipment had been damaged . The property damage had an approximate value of about $ 2 @,@ 000 ( 2009 TOP , $ 1 @,@ 000 2009 USD ) . This included a Stevenson screen , office guttering , a HF radio antennae , signal processor , and satellite receiver . They also reported that the National weather forecasting center in Fua ’ amotu had experienced power failure on April 4 at 1600 UTC ; for this reason the center operated using a small portable generator until early the next day when they stopped issuing warnings as Lin was no longer a threat to Tonga . Power was eventually restored later that day .
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= Bachata Number 1 's , Vol . 3 =
Bachata # 1 's , Vol . 3 is a compilation album released by Machete Music on March 30 , 2010 . The album includes tracks recorded by several artists from the bachata genre , such as Aventura , Héctor Acosta , Xtreme , Ivy Queen , Grupo Rush , Andy Andy , Carlos & Alejandra , and Marcy Place . It also features select bachata versions of songs by reggaetón and Latin pop artists including R.K.M & Ken @-@ Y , Alejandro Fernández , Luis Fonsi , and Cristian Castro .
Upon release , the album peaked at number forty @-@ one on the Billboard Latin Albums chart and number four on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart . It became the twentieth best @-@ selling Tropical Album of 2010 . Several songs included on the album were released as singles from their respective parent albums including the opening " El Perdedor " by Aventura , " No Me Doy Por Vencido " by Luis Fonsi , and " Dime " by Ivy Queen . The fourth volume in the Bachata # 1 's series was released in 2011 .
= = Background and repertoire = =
The Bachata # 1 's series are several compilation albums of various artists centered on the genre of bachata . The first two in the series were released in 2008 and 2009 , respectively . Bachata # 1 's , Vol . 3 was released by Machete Music digitally and physically on March 30 , 2010 in the United States . " El Perdedor " , written by Anthony " Romeo " Santos and performed by Aventura , was released as the third and final single from the group 's second live album , K.O.B. Live ( 2006 ) . The song peaked at number five on the Billboard Latin Songs chart , topping both the Billboard Tropical Songs and Billboard Latin Rhythm Songs charts . The bachata @-@ infused @-@ R & B number has been named one of their biggest hits along with " Los Infieles " , " Un Beso " , and " Mi Corazoncito " among others .
The second track , " Se Me Va La Voz " by Mexican singer Alejandro Fernández was released as the lead single from his fourteenth studio album Dos Mundos : Evolución ( 2009 ) . It was named the highlight of the album by Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic . It topped the Billboard Latin Songs , Billboard Latin Pop Songs , and Billboard Tropical Songs charts . The bachata version , which is included on this release , features Héctor Acosta " El Torito " . " No Me Doy Por Vencido " is originally from Puerto Rican singer Luis Fonsi 's seventh studio album Palabras Del Sliencio ( 2008 ) , which includes " unexpected musical styles " including the ranchera accents that can be found on " No Me Doy Por Vencido " and its " breathtaking chorus " . It topped the Billboard Latin Songs , Tropical Songs , and Latin Pop Songs charts . Xtreme performs " Lloro y Lloro " from their second studio album Chapter Dos ( 2008 ) . It , along with the album , takes influence of contemporary hip @-@ hop and R & B. " Dime " was written by Puerto Rican singer Ivy Queen along with the producers Monserrate & DJ Urba . It was serviced to radio as the lead single from Queen 's first live album , Ivy Queen 2008 World Tour LIVE ! ( 2008 ) in both bachaton and bachata versions . It peaked at number eight on the Billboard Latin Songs chart , number four on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart , and number one on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Songs chart . It spent seven consecutive weeks atop the chart .
Héctor Acosta 's " Sin Perdon " originates from his second studio album Mitad / Mitad ( 2008 ) . It reached twenty @-@ six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart , however topped the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . " Jasmine " is performed Dominican bachata group Grupo Rush 's , which is composed of Damian , Migz , Lenny , and Khriz . It is a single from their debut album We On Fire ( 2009 ) . The song became a top ten hit on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . Dominican Bachata singer Andy Andy performs " Agua Pasada " which is from his seventh studio album Placer y Castigo ( 2009 ) . It reached number eleven on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . Puerto Rican reggaetón duo R.K.M & Ken @-@ Y recorded " Vicio Del Pecado " in bachata in collaboration with Héctor Acosta , who makes his third appearance on this release . It was previously featured on the duo 's second studio effort , The Royalty : La Realeza ( 2008 ) . Carlos & Alejandra 's " Cuanto Duele " appears on their debut album La Introduccion ( 2009 ) and the tenth track on this release . It reached number six on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . " El Culpable Soy Yo " by Cristian Castro is from the album of the same name . It reached the top ten of both the Billboard Latin Songs and Tropical Songs chart . " Dame Un Chance ( Nena ) " is performed by urban bachata group Marcy Place from their debut album B From Marcy Place ( 2008 ) . It peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
= = Reception and commercial performance = =
Upon release , the album debuted at number forty @-@ five on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart for the week of April 17 , 2010 . Sales increased slightly and the album rose two positions to number forty @-@ one for the week of April 24 , 2010 It spent an additional week at that position before falling to number fifty @-@ six , two weeks later on the issue date May 15 , 2010 . In its sixth week , the album again fell to number seventy . The recording ended its reign on the chart a week later at number seventy @-@ four for the issue dated May 29 , 2010 .
On the Billboard Tropical Albums chart , the album debuted at number five behind Aventura 's The Last , El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico 's Sin Salsa No Hay Paraiso , Prince Royce 's debut studio album and Ciclos by Luis Enrique for the week of April 17 , 2010 . In its second week , it rose to number four replacing Ciclos . It remained at the number four spot for four weeks . It spent nine weeks within the top ten of the chart . Bachata # 1 's , Vol . 3 became the twentieth best @-@ selling Tropical Album of 2010 . Five of the songs included on this release are number @-@ one singles , these include " El Perdedor " , " Se Me Va La Voz " , " No Me Doy Por Vencido " , " Dime " , and " Sin Perdon " .
= = Track listing = =
Track listing adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Campaign of Grodno =
The Campaign of Grodno was a plan developed by Johann Patkul and Otto Arnold von Paykull during the Swedish invasion of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , a part of the Great Northern War . Its purpose was to crush Charles XII 's army with overwhelming force in a combined offensive of Russian and Saxon troops . The campaign , executed by Peter I of Russia and Augustus II of Saxony , began in July 1705 and lasted almost a year . In divided areas the allies would jointly strike the Swedish troops occupied in Poland , in order to neutralize the influence the Swedes had in the Polish politics . However , the Swedish forces under Charles XII successfully outmaneuvered the allies , installed a Polish king in favor of their own and finally won two decisive victories at Grodno and Fraustadt in 1706 . This resulted in the Treaty of Altranstädt ( 1706 ) in which Augustus renounced his claims to the Polish throne , broke off his alliance with Russia , and established peace between Sweden and Saxony .
The campaign led to Sweden gaining control over the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , until the Swedish defeat at Battle of Poltava and the Treaty of Thorn ( 1709 ) which restored the Russian @-@ backed Augustus to the Polish throne and forced the remaining Swedes out of the Commonwealth .
= = Background = =
In 1700 Sweden was attacked by a coalition of Saxony , Russia , and Denmark – Norway . Saxony , under Augustus II , invaded Swedish oversea dominions in Livonia and quickly attacked the city of Riga . Meanwhile , Frederick IV of Denmark attacked the Swedish allied duchies of Holstein and Gottorp in order to secure his rear , before commencing with the planned invasion of Scania , which had been previously annexed by Sweden in the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 . A short time later , Russia under Peter I swept into Swedish Ingria and besieged the strategic city of Narva . Unprepared for these developments , the Swedes were forced into a war on three fronts .
= = = First year = = =
Despite their significant military advantage the allied armies encountered immediate setbacks . Denmark – Norway was quickly knocked out of the war by a bold Swedish landing on Humlebæk resulting in the Peace of Travendal . After this development , the Swedish army under Charles XII was free to sail east across the Baltic sea to tackle the remaining opponents , Russia and Saxony . In response to this threat , Augustus lifted the siege of Riga and marched back across the Düna river in order to observe the Swedish movements . Charles then decided to march against Peter I of Russia , who was besieging Narva , with the aim of saving the city . Shortly later the two armies met in the battle of Narva . This ended in a decisive Swedish victory which greatly crippled the Russian army , forcing them to abandon their campaign in Swedish territory and withdraw to Russia .
= = = Invasion of Poland = = =
Having secured two quick and decisive victories over his opponents which greatly increased his reputation , Charles marched against the Saxon forces in early 1701 . These were camped on the opposite bank of the Düna . The clash occurred in the battle of Düna , ending in another Swedish victory . However , the outcome was not as decisive as Charles had hoped for . A large part of Augustus ' army survived and marched into neutral Prussia . As a consequence , Charles was not able to capitalize on the previous Russian setback at Narva , but was forced to postpone the planned invasion . Instead he decided to chase the Saxon army into the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , where Augustus was also king . Thus far , technically , Poland @-@ Lithuania had stayed neutral in the conflict since Augustus began the war with Sweden in his capacity as Elector of Saxony rather than as king of Poland . Charles ' purpose was to remove Augustus from the Polish throne . The subsequent conflict became known as the Swedish invasion of Poland .
In 1702 , after having seized the Polish capital of Warsaw , Charles caught up and won a battle against Saxon and Polish armies at Kliszów . Even though the Swedish victory was not decisive , factions within the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth began supporting the Swedish cause , in opposition to Augustus . This triggered the Polish civil war of 1704 @-@ 1706 . The reputation of Charles and his army grew and they soon took Kraków , the " second Polish capital " . Minor operations and skirmishes followed , as the Saxon and Polish – Lithuanian armies preferred to avoid facing the Swedes in direct battle .
After engagements at Pultusk and Toruń in 1703 Augustus was finally forced to abdicate the Polish throne in 1704 , in favor of a monarch installed by the Swedes , Stanisław I Leszczyński . Charles and Leszczyński were supported by the Warsaw Confederation of Polish nobles . In opposition to these developments the Sandomierz Confederation was created by other nobles in support of Augustus . The latter could call on about 75 % of the military capacity of the Polish army . Some smaller engagements at Poznań , Lwów , Warsaw and Poniec followed in 1704 as a consequence of Augustus ' attempts to retake the throne .
= = The campaign = =
Up until early 1705 , Peter 's efforts were focused on Livonia and Ingria , and there were few direct confrontations against the Swedish main army in Poland . After the initial outcomes in the Polish theater however , Peter assembled his army closer to the Commonwealth in order to provide assistance to Augustus against Charles , and to put pressure on the local nobility in an attempt to restore Augustus to the Polish throne . The Swedish army in turn , spent the first half of the year close to Rawicz in order to secure the coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
The Russian – Saxon – Polish allies assembled their armies in Lithuania for a joint offensive against the Swedes . Their troops consisted of four contingents ; the main Russian army of 50 @,@ 000 men under Georg Benedict Ogilvy near Polotsk , another 8 @,@ 000 Russians and 10 @,@ 000 Lithuanians loyal to Augustus close to Vilnius , about 6 @,@ 000 Poles and 3 @,@ 500 Saxons under Otto Arnold von Paykull at Brest @-@ Litovsk and 20 @,@ 000 Cossacks under Ivan Mazepa in Volhynia . In Saxony close to 20 @,@ 000 men were recruited for the main Saxon army under Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg . In all , the allied forces enjoyed a massive advantage as their forces counted almost 120 @,@ 000 men against the 35 @,@ 000 Swedes and 10 @,@ 000 Poles and Lithuanians in Poland under Charles and the 6 @,@ 000 men in Courland under Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt .
= = = Plan of attack = = =
In early March 1705 the Russian Field Marshal Boris Sheremetyev set up a meeting with the Saxon general Otto Arnold von Paykull in order to agree to a common course of action in the ensuing campaign . The basis for the strategy was a plan developed by Johann Patkul as early as 1703 , which envisioned a joint strike which would neutralize the Swedish army. von Paykull , inspired by Patkul 's blueprint , advocated it as a way to lure Charles and the main Swedish army out of Greater Poland eastward towards Brest @-@ Litovsk . This was to be accomplished by having the combined forces of the main Russian army under Ogilvy and von Paykull 's troops stationed at Brest , which would force Charles to meet them in battle . At the same time the main Saxon army would attack Charles from the rear by sweeping through Poland out of Saxony , ultimately catching the Swedish army exposed . The plan seemed rather daring to Patkul and he suggested that the allies should first crush Lewenhaupt 's army , before Ogilvy 's troops approached Charles . Otherwise Ogilvy 's rear would be threatened . A compromise was made between the two strategies and it was decided that Sheremetyev should engage Lewenhaupt at the same time as Ogilvy marched towards the strongly fortified city of Grodno . The belief was that there , behind fortifications , Oglivy would be able to withstand Charles long enough for the main Saxon army to arrive from Kraków . Meanwhile , von Paykull would attack with his combined Saxon – Polish force towards Warsaw in order to interrupt the coronation of Stanisław I.
= = = Campaign begins = = =
The Saxon – Russian plans were put into action in early July as Sheremetyev began his march towards Lewenhaupt in Courland . The two armies met on July 26 , at the battle of Gemauerthof where the Russians were defeated . Despite the outcome Lewenhaupt chose to withdraw back to Riga having suffered notable losses himself , leaving Courland open for Peter I to occupy with freshly arrived reinforcements . This worked in favor of the allies as the rear of Ogilvy 's army which was marching towards Grodno was now secured accordingly .
Only five days later , on July 31 , Paykull reached the outskirts of Warsaw with his army and in a surprise attack attempted to interrupt the coronation of Stanisław . In the ensuing battle of Warsaw the much smaller Swedish force under Carl Nieroth guarding the city won a decisive victory . Paykull was captured along with secret documents which informed the Swedes of a possible attack on Warsaw by a larger Russian army under Peter .
It now seems , as if the war will begin for real and have every Swede at once , by the great number of nations surrounding him , engrossed ....
After having received this information while at Rawicz , Charles struck camp on August 8 and marched closer to Warsaw in order to fully protect the city until the coronation of Leszczyński was completed . He left General Carl Gustaf Rehnskiöld with 10 @,@ 000 men at Poznań to guard against the main Saxon army under Schulenburg which threatened to enter Poland . On September 15 , Peter I seized the town of Mitau in Courland . However , the allied successes were limited as the coronation of Leszczyński as Stanisław I of Poland was completed on October 4 .
Later the same month , on October 25 , the allies made a quick push to destroy the bridge going over the Vistula , from Warsaw to Praga , in order to slow down the Swedish troop movements . However , the attack was repulsed by a handful of men . A month later , on November 28 , Sweden and Poland made peace in the Treaty of Warsaw through the Warsaw Confederation which increased Sweden 's position even further . Charles could now march , after having waited more than a year since Augustus was dethroned , against the Russian army under Ogilvy which had already by this time reached Grodno .
Being somewhat delayed , Charles broke up his winter quarters at Blonie on January 9 , 1706 and approached Grodno with the main Swedish army of 20 @,@ 000 men and the 10 @,@ 000 Poles and Lithuanians . A Russian army of 28 @,@ 000 men was stationed there . Bad weather prevented him from marching out earlier . Urgently seeking battle Charles seemed to walk straight into the trap the allies had set for him , according to their initial plan . In Saxony , Schulenburg still waited with his 20 @,@ 000 men to cross the Polish border and engage Rehnskiöld . He planned to move with his army as soon as he got word of Charles crossing the Vistula river . However , Charles commenced with a rapid winter march ; this was typical for the Swedes , dating back to the time of Gustavus Adolphus , but quite unusual for continental armies . This in turn surprised the allies as they believed Charles would not begin his march before spring . Having received word of his approach however , they considered three alternatives ; to meet Charles ' army in the open field , fortify in Grodno , or retreat . While they disagreed among themselves about their course of action Charles ' army appeared before the fortifications of Grodno on January 24 , after a quick march , forcing the allies to stay in the city . Prior to the Swedish arrival , Augustus who had thus far accompanied the Russian army , broke away with 5 @,@ 000 cavalry . He strove to increase his troops with another 3 @,@ 000 men before uniting forces with Sculenburg and the Saxon main army whose only obstacle in order to attack Charles ' army in the rear , accordingly , were the 10 @,@ 000 men under Rehnskiöld stationed at Poznań .
= = = Main confrontation = = =
After having scouted the Russian fortifications at Grodno , Charles realized a frontal assault would be impossible . At the same time , the Russians would not let themselves be provoked out into the field . Charles instead decided to try and starve them out by crossing the Neman river in January 15 , encircling the city from the east , forcing 15 @,@ 000 Russian cavalry to withdraw . In doing this he blocked the Russian communication lines , and also cut off their resources and supplies . Smaller Swedish parties were sent towards Vilnius in order to prevent General Christian Felix Bauer from supplying the trapped Russians . One of these , commanded by Jan Kazimierz Sapieha and Józef Potocki managed to beat 3 @,@ 000 Russians at the Battle of Olita on February 9 . Meanwhile , on February 7 Schulenburg had received word of Charles ' crossing of the Vistula , and begun his march with the Saxon army in order to beat Rehnskiöld 's smaller force near Poznań . Rehnskiöld , however , did not wait to be defeated and instead strove to engage Schulenburg before the arrival of Agustus 8 @,@ 000 men . By using a daring feint Rehnskiöld managed to lure Schulenburg into a more disadvantageous position near Wschowa ( Fraustadt ) , where the two armies clashed on February 13 . Here , the Swedish general won a decisive victory killing or capturing up to 75 % of Schulenburg 's force . Crippled by this setback , the main Saxon army had no choice but to retreat . The whole allied plan collapsed , as the opportunity for the allies to destroy Charles ' army in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth with a sweeping movement from behind , vanished .
Shortly after , on February 22 , Carl Gustaf Dücker with 1 @,@ 000 dragoons fought off 7 @,@ 000 Poles and Russians under Christian Felix Bauer at Olkieniki near Vilnius , capturing and killing hundreds of allied troops . He also seized the Lithuanian capital and secured the Swedish connection to Livonia . The situation in Grodno soon became unsustainable for the Russians as the soldiers began to die of starvation and disease . In order to save his army , Peter I ordered his ally Ivan Mazepa and his Cossacks to carry out continuous harassing attacks on the back of the Swedes . Mazepa dispatched 14 @,@ 000 men for this purpose . However , the Swedes countered the move , sending large contingents of troops from Grodno to assault Mazepa 's nearby outposts . Mazepa sustained large casualties at both Nesvizh on March 23 , where Johan Reinhold Trautvetter and his 500 Swedish dragoons killed and captured around 700 out of 1 @,@ 200 Cossacks , and at Lyakhavichy in late March , where Carl Gustaf Creutz held 1 @,@ 400 men trapped inside the fortress .
On March 27 , the Russians received word about the earlier disastrous defeat at Wschowa . Peter I realized that the chances of a combined attack on Charles were now minimal . He ordered Ogilvy to attempt an escape from the encirclement at Grodno and a retreat towards Brest @-@ Litovsk . Ogilvy carried out the order on April 4 and managed to break out unseen with his reduced army , leaving 8 @,@ 000 men behind at Grodno who had died of starvation and sickness . Another 9 @,@ 000 men were lost during the retreat as the Swedes pursued the Russians as far as Polesia , where they finally gave up the chase . Mazepa met a similar defeat , as he sent 4 @,@ 700 men in an attempt to save the Cossacks trapped inside Lyakhavichy . Instead these were annihilated in the battle of Kletsk on April 30 , after which the garrison in Lyakhavichy surrendered to the Swedes on May 12 and the fortress was destroyed . In total , almost 10 @,@ 000 Cossacks were killed , out of the initial 14 @,@ 000 who actively participated in the campaign .
= = Aftermath = =
Charles had won one of his greatest victories at Grodno 1706 , by simply cutting off his opponents ' resources and supplies . Later , in a letter to his ally Frederick IV of Denmark , Peter I confirmed losses of up to 17 @,@ 000 men during the encirclement and retreat . After his pursuit of the Russian army , having chased them out of Lithuania , Charles saw his opportunity to march back to Poland in order to meet up with Rehnskiöld , in preparation for the invasion of Saxony . He arrived there in August 5 . Meanwhile , Schulenburg did what he could in an attempt to increase the Saxon army to measure the expected invasion from the Swedes , something which was proven close to impossible after the battle of Fraustadt . In a last attempt to stop the invasion , Augustus II of Saxony offered Courland to Sweden and Lithuania to the newly crowned king Stanisław I of Poland . The generous offer was , however denied by Charles who crossed the Saxon border in September 5 . As Saxony was close to defenseless , the Swedes could easily push away any resisting troops . In September 19 , they occupied the city of Leipzig which finally forced Augustus into unconditional peace under Swedish terms . Among other things , the traitor and second principal behind the Grodno campaign , Johann Patkul was turned into Swedish custody .
= = = Outcome = = =
The campaign of Grodno proved disastrous to the allies who did not manage to attain any of their goals , while the Swedish army reached almost all of theirs ; Stanisław Leszczyński was crowned king of Poland , the Saxon and Russian armies in Poland were beaten , and peace was forced upon Augustus who renounced all his claims to the Polish throne . The two traitors and principal designers of the campaign , Johann Patkul and Otto Arnold von Paykull were also taken prisoner by the Swedes and executed in 1707 . However , the Great Northern War was far from being won . Charles reorganized his forces to march against his last remaining opponent , Peter the Great and the Tsardom of Russia . The Swedish invasion of Russia began in 1707 and ended with the disastrous Swedish defeat at Poltava . This marked a decisive turn in the war with Saxony and Denmark rejoining the alliance .
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= D 'oh @-@ in ' in the Wind =
" D 'oh @-@ in ' in the Wind " is the sixth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 1998 . In the episode , Homer Simpson travels to a farm owned by Seth and Munchie , two aged hippies who were friends with Homer 's mother . After finding out his middle name is " Jay " , Homer is drawn to the care @-@ free lifestyle of hippies , and decides to become one himself .
The episode was written by Donick Cary and directed by Mark Kirkland , with a couple of scenes being directed by Matthew Nastuk . Kirkland , who was going through a divorce during the episode 's production , assigned Nastuk , his assistant director , to take over direction in his stead . However , after Nastuk had directed a scene , Kirkland felt better and returned to direct the rest of the episode . The episode features the revelation of Homer 's middle name , " Jay " , which is a tribute to characters from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show who got their middle initial from Jay Ward .
The episode features comic actors George Carlin as Munchie and Martin Mull as Seth . Carlin was suggested by Simpsons writer Ron Hauge , who " really wanted to meet him " , although he did not attend the recording session with Carlin and Mull . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 4 million viewers . Following the tenth season 's home release on August 7 , 2007 , " D 'oh @-@ in ' in the Wind " received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns plans on eating a jar of pickles for lunch , but is unable to open the jar . Nobody else in the plant is able to open it , either . As a result , Mr. Burns decides he needs tougher employees , so he directs Lenny , Carl and Homer in an advertisement to promote the plant . When Homer sees what a good job he did in the commercial , even though no one read the script , he plans on becoming an actor . As he fills out his Screen Actors Guild form , Lisa points out that he has not filled in his middle name , having just put the initial " J " . Homer admits that he does not know his middle name . He consults Grandpa about it , who does not remember its origin ( he was " in it for the spanking " ) , but suggests where it might be . They drive to a farm run by two middle @-@ aged hippies , Seth and Munchie , who were friends of Homer 's mother back when she had been a hippie . They point out a mural she painted ( based on an incident at Woodstock where a very young Homer ran around naked in the mud ) , which reveals Homer 's middle name : " Jay " , which makes no difference to his name 's pronunciation . Homer sees how care @-@ free his life would be if he were a hippie , and thus decides to become one .
Homer dons a filthy old poncho left behind by Mona and carries around a frisbee ( which has " Homer Jay " enscribed on it ) as part of his hippie guise . He visits Groovy Grove Natural Farm , where he joins Seth and Munchie in their game of hackie @-@ sack . The fun soon ends when Seth and Munchie have to go back to work , as they operate the most popular organic juice company in Springfield out of their barn . Because of this , Homer believes that they are not hippies and so convinces them to join him on an " old @-@ time freak @-@ out " . After their little luck freaking out ordinary people , they return to the barn , only to find that it is flooded with Seth and Munchie 's juice and broken bottles — revealed to be caused by Homer 's risbee ending up inside the " juicillator " machine , jamming it and thus ruining Seth and Munchie 's shipment . In fury , they remind Homer that he is not , never was and at the rate he is going , never will be a hippie , before telling him to leave them alone . A dejected Homer walks away , right before tossing his frisbee behind him , only for it to land in the factory again . Homer quickly leaves .
At night , Homer plans on making it up to Seth and Munchie by taking the crops from their garden and making the juice with them , which he then distributes to every store in town . However , due to a shortage of juicing crops , he also finds and uses some of their " personal vegetables " . As a consequence , anyone who drinks the juice has crazy hallucinations . Chief Wiggum catches on , and soon the police surround the farm . Homer comes out front to defend Seth and Munchie and hippie honor by reminding the police of the morals taught by the 1960s , planting a flower in each of their guns as he does so . However , Wiggum discharges his gun , lodging the flower from it in Homer 's forehead . At the hospital , Dr. Hibbert says he cannot remove the flower , as he claims " I 'm a doctor not a gardener " .
= = Production = =
" D 'oh @-@ in ' in the Wind " was written by Donick Cary and directed by Mark Kirkland and Matthew Nastuk . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 1998 . The idea for the episode was pitched by Cary , who thought it would be fun to see the citizens of Springfield hallucinating . He then fleshed it out , forming its current iteration . The episode features the revelation of Homer 's middle name , " Jay " , which is a " tribute " to animated characters such as Bullwinkle J. Moose and Rocket J. Squirrel from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show who got their middle initial from Jay Ward . The name was pitched on for three days by the writers .
Originally , Kirkland was supposed to be the sole director for the episode , however , at the time , he was going through a divorce that he " did not see coming " . Because of this , Kirkland assigned his assistant director , Matthew Nastuk , to direct the episode in his stead . However , after having directed a scene , Nastuk claimed that he was " terrified " and wanted Kirkland to continue the direction . Kirkland returned to direct the episode , feeling better after getting over the divorce . Despite the circumstances , Kirkland stated that he " loved " working on the episode , and could relate to the story since he had grown up in a " sort of hippie commune school " in the late ' 60s and early ' 70s . Kirkland based a lot of the scenery designs in the episode on the state Vermont where , according to him , a lot of " ex @-@ hippies " live .
The two hippies , Seth and Munchie , were portrayed by comic actors Martin Mull and George Carlin respectively . For a while , the staff were not sure of who would play Munchie . Although they had decided on Mull to play Seth , the staff were " kind of stuck " on who would play Munchie . Carlin was suggested by Ron Hauge , one of the Simpsons writers , who " really wanted to meet [ Carlin ] " but ended up not going to the recording session . Scully stated that Mull and Carlin were " some of the funniest guys that ever lived " , and that recording their lines was " a lot of fun " . Although it does not occur with most other guest stars in the series , Mull and Carlin recorded their lines together . While the designs of Seth and Munchie were not modeled after anyone in particular , their hair @-@ styles were slightly based on those of Jerry Greenfield and Ben Cohen , owners of the ice cream company Ben & Jerry 's . Comedian Bob Hope was portrayed by series regular cast member Dan Castellaneta , who plays Homer among many other characters in the series . Jill St. John and Phyllis Diller were both voiced by American voice actress Tress MacNeille . The psychedelic version of The Simpsons ' main theme that plays during the end credits was performed by Yo La Tengo , an American alternative rock band who are friends of Cary 's .
The episode makes multiple references to 1960s culture , including films such as The Love @-@ Ins ( 1967 ) . The episode features the theme from the musical Hair , " Incense and Peppermints " by Strawberry Alarm Clock ( 1967 ) , " White Rabbit " by Jefferson Airplane ( 1967 ) and " Time of the Season " by The Zombies ( 1968 ) . In a flashback to Woodstock in 1969 , Jimi Hendrix 's performance of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " is shown , as is a recreation of the photograph of embracing couple Nick and Bobbi Ercoline taken at the festival and used as a poster for the film Woodstock ( 1970 ) .
Additionally , Homer sings Billy Joel 's 1983 song " Uptown Girl " . After drinking the tainted juice , Grampa and Jasper sit on a bench , laughing like the title characters from the series Beavis and Butt @-@ head , while Flanders hallucinates skeletons and dancing bears ( images associated with the Grateful Dead ) , marching hammers ( from Pink Floyd 's 1982 film Pink Floyd — The Wall ) and The Rolling Stones ' lips and tongue logo . Mr. Burns ' film is credited as " An Alan Smithee Film " , a reference to the Alan Smithee pseudonym credit used by directors who wanted to be disassociated from a film on which they had lost creative control , to the detriment of the final product . When Barney drinks alcohol to prevent the bad effects from the tainted juice , a pink elephant comes to his rescue , referencing the scene in Dumbo where Dumbo and Timothy drink alcohol and see pink elephants . Seth and Munchie 's dog is named Ginsberg , thought to be a reference to beat poet Allen Ginsberg . Homer putting the flowers in the policemen 's rifles is a reference to the iconic October 22 , 1967 Life magazine picture , " Flower Power " by Bernie Boston .
The phrase used by Dr. Hibbert regarding Homer 's condition ( " I 'm a doctor , not a gardener " ) is a reference to a recurring Star Trek gag , when Doctor Leonard McCoy retorts , mostly to Spock , that he is a doctor and not a [ whatever the situation refers to ] .
Additionally , the end credit theme music is presented in a style that parodies " Tomorrow Never Knows " by The Beatles , and as the credits end , Homer says " I buried Flanders " , a reference to the Paul Is Dead myth .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on November 15 , 1998 , " D 'oh @-@ in ' in the Wind " received an 8 @.@ 5 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 @.@ 3 million viewers . The episode finished in 40th place in the ratings for the week of November 9 – 15 , 1999 . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Donick Cary , Ron Hauge and Mark Kirkland participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " D 'oh @-@ in ' in the Wind " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving the episode a positive review , Aaron Roxby of Collider wrote that , even though he felt that the jokes about hippies were " a bit overplayed " , he still considered it to be one of the best episodes of the season . James Plath of DVD Town thought fondly of the episode as well , calling it " funny " . Writing for DVD Movie Guide , Colin Jacobson stated that , even though he feels the sixties have been lampooned " many , many times over the years " , he considered " D 'oh @-@ in ' in the Wind " to be a successful spoof of the era . He enjoyed the way the episode portrayed and mocked the ways aging hippies " didn 't live up to their youthful ideas " . He concluded his review by writing that " D 'oh @-@ in ' in the Wind " is one of the first great episodes of the season .
On the other hand , Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News did not enjoy the episode . Considering it to be one of the worst episodes of the season , he found the " jabs " at the hippie culture to be dated , writing that the episode is " a quarter century too late " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide were negative as well , calling the episode " dreadful " . They wrote that , aside from a couple of references to sixties psychedelia and the hippie movement , the only significant part of the episode is the revelation of Homer 's middle name . They concluded by writing that the episode is " humourless " .
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= Susan Kennedy =
Susan Wendy Kennedy ( also Smith and Kinski ) , is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by Jackie Woodburne . The character and her family were created by storyliners in an attempt to bring the show back to its roots . Susan made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 3 October 1994 , along with her eldest son and daughter . The storyliners made Susan a teacher at Erinsborough High to give her immediate links with other characters . Since her introduction , Susan 's personality and appearance have been through several changes .
Her storylines have seen her begin a relationship with a Priest , being married , divorced and widowed . Susan has become a stepmother and a grandmother and she has been central to three plots revolving around health issues : Retrograde amnesia , Multiple sclerosis and Surrogacy . She has also been central to a cyber @-@ bullying plot . In October 2009 , Susan became the longest @-@ running female character in the show 's history , having been in Neighbours for over fifteen years . Woodburne has garnered various award nominations for her portrayal of Susan and the character has been well received by viewers and television critics .
= = Creation and casting = =
In 1994 , the Neighbours storyliners decided to introduce a new " solid " family called the Kennedys . The family , which consisted of five members – a mother , father , two sons and a daughter – moved into Number 28 Ramsay Street . The storyliners felt that they needed to take the show back to its roots , as it seemed that all the houses on the street were populated with misfits and distant relatives . Alan Fletcher was cast in the role of Karl Kennedy and Benjamin McNair , Kym Valentine and Jesse Spencer were cast as teenagers Malcolm , Libby and Billy respectively . Woodburne was cast in the role of Susan , the matriarch of the family . The actress revealed that she only intended to play the part of Susan for twelve months , but she fell in love with the show and stayed . In 1997 , it was revealed that Ailsa Piper ( Ruth Wilkinson ) was considered for the role of Susan .
When asked if she remembered her first day of filming , Woodburne recalled " Yes - I remember it perfectly . We were unpacking stuff from the car and moving into No 28 . I already knew Alan , but I didn 't know the kids . It all just meshed , though , and we knew immediately what type of family we were going to be . " Susan was given a teaching job at the local high school and Karl became the local GP , giving the family immediate links with other characters . In 1995 , Rainey Mayo portrayed a teenage Susan in a daydream . In October 2009 , Woodburne became the longest @-@ serving actress in the show 's history , having appeared on @-@ screen as Susan for fifteen years . Of her television milestone , Woodburne said , " It seems both bizarre and wonderful to me that I 'm coming up to 15 years on the show , even though the world of Neighbours feels instinctive and familiar , I 'm still challenged and rewarded by the work . "
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
On her arrival , Susan was described as being " staid " and more open @-@ minded than her husband , Karl . Woodburne told the Soap Show that Susan is a " good mum " who means well . Her children are her number one priority and she overcompensate 's for her husband 's disciplinarian style . This has led to a Holy Soap writer describing Susan as " the mother hen of the street " . Network Ten say that Susan is the " heart and soul of Erinsborough " , with a good sense of humour and the skills of a ninja . Susan has been through a " rough ride " . She has had to cope with Karl 's infidelity , a divorce , her second husband dying hours after their wedding , being betrayed by her nephew and revealing that she killed her mother . TV Week said " But , through it all , Susan has often provided a home for people in trouble , including a number of the Timmins kids and the kids of her dead husband . " This has made her one of the most " enigmatic and appealing characters " within the show .
In 2003 , Susan 's appearance changed and she was seen having her long hair cut when she wanted a fresh start following a split from Karl . Woodburne has revealed that there is no chance of Susan growing her long hair back . She said " I could never grow it long again . I love the ease of having short hair . Back when it was long , I used to wash and dry my hair every morning at home before going into work . That added an extra half @-@ hour to my day " . She also added that the Neighbours ' bosses at the time believed that women should have long hair . In April 2012 , Susan debuted " a stylish new haircut " representing her single status .
Woodburne has said she never gets bored of playing Susan as she changes all the time . She added " One of the upsides of this job is that in a week you might be doing absolute slapstick comedy , you might be doing high drama / tragedy and in between maybe some nice subtle interesting stuff as well , the character keeps changing and evolving depending on who she is interacting with " . Woodburne has said that her favourite storyline has been the Susan , Karl and Izzy love triangle . As Susan is normally a good person , it gave her a chance to have a character ( Izzy ) that she could hate . Woodburne added " It was good to play those much meaner , darker , angrier , cruel moments than always to be the kind character . It was good to see those dents in her armour I think " .
Towards the end of 2009 , a change occurred in Susan 's personality . During the surrogacy storyline , viewers saw Susan become the " mother @-@ in @-@ law from hell " . Woodbune said that it was challenging trying to change the character of Susan . During clashes with her son @-@ in @-@ law Daniel Fitzgerald ( Brett Tucker ) , Susan was seen becoming controlling and bossy . Woodburne said " As the story progressed it became apparent that we were going to have to go to the extremes of the less attractive qualities of our characters . We talked about it and decided to go for it – he would be the overbearing husband and Susan the mother @-@ in @-@ law from hell " . Woodburne added that Susan is acting out of love for her daughter and for Libby 's desire to have a child . In July 2011 , Woodburne told a writer for Channel 5 that she still found the role of Susan challenging . She explained that she likes Susan because she adapts well and takes all the things that happen to her in her stride . Woodburne said Karl and Susan are now less naive and exuberant due to the things they have gone through . When asked what the future holds for her character , Woodburne stated " You know , I 'm kind of with Susan . I like the Kennedy house when it 's full of noisy kids , being naughty and creating havoc . I like it loud and messy . So that would be my hope , that we get a bit of that happening again . "
= = = Marriage to Karl Kennedy = = =
Susan and Karl were childhood sweethearts who married in 1978 , before they both graduated from university . Karl has cheated on Susan twice with Sarah Beaumont ( Nicola Charles ) and Izzy Hoyland ( Natalie Bassingthwaighte ) and the couple have broken up and divorced , but have later reunited and remarried . Woodburne has named the Karl , Susan and Izzy love triangle as one of her favourite storylines . Woodburne believes that Karl and Susan have a strong connection that is " based upon such a good grounding " . Karl and Susan are best friends who enjoy each other 's company , share a deep connection and take joy in each other 's quirks and ways . Woodburne described them as having a " really solid foundation for a marriage " and she has said that she does not want to see Susan and Karl 's relationship break up again . Holy Soap have called Susan and Karl " contenders for the friskiest couple on Ramsay Street " . Following their " passionate arguments " , the couple enjoy making up together . They have a healthy attraction for each other . Fletcher says he and Woodburne find the scenes " funny " . Fletcher said " Karl and Susan every now and again do go through a phase where they become slightly more amorous than in their tougher times and tougher storylines – suffice to say it 's not bawdy , but I think the audience will enjoy the fun aspect " . Karl and Susan have been caught in the nude together on three occasions ; at the beach , in Lou Carpenter 's ( Tom Oliver ) spa and when they went skinny @-@ dipping in the bush . When asked what makes Karl and Susan popular with viewers , Woodburne said " Because I think they 're so flawed . There 's two things : they make horrendous mistakes , both of them , but they both are coming from a place of well meaning . They 're both wanting to try and do the right thing and be helpful , but so often they get it so terribly wrong , and I think we can all relate to that . "
In May 2011 , it was revealed that Susan and Karl 's marriage would be run into trouble , when Susan becomes emotionally involved with another man . Susan strikes up a friendship with local builder , Jim Dolan ( Scott Parmeter ) , as he fights cancer , causing problems between herself and Karl . When asked by Channel 5 about her reaction to the storyline , Woodburne said " I think it 's a great story . Karl and Susan are both in their 50s ; they 've been married together ; they 've raised a bunch of kids ; they ’ ve had careers and jobs . And to use the popular term ' empty nesters ' , that 's what they ’ re looking at . For him he thinks , ' That 's great , terrific ! More time for us ; we can travel . ' But for her it 's , ' Well , I don 't know how to be that person . I know how to be this person , who 's someone who 's wrangling kids and busy doing things . ' But her challenge I think is going to be to find out who she is as one half of a couple , as opposed to being the hub of a wheel . " The actress revealed she and Fletcher were both worried about Susan and Karl breaking up and having to work with new people , but they believe any new development for the characters is good . Woodburne told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that she thought the new storyline was great and said any relationship which has been going for as long as the Kennedys ' has , will have its " turbulent patches " . Woodburne said Susan develops a very strong attachment to Jim because of her desire to help and be needed . When asked if she was worried about revisiting old ground with the storyline , Woodburne said the new conflict , which arises within Karl and Susan 's relationship , is " very appropriate " for the time of their lives and where they are at .
Susan meets Jim at the hospital and remembers him from the work he did on Lyn Scully 's ( Janet Andrewartha ) house . They get talking and Jim reveals he just had a melanoma removed and he is a bit " bewildered " by the hospital process and Susan helps him out . Jim 's condition grows worse and he is diagnosed with terminal cancer . Susan learns he has no family and Woodburne said she instinctively wants to look after him . The actress said Susan crosses boundaries as she starts to neglect certain areas of her life , like her marriage . She tells Karl not to be selfish and that the situation is not about him or her , it is about Jim . Woodburne explained to Channel 5 that Karl 's reaction to Susan 's friendship with Jim changes and he starts thinking he should not be selfish . However , when he notices his wife becoming more involved with Jim and neglecting her responsibilities , Karl gets angry as she is not thinking about anything else . Susan and Karl 's eldest son , Malcolm , returns to Erinsborough to help his parents work through their issues . Woodburne thought Malcolm was initially on Susan 's side because he can see she is helping someone who is ill , but as he looks more closely he understands why his father is so upset with Susan 's behavior . Susan is upset when she misses Jim 's last moments and blames Karl . They begin rowing , which becomes worse due to Susan 's grief . Susan Hill of the Daily Star revealed Karl and Susan were to separate following a make @-@ or @-@ break holiday . Their decision leaves Malcolm devastated and he takes his anger out on his mother , but Karl then admits it was his decision to end the marriage . Woodburne said the Jim Dolan plot was " a tremendous story which highlighted problems with Susan and Karl 's marriage . " The actress said the storyline was challenging to play because it was emotional and she had to slap Fletcher . Of Susan 's future , Woodburne said " 2012 will be a huge year of adjustment for Susan . She is now single and moves into an apartment of her own – and she has to find her own way . She discovers things about herself that will surprise people . "
= = = Other relationships = = =
Following Karl 's affair with Sarah , Susan goes out to dinner with Martin Chester ( Gil Tucker ) , a former boyfriend and member of Karl 's university band . Woodburne told Annette Dasey of Inside Soap that Karl knows Martin is taking Susan to dinner and he does not think she would be capable of any " misconduct " with him . The actress explained " Susan is very attracted to Martin , but she wouldn 't be aware of it if her marriage was more solid and she wasn 't feeling so unloved . " Woodburne stated that Susan is tempted to have a fling , but she ultimately decides that she wants to save her marriage . Despite Karl 's affair , she still loves him and they need to work through their problems . Woodburne was good friends with Tucker as they previously worked together on Cop Shop .
In 2004 , Susan became involved with Tom Scully ( Andrew Larkins ) , a Priest . Susan and Tom caused a scandal when they began a relationship . Television critic Andrew Mercado said that 2004 went down as " a watershed year for controversy " after Susan had sex with Tom . Woodburne told Jackie Brygel from TV Week that it was a " very hot affair " . Tom left the priesthood for Susan and she confessed her love for him . However , the relationship soon ended . Woodburne commented " It becomes apparent to both of them that it is just not meant to be . They both reach a period in their life when they are feeling low and lonely and aren 't feeling very good about themselves . They just realise that there is no future . " Tom returned in 2007 and he became Principal of Erinsborough High . He told Susan that he never stopped loving her and wanted her back . However , by then she was back with Karl .
Susan has a fling with Bobby Hoyland ( Andrew McFarlane ) in early 2005 . Bobby turns out to be a womaniser after beginning relationships with both Janelle Timmins ( Nell Feeney ) and Lyn Scully . Fergus Shiel of The Age said Bobby provided an outlet for Janelle , Susan and Lyn 's " extramarital desires . " The women later get revenge on Bobby . That same year saw Susan meet widower Alex Kinski ( Andrew Clarke ) and his children . Alex and Susan soon begin a relationship . When Alex is diagnosed with terminal cancer , he and Susan marry , and he dies shortly after . Susan then takes custody of his children .
In 2008 , Susan joined the Erinsborough News and became a journalist . She began working for Paul Robinson ( Stefan Dennis ) . Susan and Paul are enemies , but they have a " grudging respect or interest in each other " . Paul has a shady past and Karl does not trust Paul , so Susan uses her new job to wind Karl up . Susan works closely with Paul and his reputation with the ladies gives Woodburne the opportunity to bring Susan 's sadistic side . Woodburne has said that she wishes for more of that storyline as she and Dennis found it " fun " . She added that " There was a lot of conflict and comedy and it kind of ran its natural course over several weeks . She still works there so the potential for further stories is still there . "
Following her split from Karl in 2012 , Susan meets yoga teacher Bernard Cabello ( Bruce Alexander ) at a gym class . Bernard asks her out for a drink , but Susan turns him down . Susan Hill of the Daily Star said Susan then realises that she needs to start living again and changes her mind . Susan and Bernard 's date coincides with Karl 's first gig with his new band and a show spokesperson explained " Susan has already agreed to be at the gig for moral support and doesn 't think twice about taking Bernard along with her . But Karl is mortified . He 's nervous about the gig so having Susan there on a date makes it even worse for him . "
= = = Retrograde amnesia = = =
In 2002 , Susan developed retrograde amnesia . The storyline saw Susan slip on some spilt milk and sustain a minor head injury . After she goes to sleep , she wakes up and has lost three decades of her life . Woodburne told Inside Soap 's Jason Herbison that Susan believes the year is 1972 and the night before was her sixteenth birthday , where she drank too much champagne . She does not recognise her house and thinks she passed out and ended up somewhere else . Susan 's family take her to the hospital , where she is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia . Karl becomes determined to tell her the truth about her condition , while her nephew , Darcy ( Mark Raffety ) , insists they treat her " with kid gloves . " Woodburne revealed " Susan keeps asking when she 's going to be allowed home to see her parents , and eventually Karl breaks the news - her parents are long dead and she 's actually 45 , not 16 as she believes . And on top of that , Karl is her husband ! " Susan turns to her daughter Libby – who she believes is her sister Carmel ( Kirsty Child ) – for comfort . But when Libby confirms what Karl has told her , Susan leaves the hospital . Susan spots some students in Seventies clothes and she follows them to a Seventies themed party at Erinsborough High . However , the students recognise Susan as their principal , which distresses her . Susan ends up in the bathroom and she sees herself in the mirror for the first time since the accident , and is shocked to see a middle @-@ aged woman staring back at her .
As she struggles with her condition , doctors suggest to Karl that going back to familiar surroundings may trigger the return of her memories . Susan is brought to Ramsay Street , but nothing happens . Woodburne stated that Susan hates her hair and her clothes and wants to change everything . Karl takes her to Lyn Scully 's salon and manages to persuade her to have her hair styled rather than cut short . While she is at the salon , Susan remembers her high school sweetheart , Craig Benson ( Tim Hughes ) , and decides to find him . Woodburne told Herbison " As far as she 's concerned , Craig is her boyfriend and they 're in love . So she looks him up in the phone book and sets off to find him . " Woodburne added that there was a danger the storyline could cross a line and become silly , but the crew tried to portray the fear a person would feel when everything is suddenly unfamiliar . Susan falls in love with Karl and her memories return during their vow renewal service . During a 2012 interview , Woodburne told a What 's on TV reporter that she and the writers initially joked about the storyline , but they found some truth in it . She explained " It was actually based on a story of a woman who lived in England . The same thing happened to her . She fell over in a supermarket . Between leaving the supermarket and getting home , she 'd lost 30 years . I don 't think she recovered . She had a husband and grown @-@ up children and she had no idea who they were . Imagine the terror and the fear of being surrounded by these people who tell you that they are your family . But you feel nothing . "
= = = Multiple sclerosis = = =
Susan was diagnosed with Multiple sclerosis in 2007 . Two years prior , MS Australia pitched a storyline to the Neighbours team asking for a character to be diagnosed with MS and for them to then show the impact MS can have on a community . The society contacted a producer and discussed a possible storyline for a young character in her twenties who had a promising career and family ahead of her . In 2006 , the society received a phone call from one of the writers who revealed that they had chosen to write an MS story into the show and they had selected Susan Kennedy to be the character that was going to be diagnosed . The society was initially disappointed , as Susan was older than the typical person diagnosed with the condition . However , they were pleased that a permanent character and not an extra was chosen . MS Australia attended a meeting with the Neighbours writers to help develop a realistic and true portrayal of the diagnosis , symptoms and treatments . On @-@ screen Susan was seen displaying unusual symptoms , including black outs and loss of sight and sensation in her hands . She was then seen undergoing an MRI scan , before she was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis .
Woodburne was initially against Susan developing the condition , but when she started researching it , she realised how much of a challenge the storyline would be and she changed her mind . The actress and the shows writers worked closely with the MS Society to make the storyline as realistic as possible and it was praised by both the society and viewers who have the condition . Jenna Litchfield of the MS Society said soap opera storylines in which characters are diagnosed with MS helped to highlight the condition and its effects . She added that the storyline had " sparked interest . " Of the storyine , Woodburne stated " It 's a massive story and to take a character that has always been so strong and to challenge them physically and emotionally was terrific . I know that the writing department did an enormous amount of research . " Woodburne also explained that as Susan is such a strong person mentally , she goes through an emotional struggle when her body lets her down . Woodburne commented that she found the scenes distressing to play as she is so attached to her character . She told a writer for Inside Soap that it was a difficult storyline , but " ultimately rewarding " . On screen , Susan learnt how to keep her symptoms under control and Woodburne said she would occasionally have a relapse , as the condition does not go away . In 2011 , Woodburne commented on the MS storyline , which she enjoyed , saying it was very challenging to tell a good story and make it authentic and real for people who have the condition .
In April 2012 , Susan starts to struggle with her MS again , following her split from Karl and her promotion to editor of the Erinsborough News . Jackie Brygel of TV Week said Susan has a lot to prove with Paul breathing down her neck , but her new role puts her health in jeopardy when she begins displaying signs of an MS relapse . Woodburne explained " She 's working 24 hours a day to try to get the paper to take on a different form and is running herself into the ground . She 's unable to stop the trembling in her hand , is quite dizzy and her vision becomes blurred - all indications of an MS relapse , which would be her worst nightmare . " Susan Hill of the Daily Star reported Susan refuses to turn to Karl , who always helped her with an episode , and instead she relies on help from Rhys Lawson ( Ben Barber ) . Woodburne revealed Karl asks Susan to slow down , but she ignores him . The actress said Karl is looking at the situation from the perspective of an ex @-@ husband who has feelings for her , but also as a doctor . Susan finds herself unable to do the housework , but Rhys understands that she wants to keep her independence . A spokesperson told Hill " She always knew it was going to be hard living alone but Karl is the last person she wants to turn to . She doesn 't want to admit she needs him but she does . In the end she confides in Dr Rhys . "
= = = Surrogacy = = =
In 2009 , Susan was seen offering to become a surrogate for her daughter Libby . Following a fight with the hospital board , Susan became pregnant . However , this causes friction with her son @-@ in @-@ law . Following a fall , Susan loses the baby . Woodburne called the scenes " difficult " to film . Alan Fletcher said the storyline " could have been dreadful in the wrong hands " , but he was pleased at the way the scenes were handled . He added " The notion of a mother being a surrogate for their daughter is something you can 't pretend is not controversial . The writers embraced that and showed how Susan 's decision divided the community , and has potential to divide the family " . Neighbours ' timeslot presented difficulties for the storyline . The writers were forced to tone the plot down to comply with guidelines . Woodburne said " Because of the time of day that our show is on — it 's on at 6 @.@ 30 here and day time in the UK — obviously doing something as controversial as surrogacy at that time slot we would be so restricted by censorship " . The storyline received mixed reactions from viewers . Woodburne said that people believe Susan is " such a good mother and it 's awesome she 's prepared to do this for Libby and Dan " . Other viewers have said that Susan should not have got involved and that the storyline was ridiculous as Susan is too old . Neighbours executive producer Susan Bower also spoke out about the storyline and said " I 've had quite a few letters from people in England who 'd heard about it before it was even in the papers in Australia saying they disagree and think it 's shocking " .
= = = Cyber @-@ bullying = = =
Following the failed surrogacy , Susan decides to enroll on a media course at Eden Hills University . In June 2010 , she begins receiving threats via text messages and emails , telling her to stay away from the university . She is later followed by an unseen person in a car . Susan later spots the car outside her house and she is very frightened . The cyber bully brings up some of Susan 's personal issues within their threats and this make her feel vulnerable . They also make places that Susan has previously felt safe in , feel unsafe . Of this Woodburne said " To feel so vulnerable in your own neighbourhood would be just awful . I think I would be equally frightened " . As Susan suffers from multiple sclerosis , the stress has a big impact upon her health . Woodburne said that Susan is usually a very strong person mentally , but she feels out of control because the situation is distressing her . She becomes a victim . Susan tries to stand up to the bully and refuses to stay away from the university . However , when she arrives for her lesson , she receives another threatening message . This terrifies her and she locks herself in the toilets .
Eventually Susan learns her tutor , John Bradley ( Laurence Brewer ) , is behind the threats . Susan had trusted John , so she is shocked to find that he is her bully . Of Susan 's discovery , Woodburne said " It 's so unexpected because it 's somebody she believed to be of great integrity and someone who she thought was on her side " . John , who is described as a " seriously unhinged individual " , kidnaps Susan when she confronts him . He holds her captive and becomes very angry . He confesses to Susan that he is behind the threats . He tells her that in 1995 , when Susan was a teacher at Erinsborough High , she gave him a bad report and he failed his teaching course . Susan is compassionate , but she does not let him get away with his crime and he is arrested . By standing up to him , Susan loses her anxiety .
= = Storylines = =
When Susan 's husband , Karl , is suspected of causing the death of a patient , he decides to move their family to Erinsborough for a fresh start . As Susan settles into Ramsay Street , she hopes to get back into teaching . Susan gets involved in the drama society and works at the Coffee Shop for Annalise Hartman ( Kimberley Davies ) . Karl wants to have another child , but Susan is opposed to the idea . She later decides that she wants to return to teaching and is given a job at Erinsborough High . Susan chaperones Brett Stark ( Brett Blewitt ) on a trip to South Africa and she confesses to him that she helped her mother to die . Susan invites Billy 's best friend , Toadfish Rebecchi ( Ryan Moloney ) to move in and he becomes a surrogate son after Malcolm leaves . Susan is offered the position of principal at a school in Wangaratta and she accepts , knowing that she will have to leave her family . After a few months , Susan is offered the job of principal at Erinsborough High . While Susan is away , Karl kisses his receptionist , Sarah Beaumont ( Nicola Charles ) . Susan learns the truth about the kiss several months later from Billy and she confronts Karl . He admits to the kiss and Susan slaps him ; she then throws him out . It takes months before Susan forgives Karl , but they work on trying to save their marriage by attending counselling . Susan and Libby befriend new neighbours Lyn and Stephanie Scully ( Carla Bonner ) .
Libby is involved in a motorbike accident that leaves her with a small chance of carrying a baby to full term . Susan and Karl break the news to her . Libby later falls pregnant and gives birth to Susan and Karl 's first grandchild , Ben ( Noah Sutherland ) . Susan almost loses her job as principal when a student reports her for assault ; however , the case is later dropped . Susan 's nephew Darcy Tyler becomes partner in Karl 's surgery and plots to sell the business to a clinic chain . Darcy tells Karl and Susan what he is doing , and Susan is furious with her nephew . Susan 's sister , Liz ( Christine Keogh ) , leaves her daughter Elly ( Kendell Nunn ) with the Kennedys for a brief time ; Elly later joins her mother in Sweden . Susan slips on some spilt milk and wakes up with retrograde amnesia . She loses thirty years of her memory and believes she is sixteen and the year is 1972 . Susan goes through months of counselling to try and regain her memory . During this time , she tells Karl that she does not like him and she goes missing when she tries to find an old boyfriend . Susan begins having flashbacks and starts to regain her memory . Libby 's husband Drew Kirk ( Dan Paris ) dies and Susan finds it hard to comfort her daughter . Susan grows closer to Karl and he asks her to renew their vows . During the ceremony , Susan 's memory returns .
Karl tells Susan that he no longer loves her after his drinking puts their marriage under strain . They separate , and Karl begins a relationship with Izzy Hoyland ( Natalie Bassingthwaighte ) . Susan begins dating again and she falls for Lyn 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Tom Scully , a Catholic Priest . Lyn and Libby are unhappy about the relationship and it eventually ends . Karl and Susan divorce , but they remain friends . Susan begins a relationship with Alex Kinski ( Andrew Clarke ) after he enrolls his children Rachel ( Caitlin Stasey ) and Zeke ( Matthew Werkmeister ) at Erinsborough High . Alex is diagnosed with Lymphoma and he asks Susan to marry him ; she accepts . Alex 's condition deteriorates and they decide to marry right away . The marriage is witnessed by Karl , Rachel , Zeke , and Alex 's older daughter , Katya ( Dichen Lachman ) . Alex passes away shortly after . Susan begins to fall for Karl again and she declares her love for him . They get back together in secret , but Rachel and Zeke find out the truth and believe that Susan did not love their father . They later give Karl and Susan their blessings . While Susan and Karl are on holiday in London , Karl proposes for a third time . Susan immediately accepts and they remarry on a boat on the Thames . The ceremony is interrupted when Izzy goes into labour and Karl delivers her daughter , Holly ( Chaya Broadmore ) . Susan discovers that Karl is Holly 's father and she tells him when they get back home .
During a period of ill health , Susan hits Bridget Parker ( Eloise Mignon ) with her car after passing out . Susan is unaware that she has struck Bridget and she leaves the scene . When she realises that she is responsible , Susan confesses and it causes a bitter feud between the Kennedys and the Parkers . However , during Susan 's trial , Bridget remembers falling into the path of the car and that the collision was unavoidable . Soon afterwards , following a series of incorrect diagnoses , Susan is diagnosed with multiple sclerosis . Susan is shocked and scared , and Karl and Libby try to help her . Susan collapses at Toadie and Steph 's wedding rehearsal and she goes to a multiple sclerosis retreat for professional help . Susan takes sick leave from the school and becomes a journalist for the Erinsborough News . After Libby is told she cannot have any more children , she and Dan decide to try surrogacy . Susan offers to be their surrogate , despite Karl 's objections . Paul Robinson finds out about the surrogacy and writes a newspaper article about it , without knowing the identity of the family involved . When he finds out that Susan is the surrogate , he makes it public . The family face abuse and the hospital board decide to end the programme .
Libby and Dan protest against the decision and Susan tries blackmailing a senior board member . The board change their minds and Susan becomes pregnant . Dan finds it hard to relate to Susan and begins to question her part in his and Libby 's lives . Karl books a holiday for them all to get away and talk . Dan and Susan argue about where the baby will be brought up and Dan says that he regrets agreeing to the surrogacy . When Dan goes for a walk , Susan follows him and they continue to argue . Dan walks away and Susan tries running after him , but she trips and falls . She calls out , but Dan does not hear her and he walks off . Libby and Karl find Susan and rush her to the hospital , where Susan miscarries . Susan attends the memorial for Libby and Dan 's baby and during Dan 's speech , she lashes out at him . As everyone leaves the park , Susan collapses and reveals that she cannot feel her legs . Susan has an MS relapse , but she recovers . Susan and Karl take up golf , and Susan also enrols in a media course at Eden Hills University . She begins receiving threats , which tell her to leave the university . Susan is deeply upset by the threats and her family worry that the stress will lead to an MS relapse .
Susan discovers her tutor , John Bradley , is behind the threats . When Susan asks John why he threatened her , he tells her she gave him a bad mark when he was a student teacher . Susan supports Libby when she learns that Steph had sex with Dan , and is carrying his child . Susan is angry with Toadie when she discovers he helped Steph cover up the lie . When Paul is pushed off the Lassiter 's Hotel mezzanine , Susan begins investigating who is responsible , and makes Diana Marshall ( Jane Badler ) her prime suspect . Susan then receives text messages from an anonymous person , telling her that Diana was not the one who pushed Paul . Rebecca confesses to Susan that she pushed Paul and Kate Ramsay ( Ashleigh Brewer ) gave her a false alibi . Susan persuades Kate to go to the police . Susan is devastated when Ringo dies and she feels guilty because she was taking care of him for Prue ( Penny Cook ) , Ringo 's mother . When Lyn leaves town , Susan invites Summer Hoyland ( Jordy Lucas ) to stay . Karl tells Susan that he thinks they are heading in different directions and he worries that he is not enough for her . They make up and plan a holiday together .
Susan meets Jim Dolan at the hospital and she asks him to talk about the Patient Advocacy Program for a news article . Jim reveals that he has cancer and Susan supports him during his treatments . Malcolm comes to visit his parents and detects all is not well between them . Susan becomes worried when Jim does not answer her calls and Karl confesses that he asked Jim to keep his distance , which angers Susan . She accuses Karl of being jealous . Karl invites Jim over for lunch and he notices the map and leaflets for Peru . Jim works out Susan is delaying the holiday for him . He then collapses and Susan begs Karl to save him . Susan comforts Jim when he realises he is going to die and she tries to take him out of the hospital , so they can visit his childhood home , as promised . Karl stops her and when they step outside to talk , Jim dies . Susan is devastated and blames Karl for keeping her from Jim . She then leaves to arrange Jim 's funeral . On her return , Susan and Karl announce that they are separating . Malcolm initially blames Susan for the split , but Karl confesses it was his idea . Karl tells Susan that he cannot be just friends with her and he looks for somewhere else to live . Susan starts a book group with Kate and Sonya Mitchell ( Eve Morey ) .
Susan suspects Karl is having an affair with Jade Mitchell ( Gemma Pranita ) , but is disappointed to learn that it was Malcolm . Karl and Susan get stuck in a storage shed and they reminisce about their past . They share a kiss goodbye and Susan goes to stay with Toadie and Sonya . Susan notices Audrey is not herself and she and Karl learn Audrey is dying . They care for her before she is put to sleep . When Karl goes to bury Audrey in the garden , Susan stops him and says she wants Audrey to be buried somewhere that she can visit often . They argue , but put aside their differences when Audrey 's body , which was placed in an esky , is collected by a hard rubbish collector . Karl rescues the esky and he and Susan bury Audrey at Sonya 's nursery . Susan soon finds an apartment to move into . Susan accompanies Karl to the funeral of an old friend and they share a drink together . Paul asks Susan to write a negative article about Ajay Kapoor ( Sachin Joab ) and the community centre plans , but she refuses . She later discovers Paul sabotaged Natasha Williams 's ( Valentina Novakovic ) party by inviting gatecrashers to it , so he could continue his vendetta against Ajay and the police station merger . Susan tells Paul to publish a retraction or she will write an exposé .
Paul blackmails Susan into keeping quiet by threatening to fire Summer . However , Summer finds out what Paul has done and Susan reveals the truth in front of council members and the press . Paul stands down as editor and gives the job to Susan . Susan fires an employee when she discovers they have been spying for Paul and she takes on extra work . Karl expresses his concern for her health , but Susan reassures him she is fine . However , she suffers an MS relapse and is treated by Rhys . Susan attends a yoga class and befriends the teacher , Bernard Cabello . Bernard asks Susan out for a drink , but she declines . However , she changes her mind and asks Bernard to dinner instead . Susan invites Bernard to go and see Karl 's band play at Charlie 's . At the end of the night , Bernard shocks Susan by suddenly kissing her . Susan then tries to avoid Bernard and Vanessa Villante ( Alin Sumarwata ) tells him that Susan is not interested in dating him . Susan befriends Rhys 's mother , Elaine ( Sancia Robinson ) , but Rhys angrily tells Susan to stay away from Elaine . He later apologises . Susan goes to Montreal for a course , but returns home early to discover that Paul was planning to take back his job as editor .
Susan hires Bradley Fox ( Aaron Jeffery ) as deputy editor to take on some of her workload . She also begins attending a pole dancing class at the community centre . Susan becomes concerned when Bradley and Summer start dating , especially when they use the newspaper office for a late night hook @-@ up . Susan checks Bradley 's references and discovers that he has lied . She also learns that he was fired from his last job for dating his boss ' daughter . Susan briefly falls out with Summer when she tries to warn her about Bradley . Susan 's sister , Carmel , comes to visit and she develops feelings for Karl . Carmel makes sexual advances towards Karl , which he rejects . Susan is angry with Carmel , but eventually forgives her . Susan is shocked when she learns Paul has sold the Erinsborough News , without consulting her . Things become worse for Susan when she learns that Sarah Beaumont is overseeing the sale of the paper . Sarah apologises to Susan for everything that happened in the past , but Susan struggles to deal with her presence . When Karl tells her that he loves her , Susan rejects him . She later hands him divorce papers and confronts Sarah .
Karl admits to Susan that he and Sarah had sex all those years ago and she tells him that she already knew in her heart , Karl then signs the divorce papers . Susan realises that she does not want to get divorced and hurries to find Karl , before he can lodge the papers . Susan tracks him down and they forgive each other for their past mistakes , before kissing in the street . Susan then moves back into Number 28 . After Priya is suspended from her job as principal of Erinsborough High , Susan is offered the job . She initially decides not to tell Priya about the offer , which causes them to briefly fall out . Susan helps Priya to get her job back by blackmailing Brian O 'Loughlin ( Paul Denny ) into withdrawing his false accusations of harassment against her . Following Priya 's death , Susan is again offered her job as principal and she accepts . Karl 's daughter , Holly ( Lucinda Armstrong Hall ) comes to stay , while Izzy goes on a cruise with her new partner . Holly is initially rude to Susan , who becomes exasperated when Karl refuses to see that she is running rings around them . However , they later realise that Holly 's issues are due to Izzy 's abandonment of her . Karl asks Holly to stay with him and Susan , but Susan senses that Holly misses her mother and Karl takes her back to England .
When Susan suspects that Imogen Willis ( Ariel Kaplan ) might have an eating disorder , she raises the issue with Imogen 's mother , Terese ( Rebekah Elmaloglou ) , who dismisses her suspicions . Susan reopens the PirateNet radio station for the students , after Jack Lassiter ( Alan Hopgood ) donates money to the school . Susan has doubts about employing Gemma Reeves ( Kathryn Beck ) , but Toadie persuades her to give his cousin a chance . Susan and Karl allow Rhiannon ( Teressa Liane ) and Jackson Bates ( Finn Woodlock ) to stay with them and Susan tries to help Rhiannon better herself . Susan suffers an MS relapse , but hides it from Karl as he is preoccupied by the local mayoral election . Susan confides in Kate instead . As the election heats up , Paul discovers Susan 's MS relapse and reveals it to everyone , including Karl , during his campaign announcement , leaving Karl upset to why she did not confide in him . They soon make up , and Susan recovers from her relapse to support Karl through the election ; however , Paul ultimately beats him to becoming mayor . When Georgia Brooks ( Saskia Hampele ) discovers she is pregnant , Susan supports her as she decides not to confide in her family and the baby 's father Kyle Canning ( Chris Milligan ) .
Zeke returns for a visit and he reveals that he is getting married . After the wedding , Susan decides to become a marriage celebrant . Following Kate 's death , Susan , at Imogen 's suggestion , organises a celebration of Kate 's life at Lassiter 's Lake . A grieving Paul forbids this and the memorial is held at the high school instead . Susan comforts Paul when he breaks down . Susan performs the vow renewal of Matt ( Josef Brown ) and Lauren Turner ( Kate Kendall ) . Susan brings Holly back to Erinsborough for a visit to surprise Karl . Libby and Ben ( now Felix Mallard ) also return . When Susan falls ill , she asks Libby to become acting principal . Libby later realises that Karl and Susan have been trying to trick her into staying in Erinsborough , and they apologise . Susan reads an erotic novel written by " E. M. Williams " , who has obvious knowledge of Ramsay Street . She discovers that Karl penned the book . Alex 's nephew , Nate ( Meyne Wyatt ) , moves in with Susan and Karl . Susan gets Nate to open up to her about his time in the army . When a tornado hits Erinsborough , Susan waits it out in Harold 's Store with Lou Carpenter ( Tom Oliver ) . When the roof collapses , Lou is trapped by a beam and he chokes on a piece of food . Guided by Karl over the phone , Susan performs an emergency tracheotomy on Lou . He makes a full recovery , but Susan is traumatised by the event and Nate helps counsel her through post @-@ traumatic stress .
Malcolm visits his parents and informs them that Catherine is pregnant . He asks Susan and Karl to relocate to England and help him and Catherine out with the baby . Susan and Karl reminisce about their time on Ramsay Street and they decide to stay . Susan counsels Nate through his PTS , but she is affected by Nate 's stories and becomes depressed herself . She seeks professional counselling at the hospital and tries to find Nate a qualified counsellor . She notices that Nate 's progress has suffered and follows him out to the bush when he acts strangely . She falls in a hole he is digging as therapy and he nearly buries her alive , but sees her in time and rescues her . Susan falls out with Brad Willis ( Kip Gamblin ) when Karl accidentally drinks a chemical catalyst Brad was using in the Men 's Shed . She questions Brad 's commitment to teaching . Susan and Sheila are named judges for the Erinsborough Festival Bake @-@ Off , but decide to enter the competition instead . They compete against Janelle Timmins ( Nell Feeney ) , but after their bakes fall to the floor , Karl is declared the winner . After Karl learns Susan has a secret bank account , which contains her mad money , she dares him to spend big and he buys into the Off Air bar .
Susan is asked to act as a marriage celebrant for Coco Lee ( Sophie Cheeseman ) , but she soon learns from Nate that Coco 's fiancé , Alistair Hall ( Nick Cain ) , kissed him . Susan refuses to perform the ceremony and Alistair makes a complaint against her , as he believes Susan told Coco about the kiss . He later drops the complaint . Karl and Susan take in Tyler Brennan ( Travis Burns ) , while Ben comes to stay when Libby goes overseas for work . Susan supports Terese when she and Brad separate due to his affair with Lauren . They briefly fall out when Terese asks Susan to pick a side . Paul informs Susan that Erinsborough High and its grounds are being sold to Eden Hills Grammar . She later learns that she will not be kept on as principal and contemplates retirement . She and Brad then team up to save the school , organising a sleep @-@ out in protest to the council 's plans . A fire breaks out , trapping Susan with a heavily pregnant Amber Turner ( Jenna Rosenow ) , who goes into labour . They are eventually rescued by the fire fighters . After seeing how upset Susan is about the school , Ben confesses to starting the fire . Susan later learns that the school has been saved .
= = Reception = =
= = = Accolades = = =
Woodburne has earned various award nominations for her role as Susan . In 2005 , she was nominated for Best Female Performance in a Soap from the Rose d 'Or Awards . At the 2007 Inside Soap Awards , Woodburne was nominated for Best Actress , Best Couple ( with Alan Fletcher ) and Best Storyline for Susan and Karl 's wedding . The following year , Woodburne was again nominated for Best Actress , Best Couple and Best Storyline for Susan 's MS diagnosis . 2009 saw Woodburne again nominated for Best Actress , she was also nominated alongside Fletcher , Valentine , Stasey and Werkmeister for Best Family .
At the first Digital Spy Soap Awards ceremony , Woodburne was nominated for Most Popular Actress . She and Fletcher were also nominated for Best On @-@ Screen Partnership and their 2007 storyline in London was nominated for Storyline of the Year . In 2010 , the surrogacy storyline was nominated for best Baby Drama at the All About Soap Awards . That same year saw Woodburne nominated for Best Daytime Star at the Inside Soap Awards . The actress garnered nominations in the same category in 2011 and 2012 . She won the award in 2015 . Woodburne has been nominated for the TV Tonight Award for Most Underrated Performer seven times , and won in 2007 , 2011 and 2012 .
= = = Critical response = = =
During a feature on fictional television teachers , Susan was praised by teaching website TES Connect . Along with Will Schuester from American television show Glee , TES said that there are some teachers on television who manage to portray " convincing representations of the highs and lows of the job " . They also added " Susan Kennedy from Neighbours manages to be the comforting mother figure as well as coming down hard when necessary " . The Times named Susan 's amnesia storyline as one of their top 15 most memorable Neighbours moments . They said " She slipped on milk , bumped her head and thought she was 16 again . Her failure to understand why she was living with a family on Ramsay Street lasted nearly a year " . Television channel Five 's Holy Soap website also named the storyline as Susan 's most memorable moment , calling it " classic viewing " .
TV Scoop praised Woodburne 's performance during the MS storyline . They said , " Susan 's real life alter ego , Jackie Woodburne got to show off her excellent acting . As Susan 's vision went , and later as she was put into the MRI scanner , Woodburne portrayed real fear and panic " . TV Week named Susan as their third " Top Aussie TV Mum " . They said " strong @-@ spirited Susan has always doted on her kids , even while putting up with cheating hubby Karl ( Alan Fletcher ) . The modern mum has seen it all , and still comes up smiling . In 2010 , Susan was voted the third " Most Popular TV Mum " in a survey carried out by Yahoo ! . Susan was placed seventh in a similar survey carried out by Vouchercodes.co.uk , to find " Britain 's favourite television mother " . They said " viewers identified with love for her family " . In April 2010 , Sky included Susan in their feature on the twenty @-@ five most memorable Neighbours characters . They stated ,
" Kindly but strong matriarch Susan may not be the most medically robust woman ( amnesia , multiple sclerosis , frequent questionable haircuts ) , but she gets by thanks to her family . She 's so devoted , in fact , that after Malcolm , Billy and Libby ( sort of ) flew the nest , she went and inherited Zeke and Rachel from second husband Alex . Despite her big heart , she can be counted on to get fierce with anyone who tries to upset the Ramsay Street balance – her frequent fights with Izzy in the middle of the street over Karl cemented her reputation as everyone 's favourite soap mum . "
British newspaper , The Sun named Susan a " yummy mummy " and included her in a feature about over @-@ 30s female soap stars . Alan Fletcher has written a song dedicated to his screen wife titled " I 've Got a Crush on Susie K " . Bree Hoskin writing for LGBT website Gaydar said the one good thing to come of Izzy 's scheming was Susan finally had her hair cut in an attempt to move on with her life . Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap said that Susan and Karl are Neighbours ' version of Deirdre and Ken Barlow from Coronation Street . Ellis added that they are bound to get back together in the end . Of Susan and Karl 's split , the Daily Mail 's Jaci Stephen wrote " The gorgeous Karl and Susan are meant to be together . Every time they break up , it 's like being torn limb from limb – and that 's just for me . "
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= Cannons ( house ) =
Cannons was a stately home in Little Stanmore , Middlesex , built by James Brydges , 1st Duke of Chandos , between 1713 and 1724 at a cost of £ 200 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 28 @,@ 130 @,@ 000 today ) but which in 1747 was razed and its contents dispersed .
The name " Cannons " is an obsolete spelling of " canons " and refers to the Augustinian canons of St Bartholomew 's Hospital , London , which owned the estate before the English Reformation .
Cannons was the focus of the first Duke 's artistic patronage – patronage which led to his nickname " The Apollo of the Arts " . Brydges filled Cannons with Old Masters and Grand Tour acquisitions , and also appointed Handel as resident house composer from 1717 to 1718 . Such was the fame of Cannons that members of the public flocked to visit the estate in great numbers and Alexander Pope was unjustly accused of having represented the house as " Timon 's Villa " in his Epistle Of Taste ( 1731 ) .
The Cannons estate was acquired by Chandos in 1713 from the uncle of his first wife , Mary Lake . Mary 's great @-@ grandfather Sir Thomas Lake had acquired the manor of Great Stanmore in 1604 . Following the first Duke 's death in 1744 , Cannons passed to his son Henry Brydges , 2nd Duke of Chandos . Due to the cost of building Cannons and significant losses to the family fortune in the South Sea Bubble there was little liquid capital in Henry 's inheritance , so in 1747 he held a twelve @-@ day demolition sale at Cannons which saw both the contents and the very structure of the house itself sold piecemeal leaving little more than a ruin barely thirty years after its inception . The subsequent villa built by William Hallett is now occupied by North London Collegiate School .
= = History = =
There is archaeological evidence the site was used in Roman times for brick and tile making .
In mediaeval times the site was a part of the endowment of the Priory of St Bartholomew 's which operated St Bartholomew 's Hospital in London . This gave it the name Cannons , canon was an archaic term for certain orders of monks including the Augustinians of St Bartholomew 's Priory . At the dissolution of the monasteries the land was sold into private hands in 1543 . A large house was built during the 16th and 17th centuries at one point owned by Thomas Lake , James I 's Chancellor of the Exchequer .
James Brydges was an MP for Hereford who achieved the post of Paymaster General to the Forces . He retired in 1713 with a fortune of £ 600 @,@ 000 , worth £ 58 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today , he had gained by speculation with the money in his care . Brydges had inherited Cannons from his first wife Mary who died in 1712 . In 1713 he married his cousin Cassandra Willoughby and began to enlarge the house . Brydges took personal control of the project and it was the work of a string of architects and landscape gardeners , who changed as they fell into and out of favour . He used the house as a setting for his patronage of the arts stocking it with paintings , sculpture and holding opera performances . It was completed by 1720 .
Brydges was made earl of Caernavon in 1714 and later became duke of Chandos . His fortunes were damaged by financial losses in the South Sea Bubble of 1720 . However , when his wife died in 1735 , he remarried a wealthy 43 year @-@ old widow , Lady Lydia Davall , who had £ 40 @,@ 000 to her name .
Chandos died in 1744 and his debts were by then so great that his heirs had no choice but to sell the house and contents in a demolition auction of 1747 . The architectural building adornments were sold off to other grand projects . The Palladian columns form the portico of the National Gallery in London .
A more modest house was built on the site in 1760 by William Hallet who had acquired wealth through his skill at cabinet making . This was itself enlarged by a succession of owners , notably Dennis O ’ Kelly owner of the outstanding racehorse Eclipse . By 1896 the parkland had begun to be sold off as building plots . Sir Arthur du Cros of Dunlop Rubber became tenant in 1902 and bought it in 1911 . He engaged the celebrated Arts and Crafts architect Charles Mallows to remodel and enlarge the building between 1905 @-@ 1908 . The exterior of the current building is largely his work .
In 1929 the house was bought by the North London Collegiate School who still occupy it today . Part of the gardens remain as Canons Park in the care of the London Borough of Harrow .
The house gives its name to the modern local district , Canon 's Park , which is largely built upon its parkland and is a wealthy north London suburb . This in turn gave its name to the Underground station of Canons Park on the Jubilee line .
= = Architecture = =
Chandos remodelled the pre @-@ existing Jacobean house built by Thomas Lake ( which is believed to have been designed by John Thorpe ) . The new three @-@ storey house took 10 years to complete and was designed as a square block with four new pedimented facades and a large internal courtyard .
The Duke went through several architects beginning with William Talman in 1713 who produced twelve plans but was dismissed in 1714 before starting any building on the main house . Next was John James who designed the north and west ranges ( and also rebuilt the local parish church , St Lawrence , Whitchurch , with a baroque interior ) . On advice from Sir John Vanbrugh the Duke appointed James Gibbs in 1715 . Gibbs is known as an architect who worked in a baroque idiom but incorporated palladian elements . He designed the chapel ( consecrated 29 August 1720 ) as well as the final designs for the four new facades . The designs for the interiors did not meet with approval from Vanbrugh who commented " The fronts v.fine ... But the inside is of poor Invention " and Gibbs was dismissed in 1719 . Cannons was completed under the supervision of the Duke 's surveyors John Price and latterly Edward Shepard . A contemporary account from a 1722 visitor at the time that the finishing touches were being made to the interiors records :
The Salon ... is to be supported by Marble Pillars and painted by Paullucci [ sic Bellucci ] ; as is the great Staircase , which is all of Marble ... this Staircase leads you into the Royal Apartments fronting the Parterre and grand canal and consists of a Suite of six noble rooms well proportioned , finely plaister 'd and gilt by Pargotti [ sic Giovanni Bagutti , a Swiss @-@ Italian plasterer associated with the architect Gibbs ] and the Ceilings painted by Paullucci ; from these Apartments you go into my Lords dressing room and Library , fronting the gardens .
Due to having five different architects working on the house and the Duke 's constantly changing vision , Cannons encompassed both Palladian and Baroque elements and has been described both as one of the last great Baroque houses and also as contributing towards the development of Palladianism in England .
= = Gardens = =
The grounds of Cannons extended to 105 acres ( 0 @.@ 42 km2 ) and were renowned for their magnificence . There was a pleasure garden an orchard and a grand terrace opening on to a parterre containing gilded statues .
Chandos had a water engineer of international fame in his household – his chaplain , the Rev John Theophilus Desaguliers , FRS . Desaguliers created a system of pipes of different materials and bores to feed the water features . In fact , he was better @-@ known for his scientific expertise than his interest in his parishioners . The water gardens , which included a great basin , a canal and numerous ornamental fountains led Nicholas Hawksmoor to comment " I cannot but own that the water at Cannon 's ... is the main beauty of that situation and it cost him dear " .
Another FRS associated with the Cannons garden was Richard Bradley , a horticulturalist who was to become the first professor of botany at the University of Cambridge . Bradley , who dedicated a gardening book to the Duke , supplied plants for the gardens .
Chandos , together with his head gardener Tilleman Bobart , oversaw changes at Cannons reflecting the eighteenth @-@ century movement towards a more naturalistic style of landscape gardening . Some features from the original park survive , including two lakes , the Basin Lake and the Seven Acre Lake . English Heritage has included Canons Park on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens .
= = Art and music = =
Chandos began collecting paintings before Cannons was built . Chandos , who had good contacts in the art market in the Netherlands , sometimes bought works unseen , relying on the judgement of his agents . One of the difficulties he faced in acquiring the best continental art was that the War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701 – 1714 ) , which was a key factor in his great wealth , also made it more difficult to import art directly from Italy . Even so , his collection of Italian paintings included some of the great masters . Chandos also commissioned painters directly , for example , the portraitists Michael Dahl and Sir Godfrey Kneller , and the decorative painters Antonio Bellucci , Louis Laguerre and William Kent who worked on the interiors of the house . Chandos was a patron of the sculptors Grinling Gibbons and John Nost .
Chandos maintained a musical establishment ; some of the musicians are known to have doubled as household servants but even so , musical standards were very high . The music director for twenty years was the German composer Johann Christoph Pepusch . He wrote a number of pieces of church music for the Cannons chapel . The size of the musical establishment at Cannons declined in the 1720s in response to the family 's losses in the South Sea Bubble , a financial crash which took place in 1720 .
By far the most famous musician associated with Cannons is George Frideric Handel . He attracted the patronage of noblemen such as Richard Boyle , 3rd Earl of Burlington , and he was based at Burlington House before becoming Cannons ’ resident composer from 1717 to 1718 . It has been suggested that the move to Cannons was related to the fact that in 1717 there was reduced demand for his services in central London because operatic productions were experiencing a downturn .
Chandos had a taste for Italianate music and in 1719 became a patron of Handel 's opera company in London . At Cannons , as well as employing continental musicians as composers , he also engaged continental instrumentalists . The singers , on the other hand , seem to have been mainly English , rather than the highly trained and expensive Italians who were the stars of the London opera scene .
= = Demolition and dispersal = =
The Brydges lost a significant part of their fortune when the South Sea Bubble burst and their finances never recovered . Following the death of the first Duke , the very fabric of Cannons , all its contents and every fixture and fitting were auctioned to satisfy debts . A twelve @-@ day sale began on 16 June 1747 and the sale catalogue included works by Titian , Giorgione , Raphael and Guercino . Amongst the most notable paintings were Caravaggio 's Boy Bitten by a Lizard ( wrongly attributed to Guercino in the catalogue ) which the National Gallery in London acquired in 1986 , and Nicolas Poussin 's The Choice of Hercules which was purchased at the sale by Henry Hoare for Stourhead , his house in Wiltshire , where it still hangs . Of the sculptures Grinling Gibbons ' carved panel The Stoning of St Stephen is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum , and a statue of George II attributed to John van Nost is in Golden Square .
The portico , railings and marble staircase with bronze balustrade were bought by the 4th Earl of Chesterfield for his new London home , Chesterfield House , South Audley Street , which was built in 1749 but like Cannons is no longer standing having been demolished in 1937 . Another statue attributed to John Van Nost , of George I , was moved to Leicester Square , where , after frequent vandalism , it was removed in 1872 .
The rest of the house and contents were dispersed across the country and the location of much has been lost , however some substantial elements can still be seen , including the Ionic columns from the colonnade which some sources now place in front of the National Gallery in London . Elements of the chapel , in particular stained glass windows designed by Sebastiano Ricci and made by glass painter Joshua Price , Bellucci 's ceiling paintings and organ case built by Abraham Jordan were purchased by Thomas , Lord Foley and installed by James Gibbs in the Church of Saint Michael and All Angels , Great Witley , Worcestershire . There is a tradition that the gates were removed to Trinity College , Oxford , but this is incorrect , for the College 's two sets of gates both predate the demolition of Cannons and are well documented .
The estate itself was purchased by the cabinet maker William Hallett who in 1760 built a large villa on the site which today houses the North London Collegiate School , where part of the original temple can still be seen , and is known by the modern spelling , Canons . Hallett 's villa was mentioned by John Byng , 5th Viscount Torrington , in 1788 as being of a more appropriate size for the location than Cannons : " the situation is too near London for such [ former ] display ; being better suited for this present villa , sprung from the former demolition " .
= = In popular culture = =
Such was the fame of the house that the Duke had to introduce crowd control measures – including a one @-@ way system – to manage the large numbers of visitors who flocked to the estate . Cannons was featured in early travel guides including a 1725 travelogue by Daniel Defoe where he described Cannons extravagance thus :
This palace is so beautiful in its situation , so lofty , so majestick the appearance of it , that a pen can but ill describe it ... ' tis only fit to be talk 'd of upon the very spot ... The whole structure is built with such a Profusion of Expense and finished with such a Brightness of Fancy and Delicacy of Judgment .
A few years later Alexander Pope was seen as satirising Cannons in his poem Of Taste ( 1731 ) , which ridicules the villa of an aristocrat called " Timon " and includes the lines :
Light quirks of music , broken and uneven ,
Make the soul dance upon a jig to heaven ,
On painted ceilings you devoutly stare
Where sprawl the saints of Verrio or Laguerre ...
Timon , like Chandos , is a patron of the painter Louis Laguerre and listens to elaborate music in his chapel . After adverse comment , including a caricature by William Hogarth of Pope splattering Chandos ' carriage , the poet apologised to the Duke , denying that any comparison with Cannons was intended , but it has been suggested that Pope could have anticipated that some people would see a connection . Within a few years another point of comparison had emerged – Pope had prophesied the demolition of Timon 's villa .
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= Lion and Sun =
The Lion and Sun ( Persian : شیر و خورشید , Šir o Xoršid ) is one of the main emblems of Iran , and between 1846 and 1980 was an element in Iran 's national flag . The motif , which illustrates ancient and modern Iranian traditions , became a popular symbol in Iran in the 12th century . The lion and sun symbol is based largely on astronomical and astrological configurations : the ancient sign of the sun in the house of Leo , which itself is traced back to Babylonian astrology and Near Eastern traditions .
The motif has many historical meanings . First , as a scientific and secular motif , it was only an astrological and zodiacal symbol . Under the Safavid and the first Qajar kings , it became more associated with Shia Islam . During the Safavid era , the lion and sun stood for the two pillars of society , the state and the Islamic religion . It became a national emblem during the Qajar era . In the 19th century , European visitors at the Qajar court attributed the lion and sun to remote antiquity ; since then , it has acquired a nationalistic interpretation . During the reign of Fat ′ h @-@ Ali Shah Qajar and his successors , the form of the motif was substantially changed . A crown was also placed on the top of the symbol to represent the monarchy . Beginning in the reign of Fat ′ h @-@ Ali , the Islamic aspect of the monarchy was de @-@ emphasized . This shift affected the symbolism of the emblem . The meaning of the symbol changed several times between the Qajar era and the 1979 revolution . The lion could be interpreted as a metaphor for Ali , for the heroes of Iran who are ready to protect the country against enemies , or for its ancient meaning as the symbol of kingship . The Sun has alternately been interpreted as symbol of the king , Jamshid , the mythical king of Iran , and the motherland .
The many historical meanings of the emblem have provided rich ground for competing symbols of Iranian identity . In the 20th century , some politicians and scholars suggested that the emblem should be replaced by other symbols such as the Derafsh Kaviani . However , the emblem remained the official symbol of Iran until the 1979 revolution , when the " Lion and Sun " symbol was removed from public spaces and government organizations , and replaced by the present @-@ day Coat of arms of Iran .
= = Origin = =
The lion and sun motif is based largely on astronomical and astrological configurations , and the ancient zodiacal sign of the sun in the house of Leo . This symbol , which combines " ancient Iranian , Arab , Turkic and Mongol traditions " , first became a popular symbol in the 12th century . According to Afsaneh Najmabadi , the lion and sun motif has had " a unique success " among icons for signifying the modern Iranian identity , in that the symbol is influenced by all significant historical cultures of Iran and brings together Zoroastrian , Shia , Jewish , Turkic and Iranian symbolism .
= = = Zodiacal and Semitic roots = = =
According to Krappez , the astrological combination of the sun above a lion has become the coat of arms of Iran . In Islamic astrology the zodiacal Lion was the ' house ' of the sun . This notion has " unquestionably " an ancient Mesopotamian origin . Since ancient times there was a close connection between the sun gods and the lion in the lore of the zodiac . It is known that , the sun , at its maximum strength between July 20 and August 20 was in the ' house ' of the Lion .
Krappe reviews the ancient Near Eastern tradition and how sun gods and divinities were closely connected to each other , and concludes that " the Persian solar lion , to this day the coat @-@ of @-@ arms of Iran , is evidently derived from the same ancient [ Near Eastern ] sun god " . As an example , he notes that in Syria the lion was the symbol of the sun . In Palestine a lion slayer hero was the son of Baa 'l Shamash , the great Semitic god of the sun . Interestingly , this lion slayer was originally a lion . Another example is the great Semitic solar divinity Shamash , who could be portrayed as a lion . The same symbolism is observed in Ancient Egypt where in the temple of Dendera , Ahi the Great is called " the Lion of the Sun , and the lion who rises in the northern sky , the brilliant god who bears the sun " .
According to Kindermann the Iranian Imperial coat of arms had its predecessor in numismatics , which itself is based largely on astronomical and astrological configurations . The constellation of Leo contains 27 stars and 8 shapeless ones . Leo is " a fiction of grammarians ignorant of the skies , which owes its existence to false interpretations and arbitrary changes of the older star @-@ names . " It is impossible to determine exactly what was the origin of such interpretation from stars . The Babylonians observed a heavenly hierarchy of kings in the zodiacal sign of Leo . They put the lion , as the king of their animal kingdom , into the place in the zodiac in which the summer solstice occurs . In the Babylonian zodiac , it became the symbol of the victory of the sun . Just as Jesus is called the Lion of Judah , and in Islamic traditions Ali Ibn Abu Talib is called the " Lion of God " ( Asadullah ) by Shiite Muslims , Hamzah , the uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , was also called Lion of God .
= = = Iranian background = = =
The male sun had always been associated with Iranian royalty : Iranian tradition recalls that Kayanids had a golden sun as their emblem . From the Greek historians of classical antiquity it is known that a crystal image of the sun adorned the royal tent of Darius III , that the Arsacid banner was adorned with the sun , and that the Sassanid standards had a red ball symbolizing the sun . The Byzantine chronicler Malalas records that the salutation of a letter from the " Persian king , the Sun of the East , " was addressed to the " Roman Caesar , the Moon of the West " . The Turanian king Afrasiab is recalled as saying : " I have heard from wise men that when the Moon of the Turan rises up it will be harmed by the Sun of the Iranians . " The sun was always imagined as male , and in some banners a figure of a male replaces the symbol of the sun . In others , a male figure accompanies the sun .
Similarly , the lion too has always had a close association with Iranian kingship . The garments and throne decorations of the Achaemenid kings were embroidered with lion motifs . The crown of the half @-@ Persian Seleucid king Antiochus I was adorned with a lion . In the investiture inscription of Ardashir I at Naqsh @-@ e Rustam , the breast armour of the king is decorated with lions . Further , in some Iranian dialects the word for king ( shah ) is pronounced as sher , homonymous with the word for lion . Islamic , Turkish , and Mongol influences also stressed the symbolic association of the lion and royalty . The earliest evidence for the use of a lion on a standard comes from the Shahnameh , which noted that the feudal house of Godarz ( presumably a family of Parthian or Sassanid times ) adopted a golden lion for its devices .
= = = Islamic , Turkic , Mongolic roots = = =
Islamic , Turkic , and Mongol traditions stressed the symbolic association of the lion and royalty in the lion and sun motif . These cultures reaffirmed the charismatic power of the sun and the Mongols re @-@ introduced the veneration of the sun , especially the sunrise . The lion is probably represented more frequently and diversely than any other animal . In most forms , the lion has no apotropaic meaning and was merely decorative . However , it sometimes has an astrological or symbolic meaning . One of the popular forms of the lion is explicitly heraldic form , including in the Persian coat of arms ( the lion and sun ) ; the animal in the coat of arms of the Mamluk Baybars and perhaps also in that of the Rum Saldjukids of the name of Kilidi Arslan ; and in numismatic representations .
= = History = =
= = = Persian and Turkic Dynasties = = =
Ahmad Kasravi , Mojtaba Minovi and Saeed Nafisi 's vast amount of literary and archaeological evidence show that the ancient zodiacal sign of the sun in the house of Leo become a popular emblematic figure in the 12th century . ( cf . Zodiacal origin , above ) Fuat Köprülü suggests that the lion and sun on the Turkic and Mongolic flags and coins of these times are merely astrological signs and do not exemplify royalty .
The lion and sun symbol first appears in the 12th century , most notably on the coinage of Kaykhusraw II , who was Sultan of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm from 1237 to 1246 . These were " probably to exemplify the ruler 's power . " The notion that " the sun [ of the symbol ] symbolized the Georgian wife of the king , is a myth , for on one issue ' the sun rests on the back of two lions rampant with their tails interlaced ' [ ... ] and on some issues the sun appears as a male bust . " Other chief occurrences of 12th- to 14th @-@ century usage include : an early 13th @-@ century luster tile now in the Louvre ; a c . 1330 Mamluk steel mirror from Syria or Egypt ; on a ruined 12th- to 14th @-@ century Arkhunid bridge near Baghdad ; on some Ilkhanid coins ; and on a 12th- or 13th @-@ century bronze ewer now in the Golestan palace museum . In the latter , a rayed nimbus enclosing three female faces rests on a lion whose tail ends in a winged monster .
The use of the lion and sun symbol in a flag is first attested in a miniature painting illustrating a copy of Shahnameh Shams al @-@ Din Kashani , an epic on Mongol conquest , dated 1423 . The painting depicts several ( Mongul ? ) horsemen approaching the walled city of Nishapur . One of the horsemen carries a banner that bears a lion passant with a rising sun on its back . The pole is tipped with a crescent moon . By the time of the Safavids ( 1501 – 1722 ) , and the subsequent unification of Iran as a single state , the lion and sun had become a familiar sign , appearing on copper coins , on banners , and on works of art . The Lion and Sun motif was also used on banners of the Mughals of India , notably those of Shah Jahan .
= = = Safavid Dynasty = = =
In Safavid times , the lion and sun stood for two pillars of the society , state and religion . It is clear that , although various alams and banners were employed by the Safavids during their rule , especially the earlier Safavid kings . By the time of Shah Abbas , the lion and sun symbol had become one of the most popular emblems of Persia .
According to Najmabadi , the Safavid interpretation of this symbol was based on a combination of mytho @-@ histories and tales such as the Shahnameh , stories of Prophets , and other Islamic sources . For the Safavids , the Shah had two roles : king and holy man . This double meaning was associated with the genealogy of Iranian kings . Two males were key people in this paternity : Jamshid ( mythical founder of an ancient Persian kingdom ) , and Ali ( Shi 'te first Imam ) . Jamshid was affiliated with the sun and Ali was affiliated with the lion ( Zul @-@ faqar ) .
Shahbazi suggest that the association may originally have been based on a learned interpretation of the Shahnameh 's references to ' the Sun of Iran ' and ' the Moon of the Turanians . ( cf : the " Roman " — i.e. , Byzantine — king as the " Moon of the West " in the Iranian Beckground section ) . Since Ottoman sultans , the new sovereigns of ' Rûm ' , had adopted the moon crescent as their dynastic and ultimately national emblem , the Safavids of Persia , needed to have a their own dynastic and national emblem . Therefore , Safavids chose the lion and sun motif . Besides , the Jamshid , the sun had two other important meanings for the Safavids . The sense of time was organized around the solar system which was distinct from the Arab @-@ Islamic lunar system . Astrological meaning and the sense of cosmos was mediated through that . Through the zodiac the sun was linked to Leo which was the most auspicious house of the sun . Therefore , for the Safavids , the sign of lion and sun condensed the double meaning of the Shah — king and holy man ( Jamshid and Ali ) — through the auspicious zodiac sign of the sun in the house of Leo and brought the cosmic @-@ earthy pair ( king and Imam ) together .
In seeking the Safavi interpretation of the lion and sun motif , Shahbazi suggests that the Safavids had reinterpreted the lion as symbolizing Imam ʿAlī and the sun as typifying the " glory of religion " , a substitute for the ancient farr @-@ e dīn . They reintroduced the ancient concept of God @-@ given Glory ( farr ) , reinterpreted as " light " in Islamic Iran , and the Prophet and Ali " had been credited with the possession of a divine light of lights ( nūr al @-@ anwār ) of leadership , which was represented as a blazing halo . " They attributed such qualities to Ali and sought the king 's genealogy through the Shia Fourth Imam 's mother to the royal Sassanian house .
= = = Afsharids and Zand Dynasties = = =
The royal seal of Nadir Shah in 1746 was the lion and sun motif . In this seal , the sun bears the word Al @-@ Molkollah ( Arabic : The earth of God ) . Two swords of Karim Khan Zand have gold @-@ inlaid inscriptions which refer to the : " ... celestial lion ... pointing to the astrological relationship to the Zodiac sign of Leo ... " Another record of this motif is the Lion and Sun symbol on a tombstone of a Zand soldier .
= = = Qajar and Pahlavi Dynasties = = =
= = = = Islamic @-@ Iranian Interpretation = = = =
The earliest known Qajar lion and sun symbol is on the coinage of Aqa Mohammad Shah Qajar , minted in 1796 on the occasion of Shah 's coronation . The coin bears the name of the new king underneath the sun and Ali ( the first Shi 'ite Imam ) underneath the lion 's belly . Both names are invoked and this coin suggest that this motif still stands for the king ( sun ) and religion ( lion ) , " Iranization and Imamification of sovereignty " . In the Qajar period the emblem can be found on Jewish marriage certificates ( ketubas ) and Shi 'ite mourning of muharram banners .
= = = = Nationalistic Interpretation = = = =
During the reign of the second Qajar shah , Fat ′ h Ali Shah Qajar , we observe the beginning of a shift in political culture from the Safavi concept of rule . The Islamic component of the ruler was de @-@ emphasized , if not completely abounded . This shift coincides with the first archaeological surveys of Europeans in Iran and the re @-@ introduction of the past glorious pre @-@ Islamic history of Iran to Iranians . Fat 'h Ali Shah tried to affiliate his sovereignty with the glorious years of pre @-@ Islamic Iran . Literary evidence and documents from his time suggest that the sun in the lion and sun motif was the symbol of the king and a metaphor of Jamshid . Referring to Rostam , the mythical hero of Iran in Shahnameh , and the fact that lion was the symbol of Rostam , the lion received a nationalistic interpretation . The lion was the symbol of heroes of Iran who are ready to protect the country against enemies . Fat 'h Ali Shah addresses the meanings of the signs in two of his poems :
Also :
It was also during this time that he had the Sun Throne constructed , which is the imperial throne of Persia .
In the 19th century , European visitors at the Qajar court attributed the lion and sun to remote antiquity , which prompted Mohammad Shah Qajar to give it a " nationalistic interpretation . " In a decree published in 1846 , it is stated that " For each sovereign state an emblem is established , and for the august state of Persia , too , the Order of Lion and Sun has been in use , an ensign which is nearly three thousand years old — indeed dating from before the age of Zoroaster . And the reason for its currency may have been as follows . In the religion of Zoroaster , the sun is considered the revealer of all things and nourisher of the universe [ ... ] , hence , they venerated it " . This is followed by an astrological rationale for having selecting the " selected the sun in the house of Leo as the emblem of the august state of Persia . " The decree then claims that use of Order of the Lion and Sun had existed in pre @-@ Islamic Zoroastrian Iran until the worship of the sun was abolished by Muslims . Piemontese suggests that in this decree , " native political considerations and anachronistic historical facts are mixed with curious astrological arguments " At the time , the lion and sun symbol stood the state , the monarchy , and the nation of Iran , associated all with a pre @-@ Islamic history .
= = = = Order of the Lion and the Sun = = = =
The Imperial Order of the Lion and the Sun was instituted by Fat ’ h Ali Shah of the Qajar Dynasty in 1808 to honour foreign officials ( later extended to Persians ) who had rendered distinguished services to Persia .
= = = = Substantial changes in the motif = = = =
Another change under the second and third Qajar king was the Africanization of the motif . At this time , the lion was an African lion which had a longer mane and bigger body compared to the Persian lion . Yahya Zoka suggests that this modification was influenced by contact with Europeans .
According to Shahbazi. the Zu 'l @-@ faqar and the lion decorated the Iranian flags at the time . It seems that towards the end of Fath ' Ali Shah ’ s reign the two logos were combined and the lion representing Ali was given Ali 's saber , Zu 'l @-@ faqar .
According to Najmabadi , occasionally we come across the lion and sun with a sword in the lion 's paw and with a crown during this period . The Mohammad Shah 's decree in 1836 states that the lion must erectly stand , bear a saber ( " to make it explicitly stands for the military prowess of the state " ) . The crown was also added as a symbol of royalty rather than for any particular Qajar monarch . The decree states that the emblem is at once the national , royal , and the state emblem of Iran . In this period the lion was depicted as more masculine and the sun was female . Before this time the sun could be male or female and the lion was represented as a swordless , friendly and subdued seated animal .
The crown over the lion and sun configuration consolidated the association of the symbol with the monarchy . The sun lost its importance as the icon of kingship and the Kiani Crown became the primary symbol of the Qajar monarchy . Under Nasir al @-@ Din Shah , logos varied from seated , swordless lions to standing and sword @-@ bearing lions . In February 1873 , the decree for Order of Aftab ( Nishan @-@ i Afab ) was issued by Nasi @-@ al Din Shah .
= = = = After the Persian Constitutional Revolution = = = =
In the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of 1906 , the lion and sun motif in the flag of Iran was described as a passant lion that holds a saber in its paw and with the sun in its background . A decree dated September 4 , 1910 specified the exact details of the logo , including the lion 's tail ( " like an italic S " ) , the position and the size of the lion , his paw , the sword , and the sun .
Najmabadi observes a parallel symbolism on wall hangings produced between the lion / sun and Reza Khan / motherland , after Reza Khan 's successful coup . The coy sun is protected by the lion and Rezakhan is the hero who should protect the motherland . Under Reza Shah the sun 's female facial features were removed and the sun was portrayed more realistically and merely with rays . In the military contexts the Pahlavi crown was added to the motif .
The Pahlavis adopted the lion and sun emblem from Qajars , but they replaced the Qajar Crown with the Pahlavi Crown . Pahlavis reintroduced the Persian symbolism to the motif . As is discussed in Persian traditions , the lion had been the symbol of kingship and symbol of Rustam 's heroism in Shahnameh .
The many historical meanings of the emblem , while provide a solid ground for its power as the national emblem of Iran , have also provided the rich ground for competing symbols of Iranian identity . One important campaign to abolish the emblem was initiated by Mojtaba Minuvi in 1929 . In a report prepared at the request of the Iranian embassy in London , he insisted that the lion and sun is Turkic in origin . He recommended that the government replaces it with Derafsh @-@ e @-@ Kaviani : " One cannot attributed a national historical story to the lion @-@ and @-@ sun emblem , for it has no connection to ancient pre @-@ Islamic history , there is no evidence that Iranians designed or created it .... We might as well get rid of this remnant of the Turkish people and adopt the flag that symbolizes our mythical grandeur , that is Derafsh @-@ e @-@ Kaviani " . His suggestion was ignored . The symbol was challenged during World War I , while Hasan Taqizadeh was publishing the Derafsh @-@ e @-@ Kaviani newspaper in Berlin . In his newspaper , he argued that the lion and sun is neither Iranian in origin nor very ancient as people assume . He insisted that the lion and sun should be replaced by the more Iranian symbol of Derafsh @-@ e @-@ Kaviani .
= = = After the 1979 revolution = = =
The Lion and Sun remained the official emblem of Iran until after the 1979 revolution , when the " Lion and Sun " symbol was — by decree — removed from public spaces and government organizations and replaced by the present @-@ day Coat of arms of Iran . For the Islamic revolution , the lion and sun symbol " allegedly " resembled the " oppressive Westernizing monarchy " that had to be replaced , despite the fact the symbol had old Shi 'a meanings and the lion was associated with Ali . In the present day , the lion and the sun emblem is still used by a segment of the Iranian community in exile as the symbol of opposition to the Islamic Republic . Several exiled opposition groups , including the monarchists , and People 's of Mojahedin continue to use the lion and sun emblem . In Los Angeles and cities with large Iranian communities the lion and sun emblem is largely used on mugs , Iranian flags , and souvenirs to an extent that far surpasses its display during the years of monarchy in the homeland .
= = International recognition = =
The Lion and Sun is an officially recognized but currently unused emblem of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement . The Red Lion and Sun Society of Iran ( جمعیت شیر و خورشید سرخ ایران ) was admitted to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement in 1929 .
On September 4 , 1980 , the newly proclaimed Islamic Republic of Iran replaced the Red Lion and Sun with the Red Crescent , consistent with most other Muslim nations . Though the Red Lion and Sun has now fallen into disuse , Iran has in the past reserved the right to take it up again at any time ; the Geneva Conventions continue to recognize it as an official emblem , and that status was confirmed by Protocol III in 2005 even as it added the Red Crystal .
= = In literature = =
Anton Chekhov has a short story titled " The Lion and the Sun " . The story is about a mayor who had " long been desirous of receiving the Persian order of The Lion and the Sun " .
= = Gallery = =
= = Other ( non @-@ Iranian ) variants = =
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= She 's like a Star =
" She 's like a Star " is a song written , produced and performed by British singer and songwriter Taio Cruz . It was released on 18 August 2008 as the fifth single from his debut studio album Departure ( 2008 ) . An R & B ballad , the lyrics of " She 's like a Star " are about the theme of parenthood , an idea which inspired Cruz to compose the song . The song was remixed to feature vocals from English girl group Sugababes and American rapper Busta Rhymes . It received generally mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards the composition . Upon release , it peaked at number twenty on the UK Singles Chart . The song 's music video features Hollyoaks actress Roxanne McKee as Cruz 's love interest . Cruz performed the song with the Sugababes at the 2008 MOBO Awards ceremony , and at Radio 1 's Big Weekend 2011 .
= = Background and composition = =
" She 's Like a Star " was written and produced by Taio Cruz for his debut studio album Departure ( 2008 ) . He composed the song in the middle of 2007 , towards the completion of the album 's recording , and was inspired to write it based on the idea of parenthood . During an interview with Sugar , Cruz explained that the song has a double meaning behind it :
It 's about my girlfriend but it 's also about how you would feel if you had a child and how strongly you would feel if you had a daughter and how overwhelming the love would be and they would kind of be like a star , you know like she ’ s my everything , she ’ s an angel .
" She 's like a Star " is an R & B ballad , and according to the digital sheet music published by Hal Leonard Publishing , was composed in the key of C major at a tempo of 100 beats per minute . It contains synthesizers and uses a sample of a child 's voice in the vocal " Like a star " , which is repeated several times throughout the song . According to Jon O 'Brien of AllMusic , the song is reminiscent of American rapper Kanye West 's older material . British soul singer Corinne Bailey Rae claimed that Cruz sampled her voice with her song " Like a Star " . Cruz denied the accusation and stated that a musicologist was able to prove that he did not sample Rae 's voice .
= = Release and reception = =
" She 's like a Star " is the fifth single from Departure , and was released in the United Kingdom on 18 August 2008 . There are several remixes of the song , including one by Cahill which is more uptempo than the original version . A remix that features vocals from English girl group Sugababes and American rapper Busta Rhymes was also released . According to the Daily Mirror , the collaboration came about when they ran into each other at the Hot 97 studios in New York City . The remix appears on the Sugababes ' sixth studio album Catfights and Spotlights ( 2008 ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy rated the song three out of five stars and stated that it is " undoubtedly " one of the album 's low points . Additionally , he criticised the song 's lack of " bravado and pizazz " in comparison to Cruz 's previous singles " I Can Be " and " Come On Girl " . Andy Welch of the Halesowen News described it as " a fine example of a Brit doing R & B as well as the Americans " , but was unimpressed with the child 's voice sample . Hazel Robinson from the BBC Chart Blog gave the song a full five @-@ star rating , and wrote that its composition and musical arrangement produced a song that sounds natural and " pretty extraordinary " . The reviewer admitted that while " She 's like a Star " was not the best track from Departure , it sounds " infinitely cooler " than the album 's previous single " I Can Be " . Daily Record 's Rick Fulton praised " She 's like a Star " as " one of the best R & B sounds to come out of the UK " . " She 's like a Star " earned Cruz a MOBO Award nomination for Best UK Male .
= = = Chart performance = = =
The song debuted at number 44 on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated 16 August 2008 . It peaked at number 20 three weeks later , and spent a total of 15 weeks on the chart . " She 's like a Star " became Cruz 's fifth consecutive top @-@ thirty hit in the United Kingdom , and outpeaked the album 's first two singles " I Just Wanna Know " and " Moving On " .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " She 's like a Star " was filmed in Spain . It features an appearance from the actress Roxanne McKee , known for her role as Louise in the British television soap opera Hollyoaks , in which she plays Cruz 's love interest . Cruz , who is friends with McKee , explained how the collaboration came about , saying :
Why Roxanne ? She 's fit and I wanted her in my video ! I 'm only joking . I 've known Roxanne for some time , although I don 't watch Hollyoaks so I don 't know about the character she plays . We needed an actress who wouldn 't feel awkward doing the mock love scenes so I just rang her and she agreed to do it . It was a case of canoodling for a few hours in sunny Spain .
Most scenes of the video take place in a large house . Throughout the video , the pair are touching and kissing with each other , and McKee is shown in the bathtub . In the concluding scenes , she leaves the house and is depicted as a bright star that travels towards the sky , while Cruz stands in front of the house by the pool .
= = = Live performances = = =
The singer performed " She 's like a Star " at the O2 Academy Sheffield , England in August 2008 along with many other tracks from Departure . The Sugababes , along with Cruz , performed the song as part of a medley with their single " Girls " at the 2008 MOBO Awards ceremony . Cruz performed it on MTV Live Sessions along with many of his previous and follow @-@ up singles . He performed " She 's like a Star " on 15 May 2011 at Radio 1 's Big Weekend , as the fourth song on the set list , which included his hits " Break Your Heart " , " Higher " and " Dynamite " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Charts = =
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= James Sloan Kuykendall =
James Sloan Kuykendall ( December 9 , 1878 – February 28 , 1928 ) was an American farmer , lawyer , and Democratic politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . Kuykendall was twice elected as a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates representing Hampshire County ( 1907 – 1908 and 1919 – 1920 ) . Kuykendall also served three terms as the mayor of Romney and later fulfilled the position of city attorney .
Kuykendall was born in 1878 in Hampshire County , West Virginia , into one of the oldest families in the county , which was of Dutch descent . He was raised on his family 's farm , where he engaged in agricultural pursuits . Kuykendall was educated in Hampshire County 's rural public schools and subsequently completed his post @-@ secondary education at Hampden – Sydney College and Washington and Lee University . In 1901 , he graduated from the Cumberland School of Law , then completed a course in jurisprudence at the University of North Carolina School of Law .
Kuykendall first practiced law in Greensboro , North Carolina , before establishing a law practice in Romney , West Virginia . He was elected to represent Hampshire County in the West Virginia House of Delegates for one term in 1906 and another term in 1918 , each consisting of two years . He was the mayor of Romney for three terms , and in 1922 he served as Romney 's city attorney . Kuykendall was elected to three terms as a member of the Hampshire County Board of Education ; he also served as a Chancery Commissioner for the county . During World War I , Kuykendall was a member of the Legal Advisory Board of Hampshire County ; he also participated in Liberty bond drives and directed sales to raise American Red Cross funds . Kuykendall was engaged in the management of a commercial peach orchard near Romney known as Sherman Orchard . He died in 1928 and was interred at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney .
= = Early life and family = =
James Sloan Kuykendall was born on December 9 , 1878 , in the Springfield Magisterial District of Hampshire County , West Virginia . He was the eldest child and son of William Kuykendall and his wife Hannah Pierce Sloan Kuykendall . Kuykendall 's family was of Dutch descent and was one of the oldest families residing in Hampshire County . He was probably named for his maternal grandfather , James Sloan . Kuykendall had two younger brothers and one younger sister : Michael Blue Kuykendall , Richard Sloan Kuykendall , and Nellie Frank Kuykendall . For the first 20 years of his life , Kuykendall resided on his family 's farm , where he engaged in agricultural pursuits .
= = Education = =
Kuykendall was raised in Romney and received his primary education in Hampshire County 's rural public schools . He commenced his higher education studies at Hampden – Sydney College in Hampden Sydney , Virginia , and later attended Washington and Lee University in Lexington , Virginia . Kuykendall subsequently engaged in the study of jurisprudence at the Cumberland School of Law of Cumberland University in Lebanon , Tennessee , from which he received a diploma in 1901 . He then completed a similar course in law at the University of North Carolina School of Law in Chapel Hill , North Carolina . Following this course at the University of North Carolina , Kuykendall passed his bar examination before the North Carolina Supreme Court and was admitted to the bar in North Carolina in September 1903 .
= = Law career = =
Following his admission to the North Carolina bar , Kuykendall commenced practicing law in Greensboro , where he practiced for a little over a year before returning to West Virginia . Kuykendall established his law practice in Romney and made his permanent residence there . Kuykendall argued his first case before the Hampshire County Circuit Court in defense of a Mr. Miller , who had been charged with petit larceny . Kuykendall secured the acquittal of his client , which further encouraged the young lawyer . Following this case , Kuykendall continued to perform as a criminal defense lawyer . According to historian James Morton Callahan , Kuykendall " adhered to his rule to take part only on the side of the defense , and he has a merited reputation or skill and ability in that particular field . " By 1923 , Kuykendall had been a defense attorney in three murder cases : State v. Hetrick , State v. Averell , and State v. Gardner . Kuykendall secured acquittals for his clients in State v. Hetrick and State v. Averell , but in State v. Gardner , his client was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment .
= = Political career = =
In 1906 , Kuykendall was elected to his first term as a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates , representing Hampshire County from 1907 through 1908 in the Twenty @-@ eighth West Virginia Legislative Session . During his first term in the West Virginia House of Delegates , Kuykendall was a member of the following standing committees : Education ; Counties , Districts , and Municipal Corporations ; Private Corporations and Joint Stock Companies ; Arts , Science , and General Improvement ; and State Boundaries . Kuykendall was elected to a second term in the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1918 and served in the Thirty @-@ fourth West Virginia Legislative Session from 1919 through 1920 .
Kuykendall was the mayor of Romney for three terms , and in 1922 he served as Romney 's city attorney . Kuykendall took an interest in the Hampshire County Schools and was elected to three terms as a member of the Hampshire County Board of Education . Kuykendall served alongside Robert White and Joshua Soule Zimmerman as a Chancery Commissioner for Hampshire County .
Kuykendall was a lifelong Democrat , and he cast his first vote for Democratic Party presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan in the United States presidential election of 1900 . Kuykendall served one term as the chairman of the Executive Committee of West Virginia 's 2nd congressional district and was elected to three terms as the chairman of the Hampshire County Democratic Party Central Committee . In 1916 , Kuykendall was a delegate to the West Virginia Democratic Party State Convention at Parkersburg that nominated John J. Cornwell as the party 's gubernatorial candidate . He was also both a delegate and chairman of the West Virginia Democratic Party 's Congressional Convention that nominated William Gay Brown , Jr . , as a candidate for the United States House of Representatives . Kuykendall was a strong proponent of Brown , whom he supported in subsequent conventions and elections . He was also a presidential elector in the Electoral College during the reelection of Woodrow Wilson .
During World War I , Kuykendall was a member of the Legal Advisory Board of Hampshire County , during which time he assisted in producing several hundred questionnaires for the county 's prospective soldiers . He also participated in Liberty bond drives and directed sales to raise funds for the American Red Cross .
= = Agricultural pursuits = =
According to The Census of the Peach Crop of 1907 in West Virginia published by the West Virginia Department of Agriculture , Kuykendall was engaged in the management of a commercial peach orchard near Romney known as Sherman Orchard . In 1907 , Kuykendall 's orchard produced Carman , Champion , Elberta , Salways , Bilyeu , and Heath Cling peach varieties , totaling 5 @,@ 800 baskets in all .
= = Later life and death = =
Kuykendall died on February 28 , 1928 , and he was interred at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney . His wife Bertha died on March 4 , 1962 , and was interred beside Kuykendall .
= = Personal life = =
Kuykendall was married in Hampshire County on April 5 , 1905 , to Bertha Ray Williams ( November 10 , 1883 – March 4 , 1962 ) , born in Fairfax County , Virginia , and the daughter of Reverend James P. Williams and his wife Mary S. Williams . Williams 's father was the presiding elder of the Moorefield District of the Methodist Episcopal Church , South . Kuykendall and his wife Mary had three children together including two daughters and one son :
Alma Elizabeth Kuykendall Sheehan ( January 14 , 1906 – December 6 , 1970 ) , married on June 31 , 1928 , to William Terrell Sheehan ( December 5 , 1902 – June 16 , 1957 )
James Sloan Kuykendall , Jr . ( December 11 , 1906 – February 17 , 1995 ) , married Emily Light ( June 29 , 1911 – June 19 , 1982 )
Mary Ray Kuykendall Armstrong ( January 5 , 1909 – May 15 , 1996 ) , married Robert W. Armstrong ( April 11 , 1905 – June 16 , 1958 )
While Kuykendall 's wife belonged to the Methodist Episcopal Church , South , he was raised as a Presbyterian , and for five years he was superintendent of the Presbyterian Church 's Sunday school .
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= Alexander Hamilton =
Alexander Hamilton ( January 11 , 1755 or 1757 – July 12 , 1804 ) was a Founding Father of the United States , chief staff aide to General George Washington , one of the most influential interpreters and promoters of the U.S. Constitution , the founder of the nation 's financial system , the founder of the Federalist Party , the world 's first voter @-@ based political party , the founder of the United States Coast Guard , and the founder of The New York Post newspaper . As the first Secretary of the Treasury , Hamilton was the primary author of the economic policies of the George Washington administration . Hamilton took the lead in the funding of the states ' debts by the Federal government , the establishment of a national bank , a system of tariffs , and friendly trade relations with Britain . He led the Federalist Party , created largely in support of his views ; he was opposed by the Democratic @-@ Republican Party , led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison , which despised Britain and feared that Hamilton 's policies of a strong central government would weaken the American commitment to Republicanism .
Born out of wedlock , raised in the West Indies , and orphaned as a child , Hamilton pursued a college education through the help of local wealthy men . Recognized for his abilities and talent , he was sent to King 's College ( now Columbia University ) in New York City . Hamilton played a major role in the American Revolutionary War . At the start of the war in 1775 , he joined a militia company . In early 1776 , he raised a provincial artillery company , to which he was appointed captain . He soon became the senior aide to General Washington , the American forces ' commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Washington sent him on numerous important missions to tell generals what Washington wanted . After the war , Hamilton was elected to the Congress of the Confederation from New York . He resigned , to practice law , and founded the Bank of New York . Hamilton was among those dissatisfied with the weak national government . He led the Annapolis Convention , which successfully influenced Congress to issue a call for the Philadelphia Convention , in order to create a new constitution . He was an active participant at Philadelphia ; and he helped achieve ratification by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers , which to this day are the single most important reference for Constitutional interpretation .
Hamilton became the leading cabinet member in the new government under President Washington . Hamilton was a nationalist , who emphasized strong central government and successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt , assume states ' debts , and create the government @-@ backed Bank of the United States . These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports , and later also by a highly controversial tax on whiskey . Facing well @-@ organized opposition from Jefferson and Madison , Hamilton mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government , especially bankers and businessmen . It became the Federalist Party . A major issue splitting the parties was the Jay Treaty , largely designed by Hamilton in 1794 . It established friendly economic relations with Britain to the chagrin of France and the supporters of the French Revolution . Hamilton played a central role in the Federalist party , which dominated national and state politics until it lost the election of 1800 to Jefferson 's Democratic Republicans .
In 1795 , he returned to the practice of law in New York . He tried to control the policies of President Adams ( 1797 – 1801 ) . In 1798 and 99 , Hamilton called for mobilization against France after the XYZ Affair and became commander of a new army , which he readied for war . However , the Quasi @-@ War , while hard @-@ fought at sea , was never officially declared and did not involve army action . In the end , Adams found a diplomatic solution which avoided a war with France . Hamilton 's opposition to Adams ' re @-@ election helped cause his defeat in the 1800 election . When Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college in 1801 , Hamilton helped to defeat Burr , whom he found unprincipled , and to elect Jefferson despite philosophical differences . Hamilton continued his legal and business activities in New York City , but lost much of his national prominence within the Federalist party . When Vice President Burr ran for governor of New York state in 1804 , Hamilton crusaded against him as unworthy . Taking offense at some of Hamilton 's comments , Burr challenged him to a duel in 1804 and mortally wounded Hamilton , who died the next day .
= = Childhood in the Caribbean = =
Alexander Hamilton was born in and spent part of his childhood in Charlestown , the capital of the island of Nevis , in the Leeward Islands ; Nevis was one of the British West Indies . Hamilton was born out of wedlock to Rachel Faucette , a married woman of partial British and partial French Huguenot descent , and James A. Hamilton , the fourth son of the Scottish laird Alexander Hamilton of Grange , Ayrshire .
His mother moved with the young Hamilton to St. Croix in the Virgin Islands , then ruled by Denmark . It is not certain whether the year of Hamilton 's birth was 1757 or 1755 ; most historical evidence after Hamilton 's arrival in North America supports the idea that he was born in 1757 , and many historians had accepted this birth date . But , Hamilton 's early life in the Caribbean was recorded in documents which were first published in Danish in 1930 ; this evidence has caused historians since then to favor a birth year of 1755 . Hamilton listed his birth year as 1757 when he first arrived in the Thirteen Colonies . He celebrated his birthday on January 11 . In later life , he tended to give his age only in round figures . Probate papers from St. Croix in 1768 , after the death of Hamilton 's mother , list him as then 13 years old , a date that would support a birth year of 1755 . Historians have posited reasons for the different dates of birth being used : If 1755 is correct , Hamilton may have been trying to appear younger than his college classmates or perhaps wished to avoid standing out as older ; if 1757 is correct , the probate document indicating a birth year of 1755 may have been in error , or Hamilton may have been attempting to pass as 13 , in order to be more employable after his mother 's death .
Hamilton 's mother had been married previously to Johann Michael Lavien of St. Croix . Faucette left her husband and first son , Peter , traveling to St. Kitts in 1750 , where she met James Hamilton . Hamilton and Faucette moved together to her birthplace , Nevis , where she had inherited property from her father . The couple 's two sons were James Jr. and Alexander . Because Alexander Hamilton 's parents were not legally married , the Church of England denied him membership and education in the church school . Hamilton received " individual tutoring " and classes in a private school led by a Jewish headmistress . Hamilton supplemented his education with a family library of 34 books .
James Hamilton abandoned Rachel Faucette and their sons , allegedly to " spar [ e ] [ her ] a charge of bigamy ... after finding out that her first husband intend [ ed ] to divorce her under Danish law on grounds of adultery and desertion . " Thereafter , she supported her children in St. Croix , keeping a small store in Christiansted . She contracted a severe fever and died on February 19 , 1768 , 1 : 02 am , leaving Hamilton orphaned . This may have had severe emotional consequences for him , even by the standards of an 18th @-@ century childhood . In probate court , Faucette 's " first husband seized her estate " and obtained the few valuables she had owned , including some household silver . Many items were auctioned off , but a friend purchased the family 's books and returned them to the young Hamilton .
Hamilton became a clerk at a local import @-@ export firm , Beekman and Cruger , which traded with New England ; he was left in charge of the firm for five months in 1771 , while the owner was at sea . He and his older brother James Jr. were adopted briefly by a cousin , Peter Lytton ; but when Lytton committed suicide , the brothers were separated . James apprenticed with a local carpenter , while Alexander was adopted by a Nevis merchant , Thomas Stevens . According to the writer Ron Chernow , some evidence suggests that Stevens may have been Alexander Hamilton 's biological father ; his son , Edward Stevens , became a close friend of Hamilton . The two boys were described as looking much alike , were both fluent in French , and shared similar interests .
Hamilton continued clerking , but he remained an avid reader , later developing an interest in writing , and began to desire a life outside the small island where he lived . He wrote an essay published in the Royal Danish @-@ American Gazette , a detailed account of a hurricane which had devastated Christiansted on August 30 , 1772 . His biographer says that , " Hamilton 's famous letter about the storm astounds the reader for two reasons : for all its bombastic excesses , it does seem wondrous the 17 @-@ year @-@ old self @-@ educated clerk could write with such verve and gusto . Clearly , Hamilton was highly literate and already had considerable fund of verbal riches . " The essay impressed community leaders , who collected a fund to send the young Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education .
= = Education = =
In the autumn of 1772 , Hamilton arrived at Elizabethtown Academy , a grammar school in Elizabethtown , New Jersey . In 1773 he studied with Francis Barber at Elizabethtown in preparation for college work . He came under the influence of William Livingston , a leading intellectual and revolutionary , with whom he lived for a time at his Liberty Hall . Hamilton entered King 's College in New York City ( now Columbia University ) in the autumn of 1773 " as a private student " and officially matriculated in May 1774 . In what is credited as his first public appearance , on July 6 , 1774 at the liberty pole at King 's College , Hamilton 's friend Robert Troup spoke glowingly of Hamilton 's ability to clearly and concisely explain the rights and reasons the patriots have in their case against the British . Hamilton , Troup and four other undergraduates formed an unnamed literary society that is regarded as a precursor of the Philolexian Society .
When the Church of England clergyman Samuel Seabury published a series of pamphlets promoting the Loyalist cause in 1774 , Hamilton responded anonymously with his first political writings , A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress and The Farmer Refuted . Seabury essentially tried to provoke fear into the colonies and his main objective was to stopgap the potential of a union among the colonies . Hamilton published two additional pieces attacking the Quebec Act and may have also authored the fifteen anonymous installments of " The Monitor " for Holt 's New York Journal . Although Hamilton was a supporter of the Revolutionary cause at this prewar stage , he did not approve of mob reprisals against Loyalists . On May 10 , 1775 , Hamilton won credit for saving his college president Myles Cooper , a Loyalist , from an angry mob by speaking to the crowd long enough for Cooper to escape .
= = During the Revolutionary War = =
= = = Early military career = = =
In 1775 , after the first engagement of American troops with the British at Lexington and Concord , Hamilton and other King 's College students joined a New York volunteer militia company called the Corsicans , later renamed or reformed as the Hearts of Oak . He drilled with the company , before classes , in the graveyard of nearby St. George 's Chapel . Hamilton studied military history and tactics on his own and was soon recommended for promotion . Under fire from HMS Asia , he led a successful raid for British cannons in the Battery , the capture of which resulted in the Hearts of Oak becoming an artillery company thereafter . Through his connections with influential New York patriots such as Alexander McDougall and John Jay , he raised the New York Provincial Company of Artillery of sixty men in 1776 , and was elected captain . It took part in the campaign of 1776 around New York City , particularly at the Battle of White Plains ; at the Battle of Trenton , it was stationed at the high point of town , the meeting of the present Warren and Broad Streets , to keep the Hessians pinned in the Trenton Barracks .
= = = George Washington 's staff = = =
Hamilton was invited to become an aide to William Alexander , Lord Stirling and one other general , perhaps Nathanael Greene or Alexander McDougall . He declined these invitations , believing his best chance for improving his station in life was glory on the battlefield . Hamilton eventually received an invitation he felt he could not refuse : to serve as Washington 's aide , with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel . Washington felt , " Aides de camp are persons in whom entire confidence must be placed and it requires men of abilities to execute the duties with propriety and dispatch . " Hamilton served for four years as Washington 's chief staff aide . He handled letters to Congress , state governors , and the most powerful generals in the Continental Army ; he drafted many of Washington 's orders and letters at the latter 's direction ; he eventually issued orders from Washington over Hamilton 's own signature . Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of high @-@ level duties , including intelligence , diplomacy , and negotiation with senior army officers as Washington 's emissary .
During the war , Hamilton became close friends with several fellow officers . His letters to the Marquis de Lafayette and to John Laurens , employing the sentimental literary conventions of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology , have been read by Jonathan Katz as revealing a homosocial or perhaps homosexual relationship , but few historians agree .
While on Washington 's staff , Hamilton long sought command and a return to active combat . As the war drew nearer to an end , he knew that opportunities for military glory were diminishing . In February 1781 , Hamilton was mildly reprimanded by Washington and used this as an excuse to resign his staff position . He asked Washington and others for a field command . This continued until early July 1781 , when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his commission enclosed , " thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn 't get his desired command . "
On July 31 , 1781 , Washington relented and assigned Hamilton as commander of a New York light infantry battalion . In the planning for the assault on Yorktown , Hamilton was given command of three battalions , which were to fight in conjunction with the allied French troops in taking Redoubts No. 9 and No. 10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown . Hamilton and his battalions fought bravely and took Redoubt No. 10 with bayonets in a nighttime action , as planned . The French also fought bravely , suffered heavy casualties , and took Redoubt No. 9 . These actions forced the British surrender of an entire army at Yorktown , Virginia , effectively ending their major British military operations in North America .
= = = Congress of the Confederation = = =
After the Battle of Yorktown , Hamilton resigned his commission . He was appointed in July 1782 to the Congress of the Confederation as a New York representative for the term beginning in November 1782 . Before his appointment to Congress in 1782 , Hamilton was already sharing his criticisms of Congress . He expressed these criticisms in his letter to James Duane dated September 3 , 1780 . In this letter he wrote , " The fundamental defect is a want of power in Congress … the confederation itself is defective and requires to be altered ; it is neither fit for war , nor peace . " While on Washington 's staff , Hamilton had become frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress , particularly its dependence upon the states for voluntary financial support . Under the Articles of Confederation , Congress had no power to collect taxes or to demand money from the states . This lack of a stable source of funding had made it difficult for the Continental Army both to obtain its necessary provisions and to pay its soldiers . During the war , and for some time after , Congress obtained what funds it could from subsidies from the King of France , from aid requested from the several states ( which were often unable or unwilling to contribute ) , and from European loans .
An amendment to the Articles had been proposed by Thomas Burke , in February 1781 , to give Congress the power to collect a 5 % impost , or duty on all imports , but this required ratification by all states ; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782 . Madison joined Hamilton in persuading Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind . Their report recommending the delegation argued the federal government needed not just some level of financial autonomy , but also the ability to make laws that superseded those of the individual states . Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax , since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states ; but Virginia 's rescission of its own ratification ended the Rhode Island negotiations .
= = = Congress and the army = = =
While Hamilton was in Congress , discontented soldiers began to pose a danger to the young United States . Most of the army was then posted at Newburgh , New York . Those in the army were paying for much of their own supplies , and they had not been paid in eight months . Furthermore , the Continental officers had been promised , in May 1778 , after Valley Forge , a pension of half their pay when they were discharged . By the early 1780s , due to the structure of the government under the Articles of Confederation , it had no power to tax to either raise revenue or pay its soldiers . In 1782 after several months without pay , a group of officers organized to send a delegation to lobby Congress , led by Capt. Alexander MacDougall . The officers had three demands : the Army 's pay , their own pensions , and commutation of those pensions into a lump @-@ sum payment if Congress were unable to afford the half @-@ salary pensions for life . Congress rejected the proposal .
Several Congressmen , including Hamilton , Robert Morris and Gouverneur Morris , attempted to use this Newburgh Conspiracy as leverage to secure support from the states and in Congress for funding of the national government . They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach , threatening unknown consequences if their demands were not met , and defeated proposals that would have resolved the crisis without establishing general federal taxation : that the states assume the debt to the army , or that an impost be established dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt . Hamilton suggested using the Army 's claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system . The Morrises and Hamilton contacted Knox to suggest he and the officers defy civil authority , at least by not disbanding if the army were not satisfied ; Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that Hamilton covertly " take direction " of the officers ' efforts to secure redress , to secure continental funding but keep the army within the limits of moderation . Washington wrote Hamilton back , declining to introduce the army ; after the crisis had ended , he warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for the national funding plan .
On March 15 , Washington defused the Newburgh situation by giving a speech to the officers . Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783 . In the same month , Congress passed a new measure for a twenty @-@ five @-@ year impost — which Hamilton voted against — that again required the consent of all the states ; it also approved a commutation of the officers ' pensions to five years of full pay . Rhode Island again opposed these provisions , and Hamilton 's robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter were widely held to be excessive .
In June 1783 , a different group of disgruntled soldiers from Lancaster , Pennsylvania , sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay . When they began to march toward Philadelphia , Congress charged Hamilton and two others with intercepting the mob . Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania 's Supreme Executive Council , but was turned down . Hamilton instructed Assistant Secretary of War William Jackson to intercept the men . Jackson was unsuccessful . The mob arrived in Philadelphia , and the soldiers proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay . The President of Congress , John Dickinson , feared that the Pennsylvania state militia was unreliable , and refused its help . Hamilton argued that Congress ought to adjourn to Princeton , New Jersey . Congress agreed , and relocated there .
Frustrated with the weakness of the central government , Hamilton while in Princeton drafted a call to revise the Articles of Confederation . This resolution contained many features of the future U.S. Constitution , including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and raise an army . It also included the separation of powers into the Executive , Legislative , and Judicial branches .
= = = Return to New York = = =
Hamilton resigned from Congress , and in July 1783 was authorized to practice law in New York after several months of self @-@ directed education . He practiced law in New York City in partnership with Richard Harison . He specialized in defending Tories and British subjects , as in Rutgers v. Waddington , in which he defeated a claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the military occupation of New York . He pleaded for the Mayor 's Court to interpret state law consistent with the 1783 Treaty of Paris which had ended the Revolutionary War .
In 1784 , he founded the Bank of New York which became one of the longest operating banks in American history , it stayed in business for over 220 years before it merged with another bank in 2007 . Hamilton was one of the men who restored King 's College , which had been suspended since 1776 and severely damaged during the War , as Columbia College . Long dissatisfied with the weak Articles of Confederation , he played a major leadership role at the Annapolis Convention in 1786 . He drafted its resolution for a constitutional convention , and in doing so brought his longtime desire to have a more powerful , more financially independent federal government one step closer to reality .
= = Constitution and The Federalist Papers = =
= = = Constitutional Convention and ratification of the Constitution = = =
In 1787 , Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature and was chosen as a delegate for the Constitutional Convention by his father @-@ in @-@ law Philip Schuyler . Even though Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention , his direct influence at the Convention itself was quite limited . Governor George Clinton 's faction in the New York legislature had chosen New York 's other two delegates , John Lansing , Jr. and Robert Yates , and both of them opposed Hamilton 's goal of a strong national government . Thus , whenever the other two members of the New York delegation were present , they decided New York 's vote , to ensure that there was no major alterations to the Articles of Confederation .
Early in the Convention he made a speech proposing a President @-@ for @-@ Life ; it had no effect upon the deliberations of the convention . He proposed to have an elected President and elected Senators who would serve for life , contingent upon " good behavior " and subject to removal for corruption or abuse ; this idea contributed later to the hostile view of Hamilton as a monarchist sympathizer , held by James Madison . According to Madison 's notes , Hamilton said in regards to the executive , " The English model was the only good one on this subject . The hereditary interest of the king was so interwoven with that of the nation , and his personal emoluments so great , that he was placed above the danger of being corrupted from abroad … Let one executive be appointed for life who dares execute his powers . " Hamilton argued , " And let me observe that an executive is less dangerous to the liberties of the people when in office during life than for seven years . It may be said this constitutes as an elective monarchy … But by making the executive subject to impeachment , the term ' monarchy ' cannot apply … " During the convention , Hamilton constructed a draft for the Constitution based on the convention debates , but he never presented it . This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution . In this draft , the Senate was to be elected in proportion to the population , being two @-@ fifths the size of the House , and the President and Senators were to be elected through complex multistage elections , in which chosen electors would elect smaller bodies of electors ; they would hold office for life , but were removable for misconduct . The President would have an absolute veto . The Supreme Court was to have immediate jurisdiction over all law suits involving the United States , and state governors were to be appointed by the federal government .
At the end of the Convention , Hamilton was still not content with the final form of the Constitution , but signed it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation , and urged his fellow delegates to do so also . Since the other two members of the New York delegation , Lansing and Yates , had already withdrawn , Hamilton was the only New York signer to the United States Constitution . He then took a highly active part in the successful campaign for the document 's ratification in New York in 1788 , which was a crucial step in its national ratification . He first used the popularity of the Constitution by the masses to compel George Clinton to sign , but was unsuccessful . The state convention in Poughkeepsie in June 1788 pitted Hamilton , Jay , James Duane , Robert Livingston , and Richard Morris against the Clintonian faction led by Melancton Smith , Lansing , Yates , and Gilbert Livingston . Hamilton 's faction were against any conditional ratification , under the impression that New York would not be accepted into the Union , while Clinton 's faction wanted to amend the Constitution , while maintaining the state 's right to secede if their attempts failed . During the state convention , New Hampshire and Virginia becoming the ninth and tenth states to ratify the Constitution , respectively , had ensured any adjournment would not happen and a compromise would have to be reached . Hamilton 's arguments used for the ratifications were largely iterations of work from The Federalist Papers , and Smith eventually went for ratification , though it was more out of necessity than Hamilton 's rhetoric . The vote in the state constitution was ratified 30 to 27 , on July 26 , 1788 .
In 1788 , Hamilton served yet another term in what proved to be the last session of the Continental Congress under the Articles of Confederation . When the term of Philip Schuyler was up in 1791 , elected in his place was the attorney general of New York , one Aaron Burr . Hamilton blamed Burr for this result , and ill characterizations of Burr appear in his correspondence thereafter . The two men did work together from time to time thereafter on various projects , including Hamilton 's army of 1798 and the Manhattan Water Company .
= = = The Federalist Papers = = =
Hamilton recruited John Jay and James Madison to write a series of essays defending the proposed Constitution , now known as The Federalist Papers , and made the largest contribution to that effort , writing 51 of 85 essays published ( Madison wrote 29 , Jay only five ) . Hamilton supervised the entire project , enlisted the participants , wrote the majority of the essays , and oversaw the publication . During the project each person was responsible for their areas of expertise ; Jay covered foreign relations , Madison covered the history of republics and confederacies , along with the anatomy of the new government and Hamilton covered the branches of government most pertinent to him : the executive and judicial branches , with some aspects of the Senate , as well as covering military matters and taxation . The papers first appeared in The Independent Journal in October 27 , 1787 .
Hamilton wrote the first paper signed as Publius , and all of the subsequent papers were signed under the name . Jay wrote the next four papers to elaborate on the confederation 's weakness and the need for unity against foreign aggression and against splitting into rival confederacies , and , except for Number 64 , was not further involved . Hamilton 's highlights included discussion that although republics have been culpable for disorders in the past , advances in the " science of politics " had fostered principles that ensured that those abuses could be prevented , such as the division of powers , legislative checks and balances , an independent judiciary , and legislators that were represented by electors ( Numbers 7 – 9 ) . Hamilton also wrote an extensive defense of the constitution ( No. 23 – 36 ) , and discussed the Senate and executive and judicial branches in Numbers 65 – 85 . Hamilton and Madison worked to describe the anarchic state of the confederation in numbers 15 – 22 , and have been described as not being entirely different in thought during this time period in contrast to their stark opposition later in life . Subtle differences appeared with the two when discussing the necessity of standing armies .
= = Reconciliation between New York and Vermont = =
In 1764 King George III had ruled in favor of New York in a dispute between New York and New Hampshire over the region that later became the state of Vermont . New York refused to recognize claims to property derived from grants by New Hampshire governor Benning Wentworth during the preceding 15 years when the territory had been governed as a de facto part of New Hampshire . Consequently , the people of the disputed territory , called the New Hampshire Grants , resisted the enforcement of New York 's laws within the Grants . Indeed , Ethan Allen 's militia called the Green Mountain Boys , noted for successes in the war against the British in 1775 , was originally formed for the purpose of resisting the colonial government of New York . In 1777 the statesmen of the Grants declared it a separate state to be called Vermont , and by early 1778 had erected a state government . During 1777 – 1785 , Vermont was repeatedly denied representation in the Continental Congress , largely because New York insisted that Vermont was legally a part of New York . Vermont took the position that because its petitions for admission to the Union were denied , it was not a part of the United States , not subject to Congress , and at liberty to negotiate separately with the British . The latter Haldimand negotiations led to some exchanges of prisoners of war . The peace treaty of 1783 that ended the war included Vermont within the boundaries of the United States .
By 1787 the government of New York had almost entirely given up plans to subjugate Vermont , but still claimed jurisdiction . As a member of the legislature of New York , Hamilton argued forcefully and at length in favor of a bill to recognize the sovereignty of the State of Vermont , against numerous objections to its constitutionality and policy . Consideration of the bill was deferred to a later date . In 1788 and 1789 extensive negotiations were carried out between Hamilton and Nathaniel Chipman , a lawyer representing Vermont . Among the topics were the location of the border between Vermont and New York , and financial compensation of New York land @-@ grantees whose grants Vermont refused to recognize because they conflicted with earlier grants from New Hampshire . In 1788 the new Constitution of the United States went into effect , with its plan to replace the unicameral Continental Congress with a new Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives . Hamilton wrote :
One of the first subjects of deliberation with the new Congress will be the independence of Kentucky [ at that time still a part of Virginia ] , for which the southern states will be anxious . The northern will be glad to find a counterpoise in Vermont .
In 1790 the legislature of New York agreed to give up that state 's claim to jurisdiction in Vermont on condition that Congress would admit Vermont state to the Union .
= = Secretary of the Treasury = =
President George Washington appointed Hamilton as the first United States Secretary of the Treasury on September 11 , 1789 . He left office on the last day of January 1795 . Much of the structure of the government of the United States was worked out in those five years , beginning with the structure and function of the cabinet itself . Biographer Forrest McDonald argues that Hamilton saw his office , like that of the British First Lord of the Treasury , as the equivalent of a Prime Minister ; Hamilton would oversee his colleagues under the elective reign of George Washington . Washington did request Hamilton 's advice and assistance on matters outside the purview of the Treasury Department . In 1791 , while Secretary , Hamilton was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . Hamilton submitted various financial reports to Congress . Among these are the First Report on the Public Credit , Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports , Report on a National Bank , On the Establishment of a Mint , Report on Manufactures , and the Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit . So , the great enterprise in Hamilton 's project of an administrative republic is the establishment of stability .
= = = Report on Public Credit = = =
Before the adjournment of the House in September 1789 , they requested Hamilton to make a report on suggestions to improve the public credit by January 1790 . Hamilton had written to Robert Morris as early as 1781 that fixing the public credit will win their objective of independence . The sources that Hamilton used ranged from Frenchmen such as Jacques Necker and Montesquieu to British writers such as Hume , Hobbes , and Malachy Postlethwayt . While writing the report he also sought out suggestions from contemporaries such as John Knox Witherspoon , and Madison . Although they agreed on additional taxes such as distilleries and duties on imported liquors and land taxes , Madison feared that the securities from the government debt would fall in foreign hands .
In the report , Hamilton felt that the debt that the United States had accrued during the Revolutionary War was the price it paid for its liberty . He argued that liberty and property security were inseparable and that the government should honor the contracts , as they formed the basis of public and private morality . To Hamilton , the proper handling of the government debt would also allow America to borrow at affordable interest rates and would also be a stimulant to the economy . Hamilton divided the debt into national and state , and further divided the national debt into foreign and domestic debt . While there was agreement on how to handle the foreign debt ( especially with France ) , there was not with regards to the national debt held by domestic creditors . During the Revolutionary War , affluent citizens had invested in bonds , and war veterans had been paid with promissory notes and IOUs that plummeted in price during the Confederation . In response , the war veterans sold the securities to speculators for as little as fifteen to twenty cents on the dollar . Hamilton felt the money from the bonds should not go to the soldiers , but the speculators that had bought the bonds from the soldiers , as they had little faith in the country 's future . The process of attempting to track down the original bond holders along with the government showing discrimination among the classes of holders if the war veterans were to be compensated also weighed in as factors for Hamilton . As for the state debts , Hamilton suggested to consolidate it with the national debt and label it as federal debt , for the sake of efficiency on a national scale . The last portion of the report dealt with eliminating the debt by utilizing a sinking fund that would retire five percent of the debt annually until it was paid off . Due to the bonds being traded well below their face value , the purchases would benefit the government as the securities rose in price .
When the report was submitted to the House of Representatives , detractors soon began to speak against it . The notion of programs that resembled British practice were wicked along with the power of balance being shifted away from the Representatives to the executive branch were some of the prejudices that resided within the House . William Maclay suspected that that several congressmen were involved in government securities , saw Congress in an unholy league with New York speculators . Congressman James Jackson also spoke against New York with allegations of speculators attempting to swindle those who had yet heard about Hamilton 's report . The involvement of those in Hamilton 's circle such as Schuyler , William Duer , James Duane , Gouverneur Morris , and Rufus King as speculators was not favorable to those against the report , either , though Hamilton personally did not own or deal a share in the debt . Madison eventually spoke against it by February 1790 . Although he was not against current holders of government debt to profit , he wanted the windfall to go to the original holders . Madison did not feel that the original holders had lost faith in the government , but sold their securities out of desperation . The compromise was seen as egregious to both Hamiltonians and their dissidents such as Maclay , and Madison 's vote was defeated 36 votes to 13 on February 22 .
The fight for the national government to assume state debt was a longer issue , and lasted over four months . During the period , the resources that Hamilton was to apply to the payment of state debts was requested by Alexander White , and was rejected due to Hamilton 's not being able to prepare information by March 3 , and was even postponed by his own supporters in spite of configuring a report the next day ( which consisted of a series of additional duties to meet the interest on the state debts ) . Some of the other issues involving Hamilton were bypassing the rising issue of slavery in Congress after Quakers petitioned for its abolition ( though he returned to the issue the following year ) , having Duer resign as Assistant Secretary of the Treasury , and the vote of assumption being voted down 31 votes to 29 on April 12 . The temporary location of the capital from New York City also played a role , as Tench Coxe was sent to speak to Maclay to bargain about the capital being temporarily located to Philadelphia , as a single vote in the Senate was needed and five in the House for the bill to pass . The bill passed in the Senate on July 21 and in the House 34 votes to 28 on July 26 , 1790 .
= = = Report on a National Bank = = =
Hamilton 's Report on a National Bank was a projection from the first Report on the Public Credit . Although Hamilton had been forming ideas of a national bank as early as 1779 , he gathered ideas in various ways over the past eleven years . These included theories from Adam Smith , extensive studies on the Bank of England , the blunders of the Bank of North America and his experience in establishing the Bank of New York . He also used American records from James Wilson , Pelatiah Webster , Gouverneur Morris , and from his assistant Treasury secretary Tench Coxe .
Hamilton suggested that Congress should charter the National Bank with a capitalization of $ 10 million , one @-@ fifth of which would be handled by the Government . Since the Government did not have the money , it would borrow the money from the bank itself , and repay the loan in ten even annual installments . The rest was to be available to individual investors . The bank was to be governed by a twenty @-@ five member board of directors that was to represent a large majority of the private shareholders , which Hamilton considered essential for his being under a private direction . Hamilton 's bank model had many similarities to that of the Bank of England , except Hamilton wanted to exclude the Government from being involved in public debt , but provide a large , firm , and elastic money supply for the functioning of normal businesses and usual economic development , among other differences . For tax revenue to ignite the bank , it was the same as he had previously proposed ; increases on imported spirits : rum , liquor , and whiskey .
The bill passed through the Senate practically without a problem , but objections of the proposal increased by the time it reached the House of Representatives . It was generally held by critics that Hamilton was serving the interests of the Northeast by means of the bank , and those of the agrarian lifestyle would not benefit from it . Among those critics was James Jackson of Georgia , who also attempted to refute the report by quoting from The Federalist Papers . Madison and Jefferson also opposed the bank bill ; however , the potential of the capital not being moved to the Potomac if the bank was to have a firm establishment in Philadelphia ( the current capital of the United States ) was a more significant reason , and actions that Pennsylvania members of Congress took to keep the capital there made both men anxious . Madison warned the Pennsylvania congress members that he would attack the bill as unconstitutional in the House , and followed up on his threat . Madison argued his case of where the power of a bank could be established within the Constitution , but he failed to sway members of the House , and his authority on the constitution was questioned by a few members . The bill eventually passed in an overwhelming fashion 39 to 20 , on February 8 , 1791 .
Washington hesitated to sign the bill , as he received suggestions from Attorney @-@ General Edmund Randolph and Thomas Jefferson . Jefferson dismissed the ' necessary and proper ' clause as reasoning for the creation of a national bank , stating that the enumerated powers " can all be carried into execution without a bank . " Along with Randolph and Jefferson 's objections , Washington 's involvement in the movement of the capital from Philadelphia is also thought to be a reason for his hesitation . In response to the objection of the ' necessary and proper ' clause , Hamilton stated that " Necessary often means no more than needful , requisite , incidental , useful , or conductive to " , and the bank was a " convenient species of medium in which they ( taxes ) are to be paid . " . Washington would eventually sign the bill into law .
= = = Establishing the U.S. Mint = = =
In 1791 , Hamilton submitted Report on the Establishment of a Mint to the House of Representatives . Most of Hamilton 's ideas for this report were from European economists , resolutions from Continental Congress meetings from 1785 and 1786 , and from people such as Gouverneur Morris and Thomas Jefferson . Due to the Spanish coin being the most circulated coin in the United States at the time , Alexander Hamilton proposed that the minting of the United States dollar weighing almost as much as the Spanish peso would be the simplest way to introduce a national currency . Hamilton wanted the U.S. dollar system to be set for decimals rather than the eights like the Spanish mint . In spite of preferring a monometallic gold standard , he issued a bimetallic currency at ratio that was to be similar to most European countries . What was different from the European currencies was his desire to overprice the gold on the grounds that the United States would always receive an influx of silver from the West Indies . Hamilton desired the minting of small value coins such as silver ten @-@ cent , copper , and half @-@ cent pieces , for reducing the cost of living for the poor . One of his main objectives was for the general public to become accustomed to handling money on a frequent basis .
By 1792 , Hamilton 's principles were adopted by Congress , resulting in the Coinage Act of 1792 , and the creation of the United States Mint . There was to be a ten dollar Gold Eagle coin , a silver dollar , and fractional money ranging from one @-@ half to fifty cents . The coining of silver and gold was issued by 1795 .
= = = Revenue Cutter Service = = =
Smuggling off American coasts was an issue before the Revolutionary War , and after the Revolution it was more problematic . Along with smuggling , lack of shipping control , pirating , and a revenue unbalance were also major problems . In response , Hamilton proposed to Congress to enact a naval police force called revenue cutters in order to patrol the waters and assist the custom collectors with confiscating contraband . This idea was also proposed to assist in tariff controlling , boosting the American economy , and promote the merchant marine . It is thought that his experience obtained during his apprenticeship with Nicholas Kruger was influential in his decision @-@ making .
Concerning some of the details of the " System of Cutters " , Hamilton wanted the first ten cutters in different areas in the United States , from New England to Georgia . Hamilton also wanted those cutters to be armed with ten muskets and bayonets , twenty pistols , two chisels , one broad @-@ ax and two lanterns . Hamilton also wanted the fabric of the sails to be domestically manufactured . Hamilton was also concerned of the employees ' food supply and etiquette when boarding ships , and made provisions for each . Congress established the Revenue Cutter Service on August 4 , 1790 , which is viewed as the birth of the United States Coast Guard .
= = = Whiskey as tax revenue = = =
One of the principal sources of revenue Hamilton prevailed upon Congress to approve was an excise tax on whiskey . In his first Tariff Bill in January of 1790 , Hamilton proposed to raise the three million dollars needed to pay for government operating expenses and interest on domestic and foreign debts by means of an increase on duties on imported wines , distilled spirits , tea , coffee , and domestic spirits . It failed , with Congress complying with most recommendations excluding the excise tax on Whiskey ( Madison 's tariff of the same year was a modification of Hamilton 's that involved only imported duties and was passed in September ) .
In response of diversifying revenues , as three @-@ fourths of revenue gathered was from commerce with Great Britain , Hamilton attempted once again during his Report on Public Credit when presenting it in 1790 to implement an excise tax both imported and domestic spirits . The taxation rate was graduated in proportion to the whiskey proof , and Hamilton intended to equalize the tax burden on imported spirits with imported and domestic liquor . In lieu of the excise on production citizens could pay 60 cents by the gallon of dispensing capacity , along with an exemption on small stills used exclusively for domestic consumption . He realized the loathing that the tax would receive in rural areas , but thought of the taxing of spirits more reasonable than land taxes .
Opposition initially came from Pennsylvania 's House of Representatives protesting the tax . William Maclay had noted that not even the Pennsylvanian legislators had been able to enforce excise taxes in the western regions of the state . Hamilton was aware of the potential difficulties and proposed inspectors the ability to search buildings that distillers were designated to store their spirits , and would be able to search suspected illegal storage facilities to confiscate contraband with a warrant . Although the inspectors were not allowed to search houses and warehouses , they were to visit twice a day and file weekly reports in extensive detail . Hamilton cautioned against expedited judicial means , and favored a jury trial with potential offenders . As soon as 1791 locals began to shun or threaten inspectors , as they felt the inspection methods were intrusive . Inspectors were also tarred and feathered , blindfolded , and whipped . Hamilton had attempted to appease the opposition with lowered tax rates , but it did not suffice .
Strong opposition to the whiskey tax by cottage producers in remote , rural regions erupted into the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 ; in Western Pennsylvania and western Virginia , whiskey was the basic export product and was fundamental to the local economy . In response to the rebellion , believing compliance with the laws was vital to the establishment of federal authority , Hamilton accompanied to the rebellion 's site President Washington , General Henry " Light Horse Harry " Lee , and more federal troops than were ever assembled in one place during the Revolution . This overwhelming display of force intimidated the leaders of the insurrection , ending the rebellion virtually without bloodshed .
= = = Manufacturing and industry = = =
Hamilton 's next report was his Report on Manufactures . Although he was requested by Congress on January 15 , 1790 for a report for manufacturing that would expand the United States ' independence , the report was not submitted until December 5 , 1791 . In the report , Hamilton quoted from Wealth of Nations and used the French physiocrats as an example for rejecting agrarianism and the physiocratic theory ; respectively . Hamilton also refuted Smith 's ideas of government noninterference , as it would have been detrimental for trade with other countries . Hamilton also thought of the United States being a primarily agrarian country would be a disadvantage in dealing with Europe . In response to the agrarian detractors , Hamilton stated that the agriculturists ' interest would be advanced by manufactures , and that agriculture was just as productive as manufacturing .
Among the ways that the government could assist in manufacturing , Hamilton mentioned levying protective duties on imported foreign goods that were also manufactured in the United States , to withdraw duties levied on raw materials needed for domestic manufacturing , pecuniary boundaries , and encouraging immigration for people to better themselves in similar employment opportunities . Congress shelved the report without much debate ( except for Madison 's objection to Hamilton 's formulation of the General Welfare clause , which Hamilton construed liberally as a legal basis for his extensive programs ) .
Subsequently in 1791 , with his ideas for manufacturing being a major influence , Hamilton , along with Coxe and several entrepreneurs from New York and Philadelphia helped form the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures , a private industrial corporation . The location at Great Falls of the Passaic River in New Jersey was selected due to access to raw materials , it being densely inhabited , and having access to water power from the falls of the Passaic . The factory town was named Paterson after New Jersey 's Governor William Paterson , who signed the charter . The profits were to derive from specific corporates rather than the benefits to be conferred to the nation and the citizens , which was unlike the report . Hamilton also suggested the first stock to be offered at $ 500 @,@ 000 and to eventually increase to $ 1 million , and welcomed state and national government subscriptions alike . The company was never successful : numerous shareholders reneged on stock payments , some members soon went bankrupt , and William Duer , the governor of the program , was sent to debtors ' prison . In spite of Hamilton 's efforts to mend the disaster , the company would expire by 1796 .
= = = Emergence of parties = = =
During Hamilton 's tenure as Treasury Secretary , political factions began to emerge . A Congressional caucus , led by James Madison and William Branch Giles , began as an opposition group to Hamilton 's financial programs , and Thomas Jefferson joined this group when he returned from France . Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves Federalists . The opposition group , now called the Democratic @-@ Republican Party by political scientists , was at the time known as Republicans .
Hamilton assembled a nationwide coalition to garner support for the Administration , including the expansive financial programs Hamilton had made Administration policy and especially the president 's policy of neutrality in the European war between Britain and France . Hamilton 's public relations campaign attacked the French minister Edmond @-@ Charles Genêt ( he called himself " Citizen Genêt " ) who tried to appeal to voters directly , which Federalists denounced as foreign interference in American affairs . If Hamilton 's administrative republic was to succeed , Americans had to see themselves as nation citizens , and experience an administration that proved firm and demonstrated the concepts found within the United States Constitution . The Federalists did impose some internal direct taxes but they departed from the most implications of the Hamilton administrative republic as risky .
The Jeffersonian Republicans opposed banks and cities , and favored France . They built their own national coalition to oppose the Federalists . Both sides gained the support of local political factions ; each side developed its own partisan newspapers . Noah Webster , John Fenno , and William Cobbett were energetic editors for the Federalists ; Benjamin Franklin Bache and Philip Freneau were fiery Republican editors . All the newspapers were characterized by intense personal attacks , major exaggerations and invented claims . In 1801 , Hamilton established a daily newspaper , the New York Evening Post and brought in William Coleman as editor . It is still publishing ( as the New York Post ) .
The quarrel between Hamilton and Jefferson is the best known and historically the most important in American political history . Hamilton 's and Jefferson 's incompatibility was heightened by the unavowed wish of each to be Washington 's principal and most trusted advisor .
= = = Jay Treaty and Britain = = =
When France and Britain went to war in early 1793 , all four members of the Cabinet were consulted on what to do . They and Washington unanimously agreed to remain neutral , and to send Genêt home . However , in 1794 policy toward Britain became a major point of contention between the two parties . Hamilton and the Federalists wished for more trade with Britain , the new nation 's largest trading partner . The Republicans saw Britain as the main threat to republicanism and proposed instead a trade war .
To avoid war , Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British ; Hamilton largely wrote Jay 's instructions . The result was Jay 's Treaty . It was denounced by the Republicans but Hamilton mobilized support up and down the land . The Jay Treaty passed the Senate in 1795 by exactly the required two @-@ thirds majority . The Treaty resolved issues remaining from the Revolution , averted war , and made possible ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain . Historian George Herring notes the " remarkable and fortuitous economic and diplomatic gains " produced by the Treaty .
Several European nations had formed a League of Armed Neutrality against incursions on their neutral rights ; the Cabinet was also consulted on whether the United States should join it , and decided not to . It kept that decision secret , but Hamilton revealed it in private to George Hammond , the British Minister to the United States , without telling Jay or anyone else . ( His act remained unknown until Hammond 's dispatches were read in the 1920s ) . This " amazing revelation " may have had limited effect on the negotiations ; Jay did threaten to join the League at one point , but the British had other reasons not to view the League as a serious threat .
= = = Second Report on Public Credit = = =
Before leaving his post in 1795 , Hamilton submitted Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit to Congress to curb the debt problem . Hamilton grew dissatisfied with what he viewed as a lack of a comprehensive plan to fix the public debt . He wished to have new taxes passed with older ones made permanent and stated that any surplus from the excise tax on liquor would be pledged to lower public debt . His proposals were included into a bill by Congress within slightly over a month after his departure as treasury secretary .
= = Post @-@ Secretary years = =
= = = The Reynolds affair = = =
In 1791 , Hamilton became involved in an affair with Maria Reynolds over a nine @-@ month period that would be revealed to the public several years afterward . Reynolds appeared to Hamilton as a woman who had been abandoned by her husband , James , at New York and wished to return to there . Hamilton did not have any money on his person , so he retrieved her address in order to deliver the funds in person . After the brief dialogue in Reynolds ' bedroom , he had frequent meetings with her . Hamilton then received two letters on December 15 , 1791 , one from both Mr. and Mrs. Reynolds . The first letter was Maria warning of her husband 's knowledge and of James attempting to blackmail Hamilton . By this point Hamilton contemplated ending the relationship , and briefly ceased to visit , but both apparently were involved in the blackmailing scheme as both sent letters , and at one point James Reynolds requested to ' befriend ' her . By May of 1792 , James Reynolds had requested for Hamilton to no longer see his wife , but not before receiving fifty and two hundred dollars out of over $ 1300 in blackmail . Hamilton possibly was aware of both Reynolds ' being involved before the blackmailing incident .
When under suspicion of illegal actions while Secretary of the Treasury by associating with William Duer from John J. Beckley and Jacob Clingman , the latter also had alleged evidence of James Reynolds being an agent of Hamilton 's , with accompanying letters gathered from Maria Reynolds that were from Hamilton . This information was relayed to James Monroe , who consulted with Congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take . When it was suggested by Clingman that James Reynolds had evidence that would incriminate Hamilton , after both were arrested for counterfeiting and Clingman was released , Monroe and the Congressmen soon confronted Hamilton on 15 December 1792 . After Hamilton discussed the affair , the trio were to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence .
In 1797 , however , when " notoriously scurrilous journalist " James T. Callender published A History of the United States for the Year 1796 , it contained accusations of James Reynolds being an agent of Hamilton using documents from the confrontation on December 15 , 1792 . On July 5 , 1797 , Hamilton wrote to all three men to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury . All complied but Monroe , and after several rounds of argument , the two almost resorted to a duel . When Hamilton did not obtain an explicit response from Monroe , he published a pamphlet in order to preserve his public reputation , and discussed the affair in exquisite detail . His wife forgave him , but not Monroe . Though he faced ridicule from the Democratic @-@ Republican faction , he maintained his availability for public service .
= = = 1796 presidential election = = =
Hamilton 's resignation as Secretary of the Treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life . With the resumption of his law practice , he remained close to Washington as an advisor and friend . Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of his Farewell Address by writing drafts for Washington to compare with the latter 's draft , although when Washington contemplated retirement in 1792 , he had consulted James Madison for a draft that was used in a similar manner to Hamilton 's .
In the election of 1796 , under the Constitution as it stood then , each of the presidential electors had two votes , which they were to cast for different men . The one who received most votes would become President , the second @-@ most , Vice President . This system was not designed with the operation of parties in mind , as they had been thought disreputable and factious . The Federalists planned to deal with this by having all their Electors vote for John Adams , the Vice President , and all but a few for Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina .
Adams resented Hamilton 's influence with Washington and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life ; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington and thought him too emotionally unstable to be President . Hamilton took the election as an opportunity : he urged all the northern electors to vote for Adams and Pinckney , lest Jefferson get in ; but he cooperated with Edward Rutledge to have South Carolina 's electors vote for Jefferson and Pinckney . If all this worked , Pinckney would have more votes than Adams , Pinckney would become President , and Adams would remain Vice President , but it did not work . The Federalists found out about it ( even the French minister to the United States knew ) , and northern Federalists voted for Adams but not for Pinckney , in sufficient numbers that Pinckney came in third and Jefferson became Vice President . Adams resented the intrigue since he felt his service to the nation was much more extensive than Pinckney 's .
= = = Quasi @-@ War = = =
During the Quasi @-@ War of 1798 – 1800 , and with Washington 's strong endorsement , Adams reluctantly appointed Hamilton a major general of the army ; at Washington 's insistence , Hamilton was made the senior major general , prompting Henry Knox to decline appointment to serve as Hamilton 's junior ( Knox had been a major general in the Continental Army and thought it would be degrading to serve beneath him ) . Hamilton served as inspector general of the United States Army from July 18 , 1798 , to June 15 , 1800 ; because Washington was unwilling to leave Mount Vernon unless it were to command an army in the field , Hamilton was the de facto head of the army , to Adams 's considerable displeasure . If full @-@ scale war broke out with France , Hamilton argued that the army should conquer the North American colonies of France 's ally , Spain , bordering the United States .
To fund this army , Hamilton wrote regularly to Oliver Wolcott , Jr . , his successor at the Treasury ; William Loughton Smith , of the House Ways and Means Committee ; and Senator Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts . He directed them to pass a direct tax to fund the war . Smith resigned in July 1797 , as Hamilton scolded him for slowness , and told Wolcott to tax houses instead of land .
The eventual program included a Stamp Act like that of the British before the Revolution and other taxes on land , houses , and slaves , calculated at different rates in different states , and requiring difficult and intricate assessment of houses . This provoked resistance in southeastern Pennsylvania , led primarily by men such as John Fries who had marched with Washington against the Whiskey Rebellion .
Hamilton aided in all areas of the army 's development , and after Washington 's death he was by default the Senior Officer of the United States Army from December 14 , 1799 , to June 15 , 1800 . The army was to guard against invasion from France . Adams , however , derailed all plans for war by opening negotiations with France . Adams had held it proper to retain the members of Washington 's cabinet , except for cause ; he found , in 1800 ( after Washington 's death ) , that they were obeying Hamilton rather than himself , and fired several of them .
= = = 1800 presidential election = = =
In the 1800 election , Hamilton worked to defeat not only the rival Democratic @-@ Republican candidates , but also his party 's own nominee , John Adams . In November 1799 , the Alien and Sedition Acts had left one Democratic @-@ Republican newspaper functioning in New York City ; when the last , the New Daily Advertiser , reprinted an article saying that Hamilton had attempted to purchase the Philadelphia Aurora and close it down , Hamilton had the publisher prosecuted for seditious libel , and the prosecution compelled the owner to close the paper .
Aaron Burr had won New York for Jefferson in May ; now Hamilton proposed a rerun of the election under different rules — with carefully drawn districts and each choosing an elector — such that the Federalists would split the electoral vote of New York . ( John Jay , a Federalist who had given up the Supreme Court to be Governor of New York , wrote on the back of the letter the words , " Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt , " and declined to reply . )
John Adams was running this time with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina ( the elder brother of candidate Thomas Pinckney from the 1796 election ) . Hamilton now toured New England , again urging northern electors to hold firm for Pinckney in the renewed hope of making Pinckney president ; and he again intrigued in South Carolina . Hamilton 's ideas involved coaxing middle @-@ state Federalists to assert their non @-@ support for Adams if there was no support for Pinckney and writing to more of the modest supports of Adams concerning his supposed misconduct while president . Hamilton expected to see southern states such as the Carolinas cast their votes for Pinckney and Jefferson , and would result in the former being ahead of both Adams and Jefferson .
In accordance with the second of the aforementioned plans , and a recent personal rift with Adams , Hamilton wrote a pamphlet called Letter from Alexander Hamilton , Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams , Esq . President of the United States that was highly critical of him , though it closed with a tepid endorsement . He mailed this to two hundred leading Federalists ; when a copy fell into the Democratic @-@ Republicans ' hands , they printed it . This hurt Adams 's 1800 reelection campaign and split the Federalist Party , virtually assuring the victory of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party , led by Jefferson , in the election of 1800 ; it destroyed Hamilton 's position among the Federalists .
Jefferson had beaten Adams , but both he and his running mate , Aaron Burr , had received 73 votes in the Electoral College ( Adams finished in third place , Pinckney in fourth , and Jay received one vote ) . With Jefferson and Burr tied , the United States House of Representatives had to choose between the two men . Several Federalists who opposed Jefferson supported Burr , and for the first 35 ballots , Jefferson was denied a majority . Before the 36th ballot , Hamilton threw his weight behind Jefferson , supporting the arrangement reached by James A. Bayard of Delaware , in which five Federalist Representatives from Maryland and Vermont abstained from voting , allowing those states ' delegations to go for Jefferson , ending the impasse and electing Jefferson President rather than Burr . Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues , he viewed Jefferson as the lesser of two evils . Hamilton spoke of Jefferson as being " by far not so a dangerous man " , and that Burr was a " mischievous enemy " to the principle measure of the past administration . There is strong circumstantial evidence , however , that what Hamilton really feared was Burr 's appeal to the members of the Federalist Party and loss of his control over them . Many Federalists viewed Burr as a moderate who was willing to dialogue with them . It was for that reason , along with the fact that Burr was a northerner and not a Virginian , that many Federalist Representatives voted for him . Hamilton wrote an exceeding number of letters to friends in Congress to convince the members to see otherwise . However , the Federalists rejected Hamilton 's diatribe as reasons to not vote for Burr . Nevertheless , Burr would become Vice President of the United States . When it became clear that Jefferson had developed his own concerns about Burr and would not support his return to the Vice Presidency , Burr sought the New York governorship in 1804 with Federalist support , against the Jeffersonian Morgan Lewis , but was defeated by forces including Hamilton .
= = Duel with Burr and death = =
Soon after the 1804 gubernatorial election in New York — in which Morgan Lewis , greatly assisted by Hamilton , defeated Aaron Burr — the Albany Register published Charles D. Cooper 's letters , citing Hamilton 's opposition to Burr and alleging that Hamilton had expressed " a still more despicable opinion " of the Vice President at an upstate New York dinner party . Cooper claimed that the letter was intercepted after relaying the information , but stated he was ' unusually cautious ' in recollecting the information from the dinner . Burr , sensing an attack on his honor , and recovering from his defeat , demanded an apology in letter form . Hamilton wrote a letter in response and ultimately refused because he could not recall the instance of insulting Burr ; also , Hamilton would have been accused of recanting Cooper 's letter out of cowardice . After a series of attempts to reconcile were to no avail , the duel was accepted through liaisons on June 27 , 1804 .
The night before the duel , Hamilton wrote a defense of his decision to duel . Hamilton viewed his roles of being a father and husband , putting his creditors at risk , placing his family 's welfare in jeopardy and his moral and religious stances as reasons not to duel , but he felt it impossible to avoid due to having made attacks on Burr which he was unable to recant , and because of Burr 's behavior prior to the duel . He attempted to reconcile his moral and religious reasons and the codes of honor and politics . He intended to accept the duel and throw his fire in order to satisfy his morals and political codes , respectively . His desire to be available for future political matters also played a factor .
The duel began at dawn on July 11 , 1804 , along the west bank of the Hudson River on a rocky ledge in Weehawken , New Jersey . After the seconds measured the paces , Hamilton , according to both William P. Van Ness and Burr , raised his pistol " as if to try the light " and had to wear his spectacles to prevent his vision from being obscured . Hamilton also refused the hairspring set of dueling pistols ( that would make the pulling of the trigger lighter ) when offered by Nathaniel Pendleton . Vice President Burr shot Hamilton , delivering what proved to be a fatal wound . Hamilton 's shot broke a tree branch directly above Burr 's head . Neither of the seconds , Pendleton nor Van Ness , could determine who fired first , as each claimed that the other man had fired first . Soon after , they measured and triangulated the shooting , but could not determine from which angle Hamilton fired . Burr 's shot , however , hit Hamilton in the lower abdomen above the right hip . The bullet ricocheted off Hamilton 's second or third false rib , fracturing it and causing considerable damage to his internal organs , particularly his liver and diaphragm , before becoming lodged in his first or second lumbar vertebra . Biographer Ron Chernow considered the circumstances to indicate that , after taking deliberate aim , Burr fired second , while biographer James Earnest Cooke suggested that Burr took careful aim and shot first , and Hamilton fired while falling , after being struck by Burr 's bullet .
The paralyzed Hamilton , who knew himself to be mortally wounded , was ferried to the Greenwich Village home of his friend William Bayard Jr . , who had been waiting on the dock . After final visits from his family and friends and considerable suffering , Hamilton died on the following afternoon , July 12 , 1804 , at Bayard 's home at what is now 80 – 82 Jane Street . Gouverneur Morris gave the eulogy at his funeral and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children . Hamilton was buried in the Trinity Churchyard Cemetery in Manhattan .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
While Hamilton was stationed in Morristown , New Jersey , in the winter of 1779 and 1780 , he met Elizabeth Schuyler , a daughter of Philip Schuyler and Catherine Van Rensselaer . The two were married on December 14 , 1780 , at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany , New York . He and Elizabeth had eight children , including two named Philip . The elder Philip , Hamilton 's first child ( born January 22 , 1782 ) , was killed in 1801 in a duel with George I. Eacker , whom he had publicly insulted in a Manhattan theater . The second Philip , Hamilton 's last child , was born on June 2 , 1802 , after the first Philip was killed . Their other children were Angelica , born September 25 , 1784 ; Alexander , born May 16 , 1786 ; James Alexander ( April 14 , 1788 – September 1878 ) ; John Church , ( August 22 , 1792 – July 25 , 1882 ) ; William Stephen ( August 4 , 1797 – October 9 , 1850 ) ; and Eliza , born November 26 , 1799 .
Hamilton was also close to Elizabeth 's older sister , Angelica , who eloped with John Barker Church , an Englishman who made a fortune in North America during the Revolution . She returned with Church to London after the war , where she later became a joint friend of Maria Cosway and Thomas Jefferson .
= = = Hamilton 's religion = = =
Hamilton , as a youth in the West Indies , was an orthodox and conventional Presbyterian of the " New Light " evangelical type ( as opposed to the " Old Light " Calvinists ) ; he was being taught by a student of John Witherspoon , a moderate of the New School . He wrote two or three hymns , which were published in the local newspaper . Robert Troup , his college roommate , noted that Hamilton was " in the habit of praying on his knees night and morning . "
Gordon Wood says that Hamilton dropped his youthful religiosity during the Revolution and became , " a conventional liberal with theistic inclinations who was an irregular churchgoer at best " ; however , he returned to religion in his last years . Chernow says he was nominally an Episcopalian but :
he was not clearly affiliated with the denomination and did not seem to attend church regularly or take communion . Like Adams , Franklin , and Jefferson , Hamilton had probably fallen under the sway of deism , which sought to substitute reason for revelation and dropped the notion of an active God that will intervene in human affairs . At the same time , he never doubted God 's existence , embracing Christianity as a system of morality and cosmic justice .
Hamilton made jokes about God at the Constitutional Convention . During the French Revolution , he displayed an " opportunistic religiosity " , using Christianity for political ends and insisting that Christianity and Jefferson 's democracy were incompatible . After 1801 , Hamilton further asserted the truth of Christianity ; he proposed a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802 , to take hold of " some strong feeling of the mind " to elect " fit men " to office , and he wrote of " Christian welfare societies " for the poor . He was not a member of any denomination . After being shot , Hamilton spoke of his belief in God 's mercy , and of his desire to renounce dueling ; Bishop Moore administered communion to Hamilton .
Hamilton had always had respect for Jews . His birthplace of Charlestown had a large Jewish population with whom Hamilton came into contact on a regular basis . As a boy , he had learned Hebrew and could recite the Ten Commandments in its original language . He believed that Jewish achievement was a result of divine providence and warned that those who discredit the Jews " destroy the Christian religion . "
= = Legacy = =
Hamilton 's interpretations of the Constitution set forth in the Federalist Papers remain highly influential , as seen in scholarly studies and court decisions .
Though the Constitution was ambiguous as to the exact balance of power between national and state governments , Hamilton consistently took the side of greater federal power at the expense of the states . As Secretary of the Treasury , he established — against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Jefferson — the country 's first national bank . Hamilton justified the creation of this bank , and other increased federal powers , under Congress 's constitutional powers to issue currency , to regulate interstate commerce , and to do anything else that would be " necessary and proper " to enact the provisions of the Constitution . Jefferson , on the other hand , took a stricter view of the Constitution : parsing the text carefully , he found no specific authorization for a national bank . This controversy was eventually settled by the Supreme Court of the United States in McCulloch v. Maryland , which in essence adopted Hamilton 's view , granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers , specifically the doctrine of implied powers . Nevertheless , the American Civil War and the Progressive Era demonstrated the sorts of crises and politics Hamilton 's administrative republic sought to avoid .
Hamilton 's policies as Secretary of the Treasury greatly affected the United States government and still continue to influence it . His constitutional interpretation , specifically of the Necessary and Proper Clause , set precedents for federal authority that are still used by the courts and are considered an authority on constitutional interpretation . The prominent French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand , who spent 1794 in the United States , wrote , " I consider Napoleon , Fox , and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch , and if I were forced to decide between the three , I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton " , adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives .
Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut : both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously aristocratic . Hamilton 's reputation was mostly negative in the eras of Jeffersonian democracy and Jacksonian democracy . However , by the Progressive era , Herbert Croly , Henry Cabot Lodge , and Theodore Roosevelt praised his leadership of a strong government . Several nineteenth- and twentieth @-@ century Republicans entered politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton .
Historians have generally taken one of two main views of Hamilton . Wilentz says :
In recent years , Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive . Jefferson and his allies , by contrast , have come across as naïve , dreamy idealists .
The older Jeffersonian view attacks him as a centralizer , to the point sometimes of advocating monarchy .
= = = Monuments and memorials = = =
Since the beginning of the American Civil War , Hamilton has been depicted on more denominations of US currency than anyone else . He has appeared on the $ 2 , $ 5 , $ 10 , $ 20 , $ 50 , and $ 1 @,@ 000 . His likeness also began to appear on US postage in 1870 . His portrait has continued to appear on U.S. postage and currency , and most notably appears on the modern $ 10 bill . On 18 June 2015 it was announced that his portrait would be replaced by that of a woman , to reflect the changing nature of American democracy and society , but it was later decided his portrait would remain and the portrait of a woman was moved to the $ 20 bill . Hamilton also appears on the $ 500 Series EE Savings Bond . The source of the face on the $ 10 bill is John Trumbull 's 1805 portrait of Hamilton , in the portrait collection of New York City Hall .
The first postage stamp to honor Hamilton was issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1870 . The portrayals on the 1870 and 1888 issues are from the same engraved die , which was modeled after a bust of Hamilton by Italian sculptor Giuseppe Ceracchi . The Hamilton 1870 issue was the first U.S. postage stamp to honor a Secretary of the Treasury . The three @-@ cent red commemorative issue , which was released on the 200th anniversary of Hamilton 's birth in 1957 , includes a rendition of the Federal Hall building , located in New York City . On March 19 , 1956 , the United States Postal Service issued the $ 5 Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Hamilton .
The only home Hamilton ever owned was a Federal style mansion designed by John McComb Jr . , which he built on his 32 @-@ acre country estate in Hamilton Heights in upper Manhattan . He named the house , which was completed in 1802 , the " Grange " after his grandfather Alexander 's estate in Ayrshire , Scotland . The house remained in the family until 1833 when his widow sold it to Thomas E. Davis , a British born real estate developer , for $ 25 @,@ 000 . Part of the proceeds were used by Eliza to purchase a new townhouse from Davis ( Hamilton @-@ Holly House ) in Greenwich Village with her son Alexander . The Grange , first moved from its original location in 1889 , was moved again in 2008 to a spot in St. Nicholas Park on land that was once part of the Hamilton estate , in Hamilton Heights , a neighborhood in upper Manhattan . The historic structure was restored to its original 1802 appearance in 2011 , and is maintained by the National Park service as Hamilton Grange National Memorial .
Alexander Hamilton served as one of the first trustees of the Hamilton @-@ Oneida Academy in New York state . Later the Academy received a college charter in 1812 , and the school was formally renamed Hamilton College . Columbia University , Hamilton 's alma mater , has official memorials to Hamilton on its campus in New York City . The college 's main classroom building for the humanities is Hamilton Hall , and a large statue of Hamilton stands in front of it . The university press has published his complete works in a multivolume letterpress edition . Columbia University 's student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates is named the Alexander Hamilton Society .
The main administration building of the Coast Guard Academy in New London , Connecticut , is named Hamilton Hall to commemorate Hamilton 's creation of the United States Revenue Cutter Service , one of the predecessor services of the United States Coast Guard . The U.S. Army 's Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn is named after Hamilton .
In 1990 , the U.S. Custom House in New York City was renamed after Hamilton .
In 1880 , his son John Church Hamilton commissioned Carl Conrads to sculpt a granite statue , now located in Central Park , New York City .
One statue honoring Alexander Hamilton in Chicago was mired in controversy , at least concerning the surrounding architecture . Kate Sturges Buckingham ( 1858 – 1937 ) , of the Buckingham Fountain family , commissioned the monument . Its impetus was that Treasury Secretary Hamilton " secured the nation 's financial future " and made it possible for her own family to make its fortune in grain elevators and banking . Consequently , John Angel was hired to model a figurative sculpture and the Finnish architect Eliel Saarinen was to create a " colossal architectural setting " for it . The proposed 80 @-@ foot tall columned shelter was poorly received . By Buckingham 's death in 1937 , the sculpture 's setting , location , and design were uncertain . Conspiracy allegations surfaced , and the matter became mired in litigation . After the courts ordered the construction to be completed by 1953 , the trustees hired architect Samuel A. Marx . The structure was completed , had structural problems , and was eventually demolished in 1993 . The statue was gilded , and is still on display .
A statue , by James Earle Fraser , was dedicated on May 17 , 1923 , on the south terrace of the Treasury Building , in Washington .
Hamilton County , New York , Hamilton County , Florida , Hamilton County , Illinois , Hamilton County , Indiana , Hamilton County , Kansas , Hamilton County , Nebraska , Hamilton County , Ohio and Hamilton County , Tennessee are all named in his honor .
= = = On slavery = = =
Until recently the prevailing scholarly view was that Hamilton , like the Founders generally , lacked a deep concern about slavery . John Patrick Diggins traced this animus of historians against Hamilton to Vernon L. Parrington , who , writing in the 1920s to praise Jefferson and the Enlightenment , denounced a reactionary and unenlightened Hamilton as greedy and evil . Sean Wilentz contends that the consensus has changed sharply in Hamilton 's favor in recent years . For example , Michael D. Chan argues that the first U.S. Treasury Secretary was committed to ending slavery , Chernow calls him " a fervent abolitionist " , David O. Stewart states he was a " lifelong opponent of slavery " , and Braun says he " was a leading anti @-@ slavery advocate " . Historian Manning Marable says Hamilton " vigorously opposed the slave trade and slavery 's expansion . "
Hamilton 's first polemic against King George 's ministers contains a paragraph that speaks of the evils that " slavery " to the British would bring upon the Americans . McDonald sees this as an attack on the institution of slavery . David Hackett Fischer believes the term is used in a symbolic way at that time .
During the Revolutionary War , Hamilton took the lead in proposals to arm slaves , free them , and compensate their masters . In 1779 , Hamilton worked closely with his friend John Laurens of South Carolina to propose that such a unit be formed , under Laurens ' command . Hamilton proposed to the Continental Congress that it create up to four battalions of slaves for combat duty , and free them . Congress recommended that South Carolina ( and Georgia ) acquire up to three thousand slaves for service , if they saw fit . Although the South Carolina governor and Congressional delegation had supported the plan in Philadelphia , they did not implement it .
Hamilton believed that the natural faculties of blacks were probably as good as those of free whites , and he warned that the British would arm the slaves if the patriots did not . In his 21st @-@ century biography , Chernow cites this incident as evidence that Hamilton and Laurens saw the Revolution and the struggle against slavery as inseparable . Hamilton attacked his political opponents as demanding freedom for themselves and refusing to allow it to blacks .
In January 1785 , Hamilton attended the second meeting of the New York Manumission Society ( NYMS ) . John Jay was president and Hamilton was the first secretary and later became president . Chernow notes how the membership soon included many of Hamilton 's friends and associates . Hamilton was a member of the committee of the society that petitioned the legislature to end the slave trade , and that succeeded in passing legislation banning the export of slaves from New York . In the same period , Hamilton felt bound by the rule of law of the time and his law practice facilitated the return of a fugitive slave to Henry Laurens of South Carolina . He opposed the compromise at the 1787 Constitutional Convention by which the federal government could not abolish the slave trade for 20 years , and was disappointed when he lost that argument .
Hamilton never supported forced emigration for freed slaves . Horton has argued from this that he would be comfortable with a multiracial society , and that this distinguished him from his contemporaries . In international affairs , he supported Toussaint L 'Ouverture 's black government in Haiti after the revolt that overthrew French control , as he had supported aid to the slaveowners in 1791 — both measures hurt France . Scant evidence has been interpreted by a few to indicate Hamilton may have owned household slaves , as did many wealthy New Yorkers ( the evidence for this is indirect ; McDonald interprets it as referring to paid employees ) .
= = = On economics = = =
Hamilton has been portrayed as the " patron saint " of the American School of economic philosophy that , according to one historian , dominated economic policy after 1861 . He firmly supported government intervention in favor of business , after the manner of Jean @-@ Baptiste Colbert , as early as the fall of 1781 . Hamilton opposed the British ideas of free trade , which he believed skewed benefits to colonial and imperial powers , in favor of protectionism , which he believed would help develop the fledgling nation 's emerging economy . Henry C. Carey was inspired by his writings . Hamilton influenced the ideas and work of the German Friedrich List . In Hamilton 's view , a strong executive , linked to the support of the people , could become the linchpin of an administrative republic . The dominance of executive leadership in the formulation and carrying out of policy was essential to resist the deterioration of republican government . Ian Patrick Austin has explored the similarities between Hamiltonian recommendations and the development of Meiji Japan after 1860 .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Apart from the $ 10 bill and an obscure 1931 film , Hamilton did not attract much attention in American popular culture until the advent of the 2015 hit Broadway musical Hamilton . The musical , which features music , lyrics , and a book by Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda , is based on a biography by Ron Chernow . The New Yorker called the show " an achievement of historical and cultural reimagining . In Miranda 's telling , the headlong rise of one self @-@ made immigrant becomes the story of America . " The off @-@ Broadway production of Hamilton won the 2015 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical as well as seven other Drama Desk Awards . In 2016 , Hamilton received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama and a record 16 Tony nominations , winning 11 of them including Best Musical .
Hamilton has also appeared as a significant figure in popular works focusing on other American political figures of his time . He is a major character in Gore Vidal 's 1973 historical novel Burr and in episodes of the 1976 PBS miniseries The Adams Chronicles .
= = = Biographies = = =
= = = Specialized studies = = =
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= Kim Davis ( county clerk ) =
Kimberly Jean Davis ( née Bailey ; born September 17 , 1965 ) is the county clerk for Rowan County , Kentucky who gained international attention in August 2015 when she defied a U.S. federal court order to issue marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples , following the June 26 , 2015 , U.S. Supreme Court decision in Obergefell v. Hodges . Kim Davis reacted to the decision by denying marriage licenses to all couples , saying she was acting " under God 's authority " . Her defiance led to her jail sentence , while both supporters and detractors hotly debated her stance in the national media . Marriage licenses in Rowan County are now being issued to all citizens as required by law .
Davis was born in Jackson , Kentucky . By 1991 , Davis was serving as chief deputy clerk of Rowan County , reporting to her mother , the Rowan County clerk . Davis ' first three marriages ended in divorce in 1994 , 2006 , and 2008 ; she then remarried her second husband in 2009 . She became an Apostolic Christian in 2011 . A court found her salary to be higher than expected and therefore cut her wages in 2012 . Despite complaints of nepotism , Davis was elected county clerk in 2014 and promised to follow the statutes of the office .
A few months later , Obergefell v. Hodges was decided and all county clerks were ordered to issue marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples . Davis refused , citing her religious opposition to same @-@ sex marriage . Couples represented by the American Civil Liberties Union who had been denied marriage licenses from Davis filed and won a lawsuit against her , Miller v. Davis , and she was ordered to comply with the decision of the U.S. District Court and start issuing marriage licenses . Her lawyers tried to appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court , but the application to appeal was denied . Davis continued to defy the court order , refusing to issue marriage licenses , and was ultimately jailed for contempt of court . She was released from jail five days later , under the condition that she not interfere with the efforts of her deputy clerks , who had started issuing marriage licenses to all couples . Davis then modified the Kentucky marriage licenses to no longer mention her name . The Attorney General of Kentucky said that because the matter was already being handled by the federal court , there would be no appointment of a special prosecutor to pursue charges of official misconduct against her . Several weeks later , Davis announced she had met with Pope Francis in Washington , D.C. ; the Vatican press office clarified that the Pope met with many others and that the meeting was not a form of support for her actions .
Attorney and author Roberta A. Kaplan described Davis as " the clearest example of someone who wants to use a religious liberty argument to discriminate " , yet law professor Eugene Volokh suggested that an employer must try to accommodate religious employees ' beliefs , pointing out that Davis wished only to remove her name from the marriage licenses of same @-@ sex couples . Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee said that Davis ' imprisonment was part of the " criminalization of Christianity " , while columnist Jennifer Rubin compared Davis ' refusal to follow the direction of the U.S. Supreme Court to Alabama Governor George Wallace 's " Stand in the Schoolhouse Door " in 1963 . Popular culture has satirized Davis ; after the same @-@ sex marriage license controversy , she was characterized in a Funny or Die video parody and on Saturday Night Live .
= = Career = =
= = = Chief deputy clerk : 1991 – 2015 = = =
Kim Davis was born in Jackson , Kentucky . By 1991 , she was serving as chief deputy clerk of Rowan County , Kentucky , reporting to her mother , Rowan County clerk Jean W. Bailey . Davis ' 2011 compensation was an annual wage of $ 51 @,@ 812 and an additional $ 11 @,@ 301 in overtime and other compensation . Chief Deputy Clerk Davis earned more than other chief deputies in the county : Chief Deputy Sheriff Joe Cline received $ 38 @,@ 000 annually and Deputy Judge @-@ Executive Jerry Alderman $ 36 @,@ 000 annually ; neither position qualifies for overtime pay . County residents complained about Davis ' high wages . After the County Fiscal Court reviewed the compensation of clerks in the office , they voted unanimously to cut the county clerk 's office salary budget by one @-@ third for 2012 .
= = = County clerk : 2015 – present = = =
After her mother announced she would not run for re @-@ election in 2014 , Davis filed as a Democratic candidate for county clerk . At a candidates ' forum , Davis stated she felt she was best qualified for the position because of her 26 years of experience in the clerk 's office .
Davis won the Democratic primary election , advancing to the general election against Republican John Cox . Although Cox made complaints of nepotism during the campaign , Davis prevailed . After winning the race , Davis told The Morehead News , " My words can never express the appreciation but I promise to each and every one that I will be the very best working clerk that I can be and will be a good steward of their tax dollars and follow the statutes of this office to the letter . "
Davis took the oath of office as the county clerk of Rowan County on January 5 , 2015 , beginning a four @-@ year term slated to end on January 7 , 2019 . As clerk , Davis receives an annual salary of $ 80 @,@ 000 .
= = Same @-@ sex marriage license controversy = =
= = = Background = = =
On June 26 , 2015 , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the landmark case of Obergefell v. Hodges , 576 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2015 ) , holding that the fundamental right to marry is guaranteed to same @-@ sex couples by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . Fourteen counties in three Southern states continued to deny marriage licenses for same @-@ sex marriage . The Alabama Supreme Court allowed the probate judges of ten counties in Alabama to deny such marriage licenses , the clerk of one Texas county chose to resign rather than issue such licenses , and the clerks of two counties in Kentucky were not issuing licenses due to paperwork delays . Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear ordered all Kentucky county clerks to begin issuing same @-@ sex marriage licenses immediately .
= = = Davis ' reaction to same @-@ sex marriage ruling = = =
Kim Davis , county clerk of Rowan County , contacted Beshear , asking for an executive order to protect clerks who have moral objections against personally issuing such marriage licenses , as Kentucky law requires county clerks to issue marriage licenses in their names . She began turning away gay couples from her county office who were seeking marriage licenses . David Ermold and David Moore , a same @-@ sex couple from Morehead , Kentucky and alumni of Morehead State University , released video footage on July 7 , 2015 , of Davis refusing to issue them a marriage license and ordering them to turn off their camera . The video went viral overnight .
On August 22 , 2015 , a protest rally against the ruling at the State Capitol in Frankfort , organized by the Family Foundation of Kentucky in support of Davis and other clerks who refused to issue marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples , was attended by several thousand people . The clerks of the two other Kentucky counties declined to speak to the rally crowd , but Davis spoke briefly , saying , " I need your prayers ... to continue to stand firm in what we believe . " At a competing event several blocks away organized by the Fairness Campaign in Louisville , attendees celebrated the Supreme Court 's decision and called upon government officials to uphold the law .
Rather than issue marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples , Davis began denying marriage licenses to all couples , same @-@ sex or mixed @-@ sex .
= = = Lawsuits against Davis = = =
Six couples who were denied marriage licenses from Davis sued her in her official capacity as county clerk . Four couples were represented by the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) of Kentucky and two couples each had separate legal representation . The four couples represented by the ACLU , two same @-@ sex couples and two mixed @-@ sex couples , filed the first lawsuit against Davis ( Miller v. Davis ) on July 2 , 2015 . On July 10 , 2015 , David Ermold and David Moore ( who had shot the viral video ) next filed suit against Davis , represented by Joseph Buckles and Thomas Szczygielski ( Ermold v. Davis ) ; James Yates and William Smith Jr . , represented by Rene Heinrich of the Heinrich Firm PLLC and Kash Stilz of Roush & Stilz PSC , filed a suit against Davis on August 25 , 2015 ( Yates v. Davis ) .
Federal district judge David L. Bunning of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Kentucky , the judge assigned to the cases , held hearings with Davis in Ashland , at which she was the only witness . Davis argued tearfully that issuing licenses under her name violated her beliefs , citing her religious rights under the First Amendment : " It wasn 't just a spur @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment decision " , she said . " It was thought out , and I sought God on it . " Davis had already decided against resigning from her post , as doing so , she said , would only leave the matter to her deputies : " If I resign , I solve nothing . It helps nobody . " Governor Beshear stated that he would not call a special session of the General Assembly to address Davis ' concerns , while other state legislators believed that such a session could accommodate Davis with possible new legislation . Davis ' attorneys , from the Orlando , Florida @-@ based law firm Liberty Counsel , stated that the plaintiffs were free to drive to other counties to obtain their same @-@ sex marriage licenses , with one adding , " This case is not about these plaintiffs ' desires to get married , the case is about [ their ] desire to force Kim Davis to approve and authorize their marriage in violation of her constitutionally protected religious beliefs . " Davis and her attorneys then sued Governor Beshear for ordering her to violate her religious beliefs instead of trying to accommodate them , arguing that Beshear , not Davis , should be held accountable for any legal damages from the ACLU lawsuit .
On August 12 , Judge Bunning issued a temporary stay barring Davis from " applying her ' no marriage licenses ' policy to future marriage license requests " . Before the stay expired , the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit refused to extend that ruling for an appeal . " It cannot be defensibly argued that the holder of the Rowan County clerk 's office ... may decline to act in conformity with the United States Constitution " , the three @-@ judge panel wrote unanimously in their refusal , continuing , " There is thus little or no likelihood that the clerk in her official capacity will prevail on appeal . "
= = = Appeal = = =
Liberty Counsel and Davis filed an emergency application to appeal with the U.S. Supreme Court . On August 31 , 2015 , in a one @-@ line order , the Supreme Court refused to hear the appeal , preventing Davis from legally continuing to deny marriage licenses . In response to the U.S. Supreme Court 's refusal to grant her stay request , Davis stated :
" I never imagined a day like this would come , where I would be asked to violate a central teaching of Scripture and of Jesus Himself regarding marriage . To issue a marriage license which conflicts with God 's definition of marriage , with my name affixed to the certificate , would violate my conscience . "
Davis continued to defy Bunning 's court order after the Supreme Court upheld it . Less than a day after the court rejected her request , several couples sought to obtain marriage licenses , but Davis turned them away , saying she was acting " under God 's authority " . Some in the media questioned whether Davis , having been married four times and only recently converted , was acting hypocritically in the application of her beliefs .
= = = Contempt of court and jailing = = =
Bunning ordered Davis and her six deputy clerks to appear before him on September 3 after the six couples sought to have her held in contempt of court . The ACLU asked the court to fine Davis . Bunning ruled in the plaintiffs ' favor and held Davis in contempt , remanding her to custody after the hearing . The judge said Davis would remain there until she complied with the court 's order to issue marriage licenses . Bunning reportedly said that fines were not an option " because outsiders would pay them for her " . Bunning then spoke with each of the deputy clerks who reported to Davis . Only her son , Nathan Davis , told the judge he refused to comply with the court 's order to start issuing marriage licenses ; Bunning declined to hold him in contempt . After the hearing , U.S. Marshals transported Davis to the Carter County Detention Center in Grayson .
On Friday , September 4 , the first day her office was open during her incarceration , Davis ' deputy clerks began issuing marriage licenses to all couples . James Yates and William Smith Jr . ( independently suing Davis ) were the first couple in Rowan County to receive a marriage license since Obergerfell . The couple were soon followed by several other plaintiff couples .
Through her Liberty Counsel attorneys , Davis filed an appeal of the order holding her in contempt of court , asking that she be released immediately from jail and that her name be removed from marriage licenses , allowing her deputies to issue them . Separately , Davis asked Governor Beshear to free her . The governor 's office said that the conflict was a " matter between her and the courts " and added that the governor had no power to grant her release . Rowan County Democratic Judge @-@ Executive Walter Blevins stated that he did not believe he would need to appoint a replacement for Davis , and that he believed the Attorney General of Kentucky and " the General Assembly will pass something where marriage licenses don 't have anyone 's name on them " .
At this point , the Oath Keepers — an armed right @-@ wing group variously described as a vigilante or militia group — offered to provide a " security detail " to Davis in an effort to prevent U.S. Marshals from re @-@ arresting her for contempt . Davis declined the offer .
On July 13 , 2016 , her appeal to get her contempt of court judgment vacated was rejected by a Federal appeals court , so the contempt ruling remains on her record .
= = = Release and return to work = = =
Five days later , on Tuesday , September 8 , Bunning ordered Davis released from jail . The order stated : " Defendant Davis shall not interfere in any way , directly or indirectly , with the efforts of her deputy clerks to issue marriage licenses to all legally eligible couples . If Defendant Davis should interfere in any way with their issuance , that will be considered a violation of this order and appropriate sanctions will be considered . "
Bunning 's order also stated that Davis ' deputy clerks must continue to comply with his earlier order to issue marriage licenses and to submit status reports to him every fourteen days confirming their compliance . The deputy clerks released statements pledging to continue issuing licenses after Davis ' release and to ignore any order from her to do otherwise , complying with the federal judge 's order . Licenses issued since Davis ' refusal state that they are authorized by " the office of the Rowan County Clerk " but no longer bear her name . Davis ' supporters , gathered at the Rowan County Courthouse since her first day in custody , said that her deputies were unlawfully issuing licenses and should resign or be fired .
Davis returned to work a week later , on September 14 , 2015 . She said that , while she would not interfere with any deputy clerk who issues marriage licenses , she would not personally issue or authorize any of the forms . She created several altered versions of the Kentucky marriage license form and instructed her deputy clerks to use only these forms , which had her name and any reference to the clerk 's office removed . The ACLU sued Davis separately for these form alterations , which they found to be of questionable legality . Governor Steve Beshear was asked by Bunning to brief the court on the validity of the licenses . Governor Beshear acknowledged that Kentucky would recognize the licenses being issued , but he could not verify the legality of the licenses issued or the means by which the marriage licenses were altered . Bunning ultimately denied the ACLU 's separate suit , stating the altered forms were likely legal and that Davis was now abiding by the court 's order .
While Davis remained inside her personal office , same @-@ sex couples successfully walked out of the Rowan County clerk 's office with their marriage licenses . One of the applicants said , " My license is valid , and it 's valid because of the court order that 's in effect ... It doesn 't have to have her signature . "
= = = Reactions to controversy = = =
Davis gained international attention after her refusal to issue marriage licenses and the ensuing controversy her actions caused . Many legal experts spoke out against Kim Davis . Columbia Law School professor Katherine Davis said , " Kim Davis has all sorts of religious liberty rights secured under the First Amendment and under other laws , but they are not at stake in this case . All she 's asked to do with couples that come before her is certify that they 've met the state requirements for marriage , so her religious opposition to same @-@ sex marriage is absolutely irrelevant . " Professor Steve Vladeck of American University 's Washington College of Law said that Davis " waived any right to have an objection to issuing same @-@ sex marriage licenses when she ran for the job " . Washington Post columnist Jennifer Rubin and others compared Davis ' refusal to follow orders of the U.S. Supreme Court to Alabama Governor George Wallace 's futile " Stand in the Schoolhouse Door " protest of desegregation in 1963 . The Human Rights Campaign , a national LGBT civil rights group , said , " Ms. Davis has the fundamental right to believe what she likes ... but as a public servant , she does not have the right to pick and choose which laws she will follow or which services she will provide . " Attorney and author Roberta A. Kaplan , who argued for the plaintiffs in United States v. Windsor , wrote that " Kim Davis is the clearest example of someone who wants to use a religious liberty argument to discriminate , yet she swore an oath to uphold the Constitution . It is laughable that she can then decide which laws to enforce , which is why every decision in her case has gone against her . "
Opposition to the federal ruling came from political columnists William McGurn of The Wall Street Journal and Ray Nothstine of The Christian Post . Law professor Eugene Volokh suggested that the Kentucky 's state religious freedom restoration act might compel the state to accommodate Davis ' religious beliefs and argued that state courts have the authority to order the removal of Davis ' name from marriage licenses . Kentucky Senate President Robert Stivers also came to Davis ' defense ; he stated , in an amicus brief filed in federal court , that the " Supreme Court ruling has completely obliterated the definition of marriage " . Liberty Counsel , the law firm defending Davis , stated , " Kim Davis is being treated as a criminal because she cannot violate her conscience . " They also said she refused to accept a proposed compromise where she would no longer be found in contempt if she agreed not to interfere with her deputies issuing licenses to same @-@ sex couples .
Reactions against Davis also came from the White House , from Kentucky Governor Steve Beshear , and from candidates in the race for the 2016 presidential election . White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest said , " No public official is above the rule of law . Certainly not the president of the United States , but neither is the Rowan County clerk . " Governor Beshear said the judge 's decision " speaks for itself " , while his attorneys called the legal arguments in her suit against him " absurd " . Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton said , " Officials should be held to their duty to uphold the law – end of story . " Several Republican presidential candidates also called on Davis to comply with court orders . Donald Trump said , " the decision 's been made , and that is the law of the land . " Jeb Bush , former governor of Florida , said Davis " is sworn to uphold the law " , but also suggested that some sort of accommodation be made for her . Republican presidential candidates Carly Fiorina and Senator Lindsey Graham of South Carolina both suggested that Davis should comply with the court order or resign . Members of the Westboro Baptist Church protested against Davis for her multiple divorces and marriages , saying she is living in adultery . Westboro also stated " God hates oath breakers " , therefore Davis is obligated to follow the nation 's law .
Several national Republican politicians supported Davis . Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee , the former governor of Arkansas , said that the Kim Davis affair was part of a " criminalization of Christianity " and organized a rally for Davis outside the jail where she had been held . Senator Ted Cruz of Texas , another Republican presidential candidate , said that Davis was a victim of " judicial tyranny " and attended the same rally . Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal and Senator Rand Paul of Kentucky , also presidential candidates , both voiced their support for Davis . Matt Bevin , the Republican nominee for Kentucky governor in the 2015 election , said a simple solution to Davis ' plight is for the government to stop providing marriage contracts .
A survey of American adults conducted by YouGov in September 2015 found that 56 % supported Judge Bunning 's decision to jail Davis for contempt of court , while 31 % of Americans opposed the decision . When asked what Davis should do , 65 % said that Davis should resign from office ; 23 % said that Davis should stay in office and continue to refuse to issue marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples ; and 4 % said that Davis should remain in office but issue licenses to all persons legally entitled to one .
= = = Opposition by other court clerks = = =
Other court clerks in the U.S. have also refused to issue marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples . The probate judges of several counties in Alabama have stopped issuing marriage licenses to anyone . Probate Judge Nick Williams of Washington County , Alabama , said he stopped issuing licenses altogether to avoid discrimination and said , " I completely disagree with the authority the Supreme Court has . " Probate Judge John Enslen of Elmore County , Alabama , said the federal government , not state probate offices , should be the entity issuing same @-@ sex marriage licenses . Casey Davis ( unrelated to Kim Davis ) , a clerk in Casey County , Kentucky , said , " We 've not tried to prevent same @-@ sex marriages , we 've only tried to exercise our First Amendment rights " , adding that such applicants could apply in other counties . Kay Schwartz , a clerk in Whitley County , Kentucky , felt oppressed : " There 's a law against bullying ... Why take away the majority 's right [ just ] to give the minority their rights ? " She suggested the possibility of other options to meet the needs of same @-@ sex applicants , such as an online service . The ACLU plans no legal action against other court clerks or probate judges . National attention has not been on them as the ACLU brought no case against them , speculated University of Kentucky political science professor D. B. Riggle : " The action in Rowan County may be in part due to the availability of plaintiffs for a case . "
= = = Pending decisions and issues = = =
Under Kentucky law , a commonwealth 's attorney has the power to indict various local officials including " judges @-@ executives , justices of the peace , sheriffs , coroners , surveyors , jailers , county attorneys and constables " for " malfeasance in office or willful neglect in the discharge of official duties " ( an offense punishable by removal from office and a fine of up to $ 1 @,@ 000 ) , " but for some reason lost to history , the statute doesn 't include county clerks . " Because Davis is an elected official , she cannot simply be fired . For Davis to be removed from the office of county clerk , impeachment proceedings must be initiated by the Kentucky House of Representatives and charges for impeachment brought to the Kentucky Senate .
After being denied a license four times , one couple asked the Rowan County Attorney 's Office to investigate Davis for official misconduct , a misdemeanor under Kentucky law . Official misconduct in the first degree is a Class A misdemeanor and is punishable with imprisonment not to exceed 12 months and fines of $ 500 . Official misconduct in the second degree is a Class B misdemeanor and carries a potential punishment of up to 90 days ' imprisonment and fines of $ 250 . Rowan County Attorney Cecil Watkins referred the official misconduct complaint to the Kentucky Attorney General 's office , led by Attorney General Jack Conway , for it to decide whether to file charges against Davis . The Kentucky Attorney General 's office conducted a review , and Conway issued a statement saying , " We are a nation of laws , and no one can defy an order from a federal judge . " Conway then issued a one @-@ sentence statement saying that he would not appoint a special prosecutor to investigate Davis . Conway has noted that the statute of limitations for a charge to be laid against Davis does not expire for a year .
Months after Davis ' office was forced to begin issuing same @-@ sex marriage licenses , Davis ' lawyers filed a motion asking the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit to overturn four of Bunning 's decisions , calling them a " rush to judgment " that " imposed direct pressure and substantial burden on Davis , forcing her to choose between her religious beliefs and forfeiting her essential personal freedom on one hand , or abandoning those beliefs to keep her freedom on the other hand " . The court denied the motion on November 5 . Davis ' lawyers filed their last appeal the next day , requesting a delay in issuing marriage licenses to same sex couples , arguing that previous decisions should apply only to the four couples to whom Davis ' office was initially ordered to issue licenses . The appeal also asked the sixth circuit court of appeals to overturn a previous ruling that had sent Davis to jail for failure to comply . This final appeal was denied two days later by the court .
One of the first acts of newly elected Kentucky Governor Matt Bevin was an executive order to remove clerks ' names from the state marriage licenses . Bevin expressed his hope on November 6 , 2015 , that the executive order will protect the religious beliefs of officials who are opposed to gay marriage . Kim Davis has since asked her appeal be dismissed to end the case , because the new regulation removes clerks ' names , which provides for a religious accommodation and makes the case moot .
= = = Kentucky Attorney General 's finding that Davis violated state Open Records Act = = =
In March 2016 , the Campaign for Accountability ( CfA ) , a Washington , D.C.-based nonprofit group , made a request to Davis for access to public records under the Kentucky Open Records Act , seeking copies of retainer agreements and lawyer @-@ client engagement agreements between Davis and Liberty Counsel , the religious advocacy organization that represented Davis in the marriage @-@ license dispute . Liberty Counsel , which responded to the request on Davis ' behalf , refused to comply , arguing that the documents were preliminary and private records not subject to the Act . CfA appealed to the Office of the Kentucky Attorney General , which under Kentucky law has the authority to make binding rulings on the Open Records Act , and resubmitted its request to Davis ' office in April 2016 .
In May 2016 , the Attorney General 's Office sought to privately review the records at issue to determine if an exemption applied , but Liberty Counsel refused to make most of the documents available for a private review . In an opinion issued on June 30 , 2016 , the Attorney General 's Office determined that Davis had violated the Open Records Act , saying that her conduct had the effect of " intentionally frustrating the attorney general 's review of an open records request " which " would subvert the General Assembly 's intent behind providing review by the attorney general . " Davis and Liberty Counsel may challenge the AG 's decision in Kentucky Circuit Court , but have not indicated whether they will do so .
= = Meeting with Pope Francis controversy = =
Within a few weeks of Davis ' release from jail , Davis announced she and her husband had met with Pope Francis on September 24 , 2015 , at the Apostolic Nunciature to the United States in Washington , D.C. , during the Pope 's U.S. visit in September 2015 . According to Davis and her lawyer , the pope told Davis to " stay strong " and gave her two rosaries . Vaticanist John L. Allen , Jr. said that " there 's no way to view the encounter other than as a broad gesture of support by the pope for conscientious objection from gay marriage laws " and that the gesture strengthened the hand of those who defend religious freedom .
Two days later , the Vatican press office issued a statement saying that " the Pope did not enter into the details of the situation of Mrs. Davis and his meeting with her should not be considered a form of support of her position in all of its particular and complex aspects " . According to Vatican spokesman Father Thomas Rosica , the Pope met with several dozen other people , and rosaries were also given to others in attendance ; Davis was not invited by the Pope to the Nunciature and " the meeting may have been manipulated by her and her lawyer " . The only audience given by the Pope while in Washington was with a former student of his , an openly gay Argentine named Yayo Grassi and Grassi 's same @-@ sex partner of 19 years .
Observers wondered if the Pope had not been informed of Davis ' controversy or if the Vatican had underestimated the media storm that a meeting with Davis would provoke . Five months later , the Vatican announced that Pope Francis had replaced the retiring diplomat who had arranged the Pope 's meeting with Davis : Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò , Vatican 's ambassador to the United States and an outspoken opponent of same @-@ sex marriage .
= = Personal life = =
Davis has been married four times to three different men . The first three marriages ended in divorce in 1994 , 2006 , and 2008 . Davis is the mother of twin sons , who were born five months after her divorce from her first husband . Her third husband is the biological father of the twins who were adopted by her second husband , Joe Davis , who is also her fourth and current husband ; he supports her stance against same @-@ sex marriage . One of Davis ' sons , Nathan , works in her office as a deputy clerk and has taken the same position of denying marriage licenses to same @-@ sex couples .
Davis experienced a religious awakening in 2011 , following her mother @-@ in @-@ law 's dying wish that she attend church . Since then Davis has identified herself as an Apostolic Christian , belonging to the Apostolic Pentecostal denomination known as " Oneness Pentecostalism , " which favors a literal interpretation of the Bible . She worships three times a week at the Solid Rock Apostolic Church near Morehead .
Following her conversion , Davis let her hair grow long , stopped wearing makeup and jewelry , and began wearing skirts and dresses that fall below the knee , in keeping with Apostolic / Oneness tenets regarding external holiness and modest dress . She held a weekly Bible study for female inmates at the local jail . In an interview in January 2016 , Davis said that she believed that " we are living in end times . " Davis also expressed her view that the Bible is infallible .
Shortly after the same @-@ sex marriage license controversy , Davis said she and her husband switched from the Democratic Party to the Republican Party . While speaking with reporters , Davis expressed confidence in the way marriage licenses were now being issued by her office in Morehead , Kentucky . However , Davis warned that should the current situation become an issue , she was prepared to return to jail .
= = In popular culture = =
Davis was the subject of numerous satirical works following her burst of media attention in 2015 . Books , social media profiles , and videos have been created that parody Davis ' refusal to issue marriage licenses in Kentucky . A Twitter account with more than 90 @,@ 000 followers and run by comedian Dave Colan mocks Davis with humorous tweets supposedly from a woman who " Sits Next to Kim Davis " . Funny or Die made a Mashup video featuring characters from Parks and Recreation in video clips that spoof Davis ' refusal to issue marriage licenses , and a parody video of her meeting with Pope Francis . Author Lilith St. Augustine wrote Kim Goes To Jail : An Erotic Story , an erotic novella featuring Davis in a fictional role . La Strega Entertainment created a satirical music video sung to the tune of " Major @-@ General 's Song " from Gilbert and Sullivan 's Pirates of Penzance . Saturday Night Live cast member Aidy Bryant portrayed Davis during the show 's season 41 premiere . Actress Jennifer Lawrence , in the December 2015 issue of Vogue , told Jonathan Van Meter that Kim Davis is a " lady that makes me embarrassed to be from Kentucky . "
= = Electoral history = =
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= Barney Gumble =
Barnard " Barney " Gumble is a fictional character on the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . The character is voiced by Dan Castellaneta and first appeared in the series premiere episode " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . He is the town drunk of Springfield , a huge fan of Lord Palmerston , and Homer Simpson 's best friend . His desperation for alcohol is a frequent butt of jokes on the show . Barney sobered up in the episode " Days of Wine and D 'oh 'ses " , which was co @-@ written by Castellaneta , and stayed sober for several seasons . Barney was inspired by the cartoon character Barney Rubble from The Flintstones and by several barflies from other television programs . In 2004 , Castellaneta won an Emmy Award for voicing various characters , including Barney .
Barney can be seen in the 2009 @-@ present The Simpsons opening credits , passed out under a pile of leaves ( but still holding his beloved bottle of Duff Beer ) .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Barney 's father , Arnie Gumble , was a World War II veteran who died in 1979 in a parade float accident . Little is known about his mother , except that she lives in Norway and that she served in the United States Navy , including duty on a submarine . She is seen in the season nine episode Simpson Tide . In Treehouse of Horror XVII , Barney stated that he was Polish , after mistakenly saying he was Irish in a drunken stupor . Barney was born on April 20 ( which Homer remembers is also Hitler 's birthday in " Viva Ned Flanders " and Barney 's entry into the Springfield Film Festival in " A Star Is Burns " where Barney states that he is 40 years old ) . In the episode " $ pringfield " , he claims that he studied dance for several years , including modern and tap .
Two episodes give different reasons for his alcoholism . " Mr. Plow " suggests that Barney was a dedicated student looking forward to a bright future . He had his mind set on going to Harvard University , until Homer introduced him to beer the day before the SATs . Season 16 's " She Used to Be My Girl " attributes his drinking to his high school girlfriend Chloe Talbot leaving Springfield to pursue a journalism career .
In " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " , Barney formed a barbershop quartet with Homer , Apu Nahasapeemapetilon , and Seymour Skinner called the Be Sharps . Barney was asked to join when the other members heard him singing in a beautiful tenor voice in the restroom of Moe 's Tavern , replacing the group 's original fourth member , Chief Wiggum , who was kicked out . In 1986 , the Be Sharps won a Grammy Award for Outstanding Soul , Spoken Word , or Barbershop Album of the Year . Soon , creative disputes arose , and Barney left the group in all but name when he began dating a Japanese conceptual artist . The group realized that they were no longer popular and split up .
Barney was rescued from a tar pit by Bart 's pet elephant Stampy in Bart Gets An Elephant and he also started a snowplowing business rivaling Homer 's in " Mr. Plow " . Barney 's commercial defamed Homer , causing Homer to lose his customers . As revenge , Homer fooled Barney into plowing a driveway on Widow 's Peak , a treacherous mountain just outside Springfield . When Homer saw a news report showing that Barney had become trapped in an avalanche , Homer immediately drove to the mountain and rescued Barney . The friends resolved their differences and agreed to work together . However , a heat wave hit Springfield at that exact moment , driving them both out of business . However , in the episodes " O Brother , Where Bart Thou ? " and " Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " it is shown that Barney still drives his Plow King truck .
After being forced to spend a sober night at Moe 's Tavern serving as designated driver , Barney left town in Homer Simpson 's car to , among other things , give a guest lecture at Villanova ( although , by his own admission , the guest lecture could just have likely occurred on a street corner ) . A gag in " Selma 's Choice " suggests that Barney is the father of many local babies born through ( presumably , paid ) donation of semen and the resulting artificial insemination .
Barney made a documentary film about his life as an alcoholic , titled Pukahontas . It won the top prize at the Springfield Film Festival . He was ready to quit drinking after winning the Festival , but unfortunately , the prize he received was a lifetime supply of Duff Beer . In " Deep Space Homer " , Barney trained to become an astronaut for NASA . Under their alcohol @-@ ban , he quickly regained his balance and diction and was quite appropriately selected to fly with Buzz Aldrin . However , he reverted to his old ways when he was presented with a bottle of non @-@ alcoholic champagne . Barney served in the United States Navy Reserve as a submariner on the USS Jebediah , alongside his mother , in " Simpson Tide " .
In " Days of Wine and D 'oh 'ses " , after watching a video of his drunken antics at his birthday party , Barney resolves to get sober . He attends Alcoholics Anonymous meetings , cleans up his appearance , and attends helicopter @-@ flying lessons . It was revealed in the fourteenth season episode " I 'm Spelling as Fast as I Can " that he had relapsed .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Barney was inspired by Barney Rubble , Fred Flintstone 's best friend and next @-@ door neighbor from the animated series The Flintstones . The writers originally wanted the character to be Homer Simpson 's sidekick and next @-@ door neighbor , but instead , while still portraying him as Homer 's best friend , they decided to make him an alcoholic . Ned Flanders would become the next @-@ door neighbor instead . " Barney was taking the standard sitcom sidekick and just making him as pathetic as possible , " said Matt Groening , the creator of The Simpsons . The writers drew further inspiration from Crazy Guggenheim , a character played by comedian Frank Fontaine on The Jackie Gleason Show . Part of the reason the writers went in that direction , according to Groening , was because of " a sort of unspoken rule about not having drinking on television as a source of comedy . So , of course , we went right for it . " The writers also patterned the character after Norm Peterson ( George Wendt ) , a character from the sitcom Cheers .
In some early first season episodes , Barney had yellow hair . Later in the production of that season , the producers had it changed to brown , because they thought that his hair looked like his skin ; as well , during an artistic convention of the show , Groening stated that he wanted only the Simpsons to have yellow hair . Animation director Rich Moore modeled Barney 's apartment on one he and several other animators who worked on the show shared , particularly the Farrah Fawcett poster and the cable spool table . The writers originally intended for the character to be the owner of Barney 's Bowl @-@ A @-@ Rama . However , after making him " pathetic " , they could not regard him as a business owner any longer , and it was explained seasons later in " And Maggie Makes Three " that his Uncle Al owns the alley and named it after him .
= = = Voice = = =
Barney Gumble is voiced by Dan Castellaneta . Early on the show , Castellaneta discovered that it was not easy for him to do Barney 's trademark belch every time a script called for it , so he identified his best belch and told the producers to make that the standard . Castellaneta has voiced Barney every time he has appeared in the series , with the exception of the episode " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " , in which some of Barney 's singing is provided by a member of The Dapper Dans , who recorded lines for all four members of the Be Sharps . Their recordings were intermixed with the cast 's , often with a cast member singing the melody and the Dapper Dans providing backup .
= = = Sobriety = = =
Castellaneta thought of the idea of Barney sobering up early in the series . He wrote a script together with his wife Deb Lacusta . They offered their script to showrunner Al Jean . Jean liked the story , but felt that it was too similar to a script the writers were already working on , " Duffless " , so he turned it down . Castellaneta and Lacusta waited several years and offered their script , which they updated , to then @-@ show runner Mike Scully , who liked it and had them make a few changes . Their script became the eleventh season episode " Days of Wine and D 'oh 'ses " , which first aired April 9 , 2000 . The episode was directed by Neil Affleck , who said that he had " a vested interest in getting Barney sober . " However , some of the writing staff was opposed to the episode as they felt Barney sober would not be funny . Castellaneta commented , " He 's still a goofy man @-@ child ... he 's still got 15 years of booze left in his veins . "
After a long discussion about how the episode should end , the writers decided that they did not want Barney to return to being drunk at the end of the episode . Barney stayed sober for several seasons . The animators modified the appearance of the character , straightening his hair , among other things , to indicate his sobriety . Castellaneta altered his voice for the character by no longer slurring . Barney was still seen at Moe 's Tavern , but only drinking lattes . The character 's new addiction to coffee was suggested by writer @-@ producer David Mirkin , who has friends who stopped drinking alcohol and became addicted to coffee .
= = Reception = =
Filmcritic.com ranked Barney 18th on their 2008 list of " The 21 Best Movie Alcoholics of All Time " . Recognizing the character for his appearance in The Simpsons Movie , Filmcritic called him " the most awesomely funny town drunk in pop culture " . IGN ranked Barney fifth on their list of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral Characters " in 2006 , stating that , " he 's been a dependable source of humor through his many drunken asides , burps included ... Occasionally he 's sobered up ... But let 's face it , for comedy 's sake , The Simpsons is better off with a drunken Barney mouthing off at Moe 's . " Author Chris Turner ( Planet Simpson ) said , " Making [ Barney ] sober falls into the trap of all the stuff The Simpsons satirizes , all those simple sitcom narratives where everything is wrapped up in half an hour and everyone learns a lesson in the end . "
Britain 's The Guardian said that Barney " should be hailed for making compulsive drinking a source of comedy on US TV , a hitherto impossible dream . " Entertainment Weekly placed " Mr. Plow " sixth on their list of the best 25 Simpsons episodes in 2003 . In 2004 , Dan Castellaneta won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for voicing several characters , including Barney , in the episode " Today I Am a Clown " . " Days of Wine and D 'oh 'ses " was nominated for a PRISM Award in 2001 .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Playmates Toys created three Barney Gumble action figures as part of the World of Springfield toy line . The first one , released in August 2000 , depicts Barney in his usual appearance . The second , Barney in his Plow King jacket from " Mr. Plow " , was released in January 2003 . The third , a Toys " R " Us retail exclusive , was released in July 2003 as part of a Be Sharps play set . The song " A Boozehound named Barney " from the episode " Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala ( Annoyed Grunt ) cious " was included on the Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons album . Barney plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood .
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= The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons =
" The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 16 , 1997 . It was written by Richard Appel and directed by Steven Dean Moore . The episode sees Apu Nahasapeemapetilon marry Manjula , and incorporates several aspects of Hindu wedding ceremonies , which the writers researched during the episode 's production . Appel pitched the episode several years before season nine but the idea was not used until Mike Scully became showrunner . The episode 's subplot , which sees Homer stay at the Springfield Retirement Castle , was initially conceived as a separate episode , but could not be developed in enough detail . The episode received mixed critical reviews .
= = Plot = =
At a bachelor auction , the available bachelors on display are deemed undesirable , and the auction generates no money at all . Marge then nominates Apu , who is deemed a success by the women at the auction . He goes out on dates with many of the town 's women , and begins to enjoy his bachelor lifestyle . However , he receives a letter from his mother in India , reminding him of his arranged marriage to Manjula , the daughter of a family friend . Not wanting to get married , Apu asks Homer for advice , who suggests Apu tell his mother that he is already married . Days later , Apu thinks that he has escaped the marriage until he sees his mother walking towards the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . To cover him , Homer tells Apu to pretend that Marge is his wife .
At the Simpson residence , Marge disapproves of the plan , but decides to do it for Apu 's sake . While the plan is under way Homer decides to stay in the Springfield Retirement Castle with his father , posing as resident Cornelius Talmidge . Homer enjoys his stay at the home immensely , until the real Cornelius returns , at which point he flees . He returns home and gets into bed with Marge . Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilon enters to say goodbye , but is shocked to see Marge in bed with another man , and Apu on the floor . Tired of the whole charade , Marge forces Apu to tell his mother the truth , who declares that the arranged marriage will proceed as planned .
The wedding is held in the Simpsons ' backyard , but Apu still has second thoughts about it . However , when he sees Manjula for the first time in years , he realizes how beautiful she really is and feels less reluctant . The pair decide that perhaps the marriage can work after all .
= = Production = =
Writer Richard Appel pitched " The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons " at a story retreat several years before the ninth season , but it could not be fitted into a season at that point . Mike Scully liked the idea and so decided to use it in his first season as showrunner . Homer 's subplot at the Retirement Castle was an idea that Scully had for a long time . The plot could not be sustained for a whole episode , so it was fitted into this one .
The bachelor auction was created solely to provide more evidence that Apu is the best bachelor in Springfield . Appel found that the scene " wrote itself " , as every other man in Springfield is essentially a loser compared to Apu . The scene acted as the episode 's opening set piece , a concept that Scully liked to use in every episode . The montage of Apu getting several different hair styles originally included three more , but they ended up being cut for time . The shot in which Apu 's mother falls to the ground , a joke that the staff love , was inspired by an incident when Moore saw a man fall in much the same way . The joke was only inserted to buy Apu and Homer more time to come up with a lie . Before the wedding , Bart fuels a " sacred fire " with pages from a hymn book . Originally , he used pages from The Bible , but after the scene had been animated , Scully found the joke " horrible " and changed the book title to " Hymns " .
Andrea Martin provided the voice of Apu 's mother , recording her part in New York . She wanted to get the voice perfect , so in between takes she listened to tapes of Hank Azaria reading lines for Apu , to make sure her voice could realistically be Apu 's mother 's . During the flashback to Apu 's childhood , the animators made sure not to show Manjula , as they wished to reveal her at the end of the episode .
The staff researched into arranged Hindu marriages , learning about ideas such as the lotus flower being used as a message , but a majority of the information turned out " not to be as hilarious [ as the writers ] had hoped " , and so was dropped . Steven Dean Moore , the episode 's director , researched into the design of every aspect of Indian culture shown in the episode . The events of the wedding , as well as many of the items present , were all taken from traditional Hindu marriage ceremonies .
= = Cultural references = =
The Foreigner song " Hot Blooded " plays over Apu 's bachelor binge , and he dances in a manner similar to Riverdance . Additionally , an Indian version of The Carpenters ' song " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " is sung at the wedding ; an Indian vocal group was hired to sing , while Alf Clausen wrote the instrumental part . The scene where Moe walks on and off the stage without breaking his stride was loosely based on a moment that occurred during a stand up show of comedian Redd Foxx . During a show in Las Vegas , Foxx came on stage to the Sanford and Son theme song , only to find that there were very few people in the audience . Foxx reacted angrily refusing to do a show with such a small audience and walked off . The house orchestra , puzzled by Foxx 's leave simply played him off with the Sanford and Son theme song again . This incident was also referenced in the later episode " Trash of the Titans " , when Ray Patterson is reinstated , although the reference is more similar to the real event then .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons " finished 22nd in ratings for the week of November 10 @-@ 16 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 6 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill .
Todd Gilchrist of IGN named the episode as one of his favorites of the ninth season in his review of the DVD boxset , while Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it " a good fun episode " . Ian Jones and Steve Williams criticized the episode , calling it " a messy , unfocused lampooning " of arranged Hindu marriages . Homer writing " Where are the sticky buns " on a sheet of paper after Apu asks him for advice is one of Mike Scully 's favorite jokes .
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= The Cost of Living ( Lost ) =
" The Cost of Living " is the 5th episode of the third season of Lost , and the 54th episode overall . It aired on November 1 , 2006 , in the US , averaging 16 @.@ 07 million viewers , and on December 5 , 2006 , in the UK , being watched by 1 @.@ 15 million viewers . The episode was written by Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker and directed by Jack Bender . The plot centers on the character of Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) , who in flashbacks shows how he became a priest replacing his dead brother Yemi ( Adetokumboh M 'Cormack ) , and in the present day events is haunted by visions of Yemi while other castaways decide to visit a Dharma Initiative station .
The episode was written to finish Eko 's character arc as Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje had requested to leave the show while finishing the second season . Reviewers subsequently praised " The Cost of Living " while considering that the departure of Eko made Lost lose one of its best characters .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Shortly after the death of his brother Yemi , Eko is driven back to Yemi 's village . Inside the church , Eko announces to the altar boy Daniel and his mother Amina that he will be taking his brother 's place at the church . When Amina also inquires about Yemi 's upcoming trip to London , a surprised Eko states that he would also replace him there .
Some time later , after Eko has become established in his new role as priest , he is confronted by militiamen , who Amina reveals that had a deal with Yemi to get most of the clinic 's vaccines . Eko soon develops a plan to sell the vaccine on the black market before he leaves the country that coming weekend .
As the militiamen learn of Eko 's deal , they attack him inside the church , but end up getting killed . The villagers respond by closing the church as they felt it was desecrated . Amina calls out Eko , saying she had been aware of the vaccine deal , and advises him to repent and make his peace with God , telling Eko that he " owes " Yemi one church .
= = = On the Island = = =
A delirious Eko has a vision of his brother Yemi ( Adetokumboh M 'Cormack ) holding a cigarette lighter , who says it was Eko 's time to confess his sins and , he knew where to find him . Afterwards , Eko 's shelter catches fire , and Eko is rescued by Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) and Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) . As John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) arrives to ask what happened , Eko has vanished .
The next morning , Locke suggests to Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) that he visit the Pearl station . Joined by Charlie , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Nikki and Paulo ( Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro ) , the group finds Eko on their way to the Pearl . Upon arrival , Eko does not find Yemi 's body on the airplane atop the entrance , and decides to remain outside while Locke and the others enter the hatch . Inside the Pearl , Sayid tinkers first with the communication lines , and following a suggestion from Nikki , the monitors . Then one of the screens gets a live video feed of what appears to be another hatch , revealing a man with an eyepatch ( Andrew Divoff ) who then turns off the camera .
Meanwhile , outside the Pearl , Eko sees Yemi and follows him into an open field , where Yemi tells him it is time for Eko to confess his sins . Eko says he has not sinned , having not chosen the life he was given and that Eko had only done what he needed to do to survive . An angry @-@ looking Yemi replies , " You speak to me as if I were your brother " as he retreats into the jungle . Eko follows him asking " Who are you ? ! " , and then finds the smoke monster . An arm of smoke attacks Eko , beating him into trees before he is slammed into the ground . Locke and the others rush out of the station to find a bloodied Eko . Locke approaches Eko , who whispers his dying words into Locke 's ears . Sayid asks what he said , and Locke replies , " We 're next . "
= = = On Hydra Island = = =
At The Hydra , Jack is invited by Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) to attend a memorial service being held for Colleen . On the way , Jack asks about the symptoms of Ben 's spinal tumor , particularly pointing out that it will kill him . Ben professes not to know what Jack is talking about . Privately , Ben asks Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) why she showed his X @-@ rays to Jack . Juliet replies that she never told Jack whose X @-@ rays they were , and remarks that Ben must have inadvertently confirmed Jack 's guess .
The following day , Ben tells Jack that they had a perfect plan to convince Jack to operate on Ben 's spine , but it failed when Jack saw the X @-@ rays . Afterwards , Juliet brings to Jack 's cell a movie , which consists of Juliet speaking through cue cards . As Juliet discusses how the surgery will proceed , on the tape she tells Jack that Ben is a liar and very dangerous , and thus the surgery should be intentionally botched to kill Ben , and that she will protect Jack if he does so .
= = Production = =
Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje signed to Lost on a one @-@ year contract , as he did not want to make a long @-@ term commitment to the series . As Michelle Rodriguez signed under similar conditions that lead to her character Ana @-@ Lucia Cortez only appearing in the show 's second season , show runners Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse negotiated with Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje to make his character , Mr. Eko , to appear in the third season as well , adding some space between the two character deaths to develop Eko 's closure better . As filming of season 2 ended , conversations between the actor and the writers ended setting Eko 's departure during the first six episodes , prior to mid @-@ season break , with " a shocking and emotional death " . To make sure the sequence was " big and impressive " , effects supervisor Kevin Blank decided to set the death at the Jackass Ginger in Kalihi , a large space that allowed to make the Smoke Monster " flip him around in weird physical positions " . A stunt double was dragged through cables , and along with the digital monster and wire removal , fast editing made the scene akin to " a magician 's trick " , in Blank 's opinion . The episode was written by Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker , who had previously worked in another series by Lost production company Bad Robot Productions , Alias .
Cuse and Lindelof stated that Nikki and Paulo served as a red herring as rumors were raised of an incoming character death , and the fanbase would expect this to happen to the newcomers " who were sort of just there all along " instead of a prominent and popular character as Eko . Juliet 's message to Jack is an homage to Bob Dylan 's video for " Subterranean Homesick Blues " , where the musician flips cue cards while looking at the camera .
= = Reception = =
This episode attracted 16 @.@ 07 million American viewers in its original broadcast on November 1 , 2006 , standing as the tenth most watched program of the week . In the United Kingdom , the episode had 1 @.@ 247 million viewers , ranking third in multichannel shows after Ford Super Sunday and The Simpsons . In Canada , " The Cost of Living " had 1 @.@ 15 million viewers , ranking as the 26th highest @-@ rated program of the week .
Reviews were positive , though most critics found that the character of Eko was killed too soon in the show . Writing for Zap2it , Rick Porter said that while " The Cost of Living " was the best episode of season 3 thus far with " an illuminating flashback , some heavy island juju and a nice mix of the campers and the Others " , the death of Eko removed from Lost " one of its most compelling characters and best actors , which just flat @-@ out sucks . " Kristin dos Santos of E ! Online called Mr. Eko " the best character of the show " , and was therefore very disappointed with his death . Christine Fenno of Entertainment Weekly stated that she would miss Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje , and found Juliet 's message to be the best part of the episode , that like the rest of season three " answered a few questions ( whose tumor ? ) , raised a few questions ( who 's the eye @-@ patch guy ? ) , and ignored many long @-@ standing questions ( how did Yemi and Eko crash on the same island ? ) . "
IGN 's Chris Carabott ranked the episode 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 , saying it was " one of the series ' best efforts " exploring the series ' mythology and providing new paths , while also featuring Eko in " one of the most refreshing flashbacks that the series has produced thus far " and " a shocking confrontation " with the Smoke Monster . The reviewer still complained about Nikki and Paulo 's participation , considering them " poorly developed " and giving " the sense that they are being shoehorned in " . The website later ranked " The Cost of Living " as the 25th best episode of the series , saying that while early Season 3 " might have dragged a bit " , " The Cost of Living " " saw the excitement and drama ramp up considerably . The only thing marring this otherwise excellent episode was the presence of Nikki and Paolo . " On the other hand , a similar list by the Los Angeles Times ranked it 96th , considering that despite being " actually a pretty good piece of TV " , the episode was " just marred by the fact that the show was forced into killing Mr. Eko , a character whose story was far from over . "
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= Philostrate =
Philostrate ( meaning " lover of battle " ) is a fictional character in a number of literary works , including William Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1596 ) . In that play , he is the Master of Revels at Theseus ' court , meaning he is in charge of his lord 's entertainments , making recommendations to Theseus , as well as altering the text of some of the plays performed in his court . Shakespeare may have used this character to poke fun at play censorship in London at the time . In early performances of the play , the actor who played this character probably also played the part of Egeus , Hermia 's strict father . There is only one scene in Act V where both Egeus and Philostrate are present , and in this scene Egeus ' character would have taken all of Philostrate 's lines as his own .
= = Role in the play = =
As Theseus 's head guard , Philostrate is asked to defend his Lord and also makes recommendations for plays to help while away the time . Theseus rejects all of the plays except " Pyramus and Thisbe " , which Philostrate has given a particularly bad review . He advises the betrothed king not to choose " The Mechanicals ' " ( the workers ' ) play because it is badly rehearsed :
Theseus , eager to please his fiancee , Hippolyta , and the rest of his court , chooses Pyramus and Thisbe despite Philostrate 's efforts . Because of its amateurishness , the play turns out to be humorous .
= = Pronunciations = =
In most contemporary performances Philostrate 's name is usually pronounced : FILL @-@ uh @-@ straight , ( to rhyme with " illustrate " ) with a short " uh " rather than a long " oo " because the medial vowel is unaccented .
However , a variation to this would be based on the conventions of classical Greek . In this case , the final " e " would be pronounced ( as an " ee " or " aye " ) , giving the name four syllables , and the accent would shift from the first syllable , to either the second or third syllable , depending on whether the medial syllables are considered short or long . It would then be pronounced : fill @-@ uh @-@ STRA @-@ tay .
= = Context = =
Shakespeare is known for borrowing plots and characters from other stories , but the source of A Midsummer Night 's Dream has proved difficult to trace . There is no clear parallel to its plot in the literature of his time . However , many of its characters ' names and relationships are borrowed from Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales and Philostrate is no exception . His name is the pseudonym adopted by Arcite upon covertly returning to Athens in The Knight 's Tale to work for Theseus . ( A Knight 's Tale was dramatized nearly twenty years later by Shakespeare and Fletcher as The Two Noble Kinsmen . ) Chaucer himself took the name Philostrate from Boccaccio 's poem Il Filostrato , a story about Troilus and Criseyde . Because Chaucer 's Arcite adopts this identity to become a servant at Theseus ' court , it is possible that the Midsummer Night 's Dream character is meant to be the same person in a continuation of the story . However , the two characters have little else in common . Another candidate for the source of Philostrate 's character is Philostratus the Elder , the author of Comus , a play which has similarities to Midsummer Night 's Dream .
Philostrate 's duty in Theseus ' court is to examine the play that Nick Bottom and the others are about to perform and to make suggestions for improvement . It is also his duty to advise Theseus on matters of entertainment . Theseus calls him " our usual manager of mirth " . The official term for Philostrate 's position in the Court is the Master of Revels .
In Shakespeare 's day , the Queen of England had her own Master of Revels — appointed to oversee all entertainment in London . Before a play could be performed , its script had to go through him , and whenever the Queen wanted to see a play , he would make recommendations . By 1581 ( over a decade before the writing of Dream ) , all plays had to be approved by the Master of Revels prior to being performed . Shakespeare seems to be poking fun at the profession through Philostrate . At one point , when Theseus asks Philostrate to recommend a play to help pass the time , he lists several which sound ridiculous , such as " the battle with the centaurs to be sung by an Athenian eunuch to the harp . " These names are humorous examples of the types of plays that were actually being performed around the time of Dream . They were becoming old however , and , like Theseus , monarchs were searching for something new , refreshing , and sophisticated .
= = Performances = =
In original performances of A Midsummer Night 's Dream , the actor who played Egeus and the actor who played Philostrate were probably one and the same . This can be gathered through discrepancies between the First Folio and earlier quarto versions of the play . In Act V , scene 1 , for example , the quartos say " Call Philostrate " in several places where the 1623 Folio says " Call Egeus " . This would be an easy mistake to make if one actor had spoken both parts in this scene . One actor filling both roles explains the jumbled dialogue in this scene . Howard Furness , editor of several Shakespeare editions , interprets this a little differently , saying that Shakespeare may not have originally intended both roles to be played by the same person , but that directors combined the roles to save money . In any case , Act V , scene 1 is the only scene in which both men are present at the same time . In cases where one actor was playing both roles , Egeus ' character would probably have filled both roles in this scene , absorbing Philostrate 's lines into his own .
However , during Act V , there is no mention of Egeus , nor does he have a speaking role . It is logical , however , that he would have been in attendance since it is also his daughter Hermia 's wedding that the group if there to celebrate .
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= Francis Tresham =
Francis Tresham ( c . 1567 – 23 December 1605 ) , eldest son of Sir Thomas Tresham and Merial Throckmorton , was a member of the group of English provincial Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 , a conspiracy to assassinate King James I of England .
Tresham joined the Earl of Essex 's failed rebellion against the government in 1601 , for which he was imprisoned . Only his family 's intervention and his father 's money saved him from attainder . Despite this , he became involved in two missions to Catholic Spain to seek support for English Catholics ( then heavily persecuted ) , and finally with the Gunpowder Plotters .
According to his confession , Tresham joined the plot in October 1605 . Its leader , Robert Catesby , asked him to provide a large sum of money and the use of Rushton Hall , but Tresham apparently provided neither , instead giving a much smaller amount of money to fellow plotter Thomas Wintour . Tresham also expressed concern that if the plot was successful , two of his brothers @-@ in @-@ law would be killed . An anonymous letter delivered to one of them , William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , found its way to the English Secretary of State , Robert Cecil , an event which eventually proved decisive in the conspiracy 's failure .
Historians have long suspected that Tresham wrote the letter , a hypothesis that remains unproven . Catesby and Wintour shared the same suspicion and threatened to kill him , but he was able to convince them otherwise . He was arrested on 12 November and confined to the Tower of London . In his confession , he sought to allay his involvement in the plot , but never mentioned the letter . He died of natural causes on 23 December 1605 .
= = Family and life before 1605 = =
Born in about 1567 , Francis Tresham was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Tresham , of Rushton Hall in Northamptonshire , and Meriel Throckmorton , daughter of Sir Robert Throckmorton of Coughton in Warwickshire . According to the antiquary Anthony Wood , Tresham was educated in Oxford at either St John 's College or Gloucester Hall or both , although biographer Mark Nicholls mentions that there appears to be no other evidence to corroborate that claim . He married Anne Tufton , daughter of Sir John Tufton of Hothfield in Kent , in 1593 . The couple had three children , twins Lucy and Thomas ( b.1598 ) , and Elizabeth . Thomas died in infancy , Lucy became a nun in Brussels , and Elizabeth married Sir George Heneage of Hainton , Lincolnshire .
Tresham 's father , born near the end of Henry VIII 's reign , was regarded by the Catholic community as one of its leaders . Thomas was received into the Catholic Church in 1580 , and in the same year he allowed the Jesuit Edmund Campion to stay at his house in Hoxton . For the latter , following Campion 's capture in 1581 , he was tried in Star Chamber . Thomas 's refusal to fully comply with his interrogators was the beginning of years of fines and spells in prison . He proclaimed the accession of James I to the English throne , but the king 's promises to Thomas of forestry commissions and an end to recusancy fines were not kept . His finances were seriously depleted by fines of £ 7 @,@ 720 for recusancy , and the spending of £ 12 @,@ 200 on the marriages of six daughters meant that when he died in 1605 , his estate was £ 11 @,@ 500 in debt .
Author Antonia Fraser suggests that as a young man Francis became " resentful of his father 's authority and profligate with his father 's money . " Authors Peter Marshall and Geoffrey Scott describe him as possessing a " somewhat hot @-@ headed nature " , while another source calls him a " wild unstayed man " . The Jesuit priest Oswald Tesimond wrote that he was " a man of sound judgement . He knew how to look after himself , but was not much to be trusted " . While still young he assaulted a man and his pregnant daughter , claiming that their family owed his father money . Tresham spent time in prison for this offence .
On 8 February 1601 he joined the Earl of Essex in open rebellion against the government . Essex 's aim was to secure his own ambitions , but the Jesuit Henry Garnet described the young men who accompanied him as being interested mostly in furthering the Catholic cause . Captured and imprisoned , Tresham appealed to Katherine Howard , but was rebuked . His sister , Lady Mounteagle , alerted his cousin John Throckmorton , who turned to " three most honorable parsons and one especiall instrument " for help . The identity of these individuals is unclear , but Tresham was promised freedom on the condition that over the next three months his father pay £ 2 @,@ 100 to William Ayloffe , to " save his lyef attainder in bloode . " He was released on 21 June . The experience did not dissuade him from engaging in further conspiracies ; in 1602 and 1603 he was involved in the missions to Catholic Spain made by Thomas Wintour , Anthony Dutton ( possibly an alias of Christopher Wright ) and Guy Fawkes , later dubbed by the English government as the Spanish Treason . However , upon James 's accession to the throne , he told Thomas Wintour ( secretary to Tresham 's brother @-@ in @-@ law William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle ) , that he would " stand wholly for the King " , and " to have no speech with him of Spain . "
= = Introduction = =
English Catholics had hoped that the persecution of their faith would end when James succeeded Elizabeth I , as he appeared to hold more moderate views toward Catholics than his predecessor . But Robert Catesby , a religious zealot also imprisoned for his involvement in the Essex rebellion , had grown tired of James 's supposed perfidy and planned to kill the king . He hoped to achieve this by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder and inciting a popular revolt to install James 's daughter Princess Elizabeth as titular Queen .
Catesby had recruited 11 fellow Catholics to his cause but was running out of money . Even with his debts , with an annual income of over £ 3 @,@ 000 Tresham was one of the wealthiest people known to the plotters , and Catesby 's mother was Anne Throckmorton , an aunt of Tresham 's . The two cousins had been raised together and shared a close relationship .
Despite their shared upbringing and involvement in the Spanish Treason , the conspirators chose not to reveal the plot to him until 14 October 1605 , shortly after his father died , and just weeks before the planned explosion . According to his confession , the meeting took place at the home of Tresham 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Lord Stourton , in Clerkenwell . Tresham claimed to have questioned Catesby on the morality of the plot , asking if it was spiritually " damnable " . Catesby replied that it was not , at which point Tresham highlighted the danger that all Catholics would face should the plot succeed . Catesby replied , " The necessity of the Catholics " was such that " it must needs be done " . He wanted two things from Tresham : £ 2 @,@ 000 , and the use of Rushton Hall ; Catesby received neither . Tresham had no money to spare , his father 's debts having reduced his inheritance , although he paid a small sum to Thomas Wintour , on the understanding that the latter was to travel to the Low Countries . Following the meeting , he hurried back to Rushton Hall and closed his household , taking care to hide family papers ( not discovered until 1838 ) . He then returned to London with his mother and sisters , and on 2 November acquired a licence to travel abroad with his servants and horses .
= = Monteagle letter = =
Later in October , during a meeting at which Tresham was present , the conspirators discussed the fates of several notable Catholic peers . Foremost in Tresham 's thoughts were the lives of two brothers @-@ in @-@ law , William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , and Edward Stourton , 10th Baron Stourton , but Catesby proclaimed that " the innocent must perish with the guilty , sooner than ruin the chances of success . " As the last few details were being finalised that month , on Saturday 26 October Monteagle received an anonymous letter while at his house in Hoxton . It contained the following message :
My Lord , out of the love I bear to some of your friends , I have a care of your preservation . Therefore I would advise you , as you tender your life , to devise some excuse to shift your attendance at this parliament ; for God and man hath concurred to punish the wickedness of this time . And think not slightly of this advertisement , but retire yourself into your country where you may expect the event in safety . For though there be no appearance of any stir , yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow this Parliament ; and yet they shall not see who hurts them . This counsel is not to be condemned because it may do you good and can do you no harm ; for the danger is passed as soon as you have burnt the letter . And I hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it , to whose holy protection I commend you .
Uncertain of its meaning , Monteagle delivered it to the English Secretary of State , Robert Cecil .
Tresham has long been suspected as the letter 's author . Mark Nicholls states that he almost certainly wrote it , pointing to the fact that once Catesby was made aware of its existence he immediately suspected Tresham and went with Thomas Wintour to confront him . The two threatened to " hang him " , but " with such oaths and emphatic assertions " Tresham managed to convince the pair of his innocence , the next day urging them by letter to abandon the plot . Antonia Fraser suggests that Catesby and Wintour 's decision to believe him should not be disregarded . While making his deathbed confession in the Tower of London , Tresham failed to mention the letter ; an omission which in her opinion makes no sense if he is to be regarded as its author , especially considering that its recipient was by then being credited as the country 's saviour . Author Alan Haynes views Tresham as the most likely culprit , but raises the possibility that Cecil penned the letter himself , to protect a source .
= = Revealed = =
Although he was already aware of certain stirrings even before he received the letter , Cecil did not yet know the exact nature of the plot or who was involved and had elected to watch to see what would happen . When Monteagle 's letter was shown to the king on Friday 1 November , James felt that it hinted at " some strategem of fire and powder " , perhaps an explosion exceeding in violence the one that killed his father , Lord Darnley , in 1567 . The following day , members of the Privy Council visited James to inform him that a search would be made of the Houses of Parliament , " both above and below " . Meanwhile , Tresham again urged Catesby and Wintour to abandon the scheme , but his attempts were in vain . Fellow plotter Thomas Percy said he was ready to " abide the uttermost trial " , and subsequently on 4 November Catesby and several others left London for the Midlands to prepare for the planned uprising .
Fawkes was arrested while guarding the explosives shortly after midnight on 5 November 1605 . Calling himself John Johnson , he was at first interrogated by members of the King 's Privy Chamber , but on 6 November James ordered that " John Johnson " be tortured . His will finally broken , he revealed his true identity on 7 November , and on 8 November he began to name some of those with whom he was associated . Tresham 's complicity was not revealed until the following day , although he was attributed with only a minor role . But while his compatriots had fled London the moment they discovered that Fawkes had been captured , Tresham had stayed in the city . He was arrested on 12 November and transferred to the Tower three days later . Catesby and several other plotters were killed on 8 November , during an armed siege at Holbeche House in Staffordshire .
= = Death = =
Although at first he was uncooperative , on 13 November Tresham confessed to being involved in the plot , outlining his version of events to his interrogators . Moving his family from the safety of Rushton was , he pointed out , not the action of a man who believed he was taking them into " the very mouth and fury " of the plot . He admitted to the government that he was guilty only of the plot 's concealment , denying that he had ever been an active member of the conspiracy , although by the end of the month he had also admitted his involvement in the Spanish Treason of 1602 – 1603 . He claimed to have persuaded Thomas Wintour and Thomas Percy to postpone the explosion , and that he had planned to inform the king 's secretary Thomas Lake of a " Puritan conspiracy " . Fraser views much of his confession as " highly partial ... not only for his own sake but for that of his wife and children " , and important in serving to highlight his unreliability .
Tresham suffered from a strangury caused by an inflammation of his urinary tract , and in December 1605 his health began to decline . Lieutenant of the Tower William Waad , wondering if Tresham would live long enough for justice to take its course , described his condition as " worse and worse " . Tresham preferred the services of a Dr Richard Foster over those of the Tower 's regular doctor Matthew Gwinne ; apparently Foster understood his case , indicating that it was not the first occasion on which he had treated him . During his last days he was attended by three more doctors and a nurse , along with William Vavasour , a rumoured illegitimate child of Thomas Tresham and possibly Francis 's half @-@ brother . As Tresham 's wife , Anne , was apparently too upset , Vavasour wrote Tresham 's deathbed confession and also an account of his last hours . Tresham apologised to the Jesuit priest Henry Garnet for implicating him in the Spanish Treason , and used the rest of his deathbed confession to protest his innocence . Anne and William read prayers at his bedside ; he died at 2 : 00 am on 23 December . Despite not being tried , his head joined those of Catesby and Percy on display at Northampton , while his body was thrown into a hole at Tower Hill . His estates passed to his brother Lewis . Tresham 's apology never reached its intended target , and his letter , along with the discovery of Garnet 's Of Equivocation , found among the " heretical , treasonable and damnable books " at Tresham 's chamber in the Inner Temple , was used to great effect by Sir Edward Coke in Garnet 's trial . The priest was executed in May 1606 .
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= Lucy Doesn 't Love You =
" Lucy Doesn 't Love You " is a song recorded by American indie rock band Ivy . It was released as the lead single from their third studio album , Long Distance ( 2000 ) . It was issued exclusively in Japan in mid @-@ 2000 by EastWest Japan , whereas the US lead singles were " Disappointed " and ' " Edge of the Ocean " , both released a year later by Unfiltered Records . The track was written by Dominique Durand , Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase , while production was handled by the latter two .
The single received positive reviews from music critics , who noted its simplistic sound and production . Similar to Ivy 's previous material , " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " is an indie pop and indie rock song . It had a strong commercial performance in Japan , but was unsuccessful elsewhere . A promotional music video was filmed for the song in 2000 and displayed Durand singing at a nightclub with several background dancers .
= = Background and recording = =
After being dropped from Epic Records shortly after the reissued edition of Apartment Life ( 1997 ) , Ivy began recording new material for their upcoming studio album . However , the recording process halted after a fire closed down the New York City studio where they regularly recorded . While writing songs for Long Distance , Andy Chase stated that they tried writing " more commercial " material for the album , in hopes that it would " mean the difference between making our next album or not " .
Shortly after the studio fire , Schlesinger and Chase discussed trying out new genres for the album , incorporating influences from different types of music . Schlesinger stated : " The first songs [ we ] recorded were jangly and simple and straight @-@ ahead . We started gravitating toward the groovier , slightly more melancholy stuff . It works well with Dominique 's voice " . However , while tracks like " Edge of the Ocean " experimented with new music like trip hop , " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " reflected Ivy 's previous material .
= = Composition and release = =
Musically , " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " is an indie pop / indie rock song with a " sassy brass and lifting melody " . An electric guitar was also used during production to create an " atmospheric " mood . A reviewer from CMJ New Music Monthly found " the addition of horns a comfortable bounce " in the track . A CD single of " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " was released exclusively in Japan in mid @-@ 2000 and included the B @-@ side " Blame It on Yourself " . A promotional CD was also issued , using the same format as the CD single , but including the bonus track " Digging Your Scene " .
= = Critical reception = =
After its release , " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " received favorable reviews from music critics . A critic from E ! Online declared the track a " summer anthem " and predicted that the release would increase Ivy 's popularity . Michael Padletta , writing for Billboard , praised the " effervescent " track for " effortlessly manag [ ing ] to merge guitar leanings for a more rhythmic palette " . In a more mixed review , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that the production " suggest [ s ] a more satisfying song than it delivers " .
= = Music video and promotion = =
A music video for the single was filmed and released in 2000 . Filmed inside a nightclub , the video begins with Durand entering the stage while simultaneous images of the band using instruments appear . Durand then stands in front of a microphone , preparing for an upcoming verse . Various shots of an audience , background dancers and singers , and trumpet performers are also shown . After the second chorus , the clip focuses on Durand , who is now mouthing some of the words of the song ; the final chorus resumes the simultaneous images setup .
To further promote the song , " Lucy Doesn 't Love You " was featured in the movie I 'm With Lucy . Another song from Long Distance , " One More Last Kiss " , was also featured in the same film .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Long Distance liner notes and Andy Chase 's discography .
Recording
Recorded at Stratosphere Sound , New York City and Sony Music Studios , New York City
Personnel
= = Release history = =
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= The Danish Poet =
The Danish Poet ( Norwegian : Den danske dikteren ) is a 2006 animated short film written , directed , and animated by Torill Kove and narrated by Liv Ullmann . A co @-@ production of the National Film Board of Canada ( NFB ) and Mikrofilm AS of Norway , it has won both the Academy Award and Genie Award for best animated short film .
= = Synopsis = =
The film follows Kaspar Jørgensen , a Danish poet in the 1940s who is seeking inspiration . At the suggestion of his psychiatrist , Dr. Mørk , he travels to Norway to meet the famous author Sigrid Undset . However , after arriving in Norway , he meets Ingeborg , a farmer 's daughter , and they fall in love . He proposes to her , but discovers that she is already engaged , at her father 's wish . She promises not to cut her hair until they are reunited , and Kaspar returns to Denmark .
Later , Ingeborg 's husband dies in an accident , and Ingeborg sends a letter to Kaspar . However , it is accidentally dropped by the postman , and never arrives . When Sigrid Undset dies , both Kaspar and Ingeborg travel to the funeral ; they are reunited , and later marry and live in Copenhagen . As Kaspar tells Ingeborg that he loves her long hair , she does not cut it , but when Kaspar trips over it and breaks his thumb , she sends for her hairdresser from Norway . On the way , the hairdresser meets a young man on the train , who was also travelling to Copenhagen to meet Kaspar , his favourite poet . The two fall in love , and are revealed to be the narrator 's parents .
= = Production = =
Kove first became involved with the National Film Board , an agency of the Government of Canada , after her first year at Concordia University in Montreal . After working there as an assistant for some years , she wrote and pitched a script to the company , which led to her career as a director and animator . She first wrote the script for The Danish Poet some time ago , though she says that she " can ’ t really remember when " .
Production was split between Marcy Page , of the National Film Board , and Lise Fearnley , of Mikrofilm AS in Norway , and took roughly three years , although Kove took a year off for maternity leave .
The film was made using hand @-@ drawn traditional animation , with pencil on paper , and then scanned and digitally coloured , with about half of the animation by Kove , and the rest divided between animators in Montreal and Norway . Kove 's style is simplistic , which she says is less a specific style choice than " quite simply [ ... ] the only one I know how to do . " The backgrounds were painted by Montreal artist Anne Ashton .
Narrator Liv Ullmann was selected for the film because Kove liked her voice and " thought that her delivery would be right for the story " ; she reaffirmed this after the film 's release , stating that Ullmann was " just right " . She thanked Ullmann in her Academy Award acceptance speech , saying that " it was really amazing of her to participate in this . "
= = Origins = =
Kove 's first ideas for The Danish Poet began when she went through a period of self @-@ assessment ; she wanted to write a story about what she described as when " you reach a turning point or a milestone and you look back and you think ' how in the heck did I get here ? ' [ ... ] And you realize that the answer lies somewhere in a complex web of all kinds of stuff , like genetic make @-@ up , upbringing , coincidences , choices you made along the way , missed opportunities , [ and ] lucky breaks . " She felt that it was a natural choice to centre on a relationship between two people , " because relationships , and especially the romantic ones , play a huge role in shaping our lives , and also , obviously , in creating new ones . "
Kove originally wanted to make the film biographical , based on a story her father told her : he had dreamed of being an artist , and made an appointment with an art teacher to ask if he was good enough to make it in the art world . However , he stood at the top of the stairs and decided not to go , eventually deciding to go to architecture school ( as his parents wanted ) where he met his wife . Kove 's inspiration was drawn from the fact that her existence seemed to hinge on that decision , because " if the artist had said , ' Oh , you must paint , ' you know , then in all likelihood he would never have met my mother , and , you know , that would have been it for my chances . " However , Kove felt the story was too personal , and rewrote it to be fictional .
= = Themes = =
The film 's main theme shows the effect that coincidence and chance can have on the course of life — like the bad weather , angry dog , hungry goats , slippery planks , and careless postman that change the course of both Kaspar 's and Ingeborg 's lives — and shows , as the film 's website states , that " seemingly unrelated factors might play important roles in the big scheme of things after all . " In an interview , Kove said that " what I 'm trying to get across is just that I think life is really a kind of a meandering journey ... a lot is really up to chance " . However , Kove has also said that she 'd like people to be able to interpret the film in different ways :
I ’ d like them to walk away thinking it ’ s a film that can be interpreted in more than one way . I ’ m happy when I hear from people who ’ ve seen the short that it makes them think about the kind of strangeness where we find inspiration for art and where we find love , and the kind of miraculousness of just being alive and having a life . I ’ m pleased when people get that out of it .
She also identifies several subplots of artistic inspiration , as Kaspar " finds [ inspiration ] within himself " , and not within another writer , and a " subtext ... about nationalism and how much emphasis we in the western world put on stereotypes and on which country we 're from " .
= = Awards = =
The Danish Poet received the Academy Award for Animated Short Film at the 79th Academy Awards in 2007 , a second Oscar nomination ( and first win ) for Kove , who was nominated in 2000 for her first professional film , My Grandmother Ironed the King 's Shirts , also co @-@ produced by the NFB . The win also marked the first Norwegian film to win an Academy Award since Thor Heyerdahl 's Kon @-@ Tiki won for best documentary in 1952 .
The Danish Poet also won Best Animated Short at the 27th Genie Awards in 2007 , and a Norwegian @-@ language picture book adaptation was nominated for the 2007 Brage Prize . It was also included in the 2006 Animation Show of Shows .
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= California State Route 905 =
State Route 905 ( SR 905 ) is a state highway in San Diego , California , that connects Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and Interstate 805 in San Ysidro to the United States – Mexico border at Otay Mesa . The entire highway from I @-@ 5 to the international border is a freeway with a few exits that continues east from the I @-@ 805 interchange before turning southeast and reaching the border .
SR 905 was formerly routed on Otay Mesa Road , which had been in existence since at least 1927 . Before it was SR 905 , the route was first designated as part of SR 75 , before it was redesignated as SR 117 . The freeway was completed between I @-@ 5 and Otay Mesa Road in 1976 . The border crossing opened in 1985 after several delays in obtaining funding for the construction of what would become SR 905 . After becoming SR 905 in 1986 , the highway was converted to first an expressway in 2000 and then a freeway in 2010 and 2011 . Plans are for this highway to eventually become known as Interstate 905 .
= = Route description = =
SR 905 begins at the intersection of Tocayo Avenue and Oro Vista Road in Nestor . It begins as a freeway , intersecting with I @-@ 5 at a partial cloverleaf interchange . After interchanges with Beyer Boulevard and Picador Boulevard , the freeway then intersects I @-@ 805 . Following this , SR 905 veers southeast to parallel Otay Mesa Road , with interchanges at Caliente Avenue ( in Pacific Gateway Park ) , Britannia Boulevard , and La Media Road . The route interchanges with the SR 11 freeway , which is planned to be a toll facility that will serve a new border crossing east of Otay Mesa . Immediately after , SR 905 turns south to its final interchange at Siempre Viva Road before the route ends at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry , which truck traffic must use to cross the border .
SR 905 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and part of the National Highway System . In 2013 , SR 905 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 58 @,@ 000 between Beyer Boulevard and I @-@ 805 , and 18 @,@ 400 around the I @-@ 5 junction , the former of which was the highest AADT for the freeway .
= = History = =
What was known as the " Otay Mesa road " existed as a dirt road by 1927 . A paved road connected San Ysidro to Brown Field and the easternmost ranches in the Otay Mesa area by 1935 . Discussions were held between San Diego County and National City over the maintenance of the road in 1950 , since it was used by trucks travelling to the landfill . The majority of SR 905 , running in parallel with Otay Mesa Road from Interstate 5 to SR 125 , was added to the state highway system and the California Freeway and Expressway System in 1959 as Legislative Route 281 , and became part of SR 75 in the 1964 renumbering .
Planning was underway for the extension of SR 75 east to the then @-@ proposed SR 125 by 1963 . The California Highway Commission endorsed the routing for SR 75 in 1965 along Otay Mesa Road , away from future residential developments . There were plans as early as 1970 to have a highway heading southwest to a new border crossing that would bypass the Tijuana area . The next year , James Moe , the state public works director , subsequently asked the California State Legislature to lengthen SR 75 to connect to this new crossing , rather than using I @-@ 5 to make the connection .
Following this , in 1972 , the legislature added a new SR 117 , which extended this part of SR 75 southwest to the Mexican border near Border Field State Park , to the state highway system , and a southerly extension of SR 125 to the border at Otay Mesa to the state highway and Freeway and Expressway systems . Two years later , planning began for the construction of the Otay Mesa crossing and the construction of SR 75 to connect it to I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 805 . Later , the Comprehensive Planning Organization ( CPO ) , the local association of municipal governments , recommended using $ 4 million of federal funding for the construction of SR 75 . The CPO later endorsed expediting construction of the freeway before completion of the border crossing , so that the freeway would primarily serve border traffic , thus preventing land speculation in Otay Mesa . While Mexican authorities wanted the crossing constructed in 1975 , the CPO indicated that the funding for SR 75 would not be available until at least 1980 , or even 1985 . Following this , Representative Lionel Van Deerlin attempted to accelerate the construction of the crossing , even though there was no funding for the highway .
Construction began on the southern portion of SR 75 in mid @-@ 1974 . In January 1976 , the part of SR 75 between I @-@ 805 and Otay Mesa Road was opened to traffic . On April 6 , the next portion of the freeway opened . However , there were concerns about what to call the freeway , citing confusion with the northern portion of SR 75 . The entire cost of the project was $ 6 @.@ 3 million . SR 117 was extended east to SR 125 , replacing the southerly segment of SR 75 , by the Legislature in 1976 ; this took effect at the beginning of 1977 . Estimates for completing the freeway ran from $ 13 @.@ 8 million to $ 28 @.@ 5 million .
In late 1977 , the CPO made plans to push for adding SR 117 to the Interstate Highway System , to obtain additional federal funding . By 1979 , both San Diego city and county had allocated $ 6 million to construct a temporary way to access the border crossing along Otay Mesa and Harvest Roads . Two years later , the City of San Diego indicated that the upgrade of Otay Mesa Road to a four @-@ lane road would be the preferred option ; the state agreed to allocate $ 2 million towards the $ 10 million project , with the city contributing $ 6 @.@ 4 million and the county adding $ 2 @.@ 3 million . The Federal Highway Administration approved the continuous roadway via SR 117 and SR 125 from I @-@ 5 to the border at Otay Mesa as a non @-@ chargeable ( not eligible for federal Interstate Highway construction dollars ) part of the Interstate Highway System in October 1984 . The Otay Mesa border crossing opened on January 24 , 1985 . The route number was legislatively changed to 905 in 1986 , and signs were updated in 1988 . This change was to apply for other federal funding . The original piece of SR 117 , west of I @-@ 5 , also became SR 905 with the rest of SR 117 , but Caltrans has not constructed it .
Efforts were underway in 1997 to secure federal funding for the highway and other infrastructure near the Mexican border , largely supported by Senator Barbara Boxer and Representative Bob Filner , and Representative Bud Schuster , the chairman of the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee , visited the region before giving informal approval to the proposal . In 1999 , Governor Gray Davis approved allocating $ 27 million in federal funding to complete the freeway . Concerns were expressed by local residents and municipal officials regarding the apparent priority of SR 125 over SR 905 in terms of funding , especially since SR 125 was to be constructed as a toll road , and SR 905 would compete with the toll road enterprise . In May 1998 , Congress approved $ 54 million in funding for the completion of SR 905 .
Otay Mesa Road was widened to six lanes in 2000 , at a cost of $ 20 @.@ 5 million . Before , it had 50 percent more traffic than it was designed to handle ; it was considered by the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune as " California 's busiest trade route with Mexico " , and traffic had increased by a factor of ten , with the number of people dying in traffic accidents approaching five times the state average . The widening of Otay Mesa Road was considered a temporary fix for the problem . The next year , the California Transportation Commission allocated $ 25 million of state funding towards completing the freeway . The interchange with Siempre Viva Road opened on December 8 , 2004 . Delays in the U.S. Congress approving federal funding in 2005 resulted in a delayed start to construction for the rest of SR 905 .
Construction began on the part of SR 905 between Britannia Boulevard and Siempre Viva Road in April 2008 , and from Brittania Boulevard to I @-@ 805 in July 2009 . Efforts were made to keep construction going despite a shortfall in funding from state bonds in 2009 . The part between Britannia Boulevard and Siempre Viva Road opened in December 2010 . The interchange with I @-@ 805 began to be upgraded in April 2011 , and the construction , which used $ 20 million in federal funding , finished in February 2012 . The final freeway segment of SR 905 between I @-@ 805 and Britannia Boulevard opened on July 30 , 2012 . The entire cost of the project connecting I @-@ 805 to the border crossing was $ 441 million .
= = Future = =
Plans are for SR 905 to become Interstate 905 ; however , it could not be constructed with the same funds that were used for constructing the rest of the Interstate Highway System . Previously , SR 905 had a direct connection with SR 125 via two at @-@ grade intersections on Otay Mesa Road . With the completion of the newest freeway segment of SR 905 and the freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway connection to SR 125 unconstructed , traffic on SR 905 must exit at La Media Road ( exit 7 ) , head north on La Media and head east on Otay Mesa Road to make the connection . A freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange is planned for the connection between SR 125 and SR 905 , and an additional interchange is planned for Heritage Road .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was when the route was established , based on the unconstructed western end at the Mexican border and the rest of the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in San Diego , San Diego County .
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= Demographics of Croatia =
The demographic characteristics of the population of Croatia are known through censuses , normally conducted in ten @-@ year intervals and analysed by various statistical bureaus since the 1850s . The Croatian Bureau of Statistics has performed this task since the 1990s . The latest census in Croatia was performed in April 2011 . The permanent population of Croatia at the 2011 census had reached 4 @.@ 29 million . The population density is 75 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square kilometre , and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 78 years in 2012 . The population rose steadily ( with the exception of censuses taken following the two world wars ) from 2 @.@ 1 million in 1857 until 1991 , when it peaked at 4 @.@ 7 million . Since 1991 , Croatia 's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate ; the natural growth rate of the population is negative . Croatia is in the fourth or fifth stage of the demographic transition . In terms of age structure , the population is dominated by the 15 ‑ to 64 ‑ year ‑ old segment . The median age of the population is 41 @.@ 4 , and the gender ratio of the total population is 0 @.@ 93 males per 1 female .
Demographics professors from Zagreb Faculty of Economics predict that the population will decrease by 350 @.@ 000 people by 2030 , based on current number of children born and people emigrating . Population going below 4 million people in the next 15 years can be avoided in only two ways - if 350 @.@ 000 more people immigrate than the number of people who emigrate or if the number of children born almost doubles . Experts believe both options are unlikely .
Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats ( 90 @.@ 4 % ) , while minorities include Serbs ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) , and 21 other ethnicities ( less than 1 % each ) . The demographic history of Croatia is marked by significant migrations , including the arrival of the Croats in the area growth of Hungarian and German speaking population since the union of Croatia and Hungary , and joining of the Habsburg Empire , migrations set off by Ottoman conquests and growth of Italian speaking population in Istria and in Dalmatia during Venetian rule there . After the collapse of Austria @-@ Hungary , the Hungarian population declined , while the German @-@ speaking population was forced or compelled to leave after World War II and similar fate was suffered by the Italian population . Late 19th century and the 20th century were marked by large scale economic migrations abroad . The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by internal migrations in Yugoslavia , as well as by urbanisation . The most recent significant migrations came as a result of the Croatian War of Independence when hundreds of thousands were displaced .
The Croatian language is the official language , but minority languages are officially used in some local government units . Croatian is declared as the native language by 95 @.@ 60 % of the population . A 2009 survey revealed that 78 % of Croatians claim knowledge of at least one foreign language — most often English . The main religions of Croatia are Roman Catholicism ( 86 @.@ 28 % ) , Eastern Orthodoxy ( 4 @.@ 44 % ) and Islam ( 1 @.@ 47 % ) . Literacy in Croatia stands at 98 @.@ 1 % . The proportion of the population aged 15 and over attaining academic degrees grew rapidly since 2001 , doubling and reaching 16 @.@ 7 % by 2008 . An estimated 4 @.@ 5 % of the GDP is spent for education . Primary and secondary education are available in Croatian and in languages of recognised minorities . Croatia has a universal health care system and in 2010 , the nation spent 6 @.@ 9 % of its GDP on healthcare . Net monthly income in September 2011 averaged 5 @,@ 397 kuna ( c . 729 euro ) . The most significant sources of employment in 2008 were manufacturing industry , wholesale and retail trade and construction . In October 2011 , unemployment rate was 17 @.@ 4 % . Croatia 's median equivalent household income tops average Purchasing Power Standard of the ten countries which joined the EU in 2004 , while trailing the EU average . 2011 census recorded a total of 1 @.@ 5 million private households , which predominantly owned their own housing . Average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56 % , with augmentation of urban population and reduction of rural population .
= = Population = =
With a population of 4 @.@ 29 million in 2011 , Croatia ranks 125th in the world by population . Its population density is 75 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square kilometre . The overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth is 78 years . The total fertility rate of 1 @.@ 50 children per mother is one of the lowest in the world . Since 1991 , Croatia 's death rate has nearly continuously exceeded its birth rate . The Croatian Bureau of Statistics forecast that the population may even shrink to 3 @.@ 1 million by 2051 , depending on the actual birth rate and the level of net migration . The population of Croatia rose steadily from 2 @.@ 1 million in 1857 until 1991 , when it peaked at 4 @.@ 7 million , with the exception of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948 , i.e. following two world wars . The natural growth rate of the population is negative . Croatia started advancing from the first stage of the demographic transition in the late 18th and early 19th centuries ( depending on where in Croatia is being discussed ) . Croatia is in the fourth or fifth stage of the demographic transition .
One explanation for the recent population decrease is the Croatian War of Independence . During the war , large sections of the population were displaced and emigration increased . In 1991 , in predominantly Serb areas , more than 400 @,@ 000 Croats and other non @-@ Serbs were either removed from their homes by the Croatian Serb forces or fled the violence . In 1995 , during the final days of the war , more than 120 @,@ 000 and perhaps as many as 200 @,@ 000 Serbs fled the country before the arrival of Croatian forces during Operation Storm . Within a decade following the end of the war , only 117 @,@ 000 Serb refugees returned out of the 300 @,@ 000 displaced during the entire war . Most of Croatia 's remaining Serbs never lived in areas occupied in the Croatian War of Independence . Serbs have been only partially re @-@ settled in the regions they previously inhabited , while some of the settlements previously inhabited by Serbs were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina , mostly from Republika Srpska .
In 2014 , there were 39 @,@ 566 live births in Croatia , comprising 20 @,@ 374 male and 19 @,@ 192 female children . Virtually all of those were performed in medical facilities ; only 19 births occurred elsewhere . Out of the total number , 32 @,@ 677 children were born in wedlock or within 300 days after the end of the marriage , and the average age of mothers at the birth of their first child was 28 @.@ 4 years . General fertility rate , i.e. number of births per 1 @,@ 000 women aged 15 – 49 is 42 @.@ 9 , with the age specific rate peaking at 101 @.@ 0 per million for women aged 25 – 29 . In 2009 , 52 @,@ 414 persons died in Croatia , 48 @.@ 5 % of whom died in medical facilities and 90 @.@ 0 % of whom were receiving medical treatment at the time . Cardiovascular disease and cancer were the primary causes of death in the country , with 26 @,@ 235 and 13 @,@ 280 deaths respectively . In the same year , there were 2 @,@ 986 violent deaths , including 2 @,@ 121 due to accidents . The latter figure includes 616 deaths in traffic accidents . In 2014 , the birth rate was 9 @.@ 3 per mille , exceeded by the mortality rate of 12 @.@ 0 per mille . The infant mortality rate was 5 @.@ 0 per mille in 2014 . In terms of age structure , the population of Croatia is dominated by the 15 – 64 year older segment ( 68 @.@ 1 % ) , while the size of the population younger than 15 and older than 64 is relatively small ( 15 @.@ 1 % and 16 @.@ 9 % respectively ) . The median age of the population is 41 @.@ 4 . The sex ratio of the population is 1 @.@ 06 males per 1 female at birth and up to 14 years of age , and 0 @.@ 99 males per 1 female between the ages of 15 and 64 . But at ages over 64 the ratio is 0 @.@ 64 males per 1 female . The ratio for the total population is 0 @.@ 93 males per 1 female .
In contrast to the shrinking native population , since the late 1990s there has been a positive net migration into Croatia , reaching a level of more than 7 @,@ 000 net immigrants in 2006 . In recent years , the Croatian government has been pressured each year to add 40 % to work permit quotas for foreign workers . In accordance with its immigration policy , Croatia is also trying to entice emigrants to return .
There were 8 @,@ 468 immigrants in Croatia in 2009 , more than half of them ( 57 @.@ 5 % ) coming from Bosnia and Herzegovina , a sharp decline from the previous year 's 14 @,@ 541 . In the same year , there were 9 @,@ 940 emigrants from the country , 44 @.@ 8 % of them leaving to Serbia . The number of emigrants represents a substantial increase compared to the figure of 7 @,@ 488 recorded in 2008 . In 2009 , the net migration to and from abroad peaked in the Sisak @-@ Moslavina County ( -1,093 persons ) and the city of Zagreb ( + 830 persons ) .
In 2009 , a total of 22 @,@ 382 marriages were performed in Croatia as well as 5 @,@ 076 divorces . The 2001 census recorded 1 @.@ 47 million households in the country .
= = = Census data = = =
The first modern population census in the country was conducted in 1857 , and 15 more have been performed since then . Since 1961 the censuses are conducted in regular ten @-@ year intervals , with the latest one in 2011 . The first institution set up in the country specifically for the purposes of maintaining population statistics was the State Statistical Office , founded in 1875 . Since its founding , the office changed its name and structure several times and was alternately subordinated to other institutions and independent , until the most recent changes in 1992 , when the institution became the Croatian Bureau of Statistics . The 2011 census was performed on 1 – 28 April 2011 , recording situation as of 31 March 2011 . The first census results , containing the number of the population by settlement , were published on 29 June 2011 , and the final comprehensive set of data was published in December 2012 . The 2011 census and processing of the data gathered by the census was expected to cost 171 @.@ 9 million kuna ( 23 @.@ 3 million euro ) . The 2011 census was performed using new methodology : the permanent population was determined as the enumerated population who lived in the census area for at least 12 months prior to the census , or plans to live in the same area for at least 12 months after the census . This method was also retroactively applied to the 2001 census data .
= = Vital statistics = =
= = Ethnic groups = =
Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats ( 90 @.@ 42 % ) , while minority groups include Serbs ( 4 @.@ 36 % ) , Bosniaks , Hungarians , Italians , Albanians , Slovenes , Germans , Czechs , Romani people and others ( 5 @.@ 22 % ) . The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia specifies 22 minorities explicitly . Those are Serbs , Czechs , Slovaks , Italians , Hungarians , Jews , Germans , Austrians , Ukrainians , Ruthenians , Macedonians , Bosniaks , Slovenes , Montenegrins , Russians , Bulgarians , Poles , Romani , Rumanians , Turks , Vlachs and Albanians .
= = = Significant migrations = = =
The demographic history of Croatia is characterised by significant migrations , starting with the arrival of the Croats in the area . According to the work De Administrando Imperio written by the 10th @-@ century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII , the Croats arrived in the area of modern @-@ day Croatia in the early 7th century . However , that claim is disputed , and competing hypotheses date the event between the 6th and the 9th centuries . Following the establishment of a personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102 , and the joining of the Habsburg Empire in 1527 , the Hungarian and German speaking population of Croatia began gradually increasing in number . The processes of Magyarization and Germanization varied in intensity but persisted to the 20th century . The Ottoman conquests initiated a westward migration of parts of the Croatian population ; the Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of some of those settlers . To replace the fleeing Croats the Habsburgs called on the Orthodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier . Serb migration into this region peaked during the Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737 – 39 . Similarly , Venetian Republic rule in Istria and in Dalmatia , following the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman – Venetian Wars ushered gradual growth of Italian speaking population in those areas . Following the collapse of Austria @-@ Hungary in 1918 , the Hungarian population declined , especially in the areas north of the Drava river , where they represented the majority before World War I.
The period between 1890 and World War I was marked by large economic emigration from Croatia to the United States , and particularly to the areas of Pittsburgh , Cleveland and Chicago . Besides the United States , the main destination of the migrants was South America , especially Argentina , Chile , Bolivia and Peru . It is estimated that 500 @,@ 000 people left Croatia during this period . After World War I , the main focus of emigration shifted to Canada , where about 15 @,@ 000 people settled before the onset of World War II . During World War II and in the period immediately following the war , there were further significant demographic changes as the German @-@ speaking population , the Volksdeutsche , were either forced or otherwise compelled to leave — reducing their number from the prewar German population of Yugoslavia of 500 @,@ 000 , living in parts of present @-@ day Croatia and Serbia , to the figure of 62 @,@ 000 recorded in the 1953 census . A similar fate was suffered by the Italian population in Yugoslavia populating parts of present @-@ day Croatia and Slovenia , as 350 @,@ 000 left for Italy . The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by colonisation of settlements where the displaced Germans used to live , by people from the mountainous parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Serbia and Montenegro , and migrations to larger cities spurred on by the development of industry . In the 1960s and 1970s , another wave of economic migrants left Croatia . They largely moved to Canada , Australia , New Zealand and Western Europe . During this period , 65 @,@ 000 people left for Canada , and by the mid @-@ 1970s there were 150 @,@ 000 Croats who moved to Australia . Particularly large European emigrant communities of Croats exist in Germany , Austria and Switzerland , which largely stem from the 1960s and 1970s migrations .
The most recent significant migrations came as a result of the 1991 – 1995 Croatian War of Independence . In 1991 , more than 400 @,@ 000 Croats and other non @-@ Serbs were displaced by the Croatian Serb forces or fled the violence in areas with significant Serb populations . During the final days of the war , in 1995 , between 120 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 Serbs fled the country before the arrival of the Croatian forces during Operation Storm . Ten years after the war , only 117 @,@ 000 Serb refugees returned out of the 300 @,@ 000 displaced during the entire war . Most of the Serbs in Croatia who remained never lived in areas occupied during the Croatian War of Independence . Serbs have been only partially re @-@ settled in the regions they previously inhabited , but some of the areas previously inhabited by Serbs were later settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina , largely from the Republika Srpska .
= = = Demographic losses in the 20th century wars and pandemics = = =
In addition to demographic losses through significant migrations , the population of Croatia suffered significant losses due to wars and epidemics . In the 20th century alone , there were several such events . The first was World War I , when the loss of the population of Croatia amounted to an estimated 190 @,@ 000 persons , or about 5 @.@ 5 % of the total population recorded by the 1910 census . The 1918 flu pandemic started to take its toll in Croatia in July 1918 , with peaks of the disease occurring in October and November . Available data is scarce , but it is estimated that the pandemic caused at least 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 deaths . During World War II , nearly 195 @,@ 000 people died in the territory of present @-@ day Croatia . The surrender of the armed forces of the Independent State of Croatia and of the civilians accompanying the troops of the British Army at the end of World War II was followed by repatriation and subsequent events that became known as the Bleiburg tragedy . A substantial number of people were executed , but the exact number is disputed . The claims range from 12 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 to as many as 80 @,@ 000 killed in May 1945 . Finally , approximately 20 @,@ 000 were killed or went missing during the 1991 – 1995 Croatian War of Independence . The figure pertains only to those persons who would have been recorded by the 1991 census as living in Croatia .
= = Languages = =
The Croatian language is the official language of Croatia , and one of 24 official languages of the European Union since 2013 . Minority languages are in official use in local government units where more than a third of the population consists of national minorities or where local legislation mandates their use . These languages are Czech , Hungarian , Italian , Ruthenian , Serbian and Slovak . According to the 2011 Census , 95 @.@ 60 % of citizens of Croatia declared Croatian as their native language , 1 @.@ 23 % declared Serbian as their native language , while no other language is represented in Croatia by more than 0 @.@ 5 % of native speakers among the population of Croatia .
Croatian replaced Latin as the official language of the Croatian government in 1847 . It is a South Slavic language , and most Croatian vocabulary is derived from the Slavic branch of the Indo @-@ European language family . Croatian is written using the Latin alphabet and has three major dialects , with Shtokavian dialect used as the standard Croatian , and Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects distinguished by their lexicon , phonology , and syntax .
From 1961 to 1991 , the official language was Serbo @-@ Croatian or Croato @-@ Serbian . Even during socialist rule , Croats often referred to their language as Croato @-@ Serbian ( instead of Serbo @-@ Croatian ) or as Croatian . Croatian and Serbian variants of the language were not officially recognised as different at the time , but referred to as the west and east version , and had different alphabets : the Latin alphabet and Serbian Cyrillic . Croatians are protective of their language from foreign influences , as the language was under constant change and threats imposed by previous rulers ( i.e. Austrian German , Hungarian , Italian and Turkish words were changed and altered to " Slavic " looking / sounding ones ) . Efforts made to impose policies to alter Croatian into " Serbo @-@ Croatian or Croato @-@ Serbian " or a " South Slavic " language met resistance from Croats in the form of Croatian linguistic purism .
A 2009 survey revealed that 78 % of Croatians claim knowledge of at least one foreign language . According to a survey ordered by the European commission in 2005 , 49 % of Croatians speak English as their second language , 34 % speak German , and 14 % speak Italian . French and Russian are spoken by 4 % each , and 2 % of Croatians speak Spanish . A substantial proportion of Slovenes ( 59 % ) have a certain level of knowledge of the Croatian language .
= = Religions = =
The main religions of Croatia are Roman Catholicism 86 @.@ 28 % , Eastern Orthodoxy 4 @.@ 44 % , Protestantism 0 @.@ 34 % , other Christianity 0 @.@ 30 % , and Islam 1 @.@ 47 % . In the Eurostat Eurobarometer Poll of 2005 , 67 % of the population of Croatia responded that " they believe there is a God " and 7 % said they do not believe " there is any sort of spirit , God , or life force " , while 25 % expressed a belief in " some sort of spirit or life force " . In a 2009 Gallup poll , 70 % answered affirmatively when asked " Is religion an important part of your daily life ? " Significantly , a 2008 Gallup survey of the Balkans indicated church and religious organisations as the most trusted institutions in the country . The survey revealed that 62 % of the respondents assigned " a lot " or " some " trust to those institutions , ranking them ahead of all types of governmental , international or non @-@ governmental institutions .
Public schools allow religious education , in cooperation with religious communities that have agreements with the government , but attendance is not mandatory . The classes are organized widely in public elementary and secondary schools . In 2009 , 92 % of elementary school pupils and 87 % of secondary school students attended the religious education classes . Public holidays in Croatia also include the religious festivals of Epiphany , Easter Monday , Corpus Christi Day , Assumption Day , All Saints ' Day , Christmas , and St. Stephen 's or Boxing Day . The religious festival public holidays are based on the Catholic liturgical year , but citizens of the Republic of Croatia who celebrate different religious holidays have the right not to work on those dates . This includes Christians who celebrate Christmas on 7 January per the Julian calendar , Muslims on the days of Ramadan Bayram and Kurban Bayram , and Jews on the days of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur . Marriages performed by the religious communities having agreements with the state are officially recognized , eliminating the need to register the marriages in a registrar office .
The legal position of religious communities is defined by special legislation , specifically regarding government funding , tax benefits , and religious education in schools . Other matters are left to each religious community to negotiate separately with the government . Registration of the communities is not mandatory , but registered communities become legal persons and enjoy tax and other benefits . The law stipulates that to be eligible for registration , a religious group must have at least 500 believers and be registered as a civil association for 5 years . Religious groups based abroad must submit written permission for registration from their country of origin .
= = Education = =
Literacy in Croatia is 98 @.@ 1 percent . The 2001 census reported that 15 @.@ 7 % of the population over the age of 14 has an incomplete elementary education , and 21 @.@ 9 % has only an elementary school education . 42 @.@ 8 % of the population over the age of 14 has a vocational education and 4 @.@ 9 % completed gymnasium . 4 @.@ 2 % of the same population received an undergraduate degree , while 7 @.@ 5 % received an academic degree , and 0 @.@ 5 % received a postgraduate or a doctoral degree . Croatia recorded a substantial growth of the population attaining academic degrees and by 2008 , this population segment was estimated to encompass 16 @.@ 7 % of the total population of Croatians 15 and over . A worldwide study about the quality of living in different countries published by Newsweek in August 2010 ranked the Croatian education system at 22nd , a position shared with Austria . In 2004 , it was estimated that 4 @.@ 5 % of the GDP is spent for education , while schooling expectancy was estimated to 14 years on average . Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades . In 2007 a law was passed to increase free , noncompulsory education until 18 years of age . Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school . Secondary education is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools . As of 2010 , there are 2 @,@ 131 elementary schools and 713 schools providing various forms of secondary education . Primary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Croatia , where classes are held in Czech , Hungarian , Italian , Serbian and German languages .
There are 84 elementary level and 47 secondary level music and art schools , as well as 92 schools for disabled children and youth and 74 schools for adults . Nationwide leaving exams ( Croatian : državna matura ) were introduced for secondary education students in the 2009 – 2010 school year . It comprises three compulsory subjects ( Croatian language , mathematics , and a foreign language ) and optional subjects and is a prerequisite for a university education .
Croatia has eight universities , the University of Zagreb , University of Split , University of Rijeka , University of Osijek , University of Zadar , University of Dubrovnik , University of Pula and Dubrovnik International University . The University of Zadar , the first university in Croatia , was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807 , when other institutions of higher education took over . It was reopened in 2002 . The University of Zagreb , founded in 1669 , is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe . There are also 11 polytechnics and 23 higher education institutions , of which 19 are private . In total , there are 132 institutions of higher education in Croatia , attended by more than 145 thousand students .
There are 205 companies , government or education system institutions and non @-@ profit organizations in Croatia pursuing scientific research and the development of technology . Combined , they spent more than 3 billion kuna ( 400 million euro ) and employed 10 @,@ 191 full @-@ time research staff in 2008 . Among the scientific institutes operating in Croatia , the largest is the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Zagreb . The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb is a learned society promoting language , culture , arts and science since its inception in 1866 . Scientists from Croatia include inventors and Nobel Prize winners .
= = Health = =
Croatia has a universal health care system , the roots of which can be traced back to the Hungarian @-@ Croatian Parliament Act of 1891 , providing a form of mandatory insurance for all factory workers and craftsmen . The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance . In 2014 , the annual compulsory healthcare related expenditures reached 21 @.@ 8 billion kuna ( 2 @.@ 9 billion euro ) . Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0 @.@ 6 % of private health insurance and public spending . In 2010 , Croatia spent 6 @.@ 9 % of its GDP on healthcare , representing a decline from approximately 8 % estimated in 2008 , when 84 % of healthcare spending came from public sources . According to the World Health Organization ( WHO ) , Croatia ranks around the 50th in the world in terms of life expectancy .
There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia , including 79 hospitals and clinics with 23 @,@ 967 beds . The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 5 @,@ 205 medical doctors , including 3 @,@ 929 specialists . There are 6 @,@ 379 private practice offices , and a total of 41 @,@ 271 health workers in the country . There are 63 emergency medical service units , responding to more than a million calls . The principal cause of death in 2008 was cardiovascular disease at 43 @.@ 5 % for men and 57 @.@ 2 % for women , followed by tumours , at 29 @.@ 4 % for men and 21 @.@ 4 % for women . Other significant causes of death are injuries , poisonings and other external causes ( 7 @.@ 7 % men / 3 @.@ 9 % women ) , digestive system diseases ( 5 @.@ 7 % men / 3 @.@ 6 % women ) , respiratory system diseases ( 5 @.@ 1 % men / 3 @.@ 5 % women ) and endocrine , nutritional and metabolic diseases ( 2 @.@ 1 % men / 3 @.@ 0 % women ) . There is no other cause of disease affecting more than 3 % of the population . In 2014 only 22 Croatians had been infected with HIV / AIDS and 4 had died from the disease . In 2008 it was estimated by the WHO that 27 @.@ 4 % of Croatians over age of 15 were smokers . According to 2003 WHO data , 22 % of the Croatian adult population is obese .
= = Economic indicators = =
= = = Personal income , jobs and unemployment = = =
Net monthly income in September 2011 averaged 5 @,@ 397 kuna ( c . 729 euro ) , dropping 2 @.@ 1 % relative to the previous month . In the same month , gross monthly income averaged 7 @,@ 740 kuna ( c . 1 @,@ 046 euro ) , and it includes the net salary along with income tax , retirement pension insurance , healthcare insurance , occupational safety and health insurance and employment promotion tax . The average net monthly income grew compared to 5 @,@ 311 kuna ( c . 717 euro ) in 2009 or 3 @,@ 326 kuna ( c . 449 euro ) in 2000 . The highest net salaries were paid in financial services sector , and in April 2011 those averaged 10 @,@ 041 kuna ( c . 1 @,@ 356 euro ) , while the lowest ones , paid in the same month , were in the manufacturing and leather processing industries , averaging at 2 @,@ 811 kuna ( c . 380 euro ) . Since January 2016 , the minimum wage in Croatia is 3 @,@ 120 kuna before tax ( c . 400 euro ) .
Number of employed persons recorded steady growth between 2000 and 2008 when it peaked , followed by 4 % decline in 2009 . That year , there were 1 @.@ 499 million employed persons , with 45 % of that number pertaining to women . The total number of employed persons includes 252 @,@ 000 employed in crafts and freelance professionals and 35 @,@ 000 employed in agriculture . The most significant sources of employment in 2008 were manufacturing industry and wholesale and retail trade ( including motor vehicle repair services ) employing 278 @,@ 640 and 243 @,@ 640 respectively . Further significant employment sector was construction industry comprising 143 @,@ 336 jobs that year . In the same year , more than 100 @,@ 000 were employed in public administration , defence and compulsory social insurance sector as well as in education . Since 2009 , negative trends persisted in Croatia with jobs in the industry declined further by 3 @.@ 5 % . Number of unemployed and retired persons combined exceeded number of employed in August 2010 , as it fell to 1 @.@ 474 million . In 2009 , labour force consisted of 1 @.@ 765 million persons out of 3 @.@ 7 million working age population — aged 15 and over . In October 2011 , unemployment rate stood at 17 @.@ 4 % . 7 @.@ 2 % of employed persons hold a second job .
In comparison with the member states of the European Union ( EU ) , Croatia 's median equivalent household income in terms of the Purchasing Power Standard ( PPS ) stands at 470 , topping average PPS of the ten countries which joined the EU in 2004 ( EU10 ) , as well as Romania and Bulgaria , while significantly lagging behind the EU average . Within Croatia , the highest PPS is recorded in Istria County ( 769 ) , the City of Zagreb ( 640 ) and the Primorje @-@ Gorski Kotar County ( 576 ) . The lowest PPS is observed in the Bjelovar @-@ Bilogora County and the Virovitica @-@ Podravina County ( 267 ) .
= = = Urbanisation and housing = = =
2011 census recorded a total of 1 @,@ 534 @,@ 148 private households in Croatia as well as 1 @,@ 487 other residential communities such as retirement homes , convents etc . At the same time , there were 1 @,@ 923 @,@ 522 permanent housing units — houses and apartments . 2001 census recorded 1 @.@ 66 million permanent housing units , including 196 thousand intermittently occupied and 42 thousand abandoned ones . Average size of a permanently used housing unit is 74 @.@ 4 square metres ( 801 square feet ) . The intermittently used housing units include 182 thousand vacation houses and 8 thousand houses used during agricultural works . The same census also recorded 25 thousand housing units used for business purposes only . As of 2007 , 71 % of the households owned their own housing and had no mortgage or other loans to repay related to the housing , while further 9 % were repaying loans for their housing . The households vary by type and include single households ( 13 % ) , couples ( 15 % ) , single parent households ( 4 % ) , couples with children ( 27 % ) and extended family households ( 20 % ) . There are approximately 500 homeless persons in Croatia , largely living in Zagreb .
Average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56 % , with the maximum rate recorded within the territory of the City of Zagreb , where it reached 94 @.@ 5 % and Zagreb metropolitan area comprising the City of Zagreb and the Zagreb County , where it stands at 76 @.@ 4 % . Very significant rate of urbanisation was observed in the second half of the 20th century . 1953 census recorded 57 % of population which was active in agriculture , while a census performed in 1991 noted only 9 @.@ 1 % of population active in that field . This points to augmentation of urban population and reduction of rural population .
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= Hurricane Debbie ( 1961 ) =
Hurricane Debbie is the most powerful cyclone on record to strike Ireland in September , and possibly the only tropical cyclone on record to ever strike the British Isles while still tropical . The fourth named storm of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season , Debbie originated from a well @-@ defined tropical disturbance that was first identified in late August over Central Africa . Tracking generally westward , the system moved off the coast of Senegal on September 5 into the Atlantic Ocean . By this time , it was estimated to have become a tropical storm , but forecasters did not issue advisories on the system until two days later . Late on September 6 , Debbie passed through the southern Cape Verde Islands as a strong tropical storm or minimal hurricane , resulting in a plane crash that killed 60 people in the islands . Once clear of the islands , data on the storm became sparse , and the status of Debbie was uncertain over the following several days as it tracked west @-@ northwestward and later northward . It was not until a commercial airliner intercepted the storm on September 10 that its location became certain . The following day , Debbie intensified and reached its peak intensity as a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale , with maximum winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) .
Maintaining its peak intensity for over a day , the hurricane gradually slowed its forward motion and weakened . By September 13 , Debbie 's motion became influenced by the Westerlies , causing the system to accelerate east @-@ northeastward . The system passed over the western Azores as a minimal hurricane on September 15 . At this point , there is uncertainty as to the structure of Debbie , whether it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone or maintained its identity as a tropical system . Regardless of which took place , the system deepened as it neared the British Isles , skirting the coast of Western Ireland on September 16 . Shortly thereafter , the system was confirmed to have become extratropical as it continued towards the northeast . The remnants of the storm later turned eastward , striking Norway and Russia , before dissipating on September 19 .
Striking Ireland as a powerful storm , Debbie brought record winds to much of the island , with a peak gust of 114 mph ( 183 km / h ) measured just offshore . These winds caused widespread damage and disruption , downing tens of thousands of trees and power lines . Countless structures sustained varying degrees of damage , with many smaller buildings destroyed . Agriculture experienced extensive losses to barley , corn and wheat crops . Throughout Ireland , Debbie killed 18 people ( 12 in the Republic of Ireland and six in Northern Ireland ) . It caused US $ 40 – 50 million in damage in the Republic and at least £ 1 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 4 million ) in Northern Ireland . The storm also battered parts of Great Britain with winds in excess of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
During late August and into early September 1961 , an unusual series of low @-@ level disturbances developed over Central and West Africa and into the eastern Atlantic Ocean . One of these systems , that probably formed over Central Africa at the end of August , became increasingly organized as it moved over Nigeria on September 1 . As the disturbance travelled steadily westward , its mid @-@ level circulation became well defined , and the accompanying low @-@ level centre gradually followed suit . An upper @-@ level anticyclone accompanied the storm during this entire period , providing a favorable upper @-@ air regime for strengthening . According to a post @-@ storm study in 1962 , all the necessary environmental ingredients were available to the disturbance while it was over land ; the only factor inhibiting earlier development was a lack of access to the warm waters . Around 1200 UTC on September 5 , the low emerged off the coast of Senegal as a strong tropical depression or tropical storm . By this time , the system had a central pressure below 1006 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) , and sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) were reported in Bissau , Guinea @-@ Bissau . As the system neared Cape Verde , it continued to intensify and by the evening of September 6 , reports from the nearby Danish tanker Charlotte Maersk indicated that the system was already at or near hurricane intensity .
Late on September 6 , Debbie passed over the southern Cape Verde Islands as a strong tropical storm or low @-@ end hurricane . Continuing on a west @-@ northwest path , mainly in response to a large area of high pressure over the eastern Atlantic , the system continued to intensify . Sea surface temperatures in the region averaged 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , supportive of tropical development . At 1913 UTC on September 7 , a picture from TIROS @-@ 3 showed that an eye had already developed and banding features covered an area more than 300 mi ( 480 km ) from the centre . Debbie was not classified operationally as a tropical storm until 2200 UTC on September 7 , at which time the centre was estimated to be about 550 mi ( 890 km ) west @-@ southwest of Sal Island . Over the following three days , virtually no data was available on the hurricane and no reliable estimates on its intensity could be made . During this time , the storm was estimated to have taken a more north @-@ westerly course over the open ocean . It was not until a KLM flight encountered the storm on September 10 that an accurate positioning of the hurricane could be made .
After maintaining a nearly steady course for three days , Hurricane Debbie turned northward and slowed as it neared a break in the ridge previously steering it west @-@ northwestward . During the evening of September 11 , a United States Navy Aircraft reconnaissance mission into the storm found sustained winds of 110 – 120 mph ( 175 – 195 km / h ) and a central pressure of 976 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 82 inHg ) , reaching its peak intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . After maintaining its windspeeds for over 24 hours , the system weakened and turned sharply towards the east @-@ northeast in response to the upper @-@ level westerlies . By the afternoon of September 13 , Debbie was again a Category 1 storm as it quickly accelerated towards the Azores . Early on September 15 , the storm passed over the easternmost Azores with winds estimated at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) before turning more northeasterly . Once past the Azores , there is an uncertainty over the structural changes that took place with Debbie . According to the United States Weather Bureau 's preliminary report , the system acquired characteristics of an extratropical cyclone on September 15 , though remained a strong system . This conflicts with the best track supplied by the Bureau and the National Hurricane Center 's hurricane database maintains the system as a tropical cyclone until the afternoon of September 16 .
The system moved towards the British Isles and began to deepen . Debbie eventually brushed the coast of Western Ireland near Achill Island during the morning of September 16 with sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Around this time , a pressure of 961 @.@ 4 hPa ( 28 @.@ 39 inHg ) was measured as it passed near Belmullet . If the system maintained tropical characteristics at this time , it would have been the first such storm on record to strike Ireland . Shortly after striking Ireland , the system was confirmed to have transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it re @-@ emerged into the northeast Atlantic Ocean . While passing between Ireland and Scotland , the system continued to deepen , achieving an estimated central pressure of 950 hPa ( 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) . According to a study by Hickey and Connolly @-@ Johnston , this ranked Debbie as the most intense post @-@ hurricane from 1960 to 2012 to move through the British Isles . After clearing the United Kingdom , the hurricane 's remnants turned more easterly , later impacting Norway and Russia before dissipating on September 19 .
= = Impact = =
= = = Republic of Ireland = = =
As early as September 13 , residents were made aware that a storm might strike parts of Ireland with hurricane @-@ force winds . Two days later , forecasters believed the storm would take a more southerly course towards France . This forecast was later withdrawn as the storm failed to turn eastward . Consequently , gale warnings were issued for much of western Ireland on the morning of September 16 , hours before the brunt of the storm arrived . Fearing building collapses , officials in County Galway closed markets for the duration of the storm .
A powerful tropical or extratropical cyclone , on September 16 Hurricane Debbie became one of the most intense storms on record to strike Ireland . The storm brought hurricane @-@ force winds to a large part of the country , with wind gusts peaking at 114 mph ( 183 km / h ) off the coast of Arranmore . At several locations , all @-@ time wind gusts and ten @-@ minute sustained wind records were broken . Sustained winds at Malin Head stayed at or above 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) for approximately six hours . Debbie was the strongest storm , in terms of atmospheric pressure , to strike Ireland during the month of September , with a pressure of 961 @.@ 4 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 39 inHg ) measured in Belmullet . Rainfall from the storm was relatively minor , with rainfall rates peaking at 0 @.@ 35 in ( 9 mm ) per hour at the Valentia Observatory . Though limited , the rain did cause some lakes in the west to flood .
The greatest damage occurred in a swath stretching from Kerry to Limerick as well as the counties of Sligo and Donegal . In these areas , the hurricane 's powerful winds damaged or destroyed many buildings and downed trees and power lines . In the hardest hit areas , communication was not restored for over four days . Many roads were blocked by debris for up to two days . Crops and trees were badly damaged . Approximately two percent of the trees in the forestry industry were snapped or uprooted , with some areas losing up to twenty @-@ four percent . In general , corn and wheat crops fared better than expected , with only 25 – 30 percent being lost ; however , some farmers reported barley losses greater than 50 percent . Downed trees from the storm wreaked havoc , leaving considerable damage and loss of life behind . All told , Hurricane Debbie was responsible for 12 deaths in the Republic of Ireland . Four people were killed in County Cavan – a widow , her two daughters and granddaughter – after a tree fell on their car . Five deaths resulted from fallen trees and three others were from building collapses . At least 50 people were injured , few of which were serious . A study in 2012 estimated that damage from the storm was at least US $ 40 – 50 million across Ireland .
Newspapers reported that the city of Galway " resembled a bombed area , " referring to the scale of damage caused by the winds . In nearby Ballygar , two barns were destroyed , one of which had debris strewn over a wide area . Hurricane @-@ force winds battered Tuam for several hours , leaving most buildings damaged . Nearly every structure in Connemara was damaged and many homes lost their roofs . At Cork Airport , windows at the control tower were blown out and a construction crane was knocked over . Residents in Loughrea dubbed Saturday , September 16 , 1961 as " The Day Of The Big Wind " in light of the extensive damage . Damage in Roscommon was " impossible to calculate , " as all power and communication around the town was lost . In Limerick , 15 people were injured . Across County Cavan , thousands of trees were snapped or uprooted , leaving many towns temporarily cut off as roads were blocked and communications lost . Many structures sustained damage , which ranged from broken slate roofing to flattened barns . Most towns across the county were left without power and telephone service . Residents described the storm as " the worst in living memory . "
Along the coast , rough seas spurred by the winds damaged docks and flooded some coastal regions . Offshore , waves reached heights of 45 ft ( 14 m ) near Arranmore . Dozens of ships were torn from their moorings and run aground at various ports , some of which were found 200 yd ( 180 m ) inland . In Salthill , three marinas were damaged with forty vessels damaged or sunk . Between 11 : 00 a.m. and 1 : 00 p.m. local time , onshore winds from the storm caused the River Shannon to flow backwards and rise 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) . Hundreds of acres of land , including potato and cabbage plots , were left several feet underwater . Many roads were submerged , making travel impossible in the area . The combination of strong winds and sea spray from the storm caused extensive defoliation of vegetation up to 10 mi ( 16 km ) inland . Spray from the River Foyle reportedly travelled 100 yd ( 91 m ) .
In the wake of the storm , more than 1 @,@ 000 Electricity Supply Board ( ESB ) personnel were deployed to restore power . In some areas , locals worked together to provide others with fresh food after electricity was lost . Fire brigades were sent on patrol to quell any looting . In Galway , ESB repair crews worked through labor and supply shortages to restore power and telephone service despite recent strikes in the company . By September 23 , officials in the city appealed to the Government for funding to deal with the aftermath of the hurricane . Uncertainty over whether some of the cost could be footed by landowners themselves resulted in disagreement over how much aid to request . Due to the severity of damage to the electrical grid , there were numerous requests made to the ESB to build underground power cables , especially in Galway .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
Exceptionally strong winds from the storm buffeted parts of Northern Ireland , with gusts of 106 mph ( 171 km / h ) and 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) measured in Ballykelly and Tiree respectively . The winds downed tens of thousands of trees and more than 1 @,@ 000 telephone lines across the region . In the Baronscourt Forest in County Tyrone , 30 @,@ 000 trees were blown down . Countless roads across Northern Ireland were blocked by debris and major rail lines had to suspend service . There was severe damage in the city of Derry where a newly built school was destroyed . Losses in the city alone amounted to £ 500 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 million ) . In Lagan Valley , a brick community hall was destroyed . An estimated 200 homes and two churches in Strabane were damaged . The town 's labour exchange building was severely damaged as well . In a local cemetery , many tombstones were uprooted from concrete foundations and destroyed . A newly built fire station in Clogher collapsed after its roof was blown off . Several people were injured in Belfast after a glass ceiling collapsed in a bus station and a piece of corrugated roofing blew in from a nearby building .
Six people were killed in Northern Ireland , mostly due to fallen trees : two in County Fermanagh and one each in Cookstown , Dungannon , Omagh , and elsewhere in Tyrone . The cereal crop in Northern Ireland suffered greatly due to Debbie , with half of the yield being lost . Losses from the crop were estimated at £ 1 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 8 million ) . In the wake of the storm , military ambulances from the Royal Army Medical Corps were dispatched to parts of West Tyrone . Power repair crews were dispatched for nearly a week repairing downed wires across Northern Ireland . Many public authorities paid tribute to the workers for their tireless work . After passing through Ireland , the storm brought strong winds and heavy rain to parts of Scotland and Wales , resulting in some damage and flooding in the region . On the coast of Lancashire and the Isle of Man , sand storms were reported , with significant sand deposits found inland .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Unsettled weather in the Cape Verde Islands brought about by Tropical Storm Debbie was blamed for a plane crash on September 6 that killed 60 people . Although the storm passed over the Azores as a hurricane , no reports of damage were received . Strong winds were also reported from the Bay of Biscay to locations in northern Norway .
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= 1964 Gabon coup d 'état =
The 1964 Gabon coup d 'état was staged between 17 and 18 February 1964 by Gabonese military officers who rose against Gabonese President Léon M 'ba . Before the coup , Gabon was seen as one of the most politically stable countries in Africa . The coup resulted from M 'ba 's dissolution of the Gabonese legislature on 21 January 1964 , and during a takeover with few casualties 150 coup plotters arrested M 'ba and a number of his government officials . Through Radio Libreville , they asked the people of Gabon to remain calm and assured them that the country 's pro @-@ France foreign policy would remain unchanged . A provisional government was formed , and the coup 's leaders installed Deputy Jean @-@ Hilaire Aubame , who was M 'ba 's primary political opponent and had been uninvolved in the coup , as president . Meanwhile , M 'ba was sent to Lambaréné , 250 kilometres ( 155 mi ) from Libreville . There was no major uprising or reaction by the Gabonese people when they received word of the coup , which the military interpreted as a sign of approval .
After being informed of the coup by Gabonese Chief of Staff Albert @-@ Bernard Bongo , French President Charles de Gaulle resolved to restore the M 'ba government , honoring a 1960 treaty signed between the deposed government and France when Gabon became independent . With the help of French paratroopers , the provisional government was toppled during the night of 19 February and M 'ba was reinstated as president . Afterward , M 'ba imprisoned more than 150 of his opponents , pledging " no pardon or pity " but rather " total punishment " . Aubame was sentenced to 10 years of hard labor and 10 years of exile , a sentence that was later commuted . During this time , the ageing president became increasingly reclusive , opting to stay in his presidential palace under the protection of French troops . Within three years , M 'ba was diagnosed with cancer ; he died on 28 November 1967 .
= = Background and origins = =
Gabon gained its independence from France on 17 August 1960 . The country had a relatively high standard of living and was considered one of the more stable countries in West Africa , both politically and economically . At the time of the coup , the country had an estimated US $ 200 average annual income and was one of the few countries in Africa with a positive trade balance , with exports exceeding imports by 30 percent . As of 1964 , the country was among the largest producers of uranium and manganese in French Africa , which Time suggested was one of the reasons for France 's response to the coup . It also had petroleum , iron , and logging interests stationed in Gabon .
Léon M 'ba was one of the most loyal allies to France in Africa , even after the country 's independence . In fact , France maintained 600 paratroopers and an air force unit , which included Mirage V and Jaguar jet fighters , at the Camp de Gaulle military base until at least 1987 , a warning to any Gabonese coup plotters . M 'ba famously commented during a 1961 visit to France that " [ a ] ll Gabonese have two fatherlands : France and Gabon " , [ a ] and Europeans enjoyed particularly friendly treatment under his regime . French journalist Pierre Péan asserted that M 'ba secretly tried to prevent Gabonese independence ; instead , he lobbied for it to become an overseas territory of France . He went so far as to say that " Gabon is an extreme case , verging on caricature , of neocolonialism . "
M 'ba aspired to establish Gabon as a democracy , which he believed was necessary to attract foreign investors . At the same time , he attempted to reconcile the imperatives of democracy with the necessity for a strong and coherent government . In practice , however , M 'ba showed a weakness in attaining his goal — by this time he was known as " the old man " , or " the boss " — to have a high degree of authority . On 21 February 1961 , a new constitution was unanimously adopted , providing for a " hyperpresidential " regime . M 'ba now had full executive powers : he could appoint ministers whose functions and responsibilities were decided by him ; he could dissolve the National Assembly by choice or prolong its term beyond the normal five years ; he could declare a state of emergency when he believed the need arose , though for this amendment he would have to consult the people via a referendum . This was , in fact , very similar to the constitution adopted in favor of Fulbert Youlou at roughly the same time . A report from the French secret service summarized the situation :
He regarded himself as a truly democratic leader ; nothing irritated him more than being called a dictator . Still , [ M 'ba ] wasn 't happy until he had the constitution rewritten to give him virtually all power and transforming the parliament into high @-@ priced scenery that could be bypassed as needed . [ b ]
M 'ba 's chief political opponent had been Jean @-@ Hilaire Aubame , a former protégé and his half @-@ brother 's foster son . M 'ba was backed by the French forestry interests , while Aubame was supported by the Roman Catholic missions and the French administration . Aubame , a deputy of the opposition party l ’ Union démocratique et sociale gabonaise ( UDSG ) in the National Assembly , had few fundamental ideological differences with the M 'ba @-@ led Bloc Démocratique Gabonais ( BDG ) , including advocating less economic dependence on France and faster " Africanization " of French political jobs . However , the new constitution and the National Union ( a political union they founded ) suspended the quarrels between M 'ba and Aubame from 1961 to 1963 . Despite this , political unrest grew within the population , and many students held demonstrations on the frequent dissolutions of the National Assembly and the general political attitude in the country . The president did not hesitate to enforce the law himself ; with a chicotte , he whipped citizens who did not show respect for him , including passersby who " forgot " to salute him .
Aubame served as foreign minister under the coalition government , though in early 1963 he was dropped from the Cabinet for refusing to create a single @-@ party Gabon . To oust Aubame from his legislative seat , M 'ba appointed him President of the Supreme Court on 25 February , practically a powerless post . M 'ba supporters tried to pass a bill that declared that a member of parliament could only hold a single role in government . The president claimed that Aubame had resigned from the National Assembly , citing incompatibility with the functions of the assembly . Aubame , however , unexpectedly resigned from the Supreme Court on 10 January 1964 , complicating matters for M 'ba . In a fit of rage , M 'ba dissolved the National Assembly on 21 January 1964 . The New York Times speculates that this was due to it not supporting M 'ba in Aubame 's removal .
The electoral conditions were announced as such : The election 67 districts were reduced to 47 . M 'ba disqualified Aubame by announcing that anyone who had held a post recently was banned . Any party would have to submit 47 candidates who had to pay US $ 160 or none at all . Thus , over US $ 7 @,@ 500 would be deposited without considering campaign expenses . M 'ba 's idea was that no party other than his would have the money to enter candidates . In response to this , the opposition announced its refusal to participate in elections that they did not consider fair .
= = Planning = =
Little is known of the planning of the coup . No demonstrations followed Mba 's dissolution of the National Assembly , so the coup could be classified as simply a " palace coup " . The 1964 – 1965 edition of the Adelphi Papers speculates that the continued presence of young French military officers in Gabon may have been an inspiration to the plotters of the coup . Much of the 600 @-@ man Gabonese army had previously served in the French army prior to independence , where they were paid modestly . Like much of the rest of the country , they were displeased by M 'ba 's actions against Aubame , a probable cause for involvement .
U.S. Ambassador to Gabon Charles Darlington suggested that the coup plotters may have tried to imitate the style of Colonel Christophe Soglo . Soglo , a commander in Dahomey 's 800 @-@ man army , had deposed President Hubert Maga in October 1963 , ruled for about a month , then resigned in favor of Dahomey 's citizens . The plotters apparently did not consider French involvement , so therefore didn 't take any additional steps to prevent it . They could have created protests to show public support , although the spokesman for the coup plotters , Sub @-@ Lieutenant Daniel Mbene , justified the coup by claiming in a broadcast that the army had to act to avoid the rash of " uncontrollable demonstrations that would have been difficult to halt " .
It is unlikely that Aubame participated in the planning of the coup . It appears that he joined the effort after being recruited by the new government . His nephew , Pierre Eyeguet , a former ambassador to the United Kingdom , may have known of the plot beforehand and notified his uncle , although it is unknown whether or not Aubame established contact with the plotters .
Lieutenant Valerie Essone only decided to participate on 17 February . This was a crucial decision for he led the First Company of the Gabonese Army , the company of the other officers . Apparently at that moment he told his troops to perform average night maneuvers . That day , Gabonese chief of staff Albert Bernard ( later Omar ) Bongo informed President M 'ba that the number of troops outside Libreville was unusually high . M 'ba , however , did not think much of this anomaly .
= = Coup = =
During the night of 17 February and the early morning of 18 February 1964 , 150 members of the Gabonese military , gendarmerie , and police , headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone , seized the presidential palace . The gendarmes on duty claimed that this was but a military exercise . However , during the " exercise " the lieutenants dragged President M 'ba from his bed at gunpoint . Bongo heard this noise and telephoned President of the National Assembly Louis Bigmann to find out what had happened . Bigmann arrived at the presidential palace and asked the rebels what Bongo had asked him . At this point they opened the gates and arrested him too . The plotters subsequently arrested every member of the Gabonese cabinet except the respected technician André Gustave Anguilé . Apparently , the plotters let him roam free in the hopes of him joining them , although before noon he asked to be arrested . Joseph N 'Goua , the Gabonese minister of foreign affairs , was able to tell the French Embassy of this before he was arrested .
The insurgents , calling themselves a " revolutionary committee " , spread themselves strategically across the Gabonese capital during the night . They shut down the airport and seized the post office and radio station . On Radio Libreville , the military announced that a coup had taken place and that they required " technical assistance " . They issued radio statements every half @-@ hour promising that " public liberties will be restored and all political prisoners will be freed " and ordered the French not to interfere in the matter , claiming that it would be a violation of their sovereignty . In addition , they decreed the closing of schools and businesses . M 'ba acknowledged his defeat in a radio broadcast , in accordance with orders from his captors . " D @-@ Day is here , the injustices are beyond measure , these people are patient , but their patience has limits " , he said . " It came to a boil . " [ c ]
During these events , no gunshots were fired . The public did not react strongly , which , according to the military , was a sign of approval . A provisional government was formed , composed of civilian politicians from the UDSG and BDG such as Philippe N 'dong , editor of Gabon 's literary review Réalités Gabonaises ; Dr. Eloi Chambrier , Gabon 's only physician ; Philippe Maury , a famous Gabonese actor ; and civil servant Paul Gondjout . Mbene stated that the provisional government would not include any members of the M 'ba government . He declared that Gabon 's pro @-@ French foreign policy would remain unchanged and that Mombo would supervise the government until the presidency was given to Aubame . The plotters were content to ensure security for civilians , urging them to remain calm and not hurt anyone . Most of them were junior officers , living in the army barracks . The senior officers did not intervene ; instead , they stayed in their " pleasant " houses .
Aubame was unaware of the coup until the French ambassador to Gabon , Paul Cousseran , called him on the telephone roughly a half @-@ hour after sunrise . Cousseran , meanwhile , was awoken by the noisy streets and checked to see what was happening . Aubame replied that he was to find out why there was " no government " , as Cousseran never directly mentioned a coup . However , about midway through the morning an automobile carrying the revolutionary committee arrived at Aubame 's residence and drove him to the governmental offices , where he had been named president .
Second Lieutenant Ndo Edou gave instructions to transfer M 'ba to Ndjolé , Aubame 's electoral stronghold . However , due to heavy rain , the deposed president and his captors took shelter in an unknown village . The next morning they decided to take him over the easier road to Lambaréné . Several hours later , they returned to Libreville .
= = = French intervention = = =
French authorities first received information on the coup not from Cousseran but rather from Bongo , giving him some standing among them . President de Gaulle , upon advice from his chief adviser on African policy , Jacques Foccart , decided that he would restore the legitimate government . This was in accordance with a 1960 treaty between Gabon and the French , which was ironically signed by Aubame in his stint as Foreign Minister . Foccart , on the other hand , had only decided to launch the countercoup to protect the interests of the French petroleum group Elf , which operated in Gabon and was led by a close friend of his . M 'ba was also a close friend of his ; David Yates reports that M 'ba could call Foccart personally , and Foccart would meet with him " at a moment 's notice " . French commentators , however , claimed that if they did not intervene , they would be tempting other dissidents . France had refrained from intervening in recent coups in the French Congo , Dahomey , and Togo , despite being opposed to all of them . However , the Gabon coup differed in that , they claimed , it lacked notable public support . Following the restoration of M 'ba 's government in Gabon , the French intervened militarily in Africa roughly every other year . In 1995 , the French Minister for Foreign Assistance Jacques Godfrain explained that Paris " will intervene each time an elected democratic power is overthrown by a coup d 'état if a military cooperation agreement exists " .
Shortly after de Gaulle and Foccart 's meeting , French commanders Haulin and Royer were released at the request of the French Embassy . Intervention could not commence without a formal petition to the Head of State of Gabon . Since M 'ba was held hostage , the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon , Paul @-@ Marie Yembit , who had not been arrested . At the time , Yembit was in a car with U.S. ambassador Charles Darlington travelling to N 'Dende . This was to officially open a school built by the Peace Corps nearby , in Yembit 's birthplace of Moussambou , and completing his electoral campaign . Therefore , they decided to compose a predated letter that Yembit would later sign , confirming their intervention . They sent this to him via a small airplane , since there were no road bridges in Gabon at the time and the only way to cross a river was on a ferry . Yembit did not come back to Libreville on the plane as would be expected , but rather at 8 : 00 WAT on 18 February to read a statement over Radio Libreville that was likely prepared by French officials . Yembit , however , claimed that he called for French intervention while the insurgent troops held M 'ba hostage ; this version of the story was quickly disputed by several diplomats on the scene , as several French troops had arrived before this alleged incident .
Less than 24 hours after de Gaulle had been notified , French paratroopers stationed in Dakar and Brazzaville under General René Cogny and a General Kergaravat were notified that they were going to end the coup . This had come even before the provincial government was formed . Maurice Robert and Guy Ponsaille , who were among a group Foccart convened to discuss the French intervention , were part of the paratrooper unit . Receiving Foccart 's orders to " normalize " the situation by 19 February or the next day at the latest , at 10 : 50 WAT on 18 February , the first 50 troops landed at the Libreville International Airport . The rebels closed the airport but failed to establish obstacles , allowing the French troops to land unharmed , albeit during a large storm . Throughout that day , more than 600 paratroopers arrived at the airport .
Sweeping through Libreville unopposed , the troops easily captured the provincial council , though they met resistance at the Baraka military base in Lambaréné when they attacked at daylight . Upon learning of the impending attack , Aubame called Cousseran and asked him what had been going on . Cousseran dodged answering the question and requested that Aubame release M 'ba uninjured . After receiving the false assurance from the ambassador that the French government had no intention of restoring M 'ba to power , Aubame sent out a military officer to the countryside to find the deposed president . M 'ba was moved to a small village near the Albert Schweitzer Hospital . At dawn on 19 February , French Air Force planes strafed the rebels at Baraka , while the French Army attacked the insurgents with machine gun fire and mortars . The rebels at the military base promptly surrendered once their ammunition supply ran out , and their commander , Lieutenant Ndo Edou , was executed . Later , the French army managed to break through the gate to the village where M 'ba was held and rescued the deposed president .
Before the end of the day , the French troops surrounded all of Libreville 's public buildings . Shortly thereafter , Radio Libreville announced the surrender of the rebel forces . Kergaravat concluded his military operation on 20 February , saluting Cousseran and saying " Mission accomplie " . Over its course , one French soldier was killed and 18 died on the Gabonese side . Unofficial sources said two French soldiers and 25 insurgents were killed , with more than 40 Gabonese and four French troops were wounded . The number of civilian casualties was unknown but numerous , as the straw roofs on their homes were not a good protector against aerial bullets .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Immediate aftermath and riots = = =
France 's intervention in the coup was openly applauded by the Central African Republic , Chad , Côte d 'Ivoire , Madagascar , Niger , and Upper Volta . In fact , France was barely criticised at all in Africa , other than a mild response by Dahomey and one by the Democratic Republic of Congo . The matter was not discussed at the next meeting of the Council of Ministers of the OAU , held on 24 February – 29 February in Lagos . The revolutionary movement in French Africa immediately retrogressed following the coup .
M 'ba was returned to Libreville on 21 February . Shortly after his arrival , the 10 : 00 pm curfew that had been imposed by the French was lifted , and some stores were reopened . Squads of officials , known as " les gorilles " , travelled through Libreville and arrested any suspected M 'ba opposers . After his reinstatement , M 'ba refused to believe that the coup was directed against his regime , instead considering it to be a conspiracy against the state . Nonetheless , following the coup M 'ba dismissed every soldier in the army and started recruiting new men .
On 1 March , however , anti @-@ government demonstrations began , with protesters shouting " Léon M 'ba , président des Français ! " ( " Léon M 'ba , President of the French ! " ) and calling for the end of the " dictatorship " . Originating in Libreville , these demonstrations spread to Port @-@ Gentil and N 'Dende and lasted into the summer . When 1 @,@ 000 pro @-@ government demonstrators responded by shouting " Long Live Léon M 'ba " outside the presidential palace , they were attacked by dissidents . Among the pro @-@ government demonstrators were an opposition member , Martine Oyane , who had been forcefully undressed following her arrest , beaten by the police , paraded naked throughout Libreville , and forced to shout " Long Live Léon M 'ba " . At the height of these demonstrations , 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 Gabonese protested throughout central Libreville . Protesters also took their anger out against the French in Gabon , stoning more than 30 cars belonging to Frenchmen and chanting " Go home , go home ! " This rioting was so intense that M 'ba announced that whoever went to work would not be paid . The French reacted to these incidents by swinging rifle butts and throwing grenades . The crowds responded by throwing bottles and stones , though they were put down soon after . There were no reports of injured protesters , despite orders to the Gabonese police that they fire at protesters on sight .
= = = Allegations of U.S. involvement = = =
Some Gabonese mistakenly identified the United States as a co @-@ conspirator in the coup . Time asserted that French officials helped spread the rumor of American involvement . This reached a point which some automobile stations refused to help Darlington and other Americans . After William F. Courtney , deputy chief of the United States Embassy , received a call from a man identifying himself as DuPont and threatening an imminent attack , a hand grenade exploded outside the embassy . The explosion , which occurred at a time when the building was closed and locked on 3 March , resulted in damage to the embassy sign and the cracking of two windows .
Following the bombing , French Gabonese made more threatening phone calls to the embassy . A second bomb exploded at the embassy two nights later , causing no damage . A drive @-@ by shooting , during which at least five rounds of buckshot were fired from a 12 @-@ gauge automatic shotgun , riddled the second story windows with over 30 holes . It is likely that its perpetrators were French , as Gabonese have no access to grenades . Following the second bombing a car containing white men was noticed , driving through otherwise empty Shore Boulevard . At the time , practically the only white men in Gabon were French .
Two Gabonese policemen were assigned to protect the building , and M 'ba ordered an investigation into the bombings . He denounced the allegations against Americans , saying :
Nothing permits to determine that the United States played a role in the recent events . However , relations of friendship existing between members of the United States Embassy and some politicians who participated in the rebellion could have given this impression to some , an impression which I do not share .
Many of these attacks against Americans were against Darlington personally . His son Christopher was hit by a grenade in July , though it did not detonate . The ambassador resigned his post on 26 July . It was not until 14 August 1965 that David M. Bane replaced him .
= = = 1964 elections = = =
Despite these incidents , legislative elections planned before the coup were held in April 1964 . They were originally to be held on 23 February , though he dissolved the National Assembly and rescheduled them for 12 April . Upon insistence of the French , M 'ba allowed opposition candidates to run , which it claimed was the main reason for starting the coup in the first place . However , their leaders were barred from participating because of their involvement in the coup , and known anti @-@ Mba organizers were deported to remote parts of the country . In addition , M 'ba was known to have bribed voters with banknotes .
France closely followed the election , deporting a Peace Corps teacher . The UDSG disappeared from the political scene , and M 'ba 's opposition was composed of parties that lacked national focus and maintained only regional or pro @-@ democracy platforms . Nevertheless , the opposition garnered 46 % of the vote and 16 of 47 seats in the assembly , while the BDG received 54 % of the vote and 31 seats . The opposition disputed this , and held strikes across the country , though these did not have a sizable impact on business .
= = = Lambaréné trial and rest of M 'ba 's term = = =
Aubame and Gondjout fled Libreville , but were captured sometime before 20 February . Most of the other rebels took refuge at the U.S. Embassy , though they were soon discovered and brought to jail . That August , a trial of the military rebels and provisional government was opened in Lambaréné . A " state of precations " was imposed , which decreed that local government kept surveillance on suspected troublemakers and , if necessary , order curfew , while special permits were required to travel through the town . The trial was held in a school building overlooking the Ogooue River , which was near Albert Schweitzer 's hospital . Space at the hearing was limited , so members of the public were disallowed from attending . Permits were required to attend the trial , and family members were restricted to one permit each . Press coverage was limited , and journalists were allowed only if they represented a high @-@ profile news agency . In addition , there were restrictions on the defence of the accused .
The prosecution called 64 separate witnesses . Essone , Mbene , and Aubame claimed that their involvement in the coup was due to a lack of development in the Gabonese army . Judge Leon Auge , the judge in the case , said that if " that is the only reason for your coup d 'état , you deserve a severe penalty . " Essone said that almost all Gabonese military officers knew of an imminent coup beforehand , while Aubame affirmed his position that he did not participate in its planning . According to him , he formed the provisional government in a constitutional manner , and at the request of some " putschists " . He reasoned that the French intervention was effectively an illegal act of interference , an assertion which Gondjout and the former education minister , Jean Marc Ekoh , shared . Ekoh had served as Foreign Minister during the coup . The Gabonese actor said that it should be the French troops being tried , not he and his comrades : " If we 'd been able to put up a few more Gabonese soldiers against the French , we 'd have won — and we shouldn 't be here today . "
On 9 September , without consulting M 'ba , Leon Auge handed down a verdict which acquitted both Ekoh and Gondjout ; although the charges carried the death sentence as a maximum . Aubame was sentenced to 10 years of hard labor and 10 years of exile on a remote island off Settecama , 100 miles ( 161 km ) down the coast of Gabon , as were most criminals of the case . He was not particularly popular during his political career , though according to Time , his arrest " ballooned him to heroic proportions in the eyes of the aroused public " . While serving his 10 years of labor , he was beaten regularly by prison guards . Besides Aubame , M 'ba imprisoned more than 150 of his opponents , most of whom were sentenced to 20 years of hard labor . These included the two officers and Aubame 's nephew , Pierre Eyeguet , a former ambassador to the United Kingdom . The actor and the doctor were given 10 years of imprisonment each . While appealing for peace on 18 February , he pledged " no pardon or pity " to his enemies , but rather " total punishment " .
Two years after the coup there was still open repression of dissent in Gabon . Following these events M 'ba became increasingly reclusive , staying in his presidential palace protected by French troops known as the " Clan des Gabonais " . Not even Yembit was close to him , but Foccart 's friends Ponsaille and Robert " were never far " from M 'ba , according to Pean , and provided the aging president with counseling and advice . M 'ba was , however , still convinced of his popularity . Three years later , M 'ba was diagnosed with cancer , and he died on 28 November 1967 . After M 'ba 's death , French @-@ supported Bongo succeeded him as president , and released Aubame in 1972 .
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= Triangulum =
Triangulum is a small constellation in the northern sky . Its name is Latin for " triangle " , derived from its three brightest stars , which form a long and narrow triangle . Known to the ancient Babylonians and Greeks , Triangulum was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy . The celestial cartographers Johann Bayer and John Flamsteed catalogued the constellation 's stars , giving six of them Bayer designations .
The white stars Beta and Gamma Trianguli , of apparent magnitudes 3 @.@ 00 and 4 @.@ 00 , respectively , form the base of the triangle and the yellow @-@ white Alpha Trianguli , of magnitude 3 @.@ 41 , the apex . Iota Trianguli is a notable double star system , and there are three star systems with planets located in Triangulum . The constellation contains several galaxies , the brightest and nearest of which is the Triangulum Galaxy or Messier 33 — a member of the Local Group . The first quasar ever observed , 3C 48 , also lies within Triangulum 's boundaries .
= = History and mythology = =
In the Babylonian star catalogues , Triangulum , together with Gamma Andromedae , formed the constellation known as MULAPIN ( 𒀯𒀳 ) " The Plough " . It is notable as the first constellation presented on ( and giving its name to ) a pair of tablets containing canonical star lists that were compiled around 1000 BC , the MUL.APIN. The Plough was the first constellation of the " Way of Enlil " — that is , the northernmost quarter of the Sun 's path , which corresponds to the 45 days on either side of summer solstice . Its first appearance in the pre @-@ dawn sky ( heliacal rising ) in February marked the time to begin spring ploughing in Mesopotamia .
The Ancient Greeks called Triangulum Deltoton ( Δελτωτόν ) , as the constellation resembled an upper @-@ case Greek letter delta ( Δ ) . It was transliterated by Roman writers , then later Latinised as Deltotum . Eratosthenes linked it with the Nile Delta , while the Roman writer Hyginus associated it with the triangular island of Sicily , formerly known as Trinacria due to its shape . It was also called Sicilia , because the Romans believed Ceres , patron goddess of Sicily , begged Jupiter to place the island in the heavens . Greek astronomers such as Hipparchos and Ptolemy called it Trigonon ( Τρίγωνον ) , and later , it was Romanized as Trigonum . Other names referring to its shape include Tricuspis and Triquetrum . Alpha and Beta Trianguli were called Al Mīzān , which is Arabic for " The Scale Beam " . In Chinese astronomy , Gamma Andromedae and neighbouring stars including Beta , Gamma and Delta Trianguli were called Teen Ta Tseang Keun ( 天大将军 , " Heaven 's great general " ) , representing honour in astrology and a great general in mythology .
Later , the 17th @-@ century German celestial cartographer Johann Bayer called the constellation Triplicitas and Orbis terrarum tripertitus , for the three regions Europe , Asia , and Africa . Triangulus Septentrionalis was a name used to distinguish it from Triangulum Australe , the Southern Triangle . Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius excised three faint stars — 6 , 10 and 12 Trianguli — to form the new constellation of Triangulum Minus in his 1690 Firmamentum Sobiescianum , renaming the original as Triangulum Majus . The smaller constellation was not recognised by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) when the constellations were established in the 1920s .
= = Characteristics = =
A small constellation , Triangulum is bordered by Andromeda to the north and west , Pisces to the west and south , Aries to the south , and Perseus to the east . The centre of the constellation lies half way between Gamma Andromedae and Alpha Arietis . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the IAU in 1922 , is ' Tri ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined as a polygon of 14 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 01h 31.3m and 02h 50.4m , while the declination coordinates are between 25 @.@ 60 ° and 37 @.@ 35 ° . Covering 132 square degrees and 0 @.@ 320 % of the night sky , Triangulum ranks 78th of the 88 constellations in size .
= = Notable features = =
Bayer catalogued five stars in the constellation , giving them the Bayer designations Alpha to Epsilon . John Flamsteed added Eta , Iota and four Roman letters ; of these , only Iota is still used as the others were dropped in subsequent catalogues and star charts . Flamsteed gave 16 stars Flamsteed designations , of which numbers 1 and 16 are not used — 1 's coordinates were in error as there was no star present at the location that corresponds to any star in his Catalogus Britannicus ; Baily presumed that the coordinates were mistranscribed 32s in error by Flamsteed and in fact referred to 7 @.@ 4 magnitude HD 10407 . Baily also noted that 16 Trianguli was closer to Aries and included it in the latter constellation .
= = = Stars = = =
Three stars make up the long narrow triangle that gives the constellation its name . The brightest member is the white giant star Beta Trianguli of apparent magnitude 3 @.@ 00 , lying 127 light @-@ years distant from Earth . It is actually a spectroscopic binary system ; the primary is a white star of spectral type A5IV with 3 @.@ 5 times the mass of our sun that is beginning to expand and evolve off the main sequence . The secondary is poorly known , but calculated to be a yellow @-@ white F @-@ type main @-@ sequence star around 1 @.@ 4 solar masses . The two orbit around a common centre of gravity every 31 days , and are surrounded by a ring of dust that extends from 50 to 400 AU away from the stars .
The second @-@ brightest star , the yellow @-@ white subgiant star Alpha Trianguli ( 3.41m ) with a close dimmer companion , is also known as Caput Trianguli or Ras al Muthallath , and is at the apex of the triangle . It lies around 7 degrees north @-@ northwest of Alpha Arietis . Making up the triangle is Gamma Trianguli , a white main sequence star of spectral type A1Vnn of apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 00 about 112 light @-@ years from Earth . It is around double the size of and around 33 times as luminous as the sun and rotates rapidly . Like Beta , it is surrounded by a dusty debris disk , which has a radius 80 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun . Lying near Gamma and forming an optical triple system with it are Delta and 7 Trianguli . Delta is a spectroscopic binary system composed of two yellow main sequence stars of similar dimensions to the Sun that lies 35 light @-@ years from Earth . The two stars orbit each other every ten days and are a mere 0 @.@ 1 AU apart . This system is the closest in the constellation to the Earth . Only of magnitude 5 @.@ 25 , 7 Trianguli is much further away at around 280 light @-@ years distant from Earth .
Iota Trianguli is a double star whose components can be separated by medium @-@ sized telescopes into a strong yellow and a contrasting pale blue star . Both of these are themselves close binaries . X Trianguli is an eclipsing binary system that ranges between magnitudes 8 @.@ 5 and 11 @.@ 2 over a period of 0 @.@ 97 days . RW Trianguli is a cataclysmic variable star system composed of a white dwarf primary and an orange main sequence star of spectral type K7 V. The former is drawing off matter from the latter , forming a prominent accretion disc . The system is around 1075 light @-@ years distant .
R Trianguli is a long period ( Mira ) variable that ranges from magnitude 6 @.@ 2 to 11 @.@ 7 over a period of 267 days . It is a red giant of spectral type M3.5 @-@ 8e , lying around 960 light @-@ years away . HD 12545 , also known as XX Trianguli , is an orange giant of spectral type K0III around 520 light @-@ years distant with a visual magnitude of 8 @.@ 42 . A huge starspot larger than the diameter of the sun was detected on its surface in 1999 by astronomers using Doppler imaging .
Three star systems appear to have planets . HD 9446 is a sun @-@ like star around 171 light @-@ years distant that has two planets of masses 0 @.@ 7 and 1 @.@ 8 times that of Jupiter , with orbital periods of 30 and 193 days respectively . WASP @-@ 56 is a sun @-@ like star of spectral type G6 and apparent magnitude 11 @.@ 48 with a planet 0 @.@ 6 the mass of Jupiter that has a period of 4 @.@ 6 days . HD 13189 is an orange giant of spectral type K2II about 2 – 7 times as massive as the sun with a planetary or brown dwarf companion between 8 and 20 times as massive as Jupiter , which takes 472 days to complete an orbit . It is one of the largest stars discovered to have a planetary companion .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The Triangulum Galaxy , also known as Messier 33 , was discovered by Giovanni Battista Hodierna in the 17th century . A distant member of the Local Group , it is about 2 @.@ 3 million light @-@ years away , and at magnitude 5 @.@ 8 it is bright enough to be seen by the naked eye under the darkest skies . Under light @-@ polluted skies , it is challenging or invisible even in a small telescope or binoculars . Because of its low surface brightness , low power is required . It is a spiral galaxy with a diameter of 46 @,@ 000 light @-@ years and is thus smaller than both the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way . A distance of less than 300 kiloparsecs between it and Andromeda supports the hypothesis that it is a satellite of the larger galaxy . Within the constellation , it lies near the border of Pisces , 3 @.@ 5 degrees west @-@ northwest of Alpha Trianguli and 7 degrees southwest of Beta Andromedae . Within the galaxy , NGC 604 is an H II region where star formation takes place .
In addition to M33 , there are several NGC galaxies of visual magnitudes 12 to 14 . The largest of these include the 10 arcminute long magnitude 12 NGC 925 spiral galaxy and the 5 arcminute long magnitude 11 @.@ 6 NGC 672 barred spiral galaxy . The latter is close by and appears to be interacting with IC 1727 . The two are 88 @,@ 000 light @-@ years apart and lie around 18 million light @-@ years away . These two plus another four nearby dwarf irregular galaxies constitute the NGC 672 group , and all six appear to have had a burst of star formation in the last ten million years . The group is thought connected to another group of six galaxies known as the NGC 784 group , named for its principal galaxy , the barred spiral NGC 784 . Together with two isolated dwarf galaxies , these fourteen appear to be moving in a common direction and constitute a group possibly located on a dark matter filament . 3C 48 was the first quasar ever to be observed , although its true identity was not uncovered until after that of 3C 273 in 1963 . It has an apparent magnitude of 16 @.@ 2 and is located about 5 degrees northwest of Alpha Trianguli .
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= George Washington =
George Washington ( February 22 , 1732 [ O.S. February 11 , 1731 ] – December 14 , 1799 ) was the first President of the United States ( 1789 – 97 ) , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States . He presided over the convention that drafted the current United States Constitution and during his lifetime was called the " father of his country " .
Widely admired for his strong leadership qualities , Washington was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections . He oversaw the creation of a strong , well @-@ financed national government that maintained neutrality in the French Revolutionary Wars , suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion , and won acceptance among Americans of all types . Washington 's incumbency established many precedents , still in use today , such as the cabinet system , the inaugural address , and the title Mr. President . His retirement from office after two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 , when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term . The 22nd Amendment ( 1951 ) now limits the president to two elected terms . Born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia , his family were wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves which he inherited . In his youth he became a senior British officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French and Indian War . In 1775 the Second Continental Congress commissioned Washington as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution . In that command , Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 , but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City . After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter , he defeated the British in two battles ( Trenton and Princeton ) , retook New Jersey and restored momentum to the Patriot cause .
His strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781 . Historians laud Washington for the selection and supervision of his generals , preservation and command of the army , coordination with the Congress , state governors and their militia , and attention to supplies , logistics , and training . In battle , however , Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies . After victory had been finalized in 1783 , Washington resigned as commander @-@ in @-@ chief rather than seize power , proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism . Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787 , which devised a new form of federal government for the United States . Following his election as president in 1789 , he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation . He supported Alexander Hamilton 's programs to satisfy all debts , federal and state , established a permanent seat of government , implemented an effective tax system , and created a national bank . In avoiding war with Great Britain , he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 , despite intense opposition from the Jeffersonians . Although he remained nonpartisan , never joining the Federalist Party , he largely supported its policies . Washington 's Farewell Address was an influential primer on civic virtue , warning against partisanship , sectionalism , and involvement in foreign wars . He retired from the presidency in 1797 , returning to his home and plantation at Mount Vernon .
While in power , his use of national authority pursued many ends , especially the preservation of liberty , reduction of regional tensions , and promotion of a spirit of American nationalism . Upon his death , Washington was eulogized as " first in war , first in peace , and first in the hearts of his countrymen " by Henry Lee . Revered in life and in death , scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history ; he has been depicted and remembered in monuments , currency , and other dedications through the present day .
= = Early life ( 1732 – 1753 ) = =
The first child of Augustine Washington ( 1694 – 1743 ) and his second wife , Mary Ball Washington ( 1708 – 1789 ) , George Washington was born on their Pope 's Creek Estate near present @-@ day Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County , Virginia . According to the Julian calendar and Annunciation Style of enumerating years ( then in use in the British Empire ) , Washington was born on February 11 , 1731 ; the Gregorian calendar , adopted later within the British Empire in 1752 , renders a birth date of February 22 , 1732 .
Washington was of primarily English gentry descent , especially from Sulgrave , England . His great @-@ grandfather , John Washington , emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves , as did his son Lawrence and his grandson , George 's father , Augustine . Augustine was a tobacco planter who also tried his hand in iron @-@ mining ventures . In George 's youth , the Washingtons were moderately prosperous members of the Virginia gentry , of " middling rank " rather than one of the leading planter families . At this time , Virginia and other southern colonies had employed slave labor , in which slaveholders ( and the rich in general ) formed the ruling class and much of the economy was based upon slave labor .
Six of George 's siblings reached maturity , including two older half @-@ brothers , Lawrence and Augustine , from his father 's first marriage to Jane Butler Washington , and four full siblings , Samuel , Elizabeth ( Betty ) , John Augustine and Charles . Three siblings died before adulthood : his full sister Mildred died when she was about one , his half @-@ brother Butler died in infancy , and his half @-@ sister Jane died at age twelve , when George was about two . His father died of a sudden illness in April 1743 when George was eleven years old , and his half @-@ brother Lawrence became a surrogate father and role model . William Fairfax , Lawrence 's father @-@ in @-@ law and cousin of Virginia 's largest landowner , Thomas , Lord Fairfax , was also a formative influence .
Washington 's father was the Justice of the Westmoreland County Court . Young Washington spent much of his boyhood at Ferry Farm in Stafford County near Fredericksburg . Lawrence Washington inherited another family property from his father , a plantation on the Potomac River at Little Hunting Creek , which he named Mount Vernon , in honor of his commanding officer , Admiral Edward Vernon . George inherited Ferry Farm upon his father 's death and eventually acquired Mount Vernon after Lawrence 's death .
The death of his father prevented Washington from an education at England 's Appleby School , as his older brothers had received . He achieved the equivalent of an elementary school education from a variety of tutors , as well as from a school run by an Anglican clergyman in or near Fredericksburg . Talk of securing an appointment in the Royal Navy for him when he was 15 was dropped when his widowed mother objected .
In 1751 Washington traveled to Barbados with Lawrence , who was suffering from tuberculosis , with the hope that the climate would be beneficial to Lawrence 's health . Washington contracted smallpox during the trip , which left his face slightly scarred , but immunized him against future exposures to the dreaded disease . However , Lawrence 's health failed to improve , and he returned to Mount Vernon , where he died in the summer of 1752 . Lawrence 's position as Adjutant General ( militia leader ) of Virginia was divided into four district offices after his death . Washington was appointed by Governor Dinwiddie as one of the four district adjutants in February 1753 , with the rank of major in the Virginia militia . During this period , Washington became a Freemason while in Fredericksburg , although his involvement was minimal .
= = = Surveyor = = =
Washington 's introduction to surveying began at an early age through school exercises that taught him the basics of the profession , followed by practical experience in the field . His first experiences at surveying occurred in the surrounding territory of Mount Vernon . Washington 's first opportunity as a surveyor occurred in 1748 when he was invited to join a survey party organized by his neighbor and friend George Fairfax of Belvoir . Fairfax organized a professional surveying party to layout large tracts of land along the border of western Virginia where the young Washington gained invaluable experience in the field .
In 1749 , at the age of 17 , Washington began his career as a professional surveyor . He subsequently received a commission and surveyor 's license from the College of William and Mary and became the official surveyor for the newly formed Culpeper County . Thanks to his older brother Lawrence 's connection to the prominent Fairfax family , Washington had been appointed to this well @-@ paid official position . In less than two days he completed his first survey , plotting a 400 acre parcel of land and was well on his way to a promising career . He was subsequently able to purchase land in the Shenandoah Valley , the first of his many land acquisitions in western Virginia . For the next four years Washington worked surveying land in Western Virginia and for the Ohio Company , a land investment company funded by Virginia investors . Thanks to Lawrence 's position as commander of the Virginia militia , Washington came to the notice of the new lieutenant governor of Virginia , Robert Dinwiddie . He was hard to miss : At over six feet , he was taller than most of his contemporaries . In October 1750 , Washington resigned his position as an official surveyor , though he continued to work diligently over the next three years at his new profession . He continued to survey professionally for two more years , mostly in Frederick County before receiving a military appointment as adjutant for southern Virginia . By 1752 , Washington completed close to 200 surveys on numerous properties totaling more than 60 @,@ 000 acres . He would continue to survey at different times throughout his life and as late as 1799 .
= = French and Indian War = =
Washington began his military service in the French and Indian War as a major in the militia of the British Province of Virginia . In 1753 he was sent as an ambassador from the British crown to the French officials and Indians as far north as present @-@ day Erie , Pennsylvania . The Ohio Company was an important vehicle through which British investors planned to expand into the Ohio Valley , opening new settlements and trading posts for the Indian trade . In 1753 the French themselves began expanding their military control into the Ohio Country , a territory already claimed by the British colonies of Virginia and Pennsylvania . These competing claims led to a war in the colonies called the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 62 ) , and contributed to the start of the global Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 63 ) . By chance , Washington became involved in its beginning .
Robert Dinwiddie , lieutenant governor of colonial Virginia , was ordered by the British government to guard the British territorial claims including the Ohio River basin . In late 1753 Dinwiddie ordered Washington to deliver a letter asking the French to vacate the Ohio Valley ; he was eager to prove himself as the new adjutant general of the militia , appointed by the Lieutenant Governor himself only a year before . During his trip Washington met with Tanacharison ( also called " Half @-@ King " ) and other Iroquois chiefs allied with England at Logstown to secure their support in case of a military conflict with the French — indeed Washington and Tanacharison became friends . He delivered the letter to the local French commander Jacques Legardeur de Saint @-@ Pierre , who politely refused to leave . Washington kept a diary during his expedition which was printed by William Hunter on Dinwiddie 's order and which made Washington 's name recognizable in Virginia . This increased notoriety helped him to obtain a commission to raise a company of 100 men and start his military career .
Dinwiddie sent Washington back to the Ohio Country to safeguard an Ohio Company 's construction of a fort at present @-@ day Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . However , before he reached the area , a French force drove out colonial traders and began construction of Fort Duquesne . A small detachment of French troops led by Joseph Coulon de Jumonville , was discovered by Tanacharison and a few warriors east of present @-@ day Uniontown , Pennsylvania . On May 28 , 1754 , Washington and some of his militia unit , aided by their Mingo allies , ambushed the French in what has come to be called the Battle of Jumonville Glen . Exactly what happened during and after the battle is a matter of contention , but several primary accounts agree that the battle lasted about 15 minutes , that Jumonville was killed , and that most of his party were either killed or taken prisoner . Whether Jumonville died at the hands of Tanacharison in cold blood or was somehow shot by an onlooker with a musket as he sat with Washington or by another means , is not completely clear . He was given the epithet Town Destroyer by Tanacharison .
The French responded by attacking and capturing Washington at Fort Necessity in July 1754 . However , he was allowed to return with his troops to Virginia . Historian Joseph Ellis concludes that the episode demonstrated Washington 's bravery , initiative , inexperience and impetuosity . These events had international consequences ; the French accused Washington of assassinating Jumonville , who they claimed was on a diplomatic mission . Both France and Great Britain were ready to fight for control of the region and both sent troops to North America in 1755 ; war was formally declared in 1756 .
= = = Braddock disaster 1755 = = =
In 1755 Washington became the senior American aide to British General Edward Braddock on the ill @-@ fated Braddock expedition . This was the largest British expedition to the colonies , and was intended to expel the French from the Ohio Country ; the first objective was the capture of Fort Duquesne . Washington initially sought an appointment as a major from Braddock , but upon advice that no rank above captain could be given except by London , he agreed to serve as a staff volunteer . During the passage of the expedition , Washington fell ill with severe headaches and fever ; nevertheless , when the pace of the troops continued to slow , Washington recommended to Braddock that the army be split into two divisions – a primary and more lightly , but adequately equipped , " flying column " offensive which could move at a more rapid pace , to be followed by a more heavily armed reinforcing division . Braddock accepted the recommendation ( likely made in a council of war including other officers ) and took command of the lead division .
In the Battle of the Monongahela the French and their Indian allies ambushed Braddock 's reduced forces and the general was mortally wounded . After suffering devastating casualties , the British panicked and retreated in disarray ; however , Washington rode back and forth across the battlefield , rallying the remnants of the British and Virginian forces into an organized retreat . In the process , despite his lingering illness , he demonstrated much bravery and stamina — he had two horses shot from underneath him , while his coat was pierced with four bullets . In his report , Washington chiefly blamed the disaster on the conduct of the redcoats while praising that of the Virginia contingent . Whatever responsibility rested on him for the defeat as a result of his recommendation to Braddock , Washington was not included by the succeeding commander , Col. Thomas Dunbar , in planning subsequent force movements .
= = = Commander of Virginia Regiment = = =
Lt. Governor Dinwiddie rewarded Washington in 1755 with a commission as " Colonel of the Virginia Regiment and Commander in Chief of all forces now raised in the defense of His Majesty 's Colony " and gave him the task of defending Virginia 's frontier . The Virginia Regiment was the first full @-@ time American military unit in the colonies ( as opposed to part @-@ time militias and the British regular units ) . Washington was ordered to " act defensively or offensively " as he thought best . While Washington happily accepted the commission , the coveted redcoat of a British officer as well as the accompanying pay continued to elude him . Dinwiddie as well pressed in vain for the British military to incorporate the Virginia regiment into its ranks .
In command of a thousand soldiers , Washington was a disciplinarian who emphasized training . He led his men in brutal campaigns against the Indians in the west ; in 10 months his regiment fought 20 battles , and lost a third of its men . Washington 's strenuous efforts meant that Virginia 's frontier population suffered less than that of other colonies ; Ellis concludes " it was his only unqualified success " in the war .
In 1758 Washington participated in the Forbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne . He was embarrassed by a friendly fire episode in which his unit and another British unit thought the other was the French enemy and opened fire , with 14 dead and 26 wounded in the mishap . Washington was not involved in any other major fighting on the expedition , and the British scored a major strategic victory , gaining control of the Ohio Valley , when the French abandoned the fort . Following the expedition , he retired from his Virginia Regiment commission in December 1758 . Washington did not return to military life until the outbreak of the revolution in 1775 .
= = = Lessons learned = = =
Although Washington never gained the commission in the British army he yearned for , in these years the young man gained valuable military , political , and leadership skills . He closely observed British military tactics , gaining a keen insight into their strengths and weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution . Washington learned to organize , train , drill , and discipline his companies and regiments . From his observations , readings and conversations with professional officers , he learned the basics of battlefield tactics , as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics . He gained an understanding of overall strategy , especially in locating strategic geographical points .
Washington demonstrated his resourcefulness and courage in the most difficult situations , including disasters and retreats . He developed a command presence , given his size , strength , stamina , and bravery in battle that demonstrated to soldiers he was a natural leader whom they could follow without question . However Washington 's fortitude in his early years was sometimes manifested in less constructive ways . Biographer John R. Alden contends Washington offered " fulsome and insincere flattery to British generals in vain attempts to win great favor " and on occasion showed youthful arrogance , as well as jealousy and ingratitude in the midst of impatience .
Historian Ron Chernow is of the opinion that his frustrations in dealing with government officials during this conflict led him to advocate the advantages of a strong national government and a vigorous executive agency that could get results ; other historians tend to ascribe Washington 's position on government to his later American Revolutionary War service . He developed a very negative idea of the value of militia , who seemed too unreliable , too undisciplined , and too short @-@ term compared to regulars . On the other hand , his experience was limited to command of at most 1000 men , and came only in remote frontier conditions that were far removed from the urban situations he faced during the Revolution at Boston , New York , Trenton and Philadelphia .
= = Between the wars : Mount Vernon ( 1759 – 1774 ) = =
On January 6 , 1759 , Washington married the wealthy widow Martha Dandridge Custis , then 28 years old . Surviving letters suggest that he may have been in love at the time with Sally Fairfax , the wife of a friend . Nevertheless , George and Martha made a compatible marriage , because Martha was intelligent , gracious , and experienced in managing a planter 's estate .
Together the two raised her two children from her previous marriage , John Parke Custis and Martha Parke ( Patsy ) Custis ; later the Washingtons raised two of Mrs. Washington 's grandchildren , Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis . George and Martha never had any children together — his earlier bout with smallpox in 1751 may have made him sterile . The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon , near Alexandria , where he took up the life of a planter and political figure .
Washington 's marriage to Martha greatly increased his property holdings and social standing , and made him one of Virginia 's wealthiest men . He acquired one @-@ third of the 18 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 73 km2 ) Custis estate upon his marriage , worth approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 , and managed the remainder on behalf of Martha 's children , for whom he sincerely cared .
In 1754 Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie had promised land bounties to the soldiers and officers who volunteered to serve during the French and Indian War . After Washington prevailed upon Lord Botetourt , the new governor , he finally fulfilled Dinwiddie 's promise in 1769 – 1770 , with Washington subsequently receiving title to 23 @,@ 200 acres ( 94 km2 ) where the Kanawha River flows into the Ohio River , in what is now western West Virginia . He also frequently bought additional land in his own name . By 1775 Washington had doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6 @,@ 500 acres ( 26 km2 ) , and had increased its slave population to over 100 . As a respected military hero and large landowner , he held local office and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature , representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years , beginning in 1758 .
Washington lived an aristocratic lifestyle — fox hunting was a favorite leisure activity . He also enjoyed going to dances and parties , in addition to the theater , races , and cockfights . Washington also was known to play cards , backgammon , and billiards . Like most Virginia planters , he imported luxuries and other goods from England and paid for them by exporting his tobacco crop . Washington began to pull himself out of debt in the mid @-@ 1760s by diversifying his previously tobacco @-@ centric business interests into other ventures and paying more attention to his affairs .
In 1766 he started switching Mount Vernon 's primary cash crop away from tobacco to wheat , a crop that could be processed and then sold in various forms in the colonies , and further diversified operations to include flour milling , fishing , horse breeding , spinning , weaving and ( in the 1790s ) erected a distillery for whiskey production which yielded more than 1000 gallons a month . After several prior epileptic attacks Patsy Custis died in Washington arms in 1773 . Her early and unexpected death proved to be one of the saddest moments in his life . He intimated his hopes to Martha and others that she had gone to a " happier place " . Washington cancelled all business activity and for the next three months was not away from Martha for one single night . Patsy 's death enabled Washington to pay off his British creditors , since half of her inheritance passed to him .
A successful planter of tobacco and wheat , Washington was a leader in the social elite in Virginia . From 1768 to 1775 , he invited some 2000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate , mostly those he considered " people of rank " . As for people not of high social status , his advice was to " treat them civilly " but " keep them at a proper distance , for they will grow upon familiarity , in proportion as you sink in authority " . In 1769 he became more politically active , presenting the Virginia Assembly with legislation to ban the importation of goods from Great Britain .
= = American Revolution ( 1775 – 1783 ) = =
Washington played a leading military and political role in the American Revolution . His involvement began in 1767 , when he first took political stands against the various acts of the British Parliament . He opposed the 1765 Stamp Act , the first direct tax on the colonies imposed by the British Parliament , which included no representatives from the colonies ; he began taking a leading role in the growing colonial resistance when protests against the Townshend Acts ( enacted in 1767 ) became widespread . In May 1769 Washington introduced a proposal , drafted by his friend George Mason , calling for Virginia to boycott English goods until the Acts were repealed . Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts in 1770 . However , Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as " an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges " . Washington told friend Bryan Fairfax , " I think the Parliament of Great Britain has no more right to put their hands in my pocket without my consent than I have to put my hands into yours for money . " He also said that Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny " till custom and use shall make us as tame and abject slaves , as the blacks we rule over with such arbitrary sway . "
In July 1774 he chaired the meeting at which the " Fairfax Resolves " were adopted , which called for the convening of a Continental Congress , among other things . In August , Washington attended the First Virginia Convention , where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress .
= = = Commander in chief = = =
After the Battles of Lexington and Concord near Boston in April 1775 , the colonies went to war . Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform , signaling that he was prepared for war . Washington had the prestige , military experience , charisma and military bearing of a military leader and was known as a strong patriot . Virginia , the largest colony , deserved recognition , and New England — where the fighting began — realized it needed Southern support . Washington did not explicitly seek the office of commander and said that he was not equal to it , but there was no serious competition . Congress created the Continental Army on June 14 , 1775 . Nominated by John Adams of Massachusetts , Washington was then appointed as a full General and Commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The British then articulated the peril of Washington and his army — on August 23 , 1775 Britain issued a Royal proclamation labeling American rebels as traitors ; if they resorted to force , they faced confiscation of their property . Their leaders were subject to execution upon the scaffold .
General Washington essentially assumed three roles during the war . First , in 1775 – 77 , and again in 1781 he provided leadership of troops against the main British forces . Although he lost many of his battles , he never surrendered his army during the war , and he continued to fight the British relentlessly until the war 's end . He plotted the overall strategy of the war , in cooperation with Congress .
Secondly , he was charged with organizing and training the army . He recruited regulars and assigned Baron von Steuben , a veteran of the Prussian general staff , to train them . The war effort and getting supplies to the troops were under the purview of Congress , but Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials . In June 1776 Congress ' first attempt at running the war effort was established with the committee known as " Board of War and Ordnance " , succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777 , a committee which eventually included members of the military . The command structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressional appointees ( and Congress sometimes made those appointments without Washington 's input ) with state @-@ appointments filling the lower ranks and of all of the militia @-@ officers . The results of his general staff were mixed , as some of his favorites ( like John Sullivan ) never mastered the art of command .
Eventually , he found capable officers , such as General Nathanael Greene , General Daniel Morgan — " the old wagoner " that he had served with in The French and Indian War , Colonel Henry Knox — chief of artillery , and Colonel Alexander Hamilton — chief @-@ of @-@ staff . The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver , and consequently they lost most of the pitched battles . The great successes , at Boston ( 1776 ) , Saratoga ( 1777 ) and Yorktown ( 1781 ) , came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops . Daniel Morgan 's annihilation of Banastre Tarleton 's legion of dragoons at Cowpens in February 1781 , came as a result of Morgan 's employment of superior line tactics against his British opponent , resulting in one of the very few double envelopments in military history , another being Hannibal 's defeat of the Romans at Cannae in 216 b.c. The decisive defeat of Col. Patrick Ferguson 's Tory Regiment at King 's Mountain demonstrated the superiority of the riflery of American " over @-@ mountain men " over British @-@ trained troops armed with musket and bayonet . These " over @-@ mountain men " were led by a variety of elected officers , including the 6 ' 6 " William Campbell who had become one of Washington 's officers by the time of Yorktown . Similarly , Morgan 's Virginia riflemen proved themselves superior to the British at Saratoga , a post @-@ revolutionary war development being the creation of trained " rifle battalions " in the European armies .
Washington 's third , and most important role in the war effort , was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown — the representative man of the Revolution . His long @-@ term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times , and eventually this strategy worked . His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress , the army , the French , the militias , and the states all pointed toward a common goal . Furthermore , by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won ( rather than declaring himself monarch ) , he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs . Yet his constant reiteration of the point that well @-@ disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as erratic militias ( clearly demonstrated in the rout at Camden , where only the Maryland and Delaware Continentals under Baron DeKalb held firm ) , helped overcome the ideological distrust of a standing army .
= = = Victory at Boston = = =
Washington assumed command of the Continental Army in the field at Cambridge , Massachusetts , in July 1775 , during the ongoing siege of Boston . Realizing his army 's desperate shortage of gunpowder , Washington asked for new sources . American troops raided British arsenals , including some in the Caribbean , and some manufacturing was attempted . They obtained a barely adequate supply ( about 2 @.@ 5 million pounds ) by the end of 1776 , mostly from France .
Washington reorganized the army during the long standoff , and forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city . The British evacuated Boston in March 1776 and Washington moved his army to New York City .
Although highly disparaging toward most of the Patriots , British newspapers routinely praised Washington 's personal character and qualities as a military commander . These articles were bold , as Washington was an enemy general who commanded an army in a cause that many Britons believed would ruin the empire .
= = = Defeat at New York = = =
In August 1776 British General William Howe launched a massive naval and land campaign designed to seize New York . The Continental Army under Washington engaged the enemy for the first time as an army of the newly independent United States at the Battle of Long Island , the largest battle of the entire war . The Americans were heavily outnumbered , many men deserted , and Washington was badly defeated . After conferring with other generals of the situation a plan of retreat was decided . Washington instructed General Heath to make available every flat bottom river boat and sloop in the area . In little time Washington 's army under the cover of darkness crossed the East River safely to Manhattan Island , and did so without loss of life or materiel .
Washington had considered abandoning the island and Fort Washington , but heeding Generals Greene and Putnam 's recommendation to attempt a defense of this fort , he belatedly retreated further across the Hudson to Fort Lee , to avoid encirclement . With the Americans in retreat Howe was then able to take the offensive and on November 16 , landed his troops on the island and surrounded and captured Fort Washington , resulting in high Continental casualties . Biographer Alden opines that " although Washington was responsible for the decision to delay the patriots ' retreat , he tried to ascribe blame for the decision to defend Fort Washington to the wishes of Congress and the bad advice of Nathaniel Greene . "
= = = Crossing the Delaware = = =
Washington then continued his flight across New Jersey ; the future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to expiring enlistments and the string of losses . On the night of December 25 , 1776 , Washington staged a comeback with a surprise attack on a Hessian outpost in western New Jersey . He led his army across the Delaware River to capture nearly 1 @,@ 000 Hessians in Trenton , New Jersey . Washington followed up his victory at Trenton with another over British regulars at Princeton in early January . The British retreated to New York City and its environs , which they held until the peace treaty of 1783 . Washington 's victories wrecked the British carrot @-@ and @-@ stick strategy of showing overwhelming force then offering generous terms . The Americans would not negotiate for anything short of independence . These victories alone were not enough to ensure ultimate Patriot victory , however , since many soldiers did not reenlist or deserted during the harsh winter . Washington and Congress reorganized the army with increased rewards for staying and punishment for desertion , which raised troop numbers effectively for subsequent battles .
In February 1777 , while encamped at Morristown , New Jersey , Washington became convinced that only smallpox inoculation would prevent the destruction of his Army , by using variolation . Washington ordered the inoculation of all troops and by some reports , death by smallpox in the ranks dropped from 17 % of all deaths to 1 % of all reported deaths .
Historians debate whether or not Washington preferred a Fabian strategy to harass the British with quick , sharp attacks followed by a retreat so the larger British army could not catch him , or whether he preferred to fight major battles . While his southern commander Greene in 1780 – 81 did use Fabian tactics , Washington did so only in fall 1776 to spring 1777 , after losing New York City and seeing much of his army melt away . Trenton and Princeton were Fabian examples . By summer 1777 , however , Washington had rebuilt his strength and his confidence ; he stopped using raids and went for large @-@ scale confrontations , as at Brandywine , Germantown , Monmouth and Yorktown .
= = = 1777 campaigns = = =
In late summer of 1777 , British General John Burgoyne led a major invasion army south from Quebec , with the intention of splitting off rebellious New England ; but General Howe in New York took his army south to Philadelphia instead of going up the Hudson River to join with Burgoyne near Albany — a major strategic mistake . Meanwhile , Washington rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe , while closely following the action in upstate New York , where the patriots were led by General Philip Schuyler and his successor Horatio Gates . The ensuing pitched battles at Philadelphia were too complex for Washington 's relatively inexperienced men and they were defeated . At the Battle of Brandywine on September 11 , 1777 , Howe outmaneuvered Washington , and marched into the American capital at Philadelphia unopposed on September 26 . Washington 's army unsuccessfully attacked the British garrison at Germantown in early October . Meanwhile , to the north , Burgoyne , beyond the reach of help from Howe , was trapped and forced to surrender after the Battles of Saratoga . This was a major turning point militarily and diplomatically — the French responded to Burgoyne 's defeat by entering the war , allying with America and expanding the Revolutionary War into a major worldwide affair .
Washington 's loss at Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to consider removing Washington from command . This movement , termed the Conway Cabal , failed after Washington 's supporters rallied behind him . Biographer Alden relates , " it was inevitable that the defeats of Washington 's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared . " The zealous admiration of Washington indeed inevitably waned . John Adams ( never a fan of the southern delegation to the Continental Congress ) wrote " Congress will appoint a thanksgiving ; and one cause of it ought to be that the glory of turning the tide of arms is not immediately due to the commander @-@ in @-@ chief nor to southern troops . If it had been , idolatry and adulation would have been unbounded ... Now we can allow a certain citizen to be wise , virtuous , and good , without thinking him a deity or a savior . "
= = = Valley Forge = = =
Washington 's army of 11 @,@ 000 went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777 . Over the next six months , the deaths in camp numbered in the thousands ( the majority being from disease , compounded by lack of food , proper clothing , poor shelter and the extreme cold ) , with historians ' death toll estimates ranging from 2 @,@ 000 to over 3 @,@ 000 men . While the British were comfortably quartered in Philadelphia and paid for their supplies in sterling , Washington had difficulty procuring supplies from the few farmers in the area who would not accept rapidly depreciating American paper currency , while the woodlands about the valley had soon been exhausted of game . As conditions worsened , Washington was faced with the task of maintaining morale and discouraging desertion which by February had become common . Washington had repeatedly petitioned the Continental Congress for badly needed provisions but with no success . Finally , on January 24 , 1778 , five Congressmen came to Valley Forge to examine the conditions of the Continental Army . Washington expressed the urgency of the situation exclaiming , " Something must be done . Important alterations must be made . " At this time he also contended that Congress should take control of the army supply system , pay for its supplies and promptly expedite them as they became necessary . In response to Washington 's urgent appeal , Congress soon gave full support to funding the supply lines of the army , an advent which also resulted in the reorganizing the commissary department , which controlled the gathering of the supplies for the army . By late February , there were adequate supplies flowing throughout camp .
The next spring , a revitalized army emerged from Valley Forge in good order , thanks in part to a full @-@ scale training program supervised by General von Steuben . The British evacuated Philadelphia to New York in June , 1778 . After Washington summoned a council of war with Generals Lee , Greene and Wayne and Lafayette , Washington decided to make a partial attack on the retreating British at the Battle of Monmouth . Lee and Lafayette , moving with 4000 men and without Washington 's immediate knowledge , attempted to launch but bungled the first attack at the British rear guard , where Clinton , also with 4000 men and waiting in anticipation , came about and offered stiff resistance , keeping the Americans in check . After sharp words of criticism Washington relieved Lee and continued fighting to an effective draw in one of the war 's largest battles . When night fall came the fighting came to a stop and the British continued their retreat and headed towards New York , where Washington soon moved his army just outside that city .
= = = Sullivan Expedition = = =
In the summer of 1779 Washington and Congress decided to strike the Iroquois warriors of the " Six Nations " in a campaign to force Britain 's Indian allies out of New York , which they had used as a base to attack American settlements across New England . In June 1779 the warriors had joined with Tory rangers led by Colonel William Butler , using barbarities normally shunned , slew over 200 frontiersmen and laid waste to the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania . Indeed , one British officer who witnessed the Tory brutality said the redcoats on return to England would " scalp every son of a bitch of them . " In August of 1779 General John Sullivan led a military operation that destroyed at least 40 Iroquois villages , burned all available crops . Few people were killed as the Indians fled to British protection in Canada . Sullivan later reported that " the immediate objects of this expedition are accomplished , viz : total ruin of the Indian settlements and the destruction of their crops , which were designed for the support of those inhuman barbarians . "
= = = Hudson River and Southern battles = = =
Washington at this time moved his headquarters from Middlebrook in New Jersey up to New Windsor on the Hudson , with an army of 10 @,@ 000 . The British , led by Howe 's successor , Sir Henry Clinton made a move up the Hudson against American posts at Verplanck 's Point and Stony Point and both places succumbed , but a counter @-@ offensive by the patriots led by General Anthony Wayne was briefly successful . Clinton was in the end able to shut off Kings Ferry but it was a strategic loss ; he could proceed no further up the river , due to American fortifications and Washington 's army . The skirmishes at Verplanck 's Point and at Stony Point demonstrated that the continental infantry had become quite formidable and were an enormous boost to morale .
The winter of 1779 – 1780 , when Washington went into quarters at Morristown , represented the worst suffering for the army during the war . The temperatures fell to 16 below zero , the New York Harbor was frozen over , and snow and ice covered the ground for weeks , with the troops again lacking provisions for a time as at Valley Forge . In late 1779 Clinton moved his forces south to Charleston for an offensive against the patriots , led by Benjamin Lincoln . After his success there Clinton returned victorious to New York , leaving Cornwallis in the south . Congress replaced Lincoln with Gates , despite Washington 's recommendation of Greene . When Gates failed in South Carolina , he was then replaced by Greene . The British at the time seemed to have the South almost in their grasp . Despite this news , Washington was encouraged to learn in mid @-@ 1780 that Lafayette had returned from France with additional naval assets and forces .
= = = Arnold 's treason = = =
Washington was shocked to learn of Benedict Arnold 's treason , someone who had contributed significantly to the war effort . Embittered by his dealings with Congress over rank and finances , as well as the alliance with France , Arnold joined the British cause ; he conspired with the British in a plan to seize the post he commanded at West Point . Washington just missed apprehending him , but did capture his conspirator , Major John André , a British intelligence officer under Clinton , who was later hanged by order of a court @-@ martial called by Washington .
Washington 's army went into winter quarters at New Windsor in 1780 and suffered again for lack of supplies . There resulted a considerable mutiny by Pennsylvania troops ; Washington prevailed upon Congress as well as state officials to come to their aid with provisions . He very much sympathized with their suffering , saying he hoped the army would not " continue to struggle under the same difficulties they have hitherto endured , which I cannot help remarking seem to reach the bounds of human patience " .
= = = Victory at Yorktown = = =
In July 1780 , 5 @,@ 000 veteran French troops led by the comte de Rochambeau arrived at Newport , Rhode Island to aid in the war effort ; French naval forces then landed , led by Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse . Though it was Washington 's hope initially to bring the allied fight to New York and to end the war there , de Grasse was advised by Rochambeau that Cornwallis in Virginia was the better target. de Grasse followed Rochambeau 's advice and arrived off the Virginia Coast . Washington immediately saw the advantage created , made a feinting move with his force towards Clinton in New York and then headed south to Virginia .
Washington 's Continental Army , also newly funded by $ 20 @,@ 000 in French gold , delivered the final blow to the British in 1781 , after a French naval victory allowed American and French forces to trap a British army in Virginia , preventing reinforcement by Clinton from the North . The surrender at Yorktown on October 19 , 1781 , marked the end of major fighting in continental North America . Cornwallis failed to appear at the official surrender ceremony , and sent General Charles Oharrow as his proxy ; Washington then assigned his role to Benjamin Lincoln of equal rank .
= = = Demobilization = = =
Though substantial combat had ended , the war had not , and a formal treaty of peace was months away , creating tension . The British still had 26 @,@ 000 troops occupying New York City , Charleston and Savannah , together with a powerful fleet . The French army and navy departed , so the Americans were on their own in 1782 – 83 . Money matters fed the anxiety — the treasury was empty , and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive , almost to the point of mutiny . At one point the mutineers forced an adjournment of the Congress from Philadelphia to Princeton . Washington dispelled unrest among officers by suppressing the Newburgh Conspiracy in March 1783 , and Congress came up with the promise of a five @-@ year bonus .
With the initial peace treaty articles ratified in April , a recently formed Congressional committee under Hamilton was considering needs and plans for a peacetime army . On May 2 , 1783 , the Commander in Chief submitted his Sentiments on a Peace Establishment to the Committee , essentially providing an official Continental Army position . The original proposal was defeated in Congress in two votes ( May 1783 , October 1783 ) with a truncated version also being rejected in April 1784 .
By the Treaty of Paris ( signed that September ) , Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States . Washington disbanded his army and , on November 2 , gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers . On November 25 , the British evacuated New York City , and Washington and the governor took possession . At Fraunces Tavern on December 4 , Washington formally bade his officers farewell and on December 23 , 1783 , he resigned his commission as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , saying " I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life , by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God , and those who have the superintendence of them , to his holy keeping . " Historian Gordon Wood concludes that the greatest act in his life was his resignation as commander of the armies . King George III called Washington " the greatest character of the age " because of this .
Washington later submitted a formal account of the expenses he had personally advanced the army over the eight year conflict , of about $ 450 @,@ 000 . It is said to have been detailed regarding small items , vague concerning large ones and included the expenses incurred from Martha 's visits to his headquarters , as well as his compensation for service , none of which had been drawn during the war .
Historian John Shy says that by 1783 Washington was " a mediocre military strategist but had become a master political tactician with an almost perfect sense of timing and a developed capacity to exploit his charismatic reputation , using people who thought they were using him " .
= = Constitutional Convention = =
Washington 's retirement to personal business at Mount Vernon was short @-@ lived . Making an exploratory trip to the western frontier in 1784 , he inspected his land holdings in Western Pennsylvania that had been earned decades earlier for his service in the French and Indian War . There , he confronted squatters , including David Reed and the Covenanters , who vacated , but only after losing a court decision heard in Washington , Pennsylvania in 1786 . After much reluctance , he was persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 as a delegate from Virginia , where he was elected in unanimity as president of the Convention . He held considerable criticism of the Articles of Confederation of the thirteen colonies , for the weak central government it established , referring to the Articles as no more than " a rope of sand " to support the new nation . Washington 's view for the need of a strong federal government grew out of the recent war , moreover , the inability of the Continental Congress to rally the states to provide for the needs of the military , as was clearly demonstrated for him during the winter at Valley Forge . The general populace however did not share Washington 's views of a strong federal government binding the states together , comparing such a prevailing entity to the British Parliament that previously ruled and taxed the colonies .
Washington 's participation in the debates was minor , although he cast his vote when called upon ; his prestige facilitated the collegiality and productivity of the delegates . After a couple of months into the task , Washington told Alexander Hamilton , " I almost despair of seeing a favorable issue to the proceedings of our convention and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business . " Following the Convention , his support convinced many , but not all of his colleagues , to vote for ratification . He unsuccessfully lobbied anti @-@ federalist Patrick Henry , saying that " the adoption of it under the present circumstances of the Union is in my opinion desirable ; " he declared that the only alternative would be anarchy . Nevertheless , he did not consider it appropriate to cast his vote in favor of adoption for Virginia , since he was expected to be nominated president thereunder . The new Constitution was subsequently ratified by all thirteen states . The delegates to the convention designed the presidency with Washington in mind , allowing him to define the office by establishing precedent once elected . In the end after agreements were hatched however , Washington thought the achievements finally made were monumental .
= = Presidency ( 1789 – 1797 ) = =
The Electoral College unanimously elected Washington as the first president in 1789 , and again 1792 ; He remains the only president to receive the totality of electoral votes . John Adams , who received the next highest vote total , was elected vice president . On April 30 , 1789 , Washington was inaugurated , taking the first presidential oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall in New York City . The oath , as follows , was administered by Chancellor Robert R. Livingston : " I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States , and will to the best of my ability , preserve , protect and defend the Constitution of the United States . " Historian John R. Alden indicates that Washington added the words " So help me God . "
The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $ 25 @,@ 000 a year — a large sum in 1789 , valued at about $ 340 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars . Washington , despite facing financial troubles then , initially declined the salary , valuing his image as a selfless public servant . At the urging of Congress , however , he ultimately accepted the payment , to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who could serve without any salary . The president , aware that everything he did set a precedent , attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office , making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts . To that end , he preferred the title " Mr. President " to the more majestic names proposed by the Senate .
Washington proved an able administrator , and established many precedents in the functions of the presidency , including messages to Congress and the cabinet form of government . Despite fears that a democratic system would lead to political violence , he set the standard for tolerance of opposition voices and conducted a smooth transition of power to his successor . An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character , he talked regularly with department heads and listened to their advice before making a final decision . In handling routine tasks , he was " systematic , orderly , energetic , solicitous of the opinion of others ... but decisive , intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them . " After reluctantly serving a second term , Washington refused to run for a third , establishing the tradition of a maximum of two terms for a president , which was solidified by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison .
= = = Domestic issues = = =
Washington was not a member of any political party and hoped that they would not be formed , fearing conflict that would undermine republicanism . His closest advisors formed two factions , setting the framework for the future First Party System . Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation , and formed the basis of the Federalist Party . Secretary of the State Thomas Jefferson , founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans , strenuously opposed Hamilton 's agenda , but Washington typically favored Hamilton over Jefferson , and it was Hamilton 's agenda that went into effect . Jefferson 's political actions , his support of Philip Freneau 's National Gazette , and his attempt to undermine Hamilton , nearly led George Washington to dismiss Jefferson from his cabinet . Though Jefferson left the cabinet voluntarily , Washington never forgave him , and never spoke to him again .
In early 1790 Hamilton devised a plan with the approval of Washington , culminating in The Residence Act of 1790 , that established the creditworthiness of the new government , as well as its permanent location . Congress had previously issued almost $ 22 million in certificates of debt during the war to suppliers ; some of the states had incurred debt as well ( more so in the north ) . In accordance with the plan , Congress authorized the " assumption " and payment of these debts , and provided funding through customs duties and excise taxes . The proposal was largely favored in the north and opposed in the south . Hamilton obtained the approval of the southern states in exchange for an agreement to place the new national capitol on the Potomac River . While the national debt increased as a result during Hamilton 's service as Secretary of the Treasury , the nation established its good credit . Many in the Congress and elsewhere in the government profited from trading in the debt paper which was assumed . Though many of Washington 's fellow Virginians , as well as others , were vexed by this , he considered they had adequate redress through their Congressional representatives .
The Revenue Act authorized the president to select the specific location of the seat of the government on the Potomac ; the president was to appoint three commissioners to survey and acquire property for this seat . Washington personally oversaw this effort throughout his term in office . In 1791 the commissioners named the permanent seat of government " The City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia " to honor Washington . In 1800 , the Territory of Columbia became the District of Columbia when the federal government moved to the site according to the provisions of the Residence Act .
In 1791 partly as a result of the Copper Panic of 1789 , Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits , which led to protests in frontier districts , especially Pennsylvania . By 1794 after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court , the protests turned into full @-@ scale defiance of federal authority known as the Whiskey Rebellion . The federal army was too small to be used , so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon militias from Pennsylvania , Virginia , Maryland and New Jersey . The governors sent the troops , with Washington taking initial command . He subsequently named Henry " Lighthorse Harry " Lee as field commander to lead the troops into the rebellious districts . The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting , as Washington 's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself . This represented the premier instance of the federal government using military force to exert authority over the states and citizens and is also the only time a sitting U.S. president personally commanded troops in the field .
= = = Foreign affairs = = =
In February 1793 the French Revolutionary Wars broke out between Great Britain and its allies and revolutionary France , and engulfed Europe until 1815 ; Washington , with cabinet approval , proclaimed American neutrality . The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond @-@ Charles Genêt , called " Citizen Genêt " , to America . Genêt was welcomed with great enthusiasm , and began promoting the case for France using a network of new Democratic Societies in major cities . He even issued French letters of marque and reprisal to French ships manned by American sailors so they could capture British merchant ships . Washington denounced the societies and demanded the French government recall Genêt , which they did .
Hamilton formulated the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Great Britain , remove them from western forts , and resolve financial debts remaining from the Revolution ; John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty on November 19 , 1794 . Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty . Washington listened to both sides then announced his strong support , which mobilized public opinion and was pivotal in securing ratification in the Senate by the requisite two @-@ thirds majority .
The British agreed to depart from their forts around the Great Lakes and the United States @-@ Canadian boundary had to be re @-@ adjusted ; numerous pre @-@ Revolutionary debts were liquidated , and the British opened their West Indies colonies to American trade . Most importantly , the treaty delayed war with Great Britain and instead brought a decade of prosperous trade with the British . The treaty angered the French and became a central issue in many political debates . Relations with France deteriorated after the treaty was signed , leaving the succeeding president , John Adams , with the prospect of war .
= = = Farewell Address = = =
Washington 's Farewell Address ( issued as a public letter in 1796 ) was one of the most influential statements of republicanism . Drafted primarily by Washington himself , with help from Hamilton , it gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union , the value of the Constitution and the rule of law , the evils of political parties and the proper virtues of a republican people . He referred to morality as " a necessary spring of popular government " , and said , " Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure , reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle . " The address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs , and as well against bitter partisanship in domestic politics ; he also called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good . He cautioned against " permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world " , saying the United States must concentrate primarily on American interests . He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations , but advised against involvement in European wars and entering into long @-@ term " entangling " alliances . While advancing the general idea of noninvolvement in foreign affairs the Farewell Address made no clear distinction between domestic and foreign policies — John Quincy Adams interpreted Washington 's policy as advocating a strong nationalist foreign policy while not limiting America 's international activities . The address , however , quickly set American values regarding foreign affairs . Washington 's policy of noninvolvement in the foreign affairs of the old world was largely embraced by the founding generation of American Statesmen , including John Adams , Thomas Jefferson and James Madison .
= = Retirement ( 1797 – 1799 ) = =
After retiring from the presidency in March 1797 , Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief . He devoted much time to his plantations and other business interests , including his distillery which produced its first batch of spirits in February 1797 . As Chernow 2010 explains , his plantation operations were only minimally profitable . The lands out west yielded little income because they were under attack by Indians and the squatters living there refused to pay him rent . Most Americans assumed he was rich because of the well @-@ known " glorified façade of wealth and grandeur " at Mount Vernon . Historians estimate his estate was worth about $ 1 million in 1799 dollars , equivalent to about $ 19 @.@ 9 million in 2014 purchasing power .
By 1798 relations with France had deteriorated to the point that war seemed imminent , and on July 4 , 1798 , President Adams offered Washington a commission as lieutenant general and Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armies raised or to be raised for service in a prospective war . He accepted , and served as the senior officer of the United States Army from July 13 , 1798 until his death seventeen months later . He participated in the planning for a Provisional Army to meet any emergency that might arise , but avoided involvement in details as much as possible ; he delegated most of the work , including leadership of the army , to Hamilton , then serving as a major general in the U.S. Army .
= = = Comparisons with Cincinnatus = = =
During the Revolutionary and Early Republican periods of American history , many commentators compared Washington with the Roman aristocrat and statesman Cincinnatus . The comparison arose as Washington , like Cincinnatus , remained in command of the Continental Army only until the British had been defeated . Thereafter , instead of seeking great political power , he returned as quickly as possible to cultivating his lands . Remarking on Washington 's resignation in December 1783 , and his decision to retire to Mount Vernon , poet Philip Freneau wrote : Thus He , whom Rome 's proud legions sway 'd / Return 'd , and sought his sylvan shade . Lord Byron 's Ode to Napoleon also lionized Washington as " the Cincinnatus of the West " .
= = Death = =
On Thursday , December 12 , 1799 , Washington spent several hours inspecting his plantation on horseback , in snow , hail , and freezing rain ; later that evening he ate his supper without changing from his wet clothes . That Friday he awoke with a severe sore throat and became increasingly hoarse as the day progressed , yet still rode out in the heavy snow , marking trees on the estate that he wanted cut . Sometime around 3 a.m. that Saturday , he suddenly awoke with severe difficulty breathing and almost completely unable to speak or swallow . A firm believer in bloodletting , a standard medical practice of that era which he had used to treat various ailments of slaves on his plantation , he ordered estate overseer Albin Rawlins to remove half a pint of his blood .
A total of three physicians were sent for , including Washington 's personal physician Dr. James Craik along with Dr. Gustavus Brown and Dr. Elisha Dick . Craik and Brown thought that Washington had " quinsey " or " quincy " , while Dick , the younger man , thought the condition was more serious or a " violent inflammation of the throat " . By the time the three physicians finished their treatments and bloodletting of the president , there had been a massive volume of blood loss — half or more of his total blood content was removed over the course of just a few hours . Recognizing that the bloodletting and other treatments were failing , Dr. Dick proposed performing an emergency tracheotomy , a procedure that few American physicians were familiar with at the time , as a last @-@ ditch effort to save Washington 's life , but the other two doctors disapproved .
Washington died at home around 10 p.m. on Saturday , December 14 , 1799 , aged 67 . In his journal , Lear recorded Washington 's last words as being " ' Tis well . "
The diagnosis of Washington 's final illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since the day he died . In the days immediately following his death , Craik and Dick 's published account stated that they felt his symptoms had been consistent with " cynanche trachealis " , a term of that period used to describe severe inflammation of the structures of the upper airway . Even at that early date , there were accusations of medical malpractice , with some believing that Washington had been bled to death . Various modern medical authors have speculated that Washington probably died from a severe case of epiglottitis which was complicated by the given treatments ( all of which were accepted medical practice in Washington 's day ) — most notably the massive deliberate blood loss , which almost certainly caused hypovolemic shock .
Throughout the world , people were saddened by Washington 's death . In the United States , memorial processions were held in major cities and thousands wore mourning clothes for months . Martha Washington wore a black mourning cape for one year . In France , First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte ordered ten days of mourning throughout the country ;
To protect their privacy , Martha Washington burned the correspondence they had exchanged ; only five letters between the couple are known to have survived , two letters from Martha to George and three from him to Martha .
On December 18 , 1799 , a funeral was held at Mount Vernon , where his body was interred . Congress passed a joint resolution to construct a marble monument in the planned crypt below the rotunda of the center section of the Capitol ( then still under construction ) for his body , a plan supported by Martha . In December 1800 , the House passed an appropriations bill for $ 200 @,@ 000 to build the mausoleum , which was to be a pyramid with a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) square base . Southern representatives and senators , in later opposition to the plan , defeated the measure because they felt it was best to have Washington 's body remain at Mount Vernon .
In 1831 , for the centennial of his birth , a new tomb was constructed to receive his remains . That year , an unsuccessful attempt was made to steal the body of Washington . Despite this , a joint Congressional committee in early 1832 , debated the removal of President Washington 's body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol , built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s during the reconstruction of the burned @-@ out structure after the British set it afire in August 1814 , during the " Burning of Washington " . Southern opposition was intense , antagonized by an ever @-@ growing rift between North and South . Congressman Wiley Thompson of Georgia expressed the fear of Southerners when he said , " Remove the remains of our venerated Washington from their association with the remains of his consort and his ancestors , from Mount Vernon and from his native State , and deposit them in this capitol , and then let a severance of the Union occur , and behold the remains of Washington on a shore foreign to his native soil . "
Washington 's remains were moved on October 7 , 1837 to the new tomb constructed at Mount Vernon , presented by John Struthers of Philadelphia . After the ceremony , the inner vault 's door was closed and the key was thrown into the Potomac .
= = Personal life = =
Along with Martha 's biological family , George Washington had a close relationship with his nephew and heir , Bushrod Washington , son of George 's younger brother , John Augustine Washington . The year before his uncle 's death , Bushrod became an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . George , however , apparently had difficulty getting along with his mother , Mary Ball Washington ( Augustine 's second wife ) , a very difficult and exacting woman .
As a young man , Washington had red hair . A popular myth is that he wore a wig , as was the fashion among some at the time . However , Washington did not wear a wig ; instead , he powdered his hair , as is represented in several portraits , including the well @-@ known , unfinished Gilbert Stuart depiction called the " Athenaeum Portrait . "
Washington 's height was variously recorded as 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) to 6 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) , and he had unusually great physical strength that amazed younger men . Jefferson called Washington " the best horseman of his age " , and both American and European observers praised his riding ; the horsemanship benefited his hunting , a favorite hobby . Washington was an excellent dancer and frequently attended the theater , often referencing Shakespeare in letters . He drank in moderation and precisely recorded gambling wins and losses , but Washington disliked the excessive drinking , gambling , smoking , and profanity that was common in colonial Virginia . Although he grew tobacco , he eventually stopped smoking , and considered drunkenness a man 's worst vice ; Washington was glad that post @-@ Revolutionary Virginia society was less likely to " force [ guests ] to drink and to make it an honor to send them home drunk . "
Washington suffered from problems with his teeth throughout his life , and historians have tracked his experiences in great detail . He lost his first adult tooth when he was twenty @-@ two and had only one left by the time he became president . John Adams claims he lost them because he used them to crack Brazil nuts but modern historians suggest the mercury oxide , which he was given to treat illnesses such as smallpox and malaria , probably contributed to the loss . He had several sets of false teeth made , four of them by a dentist named John Greenwood . None of the sets were made from wood . The set made when he became president was carved from hippopotamus and elephant ivory , held together with gold springs . Prior to these , he had a set made with real human teeth , likely ones he purchased from " several unnamed ' Negroes , ' presumably Mount Vernon slaves " in 1784 . Dental problems left Washington in constant pain , for which he took laudanum . This distress may be apparent in many of the portraits painted while he was still in office , including the one still used on the $ 1 bill .
= = = Religion = = =
For his entire life Washington was affiliated with the Anglican Church , later called the Episcopal Church . He served as a vestryman and as church warden for both Fairfax Parish in Alexandria and Truro Parish , administrative positions that , like all positions in Virginia while it had an official religion , required one to swear they would not speak or act in a way that did not conform to the tenets of the Church . Numerous historians have suggested that theologically , Washington agreed largely with the Deists . However , he never spoke about any particular Deist beliefs he may of have had . He often used words for the deity , such as " God " and " Providence , " while avoiding using the words " Jesus " and " Christ . " In his collected works , they appear in an official letter to Indians that might have been drafted by an aide . At the time , Deism was a theological outlook , not an organized denomination , and was compatible with being an Episcopalian . Historian Gregg Frazer argues that Washington was not a deist but a " theistic rationalist . " This theological position rejected core beliefs of Christianity , such as the divinity of Christ , the Trinity and original sin . However , unlike the deists , the theological rationalists believed in the efficacy of prayer to God . Historian Peter A. Lillback argues that Washington was neither a deist nor a " theistic rationalist " but a Christian who believed in the core beliefs of Christianity .
Washington frequently accompanied his wife to church services . Although third @-@ hand reports say he took communion , he is usually characterized as never or rarely participating in the rite . He would regularly leave services before communion with the other non @-@ communicants ( as was the custom of the day ) , until , after being admonished by a rector , he ceased attending at all on communion Sundays .
Washington regarded religion as a protective influence for America 's social and political order , and recognized the church 's " laudable endeavors to render men sober , honest , and good citizens , and the obedient subjects of a lawful government " .
While it is generally conceded that Washington was a Christian , the exact nature of his religious beliefs has still been debated by some historians and biographers for over two hundred years . Washington biographer Don Higginbotham notes that in such instances people with diametrically opposing opinions frequently base their views of Washington 's beliefs on their own beliefs . Though Washington was in ways conventionally enlightened about religion , once saying , " being no bigot myself to any mode of worship " he harbored no contempt of organized Christianity and its clergy as did Jefferson . Washington , as commander of the army and as president , was a vigorous promoter of tolerance for all religious denominations . He believed religion was an important support for public order , morality and virtue . He often attended services of different denominations . He suppressed anti @-@ Catholic celebrations in the Army .
Michael Novak and Jana Novak suggest that it may have been " Washington 's intention to maintain a studied ambiguity ( and personal privacy ) regarding his own deepest religious convictions , so that all Americans , both in his own time and for all time to come , might feel free to approach him on their own terms — and might also feel like full members of the new republic , equal with every other " . They conclude : " He was educated in the Episcopal Church , to which he always adhered ; and my [ sic ] conviction is , that he believed in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity as usually taught in that Church , according to his understanding of them ; but without a particle of intolerance , or disrespect for the faith and modes of worship adopted by Christians of other denominations . "
= = = Freemasonry = = =
Washington was initiated into Freemasonry in 1752 . He had a high regard for the Masonic Order and often praised it , but he seldom attended lodge meetings . He was attracted by the movement 's dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality , reason and fraternalism ; the American lodges did not share the anti @-@ clerical perspective that made the European lodges so controversial . In 1777 a convention of Virginia lodges recommended Washington to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia ; however , Washington declined , due to his necessity to lead the Continental Army at a critical stage , and because he had never been installed as Master or Warden of a lodge , he did not consider it Masonically legal to serve as Grand Master . In 1788 Washington , with his personal consent , was named Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria Lodge No. 22 .
= = = Slavery = = =
Washington was the only prominent Founding Father to arrange in his will for the manumission of all his slaves following his death . He privately opposed slavery as an institution which he viewed as economically unsound and morally indefensible . He also regarded the divisiveness of his countrymen 's feelings about slavery as a potentially mortal threat to the unity of the nation . He never publicly challenged the institution of slavery , possibly because he wanted to avoid provoking a split in the new republic over so inflammatory an issue , but he did pass the Slave Trade Act of 1794 , which limited American involvement in the Atlantic slave trade . Washington had owned slaves since the death of his father in 1743 , when at the age of eleven , he inherited 10 slaves . At the time of his marriage to Martha Custis in 1759 , he personally owned at least 36 slaves , which meant he had achieved the status of a major planter . The wealthy widow Martha brought at least 85 " dower slaves " to Mount Vernon by inheriting a third of her late husband 's estate . Using his wife 's great wealth , Washington bought more land , tripling the size of the plantation at Mount Vernon , and purchased the additional slaves needed to work it . By 1774 he paid taxes on 135 slaves ( this figure does not include the " dowers " ) . The last record of a slave purchase by him was in 1772 , although he later received some slaves in repayment of debts . Washington also used some hired staff and white indentured servants ; in April 1775 , he offered a reward for the return of two runaway white servants .
= = Legacy = =
As Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Continental Army , hero of the Revolution and the first president of the United States , George Washington 's legacy remains among the two or three greatest in American history . Congressman Henry " Light @-@ Horse Harry " Lee , a Revolutionary War comrade , famously eulogized Washington , " First in war — first in peace — and first in the hearts of his countrymen " .
Lee 's words set the standard by which Washington 's overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory . Biographers hailed him as the great exemplar of republicanism . Washington set many precedents for the national government , and the presidency in particular , and was called the " Father of His Country " as early as 1778 . Washington 's Birthday , is a federal holiday in the United States . In terms of personality , a leading biographer Douglas Southall Freeman concluded , " the great big thing stamped across that man is character . ” By character , says David Hackett Fischer " Freeman meant integrity , self @-@ discipline , courage , absolute honesty , resolve , and decision , but also forbearance , decency , and respect for others . "
As the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire in world history , Washington became an international icon for liberation and nationalism . The Federalists made him the symbol of their party but for many years , the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence and delayed building the Washington Monument . After Yorktown , his service as Commander in Chief brought him election as a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .
During the United States Bicentennial year , George Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94 @-@ 479 passed on January 19 , 1976 , with an effective appointment date of July 4 , 1976 . This restored Washington 's position as the highest @-@ ranking military officer in U.S. history .
= = = Papers = = =
The serious collection and publication of Washington 's documentary record began with the pioneer work of Jared Sparks in the 1830s , Life and Writings of George Washington ( 12 vols . , 1834 – 1837 ) . The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources , 1745 – 1799 ( 1931 – 44 ) is a 37 volume set edited by John C. Fitzpatrick . It contains over 17 @,@ 000 letters and documents and is available online from the University of Virginia . The definitive letterpress edition of his writings was begun by the University of Virginia in 1968 , and today comprises 52 published volumes , with more to come . It contains everything written by Washington , or signed by him , together with most of his incoming letters . Part of the collection is available online from the University of Virginia .
= = = Monuments and memorials = = =
Starting with victory in their Revolution , there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington . After his death , Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital , but the decision was reversed when the Democratic @-@ Republicans took control of Congress in 1801 . The Democratic @-@ Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party . Construction of the 554 foot memorial didn 't begin until 1848 .
Several naval vessels , including the USS George Washington , are named in Washington 's honor .
Washington , together with Theodore Roosevelt , Thomas Jefferson , and Lincoln , is depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial . The Washington Monument , one of the best known American landmarks , was built in his honor . The George Washington Masonic National Memorial in Alexandria , Virginia , was constructed between 1922 and 1932 with voluntary contributions from all 52 local governing bodies of the Freemasons in the United States .
Many places and entities have been named in honor of Washington . Washington 's name became that of the nation 's capital , Washington , D.C. , one of two national capitals across the globe to be named after an American president ( the other is Monrovia , Liberia ) . The state of Washington is the only state to be named after a United States president . Mount Washington in New Hampshire , the tallest mountain in the Northeastern United States , was named soon after the American Revolution by Colonel John Whipple and others who were the first to climb to the summit for scientific observations in 1784 .
There are many other " Washington Monuments " in the United States , including two well @-@ known equestrian statues : one in Manhattan and one in Richmond , Virginia . The first statue to show Washington on horseback was dedicated in 1856 and is located in Manhattan 's Union Square .
= = = Postage and currency = = =
George Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency , including the one @-@ dollar bill and the quarter @-@ dollar coin ( the Washington quarter ) .
Washington , along with Benjamin Franklin , appeared on the nation 's first postage stamps in 1847 . Since that time Washington has appeared on many postage issues , more than all other presidents combined .
Washington 's victory over Cornwallis at the Battle of Yorktown was commemorated with a two @-@ cent stamp on the battle 's 150th anniversary on October 19 , 1931 . The 150th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution with George Washington as presiding officer was celebrated with a three @-@ cent issue on September 17 , 1937 , was adapted from the painting by Julius Brutus Stearns . Washington 's presidential inauguration at Federal Hall in New York City was celebrated on its 150th anniversary on April 30 , 1939 .
Selected Issues :
Selected currency :
= = = Cherry tree = = =
Perhaps the best known story about Washington 's childhood is that he chopped down his father 's favorite cherry tree and admitted the deed when questioned : " I can 't tell a lie , Pa . " The anecdote was first reported by biographer Parson Weems , who after Washington 's death interviewed people who knew him as a child over a half @-@ century earlier . The Weems text was very widely reprinted throughout the 19th century , for example in McGuffey Readers . Adults wanted children to learn moral lessons from history , especially as taught by example from the lives of great national heroes like Washington . After 1890 however , historians insisted on scientific research methods to validate every statement , and there was no documentation for this anecdote apart from Weems ' report that he learned it from one of the neighbors who knew the young Washington . Joseph Rodman in 1904 claimed that Weems plagiarized other Washington tales from published fiction set in England , but no one has found an alternative source for the cherry tree story.Austin Washington , the great @-@ nephew of George Washington , maintains that it is unlikely that Parson Weems , a man of the clergy , while writing an account about truth and honesty , would then turn around and outright lie about such a story . He further maintains that if Weems was making up a story he would have more dramatically depicted the young Washington ' chopping down ' the cherry tree , not merely " barking it " , ( i.e.removing some if the bark ) . i.e.Weems never claimed the tree was chopped down . There has been much conjecture and ad hominem attacks from some historians about Weems and his story , but none have proven or disproven the story to this date .
= = = Personal property auction record = = =
On June 22 , 2012 , George Washington 's personal annotated copy of the " Acts Passed at a Congress of the United States of America " from 1789 , which includes the Constitution of the United States and a draft of the Bill of Rights , was sold at Christie 's for a $ 9 @,@ 826 @,@ 500 ( with fees added to the final cost ) , to The Mount Vernon Ladies ' Association . This was the record for a document sold at auction .
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= George Bernard Shaw =
George Bernard Shaw ( 26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950 ) , known at his insistence simply as Bernard Shaw , was an Irish playwright , critic and polemicist whose influence on Western theatre , culture and politics extended from the 1880s to his death and beyond . He wrote more than sixty plays , including major works such as Man and Superman ( 1902 ) , Pygmalion ( 1912 ) and Saint Joan ( 1923 ) . With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory , Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation , and in 1925 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature .
Born in Dublin , Shaw moved to London in 1876 , where he struggled to establish himself as a writer and novelist , and embarked on a rigorous process of self @-@ education . By the mid @-@ 1880s he had become a respected theatre and music critic . Following a political awakening , he joined the gradualist Fabian Society and became its most prominent pamphleteer . Shaw had been writing plays for years before his first public success , Arms and the Man in 1894 . Influenced by Henrik Ibsen , he sought to introduce a new realism into English @-@ language drama , using his plays as vehicles to disseminate his political , social and religious ideas . By the early twentieth century his reputation as a dramatist was secured with a series of critical and popular successes that included Major Barbara , The Doctor 's Dilemma and Caesar and Cleopatra .
Shaw 's expressed views were often contentious ; he promoted eugenics and alphabet reform , and opposed vaccination and organised religion . He courted unpopularity by denouncing both sides in the First World War as equally culpable , and although not a republican , castigated British policy on Ireland in the postwar period . These stances had no lasting effect on his standing or productivity as a dramatist ; the inter @-@ war years saw a series of often ambitious plays , which achieved varying degrees of popular success . In 1938 he provided the screenplay for a filmed version of Pygmalion for which he received an Academy Award . His appetite for politics and controversy remained undiminished ; by the late 1920s he had largely renounced Fabian gradualism and often wrote and spoke favourably of dictatorships of the right and left — he expressed admiration for both Mussolini and Stalin . In the final decade of his life he made fewer public statements , but continued to write prolifically until shortly before his death , aged ninety @-@ four , having refused all state honours including the Order of Merit in 1946 .
Since Shaw 's death scholarly and critical opinion has varied about his works , but he has regularly been rated as second only to Shakespeare among English @-@ language dramatists ; analysts recognise his extensive influence on generations of playwrights . The word " Shavian " has entered the language as encapsulating Shaw 's ideas and his means of expressing them .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Shaw was born at 3 Upper Synge Street in Portobello , a lower @-@ middle @-@ class part of Dublin . He was the youngest child and only son of George Carr Shaw ( 1814 – 85 ) and Lucinda Elizabeth ( Bessie ) Shaw ( née Gurly ; 1830 – 1913 ) ; his elder siblings were Lucinda ( Lucy ) Frances ( 1853 – 1920 ) and Elinor Agnes ( 1855 – 76 ) . The Shaw family was of English descent and belonged to the dominant Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland ; George Carr Shaw , an ineffectual alcoholic , was among the family 's less successful members . His relatives secured him a sinecure in the civil service , from which he was pensioned off in the early 1850s ; thereafter he worked irregularly as a corn merchant . In 1852 he married Bessie Gurly ; in the view of Shaw 's biographer Michael Holroyd she married to escape a tyrannical great @-@ aunt . If , as Holroyd and others surmise , George 's motives were mercenary , then he was disappointed , as Bessie brought him little of her family 's money . She came to despise her ineffectual and often drunken husband , with whom she shared what their son later described as a life of " shabby @-@ genteel poverty " .
By the time of Shaw 's birth his mother had become close to George John Lee , a flamboyant figure well known in Dublin 's musical circles . Shaw retained a lifelong obsession that Lee might have been his biological father ; there is no consensus among Shavian scholars on the likelihood of this . The young Shaw suffered no harshness from his mother , but he later recalled that her indifference and lack of affection hurt him deeply . He found solace in the music that abounded in the house . Lee was a conductor and teacher of singing ; Bessie had a fine mezzo @-@ soprano voice and was much influenced by Lee 's unorthodox method of vocal production . The Shaws ' house was often filled with music , with frequent gatherings of singers and players .
In 1862 Lee and the Shaws agreed to share a large house , No. 1 Hatch Street , in a better part of Dublin , and also a country cottage on Dalkey Hill , overlooking Killiney Bay . Shaw , a sensitive boy , found the less salubrious parts of Dublin shocking and distressing , and he was happier at the cottage . Lee 's students often gave him books , which the young Shaw read avidly ; thus , as well as gaining a thorough musical knowledge of choral and operatic works , he became familiar with a wide spectrum of literature .
Between 1865 and 1871 Shaw attended four schools , all of which he hated . His experiences as a schoolboy left him disillusioned with formal education : " Schools and schoolmasters " , he later wrote , were " prisons and turnkeys in which children are kept to prevent them disturbing and chaperoning their parents . " In October 1871 he left school to become a junior clerk in a Dublin firm of land agents , where he worked hard , and quickly rose to become head cashier . During this period he was known as " George Shaw " ; after 1876 he dropped the " George " and styled himself " Bernard Shaw " .
In June 1873 Lee left Dublin for London , and never returned . A fortnight later Bessie followed him ; the two girls joined her . Shaw 's explanation of why his mother followed Lee was that without the latter 's financial contribution the joint household had to be broken up . Left in Dublin with his father , Shaw compensated for the absence of music in the house by teaching himself to play the piano .
= = = London = = =
Early in 1876 Shaw learned from his mother that Agnes was dying of tuberculosis . He resigned from the land agents , and in March travelled to England to join his mother and Lucy at Agnes 's funeral . He never again lived in Ireland , and did not visit it for twenty @-@ nine years .
Initially , Shaw refused to seek clerical employment in London . His mother allowed him to live free of charge in her house in South Kensington , but he nevertheless needed an income . He had abandoned a teenage ambition to become a painter , and had no thought yet of writing for a living , but Lee found a little work for him , ghost @-@ writing a musical column printed under Lee 's name in a satirical weekly , The Hornet . Lee 's relations with Bessie deteriorated after their move to London . Shaw maintained contact with Lee , who found him work as a rehearsal pianist and occasional singer .
Eventually Shaw was driven to applying for office jobs . In the interim he secured a reader 's pass for the British Museum Reading Room ( the forerunner of the British Library ) and spent most weekdays there , reading and writing . His first attempt at drama , begun in 1878 , was a blank @-@ verse satirical piece on a religious theme . It was abandoned unfinished , as was his first try at a novel . His first completed novel , Immaturity ( 1879 ) was too grim to appeal to publishers and did not appear until the 1930s . He was employed briefly by the Edison Telephone Company in 1879 – 80 , and as in Dublin achieved rapid promotion . Nonetheless , when the Edison firm merged with the rival Bell Telephone Company , Shaw chose not to seek a place in the new organisation . Thereafter he pursued a full @-@ time career as an author .
For the next four years Shaw made a negligible income from writing , and was subsidised by his mother . In 1881 , for the sake of economy , and increasingly as a matter of principle , he became a vegetarian . He grew a beard to hide a facial scar left by smallpox . In rapid succession he wrote two more novels : The Irrational Knot ( 1880 ) and Love Among the Artists ( 1881 ) , but neither found a publisher ; each was serialised a few years later in the socialist magazine Our Corner .
In 1880 Shaw began attending meetings of the Zetetical Society , whose objective was to " search for truth in all matters affecting the interests of the human race " . Here he met Sidney Webb , a junior civil servant who , like Shaw , was busy educating himself . Despite difference of style and temperament , the two quickly recognised qualities in each other and developed a lifelong friendship . Shaw later reflected : " You knew everything that I didn 't know and I knew everything you didn 't know ... We had everything to learn from one another and brains enough to do it " .
Shaw 's next attempt at drama was a one @-@ act playlet in French , Un Petit Drame , written in 1884 but not published in his lifetime . In the same year the critic William Archer suggested a collaboration , with a plot by Archer and dialogue by Shaw . The project foundered , but Shaw returned to the draft as the basis of Widowers ' Houses in 1892 , and the connection with Archer proved of immense value to Shaw 's career .
= = = Political awakening : Marxism , socialism , Fabian Society = = =
On 5 September 1882 Shaw attended a meeting at the Memorial Hall , Farringdon , addressed by the political economist Henry George . Shaw then read George 's book Progress and Poverty , which awakened his interest in economics . He began attending meetings of the Social Democratic Federation ( SDF ) , where he discovered the writings of Karl Marx , and thereafter spent much of 1883 reading Das Kapital . He was not impressed by the SDF 's founder , H. M. Hyndman , whom he found autocratic , ill @-@ tempered and lacking leadership qualities . Shaw doubted the ability of the SDF to harness the working classes into an effective radical movement and did not join it — he preferred , he said , to work with his intellectual equals .
After reading a tract , Why Are The Many Poor ? , issued by the recently formed Fabian Society , Shaw went to the society 's next advertised meeting , on 16 May 1884 . He became a member in September , and before the year 's end had provided the society with its first manifesto , published as Fabian Tract No. 2 . He joined the society 's executive committee in January 1885 , and later that year recruited Webb and also Annie Besant , a fine orator .
From 1885 to 1889 Shaw attended the fortnightly meetings of the British Economic Association ; it was , Holroyd observes , " the closest Shaw had ever come to university education . " This experience changed his political ideas ; he moved away from Marxism and became an apostle of gradualism . When in 1886 – 87 the Fabians debated whether to embrace anarchism , as advocated by Charlotte Wilson , Besant and others , Shaw joined the majority in rejecting this approach . After a rally in Trafalgar Square addressed by Besant was violently broken up by the authorities on 13 November 1887 ( " Bloody Sunday " ) , Shaw became convinced of the folly of attempting to challenge police power . Thereafter he largely accepted the principle of " permeation " as advocated by Webb : the notion whereby socialism could best be achieved by infiltration of people and ideas into existing political parties .
Throughout the 1880s the Fabian Society remained small , its message of moderation frequently unheard among more strident voices . Its profile was raised in 1889 with the publication of Fabian Essays in Socialism , edited by Shaw who also provided two of the essays . The second of these , " Transition " , details the case for gradualism and permeation , asserting that " the necessity for cautious and gradual change must be obvious to everyone " . In 1890 Shaw produced Tract No. 13 , What Socialism Is , a revision of an earlier tract in which Charlotte Wilson had defined socialism in anarchistic terms . In Shaw 's new version , readers were assured that " socialism can be brought about in a perfectly constitutional manner by democratic institutions " .
= = = Novelist and critic = = =
The mid 1880s marked a turning point in Shaw 's life , both personally and professionally : he lost his virginity , had two novels published , and began a career as a critic . He had been celibate until his twenty @-@ ninth birthday , when his shyness was overcome by Jane ( Jenny ) Patterson , a widow some years his senior . Their affair continued , not always smoothly , for eight years . Shaw 's sex life has caused much speculation and debate among his biographers , but there is a consensus that the relationship with Patterson was one of his few non @-@ platonic romantic liaisons .
The published novels , neither commercially successful , were his two final efforts in this genre : Cashel Byron 's Profession written in 1882 – 83 , and An Unsocial Socialist , begun and finished in 1883 . The latter was published as a serial in ToDay magazine in 1884 , although it did not appear in book form until 1887 . Cashel Byron appeared in magazine and book form in 1886 .
In 1884 and 1885 , through the influence of Archer , Shaw was engaged to write book and music criticism for London papers . When Archer resigned as art critic of The World in 1886 he secured the succession for Shaw . The two figures in the contemporary art world whose views Shaw most admired were William Morris and John Ruskin , and he sought to follow their precepts in his criticisms . Their emphasis on morality appealed to Shaw , who rejected the idea of art for art 's sake , and insisted that all great art must be didactic .
Of Shaw 's various reviewing activities in the 1880s and 1890s it was as a music critic that he was best known . After serving as deputy in 1888 , he became musical critic of The Star in February 1889 , writing under the pen @-@ name Corno di Bassetto . In May 1890 he moved back to The World , where he wrote a weekly column as " G.B.S. " for more than four years . In the 2016 version of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , Robert Anderson writes , " Shaw 's collected writings on music stand alone in their mastery of English and compulsive readability . " Shaw ceased to be a salaried music critic in August 1894 , but published occasional articles on the subject throughout his career , his last in 1950 .
From 1895 to 1898 , Shaw was the theatre critic for The Saturday Review , edited by his friend Frank Harris . As at The World , he used the by @-@ line " G.B.S. " . He campaigned against the artificial conventions and hypocrisies of the Victorian theatre and called for plays of real ideas and true characters . By this time he had embarked in earnest on a career as a playwright : " I had rashly taken up the case ; and rather than let it collapse I manufactured the evidence " .
= = = Playwright and politician : 1890s = = =
After using the plot of the aborted 1884 collaboration with Archer to complete Widowers ' Houses ( it was staged twice in London , in December 1892 ) , Shaw continued writing plays . At first he made slow progress ; The Philanderer , written in 1893 but not published until 1898 , had to wait until 1905 for a stage production . Similarly , Mrs Warren 's Profession ( 1893 ) was written five years before publication and nine years before reaching the stage .
Shaw 's first box @-@ office success was Arms and the Man ( 1894 ) , a mock @-@ Ruritanian comedy satirising conventions of love , military honour and class . The press found the play overlong , and accused Shaw of mediocrity , sneering at heroism and patriotism , heartless cleverness , and copying W. S. Gilbert 's style . The public took a different view , and the management of the theatre staged extra matinée performances to meet the demand . The play ran from April to July , toured the provinces and was staged in New York . Among the cast of the London production was Florence Farr , with whom Shaw had a romantic relationship between 1890 and 1894 , much resented by Jenny Patterson .
The success of Arms and the Man was not immediately replicated . Candida , which presented a young woman making a conventional romantic choice for unconventional reasons , received a single performance in South Shields in 1895 ; in 1897 a playlet about Napoleon called The Man of Destiny had a single staging at Croydon . In the 1890s Shaw 's plays were better known in print than on the West End stage ; his biggest success of the decade was in New York in 1897 , when Richard Mansfield 's production of the historical melodrama The Devil 's Disciple earned the author more than £ 2 @,@ 000 in royalties .
In January 1893 , as a Fabian delegate , Shaw attended the Bradford conference which led to the foundation of the Independent Labour Party . He was sceptical about the new party , and scorned the likelihood that it could switch the allegiance of the working class from sport to politics . He persuaded the conference to adopt resolutions abolishing indirect taxation , and taxing unearned income " to extinction " . Back in London , Shaw produced what Margaret Cole , in her Fabian history , terms a " grand philippic " against the minority Liberal administration that had taken power in 1892 . To Your Tents , O Israel excoriated the government for ignoring social issues and concentrating solely on Irish Home Rule , a matter Shaw declared of no relevance to socialism . In 1894 the Fabian Society received a substantial bequest from a sympathiser , Henry Hunt Hutchinson — Holroyd mentions £ 10 @,@ 000 . Webb , who chaired the board of trustees appointed to supervise the legacy , proposed to use most of it to found a school of economics and politics . Shaw demurred ; he thought such a venture was contrary to the specified purpose of the legacy . He was eventually persuaded to support the proposal , and the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) opened in the summer of 1895 .
By the later 1890s Shaw 's political activities lessened as he concentrated on making his name as a dramatist . In 1897 he was persuaded to fill an uncontested vacancy for a " vestryman " ( parish councillor ) in London 's St Pancras district . At least initially , Shaw took to his municipal responsibilities seriously ; when London government was reformed in 1899 and the St Pancras vestry became the Metropolitan Borough of St Pancras , he was elected to the newly formed borough council .
In 1898 , as a result of overwork , Shaw 's health broke down . He was nursed by Charlotte Payne @-@ Townshend , a rich Anglo @-@ Irish woman whom he had met through the Webbs . The previous year she had proposed that she and Shaw should marry . He had declined , but when she insisted on nursing him in a house in the country , Shaw , concerned that this might cause scandal , agreed to their marriage . The ceremony took place on 1 June 1898 , in the register office in Covent Garden . The bride and bridegroom were both aged forty @-@ one . In the view of the biographer and critic St John Ervine , " their life together was entirely felicitous " . There were no children of the marriage , which it is generally believed was never consummated ; whether this was wholly at Charlotte 's wish , as Shaw liked to suggest , is less widely credited . In the early weeks of the marriage Shaw was much occupied writing his Marxist analysis of Wagner 's Ring cycle , published as The Perfect Wagnerite late in 1898 . In 1906 the Shaws found a country home in Ayot St Lawrence , Hertfordshire ; they renamed the house " Shaw 's Corner " , and lived there for the rest of their lives . They retained a London flat in the Adelphi and later at Whitehall Court .
= = = Stage success : 1900 – 14 = = =
During the first decade of the twentieth century Shaw secured a firm reputation as a playwright . In 1904 J. E. Vedrenne and Harley Granville @-@ Barker established a company at the Royal Court Theatre in Sloane Square , Chelsea to present modern drama . Over the next five years they staged fourteen of Shaw 's plays . The first , John Bull 's Other Island , a comedy about an Englishman in Ireland , attracted leading politicians and was seen by Edward VII , who laughed so much that he broke his chair . The play was withheld from Dublin 's Abbey Theatre , for fear of the affront it might provoke , although it was shown at the city 's Royal Theatre in November 1907 . Shaw later wrote that William Butler Yeats , who had requested the play , " got rather more than he bargained for ... It was uncongenial to the whole spirit of the neo @-@ Gaelic movement , which is bent on creating a new Ireland after its own ideal , whereas my play is a very uncompromising presentment of the real old Ireland . " Nonetheless , Shaw and Yeats were close friends ; Yeats and Lady Gregory tried unsuccessfully to persuade Shaw to take up the vacant co @-@ directorship of the Abbey Theatre after J. M. Synge 's death in 1909 . Shaw admired other figures in the Irish Literary Revival , including George Russell and James Joyce , and was a close friend of Seán O 'Casey , who was inspired to become a playwright after reading John Bull 's Other Island .
Man and Superman , completed in 1902 , was a success both at the Royal Court in 1905 and in Robert Loraine 's New York production in the same year . Among the other Shaw works presented by Vedrenne and Granville @-@ Barker were Major Barbara ( 1905 ) , depicting the contrasting morality of arms manufacturers and the Salvation Army ; The Doctor 's Dilemma ( 1906 ) , a mostly serious piece about professional ethics ; and Caesar and Cleopatra , Shaw 's counterblast to Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra , seen in New York in 1906 and in London the following year .
Now prosperous and established , Shaw experimented with unorthodox theatrical forms described by his biographer Stanley Weintraub as " discussion drama " and " serious farce " . These plays included Getting Married ( premiered 1908 ) , The Shewing @-@ Up of Blanco Posnet ( 1909 ) , Misalliance ( 1910 ) , and Fanny 's First Play ( 1911 ) . Blanco Posnet was banned on religious grounds by the Lord Chamberlain ( the official theatre censor in England ) , and was produced instead in Dublin ; it filled the Abbey Theatre to capacity . Fanny 's First Play , a comedy about suffragettes , had the longest initial run of any Shaw play — 622 performances .
Androcles and the Lion ( 1912 ) , a less heretical study of true and false religious attitudes than Blanco Posnet , ran for eight weeks in September and October 1913 . It was followed by one of Shaw 's most successful plays , Pygmalion , written in 1912 and staged in Vienna the following year , and in Berlin shortly afterwards . Shaw commented , " It is the custom of the English press when a play of mine is produced , to inform the world that it is not a play — that it is dull , blasphemous , unpopular , and financially unsuccessful . ... Hence arose an urgent demand on the part of the managers of Vienna and Berlin that I should have my plays performed by them first . " The British production opened in April 1914 , starring Sir Herbert Tree and Mrs Patrick Campbell as , respectively , a professor of phonetics and a cockney flower @-@ girl . There had earlier been a romantic liaison between Shaw and Campbell that caused Charlotte Shaw considerable concern , but by the time of the London premiere it had ended . The play attracted capacity audiences until July , when Tree insisted on going on holiday , and the production closed . His co @-@ star then toured in the piece in the US .
= = = Fabian years : 1900 – 13 = = =
In 1899 , when the Boer War began , Shaw wished the Fabians to take a neutral stance on what he deemed , like Home Rule , to be a " non @-@ Socialist " issue . Others , including the future Labour prime minister Ramsay MacDonald , wanted unequivocal opposition , and resigned from the society when it followed Shaw . In the Fabians ' war manifesto , Fabianism and the Empire ( 1900 ) , Shaw declared that " until the Federation of the World becomes an accomplished fact we must accept the most responsible Imperial federations available as a substitute for it " .
As the new century began , Shaw became increasingly disillusioned by the limited impact of the Fabians on national politics . Thus , although a nominated Fabian delegate , he did not attend the London conference at the Memorial Hall , Farringdon Street in February 1900 , that created the Labour Representation Committee — precursor of the modern Labour Party . By 1903 , when his term as borough councillor expired , he had lost his earlier enthusiasm , writing : " After six years of Borough Councilling I am convinced that the borough councils should be abolished " . Nevertheless , in 1904 he stood in the London County Council elections . After an eccentric campaign , which Holroyd characterises as " [ making ] absolutely certain of not getting in " , he was duly defeated . It was Shaw 's final foray into electoral politics . Nationally , the 1906 general election produced a huge Liberal majority and an intake of 29 Labour members . Shaw viewed this outcome with scepticism ; he had a low opinion of the new prime minister , Sir Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman , and saw the Labour members as inconsequential : " I apologise to the Universe for my connection with such a body " .
In the years after the 1906 election , Shaw felt that the Fabians needed fresh leadership , and saw this in the form of his fellow @-@ writer H. G. Wells , who had joined the society in February 1903 . Wells 's ideas for reform — particularly his proposals for closer cooperation with the Independent Labour Party — placed him at odds with the society 's " Old Gang " , led by Shaw . According to Cole , Wells " had minimal capacity for putting [ his ideas ] across in public meetings against Shaw 's trained and practised virtuosity " . In Shaw 's view , " the Old Gang did not extinguish Mr Wells , he annihilated himself " . Wells resigned from the society in September 1908 ; Shaw remained a member , but left the executive in April 1911 . He later wondered whether the Old Gang should have given way to Wells some years earlier : " God only knows whether the Society had not better have done it " . Although less active — he blamed his advancing years — Shaw remained a Fabian .
In 1912 Shaw invested £ 1 @,@ 000 for a one @-@ fifth share in the Webbs ' new publishing venture , a socialist weekly magazine called The New Statesman , which appeared in April 1913 . He became a founding director , publicist , and in due course a contributor , mostly anonymously . He was soon at odds with the magazine 's editor , Clifford Sharp , who by 1916 was rejecting his contributions — " the only paper in the world that refuses to print anything by me " , according to Shaw .
= = = First World War = = =
After the First World War began in August 1914 , Shaw produced his tract Common Sense About the War , which argued that the warring nations were equally culpable . Such a view was anathema in an atmosphere of fervent patriotism , and offended many of Shaw 's friends ; Ervine records that " [ h ] is appearance at any public function caused the instant departure of many of those present . "
Despite his errant reputation , Shaw 's propagandist skills were recognised by the British authorities , and early in 1917 he was invited by Field Marshal Haig to visit the Western Front battlefields . Shaw 's 10 @,@ 000 @-@ word report , which emphasised the human aspects of the soldier 's life , was well received , and he became less of a lone voice . In April 1917 he joined the national consensus in welcoming America 's entry into the war : " a first class moral asset to the common cause against junkerism " .
Three short plays by Shaw were premiered during the war . The Inca of Perusalem , written in 1915 , encountered problems with the censor for burlesquing not only the enemy but the British military command ; it was performed in 1916 at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre . O 'Flaherty V.C. , satirising the government 's attitude to Irish recruits , was banned in the UK and was presented at a Royal Flying Corps base in Belgium in 1917 . Augustus Does His Bit , a genial farce , was granted a licence ; it opened at the Royal Court in January 1917 .
= = = Ireland = = =
Shaw had long supported the principle of Irish Home Rule within the British Empire ( which he thought should become the British Commonwealth ) . He did not support separatism , believing that ties with England were essential . In April 1916 he wrote scathingly in The New York Times about militant Irish nationalism : " In point of learning nothing and forgetting nothing these fellow @-@ patriots of mine leave the Bourbons nowhere . " Total independence , he asserted , was impractical ; alliance with a bigger power ( preferably England ) was essential . The Dublin Easter Rising later that month took him by surprise . After its suppression by British forces , he expressed horror at the summary execution of the rebel leaders , but continued to believe in some form of Anglo @-@ Irish union . In How to Settle the Irish Question ( 1917 ) , he envisaged a federal arrangement , with national and imperial parliaments . Holroyd records that by this time the separatist party Sinn Féin was in the ascendency , and Shaw 's and other moderate schemes were forgotten .
In the postwar period , Shaw despaired of the British government 's coercive policies towards Ireland , and joined his fellow @-@ writers Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton in publicly condemning these actions . The Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty of December 1921 led to the partition of Ireland between north and south , a provision that dismayed Shaw . In 1922 civil war broke out in the south between its pro @-@ treaty and anti @-@ treaty factions , the former of whom had established the Irish Free State . Shaw visited Dublin in August , and met Michael Collins , then head of the Free State 's Provisional Government . Shaw was much impressed by Collins , and was saddened when , three days later , he was ambushed and killed by anti @-@ treaty forces . In a letter to Collins 's sister , Shaw wrote : " I met Michael for the first and last time on Saturday last , and am very glad I did . I rejoice in his memory , and will not be so disloyal to it as to snivel over his valiant death " . Shaw remained a British subject all his life , but took dual nationality in 1934 .
= = = 1920s = = =
Shaw 's first major work to appear after the war was Heartbreak House , written in 1916 – 17 and performed in 1920 . It was produced on Broadway in November , and was coolly received : " Mr Shaw on this occasion has more than usual to say and takes twice as long as usual to say it " . After the London premiere in October 1921 The Times concurred with the American critics : " As usual with Mr Shaw , the play is about an hour too long " , although containing " much entertainment and some profitable reflection " . Ervine in The Observer thought the play brilliant but ponderously acted , except for Edith Evans as Lady Utterword .
Shaw 's largest @-@ scale theatrical work was Back to Methuselah , written in 1918 – 20 and staged in 1922 . Weintraub describes it as " Shaw 's attempt to fend off ' the bottomless pit of an utterly discouraging pessimism ' " . This cycle of five interrelated plays depicts evolution , and the effects of longevity , from the Garden of Eden to the year 31 @,@ 920 AD . Critics found the five plays strikingly uneven in quality and invention . The original run was brief , and the work has been revived infrequently . Shaw felt he had exhausted his remaining creative powers in the huge span of this " Metabiological Pentateuch " . He was now sixty @-@ seven , and expected to write no more plays .
This mood was short @-@ lived . In 1920 Joan of Arc was proclaimed a saint by Pope Benedict XV ; Shaw had long found Joan an interesting historical character , and his view of her veered between " half @-@ witted genius " and someone of " exceptional sanity " . He had considered writing a play about her in 1913 , and the canonisation prompted him to return to the subject . He wrote Saint Joan in the middle months of 1923 , and the play was premiered on Broadway in December . It was enthusiastically received there , and at its London premiere the following March . In Weintraub 's phrase , " even the Nobel prize committee could no longer ignore Shaw after Saint Joan " . The citation for the literature prize for 1925 praised his work as " ... marked by both idealism and humanity , its stimulating satire often being infused with a singular poetic beauty " . He accepted the award , but rejected the monetary prize that went with it , on the grounds that " My readers and my audiences provide me with more than sufficient money for my needs " .
After Saint Joan , it was five years before Shaw wrote a play . From 1924 , Shaw spent four years writing what he described as his " magnum opus " , a political treatise entitled The Intelligent Woman 's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism . The book was published in 1928 and sold well . At the end of the decade Shaw produced his final Fabian tract , a commentary on the League of Nations . He described the League as " a school for the new international statesmanship as against the old Foreign Office diplomacy " , but thought that it had not yet become the " Federation of the World " .
Shaw returned to the theatre with what he called " a political extravaganza " , The Apple Cart , written in late 1928 . It was , in Ervine 's view , unexpectedly popular , taking a conservative , monarchist , anti @-@ democratic line that appealed to contemporary audiences . The premiere was in Warsaw in June 1928 , and the first British production was two months later , at Sir Barry Jackson 's inaugural Malvern Festival . The other eminent creative artist most closely associated with the festival was Sir Edward Elgar , with whom Shaw enjoyed a deep friendship and mutual regard . He described The Apple Cart to Elgar as " a scandalous Aristophanic burlesque of democratic politics , with a brief but shocking sex interlude " .
During the 1920s Shaw began to lose faith in the idea that society could be changed through Fabian gradualism , and became increasingly fascinated with dictatorial methods . In 1922 he had welcomed Mussolini 's accession to power in Italy , observing that amid the " indiscipline and muddle and Parliamentary deadlock " , Mussolini was " the right kind of tyrant " . Shaw was prepared to tolerate certain dictatorial excesses ; Weintraub in his ODNB biographical sketch comments that Shaw 's " flirtation with authoritarian inter @-@ war regimes " took a long time to fade , and Beatrice Webb thought he was " obsessed " about Mussolini .
= = = 1930s = = =
Shaw 's enthusiasm for the Soviet Union dated to the early 1920s when he had hailed Lenin as " the one really interesting statesman in Europe " . Having turned down several chances to visit , in 1931 he joined a party led by Nancy Astor . The carefully managed trip culminated in a lengthy meeting with Stalin , whom Shaw later described as " a Georgian gentleman " with no malice in him . At a dinner given in his honour , Shaw told the gathering : " I have seen all the ' terrors ' and I was terribly pleased by them " . In March 1933 Shaw was a co @-@ signatory to a letter in The Manchester Guardian protesting at the continuing misrepresentation of Soviet achievements : " No lie is too fantastic , no slander is too stale ... for employment by the more reckless elements of the British press . "
Shaw 's admiration for Mussolini and Stalin demonstrated his growing belief that dictatorship was the only viable political arrangement . When the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in January 1933 , Shaw described Hitler as " a very remarkable man , a very able man " , and professed himself proud to be the only writer in England who was " scrupulously polite and just to Hitler " . His principal admiration was for Stalin , whose regime he championed uncritically throughout the decade . Shaw saw the 1939 Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact as a triumph for Stalin who , he said , now had Hitler under his thumb .
Shaw 's first play of the decade was Too True to be Good , written in 1931 and premiered in Boston in February 1932 . The reception was unenthusiastic . Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times commenting that Shaw had " yielded to the impulse to write without having a subject " , judged the play a " rambling and indifferently tedious conversation " . The correspondent of The New York Herald Tribune said that most of the play was " discourse , unbelievably long lectures " and that although the audience enjoyed the play it was bewildered by it .
During the decade Shaw travelled widely and frequently . Most of his journeys were with Charlotte ; she enjoyed voyages on ocean liners , and he found peace to write during the long spells at sea . Shaw met an enthusiastic welcome in South Africa in 1932 , despite his strong remarks about the racial divisions of the country . In December 1932 the couple embarked on a round @-@ the @-@ world cruise . In March 1933 they arrived at San Francisco , to begin Shaw 's first visit to the US . He had earlier refused to go to " that awful country , that uncivilized place " , " unfit to govern itself ... illiberal , superstitious , crude , violent , anarchic and arbitrary " . He visited Hollywood , with which he was unimpressed , and New York , where he lectured to a capacity audience in the Metropolitan Opera House . Harried by the intrusive attentions of the press , Shaw was glad when his ship sailed from New York harbour . New Zealand , which he and Charlotte visited the following year , struck him as " the best country I 've been in " ; he urged its people to be more confident and loosen their dependence on trade with Britain . He used the weeks at sea to complete two plays — The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles and The Six of Calais — and begin work on a third , The Millionairess .
Despite his contempt for Hollywood and its aesthetic values , Shaw was enthusiastic about cinema , and in the middle of the decade wrote screenplays for prospective film versions of Pygmalion and Saint Joan . The latter was never made , but Shaw entrusted the rights to the former to the unknown Gabriel Pascal , who produced it at Pinewood Studios in 1938 . Shaw was determined that Hollywood should have nothing to do with the film , but was powerless to prevent it from winning two Academy Awards ( " Oscars " ) ; he described his award for " best @-@ written screenplay " as an insult , coming from such a source . He became , and at 2016 remains , the only person to have been awarded a Nobel Prize and an Oscar . In a 1993 study of the Oscars , Anthony Holden observes that Pygmalion was soon spoken of as having " lifted movie @-@ making from illiteracy to literacy " .
Shaw 's final plays of the 1930s were Cymbeline Refinished ( 1936 ) , Geneva ( 1936 ) and In Good King Charles 's Golden Days ( 1939 ) . The first , a fantasy reworking of Shakespeare , made little impression , but the second , a satire on European dictators , attracted more notice , much of it unfavourable . In particular , Shaw 's parody of Hitler as " Herr Battler " was considered mild , almost sympathetic . The third play , an historical conversation piece first seen at Malvern , ran briefly in London in May 1940 . James Agate commented that the play contained nothing to which even the most conservative audiences could take exception , and though it was long and lacking in dramatic action only " witless and idle " theatregoers would object . After their first runs none of the three plays were seen again in the West End during Shaw 's lifetime .
Towards the end of the decade , both Shaws began to suffer ill health . Charlotte was increasingly incapacitated by Paget 's disease of bone , and he developed pernicious anaemia . His treatment , involving injections of concentrated animal liver , was successful , but this breach of his vegetarian creed distressed him and brought down condemnation from militant vegetarians .
= = = Second World War and final years = = =
Although Shaw 's works since The Apple Cart had been received without great enthusiasm , his earlier plays were revived in the West End throughout the Second World War , starring such actors as Edith Evans , John Gielgud , Deborah Kerr and Robert Donat . In 1944 nine Shaw plays were staged in London , including Arms and the Man with Ralph Richardson , Laurence Olivier , Sybil Thorndike and Margaret Leighton in the leading roles . Two touring companies took his plays all round the country . The revival in his popularity did not tempt Shaw to write a new play , and he concentrated on prolific journalism . A second Shaw film produced by Pascal , Major Barbara ( 1941 ) was less successful , artistically and commercially , than Pygmalion , partly because of Pascal 's insistence on directing , to which he was unsuited .
Following the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939 and the rapid conquest of Poland , Shaw was accused of defeatism when , in a New Statesman article , he declared the war over and demanded a peace conference . Nevertheless , when he became convinced that a negotiated peace was impossible , he publicly urged the neutral United States to join the fight . The London blitz of 1940 – 41 led the Shaws , both in their mid @-@ eighties , to live full @-@ time at Ayot St Lawrence . Even there they were not immune from enemy air raids , and stayed on occasion with Nancy Astor at her country house , Cliveden . In 1943 , the worst of the London bombing over , the Shaws moved back to Whitehall Court , where medical help for Charlotte was more easily arranged . Her condition deteriorated and she died in September .
Shaw 's final political treatise , Everybody 's Political What 's What , was published in 1944 . Holroyd describes this as " a rambling narrative ... that repeats ideas he had given better elsewhere and then repeats itself " . The book sold well — 85 @,@ 000 copies by the end of the year . After Hitler 's suicide in May 1945 , Shaw approved of the formal condolences offered by the Irish Taoiseach , Éamon de Valera , at the German embassy in Dublin . Shaw disapproved of the postwar trials of the defeated German leaders , as an act of self @-@ righteousness : " We are all potential criminals " .
Pascal was given a third opportunity to film Shaw 's work with Caesar and Cleopatra ( 1945 ) . It cost three times its original budget and was rated " the biggest financial failure in the history of British cinema " . The film was poorly received by British critics , although American reviews were friendlier . Shaw thought its lavishness nullified the drama , and he considered the film " a poor imitation of Cecil B. de Mille " .
In 1946 , the year of Shaw 's ninetieth birthday , he accepted the freedom of Dublin and became the first honorary freeman of the borough of St Pancras , London . In the same year the government asked Shaw informally whether he would accept the Order of Merit . He declined , believing that an author 's merit could only be determined by the posthumous verdict of history . 1946 saw the publication , as The Crime of Imprisonment , of the preface Shaw had written 20 years previously to a study of prison conditions . It was widely praised ; a reviewer in The American Journal of Public Health considered it essential reading for any student of the American criminal justice system .
Shaw continued to write into his nineties . His last plays were Buoyant Billions ( 1947 ) , his final full @-@ length work ; Farfetched Fables ( 1948 ) a set of six short plays revisiting several of his earlier themes such as evolution ; a comic play for puppets , Shakes versus Shav ( 1949 ) , a ten @-@ minute piece in which Shakespeare and Shaw trade insults ; and Why She Would Not ( 1950 ) , which Shaw described as " a little comedy " , written in one week shortly before his ninety @-@ fourth birthday .
During his later years , Shaw enjoyed tending the gardens at Shaw 's Corner . He died at the age of ninety @-@ four of renal failure precipitated by injuries incurred when falling while pruning a tree . He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 6 November 1950 . His ashes , mixed with those of Charlotte , were scattered along footpaths and around the statue of Saint Joan in their garden .
= = Works = =
= = = Plays = = =
Shaw published a collected edition of his plays in 1934 , comprising forty @-@ two works . He wrote a further twelve in the remaining sixteen years of his life , mostly one @-@ act pieces . Including eight earlier plays that he chose to omit from his published works , the total is sixty @-@ two .
= = = = Early works = = = =
Shaw 's first three full @-@ length plays dealt with social issues . He later grouped them as " Plays Unpleasant " . Widower 's Houses ( 1892 ) concerns the landlords of slum properties , and introduces the first of Shaw 's New Women — a recurring feature of later plays . The Philanderer ( 1893 ) develops the theme of the New Woman , draws on Ibsen , and has elements of Shaw 's personal relationships , the character of Julia being based on Jenny Patterson . In a 2003 study Judith Evans describes Mrs Warren 's Profession ( 1893 ) as " undoubtedly the most challenging " of the three Plays Unpleasant , taking Mrs Warren 's profession — prostitute and , later , brothel @-@ owner — as a metaphor for a prostituted society .
Shaw followed the first trilogy with a second , published as " Plays Pleasant " . Arms and the Man ( 1894 ) conceals beneath a mock @-@ Ruritanian comic romance a Fabian parable contrasting impractical idealism with pragmatic socialism . The central theme of Candida ( 1894 ) is a woman 's choice between two men ; the play contrasts the outlook and aspirations of a Christian Socialist and a poetic idealist . The third of the Pleasant group , You Never Can Tell ( 1896 ) , portrays social mobility , and the gap between generations , particularly in how they approach social relations in general and mating in particular .
The " Three Plays for Puritans " — comprising The Devil 's Disciple ( 1896 ) , Caesar and Cleopatra ( 1898 ) and Captain Brassbound 's Conversion ( 1899 ) — all centre on questions of empire and imperialism , a major topic of political discourse in the 1890s . The three are set , respectively , in 1770s America , Ancient Egypt , and 1890s Morocco . The Gadfly , an adaptation of a popular novel by Ethel Voynich , was unfinished and unperformed . The Man of Destiny ( 1895 ) is a short curtain raiser about Napoleon .
= = = = 1900 – 09 = = = =
Shaw 's major plays of the first decade of the 20th century address individual social , political or ethical issues . Man and Superman ( 1902 ) stands apart from the others in both its subject and its treatment , giving Shaw 's interpretation of creative evolution in a combination of drama and associated printed text . The Admirable Bashville ( 1901 ) , a blank verse dramatisation of Shaw 's novel Cashel Byron 's Profession , focuses on the imperial relationship between Britain and Africa . John Bull 's Other Island ( 1904 ) , comically depicting the prevailing relationship between Britain and Ireland , was popular at the time but fell out of the general repertoire in later years . Major Barbara ( 1905 ) presents ethical questions in an unconventional way , confounding expectations that in the depiction of an armaments manufacturer on the one hand and the Salvation Army on the other the moral high ground must invariably be held by the latter . The Doctor 's Dilemma ( 1906 ) , a play about medical ethics and moral choices in allocating scarce treatment , was described by Shaw as a tragedy . With a reputation for presenting characters who did not resemble real flesh and blood , he was challenged by Archer to present an on @-@ stage death , and here did so , with a deathbed scene for the anti @-@ hero .
Getting Married ( 1908 ) and Misalliance ( 1909 ) — the latter seen by Judith Evans as a companion piece to the former — are both in what Shaw called his " disquisitionary " vein , with the emphasis on discussion of ideas rather than on dramatic events or vivid characterisation . Shaw wrote seven short plays during the decade ; they are all comedies , ranging from the deliberately absurd Passion , Poison , and Petrifaction ( 1905 ) to the satirical Press Cuttings ( 1909 ) .
= = = = 1910 – 19 = = = =
In the decade from 1910 to the aftermath of the First World War Shaw wrote four full @-@ length plays , the third and fourth of which are among his most frequently staged works . Fanny 's First Play ( 1911 ) continues his earlier examinations of middle @-@ class British society from a Fabian viewpoint , with additional touches of melodrama and an epilogue in which theatre critics discuss the play . Androcles and the Lion ( 1912 ) , which Shaw began writing as a play for children , became a study of the nature of religion and how to put Christian precepts into practice . Pygmalion ( 1912 ) is a Shavian study of language and speech and their importance in society and in personal relationships . To correct the impression left by the original performers that the play portrayed a romantic relationship between the two main characters Shaw rewrote the ending to make it clear that the heroine will marry another , minor character . Shaw 's only full @-@ length play from the war years is Heartbreak House ( 1917 ) , which in his words depicts " cultured , leisured Europe before the war " drifting towards disaster . Shaw named Shakespeare ( King Lear ) and Chekhov ( The Cherry Orchard ) as important influences on the piece , and critics have found elements drawing on Congreve ( The Way of the World ) and Ibsen ( The Master Builder ) .
The short plays range from genial historical drama in The Dark Lady of the Sonnets and Great Catherine ( 1910 and 1913 ) to a study of polygamy in Overruled ; three satirical works about the war ( The Inca of Perusalem , O 'Flaherty V.C. and Augustus Does His Bit , 1915 – 16 ) ; a piece that Shaw called " utter nonsense " ( The Music Cure , 1914 ) and a brief sketch about a " Bolshevik empress " ( Annajanska , 1917 ) .
= = = = 1920 – 50 = = = =
Saint Joan ( 1923 ) drew widespread praise both for Shaw and for Sybil Thorndike , for whom he wrote the title role and who created the part in Britain . In the view of the commentator Nicholas Grene , Shaw 's Joan , a " no @-@ nonsense mystic , Protestant and nationalist before her time " is among the 20th century 's classic leading female roles . The Apple Cart ( 1929 ) , was Shaw 's last popular success . He gave both that play and its successor , Too True to Be Good ( 1931 ) , the subtitle " A political extravaganza " , although the two works differ greatly in their themes ; the first presents the politics of a nation ( with a brief royal love @-@ scene as an interlude ) and the second , in Judith Evans 's words , " is concerned with the social mores of the individual , and is nebulous . " Shaw 's plays of the 1930s were written in the shadow of worsening national and international political events . Once again , with On the Rocks ( 1933 ) and The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles ( 1934 ) , a political comedy with a clear plot was followed by an introspective drama . The first play portrays a British prime minister considering , but finally rejecting , the establishment of a dictatorship ; the second is concerned with polygamy and eugenics and ends with the Day of Judgement .
The Millionairess ( 1934 ) is a farcical depiction of the commercial and social affairs of a successful businesswoman . Geneva ( 1936 ) lampoons the feebleness of the League of Nations compared with the dictators of Europe . In Good King Charles 's Golden Days ( 1939 ) , described by Weintraub as a warm , discursive high comedy , also depicts authoritarianism , but less satirically than Geneva . As in earlier decades , the shorter plays were generally comedies , some historical and others addressing various political and social preoccupations of the author . Ervine writes of Shaw 's later work that although it was still " astonishingly vigorous and vivacious " it showed unmistakable signs of his age . " The best of his work in this period , however , was full of wisdom and the beauty of mind often displayed by old men who keep their wits about them . "
= = = Music and drama reviews = = =
= = = = Music = = = =
Shaw 's collected musical criticism , published in three volumes , runs to more than 2 @,@ 700 pages . It covers the British musical scene from 1876 to 1950 , but the core of the collection dates from his six years as music critic of The Star and The World in the late 1880s and early 1890s . In his view music criticism should be interesting to everyone rather than just the musical élite , and he wrote for the non @-@ specialist , avoiding technical jargon — " Mesopotamian words like ' the dominant of D major ' " . He was fiercely partisan in his columns , promoting the music of Wagner and decrying that of Brahms and those British composers such as Stanford and Parry whom he saw as Brahmsian . He campaigned against the prevailing fashion for performances of Handel oratorios with huge amateur choirs and inflated orchestration , calling for " a chorus of twenty capable artists " . He railed against opera productions unrealistically staged or sung in languages the audience did not speak .
= = = = Drama = = = =
In Shaw 's view the London theatres of the 1890s presented too many revivals of old plays and not enough new work . He campaigned against " melodrama , sentimentality , stereotypes and worn @-@ out conventions " . As a music critic he had frequently been able to concentrate on analysing new works , but in the theatre he was often obliged to fall back on discussing how various performers tackled well @-@ known plays . In a study of Shaw 's work as a theatre critic , E. J. West writes that Shaw " ceaselessly compared and contrasted artists in interpretation and in technique " . Shaw contributed more than 150 articles as theatre critic for The Saturday Review , in which he assessed more than 212 productions . He championed Ibsen 's plays when many theatregoers regarded them as outrageous , and his 1891 book Quintessence of Ibsenism remained a classic throughout the 20th century . Of contemporary dramatists writing for the West End stage he rated Oscar Wilde above the rest : " ... our only thorough playwright . He plays with everything : with wit , with philosophy , with drama , with actors and audience , with the whole theatre " . Shaw 's collected criticisms were published as Our Theatres in the Nineties in 1932 .
Shaw maintained a provocative and frequently self @-@ contradictory attitude to Shakespeare ( whose name he insisted on spelling " Shakespear " ) . Many found him difficult to take seriously on the subject ; Duff Cooper observed that by attacking Shakespeare , " it is Shaw who appears a ridiculous pigmy shaking his fist at a mountain . " Shaw was , nevertheless , a knowledgeable Shakespearian , and in an article in which he wrote , " With the single exception of Homer , there is no eminent writer , not even Sir Walter Scott , whom I can despise so entirely as I despise Shakespear when I measure my mind against his , " he also said , " But I am bound to add that I pity the man who cannot enjoy Shakespear . He has outlasted thousands of abler thinkers , and will outlast a thousand more " . Shaw had two regular targets for his more extreme comments about Shakespeare : undiscriminating " Bardolaters " , and actors and directors who presented insensitively cut texts in over @-@ elaborate productions . He was continually drawn back to Shakespeare , and wrote three plays with Shakespearean themes : The Dark Lady of the Sonnets , Cymbeline Refinished and Shakes versus Shav . In a 2001 analysis of Shaw 's Shakespearian criticisms , Robert Pierce concludes that Shaw , who was no academic , saw Shakespeare 's plays — like all theatre — from an author 's practical point of view : " Shaw helps us to get away from the Romantics ' picture of Shakespeare as a titanic genius , one whose art cannot be analyzed or connected with the mundane considerations of theatrical conditions and profit and loss , or with a specific staging and cast of actors . "
= = = Political and social writings = = =
Shaw 's political and social commentaries were published variously in Fabian tracts , in essays , in two full @-@ length books , in innumerable newspaper and journal articles and in prefaces to his plays . The majority of Shaw 's Fabian tracts were published anonymously , representing the voice of the society rather than of Shaw , although the society 's secretary Edward Pease later confirmed Shaw 's authorship . According to Holroyd , the business of the early Fabians , mainly under the influence of Shaw , was to " alter history by rewriting it " . Shaw 's talent as a pamphleteer was put to immediate use in the production of the society 's manifesto — after which , says Holroyd , he was never again so succinct .
After the turn of the 20th century , Shaw increasingly propagated his ideas through the medium of his plays . An early critic , writing in 1904 , observed that Shaw 's dramas provided " a pleasant means " of proselytising his socialism , adding that " Mr Shaw 's views are to be sought especially in the prefaces to his plays " . After loosening his ties with the Fabian movement in 1911 , Shaw 's writings were more personal and often provocative ; his response to the furore following the issue of Common Sense About the War in 1914 , was to prepare a sequel , More Common Sense About the War . In this , he denounced the pacifist line espoused by Ramsay MacDonald and other socialist leaders , and proclaimed his readiness to shoot all pacifists rather than cede them power and influence . On the advice of Beatrice Webb , this pamphlet remained unpublished .
The Intelligent Woman 's Guide , Shaw 's main political treatise of the 1920s , attracted both admiration and criticism . MacDonald considered it the world 's most important book since the Bible ; Harold Laski thought its arguments outdated and lacking in concern for individual freedoms . Shaw 's increasing flirtation with dictatorial methods is evident in many of his subsequent pronouncements . A New York Times report dated 10 December 1933 quoted a recent Fabian Society lecture in which Shaw had praised Hitler , Mussolini and Stalin : " [ T ] hey are trying to get something done , [ and ] are adopting methods by which it is possible to get something done " . As late as the Second World War , in Everybody 's Political What 's What , Shaw blamed the Allies ' " abuse " of their 1918 victory for the rise of Hitler , and hoped that , after defeat , the Führer would escape retribution " to enjoy a comfortable retirement in Ireland or some other neutral country " . These sentiments , according to the Irish philosopher @-@ poet Thomas Duddy , " rendered much of the Shavian outlook passé and contemptible " .
" Creative evolution " , Shaw 's version of the new science of eugenics , became an increasing theme in his political writing after 1900 . He introduced his theories in The Revolutionist 's Handbook ( 1903 ) , an appendix to Man and Superman , and developed them further during the 1920s in Back to Methuselah . A 1946 Life magazine article observed that Shaw had " always tended to look at people more as a biologist than as an artist " . By 1933 , in the preface to On the Rocks , he was writing that " if we desire a certain type of civilization and culture we must exterminate the sort of people who do not fit into it " ; critical opinion is divided on whether this was intended as irony . In an article in the American magazine Liberty , in September 1938 , Shaw included the statement : " There are many people in the world who ought to be liquidated " . Many commentators assumed that such comments were intended as a joke , although in the worst possible taste . Otherwise , Life magazine concluded , " this silliness can be classed with his more innocent bad guesses " .
= = = Fiction = = =
Shaw 's fiction @-@ writing was largely confined to the five unsuccessful novels written in the period 1879 – 1885 . Immaturity ( 1879 ) is a semi @-@ autobiographical portrayal of mid @-@ Victorian England , Shaw 's " own David Copperfield " according to Weintraub . The Irrational Knot ( 1880 ) is a critique of conventional marriage , in which Weintraub finds the characterisations lifeless , " hardly more than animated theories " . Shaw was pleased with his third novel , Love Among the Artists ( 1881 ) , feeling that it marked a turning point in his development as a thinker , although he had no more success with it than with its predecessors . Cashel Byron 's Profession ( 1882 ) is , says Weintraub , an indictment of society which anticipates Shaw 's first full @-@ length play , Mrs Warren 's Profession . Shaw later explained that he had intended An Unsocial Socialist as the first section of a monumental depiction of the downfall of capitalism . Gareth Griffith , in a study of Shaw 's political thought , sees the novel as an interesting record of conditions , both in society at large and in the nascent socialist movement of the 1880s .
Shaw 's only subsequent fiction of any substance was his 1932 novella The Adventures of the Black Girl In Her Search for God , written during a visit to South Africa in 1932 . The eponymous girl , intelligent , inquisitive , and converted to Christianity by insubstantial missionary teaching , sets out to find God , on a journey that after many adventures and encounters , leads her to a secular conclusion . The story , on publication , offended some Christians and was banned in Ireland by the Board of Censors .
= = = Letters and diaries = = =
Shaw was a prolific correspondent throughout his life . His letters , edited by Dan H. Laurence , were published between 1965 and 1988 . Shaw once estimated his letters would occupy twenty volumes ; Laurence commented that , unedited , they would fill many more . Shaw wrote more than a quarter of a million letters , of which about ten per cent have survived ; 2 @,@ 653 letters are printed in Laurence 's four volumes . Among Shaw 's many regular correspondents were his childhood friend Edward McNulty ; his theatrical colleagues ( and amitiés amoureuses ) Mrs Patrick Campbell and Ellen Terry ; writers including Lord Alfred Douglas , H. G. Wells and G. K. Chesterton ; the boxer Gene Tunney ; the nun Laurentia McLachlan ; and the art expert Sydney Cockerell . In 2007 a 316 @-@ page volume consisting entirely of Shaw 's letters to The Times was published .
Shaw 's diaries for 1885 – 97 , edited by Weintraub , were published in two volumes , with a total of 1 @,@ 241 pages , in 1986 . Reviewing them , the Shaw scholar Fred Crawford wrote : " Although the primary interest for Shavians is the material that supplements what we already know about Shaw 's life and work , the diaries are also valuable as a historical and sociological document of English life at the end of the Victorian age . " After 1897 pressure of other writing led Shaw to give up keeping a diary .
= = = Miscellaneous and autobiographical = = =
Through his journalism , pamphlets and occasional longer works , Shaw wrote on many subjects . His range of interest and enquiry included vivisection , vegetarianism , religion , language , cinema and photography , on all of which he wrote and spoke copiously . Collections of his writings on these and other subjects were published , mainly after his death , together with volumes of selected aphorisms , " wit and wisdom " and general journalism .
Despite the many books written about him ( Holroyd counts 80 by 1939 ) Shaw 's autobiographical output , apart from his diaries , was relatively slight . He gave interviews to newspapers — " GBS Confesses " , to The Daily Mail in 1904 is an example — and provided sketches to would @-@ be biographers whose work was rejected by Shaw and never published . In 1939 Shaw drew on these materials to produce Shaw Gives Himself Away , a miscellany which , a year before his death , he revised and republished as Sixteen Self Sketches ( there were seventeen ) . He made it clear to his publishers that this slim book was in no sense a full autobiography .
= = Beliefs and opinions = =
In his lifetime Shaw professed many beliefs , often contradictory . This inconsistency was partly an intentional provocation — the Spanish scholar @-@ statesman Salvador de Madariaga describes Shaw as " a pole of negative electricity set in a people of positive electricity " . In one area at least Shaw was constant : in his lifelong refusal to follow normal English forms of spelling and punctuation . He favoured archaic spellings such as " shew " for " show " ; he dropped the " u " in words like " honour " and " favour " ; and wherever possible he rejected the apostrophe in contractions such as " won 't " or " that 's " . In his will Shaw ordered that after some specified legacies his remaining assets were to form a trust to pay for fundamental reform of the English alphabet , into a phonetic version of forty letters . Though Shaw 's intentions were clear , his drafting was flawed , and the courts initially ruled the intended trust void . A later out @-@ of @-@ court agreement provided a sum of £ 8 @,@ 300 for spelling reform ; the bulk of his fortune went to the residuary legatees — the British Museum , the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and the National Gallery of Ireland . Most of the £ 8 @,@ 300 went on a special phonetic edition of Androcles and the Lion , published in 1962 to a largely indifferent reception .
Less consistently maintained were Shaw 's views on religion and Christianity . Having in his youth proclaimed himself an atheist , in middle age he explained this as a reaction against the Old Testament image of a vengeful Jehovah . By the early 20th century he termed himself a " mystic " , although Gary Sloan , in an essay on Shaw 's beliefs , disputes his credentials as such . In 1913 Shaw declared that he was not religious " in the sectarian sense " , aligning himself with Jesus as " a person of no religion " . In the preface ( 1915 ) to Androcles and the Lion , Shaw asks " Why not give Christianity a chance " ? contending that Britain 's social order resulted from the continuing choice of Barabbas over Christ . In a broadcast just before the Second World War , Shaw invoked the Sermon on the Mount , " a very moving exhortation , and it gives you one first @-@ rate tip , which is to do good to those who despitefully use you and persecute you " . In his will , Shaw stated that his " religious convictions and scientific views cannot at present be more specifically defined than as those of a believer in creative revolution . " He requested that no one should imply that he accepted the beliefs of any specific religious organisation , and that no memorial to him should " take the form of a cross or any other instrument of torture or symbol of blood sacrifice . "
Shaw espoused racial equality , and inter @-@ marriage between people of different races . Despite his expressed wish to be fair to Hitler , he called anti @-@ Semitism " the hatred of the lazy , ignorant fat @-@ headed Gentile for the pertinacious Jew who , schooled by adversity to use his brains to the utmost , outdoes him in business " . In The Jewish Chronicle he wrote in 1932 , " In every country you can find rabid people who have a phobia against Jews , Jesuits , Armenians , Negroes , Freemasons , Irishmen , or simply foreigners as such . Political parties are not above exploiting these fears and jealousies . "
In 1903 Shaw joined in a controversy about vaccination against smallpox . He called vaccination " a peculiarly filthy piece of witchcraft " ; in his view immunisation campaigns were a cheap and inadequate substitute for a decent programme of housing for the poor , which would , he declared , be the means of eradicating smallpox and other infectious diseases . Less contentiously , Shaw was keenly interested in transport ; Laurence observed in 1992 a need for a published study of Shaw 's interest in " bicycling , motorbikes , automobiles , and planes , climaxing in his joining the Interplanetary Society in his nineties . " Shaw published articles on travel , took photographs of his journeys , and submitted notes to the Royal Automobile Club .
Shaw strove throughout his adult life to be referred to as " Bernard Shaw " rather than " George Bernard Shaw " , but confused matters by continuing to use his full initials — G.B.S. — as a by @-@ line , and often signed himself " G. Bernard Shaw " . He left instructions in his will that his executor ( the Public Trustee ) was to license publication of his works only under the name Bernard Shaw . Shaw scholars including Ervine , Judith Evans , Holroyd , Laurence and Weintraub , and many publishers have respected Shaw 's preference , although the Cambridge University Press was among the exceptions with its 1988 Cambridge Companion to George Bernard Shaw .
= = Legacy and influence = =
= = = Theatrical = = =
Shaw did not found a school of dramatists as such , but Crawford asserts that today " we recognise [ him ] as second only to Shakespeare in the British theatrical tradition ... the proponent of the theater of ideas " who struck a death @-@ blow to 19th @-@ century melodrama . According to Laurence , Shaw pioneered " intelligent " theatre , in which the audience was required to think , thereby paving the way for the new breeds of 20th @-@ century playwrights from Galsworthy to Pinter .
Crawford lists numerous playwrights whose work owes something to that of Shaw . Among those active in Shaw 's lifetime he includes Noël Coward , who based his early comedy The Young Idea on You Never Can Tell and continued to draw on the older man 's works in later plays . T. S. Eliot , by no means an admirer of Shaw , admitted that the epilogue of Murder in the Cathedral , in which Becket 's slayers explain their actions to the audience , might have been influenced by Saint Joan . The critic Eric Bentley comments that Eliot 's later play The Confidential Clerk " had all the earmarks of Shavianism ... without the merits of the real Bernard Shaw " . Among more recent British dramatists , Crawford marks Tom Stoppard as " the most Shavian of contemporary playwrights " ; Shaw 's " serious farce " is continued in the works of Stoppard 's contemporaries Alan Ayckbourn , Henry Livings and Peter Nichols .
Shaw 's influence crossed the Atlantic at an early stage . Bernard Dukore notes that he was successful as a dramatist in America ten years before achieving comparable success in Britain . Among many American writers professing a direct debt to Shaw , Eugene O 'Neill became an admirer at the age of seventeen , after reading The Quintessence of Ibsenism . Other Shaw @-@ influenced American playwrights mentioned by Dukore are Elmer Rice , for whom Shaw " opened doors , turned on lights , and expanded horizons " ; William Saroyan , who empathised with Shaw as " the embattled individualist against the philistines " ; and S. N. Behrman , who was inspired to write for the theatre after attending a performance of Caesar and Cleopatra : " I thought it would be agreeable to write plays like that " .
Assessing Shaw 's reputation in a 1976 critical study , T. F. Evans described Shaw as unchallenged in his lifetime and since as the leading English @-@ language dramatist of the century , and as a master of prose style . The following year , in a contrary assessment , the playwright John Osborne castigated The Guardian 's theatre critic Michael Billington for referring to Shaw as " the greatest British dramatist since Shakespeare " . Osborne responded that Shaw " is the most fraudulent , inept writer of Victorian melodramas ever to gull a timid critic or fool a dull public " . Despite this hostility , Crawford sees the influence of Shaw in some of Osborne 's plays , and concludes that though the latter 's work is neither imitative nor derivative , these affinities are sufficient to classify Osborne as an inheritor of Shaw .
In a 1983 study , R. J. Kaufmann suggests that Shaw was a key forerunner — " godfather , if not actually finicky paterfamilias " — of the Theatre of the Absurd . Two further aspects of Shaw 's theatrical legacy are noted by Crawford : his opposition to stage censorship , which was finally ended in 1968 , and his efforts which extended over many years to establish a National Theatre . Shaw 's short 1910 play The Dark Lady of the Sonnets , in which Shakespeare pleads with Queen Elizabeth I for the endowment of a state theatre , was part of this campaign .
Writing in The New Statesman in 2012 Daniel Janes commented that Shaw 's reputation had declined by the time of his 150th anniversary in 2006 but had recovered considerably . In Janes 's view , the many current revivals of Shaw 's major works showed the playwright 's " almost unlimited relevance to our times " . In the same year , Mark Lawson wrote in The Guardian that Shaw 's moral concerns engaged present @-@ day audiences , and made him — like his model , Ibsen — one of the most popular playwrights in contemporary British theatre .
= = = General = = =
In the 1940s the author Harold Nicolson advised the National Trust not to accept the bequest of Shaw 's Corner , predicting that Shaw would be totally forgotten within fifty years . In the event , Shaw 's broad cultural legacy , embodied in the widely used term " Shavian " , has endured and is nurtured by Shaw Societies in various parts of the world . The original society was founded in London in 1941 and survives ; it organises meetings and events , and publishes a regular bulletin The Shavian . The Shaw Society of America began in June 1950 ; it foundered in the 1970s but its journal , adopted by Penn State University Press , continued to be published as Shaw : The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies until 2004 . A second American organisation , founded in 1951 as " The Bernard Shaw Society " , remains active as of 2016 . More recent societies have been established in Japan and India .
Besides his collected music criticism , Shaw has left a varied musical legacy , not all of it of his choosing . Despite his dislike of having his work adapted for the musical theatre ( " my plays set themselves to a verbal music of their own " ) two of his plays were turned into musical comedies : Arms and the Man was the basis of The Chocolate Soldier in 1908 , with music by Oscar Straus , and Pygmalion was adapted in 1956 as My Fair Lady with book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner and music by Frederick Loewe . Although he had a high regard for Elgar , Shaw turned down the composer 's request for an opera libretto , but played a major part in persuading the BBC to commission Elgar 's Third Symphony , and was the dedicatee of The Severn Suite ( 1930 ) .
The substance of Shaw 's political legacy is uncertain . In 1921 Shaw 's erstwhile collaborator William Archer , in a letter to the playwright , wrote : " I doubt if there is any case of a man so widely read , heard , seen , and known as yourself , who has produced so little effect on his generation . " Margaret Cole , who considered Shaw the greatest writer of his age , professed never to have understood him . She thought he worked " immensely hard " at politics , but essentially , she surmises , it was for fun — " the fun of a brilliant artist " . After Shaw 's death , Pearson wrote : " No one since the time of Tom Paine has had so definite an influence on the social and political life of his time and country as Bernard Shaw . "
In its obituary tribute to Shaw , The Times Literary Supplement concluded :
He was no originator of ideas . He was an insatiable adopter and adapter , an incomparable prestidigitator with the thoughts of the forerunners . Nietzsche , Samuel Butler ( Erewhon ) , Marx , Shelley , Blake , Dickens , William Morris , Ruskin , Beethoven and Wagner all had their applications and misapplications . By bending to their service all the faculties of a powerful mind , by inextinguishable wit , and by every artifice of argument , he carried their thoughts as far as they would reach — so far beyond their sources that they came to us with the vitality of the newly created .
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= = = = Shaw 's writings = = = =
= = = = Journals = = = =
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= Mega Man : Dr. Wily 's Revenge =
Mega Man : Dr. Wily 's Revenge , known as Rockman World ( ロックマンワールド , Rokkuman Wārudo ) in Japan , is a platform video game by Capcom for the Nintendo Game Boy . It is the first game in the handheld series of the Mega Man franchise . It was first released in Japan on July 26 , 1991 , and was localized in North America that December and in Europe the following year . The game continues the adventures of the android hero Mega Man as he once again confronts the evil Dr. Wily , who has recently dispatched his revived " Robot Masters " and a new " Mega Man Killer " named Enker .
Dr. Wily 's Revenge is an action and platform game in same vein as the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) Mega Man games . The player is tasked with completing a series of four stages in any order desired . Beating a stage 's boss will earn the player a special weapon that can be selected at will and used throughout the rest of the game . Dr. Wily 's Revenge specifically takes components of the original Mega Man and Mega Man 2 , including their enemies , stage aesthetics , and Robot Masters .
According to series artist Keiji Inafune , Dr. Wily 's Revenge was the first Mega Man game to be outsourced to a developer separate from Capcom . Critical reception for the game has been favorable , and most sources have denoted it as a competent , if excessively difficult , portable version of the popular NES series . Dr. Wily 's Revenge was a best @-@ seller and spawned four sequels of its own on the Game Boy , many of which follow its trend of reusing elements from their home console counterparts . In 2011 , Dr. Wily 's Revenge was made available as a Virtual Console launch title on Japan 's Nintendo eShop for the Nintendo 3DS . It also appeared on PAL region and North American eShops later that year .
= = Plot = =
Set in the 21st century ( " 200X " ) , Mega Man : Dr. Wily 's Revenge follows the storyline of the original Mega Man series . The titular protagonist Mega Man , a super robot created by the benevolent Dr. Light , has restored peace to the world by halting the plans of the evil Dr. Wily and his powerful " Robot Masters " . In Dr. Wily 's Revenge , the mad scientist returns to send eight of his old robot masters to contend with the hero once again . After vanquishing four of the robot masters , Mega Man heads to Wily 's Fortress and deals with the remaining half of them . The protagonist then battles a new robot designed solely for destroying him , the " Mega Man Killer " Enker . As Mega Man defeats Enker and obtains his mirror buster ability , Wily retreats to a space station . Mega Man gives chase and , using the mirror buster , destroys Wily 's newly built , final weapon . After putting a stop to his nemesis once again , Mega Man travels back home via space shuttle .
= = Gameplay = =
Mega Man : Dr. Wily 's Revenge is an action @-@ platformer that shares many similarities with its NES counterparts . The player , as Mega Man , is able to choose among four stages to complete in whatever order desired . Each stage contains various enemies to blast through and obstacles to overcome , such as leaping between disappearing blocks over deadly spikes and bottomless pits . Mega Man 's primary weapon is an arm cannon that has unlimited ammunition . Destroyed enemies typically leave items that replenish Mega Man 's health or extra lives . At the end of every stage is a boss battle with a robot master , and defeating it earns the player its special weapon . Each boss is weak to another 's weapon , allowing the player to strategize the order in which they are beaten .
Dr. Wily 's Revenge reuses and mixes stage components , enemies , and robot masters from the first two NES games in the Mega Man series . The initial four stages and bosses ( Cut Man , Ice Man , Fire Man , and Elec Man ) come from the original Mega Man . A password system allows the player to return to the game after any or all of these first four stages are cleared or when the player suffers a game over . Once the player completes these stages and travels through Wily 's fortress , four more robot masters must be fought in order to progress . These bosses ( Quick Man , Bubble Man , Flash Man , and Heat Man ) are taken from Mega Man 2 for NES . Although they do not have their own stages , the player earns the special weapons of these bosses . Once all four are defeated , the player faces a new robot master created for the game , Enker .
= = Development = =
According to series artist and producer Keiji Inafune , Mega Man : Dr. Wily 's Revenge was the first Mega Man game to be outsourced by Capcom for its development . He felt the game turned out well because the project 's leader was a " huge Mega Man fan " who appeared to understand the games better than some of Capcom 's own people . Because he thought much of his artwork from the original Mega Man was not aging well , Inafune redrew many of his old illustrations to be used for the game 's enemy character sprites . Beginning with Mega Man 2 for the NES , Capcom began accepting boss ideas from fans . It was not until Dr. Wily 's Revenge that Inafune was able to design a boss character from scratch . To keep with the musical motif of naming characters , the new character Enker was named after the Japanese genre enka .
The decision to release a Game Boy incarnation of the Mega Man series came after the release of Mega Man 3 on the NES . Early reports of Dr. Wily 's Revenge were made in February 1991 in both the magazine GamePro and Steven A. Schwartz 's book The Official Guide to Mega Man . The North American version of this game and the first DOS Mega Man game share a similar cover art . Instead of being an all new illustration , the Dr. Wily 's Revenge North American artwork is a simple touch @-@ up of Mega Man 3 's regional cover , with the surrounding landscape and robot masters cropped out of the picture .
= = Reception and legacy = =
General critical reception for Mega Man : Dr. Wily 's Revenge has been above average , a popular opinion being that the game retains the respectable run @-@ and @-@ gun gameplay of the earliest NES entries in the series . " What makes this game especially attractive to adults , " proclaimed Entertainment Weekly 's Bob Strauss , " is that you can begin your quest on any one of four stages , thus avoiding that linear , start @-@ over @-@ again @-@ from @-@ scratch quality that only 12 @-@ year @-@ olds find hypnotic . " The use of old stages and bosses has not been universally positive . GamePro was disappointed by the game 's lack of originality but preferred its use of recycled content to poorly made new content . In a 2007 retrospective of the Mega Man franchise , 1UP.com writer Jeremy Parish found the use of rehashed details acceptable for its original release , but believed that Dr. Wily 's Revenge " hasn 't really held up " .
Reviewers have also commented on the game 's high difficulty level . Craig Skistimas of ScrewAttack stated that certain parts of the game simply require one to have played before in order to succeed . Allgame contributor Colin Williamson noted the game as extremely hard due to its " pixel @-@ perfect jumps " , the " sheer number of attackers and flying bullets " , and a lack of checkpoints within each stage . IGN editor Lucas M. Thomas pointed out that the large size of the player character within the small Game Boy screen makes dodging enemy attacks overly challenging and sometimes impossible . He furthermore observed the difficulty to be compounded by a lack of helpful Energy Tanks introduced in the NES Mega Man sequels .
The readers of GamePro voted Dr. Wily 's Revenge the best handheld game of 1991 . Nintendo Power readers voted it the fifth @-@ best Game Boy game of that year . In North America , Dr. Wily 's Revenge was released under Nintendo 's Player 's Choice best @-@ seller label in 1996 . The game was followed by four sequels on the Game Boy , of which the first three similarly recycle content from the NES games . In Japan , the game was made available on the Nintendo Power cartridge service on March 13 , 2001 . Capcom had planned to release a full @-@ color compilation of all five Game Boy games on the Game Boy Advance in 2004 , but the project was cancelled . In 2011 , Dr. Wily 's Revenge was released as a Virtual Console launch title on Japan 's Nintendo eShop for the Nintendo 3DS . The game made its way to PAL region and North American eShops later that year .
The character Enker , who debuted in Dr. Wily 's Revenge , appeared as a boss in the Game Boy game Mega Man V and as a playable character in the Super Nintendo Entertainment System game Mega Man Soccer . A downloadable stage in Mega Man 10 features Enker as its boss and his Mirror Buster weapon as the reward for beating him .
= = Other Media = =
Mega Man : Dr. Wily 's Revenge ( Rockman World ) is one of the video games featured in the manga titled Rock 'n Game Boy , by Shigeto Ikehara and Published by Comic BomBom October 1989 to December 1991 .
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= Lupe Fiasco =
Wasalu Muhammad Jaco ( born February 16 , 1982 ) , better known by his stage name Lupe Fiasco ( / ˈluːpeɪ / LOO @-@ pay ) , is an American rapper , record producer , and entrepreneur . He rose to fame in 2006 following the success of his debut album , Lupe Fiasco 's Food & Liquor . He also performs as the frontman of rock band Japanese Cartoon under his real name . As an entrepreneur , Fiasco is the chief executive officer of 1st & 15th Entertainment .
Raised in Chicago , Jaco developed an interest in hip hop after initially disliking the genre for its use of vulgarity and misogyny . After adopting the name Lupe Fiasco and recording songs in his father 's basement , 19 @-@ year @-@ old Fiasco joined a group called Da Pak . The group disbanded shortly after its inception , and Fiasco soon met rapper Jay @-@ Z who helped him sign a record deal with Atlantic Records . In September 2006 , Fiasco released his debut album Lupe Fiasco 's Food & Liquor on the label , which received three Grammy nominations . He released his second album , Lupe Fiasco 's The Cool , in December 2007 . The lead single " Superstar " became his first top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 . After a two @-@ year delay , Lasers was released in March 2011 to mixed reviews ; however , it became his first album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 . His latest album , Tetsuo & Youth , was released in January 2015 .
In addition to music , Fiasco has pursued other business ventures , including fashion . He runs two clothing lines , Righteous Kung @-@ Fu and Trilly & Truly ; he has designed sneakers for Reebok . He has been involved with charitable activities , including the Summit on the Summit expedition , and in 2010 he recorded a benefit single for victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake . Fiasco is also noted for his anti @-@ establishment views , which he has expressed in both interviews and his music .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1982 – 99 : Early life = = =
Fiasco was born Wasalu Muhammad Jaco on February 16 , 1982 in Chicago , Illinois . Of West African descent , he was one of nine children of Shirley , a gourmet chef , and Gregory , an engineer . His father , a member of the Black Panther Party , was a prolific African drummer , karate teacher , operating plant engineer , and owner of karate schools and army surplus stores . Fiasco was raised Muslim on the West Side of Chicago on Madison Terrace housing project . At the age of three , Fiasco began taking martial arts classes . His parents divorced when he was five , and he went on to live with his mother , but his father still remained an important part of his life . He described his father 's influence over the family by saying , " After school , my father would come and get us and take us out into the world — one day , we 're listening to N.W.A , the next day we 're listening to Ravi Shankar , the next day , he 's teaching us how to shoot an AK @-@ 47 , the next day , we 're at karate class , the next day , we 're in Chinatown ... " .
In sixth grade , he went to live with his father full @-@ time in Harvey , Illinois . His father lived next door to a crack house and taught Fiasco to use guns to defend himself from drug dealers . Despite his unstable upbringing , Fiasco states that he was well @-@ educated as a child , asserting that his parents exposed him to a diverse array of subjects and that reading was highly encouraged in his household . As a teenager , Fiasco participated in Academic Decathlon competitions . His mother described him by saying , " He was a great spirited child . Smart , a bit complex ; he kind of was a loner ; he didn 't hang with a lot of people ... He always had the glasses . Always had a book bag over his shoulder and some type of a writing tablet . " Fiasco initially disliked hip hop music for its use of vulgarity , and preferred to listen to jazz ; he idolized clarinet player Benny Goodman . His struggle to learn to play an instrument led him to create poetry instead , which led to his interest in the lyrical aspects of music .
He began rapping his poems in the eighth grade , and upon hearing Nas ' 1996 album , It Was Written , began to pursue hip hop . While attending Thornton Township High School , Fiasco met gang member Bishop G. The two became friends due to their shared interest in music . Fiasco 's father allowed him and Bishop to make mixtapes in his basement , and the two gained notoriety at the school for their music . However , they were kicked off stage during their first performance because their eclectic musical style was not embraced by the hip hop community . Early in his career , he went by stage names Little Lu and Lu tha Underdog . Growing up , Fiasco was given the nickname " Lu " , the last part of his first name , by his mother . " Lupe " is an extension of this nickname , which he borrowed from a friend from high school . " Fiasco " is a reference to The Firm song " Firm Fiasco " ; the rapper " liked the way it looked on paper . " He also said of his name , " You know how rappers always have names like MC Terrorist — like they 're ' terrorizing ' other rappers ? I knew fiasco meant a great disaster or something like that , but I didn 't realize that the person named Fiasco would be the disaster , and that you should be calling other MCs fiascos — not yourself ... it kind of humbled me in a sense . It taught me like , ' Yo , stop rushing , or you 're going to have some fiascos . ' "
= = = 2000 – 2005 : Career beginnings = = =
When Fiasco was 18 , he began creating music as a solo artist in his father 's basement , even though his parents were not keen on having their son be a rapper . He scoured flea markets and secondhand stores , where he was able to find an old mixing board and a record player , stacks of vinyl records , and mic stands . At age 19 , Fiasco joined a group called Da Pak , which was influenced by other California gangsta rappers such as Spice 1 and Ice Cube . Da Pak signed to Epic Records and released one single before splitting up . Fiasco later described the experience , saying " We had a song out about cocaine , guns , and women , and I would go to a record store and look at it and think , ' What are you doing ? ' I felt like a hypocrite . I was acting like this rapper who would never be judged , and I had to destroy that guy . Because what Lupe Fiasco says on this microphone is going to come back to Wasalu Jaco . When the music cuts off , you have to go home and live with what you say . "
After turning away from gangsta rap , he developed a greater appreciation of the lyricism of Jay Z and Nas . His mother also gave him a record of the influential group The Watts Prophets , one of the first bands to use spoken words with music . Although he was without a group for the first time , Fiasco continued to record music . One of these first self @-@ recorded tracks was " Could Have Been " , which described the career options he could have pursued had he not begun rapping . He viewed the song as a turning point in his career that marked a drastic change in the subject matter of his music . " Could Have Been " was released as a demo tape and discovered by MTV despite the fact that no video was created for the song .
Fiasco later signed a solo deal with Arista Records , but was dropped when president and CEO L.A. Reid was fired . During his short tenure at Arista , he met Jay @-@ Z , who was the president of Def Jam Recordings at the time . Jay @-@ Z referred to him as a " breath of fresh air " , saying that he reminded him of a younger version of himself . Jay @-@ Z later helped him get a record deal at Atlantic Records . While Fiasco was working on his debut solo album , he released his mixtape series Fahrenheit 1 / 15 over the internet , which gained notoriety by word @-@ of @-@ mouth .
He remixed Kanye West 's song , " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " , renaming the new version as " Conflict Diamonds " . With this remix , Fiasco wished to raise awareness of the conflict diamond business . This caught West 's attention , and he asked Fiasco to perform on the song " Touch the Sky " for West 's album Late Registration . The song , which sampled Curtis Mayfield 's " Move On Up " , became a hit in the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number forty @-@ two . After this success , Fiasco 's first single " Kick , Push " was released earlier than expected . The song was a love story about two people sharing a passion for skateboarding , a topic generally not discussed in hip @-@ hop . Fiasco explained , " [ Skateboarding culture is ] just as deep as hip @-@ hop . I 'm not the greatest skateboarder , but I 'm a damn good rapper , so I made a damn good skateboarding song . " The single , and its accompanying music video , helped Fiasco get attention in the hip @-@ hop community , and was later nominated for two 2007 Grammy Awards . During this time , he recorded guest performances on Tha ' Rayne 's " Kiss Me " and " Didn 't You Know " singles , and also on K Foxx 's 2004 " This Life " .
= = = 2006 – 08 : Lupe Fiasco 's Food & Liquor and The Cool = = =
Jay Z assisted him in the production of what would become his debut album Lupe Fiasco 's Food & Liquor . The title of the album is a reference to ' Food and Liquor ' stores common in Chicago . He explains , " The store is where everything is at ... Food to me represents growth and progression . You eat food and you get strength . You need it to live . Liquor is not a necessity ; it is a want . It destroys you . It breaks you down . I can see why it 's prohibited in Islam ... I 've always felt like liquor represents the bad , the food represents the good , and everyone is made up of a little of both . " Lupe Fiasco 's Food & Liquor was officially released on September 19 , 2006 . The album featured production from Jay @-@ Z , Kanye West , Mike Shinoda , The Neptunes , Prolyfic , among others . The record spawned the singles " Kick , Push " , " I Gotcha " and " Daydreamin ' " featuring Jill Scott . The critically lauded album was later nominated for three Grammy Awards including Best Rap Album . Fiasco won " Best Urban / Alternative Performance " for " Daydreamin ' " . In the same year , he was voted by GQ magazine as the " Breakout Man of the Year . " He also received four BET Hip Hop Award nominations , and it made it to number eight on Billboard 200 and number two on Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . That same year he participated in the first Cypher at the BET Hip @-@ Hop Awards .
In 2007 , Fiasco announced his second album , Lupe Fiasco 's The Cool , a concept album that expands on the story of the track of the same name on his first album . While recording this album , Fiasco 's father died of type II diabetes and his business partner , Charles " Chilly " Patton , was convicted of attempting to supply heroin to a drug ring and was eventually sentenced to 44 years in a correctional facility . These events greatly affected Fiasco and the subsequent themes discussed on the record . The disc was released in December 2007 in United States while the first single and video from the album , " Superstar " featuring Matthew Santos was released the first week of November 2007 . Lupe Fiasco 's The Cool , a concept album that expanded upon recurring themes in Food & Liquor , is about " a hustler who dies and comes back to life , only to get robbed by two little kids with the same gun that killed him . " For the record , Fiasco decided not to work with well @-@ known producers as he considered it to be " too expensive " , noting the commercial failure of his Pharrell collaboration , " I Gotcha " .
Lupe Fiasco 's The Cool was very well received by critics and was referred to as " one of the year 's best hip @-@ hop albums " by The New York Times . " Superstar " , a semi @-@ autobiographical account of his rise to fame , was released as the first single from the album , and peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Baseball 's Hanley Ramírez , Troy Tulowitzki , Ryan Zimmerman , Gerald Laird and Ryan Braun have used " Superstar " as their at @-@ bat song . The album 's second single ( released in the UK in April 2008 ) was " Paris , Tokyo " – a song based around Fiasco 's experiences of touring the world between his first and second albums . Moreover , in 2007 it was revealed that Fiasco , Kanye West and Pharrell Williams had formed a group called Child Rebel Soldier . CRS initially released one single , entitled " US Placers " and featuring a Thom Yorke sample . In an interview with The Village Voice , Fiasco revealed that he was writing a novel about a window washer , aptly titled Reflections of a Window Washer . In 2008 , Fiasco and his band 1500 or Nothin joined Kanye West 's Glow in the Dark Tour which also featured Rihanna and N.E.R.D. The tour stopped in several cities , including his hometown of Chicago . In 2008 , MTV named Fiasco the 7th Hottest MC in the Game and announced that he was remixing The Cool with French electro house act Justice .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Lasers = = =
At a performance in New Zealand in February 2010 , Fiasco performed new material from the then @-@ titled We Are Lasers for the first time . He claimed that the album was complete and waiting for a release date from his label , Atlantic Records . However , Atlantic feared that the record lacked commercial singles , and presented Fiasco with songs the label wanted him to record . Fiasco declined , as he was told he would not have any ownership of the songs . He explained , " I don 't think the label cares about an album ... People just want their number @-@ one record . " For six months , the cause of the album 's delay remained unclear to the public . In response , Fiasco 's fans created an online petition demanding that Atlantic Records release Lasers . The petition garnered considerable attention on hip hop blog sites as well as over 16 @,@ 000 signatures . Fiasco stated that the petition " brought [ him ] to tears " , and in response to the petition , Fiasco released a song titled " B.M.F @-@ Building Minds Faster " to thank his fans .
While waiting for Lasers to be released , Fiasco completed another album , titled Food & Liquor II : The Great American Rap Album . He was unsure if the Food and Liquor II would ever be released , though he released the song " Go To Sleep " from the record " out of desperation " to put out new music . He also pursued numerous side projects in the midst of the delay . In April 2010 , Fiasco formed the hip hop collective All City Chess Club along with Pharrell , Asher Roth , B.o.B , The Cool Kids , Charles Hamilton , Blu , Diggy Simmons , Wale , J. Cole , & Dosage . The group has so far made one song , a remix of Fiasco 's " I 'm Beamin " . Additionally , On July 16 , 2010 , Fiasco released his rock side @-@ project Japanese Cartoon 's debut EP In The Jaws of the Lords of Death . Japanese Cartoon was influenced by a variety of musical genres , with Fiasco saying , " I 've always been a fan of all music ... Hip hop is just something I actually know how to do but I always had aspirations to participate in other forms of music . Once I got to create some hip hop , it was like , ' Okay , what am I going to do now ? ' So my artistic side was like , ' Yo , let 's do some rock music . ' "
More than two and a half years after the album 's completion , Lasers was released on March 8 , 2011 . The first single from the record was " The Show Goes On " , which samples " Float On " by Modest Mouse . " The Show Goes On " debuted at number 57 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The lead single peaked at number 9 since then . The producers involved on the album include Alex Da Kidd , King David " The Future " and Jerry " Wonda " Duplessis , while featured artists include Skylar Grey , Trey Songz , and John Legend . Upon the album 's release , Lasers debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 204 @,@ 000 copies . Despite the album 's commercial success , Lasers received mixed reviews from most music critics . Writing for AllMusic , editor Andy Kellman gave the record three out of five stars and criticized its " lumbering , overwrought choruses " , writing that " If there is one MC whose rhymes should not be dulled for the sake of chasing pop trends , it 's Lupe Fiasco " . Lasers , however , was nominated Best Rap Album , with " The Show Goes On " nominated for Best Rap Performance , and Best Rap Song at the 2012 Grammy Awards . Lupe Fiasco later involved himself at the Occupy Wall Street movement where he donated tents and released a poem in support of the protesters . He also released his " Friend of the People : I Fight Evil " mixtape on Thanksgiving Day .
= = = 2012 – 13 : Food & Liquor II : The Great American Rap Album = = =
Fiasco has since released Food & Liquor 2 , as well as put work into a joint album with fellow Child Rebel Soldier & All City Chess Club member Pharrell . Prior to the album 's release , he revealed that there would be no more mixtapes after " Friend Of The People : I Fight Evil " prior to Food & Liquor II : The Great American Rap Album , which was planned to be a double @-@ disc with Part I set to release in fall 2012 . Its lead single , the Simonsayz and B @-@ Side produced track Around My Way ( Freedom Ain 't Free ) , was released on May 21 , which stirred controversy from an infuriated Pete Rock for using a sample from They Reminisce Over You ( T.R.O.Y. ) . Rock said that he felt " so violated " by the use of the sample , although the original track itself used samples from Tom Scott and James Brown .
Fiasco recently collaborated with Australian singer / songwriter Guy Sebastian on the single " Battle Scars " . The single was recorded in Sebastian 's Sydney studio when Fiasco was in Australia for Supafest , and is featured on Sebastian 's album Armageddon . It debuted at number one in Australia in its first week , becoming Fiasco 's first number one single . On 21 August it was announced " Battle Scars " would be included on Fiasco 's fourth album , Food & Liquor II : The Great American Rap Album Pt . 1 , and was released as the fourth single in the United States on 28 August 2012 . It reached number 71 on the US Billboard Hot 100 Chart , number 23 on the Billboard Digital Song Chart and number one on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital Song Chart . The song spent 20 nonconsecutive weeks in the Billboard Hot 100 , and reached platinum certification . " Battle Scars " spent six weeks at number one in Australia , and has been certified 9 × platinum by ARIA . It also reached number two and double platinum in New Zealand and number two in Norway .
Food & Liquor II : The Great American Rap Album Pt . 1 was released on September 25 , 2012 . The songs " Go to Sleep " and " Bitch Bad " were also released as singles . The album received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 70 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , based on 18 reviews . It was also nominated for Best Rap Album at the 55th Grammy Awards . Originally , the album was set to be released as a double @-@ disc album , but Atlantic Records did not allow this arrangement , so the album was divided into two . It was confirmed that a Part 2 will be released in Spring 2013 . Lupe has said the album showcases more of his dexterity and lyrical substance . S1 has confirmed to be producing on the album . On January 17 , 2013 he canceled the plan for the release of the second part of the original double disk . He then said that he would release another studio album in 2013 .
= = = 2013 – present : Tetsuo & Youth = = =
On February 10 , 2013 , on the red carpet for the Grammy Awards he announced his fifth studio album would be titled Tetsuo & Youth . Since then , he has released songs that are not slated to be on Tetsuo & Youth . These songs are " Light Blue " and " Jonylah Forever . " Upon hearing her name in Lupe 's song Form Follows Function , Imogen Heap reached out to Lupe on Twitter to give a thank you which led to Fiasco asking her to appear on his next album making her a possible guest artist on Tetsuo and Youth . On August 4 , 2013 Lupe Fiasco revealed a new song would be released on September 11 , titled " Peace of Paper / Cup of Jayzus " .
On August 24 , 2013 , Fiasco revealed the first song from Tetsuo & Youth , " Crack " , featuring Chris Brown . Then on October 3 , 2013 , Fiasco announced the Tetsuo & Youth Preview tour to take place between November 2 and December 15 , 2013 . The tour featuring label @-@ mate Stalley as a supporting act , and The Boy Illinois as an opening act . He also revealed the album Tetsuo & Youth would be released in early 2014 , but was later postponed to 2015 . On October 14 , 2013 , Fiasco released the first supposed song from the album , " Old School Love " , featuring singer Ed Sheeran . Then on October 21 , 2013 , Fiasco revealed that Big K.R.I.T. and Rick Ross would also be featured on the album .
On May 19 , 2014 , Fiasco released the first promotional single before the announcement of the album 's tracklist . " Mission " is a track to empower those facing cancer , revere cancer survivors , and remember those who have passed due to cancer @-@ related illnesses , " he explains . He has teamed up with Stand Up to Cancer as a celebrity ambassador . Together , they are planning collaborations tied to the track that will be unveiled the same year . On June 24 , 2014 , Fiasco released a second promotional single titled " Next to It " which features Ty Dolla Sign on the hook .
Most recently due to the Ferguson riots of last year , Lupe Fiasco has ended up on Twitter feuds with fellow rappers Azealia Banks and Kid Cudi . The feud between Kid Cudi and Lupe Fiasco has not been resolved and has reportedly become worse , with Lupe Fiasco making threats on MTV .
On August 29 , 2015 , Lupe surprised fans with a new free mixtape , entitled Pharaoh Height , featuring six new tracks that carry Egyptian @-@ themed titles with cuts like " Valleys , " " Kings , " and " Pyramid . "
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
Jaco 's influence include Nas , Jay Z , Common , AZ , De La Soul , N.W.A , Mos Def , Pharrell Williams , A Tribe Called Quest , Q @-@ Tip , and Gang Starr .
= = = Lyrical style = = =
Fiasco , along with rappers Common , Mos Def and Talib Kweli , has been credited as a pioneer of the conscious hip hop movement , which focuses on social issues . Subjects touched upon on Lupe Fiasco 's Food & Liquor include absent parents , terrorism , Islam and religion , war , and prostitution . Fiasco attributes his interest in social issues to his highly cultured upbringing , as he describes his mother as " very intellectual " and his father as a " Renaissance man " . He rejects the misogyny common in hip hop , which he discusses in the song " Hurt Me Soul " . Despite this , Fiasco is strongly opposed to censorship in music : " If we 're going to [ censor things ] that are offensive , then we are going to have to blind and deafen everyone . Come on , man . Let 's focus on education and literacy and poverty . "
Fiasco employs various lyrical techniques in his songwriting . The rapper views hip @-@ hop as a medium conducive to storytelling , a primary element of his lyrics due to his background in theater . He wrote plays as a child , which had a strong effect on his songwriting approaches . Fiasco utilizes both metaphors and literal statements in his work , which he describes as " getting from point A to point B in as few words as possible " . His use of metaphors is exemplified by the song " Gotta Eat " from Lupe Fiasco 's The Cool , which is told from the perspective of a cheeseburger and addresses the poor nutrition in black communities in the United States , while using a continuous metaphor of drug dealing and hustling .
= = Philanthropy and business ventures = =
In 2001 , Fiasco co @-@ founded 1st & 15th Entertainment with Charles " Chilly " Patton . 1st & 15th is an independent record label separate from Atlantic Records named after the traditional twice @-@ monthly paycheck dates . Although his albums are released by Atlantic since he is under contract with them , most of his works are usually produced by 1st & 15th and its in house producers . Although Fiasco was initially to serve as vice @-@ president , he became CEO after Patton was convicted on drug charges . Fiasco and singer Matthew Santos were two of the most recognizable signed artists . In November 2009 , Fiasco announced he would discontinue the 1st & 15th label : " It was just such a ' this isn 't right for you right now . This isn 't gonna work for you right now . You need to be focused on you . Do you really want that , do you really have the capacity to do it ? ' " In March 2013 Fiasco took to Twitter to announce that he had become the Creative Director at Higi , a scoring system based in the Chicago area that helps you to discover more about yourself so you can look , live and feel better .
In 2005 , he founded Righteous Kung @-@ Fu , a company that designs fashions , sneakers , toys , video games , comic books , and graphics for album covers and skateboard decks . Fiasco also runs a fashion line out of Righteous Kung @-@ Fu called Trilly & Truly . He has sponsored a skateboard team and has endorsements from DGK Skateboards . In January 2006 , Fiasco signed with major footwear and apparel corporation Reebok , becoming part of the " O.G " marketing campaign where rap artists such as Lil Wayne and Mike Jones designed their own personal colorway of the Reebok " O.G " model .
In 2009 , Fiasco performed in The People Speak , a documentary feature film that employs musical performances of the letters , diaries , and speeches of everyday Americans , based on historian Howard Zinn 's A People 's History of the United States . On January 7 , 2010 , Fiasco joined musician Kenna , actress Jessica Biel , and other celebrities and activists for an expedition to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro called Summit on the Summit to raise awareness of the billions of people worldwide who lack access to sanitary drinking water . On January 20 , 2010 , Fiasco released a track called " Resurrection " with Kenna in response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake . The song , part of a compilation released through the charity Music for Relief , aimed to encourage donations for immediate relief and long @-@ term recovery following the disaster .
= = Personal life = =
Lupe Fiasco is an avid video game fan and likes to play the Street Fighter series of fighting games . He announced that he will be playing an exhibition Street Fighter V match against professional player Daigo Umehara . Fiasco defeated Daigo 3 @-@ 2 using Ken .
= = = Religion = = =
Lupe Fiasco has stated on MTV 's Rap Fix as well as in various other media that he is a Muslim , and that Islam " plays a part in my life and everything I do , to a certain extent ... I don 't like putting my religion out there , I don 't like wearing it like that , because I don 't want people to look at me as the poster child for Islam . I 'm not . I don 't want them to look at my flaws and be like , ' oh , that 's the flaws of Islam ' . " His mixtape series Fahrenheit 1 / 15 featured a remix of Kanye West 's " Jesus Walks " entitled " Muhammad Walks " , which went on to become very popular in the Muslim community . He can be heard using Islamic recitals in " Hurt Me Soul " , " Little Weapon " , " Hi @-@ Definition " as well as the intro and outro tracks to Lupe Fiasco 's Food & Liquor . Most recently , Lupe Fiasco claimed to believe Islam will one day take over the world .
= = = Political views = = =
Fiasco is noted for his anti @-@ establishment views . In an interview with Stephen Colbert on the satirical news show The Colbert Report , Fiasco stated his credo on political philosophy : " You should criticize power even if you agree with it . " In another interview in June 2011 on the CBS program What 's Trending , Fiasco discussed the political content of his music , stating , " My fight against terrorism , to me , the biggest terrorist is Obama and the United States of America . I 'm trying to fight the terrorism that 's actually causing the other forms of terrorism . You know , the root cause of terrorism is the stuff the U.S. government allows to happen . The foreign policies that we have in place in different countries that inspire people to become terrorists . " He additionally criticized Obama for his stance on the Israeli – Palestinian conflict . In keeping with his anti @-@ establishment views , Fiasco does not vote in U.S. elections . On January 20 , 2013 , he was removed from the stage by the security for refusing to move onto the next song after performing a 30 @-@ minute version of " Words I Never Said " , which contains anti @-@ Obama lyrics , in Washington D.C. , during Obama 's second presidential inauguration . In June 2015 , Lupe Fiasco wrote an open letter about white supremacy .
= = Discography = =
Lupe Fiasco 's Food & Liquor ( 2006 )
Lupe Fiasco 's The Cool ( 2007 )
Lasers ( 2011 )
Food & Liquor II : The Great American Rap Album Pt . 1 ( 2012 )
Tetsuo & Youth ( 2015 )
DROGAS Light ( 2016 )
DROGAS ( 2016 )
SKULLS ( 2016 )
= = Awards = =
In 2006 , Lupe was named one of GQ 's Men of the Year along with being awarded one Grammy in 2008 along with 12 nominations . He has been nominated for numerous other awards and has also been awarded the Character Approved Award for a Musician by USA in 2009 .
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= Michael Jackson 's This Is It =
Michael Jackson 's This Is It is a 2009 American documentary – concert film directed by Kenny Ortega that documents Michael Jackson 's rehearsals and preparation for his concert series of the same name that was originally scheduled to start on July 13 , 2009 , but cancelled due to his death eighteen days prior on June 25 . The film consists of Jackson rehearsing musical numbers , directing his team , and additional behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage including dancer auditions and costume design . The film 's director Kenny Ortega confirmed that none of this footage was originally intended for release , but after Jackson 's death it was agreed that the film be made . The footage was filmed in California at the Staples Center and The Forum , and features a clip from London 's O2 Arena where Jackson publicly announced the concert series .
Despite originally being set for October 30 , the film 's release date was rescheduled for October 28 2009 due to a strong demand by Jackson 's fans . The film was given a worldwide release and a limited two @-@ week theatrical run from October 28 to November 12 , 2009 , but theatrical release was later extended . Tickets went on sale a month early ( on September 27 ) to satisfy a high anticipated demand ; to date , the film has broken numerous records via tickets both presale and sales worldwide .
Since the film 's confirmation , AEG Live has faced criticism ; mostly consisting of claims that they had only made the film to make a profit . Multiple members of Jackson 's family had confirmed that they did not support the film and some family members went as far as to try to stop the film agreement in August . The film has also been surrounded by allegations regarding the appearance of body doubles in place of Jackson , which Sony denied ; and an outrage from some of Jackson fans , with some going as far as to start a protest against the film . In August 2009 , a judge approved a deal between Jackson 's estate , concert promoter AEG Live , and Sony Pictures ( sister company to Jackson 's record distributors of his album label ) . The agreement allowed Sony to edit the hundreds of hours of rehearsal footage needed to create the film . Sony subsequently paid $ 50 million for the film rights .
The film received generally positive reviews from both critics and Jackson fans ; the film 's portrayal of Jackson and his performances were generally praised , while criticism mainly consisted of both critics and fans having felt that the film was made just to profit off Jackson 's death and that Jackson would not have wanted the film released because he was a perfectionist . Despite some fans boycotting the film , and his family not endorsing the film , the ticket sales for This Is It broke international records a month before its release . Among the cities with the strongest sales were Los Angeles , San Francisco , Houston and New York . Records were also set in Japan , where more than $ 1 million in tickets were sold on the first day they were available . In London , fans bought more than 30 @,@ 000 tickets on the first day . Record sales were also reported in the Netherlands , Sweden , Belgium , Brazil , and New Zealand . In the first opening weekend it grossed $ 101 million worldwide . The film sold $ 32 @.@ 5 million over its first five days in the U.S. and Canada , and $ 68 @.@ 5 million in 97 other countries — making the number one film at the box office and making it the fifth highest @-@ grossing Halloween debut . On its theatrical run , the film 's worldwide revenue gross was in total $ 261 million and become the highest @-@ grossing concert film of all time ( Worldwide ) .
= = Concept = =
The film begins with a short text introduction stating the purpose of the footage and its intent " For the fans ... " After short dialogues from various dancers , Ortega is heard talking through the original concert opening sequence involving a body suit made from screens which display fast clips and images with bright intensity from which Jackson emerges on stage . Immediately after this , Jackson begins " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " first solo , which pauses half @-@ way through and a small snippet of Jackson singing " Speechless " a cappella is shown . Jackson is then joined by dancers and completes the first number . A short clip showing rehearsals of the " toaster " mechanism is shown before rehearsal footage of " Jam " is played . This plays directly into the green screen adaptation of soldiers dancers for " Bad " which are also used for " They Don 't Care About Us " which is shown next . From here , the film shows Michael directing Ortega and his band for his solo rehearsal performance of " Human Nature " which he performs a cappella , then acoustic and finally with full band . Green screen rehearsals for the video vignette for " Smooth Criminal " come next ( with scenes from his film Moonwalker as well as the film Gilda featuring Rita Hayworth as the title character singing " Put the Blame on Mame " ) , with dress rehearsals of the song following , including parts of the vignette intertwined with the dancing . Jackson is seen next directing his musical team for the cues in his song " The Way You Make Me Feel " . Jackson then performs a rehearsal with dancers which he alters and changes as he goes . Jackson then rehearses a medley of The Jackson 5 songs : " I Want You Back " , " The Love You Save " , " I 'll Be There " and " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " . After this , Jackson sings with Judith Hill , one of his backup singers , on his duet song " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " in which he sings at full strength , directing his partner as he goes . The filming for the " Thriller " vignette is then shown with Jackson and Ortega watching with 3D glasses . Jackson is then seen rehearsing " Thriller " with the vignette intertwined like that in " Smooth Criminal . " Footage of the show 's aerialists rehearsing to the instrumental of " Who Is It " is shown next .
During the dance sequence , puppets are suspended in the audience aisles while Jackson emerges from a robotic spider originally seen in the vignette . Jackson and Ortega rehearsing the cherry @-@ picker is seen next , along with Jackson rehearsing " Beat It " . Footage of Jackson and the band rehearsing " Black or White " is shown next , in which he instructs his band to skip the second verse and later allows guitarist Orianthi Panagaris to take center stage to finish with a high guitar riff . The video sequence for " Earth Song " is shown next , featuring a little girl who wanders through a forest , falls asleep , and wakes up to find the forest destroyed by man . Jackson then performs the song , with his voice being heard at the end telling of the dangers of global warming and the lack of reversible time left . He then performs a quick version of his song " Billie Jean " . Michael is then seen talking to all crew members and wishing everyone the best for the London performances . At a sound check , Michael performs " Man in the Mirror " with strong backing vocals . The credits are shown next , with a montage of rehearsal clips and " This Is It " being played in the background . After the show , a live recording of " Heal The World " was played . Then , the audio of " Human Nature " was played , with a clip of Michael rehearsing it in early June ( the 3D screen was not set up yet ) . Then , a clip of what could have been a Dome Project video of " Heal the World " was shown , in which the girl that appeared in the " Earth Song " video was shown holding the world and a signed message , by Michael , saying " I Love You . "
= = = Songs performed in the film = = =
= = Background = =
On March 5 , 2009 at the O2 Arena , Jackson announced that he was to perform 10 concerts as part of a comeback . Jackson suggested possible post @-@ show retirement by stating : " I just wanted to say that these will be my final show performances in London . When I say this is it , it really means this is it , this will be the final curtain call . " On March 11 , two days before pre @-@ sale began , an extra 40 dates were added to meet high demand , bringing the number of shows to 50 — five of these dates were reserved in their entirety for the public sale . Jackson 's 50 dates would make the concerts the longest residency at the arena . In May 2009 , the show was originally set to have begun on July 8 , 2009 , and finished on March 6 , 2010 .
On May 20 . 2009 , it was announced that the first concert would be pushed back by eight days to July 16 , and three other July dates would be rescheduled for March 2010 . AEG Live stated that the delay was necessary because more time was needed to prepare , mainly for dress rehearsals . The revised schedule called for 27 shows between July 16 , and September 29 , 2009 , followed by a three @-@ month break , and resuming in 2010 , with 23 more shows between January 7 , and March 6 , 2010 . The This Is It concerts would have been Jackson 's first major performances and series of concerts since the HIStory World Tour that began in 1996 and finished in 1997 . In preparation for the concerts , Jackson had been collaborating with multiple well known and high profile figures , such as Kenny Ortega , who would have served as his choreographer . On June 29 , 2009 , only days after Jackson 's death , AEG Live , the concert 's promoter , offered ticket holders a choice ; to either get refunded all the money spent of their ticket ( s ) or to keep the ticket ( s ) as a souvenir and memento by receiving the printed ticket that Jackson had designed himself .
= = Music = =
The album , titled This Is It was released on October 26 and debuted at # 1 on the Billboard 200 album chart with the sales of over 373 @,@ 000 in its first week of release . The two @-@ disc album features music ' that inspired the movie ' . Sony said of the albums that : " Disc one will feature the original album masters of some of Michael 's biggest hits arranged in the same sequence as they appear in the film " and stated that " the disc ends with two versions of the ' never @-@ released ' " This Is It " . This song is featured in the film 's closing sequence and includes backing vocals by Michael Jackson 's brothers , The Jacksons . " Sony also stated that the second disc will feature " previously unreleased versions " from Jackson 's ' catalogue of hits ' and that It will also include a spoken word poem entitled " Planet Earth " ( which originally appeared in the liner notes of the Dangerous ( 1991 ) album ) and a 36 @-@ page commemorative booklet with " photos of Michael [ Jackson ] from his last rehearsal " .
= = Production = =
The film 's director and choreographer Ortega stated that the rehearsal footage and concept of making a film to document the preparation of the concerts had come about as " an accident " . Ortega stated the film was pieced together from " private footage " shot by documentarians Sandrine Orabona and Tim Patterson of Jackson and the concerts crew rehearsing and that before Jackson 's death , was never intended to be released to the public , or even in general . " The recordings were made so we could use them , then the tapes were destined for Michael [ Jackson ] ' s private library . They have a real unguarded honesty to them . " Ortega stated that he had gotten the idea to use the rehearsal footage from Jackson 's fans after his death : " At first I got so many messages from fans around the world asking to see the shows , asking to see the footage and eventually I realized the journey wasn 't over and we had to do this " , and Ortega also stated that the film was made only for the Jackson fans : " [ The film ] is for the fans and the film will show the development and intentions of the show , and the concert as it moved closer to London . "
On August 10 , a Superior Court Judge officially approved the deal between Columbia Pictures ( film distributor ) and AEG Live ( the concerts ' promoter ) for Columbia to be able to purchase and distribute rehearsal footage of Jackson and the rehearsal crew for the film . The deal also included a merchandising agreement with Bravado International Group — the company is a division of Universal Music Group that is owned by Vivendi — so that they can distribute and sell " Jackson @-@ themed products " . Columbia had reportedly paid $ 60 million ( £ 35 million ) for rights to the rehearsal footage in court documents that were filed . The papers filed had also reportedly stated that Jackson 's estate will get 90 % of the profits and that AEG will get the remaining 10 % from the film 's revenue . In the agreement , Columbia and AEG Live both agreed in the deal that the final version of the film should be no longer than 150 minutes ( 2 hours and 30 minutes ) , and that the film must attain a PG rating . The contract also stated that the film is not allowed to show footage of Jackson that shows him in a negative way , stating that : " Footage that paints Jackson in a bad light will not be permitted " and " Under the terms of the proposed contract , the film will have to be screened for Jackson 's estate and cannot include any footage that puts the superstar in a bad light . " The court papers stated that in order for the film to be released to the public the final version of the film must be screened to representatives of Jackson 's Estate .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
On September 9 , 2009 , the film 's official theatrical poster was released . On September 10 , 2009 , it was reported that MTV 's Video Music Awards , which at the time had already announced that they would honor Jackson at the show would premiere the film 's first , and only known , trailer . Along with Janet Jackson 's tribute to Michael , the trailer of the film premiered at the 2009 MTV Video Music Award which was watched by a total of 9 million people . On September 13 , 2009 , it was reported that a " secret Michael Jackson [ promotional music ] single is being produced " to promote the film , at which the film would have , at the time , been released the following month . It was reported that Jackson had recorded the song for release with his planned summer tour but after his death it was shelved until producers in Los Angeles remixed the vocals with an orchestral accompaniment .
On September 23 , 2009 , it was reported that the film 's new song " This Is It " would be released on October 12 , 2009 , sixteen days before the film 's release . On October 9 , it was confirmed that the song would debut online the following Monday at midnight , receiving its world premiere on MichaelJackson.com. On September 21 , 2009 , Sony released a 45 @-@ second clip of Jackson rehearsing his performance for " Human Nature " and also released stills from the video clip . As part of a print marketing campaign for the film , Entertainment Weekly magazine did a cover story of the film for the magazine 's October 16 , 2009 issue , to coincide with the film 's release for that same month . Also as part of promotion for the film , Entertainment Weekly released 8 " never before seen " movie stills from the film . On October 21 , a clip of Jackson rehearsing " The Way You Make Me Feel " was released . On October 21 , a 2 @-@ minute featurette of the film was released .
In September 2009 , Sony launched " This @-@ Is @-@ It @-@ Fans.com " , which allowed fans to sign up for an ' alert ' so that they can be able to take part in ' Michael Jackson 's This Is It mosaic ' , in which fans could upload photos to the website , beginning September 21 and running to September 30 , and the completed mosaic would be posted online on October 22 , six days before the film 's release . On September 24 , 2009 , MTV announced , after the success the project proved with New Moon , that they will allow MTV registered users , to " watch and comment on any scene in the film 's already released trailer " . MTV described the project as " essentially [ being ] an in @-@ video graphical overlay that allows users to comment on the video as it plays and review comments from other users .
= = = Ticket release = = =
On September 25 , 2009 , lines opened at the courtyard outside the Nokia Theatre 's L.A. Live complex in downtown Los Angeles . Hundreds of people were waiting in line to purchase tickets on the day the tickets were out on the box office . The L.A. Live complex ; allowed people waiting in line the opportunity to bring chairs , one per person , and umbrellas due to the long wait ahead of them . It was reported that the " first 500 fans in line have been promised commemorative lenticular tickets designed by Jackson for the London concerts at the O2 Arena " , the only other way to obtain those specialized tickets was to trade in your concert tickets to the now canceled tour .
MTV stated that , " Fans in line are also eligible to receive commemorative ' Michael Jackson 's This Is It ' T @-@ shirts and posters [ ... ] They 're also being invited to sign the memorial wall set up outside the theater , which is open for anyone who wants to leave a message or memory " for Jackson A reported total of 3 @,@ 000 movie tickets will be available for the early screening of the film on October 27 , 2009 , at the L.A. Live 's new Regal Cinemas Stadium 14 , marking it the movie theater 's grand opening . It is the only screening location offering the advance shows and commemorative tickets . Jeff Labrecque of En commented , " Three months after Michael Jackson 's death , I 'm still surprised by the passion of his fans . " Bridget Daly of Hollyscoop commented on the waiting time for tickets that , she could " expect nothing less " from Jackson 's fans .
= = = = Sales = = = =
On September 27 , 2009 , the first day of ticket sales , all 3 @,@ 000 tickets to the advance screenings of the film had " sold out within two hours [ on ] early Sunday [ September 27 , 2009 ] . " Fans had reportedly waited in line for days . CinemaBlend.com reported that over 160 showings had sold out . Reuters.com , stated that " hundreds of screenings in North America have already sold out , a month before the film 's October 28 opening . " According to MovieTickets.com , sales of tickets to the film have " accounted for more than 82 percent of all the tickets sold at the site today [ Monday , September 28 , 2009 ] . " CinemaBlend.com described the sale of tickets on MovieTickets.com as being " fairly significant " — but remarked that " this is after all , just a concert documentary . " It was reported that over 80 percent of tickets sold on Fandango.com were for this film .
It was also reported that the film had " accounted for some 80 % of all online ticketing in the U.S. within its first 24 hours of sales , dominating presales compared with such upcoming titles as Avatar and The Twilight Saga : New Moon . Sony , confirmed that over 30 @,@ 000 tickets were sold in the first 24 hours that tickets went of sale . Sony also stated that the film had moved over 1 million dollars in tickets sales in Japan . Sony announced in a press release that in the " last 24 hours [ since September 27 ] " , that over 80 % of all Fandango.com and Movietickets.com sales for the film , had already sold out in Los Angeles , San Francisco , Houston , Nashville and New York , among others and : " Internationally , exhibitors from London and Sydney to Bangkok and Tokyo have experienced the same epic demand . " Sony stated in a statement of the film 's good ticket sale 's that : " Staggering advance sales were reported in Australia , where tickets for Michael Jackson 's This Is It purchased through Village Cinemas exceeded the lifetime pre @-@ sales of such blockbusters as Transformers and X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine .
On Thursday , October 1 , 2009 , Fandango.com stated the film was the ' top ticket seller ' on the site . Both Fandango.com and Movietickets.com are reported that more than 1 @,@ 600 screenings had already been sold out , via online pre @-@ sales , by 15 October . In United Kingdom , Vue Cinemas stated that they 'd sold 64 @,@ 000 tickets in the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks since ticket purchasing was made available , while Odeon Cinema stated that they 'd had the sales of over 60 @,@ 000 tickets by 15 October . E ! Online said of the film , based on its current record ticket selling , out @-@ selling and making more revenue than Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus : Best of Both Worlds Concert that : " Last year , Disney billed Miley Cyrus ' Best of Both Worlds show as a one @-@ week @-@ only event . Then the film scored a $ 31 million opening weekend , and one week turned into 15 . Hannah Montana / Miley Cyrus became the top @-@ grossing concert movie of all time . So far . While it 's still early , This Is It is on track to top Hannah Montana / Miley Cyrus . During its first three days of sales , Fandango said , Jackson 's film outpaced Cyrus ' first three days by a wide three @-@ to @-@ one margin . " Joel Cohen , the executive vice president of MovieTickets.com , said of the ticket sales : " Michael Jackson is such an iconic figure , with a fan base that transcends even some of the most bankable stars in Hollywood [ ... ] We expected there to be a large demand for tickets for an ' event ' film like this one , but MovieTickets.com has never seen such a high volume of sellouts this far in advance for any movie . "
= = = = = Record sales = = = = =
It was reported that fans had lined up at the box office ticket counters throughout the city of Bangkok , Thailand , and that by the end of the first day " all tickets for the first showings across Bangkok were sold out . " It was also reported that there were " sell @-@ outs at theaters in France " and that " thousands of fans lined up at The Grand Rex in Paris and quickly bought out the film 's first screening there [ ... ] Record @-@ setting sales also were recorded in Germany [ ... ] hundreds of fans lined up outside one theater in Munich at midnight to await the opening of the box office . " A German exhibitor said of crowds of people lining up for tickets to the film , that : " Something like this [ has ] never happened before in Germany . " Among other countries , " record sales " and " sell @-@ outs " were also reported in the Netherlands , Sweden , Belgium and New Zealand . On October 7 2009 , three weeks prior to the film 's release , MovieTickets.com stated that the film had entered their " Top @-@ 25 Advance Ticket Sellers of All @-@ Time " , bumping The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring from the Number 25 slot . By October 27 , Kinekor cinemas sold over 24 @,@ 000 pre @-@ sale tickets in South Africa , tripling the previous pre @-@ sale record .
= = = IMAX and release = = =
Despite the fact that IMAX screenings are usually planned and booked months in advance by the film 's movie distributors , Regal Entertainment Group , America 's largest cinema chain , stated on September 30 , that they would screen IMAX versions of the film at their cinemas . Regal stated that they are planning on making 25 of their IMAX locations available for the screening of the film when it opened to the public on 28 October . Dick Westerling , head of marketing and advertising for Regal , stated that the film was selected due to its strong ticket sales . IMAX Corporation and Sony stated that the film will open in digital IMAX theatres. and that the limited IMAX release will be played domestically during " evening show times " in 96 IMAX digital theaters , and additionally the movie will be played in 27 of the company 's international digital locations . A key part of the IMAX DMR process includes re @-@ mastering the soundtrack to take advantage of IMAX 's 14 @,@ 000 watt digital audio system .
On August 11 , it was widely announced , and later confirmed , that the film would be released to theatres in October 2009 , though at the time no specific date was released or confirmed . When confirmed it was reported that the film was set be released worldwide on October 30 2009 . Later in August it was announced that the film 's release date was rescheduled two days early for October 28 . Sony stated that the film 's release date was moved up by two days due to an ' overwhelming demand ' for the film . " On October 6 , it was reported and confirmed by a Sony executive , that the film had been chosen to be one of the last of China 's " 20 annual foreign movie import slots " . China only allows 20 major foreign films to be released in the country every year on a revenue @-@ sharing basis . Chinese censors had reportedly approved the film before the countries weeklong holiday that started on October 1 , clearing it in time for the global release date of October 28 . Li Chow , manager of Sony Pictures Releasing International 's stated that Sony will give the movie as wide a release as possible because of Jackson 's popularity in China .
= = Controversies = =
In September 2009 , AEG stated , that based on the positive enthusiasm by fans for waiting in lines for days for tickets to the film , that they had hoped it was a sign that the public had not felt that they were exploiting Jackson after his death . AEG president Tim Leiweke stated he hoped that the film would give fans some peace of mind that as a company , Jackson 's ' legacy ' and well being was always a priority and the fact that people had thought otherwise had really " hurt " people at AEG . Leiweke stated ,
" Some of the things that people have said about us , which are so untrue , this movie 's going to restore his legacy , and prove that we , in fact , gave Michael a second chance here . And an opportunity to make the kind of comeback he was dreaming of . And that we created an environment for him that was probably the best environment that the guy had the last 10 or 15 years of his life . And I 'm very proud of the way we treated Michael , and very proud of the partnership that we had with him . And this movie is an opportunity to celebrate that , and we could get past all of the gossip and all of the innuendo . "
Multiple members of Jackson 's family had opposed the film from the start in August 2009 . Jackson 's nephews tried to go to court to try to stop negotiations between AEG Live and Sony . Jackson 's older sister La Toya stated that she felt that Michael would not have wanted the film to have been released because he was not giving his all into his performances . In October 2009 , Jackson 's father , Joe , stated and had strongly insisted that the film " is mostly body doubles " and that " the media is going to tear this movie apart " because of it . TMZ stated that members of the Jackson family had felt that footage of " Jackson " in the film was not him but rather body double ( s ) . However , Sony released a statement denying rumors that the film had rehearsal footage of Jackson body doubles , describing the story as " pure garbage " .
At the time of Jackson 's death , and in the aftermath of it , multiple reports surfaced that AEG Live purposely tried to hide Jackson 's health concerns during preparations for his would @-@ have @-@ been concerts . Concerns included Jackson 's frail appearance due to lack of eating that had reportedly caused Jackson to be unable to perform from lack of strength and that AEG had used body doubles in rehearsals to stand in for Jackson . After Jackson 's death , AEG stated that there was no truth to any of the rumors and that Jackson was thin but in good enough condition to perform . On 23 October 2009 , days before the film 's release , fans of Jackson launched a protest campaign against the film entitled " This Is not It " . The campaign 's focus was to convince people that Jackson 's health was neglected by AEG , among others , and that AEG was partly responsible for Jackson 's death and now the company is making a profit off Jackson 's death . The group started a website and created their own ' trailer ' for the movie to showcase their point @-@ of @-@ view on the documentary . The protestors also inaccurately claimed that Jackson was 108 pounds ( 49 kg ) at his death , contradicting Jackson 's autopsy , which had stated that Jackson weighed 136 pounds ( 61 kg ) . Shortly after the protest became news , The Guardian conducted a poll on their website asking users " What do you think of Michael Jackson 's posthumous film This Is It ? " , 51 @.@ 4 % agreed with one of the two options : " I agree with the fans who are boycotting it — it 's shameless profiteering " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film upon its debut grossed more internationally than in North America . As of March 1 , 2011 , the film 's total worldwide gross was $ 261 @,@ 183 @,@ 588 . The Hollywood Reporter said This Is It is going to take first place in the weekend box office chart with $ 23 @,@ 234 @,@ 394 at 3 @,@ 481 theaters — with a per @-@ theater average of $ 6 @,@ 675 over the period of five days . This return had " underperformed " to both Sony and film analysts ' expectations — Sony 's had originally expected the film to make an estimated 50 million , but after the film 's " disappointing " three @-@ day gross , due to some fans , mostly in North America , boycotting the movie and issuing boycott propaganda in social networks and media , Sony lowered their expectations to $ 35 million , while analysts expected an estimated 30 million for the weekend . In the film 's second weekend of wide release , it declined to 43 @.@ 4 % , making $ 13 @,@ 157 @,@ 944 , placing it at second at the box office , behind A Christmas Carol — which had grossed more than twice what This Is It made . The film completed its theatrical run in North America on December 3 , 2009 .
This Is It made its international debut in 110 territories on October 28 – 30 2009 . The film 's revenue mainly consisted of international sales — 72 @.@ 4 % . Throughout the film 's international release , it performed strongly at the box office , despite some criticism from other fans in North America . On November 7 , the film surpassed the $ 100 million mark at the foreign box office , reaching block @-@ buster status . This Is It , at the Australian box office grossed $ 8 @,@ 734 @,@ 295 and $ 1 @,@ 878 @,@ 725 ( in Australian currency ) . This Is It debuted at first place at the United Kingdom box office , with the revenue of £ 4 @,@ 877 @,@ 255 . In the film 's second weekend of release , with the gross revenue of the previous week being down 52 % , with £ 1 @,@ 355 @,@ 855 , it placed at second at the United Kingdom — having been outgrossed by A Christmas Carol , which , similar to its second week at the North American box office , had been knocked to second place by the film . The film 's international revenue was significantly contributed to within Japan — with $ 58 @,@ 4 million , followed by the United Kingdom — with $ 16 million .
= = = = Box office result = = = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received mostly positive reviews from film critics . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 80 % of 162 critics have given the film a positive review , with a rating average of 7 @.@ 1 out of 10 . The site 's general consensus is that " While it may not be the definitive concert film ( or the insightful backstage look ) some will hope for , Michael Jackson 's This Is It packs more than enough entertainment value to live up to its ambitious title . " Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from film critics , has a rating score of 67 based on 32 reviews .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times described the film as being an " extraordinary documentary , " and stated that the film was " nothing at all like what " he was expecting to see . Ebert dismissed reports that Jackson was in poor health and was underperforming , stating that the film did not show a " sick and drugged man forcing himself through grueling rehearsals , but a spirit embodied by music " and referred to Jackson 's rehearsal performance ( s ) as having been " something else . " Kirt Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film for being " strange yet strangely beguiling " for capturing Jackson in " feverish grips of pure creativity " and stated that while the film presents that audience with a screen filled with everyone ranging from " performers , musicians , choreographers , crew members , craftsmen , " she took notice that the film had primarily focused on Jackson . Honeycutt perceived based on what he had seen from the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look of rehearsals that he understood what it takes to " attain such dizzying heights in entertainment " and that he understood why Jackson " chose to stay away " from performing " for a decade " and , based on what he saw from footage from rehearsals that it " looks like the world has missed one helluva concert . " Honeycutt cited that the only thing that frustrated him more than knowing the " tragedy " that prevented the concert from happening was " not knowing what you 're looking at " and commented that the film did not feel like a complete concert film because it had a grip on the audience , stating : " Where are Jackson and his conspirators at any given moment in the creative process ? The film tries to be a concert film without having the actual footage . So when everything comes to a halt , audiences get thrown . " Peter Travers , of Rolling Stone described watching Jackson 's " struggle " as being " illuminating , unnerving and unforgettable " and felt that the film was a great " transcendent tribute " to Jackson because it did not have , nor need , a " safety net . "
Joshua Rothkopf of Time Out New York referred to being a " must @-@ see danceumentary . " Rothkopf described Jackson as " obviously " having been " shooting for the moon right before his death " based on what he could tell from the " stunning bits of concert spectacle " of " phalanxes of computer @-@ generated dancers , tempo changes on a dime , a bombshell of a blond guitarist who plays Eddie Van Halen 's " Beat It " solo flawlessly " . Rothkopf stated that : " But the true value of this raw rehearsal footage is its emphasis , less known , on MJ 's laserlike attention to detail , as he works his band and troupe up to speed . A firm floor manager himself , he 's often exposed — and probably wouldn 't have approved of this film . ( One on one , High School Musical 's Kenny Ortega , meanwhile , treats him with kid gloves : " I agree , Michael . " ) But to see him sweetly lose himself in " Human Nature " ( " I like living this way ... " ) is to feel a creature of the stage finally returned home , and possibly on the cusp of redemption . " Peter Paras , of E ! Online felt that watching Jackson and his performances in a positive aspect is the " genius and the sadness of the entire film . " He did note that Jackson 's performance of " Earth Song , " which consists of using Jackson 's voiceover to emphasize his environmental concerns while a bulldozer threatens to eat him , was well @-@ intentioned — because it brought attention to environmental concerns — but felt it was a little over the top . Paras felt the film showed an " exacting and refreshingly funny side of Jackson to be revealed " and " had Jackson lived , we never would have seen those moments " and felt the film was a proper way to " finally say goodbye " to Jackson .
Marjorie Baumgarten of Austin Chronicle referred to the film as being " neither a true concert film nor a strict behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary , This Is It is , like Jackson himself , a real hybrid " and felt that while the film 's " made up of lots of grainy footage , which Ortega has edited together seamlessly " it will also " provide a fitting farewell . " Baumgarten noted that " the finished film is a fairly complete concert run @-@ through with each song edited " and that while the film will easily show that it was made for a profit , that , the audience will see a " film to be a fitting elegy . " Joe Morgenstern , of The Wall Street Journal , felt the film was " expertly packaged — brilliantly packaged , " and noted that the film " quite convincingly " had emphasized that Jackson had enough energy to perform , even with his " wraith @-@ thin body " . Ann Powers , of Los Angeles Times said that while the film offers only a few such " insights into Jackson 's artistic process , though enough surface to make this a useful document , as well as a beautiful one " that the film is " a piece with Jackson 's body of work : dazzling and strange , blurring the line between fantasy and reality . " She described Ortega 's editing to make the film feel like a real concert film as being " almost too good to believe . " Powers praised the film for showing " intimate views " of Jackson , like his " vulnerable moments " during performances and felt the film was made " to honor not just the memory of Jackson but the hard work of a big cast and crew that never made it to opening night , " which she felt mostly is a tribute to the " power of Jackson 's body and voice . " Powers stated she had felt the film was such " a tragic teaser for the shows that might have been , ' This Is It ' hurts . If Jackson had been able to perform as he frequently does during these scenes , he would have accomplished the comeback for which he was so hungry . " She noted that Jackson 's " total lack of engagement with the cameras adds to the unreal mood " because he was always performing — " but for the imagined masses , not for the filmgoer " and that the film does not " entirely acknowledge that reality , and that 's a little odd . "
Lou Lumenick , of the New York Post strongly criticized both the film and Jackson 's performances . Lumenick 's criticism of Jackson 's performances was he felt Jackson moves " stiffly and lethargically " and that it was " clear " that Jackson was lip @-@ synching while performing " Thriller . " He felt Jackson 's performance of " Smooth Criminal " looked " incongruous , to say the least " and that " the hokey environmental visuals accompanying ' Earth Song ' are even worse , " and cited " Beat It " as being the movie 's " only half @-@ decent number . " Lumenick said that he was certain that a " perfectionist " like Jackson would not want to have been remembered by a " shoddy piece of exploitation . " David Edwards , of Daily Mirror , stated that while he felt that the film is a " success " he overall disliked the film , having felt that " as an exercise in wringing every last penny from Jackson 's legacy " the film " most certainly isn 't it " a tribute . Alex Fletcher , of Digital Spy described the film as having been an " essential viewing " and praised the film for showing " the real Michael Jackson " — which consisted of " difficult , odd , kind , obsessive and funny . " He cited Jackson 's best performances as " Thriller " and " Billie Jean " and the " worst material " as " Earth Song . " However , Fletcher did feel that , while based on the rehearsal footage , Jackson " falls short of his groundbreaking Dangerous and Bad world tours , " he noted that Jackson 's age and thinness was mostly likely a factor in his performances and described Jackson as having more " star quality and charisma than a million Simon Cowell factory @-@ line production pop singers . "
= = = Home media = = =
This Is It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in North America on January 26 , 2010 . It sold over 1 @.@ 5 million units in U.S. , alone within its first week of release , setting a new record for the first week sales of a music DVD . By March 2011 , in USA alone DVD and Blu @-@ ray sales stood at 3 @.@ 2 million with gross earnings of $ 62 million . The film was released on the same day in Japan , also breaking records , with $ 18 million in sales on the title 's first day of release — $ 11 @.@ 3 million in DVD and $ 6 @.@ 7 million in Blu @-@ ray — breaking Ponyo 's record of $ 6 @.@ 2 million . In Ireland , the DVD became the joint @-@ third best @-@ selling music " record " in terms of units , going 5x Platinum by the end of 2010 .
= = Certifications = =
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= A3 ( Croatia ) =
The A3 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A3 ) is a major motorway in Croatia spanning 306 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 190 @.@ 5 mi ) . The motorway connects Zagreb , the nation 's capital , to the Slavonia region and a number of cities along the Sava River . It represents a major east – west transportation corridor in Croatia and a significant part of the Pan @-@ European Corridor X , serving as a transit route between the European Union states and the Balkans . Apart from Zagreb , where the A3 motorway comprises a considerable part of the Zagreb bypass , the motorway runs near a number of significant Croatian cities . The motorway has a positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects , and is an important route within Croatia .
The motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction , separated by a central reservation . All intersections of the A3 motorway are grade separated , and the motorway comprises several large stack and cloverleaf interchanges at junctions with four other motorways in Croatia : A1 , A2 , A4 and A5 . As of October 2010 , another cloverleaf interchange is under construction on the A3 route , where the A11 motorway is scheduled to branch off . The route comprises a large number of bridges and culverts , but has no tunnels because it runs through plains . The Sava River Bridge is the most significant structure on the A3 . Currently , there are 21 exits and 18 rest areas operating along the route . A large part of the motorway is tolled using a ticket system ; one section uses an open toll collection system . The Zagreb bypass sections are not tolled . The toll is charged according to vehicle classification in Croatia . The A3 motorway is operated by Hrvatske autoceste .
Construction of the six @-@ lane motorway began in 1977 , initially as the Zagreb bypass , then continued in the 1980s as an expansion of the existing two @-@ lane road between Zagreb and Belgrade . The construction was suspended in the first part of the 1990s , due to the Croatian War of Independence , and resumed in 1996 . Construction of the entire route was completed in 2006 ; further development entails new exits , new rest areas and the reconstruction of the existing motorway . The construction cost of the A3 motorway is estimated at 7 billion Croatian kuna ( approximately 958 @.@ 9 million euro ) .
= = Route description = =
The A3 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A3 ) is a major east – west motorway in Croatia connecting the capital of the country , Zagreb , to the Slavonia region , where the motorway follows a route parallel to the Sava River and further on to Serbian and Slovenian motorway networks . As a part of the road network of Croatia , it represents a part of European route E70 Bordeaux – Turin – Ljubljana – Zagreb – Belgrade – Bucharest . The motorway has facilitated accelerated economic development in the regions it connects . The motorway also connects to a number of other motorways in Croatia ( from the west to the east ) : the A2 at the Jankomir interchange , the A1 at Lučko interchange , the A11 at Jakuševec , the A4 at Ivanja Reka and the A5 at the Sredanci interchange .
The motorway spans 306 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 190 @.@ 5 mi ) between the Bregana border crossing , located near Samobor , to Slovenia and the Bajakovo border crossing to Serbia , east of Županja . It represents the shortest and the most comfortable transit traffic route between Slovenia , northern Italy , Austria , Switzerland , and southern Germany to the west ; and Serbia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bulgaria , Macedonia , Greece , and Turkey to the east . The route serves Sisak via the D36 ; Banja Luka , Bosnia and Herzegovina via the D5 and Stara Gradiška border crossing ; Osijek via the A5 ; and Vinkovci via the D55 . The A3 motorway route is complete since no extensions or alterations to the route are planned by applicable legislation .
The A3 motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction along its entire length . As of September 2010 , the motorway has 21 interchanges , providing access to numerous towns and cities and the Croatian state road network . Almost all of the existing interchanges are trumpet interchanges , except for Lučko , which is a stack interchange , and Jankomir , Kosnica , Ivanja Reka and Sredanci , which are cloverleaf interchanges . The motorway follows Pan @-@ European Corridor X , and forms junctions with Pan @-@ European Corridors Vb and Vc within Croatia .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control and signaling devices , located in zones where driving conditions may vary — at interchanges , near viaducts , bridges , and in zones where fog is known to occur . The system comprises variable traffic signs used to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions and other information to motorway users .
There are numerous rest areas along the motorway , providing various types of services ranging from simple parking spaces and restrooms to filling stations , restaurants and motels . The A3 motorway is operated by Hrvatske autoceste , the state @-@ owned company tasked with the management , construction , and maintenance of Croatian motorways .
= = Zagreb suburban interchanges = =
The route between Bobovica and Ivanja Reka interchanges ( inclusive ) serves as a part of Zagreb bypass , and it is therefore not tolled . The A3 section of the bypass also comprises junctions to a number of other motorways : the A1 at the Lučko interchange , the A2 at the Jankomir interchange , the A11 motorway at the Jakuševec interchange , and the A4 at the Ivanja Reka interchange . Two interchanges east of Zagreb , Rugvica and Križ , have recently been built to fill in 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) gaps between the Ivanja Reka , Ivanić @-@ Grad and Popovača interchanges , respectively . Even though the sections east of Rugvica are not parts of Zagreb bypass proper ( they are tolled ) , the area has recently shown a rise in the population as it comprises several Zagreb suburbs and commuter towns . The consequent increase of commuter traffic volume , overall increase of the motorway transit traffic and plans for construction of a Sava River port in Rugvica warranted construction of the additional interchanges .
The A3 section of Zagreb bypass is currently the busiest section of the Croatian motorway network , with annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) volume exceeding 40 @,@ 000 vehicles , leading to congestion of the six @-@ lane bypass at peak hours , especially during the summer , when tourist traffic adds to the congestion . The mainline toll plazas at Bobovica and Ivanja Reka can both become bottlenecks at such times . The alternative to the bypass is going through the city via Ljubljanska , Zagrebačka and Slavonska avenues . Despite being a shorter and a more direct route , those avenues are much more congested than the bypass at rush hours and they contain at @-@ grade intersections and traffic lights at some of their junctions .
= = Toll = =
The A3 is a partially tolled motorway based on the vehicle classification in Croatia . The westernmost section of the motorway , spanning the Bobovica interchange and the Bregana border crossing , is tolled at Bregana toll plaza using an open toll collection system ; the motorway sections east of Ivanja Reka interchange are tolled using a closed toll collection system , integrated with the A5 motorway as the two connect at the Sredanci interchange , forming a unified toll collection system . As of October 2010 , Bregana toll plaza charges 5 @.@ 00 kuna ( 0 @.@ 68 euro ) to passenger cars and 20 @.@ 00 kuna ( 2 @.@ 74 euro ) to semi @-@ trailer trucks . The toll charged along the A3 route between Ivanja Reka and Lipovac varies depending on the distance travelled and ranges from 3 @.@ 00 kuna ( 0 @.@ 41 euro ) to 105 @.@ 00 kuna ( 14 @.@ 38 euro ) for passenger cars and 10 @.@ 00 kuna ( 1 @.@ 37 euro ) to 350 @.@ 00 kuna ( 47 @.@ 95 euro ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . The toll is payable in either Croatian kuna or euros and by major credit cards , debit cards and a number of prepaid toll collection systems , including various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operator and ENC — an electronic toll collection ( ETC ) system which is shared at most motorways in Croatia and provides drivers with discounted toll rates for dedicated lanes at toll plazas .
The toll collected by Hrvatske autoceste along the A3 motorway from January to August 2009 was reported to comprise the largest proportion of the total toll revenue collected by the company for the period : 889 @.@ 8 million kuna ( approximately 121 @.@ 9 million euro ) . Even though this figure is not further decomposed into the individual sections of motorway , it is clear from the traffic volume data analysis that the largest portion of the toll revenue is collected on the sections between Zagreb and Slavonski Brod , and especially on those sections closest to the Ivanja Reka interchange .
Summertime and holiday queues at the Ivanja Reka mainline toll plaza can be considerable , a problem exacerbated during the usual weekend @-@ to @-@ weekend tourist stays at Croatia 's coastal resorts . In such conditions , motorway users are advised to use the Rugvica and Ivanić Grad exits ahead of the Ivanja Reka interchange to avoid the queues . As of October 2010 , the westbound transit traffic approaching the Ivanja Reka interchange must exit the tolled motorway network , since the existing Zagreb bypass is not tolled , and then re @-@ enter another tolled motorway . There are plans for the outer Zagreb bypass to be integrated into the tolled motorway network as the ultimate solution for congestion at the Ivanja Reka toll plaza . That will require reconstruction of the Ivanić Grad interchange east of the Ivanja Reka toll plaza .
= = History = =
= = = Brotherhood and Unity Highway = = =
A modern highway connecting Zagreb and Belgrade was originally designed in the late 1940s , and construction began on April 1 , 1948 . A substantial portion of the work was carried out by youth from Yugoslavia and abroad through youth work actions . Nearly 300 @,@ 000 youth , including Yugoslav army soldiers , took part in the construction . The 382 @-@ kilometre ( 237 mi ) road spanning the two cities , called Brotherhood and Unity Highway before the 1990s , was completed and officially opened on July 27 , 1950 . Despite being called a motorway ( Croatian : autocesta ) , it was a single carriageway , two @-@ lane road with all of its intersections at @-@ grade . Due to a shortage of construction material , the wearing course was executed in various materials — mostly concrete slabs , with some asphalt concrete sections and even some cobblestone @-@ covered sections .
The road was originally designed to carry approximately 9 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , and the original construction plans provided for subsequent conversion of the road into a four @-@ lane motorway . In 1971 , as the road gradually became congested , the plans to build the motorway on the route were approved by the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Croatia . Unlike the other two motorway plans approved by the Croatian government , Zagreb – Split and Zagreb – Rijeka , which were cancelled after the suppression of the Croatian Spring , the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway plans remained in place and an expansion of the existing motorway into a dual @-@ carriageway , six @-@ lane motorway with exclusively grade @-@ separated intersections proceeded . The additional carriageway was to be built south of the existing road , which was in turn to be widened to accommodate two traffic lanes and an emergency lane .
= = = Prewar construction and wartime use = = =
Construction of the A3 motorway in Croatia in its present form started in 1977 , when the first six @-@ lane ( including emergency lanes ) sections were constructed as a part of the Zagreb bypass . In 1979 , the 5 @.@ 85 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 64 mi ) section connecting the Jankomir and Lučko interchanges was the first to be completed . The 22 @.@ 15 @-@ kilometre ( 13 @.@ 76 mi ) section between the Lučko and Ivanja Reka interchanges was opened in 1981 , marking the completion of the A3 section of the Zagreb bypass . Unlike the remainder of the motorway , which was constructed by widening the existing road and adding the additional carriageway , these two sections were built entirely from scratch .
The first part of the six @-@ lane motorway to be completed east of Zagreb was the 76 @.@ 52 @-@ kilometre ( 47 @.@ 55 mi ) section between Ivanja Reka and Lipovljani , immediately to the east of the present day Lipovljani rest area ; this was done in 1980 . In order to maintain the flow of traffic on the Zagreb – Belgrade road during construction , the southern carriageway was completed first , and then the two @-@ way traffic was rerouted to the new carriageway while the old , northern carriageway was widened and its pavement structure was replaced with a new one . Similarly , as the new carriageway extended further eastward , the at @-@ grade intersections were replaced by interchanges or flyovers . In 1985 , the motorway was extended by 35 @.@ 82 kilometres ( 22 @.@ 26 mi ) to Okučani , and in 1986 by another 7 @.@ 50 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 66 mi ) to Prvča , near Nova Gradiška . Two further extensions of the motorway happened in 1988 and 1989 — those were a 40 @.@ 56 @-@ kilometre ( 25 @.@ 20 mi ) extension to Brodski Stupnik and another 8 @.@ 80 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 47 mi ) one to Slavonski Brod and the present @-@ day Slavonski Brod zapad ( west ) interchange . In 1991 , the motorway reached beyond Slavonski Brod as it was extended once more by 11 @.@ 40 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 08 mi ) , to the Slavonski Brod istok ( east ) interchange .
Further construction of the motorway was suspended by the onset of the Croatian War of Independence . In October 1991 , a part of the motorway between Novska and Nova Gradiška became inaccessible to the government of the Republic of Croatia due to military occupation of the area by the forces of the so @-@ called SAO Western Slavonia . Consequently , the Novska – Nova Gradiška section was closed to all traffic . On December 21 , 1994 , negotiations led to the reopening of that section for transit traffic . However , the section remained unsafe for use as intermittent violence continued until May 1995 , when the area was overrun by the Croatian army . Inspection of the motorway section carried out at the time revealed damage to a viaduct carrying the motorway over the Zagreb – Sisak – Vinkovci railroad and a local road near Novska . Besides the overall lack of maintenance during the period , the pavement and a number of flyovers were damaged by artillery bombardments , and the flyover approach embankments were damaged where trenches were dug .
= = = Postwar reconstruction and completion = = =
After the war , construction and reconstruction work resumed on the A3 motorway . The battle damage was the first to be addressed , along with removal of the trenches excavated in the flyover embankments . Similarly , unexploded ordnance and minefields left around the motorway had to be removed by minesweepers . The motorway pavement was seriously deteriorated , as evidenced by extensive ruts and cracks incurred during the four @-@ year wartime period . Unlike repairs made to the viaducts and flyovers , mine clearance and pavement reconstruction took considerably more time to perform .
In 1996 , the motorway was extended for the first time after the war . This 10 @.@ 90 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 77 mi ) extension reached to Oprisavci , west of the present @-@ day Sredanci interchange . In 1999 , another 16 @.@ 90 @-@ kilometre ( 10 @.@ 50 mi ) section was completed , stretching to Velika Kopanica . The single westward extension of the motorway came about in 2002 as the A3 motorway was extended 13 @.@ 67 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 49 mi ) from Jankomir westward to the Bregana border crossing into Slovenia . The eastward advance of the A3 motorway continued in 2002 , as it was extended by 25 @.@ 95 kilometres ( 16 @.@ 12 mi ) to Županja , while the easternmost 30 @.@ 42 @-@ kilometre ( 18 @.@ 90 mi ) section between Županja and the Bajakovo border crossing into Serbia was opened in 2006 , thus completing the six @-@ lane A3 motorway . The D4 state road was thus entirely replaced by the A3 motorway . The total investment value of the A3 motorway construction is estimated at 7 billion Croatian kuna ( approximately 958 @.@ 9 million euro ) , making the A3 the least expensive motorway in Croatia .
= = Further construction = =
Since the A3 motorway was completed in 2006 , further construction on the A3 only consists of the addition of interchanges and rest areas .
The Kosnica interchange , itself completed in May 2007 , lacked access ramps to the south , to the D31 state road , which were in turn completed in November 2013 .
The latest new A3 interchange , the Jakuševec interchange on the Zagreb bypass , is a cloverleaf interchange connecting the A3 to the A11 motorway and in the future the city of Zagreb via Sarajevska road . The interchange itself and the access ramps to the A11 were completed in November 2015 . Further construction towards Sarajevska road is planned .
As of 2016 , two additional A3 interchanges are in various stages of construction or planning : Sveta Klara and Ivanić Grad . The Sveta Klara interchange is planned to provide another connection to the city of Zagreb ( via Većeslava Holjevca Avenue ) . The interchange is designed as a trumpet . When both the Jakuševec and Sveta Klara interchanges are completed , the Buzin interchange is scheduled to be removed .
The present Ivanić Grad interchange connects the D43 state road to the A3 motorway near the city of Ivanić Grad , however , the interchange is scheduled to be reconstructed to accommodate a new motorway planned as an outer , tolled Zagreb bypass . The reconstruction is currently in the planning stages . Two further interchanges are planned : ( 1 ) Godinjak , to be located between the existing Nova Gradiška and Lužani interchanges , connecting to Požega ; and ( 2 ) Lipovljani , located between the existing Kutina and Novska interchanges . These are included in applicable spatial planning documents and their designs are in development , however funding is yet to be secured . Finally , the Andautonija rest area is planned for the A3 section of the Zagreb bypass between the Jakuševec and Kosnica interchanges . It is planned to be an " A @-@ type " rest area , which normally comprises a filling station , a restaurant and a motel .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic is regularly counted by means of a traffic census at toll stations and reported by Hrvatske autoceste . The reported traffic volume gradually decreases as the motorway chainage increases and as it passes by various major destinations and the interchanges that serve them . Thus the greatest volume of traffic is registered along Zagreb bypass , especially the Jankomir – Lučko section , with 41 @,@ 549 vehicle annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . The busiest tolled section of the motorway is Ivanja Reka – Rugvica with 27 @,@ 049 AADT and 34 @,@ 543 vehicle average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) figures . The traffic volume gradually decreases from that section eastward to the eastern terminus of the motorway , where the lowest AADT and ASDT figures are recorded . The traffic volume decrease is somewhat more pronounced at interchanges serving Slavonski Brod and the A5 motorway ( Sredanci ) . The seasonal traffic volume variation ranges from a 28 % increase on the busiest , Ivanja Reka – Rugvica , section to a 75 % volume increase , as measured on the Županja – Spačva section . Average summer season traffic volume increase on the motorway is 55 % . The AADT / ASDT ratio analysis does not include Zagreb bypass , as there are no ASDT data available for the bypass .
= = Rest areas = =
As of October 2010 , there are 18 rest areas operating along the A3 motorway , and additional rest areas are planned along the existing sections of the route . Legislation provides for four types of rest areas , designated as types A through D. A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities , including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or a motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodations ; D @-@ type rest areas offer parking spaces only , possibly some picnicking tables , benches and restrooms . Even though the rest areas found along the A3 motorway generally follow this ranking system , there are considerable variations , as some of them offer extra services . The filling stations regularly have small convenience stores and some of them offer LPG fuel .
The primary motorway operator , Hrvatske autoceste ( HAC ) , leases the A , B and C type rest areas to various operators through public tenders . As of October 2010 , there are three such rest area operators on the A3 motorway : INA , Nafta Promet and INA Osijek Petrol . The rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease the fuel operations . Most of the A3 motorway rest areas are accessible to both directions of traffic . There are however rest areas which are available only to the eastbound traffic ( e.g. Lužani and Brodski Stupnik rest areas ) or to westbound traffic only , like Slaven and Staro Petrovo Selo rest areas . Furthermore , some rest areas offer different types of amenities to each direction of the traffic . The rest areas normally operate 24 hours per day , 7 days per week , except Stari Hrastovi ( eastbound ) rest area , which is open from 7 am to 6 pm .
= = Exit list = =
These are the exits on the A3 motorway , including those under construction .
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= STS @-@ 125 =
STS @-@ 125 , or HST @-@ SM4 ( Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission 4 ) , was the fifth and final space shuttle mission to the Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) . Launch occurred on 11 May 2009 at 2 : 01 pm EDT . Landing occurred on 24 May at 11 : 39 am EDT , with the mission lasting a total of just under 13 days .
Space Shuttle Atlantis carried two new instruments to the Hubble Space Telescope , the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph and the Wide Field Camera 3 . The mission also replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor , six gyroscopes , and two battery unit modules to allow the telescope to continue to function at least through 2014 . The crew also installed new thermal blanket insulating panels to provide improved thermal protection , and a soft @-@ capture mechanism that would aid in the safe de @-@ orbiting of the telescope by an unmanned spacecraft at the end of its operational lifespan . The mission also carried an IMAX camera with which the crew documented the progress of the mission for the Hubble IMAX movie .
The crew of STS @-@ 125 included three astronauts who had previous experience servicing Hubble . Scott Altman visited Hubble in 2002 as commander of STS @-@ 109 , the fourth Hubble servicing mission . John Grunsfeld , an astronomer , has serviced Hubble twice , performing a total of five spacewalks on STS @-@ 103 in 1999 and STS @-@ 109 . Michael Massimino served with both Altman and Grunsfeld on STS @-@ 109 , and performed two spacewalks to service the telescope .
NASA managers and engineers declared the mission a complete success . The completion of all the major objectives , as well as some that were not considered vital , upgraded the Hubble telescope to its most technologically advanced state since its launch nineteen years before and made it more powerful than ever . The upgrades will help Hubble to see deeper into the universe and farther into the past , closer to the time of the Big Bang .
STS @-@ 125 was the only visit to the Hubble Space Telescope for Atlantis ; the telescope had been previously serviced twice by Discovery and once each by Columbia and Endeavour . The mission was the 30th flight of Space Shuttle Atlantis and also the first by Atlantis in over 14 years not to visit a space station , the last one being STS @-@ 66 .
= = Crew = =
= = Mission history = =
The fifth servicing mission to Hubble , HST @-@ SM4 , was originally scheduled to launch in late 2005 or early 2006 . On 16 January 2004 , then @-@ NASA Administrator Sean O 'Keefe canceled the mission , as well as any future missions to Hubble , citing safety constraints imposed by the Columbia Accident Investigation Board . During the announcement , O 'Keefe stated that it was his decision alone , and not a recommendation from any other departments . The decision was widely criticized by the media , the science community , and those in NASA . Maryland Senator Barbara Mikulski , a member of the Senate subcommitte that oversees NASA 's budget , publicly accused O 'Keefe of making a decision outside the transparency process against the wishes of the science community , and stated she would work to reverse the decision . In March 2004 , Representative Mark Udall introduced a bill to the House of Representatives that requested an independent panel of experts review O 'Keefe 's decision to cancel the servicing mission . Also in March 2004 , Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) Director Stephen Beckwith released the results of the Hubble Ultra @-@ Deep Field survey to the entire science community , which helped show the public how important Hubble was to science . The data showed the deepest images ever taken by a telescope and revealed approximately 10 @,@ 000 galaxies , some of which most likely dated back to when the universe was just five hundred million years old . With Beckwith when he released the data to the scientific community was Mikulski , who said of the results , " I think it 's just amazing ... this is why I will continue to stand up for Hubble . "
Joining Mikulski as an advocate for servicing Hubble was NASA 's Chief Scientist , physicist John Grunsfeld , who was present at the meeting when O 'Keefe announced the cancellation of the mission . A veteran astronaut of four shuttle missions , including two Hubble servicing missions , Grunsfeld had devoted years to Hubble , and was very disappointed when O 'Keefe canceled the mission . He briefly considered retiring from NASA , but realized if he stayed , he could continue to advance physics in other ways . Instead , Grunsfeld dedicated himself to finding alternate ways to service the telescope , possibly by sending a robot into orbit to do the job . When O 'Keefe announced his resignation as Administrator in December 2004 , five days after a National Academy of Sciences committee opposed O 'Keefe 's position regarding servicing Hubble , the media and science community saw hope for the telescope 's servicing mission to be reinstated .
O 'Keefe 's replacement , Michael D. Griffin , took just two months after his appointment to announce that he disagreed with O 'Keefe 's decision , and would consider sending a shuttle to repair Hubble . As an engineer , Griffin had previously worked on Hubble 's construction , and respected the discoveries the telescope brought to the science community . He agreed with the National Academy of Sciences that a robotic mission was not feasible , and said that in light of the " Return to Flight " changes made following the Columbia accident , a shuttle mission to repair Hubble should be reassessed . After the successes of the Return to Flight STS @-@ 114 and STS @-@ 121 missions , and the lessons learned and improvements made following those missions , managers and engineers worked to formulate a plan that would allow the shuttle to service Hubble , while still adhering to the post @-@ Columbia safety requirements .
On 31 October 2006 , Griffin announced that the Hubble servicing mission was reinstated , scheduled for 2008 , and announced the crew that would fly the mission , which included Grunsfeld . Senator Mikulski expressed her delight at the news , stating " The Hubble telescope has been the greatest telescope since Galileo invented the first one . It has gone to look at places in the universe that we didn 't know existed before . "
New Yorker and dedicated New York Mets fan , Mike Massimino , brought the home plate from Shea Stadium along on the mission . He was forced to slightly alter the plate to allow it to fit into the locker designated for memorabilia . Massimino presented the plate back to the Mets management upon return and threw out the first pitch there . The plate is now on display at Citi Field .
= = Mission payload = =
The mission added two new instruments to Hubble . The first instrument , the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph , is now the most sensitive ultraviolet spectrograph installed on the telescope . Its far @-@ UV channel is 30 times more sensitive than previous instruments and the near @-@ UV is twice as sensitive . The second instrument , the Wide Field Camera 3 , is a panchromatic wide @-@ field camera that can record a wide range of wavelengths , including infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . Atlantis also carried the Soft @-@ Capture Mechanism , which was installed onto the telescope . This will enable a spacecraft to be sent to the telescope to assist in its safe de @-@ orbit at the end of its life . It is a circular mechanism containing structures and targets to aid docking .
The infrastructure of the telescope was upgraded by replacing a " Fine Guidance Sensor " that controls the telescope 's directional system , installing a set of six new gyroscopes , replacing batteries , and installing a new outer blanket layer to provide improved insulation .
The payload bay elements were the Super Lightweight Interchangeable Carrier ( SLIC ) which held the Wide Field Camera 3 , new batteries , and a radiator ; the ORU Carrier which stored the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph and FGS @-@ 3R instruments ; the Flight Support Structure ( FSS ) which held onto the Hubble during repairs ; , the Multi @-@ Use Lightweight Equipment Carrier ( MULE ) which held support equipment and the Relative Navigation Sensor ( RNS ) Experiment .
Along with the collectible items that are flown on shuttle missions , such as mission patches , flags , and other personal items for the crew , were an official Harlem Globetrotters basketball and a basketball that Edwin Hubble used in 1909 when he played for the University of Chicago . After being returned to Earth , the Harlem Globetrotters basketball would be placed in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame , and Hubble 's ball would be returned to the University of Chicago . Michael Massimino flew a 1964 reprint of Galileo 's Sidereus Nuncius from the library of his alma mater , MIT .
= = = IMAX movie = = =
At the end of September 2007 , Warner Bros. Pictures and IMAX Corporation announced that in cooperation with NASA , an IMAX 3D camera would travel to the Hubble telescope in the payload bay of Atlantis for production of a new film that will chronicle the story of the Hubble telescope . An IMAX camera was also stationed at the LC @-@ 39 Press Site for the launch . IMAX has made a number of movies centered around space , including Destiny in Space , The Dream Is Alive , Mission to Mir , Blue Planet , Magnificent Desolation : Walking on the Moon 3D , and Space Station 3D , made in 2001 on the first trip of IMAX to the ISS . The movie was released in March 2010 , with the name IMAX : Hubble 3D .
= = = Media = = =
Astronaut Michael J. Massimino used Twitter to document the training and preparations for the mission . He mentioned that he would like to try sending Twitter updates from space during his off @-@ duty time . Massimino 's first update read , " From orbit : Launch was awesome ! ! I am feeling great , working hard , & enjoying the magnificent views , the adventure of a lifetime has begun ! " Massimino was the first person to use Twitter in space .
= = Mission background = =
The mission marked :
157th NASA manned space flight
126th shuttle mission since STS @-@ 1
30th flight of Atlantis
53rd shuttle landing at Edwards Air Force Base
101st post @-@ Challenger mission
13th post @-@ Columbia mission
= = Shuttle processing = =
STS @-@ 125 was first assigned to Discovery with a launch date no earlier than May 2008 . This originally moved the mission ahead of STS @-@ 119 , ISS Assembly flight 15 . Delays to several shuttle missions resulted in a change in mission ordering , and the orbiter was changed to Atlantis on 8 January 2007 . The crew of Atlantis went to the Kennedy Space Center for the Crew Equipment Interface Test in early July 2008 . This allowed the STS @-@ 125 crew to get familiar with the orbiter and the hardware they would be using during the flight .
= = = Launch delays = = =
On 22 August 2008 , after a delay following Tropical Storm Fay , Atlantis was rolled from the Orbiter Processing Facility to the Vehicle Assembly Building , where it was mated to the external fuel tank and solid rocket booster stack . Problems were encountered during the mating process , and poor weather due to Hurricane Hanna caused a delay in the rollout of Atlantis to the launch pad , which is normally done seven days after rollover .
STS @-@ 125 was further pushed back to October 2008 due to manufacturing delays on external tanks for future space shuttle missions . Lockheed Martin experienced delays during the production changes to make new external tanks with all the enhancements recommended by the Columbia Accident Investigation Board , making it impossible for them to produce two tanks for the STS @-@ 125 mission – one for Atlantis , and one for Endeavour for an emergency rescue mission , if necessary – in time for the original August launch date .
The first rollout to Launch Pad 39A occurred on 4 September 2008 . On 27 September , the Science Instrument Command and Data Handling ( SIC & DH ) Unit on the Hubble Space Telescope failed . Because of its importance to the telescope , NASA postponed the launch of STS @-@ 125 on 29 September until 2009 so the failed unit could be replaced as well . Atlantis was rolled back to the Vehicle Assembly Building on 20 October .
On 30 October 2008 , NASA announced that Atlantis would be removed from its solid rocket boosters and external tank stack and sent back to the Orbiter Processing Facility to await a targeted launch time at 1 : 11 pm EDT on 12 May 2009 . The stack was turned over to be used on the STS @-@ 119 mission instead . On 23 March , Atlantis was mated to its new stack in the Vehicle Assembly Building , and rolled out to Launch Pad 39A on 31 March . On 24 April 2009 , NASA managers issued a request to move the STS @-@ 125 launch up one day to 11 May at 2 : 01 pm EDT . The change was made official at the flight readiness review on 30 April . The reason cited for the change was to add one more day to the launch window , from two to three days .
= = Mission timeline = =
= = = 11 May ( Flight day 1 , launch ) = = =
Following a smooth countdown , Atlantis launched on time at 2 : 01 pm EDT . Almost immediately after launch and during the ascent , flight systems reported problems with a hydrogen tank transducer and a circuit breaker ; the crew was immediately advised to disregard the resultant alarms and continue to orbit . During the post @-@ launch news conference , NASA managers said the initial early review of the launch video showed no obvious debris events , but a thorough analysis would be performed to ensure the orbiter sustained no significant damage during ascent . After working through their post launch checklists , the crew opened the payload bay doors , deployed the Ku band antenna , and moved into the robotic activities portion of the day , which included a survey of the payload bay and crew cabin survey with the orbiter 's robotic arm .
During the post @-@ launch inspection of Launch Pad 39A , a twenty @-@ five foot area on the north side of the flame deflector was found to have damage where some of the heat resistant coating came off . Following the launch of STS @-@ 124 , severe damage was seen at the pad where bricks were blasted from the walls , but NASA officials stated the damage from the STS @-@ 125 launch was not nearly as severe and should not impact the launch of STS @-@ 127 in June .
= = = 12 May ( Flight day 2 ) = = =
Following the morning wake up call , the crew set right to work on the day 's tasks , which were centered on inspection of the orbiter 's heat shield . Using the shuttle robotic arm and the Orbiter Boom Sensor System ( OBSS ) , the crew went through a detailed inspection of the orbiter 's thermal protection system ( TPS ) tile and Reinforced carbon @-@ carbon ( RCC ) surfaces . During the inspection , engineers on the ground noticed a small area of tile on the forward area of the shuttle 's right wing that appeared to have suffered some damage during ascent . Mission managers called up to the crew to alert them of the find , advising Altman ( " Scooter " ) that one of the orbiter 's wing leading edge sensors recorded a debris event during ascent , around 104 – 106 seconds following liftoff , which may have been the cause of the damage seen in that area . CAPCOM Dan Burbank advised the crew that the damage did not initially appear to be serious , but assured the crew that the image analysis team would be reviewing the imagery further , and engineers on the ground would be analyzing it to determine if a focused inspection would be required .
As part of the Flight Day 2 Execute Package , ground engineers also provided further information on the circuit breaker failure seen at launch . The breaker ( Channel 1 Aerosurfaces , ASA 1 ) is part of the shuttle 's Flight Control Systems ( FCS ) , a subsystem of the Guidance , Navigation and Control ( GNC ) systems . The failure would have no impact to the mission , due to redundant systems .
In addition to the survey of the orbiter 's heat shield , the crew gathered and inspected the EVA tools and spacesuits that would be used for the mission 's spacewalks and prepared the Flight Support System ( FSS ) for berthing with Hubble on flight day three .
= = = 13 May ( Flight day 3 ) = = =
Following the crew 's post @-@ sleep activities , they went to work performing the rendezvous operations that included burning the orbiter 's engines to refine the approach to the Hubble telescope . Following some delays due to communications issues , Altman and Johnson ( " Ray @-@ J " ) guided the orbiter within fifty feet of the telescope . McArthur successfully grappled Hubble at 17 : 14 UTC , and at 18 : 12 the telescope was safely berthed in the payload bay of Atlantis . Later in the day , Grunsfeld and Feustel ( Drew ) , along with Good ( " Bueno " ) and Massimino ( " Mass " ) worked on preparing for the next day 's spacewalk , gathering tools and checking out the suits and equipment that would be used during the EVA .
At the Mission Management Team ( MMT ) briefing , MMT Chairman LeRoy Cain reported that the damage assessment team had cleared all of the orbiter 's TPS tiles and blankets , and were expected to clear the RCC portion of the orbiter by flight day four . He stated that no focused inspection would be required . Cain also noted that a debris event was recorded on the orbiter 's wing leading edge sensors , but it was far below the force that would indicate a problem , and would not impact the mission . The late inspection that is routinely performed prior to re @-@ entry would give any additional information , but Cain stated " We 're not concerned that it 's done any kind of damage that would be any concern to us , certainly not critical damage . "
During the Mission Status briefing , Lead Flight Director Tony Ceccacci noted that during the camera survey of the equipment in the payload bay , the team noticed some fine particulate matter around the box containing the Wide Field Camera 3 and asked the crew to take additional images using a higher resolution camera for the ground teams to assess . Cain later confirmed that the dust was not present prior to launch , and was most likely particulate shaken loose from the thick insulation blankets inside the payload bay during launch . The team advised the crew to avoid the particulate as much as possible during the spacewalks , and use caution when working around the container to avoid the debris , but it was not a significant concern .
= = = 14 May ( Flight day 4 ) = = =
Following the crew 's wake up , they set to work preparing for the mission 's first spacewalk . Grunsfeld and Feustel suited up with the assistance of their EVA counterparts , Massimino and Good , and the spacewalk officially began when the two switched their suits to battery power at 12 : 52 UTC . At the start of the spacewalk , Feustel provided managers on the ground with a visual inspection report on the particulate matter seen earlier around the WFC3 box , reporting to the ground team that " I don 't really see any of those particles ... It 's almost imperceivable . I can see some few particles on the front of the W @-@ SIPE , little , whitish , grey looking , real small . It 's low density , too . " After getting their tools and equipment for the EVA set up , Grunsfeld and Feustel removed the old Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 , which was installed in 1993 during the telescope 's first servicing mission , and replaced it with the new Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 ) . Feustel initially had trouble removing the bolts from the old camera , which after over fifteen years in space required more torque to remove than expected . After multiple attempts , managers on the ground decided to have Grunsfeld get a contingency torque limiter from the airlock , which would allow Feustel to apply more force without exceeding a specific point , but the bolt would still not release . The concern was that the bolt would shear , and the camera would be unable to be removed should that happened . Finally , managers approved Feustel to remove the limiter , and apply as much force as he safely thought it would take to release the bolt , which was successful .
The new camera will allow Hubble to take large @-@ scale , extremely clear and detailed photos over a wider range of colors than the old camera did . After the installation , controllers at the Space Telescope Operations Control Center at Goddard Space Flight Center sent commands to the camera to perform an aliveness test , which passed , indicating the camera was installed correctly .
The next task was to remove and replace the telescope 's Science Instrument Command and Data Handling Unit , or SIC & DH , a computer that sends commands to Hubble 's science instruments , and formats science data for transmission to the ground . This was the item that failed in September 2008 , delaying STS @-@ 125 while engineers prepared a replacement part for the mission , and the crew trained for the new task . While the failure of the SIC & DH did not disable the telescope , replacing the unit restores the redundancies . The final major task was to install the Soft @-@ Capture Mechanism ( SCM ) , which includes the 72 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 1 @,@ 800 mm ) Low Impact Docking System ( LIDS ) that will allow spacecraft in the future to dock with the telescope , and to safely de @-@ orbit the telescope at the end of its life . Feustel also installed two of four Latch Over Center Kits , or LOCKs , that make opening and closing Hubble 's large access doors easier for the remaining spacewalks . The spacewalk officially ended at 20 : 12 UTC , for a time of seven hours and twenty minutes . It was the nineteenth spacewalk devoted to servicing the telescope , and brought the total time in servicing Hubble to one hundred thirty @-@ six hours , thirty minutes . Due to the length of the spacewalk , and the delay in beginning , the crew was over an hour behind their scheduled timeline for the day , but worked through the post @-@ EVA activities and evening activities without problems , and got to sleep only slightly behind their scheduled time . During the mission status briefing , David Leckrone , Hubble Project Senior Scientist , noted he was very relieved that the camera was replaced successfully , and noted that the problems with the bolt caused some concern , " I don 't normally reveal my age and I 'm not going to here , but I can tell you I 'm five years older now than I was when I came to work this morning , we can sleep pretty well tonight , knowing that 's been accomplished . "
= = = 15 May ( Flight day 5 ) = = =
Following their wake up , the Atlantis crew set right to work preparing for the second spacewalk of the mission , with Massimino and Good suiting up with assistance from Grunsfeld and Feustel . As they were preparing for the EVA , the team on the ground informed the crew that the WFC3 had passed all the overnight functional tests , indicating it was in good working order .
While the spacewalk preparations were underway , Altman and McArthur completed a robotic survey of a small row of heat shield tiles that had not been sufficiently imaged during the day two inspection . Following the analysis of the survey , the managers cleared all of the TPS systems until the pre @-@ landing inspection .
The mission 's second spacewalk officially began at 12 : 49 UTC , and the pair set to work removing and replacing the telescope 's three gyroscope rate sensing units ( RSUs ) . Each unit contains two gyroscopes that allow the telescope to point itself . The first unit , RSU 2 , was replaced without problems , but when they attempted to replace the second unit , RSU 3 , the unit would not align onto the guide pins , and they could not seat it into the equipment bay . Managers decided to put the unit originally intended for the RSU 1 bay into the RSU 3 bay , and it was installed without problems . The pair then attempted to install the second unit into the third and final bay , but the unit again would not seat properly , and they were unable to install it . Instead , it was decided that an additional unit carried as a spare would be placed into the final bay . The spare unit was one that was removed during the STS @-@ 103 mission , and had been refurbished on the ground . The installation of all three gyro units was a critical objective of the servicing mission , as three had failed , one was offline due to electrical issues , and the other two had also been experiencing issues with performance . Ground controllers at Goddard Space Flight Center confirmed that all six gyroscopes and the new battery passed preliminary tests .
The problems with seating the second RSU set the spacewalkers back in the timeline by approximately two hours , but after Altman asked Massimino and Good how they felt , they replied they were doing well and felt fine to continue . Flight controllers on the ground evaluated the consumables for the two spacesuits , and decided that if Massimino recharged his suit 's oxygen in the airlock , the pair could safely continue with the battery installation . After moving to the battery unit site , Good and Massimino removed one of the original battery modules from Bay 2 of the telescope , and replaced it with a new unit . The batteries provide power to the telescope when it passes into the Earth 's shadow and its solar arrays are not exposed to the sun . The spacewalk officially ended at 20 : 45 UTC , for a time of seven hours , fifty @-@ six minutes . It was the twentieth spacewalk to service Hubble , bringing the total time in EVA servicing the telescope to one hundred forty @-@ four hours and twenty @-@ six minutes .
During the mission status briefing , Tomas Gonzalez @-@ Torres , the Lead EVA Officer , and Hubble Program Manager Preston Burch both explained that the spare RSU would not impact the life of the telescope , as it had been fully refurbished on the ground with two of the three improvements incorporated in newer models . " I would say the difference in the projected longevity of the observatory in the out years is very small . We don 't see this is a significant detriment at all to the observatory . This was a tremendous accomplishment for us . " Burch noted . Lead Flight Director Tony Ceccacci noted that due to the length of the spacewalk , and the resulting slip in the timeline , the crew 's sleep shift would have to be moved an hour later , to allow them to get the proper amount of rest , and the rest of the docked timeline would also be shifted forward an hour .
= = = 16 May ( Flight day 6 ) = = =
After awakening , the crew set to work preparing for the mission 's third spacewalk , one that was considered the most challenging and uncertain , yet had some of the highest priority items scheduled . The tasks were to remove the obsolete Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement ( COSTAR ) , originally installed during STS @-@ 61 to correct the spherical aberration of Hubble 's mirror , and install the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( COS ) , and to repair the Advanced Camera for Surveys ( ACS ) . The ACS failed in June 2006 due to an electrical issue , and after being restored partially , failed again in 2007 due to an electrical short . The ACS was not designed to be serviced or repaired in space , so the task was considered one of the most challenging of the mission . After running into various snags in the first two spacewalks , managers on the ground were prepared to see unexpected issues arise during the complicated repair work . The spacewalk began at 13 : 35 UTC , and Grunsfeld and Feustel had no problems . The pair worked through their timeline so efficiently that they were over an hour ahead at one point . After removing COSTAR and stowing it in the orbiter 's payload bay , they installed COS , and then moved on to the ACS repair . Using specially designed tools , they removed an access panel , replaced the camera 's four circuit boards , and installed a new power supply .
The spacewalk was completed in six hours and thirty @-@ six minutes , and the ACS passed the initial aliveness tests . It was the twenty @-@ first Hubble servicing spacewalk , and Grunsfeld 's seventh EVA , moving him up to fourth in the record book of spacewalking time . During the previous day 's mission status briefing , Dave Leckrone , Hubble Space Telescope Senior Project Scientist , made a prediction , joking that since the first two spacewalks , which were considered to be straightforward , had run into issues , the most difficult EVA – to repair the ACS , would be the smoothest one of the mission . " I have a prediction , We 've always said EVA 3 was going to be the most difficult and the most challenging , and I predict it 's going to go more smoothly than any other EVA on this mission . I just think that 's some version of Murphy 's Law that 's going to lead us in that direction . "
After the initial aliveness testing , the ACS was put through its functional tests . Managers and engineers had noted that the repairs were designed for only one of the three photo channels , the wide @-@ field channel , and that the issues with the high @-@ resolution channel may not be resolved by the designed fix . During the functional testing , the wide @-@ field channel passed , but issues were seen with the high @-@ resolution channel , indicating that the power issue may be farther upstream in the electronic circuits than the spacewalk repair addressed . Additional testing would be performed , but Hubble Program Manager Preston Burch noted that the fix was designed to " back power " the high @-@ resolution channel through the paths connected to the wide @-@ field channel , and while feasible , it was a possibility that the short circuit damage was in an area not corrected with the planned repair . Even if the high @-@ resolution channel is unable to be restored , it was considered to be less important , since the bulk of the ACS science output is undertaken by the wide @-@ field channel . The third channel , the solar @-@ blind channel , passed overnight functional testing without issues .
= = = 17 May ( Flight day 7 ) = = =
Beginning the mission 's fourth spacewalk at 13 : 45 UTC , Massimino and Good went to work repairing the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ( STIS ) . The spectrograph failed in 2004 due to a blown power supply . As with the ACS , the STIS was not designed with the intention of servicing it while in space , and one of the major challenges was to remove a cover plate held tight with over 100 screws using a specially designed tool called a fastener @-@ capture plate , designed to trap the screws and washers and prevent them from floating into space when removed . While preparing the fastener @-@ capture plate , Massimino encountered issues with a handrail that had to be removed to accommodate the fastener @-@ capture plate . The handrail had a stripped bolt on the bottom , preventing it from being released . After trying multiple options without success , managers on the ground advised Massimino to use brute force to remove the handrail , so he could proceed with the removal of the cover plate . The procedure was tested at Goddard Space Flight Center prior to approving it , showing that the stripped bolt could be broken off safely using force . Working inside the orbiter , Feustel walked Massimino through the procedure slowly , advising him to tape the handrail with Kapton tape to prevent any parts from breaking off or flying loose , to be aware of the reaction the force would have , as well as to watch for sharp edges on the handrail after removal .
Once the handrail was removed , Massimino went to work attaching the capture plate , but ran into additional problems when the battery in one of his power tools failed . Massimino was instructed to return to the orbiter 's airlock to retrieve a spare tool and to recharge his suit 's oxygen reserves , to allow for completion of the STIS repair . The rest of the STIS repair work was completed without any problems , but the spacewalkers were nearly two hours behind the scheduled timeline , so managers on the ground decided to postpone the task of installing a New Outer Blanket Layers ( NOBLs ) onto the telescope 's outer shell . The spacewalk , originally scheduled to last six hours and thirty minutes , ended at 21 : 02 UTC , for a time of eight hours and two minutes . At the time , it became the sixth longest spacewalk in history . It was the twenty @-@ second spacewalk devoted to servicing the Hubble telescope , and Massimino 's fourth spacewalk , bringing his total EVA time to thirty hours , forty @-@ four minutes .
During the mission status briefing , Jennifer Wiseman , Chief of Exoplanet and Stellar Astrophysics for Goddard Space Flight Center , noted that the repair of STIS was a major victory for both the mission and the science community , as that part of the telescope performed unique functions , helping scientists understand the materials planets are composed of , and looking at things like the motion of stars around black holes .
After initial aliveness testing that showed no issues , STIS was taken into functional testing , and issues were seen when the telescope put itself into safe mode due to a low thermal limit sensor . Ground controllers at Goddard would restart the testing once the thermal limit sensor was back in normal sensor range , but it is believed the component is in good shape .
= = = 18 May ( Flight day 8 ) = = =
Completing the fifth of the five planned spacewalks , Grunsfeld and Feustel successfully installed the second battery , removed and replaced the Fine Guidance Sensor number three , and worked so efficiently that they were over an hour ahead of the timeline , giving them time to remove degraded insulation panels from three bays of the telescope , and install three New Outer Blanket Layers ( NOBLs ) . Beginning the spacewalk at 12 : 20 UTC , the pair first worked on removing an aging battery module , and replaced it with a new pack , which combined with the battery replacement performed during the second spacewalk , gave the telescope all new nickel @-@ hydrogen batteries . They then moved on to the removal and replacement of the Fine Guidance Sensor unit number three , improving Hubble 's focus and stability when imaging . NASA engineers liken the new FGS to being able to keep a laser beam focused on a U.S. dime coin that is 320 km ( 199 mi ) away . Both the new batteries , and the FGS passed both aliveness and functional testing . The mission 's final EVA concluded at 19 : 22 UTC , after seven hours and two minutes . The total time spent during the mission in extra @-@ vehicular activity was thirty @-@ six hours , fifty @-@ six minutes . The twenty @-@ third and final spacewalk to service Hubble brought the total time spent in EVA working on the telescope to one hundred and sixty @-@ six hours , six minutes . Lead Flight Director Tony Ceccacci noted that the final EVA was also the last planned spacewalk from a shuttle airlock . In what was likely his last EVA , Grunsfeld 's has accumulated fifty @-@ eight hours and thirty minutes spacewalking , just two minutes less than Jerry L. Ross , who is third on the list of spacewalking time .
The completion of all the major objectives , as well as some that were not considered vital , upgraded the telescope to its most technologically advanced state since its launch nineteen years ago , and made it more powerful than ever . The upgrades will also help Hubble to see deeper into the universe , and farther into the past , closer to the time of the Big Bang . Hubble 's importance to science is not just seen in the dramatic images it provides , but also in the volume of work it has generated – an average of fourteen scientific articles are published each week based on data gathered from the telescope . Officially , the upgrades should extend Hubble 's life through 2014 , but Hubble Space Telescope Senior Scientist David Leckrone noted prior to the mission that if all of the mission 's objectives were successful , the telescope could easily last longer than that . The next large telescope scheduled to be launched is the James Webb Space Telescope in 2018 , which is infrared @-@ only , so to have Hubble , which has ultraviolet , visible , and near @-@ infrared capabilities , still operational after 2018 would be of great benefit to the scientific community .
= = = 19 May ( Flight day 9 ) = = =
After awakening at 8 : 31 UTC , the crew set to work preparing to release Hubble from the payload bay of Atlantis . Using the shuttle 's robotic arm , McArthur grappled Hubble at 10 : 45 UTC , and lifted it out of the orbiter 's payload bay to prepare for the release . Good and Massimino were standing by ready to perform a spacewalk in the event that something went wrong during the telescope 's deployment . After working through the checklist to prepare the telescope for release , managers on the ground gave the go to Altman to release Hubble , and at 12 : 57 UTC , McArthur successfully released the telescope as the vehicles flew over Africa . Performing a small separation burn , Johnson backed the orbiter away from the telescope , and Altman called down to managers on the ground confirming the deployment of Hubble . Commending the crew , Altman said " And Houston , Hubble has been released , it 's safely back on its journey of exploration as we begin steps to conclude ours . Not everything went as we planned , but we planned a way to work around everything and with the whole team pulling together ... we 've been able to do some incredible things . And now Hubble can continue on its own , exploring the cosmos , and bringing it home to us as we head for home in a few days . Thank you . " Hubble 's new equipment and upgraded systems would be tested for several months prior to resuming operation , but if all tests are successful , operation of the telescope would resume in early September .
Following the separation burn , the crew set to work performing the standard late inspection of the thermal protection system of the orbiter . Using the robotic arm , McArthur , Altman , and Johnson worked through the procedures to inspect the wing leading @-@ edge panels , reinforced carbon @-@ carbon nose cap , and heat shield tiles . After evaluating the weather reports , managers on the ground slightly refined the schedule for landing , opting to bring the shuttle home one orbit early to try to avoid the possibility of showers that would prevent a landing on Friday . The new landing opportunity would bring the crew home at 10 : 01 am EDT .
= = = 20 May ( Flight day 10 ) = = =
After a busy week servicing Hubble , the crew of Atlantis had the majority of the day off , giving them time to rest and prepare for landing . They took their traditional on @-@ orbit crew portrait , and spoke with reporters from around the world in a news conference . The crew also had the opportunity to speak with the Expedition 19 crew on board the International Space Station , in a conference call routed through satellites . The station crew congratulated them on a very successful mission , and the crew of Atlantis expressed their gratitude to the station crew for all the work they do during their long duration stays on the station .
The Spaceflight Meteorology Group at Johnson Space Center was predicting less than favorable weather for Friday 's landing , so managers asked the crew to power down some non @-@ critical systems to help conserve power , in the event that the orbiter is not able to land until Saturday .
After evaluating the imagery sent down from the late inspection , the ground team officially cleared the orbiter 's thermal protection system for re @-@ entry . Initially , NASA had planned on releasing Endeavour from its stand @-@ by status following the late inspection , but managers on the ground decided to wait until Atlantis had performed the de @-@ orbit burn before standing down the STS @-@ 400 rescue mission officially .
Before going to sleep , the crew took a phone call from President Barack Obama , who congratulated them on their successful mission , joked with them , asking if they could see his house in Chicago , and expressed his pride in the crew . Obama told the crew , " Like a lot of Americans , I 've been watching with amazement the gorgeous images you 've been sending back , and the incredible repair mission you 've been making in space , " he said . " I think you 're providing a wonderful example of the kind of dedication and commitment to exploration that represents America and the space program generally . These are traits that have always made this country strong , and all of you personify them . "
= = = 21 May ( Flight day 11 ) = = =
The crew spent the day in preparations for Friday 's landing . After working through their post @-@ sleep activities , Altman , Johnson and McArthur performed a check @-@ out of the flight control surfaces , performed a reaction control system hot @-@ fire , and went through communications checks with managers on the ground . The rest of the crew worked to stow away items that were used during the mission . The crew held a deorbit preparations briefing with the ground teams , and Altman and Johnson worked with the simulator on board to run through a series of landing simulations .
In the afternoon , the crew became the first shuttle crew to ever testify live from orbit in a United States Senate hearing . Barbara Mikulski , Chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee , Subcommittee on Commerce , Justice , Science and Related Agencies , and former astronaut Senator Bill Nelson of Florida , spoke with the crew about the importance of spaceflight and the repair of Hubble . The first person to give testimony from space was John L. Phillips , who testified before the House Science Committee , Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics in June 2005 while a member of Expedition 11 on board the International Space Station . The crew of Atlantis later spoke with reporters from the major networks CNN , ABC , NBC , CBS , and FOX before going to sleep .
While the weather in Florida continued to look grim for a landing Friday , managers on the ground advised the crew that they would proceed with deorbit preparations as planned , and see if the weather cleared up in the morning . NASA managers stated that for Friday , they would focus on a KSC landing for Friday , not activating any of the backup sites , but if the weather was not favorable for a Friday landing , Edwards Air Force Base could be activated on Saturday . Atlantis has enough consumables to stay in orbit until Monday .
Also late on Thursday , managers officially released Endeavour from its stand @-@ by state , as Atlantis was cleared of any damage to its heat shield and was in good shape to return to Earth .
= = = 22 May ( Flight day 12 ) = = =
As the crew worked through the procedures and checklists for entry on Friday , the managers on the ground closely examined the weather patterns around Florida , which were less than favorable . The crew was advised that there were low clouds and thunderstorms , both conditions that violated landing criteria , so managers waived the first opportunity . A second opportunity was also not taken , as the weather had not improved . Entry Flight Director Norm Knight called up Edwards Air Force Base shortly after the decision to delay to Saturday was made , which would give the crew a total of six Saturday landing opportunities , three at each location .
= = = 23 May ( Flight day 13 ) = = =
The crew of Atlantis had six possible landing opportunities on Saturday . Managers evaluated the best three opportunities of the day to try bring the orbiter home . Saturday 's first landing opportunity at Kennedy Space Center was waived due to poor weather forecasts , and observed weather violations for the landing criteria . After further evaluating weather patterns around Florida , managers on the ground chose to waive the second opportunity as well , and wait one more day to attempt to get the orbiter into Florida on Sunday . Weather in California had excellent forecasts , so if the attempts on Sunday to land in Florida were not successful , the shuttle would be able to land at Edwards Air Force Base without weather being an issue .
= = = 24 May ( Flight day 14 , landing ) = = =
The Atlantis crew had two Florida return opportunities for the day , as well as two for a California landing , giving the managers time to evaluate the weather and use California if necessary . After choosing to pass on the first opportunity for KSC and evaluate the second , managers on the ground decided that the weather in Florida was too dynamic to risk bringing the orbiter in , and opted to land at Edwards Air Force Base instead . The de @-@ orbit burn was initiated at 14 : 24 UTC , a burn of the shuttle 's engines that brought it out of orbit to begin the orbiter 's reentry into the Earth 's atmosphere . Atlantis successfully landed at Edwards Air Force Base on Runway 22 at 8 : 39 am PDT after 197 orbits in space and a distance of approximately 5 @.@ 2 million miles .
After working through the checklists to safely power down the orbiter , the crew performed the traditional walk @-@ around of the shuttle and met with employees from NASA . Speaking briefly to the press following the walk around , Altman joked , " I didn 't realize it was going to be so hard to get back to the Earth ! We 're all thrilled to have the mission complete . "
During the post @-@ landing briefing , Associate Administrator for Space Sciences Ed Weiler declared the mission a total success , and after noting the rocky road that it took to get the mission completed , said he considered the mission to be Hubble 's Great American Comeback story , chapter two .
" This mission ... was canceled January 16 , 2004 , if you 'd have told me on that day I 'd be sitting here five years later with a totally successful five @-@ EVA mission , with a brand new Hubble once again that will probably operate well into the third decade of its life , I wouldn 't have bet you a penny . But Hubble is the great American comeback story , chapter two . " – Ed Weiler
= = Post landing = =
Following standard post @-@ landing processing at Edwards Air Force Base , Atlantis was lifted into the air using the Mate @-@ DeMate device , and attached to the top of a modified Boeing 747 , called a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft ( SCA ) for its return flight to Florida . After departing California on June 1 , the flight made an overnight stop at Biggs Army Airfield in El Paso , Texas , and on June 2 made stops in San Antonio , Texas , and Columbus , Mississippi to refuel . After performing a flyby of the coast , the SCA landed at Kennedy Space Center at 6 : 53 p.m EDT on June 2 , 2009 . One of the heavier return flights , Atlantis was still carrying the cargo from the mission in the payload bay , and weighed approximately one quarter of a million pounds . Combined with the 747 , the total weight of the vehicle was approximately six hundred thousand pounds . Atlantis was removed from the SCA and towed to the Orbiter Processing Facility late June 2 .
= = Extra @-@ vehicular activity = =
Five back @-@ to @-@ back EVAs were planned for the mission . Spacewalks one through four were originally scheduled to last six hours , thirty minutes , while the fifth spacewalk was scheduled to last five hours , forty @-@ five minutes . All five EVAs were conducted successfully , for a total time in EVA activity of thirty @-@ six hours , fifty @-@ six minutes .
= = Wake @-@ up calls = =
NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Gemini program , which was first used to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15 . Each track is specially chosen , often by their families , and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew , or is applicable to their daily activities .
= = Contingency mission = =
STS @-@ 125 was the only planned shuttle mission after the Columbia accident to be launched into a low @-@ inclination orbit that did not allow rendezvous with the International Space Station . Due to the inclination and other orbit parameters of Hubble , Atlantis would have been unable to use the International Space Station as a safe haven in the event of structural or mechanical failure . To preserve NASA 's post @-@ Columbia requirement of having shuttle Launch On Need ( LON ) rescue capability , STS @-@ 400 was the flight designation given to the Contingency Shuttle Crew Support ( CSCS ) mission which would have been flown by Endeavour in the event Atlantis became disabled during STS @-@ 125 . After Atlantis performed the late inspection and was cleared for re @-@ entry , Endeavour was officially released from stand @-@ by status on Thursday , 21 May .
= = Media = =
= = = NASA = = =
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration .
= = = The Universe in a Mirror = = =
Zimmerman , Robert F. ( 2008 ) . The Universe in a Mirror : The Saga of the Hubble Telescope and the Visionaries Who Built It . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press. p . 287 . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 13297 @-@ 6 .
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= Larry King ( 30 Rock ) =
" Larry King " is the twelfth episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 48th overall episode of the series . It was written by supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Constantine Makris . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on February 26 , 2009 . Salma Hayek , Ajay Naidu , Brian Stack , and Rip Torn guest star in " Larry King " , and there are cameo appearances by Larry King and Meredith Vieira .
In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) considers taking the next step in his relationship with his girlfriend Elisa Pedrera ( Salma Hayek ) . Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) appears on Larry King Live and inadvertently triggers mayhem in New York City when responding to questions about the economy . In addition , Tracy 's interview sends the crew members of the fictitious show TGS with Tracy Jordan — Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , and J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) — on a search of the 30 Rock building for a treasure . At the same time , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) loses her cellphone and must go with NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) to Queens to recover it where it is being held for ransom by a taxi driver ( Naidu ) .
" Larry King " has received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 4 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) appears on Larry King Live . During his appearance on the program , a breaking story interrupts his interview with show host Larry King — it is being reported that the Asian stocks are falling . Larry King asks Tracy 's opinion on this story , which results in Tracy giving chaos @-@ inducting views , including , " New York as we know it will no longer exist tomorrow " and he calls for panic , sending the people of New York into madness . At the NBC studios , the TGS with Tracy Jordan staff , Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , and J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) , try looking for money that Tracy has hidden in the building after revealing this on Larry King Live . Pete calls the program asking Tracy where he stores the money . Tracy reveals that the safest place he has it hidden has " a hard top and soft bottom , no matter where it moves , the cash stays in the same place . " This clue is of no help to Pete , Frank , Toofer , and Lutz .
Meanwhile , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) escorts Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) to Queens to retrieve the cellphone she left in a cab . The taxi driver , Asif ( Ajay Naidu ) , finds an adult picture of her and threatens to send it to everyone in her address book unless she pays him $ 2 @,@ 000 . While on their way to get the phone , chaos is happening around them , which prompts Kenneth to want to turn back . Trying to change his mind , Liz lies to Kenneth , telling him that her phone has sentimental value , although she later tells Kenneth the real reasons she wants her phone back . Feeling betrayed by Liz , Kenneth abandons her and returns to 30 Rock . Liz arrives at the taxi depot and tells Asif that she does not have the money to pay him because rioting children took her handbag . Then Kenneth shows up and they watch Tracy reveal his secret to the whereabouts of his money , prompting Kenneth to realize that the money is stored in his page blazer . Kenneth pays Asif and Liz 's phone is returned .
Finally , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) decides to be committed to his girlfriend , Elisa Pedrera ( Salma Hayek ) , as Elisa wants to take their relationship to the next level . Jack persuades Elisa to cancel her annual trip to Puerto Rico so that the two can spend time together . As a result , Jack devotes a whole week to Elisa at exactly the same time as the economic crisis unfolds , forcing Jack to steer General Electric ( GE ) through the Asian market crash . After a video tape of GE CEO Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) surfaces — taped in the event of a financial meltdown — Geiss says " it is the end , and love is all that matters " , which makes Jack realize his love for Elisa . He proposes marriage to her , which she accepts . The day after , Elisa leaves Jack for Puerto Rico .
= = Production = =
" Larry King " was written by 30 Rock supervising producer Matt Hubbard , and directed by Constantine Makris . This was Hubbard 's sixth writing credit , and Makris ' first directed episode . " Larry King " originally aired in the United States on February 26 , 2009 on NBC as the twelfth episode of the show 's third season and the 48th overall episode of the series .
In November 2008 , it was reported that television talk show host Larry King had " quietly filmed an appearance " as himself on 30 Rock . This episode was actress Salma Hayek 's fifth appearance as Elisa on the show . She first appeared in the episode " Señor Macho Solo " as a nurse for Jack Donaghy 's mother and love interest for Jack . She made appearances in the episodes " Flu Shot " , " Generalissimo " , and " St. Valentine 's Day " . Her last guest spot was in the episode " The Ones " in which Elisa and Jack end their relationship . Actor Rip Torn made his seventh appearance on the series as GE CEO Don Geiss . " Larry King " would become Torn 's final appearance on the show , as it is revealed in the fourth season episode " Future Husband " that his character has died . Comedian actor Brian Stack made his third appearance as Howard Jorgensen , a GE executive and associate of Jack 's . Stack previously appeared in the episodes " Jack Meets Dennis " and " Succession " . Actor Ajay Naidu played Asif , the taxi driver holding Liz 's phone for ransom in " Larry King " . " Larry King " was Today show co @-@ host Meredith Vieira 's second guest appearance as herself , having appeared in the November 8 , 2007 , episode " Greenzo " that aired during the show 's second season . In the episode , the night after the economic crisis unfolded , Tracy appears on The Today Show . There , Vieira tells him that he is to blame for the panic that ensued around the city . She asks Tracy 's opinion on the matter , only for Tracy to advertise TGS , the show he stars in , when and what time it airs .
= = Cultural references = =
" I 'm new to this country . Is that a real thing ? " , asks Asif , after Liz tells him that she would pay him on Opposite Day . While on Larry King Live , Tracy recounts the entire plot of the film Teen Wolf ( 1985 ) . Tracy reveals that he was to appear in the movie Rush Hour , but was replaced by Hong Kong actor Jackie Chan . Liz lies to Kenneth that her phone has a recording of her deceased grandmother singing a lullaby , to which later Kenneth makes her sing the song and his realization that she was singing the song " 99 Luftballons " , a protest song from German singer Nena .
When Pete calls in on Larry King Live , Tracy believes Pete is Peter Frampton , a British musician . When Jack realizes his true feelings for Elisa , he decides to stop her from going to Puerto Rico , but when he sees her outside the 30 Rock building , he tells her , " I was about to do the whole run to the airport thing , like Ross did on Friends and Liz Lemon did in real life " , a reference to the Friends television character Ross Geller doing this in the series finale episode " The Last One " , and as Liz similarly does in the season two episode " Sandwich Day " , where she heads to the airport to make things right with her ex @-@ boyfriend , Floyd DeBarber ( Jason Sudeikis ) .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Larry King " was watched by 6 @.@ 4 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . This episode earned a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 share in the 18 and 49 demographic , meaning that 2 @.@ 9 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " St. Valentine 's Day " , which was watched by 7 @.@ 6 million American viewers . Nonetheless , 30 Rock ranked number 7 among all primetime programs — during the original broadcasting of this episode — in adults aged between 18 and 34 , averaging a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 10 share in that demographic .
Since airing , " Larry King " has received generally positive reviews from television critics . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad wrote that " Larry King " was the " best of the season so far " , saying that there was a " really nice balance " in the episode 's plots . Sassone said that Hayek was " fine " , but much preferred the Jack character single . Alan Sepinwall , television columnist for The Star @-@ Ledger , complimented the episode , reporting that it was " much better " and perhaps the first episode he enjoyed " unreservedly . " He added that the entire cast was used " well " and that it " gave us a Jack story that balanced comedy with some genuine emotion , got some good mileage out of a rare Liz / Kenneth story ... and employed the guest stars as well as they have all season . " IGN contributor Robert Canning admitted in his recap that he was " thrilled " after reading the synopsis of the episode , regarding to Tracy causing mayhem in New York , but after the airing , " I was a bit disappointed " as it " wasn 't as over @-@ the @-@ top " , but overall , " this was still a fun and funny episode . " Canning gave the episode an 8 out of 10 rating . Time contributor James Poniewozik enjoyed Liz and Kenneth 's story as it " felt more emotionally real " and " allowed Kenneth to get to show a bit more spine than usual , standing up to Liz on their journey to darkest Queens " . Poniewozik noted that it was " nice " to see the Pete character back , as Scott Adsit had not appeared on 30 Rock for quite some time .
Not all reviews were positive . Matt Mitovich from TV Guide wrote that " Larry King " was " pretty blah . Something about it just seemed drab and lifeless , as if the writers and cast were in a mad dash to break for Christmas . " The A.V. Club 's Scott Tobias believed that the episode was not up to " 30 Rock 's high standards " and commented that a " big problem " was Jack and Elisa 's storyline . " The concept of rich , superficial , commitment @-@ phobic workaholic Jack falling for his exact opposite isn 't a bad one , but Hayek 's run has been more or less a wash . " Tobias further added that Alec Baldwin and Salma Hayek " are an odd couple " citing that they do not have much chemistry together .
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= Malcolm III of Scotland =
Malcolm ( Gaelic : Máel Coluim ; c . 1031 – 13 November 1093 ) was King of Scots from 1058 to 1093 . He was later nicknamed Canmore ( ceann mòr ) in Scottish Gaelic , " Great Chief " . ( Ceann |
= leader , " head " [ of state ] . Mòr =
pre @-@ eminent , great , " big " . ) Malcolm 's long reign , lasting 35 years , preceded the beginning of the Scoto @-@ Norman age . He is the historical equivalent of the character of the same name in Shakespeare 's Macbeth .
Malcolm 's kingdom did not extend over the full territory of modern Scotland : the north and west of Scotland remained in Scandinavian , Norse @-@ Gael and Gaelic control , and the areas under the control of the Kings of Scots did not advance much beyond the limits set by Malcolm II until the 12th century . Malcolm III fought a succession of wars against the Kingdom of England , which may have had as their goal the conquest of the English earldom of Northumbria . These wars did not result in any significant advances southwards . Malcolm 's main achievement is to have continued a line which would rule Scotland for many years , although his role as " founder of a dynasty " has more to do with the propaganda of his youngest son David , and his descendants , than with any historical reality .
Malcolm 's second wife , Margaret of Wessex , was eventually canonized and is Scotland 's only royal saint . Malcolm himself gained no reputation for piety ; with the notable exception of Dunfermline Abbey , he is not definitely associated with major religious establishments or ecclesiastical reforms .
= = Background = =
Malcolm 's father Duncan I became king in late 1034 , on the death of Malcolm II , Duncan 's maternal grandfather and Malcolm 's great @-@ grandfather . According to John of Fordun , whose account is the original source of part at least of William Shakespeare 's Macbeth , Malcolm 's mother was a niece of Siward , Earl of Northumbria , but an earlier king @-@ list gives her the Gaelic name Suthen . Other sources claim that either a daughter or niece would have been too young to fit the timeline , thus the likely relative would have been Siward 's own sister Sybil , which may have translated into Gaelic as Suthen .
Duncan 's reign was not successful and he was killed by Macbeth on 15 August 1040 . Although Shakespeare 's Macbeth presents Malcolm as a grown man and his father as an old one , it appears that Duncan was still young in 1040 , and Malcolm and his brother Donalbane were children . Malcolm 's family did attempt to overthrow Macbeth in 1045 , but Malcolm 's grandfather Crínán of Dunkeld was killed in the attempt .
Soon after the death of Duncan his two young sons were sent away for greater safety — exactly where is the subject of debate . According to one version , Malcolm ( then aged about nine ) was sent to England , and his younger brother Donalbane was sent to the Isles . Based on Fordun 's account , it was assumed that Malcolm passed most of Macbeth 's seventeen @-@ year reign in the Kingdom of England at the court of Edward the Confessor .
According to an alternative version , Malcolm 's mother took both sons into exile at the court of Thorfinn Sigurdsson , Earl of Orkney , an enemy of Macbeth 's family , and perhaps Duncan 's kinsman by marriage .
An English invasion in 1054 , with Siward , Earl of Northumbria in command , had as its goal the installation of one " Máel Coluim , son of the King of the Cumbrians " . This Máel Coluim has traditionally been identified with the later Malcolm III . This interpretation derives from the Chronicle attributed to the 14th @-@ century chronicler of Scotland , John of Fordun , as well as from earlier sources such as William of Malmesbury . The latter reported that Macbeth was killed in the battle by Siward , but it is known that Macbeth outlived Siward by two years . A. A. M. Duncan argued in 2002 that , using the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle entry as their source , later writers innocently misidentified " Máel Coluim " with the later Scottish king of the same name . Duncan 's argument has been supported by several subsequent historians specialising in the era , such as Richard Oram , Dauvit Broun and Alex Woolf . It has also been suggested that Máel Coluim may have been a son of Owen the Bald , British king of Strathclyde perhaps by a daughter of Malcolm II , King of Scotland .
In 1057 various chroniclers report the death of Macbeth at Malcolm 's hand , on 15 August 1057 at Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire . Macbeth was succeeded by his stepson Lulach , who was crowned at Scone , probably on 8 September 1057 . Lulach was killed by Malcolm , " by treachery " , near Huntly on 23 April 1058 . After this , Malcolm became king , perhaps being inaugurated on 25 April 1058 , although only John of Fordun reports this .
= = Malcolm and Ingibiorg = =
If Orderic Vitalis is to be relied upon , one of Malcolm 's earliest actions as king may have been to travel south to the court of Edward the Confessor in 1059 to arrange a marriage with Edward 's kinswoman Margaret , who had arrived in England two years before from Hungary . If he did visit the English court , he was the first reigning king of Scots to do so in more than eighty years . If a marriage agreement was made in 1059 , it was not kept , and this may explain the Scots invasion of Northumbria in 1061 when Lindisfarne was plundered . Equally , Malcolm 's raids in Northumbria may have been related to the disputed " Kingdom of the Cumbrians " , reestablished by Earl Siward in 1054 , which was under Malcolm 's control by 1070 .
The Orkneyinga saga reports that Malcolm married the widow of Thorfinn Sigurdsson , Ingibiorg , a daughter of Finn Arnesson . Although Ingibiorg is generally assumed to have died shortly before 1070 , it is possible that she died much earlier , around 1058 . The Orkneyinga Saga records that Malcolm and Ingibiorg had a son , Duncan II ( Donnchad mac Maíl Coluim ) , who was later king . Some Medieval commentators , following William of Malmesbury , claimed that Duncan was illegitimate , but this claim is propaganda reflecting the need of Malcolm 's descendants by Margaret to undermine the claims of Duncan 's descendants , the Meic Uilleim . Malcolm 's son Domnall , whose death is reported in 1085 , is not mentioned by the author of the Orkneyinga Saga . He is assumed to have been born to Ingibiorg .
Malcolm 's marriage to Ingibiorg secured him peace in the north and west . The Heimskringla tells that her father Finn had been an adviser to Harald Hardraade and , after falling out with Harald , was then made an Earl by Sweyn Estridsson , King of Denmark , which may have been another recommendation for the match . Malcolm enjoyed a peaceful relationship with the Earldom of Orkney , ruled jointly by his stepsons , Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson . The Orkneyinga Saga reports strife with Norway but this is probably misplaced as it associates this with Magnus Barefoot , who became king of Norway only in 1093 , the year of Malcolm 's death .
= = Malcolm and Margaret = =
Although he had given sanctuary to Tostig Godwinson when the Northumbrians drove him out , Malcolm was not directly involved in the ill @-@ fated invasion of England by Harald Hardraade and Tostig in 1066 , which ended in defeat and death at the battle of Stamford Bridge . In 1068 , he granted asylum to a group of English exiles fleeing from William of Normandy , among them Agatha , widow of Edward the Confessor 's nephew Edward the Exile , and her children : Edgar Ætheling and his sisters Margaret and Cristina . They were accompanied by Gospatric , Earl of Northumbria . The exiles were disappointed , however , if they had expected immediate assistance from the Scots .
In 1069 the exiles returned to England , to join a spreading revolt in the north . Even though Gospatric and Siward 's son Waltheof submitted by the end of the year , the arrival of a Danish army under Sweyn Estridsson seemed to ensure that William 's position remained weak . Malcolm decided on war , and took his army south into Cumbria and across the Pennines , wasting Teesdale and Cleveland then marching north , loaded with loot , to Wearmouth . There Malcolm met Edgar and his family , who were invited to return with him , but did not . As Sweyn had by now been bought off with a large Danegeld , Malcolm took his army home . In reprisal , William sent Gospatric to raid Scotland through Cumbria . In return , the Scots fleet raided the Northumbrian coast where Gospatric 's possessions were concentrated . Late in the year , perhaps shipwrecked on their way to a European exile , Edgar and his family again arrived in Scotland , this time to remain . By the end of 1070 , Malcolm had married Edgar 's sister Margaret of Wessex , the future Saint Margaret of Scotland .
The naming of their children represented a break with the traditional Scots regal names such as Malcolm , Cináed and Áed . The point of naming Margaret 's sons — Edward after her father Edward the Exile , Edmund for her grandfather Edmund Ironside , Ethelred for her great @-@ grandfather Ethelred the Unready and Edgar for her great @-@ great @-@ grandfather Edgar and her brother , briefly the elected king , Edgar Ætheling — was unlikely to be missed in England , where William of Normandy 's grasp on power was far from secure . Whether the adoption of the classical Alexander for the future Alexander I of Scotland ( either for Pope Alexander II or for Alexander the Great ) and the biblical David for the future David I of Scotland represented a recognition that William of Normandy would not be easily removed , or was due to the repetition of Anglo @-@ Saxon royal name — another Edmund had preceded Edgar — is not known . Margaret also gave Malcolm two daughters , Edith , who married Henry I of England , and Mary , who married Eustace III of Boulogne .
In 1072 , with the Harrying of the North completed and his position again secure , William of Normandy came north with an army and a fleet . Malcolm met William at Abernethy and , in the words of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle " became his man " and handed over his eldest son Duncan as a hostage and arranged peace between William and Edgar . Accepting the overlordship of the king of the English was no novelty , as previous kings had done so without result . The same was true of Malcolm ; his agreement with the English king was followed by further raids into Northumbria , which led to further trouble in the earldom and the killing of Bishop William Walcher at Gateshead . In 1080 , William sent his son Robert Curthose north with an army while his brother Odo punished the Northumbrians . Malcolm again made peace , and this time kept it for over a decade .
Malcolm faced little recorded internal opposition , with the exception of Lulach 's son Máel Snechtai . In an unusual entry , for the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle contains little on Scotland , it says that in 1078 :
Malcholom [ Máel Coluim ] seized the mother of Mælslæhtan [ Máel Snechtai ] ... and all his treasures , and his cattle ; and he himself escaped with difficulty .
Whatever provoked this strife , Máel Snechtai survived until 1085 .
= = Malcolm and William Rufus = =
When William Rufus became king of England after his father 's death , Malcolm did not intervene in the rebellions by supporters of Robert Curthose which followed . In 1091 , William Rufus confiscated Edgar Ætheling 's lands in England , and Edgar fled north to Scotland . In May , Malcolm marched south , not to raid and take slaves and plunder , but to besiege Newcastle , built by Robert Curthose in 1080 . This appears to have been an attempt to advance the frontier south from the River Tweed to the River Tees . The threat was enough to bring the English king back from Normandy , where he had been fighting Robert Curthose . In September , learning of William Rufus 's approaching army , Malcolm withdrew north and the English followed . Unlike in 1072 , Malcolm was prepared to fight , but a peace was arranged by Edgar Ætheling and Robert Curthose whereby Malcolm again acknowledged the overlordship of the English king .
In 1092 , the peace began to break down . Based on the idea that the Scots controlled much of modern Cumbria , it had been supposed that William Rufus 's new castle at Carlisle and his settlement of English peasants in the surrounds was the cause . It is unlikely that Malcolm controlled Cumbria , and the dispute instead concerned the estates granted to Malcolm by William Rufus 's father in 1072 for his maintenance when visiting England . Malcolm sent messengers to discuss the question and William Rufus agreed to a meeting . Malcolm travelled south to Gloucester , stopping at Wilton Abbey to visit his daughter Edith and sister @-@ in @-@ law Cristina . Malcolm arrived there on 24 August 1093 to find that William Rufus refused to negotiate , insisting that the dispute be judged by the English barons . This Malcolm refused to accept , and returned immediately to Scotland .
It does not appear that William Rufus intended to provoke a war , but , as the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle reports , war came :
For this reason therefore they parted with great dissatisfaction , and the King Malcolm returned to Scotland . And soon after he came home , he gathered his army , and came harrowing into England with more hostility than behoved him ....
Malcolm was accompanied by Edward , his eldest son by Margaret and probable heir @-@ designate ( or tánaiste ) , and by Edgar . Even by the standards of the time , the ravaging of Northumbria by the Scots was seen as harsh .
= = Death = =
While marching north again , Malcolm was ambushed by Robert de Mowbray , Earl of Northumbria , whose lands he had devastated , near Alnwick on 13 November 1093 . There he was killed by Arkil Morel , steward of Bamburgh Castle . The conflict became known as the Battle of Alnwick . Edward was mortally wounded in the same fight . Margaret , it is said , died soon after receiving the news of their deaths from Edgar . The Annals of Ulster say :
Mael Coluim son of Donnchad , over @-@ king of Scotland , and Edward his son , were killed by the French [ i.e. Normans ] in Inber Alda in England . His queen , Margaret , moreover , died of sorrow for him within nine days .
Malcolm 's body was taken to Tynemouth Priory for burial . The king 's body was sent north for reburial , in the reign of his son Alexander , at Dunfermline Abbey , or possibly Iona .
On 19 June 1250 , following the canonisation of Malcolm 's wife Margaret by Pope Innocent IV , Margaret 's remains were disinterred and placed in a reliquary . Tradition has it that as the reliquary was carried to the high altar of Dunfermline Abbey , past Malcolm 's grave , it became too heavy to move . As a result , Malcolm 's remains were also disinterred , and buried next to Margaret beside the altar .
= = Issue = =
Malcolm and Ingibiorg had three sons :
Duncan II of Scotland , succeeded his father as King of Scotland
Donald , died ca.1094
Malcolm , died ca.1085
Malcolm and Margaret had eight children , six sons and two daughters :
Edward , killed 1093
Edmund of Scotland
Ethelred , abbot of Dunkeld
King Edgar of Scotland
King Alexander I of Scotland
King David I of Scotland
Edith of Scotland , also called Matilda , married King Henry I of England
Mary of Scotland , married Eustace III of Boulogne
= = Depictions in fiction = =
Malcolm appears in William Shakespeare ’ s Macbeth as Malcolm . He is the son of King Duncan and heir to the throne . He first appears in the second scene where he is talking to a sergeant , with Duncan . The sergeant tells them how the battle was won thanks to Macbeth . Then Ross comes and Duncan decides that Macbeth should take the title of Thane of Cawdor . Then he later appears in Act 1 @.@ 4 talking about the execution of the former Thane of Cawdor . Macbeth then enters and they congratulate him on his victory . He later appears in Macbeth ’ s castle as a guest . When his father is killed he is suspected of the murder so he escapes to England . He later makes an appearance in Act 4 @.@ 3 , where he talks to Macduff about Macbeth and what to do . They both decide to start a war against him . In Act 5 @.@ 4 he is seen in Dunsinane getting ready for war . He orders the troops to hide behind branches and slowly advance towards the castle . In Act 5 @.@ 8 he watches the battle against Macbeth and Macduff with Siward and Ross . When eventually Macbeth is killed , Malcolm takes over as king .
The married life of Malcolm III and Margaret has been the subject of two historical novels : A Goodly Pearl ( 1905 ) by Mary H. Debenham , and Malcolm Canmore 's Pearl ( 1907 ) by Agnes Grant Hay . Both focus on court life in Dunfermline , and the Margaret helping introduce Anglo @-@ Saxon culture in Scotland . The latter novel covers events to 1093 , ending with Malcolm 's death .
Canmore appears in the third and fourth episodes of the four @-@ part series " City of Stone " in Disney 's Gargoyles , as an antagonist of Macbeth . After witnessing his father Duncan 's death , the young Canmore swears revenge on both Macbeth and his gargoyle ally , Demona . After reaching adulthood , he overthrows Macbeth with English allies . Canmore is also the ancestor of the Hunters , a family of vigilantes who hunt Demona through the centuries . Canmore was voiced in the series by J.D. Daniels as a boy and Neil Dickson as an adult .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Taiko =
Taiko ( 太鼓 ? ) are a broad range of Japanese percussion instruments . In Japanese , the term refers to any kind of drum , but outside Japan , it is used to refer to any of the various Japanese drums called wadaiko ( 和太鼓 , " Japanese drums " ) and to the form of ensemble taiko drumming more specifically called kumi @-@ daiko ( 組太鼓 , " set of drums " ) . The process of constructing taiko varies between manufacturers , and preparation of both the drum body and skin can take several years depending on methodology .
Taiko have a mythological origin in Japanese folklore , but historical records suggest that taiko were introduced to Japan through Korean and Chinese cultural influence as early as the 6th century CE . Some taiko are similar to instruments originating from India . Archaeological evidence also supports that taiko were present in Japan during the 6th century in the Kofun period . Their function has varied through history , ranging from communication , military action , theatrical accompaniment , and religious ceremony to both festival and concert performances . In modern times , taiko have also played a central role in social movements for minorities both within and outside Japan .
Kumi @-@ daiko performance , characterized by an ensemble playing on different drums , was developed in 1951 through the work of Daihachi Oguchi and has continued with groups such as Kodo . Other performance styles , such as hachijō @-@ daiko , have also emerged from specific communities in Japan . Kumi @-@ daiko performance groups are active not only in Japan , but also in the United States , Australia , Canada , and Brazil . Taiko performance consists of many components in technical rhythm , form , stick grip , clothing , and the particular instrumentation . Ensembles typically use different types of barrel @-@ shaped nagadō @-@ daiko as well as smaller shime @-@ daiko . Many groups accompany the drums with vocals , strings , and woodwind instruments .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The origin of the instruments is unclear , though there have been many suggestions . Historical accounts , of which the earliest date from 588 CE , note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the kakko , a drum that originated in South China . This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of taiko . Certain court music styles , especially gigaku and gagaku , arrived in Japan through both Korea and China . In both traditions , dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to taiko . Certain percussive patterns and terminology in togaku , an early dance and music style in Japan , in addition to physical features of the kakko , also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in gagaku performance .
Archaeological evidence shows that taiko were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE , during the latter part of the Kofun period , and were likely used for communication , in festivals , and in other rituals . This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of haniwa statues in the Sawa District of Gunma Prefecture . Two of these figures are depicted playing drums ; one of them , wearing skins , is equipped with a barrel @-@ shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height . This statue is titled " Man Beating the Taiko " and is considered the oldest evidence of taiko performance in Japan . Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this haniwa and known music traditions in Korea and China further suggest influences from these regions .
The Nihon Shoki , the second oldest book of Japanese classical history , contains a mythological story describing the origin of taiko . The myth tells how Amaterasu , who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger , was beckoned out by an elder goddess Ame @-@ no @-@ Uzume when others had failed . Ame @-@ no @-@ Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of sake and dancing furiously on top of it . Historians regard her performance as the mythological creation of taiko music .
= = = Use in warfare = = =
In feudal Japan , taiko were often used to motivate troops , call out orders or announcements , and set a marching pace ; marches were usually set to six paces per beat of the drum . During the 16th @-@ century Warring States period , specific drum calls were used to communicate orders for retreating and advancing . Other rhythms and techniques were detailed in period texts . According to the war chronicle Gunji Yoshū , nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle , while nine sets of three beats , sped up three or four times , was the call to advance and pursue an enemy . Folklore from the 16th century on the legendary 6th @-@ century Emperor Keitai offers a story that he obtained a large drum from China , which he named Senjin @-@ daiko ( 線陣太鼓 , " front drum " ) . The Emperor was thought to have used it to both encourage his own army and intimidate his enemies .
= = = In traditional settings = = =
Taiko have been incorporated in Japanese theatre for rhythmic needs , general atmosphere , and in certain settings decoration . In the kabuki play The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles , scenes in the pleasure quarters are accompanied by taiko to create dramatic tension . Noh theatre also feature taiko where performance consists of highly specific rhythmic patterns . The Konparu ( 金春流 ) school of drumming , for example , contains 65 basic patterns in addition to 25 special patterns ; these patterns are categorized in several classes . Differences between these patterns include changes in tempo , accent , dynamics , pitch , and function in the theatrical performance . Patterns are also often connected together in progressions .
Taiko continue to be used in gagaku , a classical music tradition typically performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace in addition to local temples and shrines . In gagaku , one component of the art form is traditional dance , which is guided in part by the rhythm set by the taiko . Taiko have played an important role in many local festivals across Japan . They are also used to accompany religious ritual music . In kagura , which generically describes music and dances stemming from Shinto practices , taiko frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals . In Buddhist traditions , taiko are used for ritual dances that are a part of the Bon Festival . Taiko , along with other instruments , are featured atop towers that are adorned with red @-@ and @-@ white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers .
= = = Kumi @-@ daiko = = =
In addition to the instruments , the term taiko also refers to the performance itself , and commonly to one style called kumi @-@ daiko , or ensemble @-@ style playing ( as opposed to festival performances , rituals , or theatrical use of the drums ) . Kumi @-@ daiko was developed by Daihachi Oguchi in 1951 . He is considered a master performer and helped transform taiko performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines . Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in Nagano , and at one point , a relative gave him an old piece of written taiko music . Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation , Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece , and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different @-@ sized instruments . Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present @-@ day conventions in kumi @-@ daiko performance .
Oguchi 's ensemble , Osuwa Daiko , incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances . They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non @-@ religious performances . Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s . Oedo Sukeroku Daiko was formed in Tokyo in 1959 under Seidō Kobayashi , and has been referred to as the first taiko group who toured professionally . Globally , kumi @-@ daiko performance became more visible during the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo , when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event .
Kumi @-@ daiko was also developed through the leadership of Den Tagayasu ( 田耕 , Den Tagayasu ) , who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to taiko playing and took them to Sado Island for training where Den and his family had settled in 1968 . Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan , particularly taiko ; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called ondeko ( 鬼太鼓 , " demon drumming " in Sado dialect ) that required considerable strength to play well . Den called the group " Za Ondekoza " or Ondekoza for short , and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long @-@ distance running . In 1975 , Ondekoza was the first taiko group to tour in the United States . Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the Boston Marathon while wearing their traditional uniforms . In 1981 , some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called Kodo under the leadership of Eitetsu Hayashi . Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living , and went on to popularize taiko through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers . Kodo is one of the most recognized taiko groups both in Japan and worldwide .
Estimates of the number of taiko groups in Japan vary up to 5000 active in Japan , but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation , the largest national organization of taiko groups . Some pieces that have emerged from early kumi @-@ daiko groups that continue to be performed include Yatai @-@ bayashi from Ondekoza , Isami @-@ goma ( 勇み駒 , " galloping horse " ) from Osuwa Daiko , and Zoku ( 族 , " tribe " ) from Kodo .
= = Categorization = =
Taiko have been developed into a broad range of percussion instruments that are used in both Japanese folk and classical musical traditions . An early classification system based on shape and tension was advanced by Francis Taylor Piggott in 1909 . Taiko are generally classified based on the construction process , or the specific context in which the drum is used , but some are not classified , such as the toy den @-@ den daiko .
With few exceptions , taiko have a drum shell with heads on both sides of the body , and a sealed resonating cavity . The head may be fastened to the shell using a number of different systems , such as using ropes . Taiko may be either tunable or non @-@ tunable depending on the system used .
Taiko are categorized into three types based on construction process . Byō @-@ uchi @-@ daiko are constructed with the drumhead nailed to the body . Shime @-@ daiko are classically constructed with the skin placed over iron or steel rings , which are then tightened with ropes . Contemporary shime @-@ daiko are tensioned using bolts or turnbuckles systems attached to the drum body . Tsuzumi are also rope @-@ tensioned drums , but have a distinct hourglass shape and their skins are made using deerskin .
Byō @-@ uchi @-@ daiko were historically made only using a single piece of wood ; they continue to be made in this manner , but are also constructed from staves of wood . Larger drums can be made using a single piece of wood , but at a much greater cost due to the difficulty in finding appropriate trees . The preferred wood is the Japanese zelkova or keyaki , but a number of other woods , and even wine barrels , have been used to create taiko . Byō @-@ uchi @-@ daiko cannot be tuned .
The typical byō @-@ uchi @-@ daiko is the nagadō @-@ daiko , an elongated drum that is roughly shaped like a wine barrel . Nagadō @-@ daiko are available in a variety of sizes , and their head diameter is traditionally measured in shaku ( units of roughly 30 cm ) . Head diameters range from 1 to 6 shaku ( 30 to 182 cm ; 12 to 72 in ) . Ko @-@ daiko ( 小太鼓 ) are the smallest of these drums and are usually about 1 shaku ( 30 cm ; 12 in ) in diameter . The chū @-@ daiko is a medium @-@ sized nagadō @-@ daiko ranging from 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 shaku ( 48 to 85 cm ; 19 to 33 in ) , and weighing about 27 kilograms ( 60 lb ) . Ō @-@ daiko ( 大太鼓 ) vary in size , and are often as large as 6 shaku ( 180 cm ; 72 in ) in diameter . Some ō @-@ daiko are difficult to move due to their size , and therefore permanently remain inside the performance space , such as temple or shrine . Ō @-@ daiko means " large drum " and for a given ensemble , the term refers to their largest drum . The other type of byō @-@ uchi @-@ daiko is called a hira @-@ daiko ( 平太鼓 , " flat drum " ) and describes any drum constructed such that the head diameter is greater than the length of the body .
Shime @-@ daiko are a set of smaller , roughly @-@ snare drum sized instrument that are tunable . The tensioning system usually consists of hemp cords or rope , but bolt or turnbuckle systems have been used as well . Nagauta shime @-@ daiko ( 長唄締め太鼓 ) , sometimes referred to as " taiko " in the context of theater , have thinner heads than other kinds of shime @-@ daiko . The head includes a patch of deerskin is placed in the center , and in performance , drum strokes are generally restricted to this area . The tsukeshime @-@ daiko ( 付け締め太鼓 ) is a heavier type of shime @-@ daiko . They are available in sizes 1 – 5 , and are named according to their number : namitsuke ( 1 ) , nichō @-@ gakke ( 2 ) , sanchō @-@ gakke ( 3 ) , yonchō @-@ gakke ( 4 ) , and gochō @-@ gakke ( 5 ) . The namitsuke has the thinnest skins and the shortest body in terms of height ; thickness and tension of skins , as well as body height , increase toward the gochō @-@ gakke . The head diameters of all shime @-@ daiko sizes are around 27 cm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) .
Okedō @-@ daiko or simply okedō , are a type of shime @-@ daiko that are stave @-@ constructed using narrower strips of wood , have a tube @-@ shaped frame . Like other shime @-@ daiko , drum heads are attached by metal hoops and fastened by rope or cords . Okedō can be played using the same drumsticks ( called bachi ) as shime @-@ daiko , but can also be hand @-@ played . Okedō come in short- and long @-@ bodied types .
Tsuzumi are a class of hourglass @-@ shaped drums . The drum body is shaped on a spool and the inner body carved by hand . Their skins can be made from cowhide , horsehide , or deerskin . While the ō @-@ tsuzumi skins are made from cowhide , ko @-@ tsuzumi are made from horsehide . While some classify tsuzumi as a type of taiko , others have described them as a drum entirely separate from taiko .
Taiko can also be categorized by the context in which they are used . The miya @-@ daiko , for instance , is constructed in the same manner as other byō @-@ uchi @-@ daiko , but is distinguished by an ornamental stand and is used for ceremonial purposes at Buddhist temples . The Sumō @-@ daiko ( 相撲太鼓 ) ( a ko @-@ daiko ) and sairei @-@ nagadō ( 祭礼長胴 ) ( a nagadō @-@ daiko with a cigar @-@ shaped body ) are used in sumo and festivals respectively .
Several drums , categorized as gagakki , are used in the Japanese theatrical form , gagaku . The lead instrument of the ensemble is the kakko , which is a smaller shime @-@ daiko with heads made of deerskin , and is placed horizontally on a stand during performance . A tsuzumi , called the san @-@ no @-@ tsuzumi is another small drum in gagaku that is placed horizontally and struck with a thin stick . Dadaiko ( 鼉太鼓 ) are the largest drums of the ensemble , and have heads that are about 127 cm ( 50 in ) in diameter . During performance , the drum is placed on a tall pedestals and surrounded by a rim decoratively painted with flames and adorned with mystical figures such as wyverns . Dadaiko are played while standing , and are usually only played on the downbeat of the music . The tsuri @-@ daiko ( 釣太鼓 , " suspended drum " ) is a smaller drum that produces a lower sound , its head measuring about 55 cm ( 22 in ) in diameter . It is used in ensembles that accompany bugaku , a traditional dance performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace and in religious contexts . Tsuri @-@ daiko are suspended on a small stand , and are played sitting down . Tsuri @-@ daiko performers typically use shorter mallets covered in leather knobs instead of bachi . They can be played simultaneously by two performers ; while one performer plays on the head , another performer uses bachi on the body of the drum .
The larger ō @-@ tsuzumi and smaller ko @-@ tsuzumi are used in the opening and dances of Noh theater . Both drums are struck using the fingers ; players can also adjust pitch by manually applying pressure to the ropes on the drum . The color of the cords of these drums also indicates the skill of the musician : Orange and red for amateur players , light blue for performers with expertise , and lilac for masters of the instrument . Nagauta @-@ shime daiko or uta daiko are also featured in Noh performance .
Many taiko in Noh are also featured in kabuki performance and are used in a similar manner . In addition to the ō @-@ tsuzumi , ko @-@ tsuzumi , and nagauta @-@ shime daiko , Kabuki performances make use of the larger ō @-@ daiko offstage to help set the atmosphere for different scenes .
= = Construction = =
= = = Process = = =
Taiko construction has several stages , including making and shaping of the drum body ( or shell ) , preparing the drum skin , and tuning the skin to the drumhead . Variations in the construction process often occur in the latter two parts of this process . Historically , byō @-@ uchi @-@ daiko were crafted from trunks of the Japanese zelkova tree that were dried out over years , using techniques to prevent splitting . A master carpenter then carved out the rough shape of the drum body with a chisel ; the texture of the wood after carving softened the tone of the drum . In contemporary times , taiko are carved out on a large lathe using wood staves or logs that can be shaped to fit drum bodies of various sizes . Drumheads can be left to air @-@ dry over a period of years , but some companies use large , smoke @-@ filled warehouses to hasten the drying process . After drying is complete , the inside of the drum is worked with a deep @-@ grooved chisel and sanded . Lastly , handles are placed onto the drum . These are used to carry smaller drums and they serve an ornamental purpose for larger drums .
The skins or heads of taiko are generally made from cowhide from Holstein cows aged about three or four years . Skins also come from horses , and bull skin is preferred for larger drums . Thinner skins are preferred for smaller taiko , and thicker skins are used for larger ones . On some drumheads , a patch of deer skin placed in the center serves as the target for many strokes during performance . Before fitting it to the drum body the hair is removed from the hide by soaking it in a river or stream for about a month ; winter months are preferred as colder temperatures better facilitate hair removal . To stretch the skin over the drum properly , one process requires the body to be held on a platform with several hydraulic jacks underneath it . The edges of the cowhide are secured to an apparatus below the jacks , and the jacks stretch the skin incrementally to precisely apply tension across the drumhead . Other forms of stretching use rope or cords with wooden dowels or an iron wheel to create appropriate tension . Small tension adjustments can be made during this process using small pieces of bamboo that twist around the ropes . Particularly large drumheads are sometimes stretched by having several workers , clad in stockings , hop rhythmically atop it , forming a circle along the edge . After the skin has dried , tacks , called byō , are added to the appropriate drums to secure it ; chū @-@ daiko require about 300 of them for each side . After the body and skin have been finished , excess hide is cut off and the drum can be stained as needed .
= = = Drum makers = = =
Several companies specialize in the production of taiko . One such company that created drums exclusively for the Emperor of Japan , Miyamoto Unosuke Shoten in Tokyo , has been making taiko since 1861 . The Asano Taiko Corporation is another major taiko @-@ producing organization , and has been producing taiko for over 400 years . The family @-@ owned business started in Mattō , Ishikawa , and , aside from military equipment , made taiko for Noh theater and later expanded to creating instruments for festivals during the Meiji period . Asano currently maintains an entire complex of large buildings referred to as Asano Taiko Village , and the company reports producing up to 8000 drums each year . As of 2012 , there is approximately one major taiko production company in each prefecture of Japan , with some regions having several companies . Of the manufacturers in Naniwa , Taikoya Matabē is one of the most successful and is thought to have brought considerable recognition to the community and attracted many drum makers there . Umetsu Daiko , a company that operates in Hakata , has been producing taiko since 1821 .
= = Performance = =
Taiko performance styles vary widely across groups in terms of the number of performers , repertoire , instrument choices , and stage techniques . Nevertheless , a number of early groups have had broad influence on the tradition . For instance , many pieces developed by Ondekoza and Kodo are considered standard in many taiko groups .
= = = Form = = =
Kata is a term used to describe the posture and movement associated with taiko performance . The term is used in martial arts in a similar way : for example , both traditions include the idea that the hara is the center of being . Author Sean Bender argues that kata is the primary feature that distinguishes different taiko groups from one another , and is a key factor in judging the quality of performance . For this reason , many practice rooms intended for taiko contain mirrors to provide visual feedback to players . An important part of kata in taiko is keeping the body stabilized while performing , and can be accomplished by keeping a wide , low stance with the legs , with the left knee bent over the toes and keeping the right leg straight . It is important that the hips face the drum and the shoulders are relaxed . Some teachers note a tendency to rely on the upper body while playing , and emphasize the importance of the holistic use of the body during performance .
Some groups in Japan , particularly those active in Tokyo , also emphasize the importance of the lively and spirited iki aesthetic . In taiko , it refers to very specific kinds of movement while performing that evoke the sophistication stemming from the mercantile and artisan classes active during the Edo period ( 1603 – 1868 ) .
The sticks for playing taiko are called bachi , and are made in various sizes and from different kinds of wood such as white oak , bamboo , and Japanese magnolia . Bachi are also held in a number of different styles . In kumi @-@ daiko , it is common for a player to hold their sticks in a relaxed manner between the V @-@ shape of the index finger and thumb , which points to the player . There are other grips that allow performers to play much more technically difficult rhythms , such as the shime grip , which is similar to a matched grip : the bachi are gripped at the back end , and the fulcrum rests between the performer 's index finger and thumb , while the other fingers remain relaxed and slightly curled around the stick .
Performance in some groups is also guided by principles based on Zen Buddhism . For instance , among other concepts , the San Francisco Taiko Dojo is guided by rei ( 礼 ) emphasizing communication , respect , and harmony . The way the bachi are held can also be significant ; for some groups , bachi represent a spiritual link between the body and the sky . Some physical parts of taiko , like the drum body , its skin , and the tacks also hold symbolic significance in Buddhism .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
Kumi @-@ daiko groups consist primarily of percussive instruments where each of the drums plays a specific role . Of the different kinds of taiko , the most common in groups is the nagadō @-@ daiko . Chū @-@ daiko are common in taiko groups and represent the main rhythm of the group , whereas shime @-@ daiko set and change tempo . Ō @-@ daiko provide a steady , underlying pulse and serve as a counter @-@ rhythm to the other parts . It is common for performances to begin with a single stroke roll called an oroshi ( 颪 , " wind blowing down from mountains " ) . The player starts slowly , leaving considerable space between strikes , gradually shortening the interval between hits , until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits . Oroshi are also played as a part of theatrical performance , such as in Noh theater .
Drums are not the only instruments played in the ensemble ; other Japanese instruments are also used . Other kinds of percussion instruments include the atarigane ( 当り鉦 ) , a hand @-@ sized gong played with a small mallet . In kabuki , the shamisen , a plucked string instrument , often accompanies taiko during the theatrical performance . Kumi @-@ daiko performances can also feature woodwinds such as the shakuhachi and the shinobue .
Voiced calls or shouts called kakegoe and kiai are also common in taiko performance . They are used as encouragement to other players or cues for transition or change in dynamics such as an increase in tempo . In contrast , the philosophical concept of ma , which superficially describes the space between drum strikes , is also important in shaping rhythmic phrases and creating appropriate contrast .
= = = Clothing = = =
There is a wide variety of traditional clothing that players wear during taiko performance . Common in many kumi @-@ daiko groups is the use of the happi , a decorative , thin @-@ fabric coat , and traditional headbands called hachimaki . Tabi , momohiki ( もも引き , " loose @-@ fitting pants " ) , and haragake ( 腹掛け , " working aprons " ) are also typical . During his time with the group Ondekoza , Eitetsu Hayashi suggested that a loincloth called a fundoshi be worn when performing for French fashion designer Pierre Cardin , who saw Ondekoza perform for him in 1975 . The Japanese group Kodo has sometimes worn fundoshi for its performances .
= = Education = =
Taiko performance is generally taught orally and through demonstration . Historically , general patterns for taiko were written down , such as in the 1512 encyclopedia called the Taigensho , but written scores for taiko pieces are generally unavailable . One reason for the adherence to an oral tradition is that , from group to group , the rhythmic patterns in a given piece are often performed differently . Furthermore , ethnomusicologist William P. Malm observed that Japanese players within a group could not usefully predict one another using written notation , and instead did so through listening . In Japan , printed parts are not used during lessons .
Orally , patterns of onomatopoeia called kuchi shōga are taught from teacher to student that convey the rhythm and timbre of drum strikes for a particular piece . For example , don ( どん ) represents a single strike to the center of the drum , where as do @-@ ko ( どこ ) represents two successive strikes , first by the right and then the left , and lasts the same amount of time as one don strike . Some taiko pieces , such as Yatai @-@ bayashi , include patterns that are difficult to represent in Western musical notation . The exact words used can also differ from region to region .
More recently , Japanese publications have emerged in an attempt to standardize taiko performance . The Nippon Taiko Foundation was formed in 1979 ; its primary goals were to foster good relations among taiko groups in Japan and to both publicize and teach how to perform taiko . Daihachi Oguchi , the leader of the Foundation , wrote Japan Taiko with other teachers in 1994 out of concern that correct form in performance would degrade over time . The instructional publication described the different drums used in kumi @-@ daiko performance , methods of gripping , correct form , and suggestions on instrumentation . The book also contains practice exercises and transcribed pieces from Oguchi 's group , Osuwa Daiko . While there were similar textbooks published before 1994 , this publication had much more visibility due to the Foundation 's scope .
The system of fundamentals Japan Taiko put forward was not widely adopted because taiko performance varied substantially across Japan . An updated 2001 publication from the Foundation , called the Nihon Taiko Kyōhon ( 日本太鼓教本 , " Japan Taiko Textbook " ) , describes regional variations that depart from the main techniques taught in the textbook . The creators of the text maintained that mastering a set of prescribed basics should be compatible with learning local traditions .
= = Regional styles = =
Aside from kumi @-@ daiko performance , a number of folk traditions that use taiko have been recognized in different regions in Japan . Some of these include ondeko ( 鬼太鼓 , " demon drumming " ) from Sado Island , gion @-@ daiko from the town of Kokura , and sansa @-@ odori from Iwate Prefecture .
= = = Eisa = = =
A variety of folk dances originating from Okinawa , known collectively as eisa , often make use of the taiko . Some performers use drums while dancing , and generally speaking , perform in one of two styles : groups on the Yokatsu Peninsula and on Hamahiga Island use small , single @-@ sided drums called pāranku ( パーランク ) whereas groups near the city of Okinawa generally use shime @-@ daiko . Use of shime @-@ daiko over pāranku has spread throughout the island , and is considered the dominant style . Small nagadō @-@ daiko , referred to as ō @-@ daiko within the tradition , are also used and are worn in front of the performer . These drum dances are not limited to Okinawa and have appeared in places containing Okinawan communities such as in São Paulo , Hawaii , and large cities on the Japanese mainland .
= = = Hachijō @-@ daiko = = =
Hachijō @-@ daiko ( 八丈太鼓 , trans . " Hachijō @-@ style taiko " ) is a taiko tradition originating on the island of Hachijō @-@ jima . Two styles of Hachijō @-@ daiko emerged and have been popularized among residents : an older tradition based on a historical account , and a newer tradition influenced by mainland groups and practiced by the majority of the islanders .
The Hachijō @-@ daiko tradition was documented as early as 1849 based on a journal kept by an exile named Kakuso Kizan . He mentioned some of its unique features , such as " a taiko is suspended from a tree while women and children gathered around " , and observed that a player used either side of the drum while performing . Illustrations from Kizan 's journal show features of Hachijō @-@ daiko . These illustrations also featured women performing , which is unusual as taiko performance elsewhere during this period was typically reserved for men . Teachers of the tradition have noted that the majority of its performers were women ; one estimate asserts that female performers outnumbered males by three to one .
The first style of Hachijō @-@ daiko is thought to descend directly from the style reported by Kizan . This style is called Kumaoji @-@ daiko , named after its creator Okuyama Kumaoji , a central performer of the style . Kumaoji @-@ daiko has two players on a single drum , one of whom , called the shita @-@ byōshi ( 下拍子 , " lower beat " ) , provides the underlying beat . The other player , called the uwa @-@ byōshi ( 上拍子 , " upper beat " ) , builds on this rhythmical foundation with unique and typically improvised rhythms . While there are specific types of underlying rhythms , the accompanying player is free to express an original musical beat . Kumaoji @-@ daiko also features an unusual positioning for taiko : the drums are sometimes suspended from ropes , and historically , sometimes drums were suspended from trees .
The contemporary style of Hachijō @-@ daiko is called shin @-@ daiko ( 新太鼓 , " new taiko " ) , which differs from Kumaoji @-@ daiko in multiple ways . For instance , while the lead and accompanying roles are still present , shin @-@ daiko performances use larger drums exclusively on stands . Shin @-@ daiko emphasizes a more powerful sound , and consequently , performers use larger bachi made out of stronger wood . Looser clothing is worn by shin @-@ daiko performers compared to kimono worn by Kumaoji @-@ daiko performers ; the looser clothing in shin @-@ daiko allow performers to adopt more open stances and larger movements with the legs and arms . Rhythms used for the accompanying shita @-@ byōshi role can also differ . One type of rhythm , called yūkichi , consists of the following :
This rhythm is found in both styles , but is always played faster in shin @-@ daiko . Another type of rhythm , called honbadaki , is unique to shin @-@ daiko and also contains a song which is performed in standard Japanese .
= = = Miyake @-@ daiko = = =
Miyake @-@ daiko ( 三宅太鼓 , trans . " Miyake @-@ style taiko " ) is a style that has spread amongst groups through Kodo , and is formally known as Miyake @-@ jima Kamitsuki mikoshi @-@ daiko ( 三宅島神着神輿太鼓 ) . The word miyake comes from Miyake @-@ jima , part of the Izu Islands , and the word Kamitsuki refers to the village where the tradition came from . Miyake @-@ style taiko came out of performances for Gozu Tennō Sai ( 牛頭天王祭 , " Gozu Tennō Festival " ) — a traditional festival held annually in July on Miyake Island since 1820 honoring the deity Gozu Tennō . In this festival , players perform on taiko while portable shrines are carried around town . The style itself is characterized in a number of ways . A nagadō @-@ daiko is typically set low to the ground and played by two performers , one on each side ; instead of sitting , performers stand and hold a stance that is also very low to the ground , almost to the point of kneeling .
= = Outside Japan = =
= = = Australia = = =
Taiko groups in Australia began forming in the 1990s . The first group , called Ataru Taru Taiko , was formed in 1995 by Paulene Thomas , Harold Gent , and Kaomori Kamei . TaikOz was later formed by percussionist Ian Cleworth and Riley Lee , a former Ondekoza member , and has been performing in Australia since 1997 . They are known for their work in generating interest in performing taiko among Australian audiences , such as by developing a complete education program with both formal and informal classes , and have a strong fan base . Cleworth and other members of the group have developed several original pieces .
= = = Brazil = = =
The introduction of kumi @-@ daiko performance in Brazil can be traced back to the 1970s and 1980s in São Paulo . Tangue Setsuko founded an eponymous taiko dojo and was Brazil 's first taiko group ; Setsuo Kinoshita later formed the group Wadaiko Sho . Brazilian groups have combined native and African drumming techniques with taiko performance . One such piece developed by Kinoshita is called Taiko de Samba , which emphasizes both Brazilian and Japanese aesthetics in percussion traditions . Taiko was also popularized in Brazil from 2002 through the work of Yukihisa Oda , a Japanese native who visited Brazil several times through the Japan International Cooperation Agency .
The Brazilian Association of Taiko ( ABT ) suggests that there are about 150 taiko groups in Brazil and that about 10 – 15 % of players are non @-@ Japanese ; Izumo Honda , coordinator of a large annual festival in São Paulo , estimated that about 60 % of all taiko performers in Brazil are women .
= = = North America = = =
Taiko emerged in the United States in the late 1960s . The first group , San Francisco Taiko Dojo , was formed in 1968 by Seiichi Tanaka , a postwar immigrant who studied taiko in Japan and brought the styles and teachings to the US . A year later , a few members of Senshin Buddhist Temple in Los Angeles led by its minister Masao Kodani initiated another group called Kinnara Taiko . San Jose Taiko later formed in 1973 in Japantown , San Jose , under Roy and PJ Hirabayashi . Taiko started to branch out to the eastern US in the late 1970s . This included formation of Denver Taiko in 1976 and Soh Daiko in New York City in 1979 . Many of these early groups lacked the resources to equip each member with a drum and resorted to makeshift percussion materials such as rubber tires or creating taiko out of wine barrels .
Japanese @-@ Canadian taiko began in 1979 with Katari Taiko , and was inspired by the San Jose Taiko group . Its early membership was predominantly female . Katari Taiko and future groups were thought to represent an opportunity for younger , third @-@ generation Japanese Canadians to explore their roots , redevelop a sense of ethnic community , and expand taiko into other musical traditions .
There are no official counts or estimates of the number of active taiko groups in the United States or Canada , as there is no governing body for taiko groups in either country . Unofficial estimates have been made . In 1989 , there were as many as 30 groups in the US and Canada , seven of which were in California . One estimate suggested that around 120 groups were active in the US and Canada as of 2001 , many of which could be traced to the San Francisco Taiko Dojo ; later estimates in 2005 and 2006 suggested there were about 200 groups in the United States alone .
The Cirque du Soleil shows Mystère in Las Vegas and Dralion have featured taiko performance . Taiko performance has also been featured in commercial productions such as the 2005 Mitsubishi Eclipse ad campaign , and in events such as the 2009 Academy Awards and 2011 Grammy Awards .
From 2005 to 2006 , the Japanese American National Museum held an exhibition called Big Drum : Taiko in the United States . The exhibition covered several topics related to taiko in the United States , such as the formation of performance groups , their construction using available materials , and social movements . Visitors were able to play smaller drums .
= = Related cultural and social movements = =
Certain peoples have used taiko to advance social or cultural movements , both within Japan and elsewhere in the world .
= = = Gender conventions = = =
Taiko performance has frequently been viewed as an art form dominated by men . Historians of taiko argue that its performance comes from masculine traditions . Those who developed ensemble @-@ style taiko in Japan were men , and through the influence of Ondekoza , the ideal taiko player was epitomized in images of the masculine peasant class , particularly through the character Muhōmatsu in the 1958 film Rickshaw Man . Masculine roots have also been attributed to perceived capacity for " spectacular bodily performance " where women 's bodies are sometimes judged as unable to meet the physical demands of playing .
Before the 1980s , it was uncommon for Japanese women to perform on traditional instruments , including taiko , as their participation had been systematically restricted . In Ondekoza and in the early performances of Kodo , women performed only dance routines either during or between taiko performances . Thereafter , female participation in kumi @-@ daiko started to rise dramatically , and by the 1990s , women equaled and possibly exceeded representation by men . While the proportion of women in taiko has become substantial , some have expressed concern that women still do not perform in the same roles as their male counterparts and that taiko performance continues to be a male @-@ dominated profession . For instance , a member of Kodo was informed by the director of the group 's apprentice program that women were permitted to play , but could only play " as women " . Other women in the apprentice program recognized a gender disparity in performance roles , such as what pieces they were allowed to perform , or in physical terms based on a male standard .
Female taiko performance has also served as a response to gendered stereotypes of Japanese women as being quiet , subservient , or a femme fatale . Through performance , some groups believe they are helping to redefine not only the role of women in taiko , but how women are perceived more generally .
= = = Burakumin = = =
Those involved in the construction of taiko are usually considered part of the burakumin , a marginalized minority class in Japanese society , particularly those working with leather or animal skins . Prejudice against this class dates back to the Tokugawa period in terms of legal discrimination and treatment as social outcasts . Although official discrimination ended with the Tokugawa era , the burakumin have continued to face social discrimination , such as scrutiny by employers or in marriage arrangements . Drum makers have used their trade and success as a means to advocate for an end to discriminatory practices against their class .
The Taiko Road ( 人権太鼓ロード , " Taiko Road of Human Rights " ) , representing the contributions of burakumin , is found in Naniwa Ward in Osaka , home to a large proportion of burakumin . Among other features , the road contains taiko @-@ shaped benches representing their traditions in taiko manufacturing and leatherworking , and their impact on national culture . The road ends at the Osaka Human Rights Museum , which exhibits the history of systematic discrimination against the burakumin . The road and museum were developed in part due an advocacy campaign led by the Buraku Liberation League and a taiko group of younger performers called Taiko Ikari ( 太鼓怒り , " taiko rage " ) .
= = = North American sansei = = =
Taiko performance was an important part of cultural development by third @-@ generation Japanese residents of in North America , who are called sansei . During World War II , second @-@ generation Japanese residents , called nisei faced internment in the United States and in Canada on the basis of their race . During and after the war , Japanese residents were discouraged from activities such as speaking Japanese or forming ethnic communities . Subsequently , sansei could not engage in Japanese culture and instead were raised to assimilate into more normative activities . There were also prevailing stereotypes of Japanese people , which sansei sought to escape or subvert . During the 1960s in the United States , the Civil Rights Movement influenced sansei to reexamine their heritage by engaging in Japanese culture in their communities ; one such approach was through taiko performance . Groups such as San Jose Taiko were organized to fulfill a need for solidarity and to have a medium to express their experiences as Japanese @-@ Americans . Later generations have adopted taiko in programs or workshops established by sansei ; social scientist Hideyo Konagaya remarks that this attraction to taiko among other Japanese art forms may be due to its accessibility and energetic nature . Konagaya has also argued that the resurgence of taiko in the United States and Japan are differently motivated : in Japan , performance was meant to represent the need to recapture sacred traditions , while in the United States it was meant to be an explicit representation of masculinity and power in Japanese @-@ American men .
= = Notable performers and groups = =
A number of performers and groups , including several early leaders , have been recognized for their contributions to taiko performance . Daihachi Oguchi was best known for developing kumi @-@ daiko performance . Oguchi founded the first kumi @-@ daiko group called Osuwa Daiko in 1951 , and facilitated the popularization of taiko performance groups in Japan .
Seidō Kobayashi is the leader of the Tokyo @-@ based taiko group Oedo Sukeroku Taiko as of December 2014 . Kobayashi founded the group in 1959 and was the first group to tour professionally . Kobayashi is considered a master performer of taiko . He is also known for asserting intellectual control of the group 's performance style , which has had an impact on performance for many groups , particularly in North America .
In 1969 , Den Tagayasu ( 田耕 , Den Tagayasu ) founded Ondekoza , a group well known for making taiko performance internationally visible and for its artistic contributions to the tradition . Den was also known for developing a communal living and training facility for Ondekoza on Sado Island in Japan , which had a reputation for its intensity and broad education programs in folklore and music .
Performers and groups beyond the early practitioners have also been noted . Eitetsu Hayashi is best known for his solo performance work . Hayashi joined Ondekoza when he was 19 , and after parting from the group helped found Kodo , one of the best known and most influential taiko performance groups in the world . Hayashi soon left the group to begin a solo career and has performed in venues such as Carnegie Hall in 1984 , the first featured taiko performer there . He was awarded the 47th Education Minister 's Art Encouragement Prize , a national award , in 1997 as well as the 8th Award for the Promotion of Traditional Japanese Culture from the Japan Arts Foundation in 2001 .
Seiichi Tanaka is the founder of the San Francisco Taiko Dojo and is regarded as the primary developer of taiko performance in the United States . He was a recipient of a 2001 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts .
Tokyo Dagekidan has performed worldwide , including at the National Theater of Japan , at the closing ceremonies of the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France , and the 2014 Festival Internacional Cervantino in Mexico . The group also appeared in Kyoki no Sakura , a film produced by Toei .
= = Glossary = =
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= Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts =
The Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts ( AACTA ) is a professional organisation of film and television practitioners in Australia . The Academy 's aim is " to identify , award , promote and celebrate Australia 's greatest achievements in film and television . "
It was established in August 2011 with the backing of the Australian Film Institute ( AFI ) to act as its industry engagement arm and to administer the AACTA Awards ( formerly the Australian Film Institute Awards , also known as the AFI Awards ) which rewards achievements in Australian feature film , television , documentary and short films .
The Academy is composed of 15 Chapters , each of which represents different screen artists including actors , directors , producers and writers , and it is overseen by the Academy 's president and the Honorary Council . Australian actor Geoffrey Rush is the inaugural President and hosted the inaugural AACTA Awards in January 2012 .
= = Background = =
The Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts ( AACTA ) , is a not for profit , membership based , organisation whose aim is " to identify , award , promote and celebrate Australia 's greatest achievements in film and television . " The Academy is a subsidiary of the Australian Film Institute ( AFI ) , a non @-@ profit organisation which was established in 1958 to develop an active film culture in Australia and to foster engagement between the general public and the Australian film industry . The AFI was also responsible for administering the Australian Film Institute Awards ( more commonly known as the AFI Awards ) , which until 2011 rewarded Australian practitioners in feature film , television , documentary and short film screen crafts . The Academy receives funding by the AFI , and Australian state and federal governments .
In June 2011 , the AFI proposed the establishment of an " Australian Academy " . The objectives for the proposed academy was to raise the profile of Australian film and television in Australia and abroad , and to change the way it rewards talent by mimicking the methods used in foreign film organisations , such as Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) and British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) . The voting system would change through the establishment of an " Honorary Council " , which will govern fifteen chapters composed of professionals from industry guilds and organisations including actors , directors , producers and screenwriters . It was also stated that the Academy would not replace the AFI and past winners of the AFI Awards would " [ ... ] constitute the founding heritage of an ‘ Australian Academy . ’ " When the announcement of the proposal was made , the AFI began the consultation phase where members of the public and screen industry gave their feedback on the proposed changes throughout June , 2011 . Of the announcement Damian Trewhella , CEO of the AFI said , " We thought a better way to engage with the industry would be to try and improve our professional membership structure [ ... ] It 's quite a big improvement on the way the AFI does things . "
By 20 July , weeks after the consultation period ended , the AFI announced that it would go ahead with the proposed changes and the Australian Academy . When asked about the timing of the announcement Trewhella stated that , " Based on the overwhelming industry support we have received , we are now confident that we are moving in the right direction , and therefore that we can move briskly to establish the initial phase of the Academy . " On 18 August 2011 , the AFI announced , in a special event at the Sydney Opera House , that the academy would be called the Australian Academy of Cinema and Television Arts ( AACTA ) and the inaugural awards ceremony would be renamed the AACTA Awards , but serve as a continuum to the annual AFI Awards . During the event it was also made known that the president of the inaugural awards would be Geoffrey Rush . On the night a new gold statuette was revealed , created by Australian sculptor Ron Gomboc , which depicts " a human silhouette based on the shape of the Southern Cross constellation . "
= = Structure = =
The Academy , which has between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 members , comprises fifteen Chapters , with each representing a different area of speciality in feature film , television , documentary and short film . It is overseen by the Academy 's president and the Honorary Council . The role of the Honorary Council is to determine policies and strategies for the way the Academy rewards practitioners . The Chapters are as follows :
= = Honorary Councillors = =
= = Events = =
= = = Festival of film = = =
The Festival of Film , which is held in conjunction with the Australian Film Institute , showcases the films in competition for the AACTA Awards , with the inaugural festival held in Sydney and Melbourne from October to November in 2011 . The festival marks the beginning of the Australian film awards season , and members of the Academy can commence voting for films in all categories , while members of the Institute vote for the Best Short Animation , Best Short Fiction Film and Members ' Choice Award only .
= = = Awards = = =
The AACTA Awards replaced the previous Australian Film Institute Awards , but serve as a continuum to past ceremonies . The awards were first instituted by the Australian Film Institute in 1958 ( as the Australian Film Awards ) as part of the Melbourne International Film Festival , until 1972 . Before 1969 , awards were presented as a prize to non @-@ feature films due to a lack of feature films produced in Australia . By 1976 competitive film awards were established and in 1987 , awards for television was introduced . The awards were usually held at the end of each year in Melbourne but , prior to the announcement of the Academy , the AFI announced that it would move the awards to January 2012 at the Sydney Opera House , in order to align them with the international film awards season . The awards are held over two events : the AACTA Awards Luncheon , a black tie event where accolades are handed out for non @-@ feature and short films , film production , non @-@ drama related television programs and the Raymond Longford Award , and the AACTA Awards Ceremony which hands out the awards in all other categories at a larger venue and is broadcast on television . Additionally , awards for achievements in foreign film were presented once at the AACTA International Awards in Los Angeles in 2012 .
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= I Want You ( Janet Jackson song ) =
" I Want You " is a song recorded by American singer Janet Jackson for her eighth studio album , Damita Jo ( 2004 ) . It was released April 5 , 2004 , by Virgin Records as the second single from the album . It was written by Harold Lilly , Kanye West , and John Legend , while it was produced by West , Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis , and Jackson . The mid @-@ tempo ballad consists of a retro sound and arrangement , paying homage to the classic pop sound of the Motown era . Its composition is based on Jackson 's passion and desire for an estranged lover . " I Want You " is notable for being among the first singles produced with West and co @-@ written by Legend , who were both upcoming artists at the time .
The song received positive reviews by music critics , who complimented Jackson 's vocals and its fusion of nostalgic and modern qualities . The song 's performance was largely affected by the blacklisting of Jackson 's singles and music videos worldwide due to U.S. Federal Communications Commission fines regarding her controversial Super Bowl Halftime Show incident , with conglomerates such as Viacom and CBS enforcing the boycott . " I Want You " reached the top twenty in airplay prior to stalling due to the blockage , also becoming Jackson 's thirty @-@ third consecutive top forty hit on the Hot R & B Songs chart . The blacklisting drew controversy amongst critics , who declared the song to likely have been an " across @-@ the @-@ board smash " song had the incident not occurred .
" I Want You " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and received a Grammy nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance . The song 's music video was directed by Dave Meyers and portrays Jackson traveling through Los Angeles to meet her boyfriend . It was not aired on MTV or several other music channels owned by Viacom and CBS due to their boycott of Jackson following her Super Bowl performance incident . During promotional campaign for Damita Jo , Jackson performed " I Want You " various occasions , including Good Morning America .
= = Background = =
" I Want You " was written by Harold Lilly , Kanye West , and John Legend , while production was handled by West , Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis , and Jackson . It was initially titled " Have Your Way with Me " in its early stages , and was the only song from the album which Jackson did not co @-@ write , along with " Thinkin ' ' Bout My Ex " , written by Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds . Describing the song , Jackson said , " It 's a different kind of song for me , it 's more of like a throwback . More of a doowoop @-@ y [ feel ] , which I 've never done before which is quite exciting , and I enjoyed recording it in the studio . " John Platt , senior Vice President of Virgin Records and EMI Publishing , commented that Damita Jo " is really about positive love and where she 's at in her life right now . The second half of the album was very easy once me and Janet got to know each other , and found the songs that really were true to her and that she can sing with conviction . That 's why there 's so much passion in this " I Want You " record , that 's where she 's at in her life right now . "
West first collaborated with Jackson several months prior to the release of his debut album , The College Dropout ( 2004 ) . West stated , " I don 't want to talk about it before it comes out , but it 'll be unbelievable . " John Legend , who co @-@ wrote the track , also plays the piano on the track . Legend was an upcoming artist and relatively unknown at the time , having not yet released his debut album Get Lifted or any singles . The song was among Legend 's first major credits along with Jay @-@ Z 's " Encore " , West 's remix of Britney Spears ' " Me Against the Music " , and The Black Eyed Peas ' " The Boogie that Be . " Legend commented , " I 'm not going to focus on her breast like the rest of y 'all . I 'm about the music . Since everyone 's paying attention to her , it should bode well for her next single " Have Your Way With Me " which is gonna drop next week . We 're just wrapping up the production now . It 's produced by Kanye West and co @-@ written by Kanye , Harold Lilly and yours truly . I played some piano on there too . It 's a sweet , soulful song . I think it 'll be a smash . " The song also features contributions from Israeli violinist Miri Ben @-@ Ari . Simon Umlauf of CNN commented Ari 's contribution " gently caresses " the song , providing " a dramatic edge you won 't find anywhere else . "
= = Release = =
Due to an early leak , " I Want You " was released for digital download through Virgin Records 's website and All Access Music Group on February 22 , 2004 , though it was not officially sent to radio until April 2004 . " Love Me " , a newly recorded remix of " Just a Little While " produced by Just Blaze , was initially to be sent to urban radio formats . However , its release was canceled when the original version was removed from airplay due to blacklisting from several conglomerates regarding Jackson 's Super Bowl performance incident , prompting the release of " I Want You " . The album version concludes with a brief interlude of Jackson speaking of her passion for music , which the radio edit omits . A promotional single including the song 's E @-@ Smoove remix , music video , and exclusive interview was released for purchase at Regal Cinemas for a limited time .
= = Composition = =
" I Want You " is a pop ballad based on music of the Motown era . It incorporates doo @-@ wop , R & B and hip @-@ hop into its production , providing an " equally keen senses of retroism and hip @-@ hop currency . " Its instrumentation consists of guitar , piano , violins , and synthesized drums . It has a slow tempo of 72 beats per minute , with Jackson 's vocals ranging from G3 to C5 . It contains a brief sample from B. T. Express ' 1976 version of The Carpenters ' 1970 song " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " , written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David . Jackson described the song as having a " throwback " feel , considered a departure from her other works . Michael Paletta of Billboard described its " opening drum downbeat " accompanied by " swirling string crescendos , " considered " the perfect backdrop for Jackson 's breathy vocals . " It was analyzed to have a " chimes @-@ studded texture " and strings backed by drums , also having " a triangle thrown in there for good measure . " Its lyrics focus on longing for an estranged lover and feeling emotionally distraught when apart . Jackson pleads for their affection during its chorus , telling them to " Have your way with me . " Tareck Ghoneim of Contactmusic.com stated " The lyrics are simple . She just wants her man and she ’ s telling it straight , " while Plugged In observed it to convey Jackson 's " insatiable " desire for intimacy in a " vulnerable and lovesick " manner .
= = Critical reception = =
" I Want You " received favorable reviews from music critics . Michael Paoletta of Billboard stated , " the retro @-@ vibed song calls to mind the sparkly yet wistful soul of ' 60s @-@ era girl groups " while maintaining " a contemporary reference " . Paoletta considered its aura and " girl @-@ desires @-@ boy theme " to make the track a " crossover gem " . West 's production was also praised , adding " the opening drum downbeat immediately sets the tone . That beat smoothly propels the song , accompanied by swirling string crescendos that are the perfect backdrop for Jackson 's breathy vocals " , concluding it to potentially have " multiformat popularity . " Ernest Hardy of LA Weekly called it " a retro affair " with a classic " girl @-@ group arrangement " , while a critique from Gashaus noted the song " shimmers with some of Janet 's former iridescent glow . " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian praised its " impossibly lithe basseline " , calling it an electronic reconstruction of a 1970s soul ballad , also determined to be " not only inventive , but brilliantly constructed . "
Hot Press called it an " obligatory ballad " which portrays Jackon 's musicality , showcasing her " versatility and mastery of a bewildering array of styles . " Spence D. of IGN praised the single , calling it " ' 70s retro mode " and a perfect homage to the era of mainstream excess . The review added , " It 's squeaky and clean sounding in a sugary , fluff kind of way , almost as if it were a song recorded by Janet years ago and recently rediscovered . And you know what ? It 's cool because of that . " Aaron Foley of MLive considered it Jackson 's fourth most underrated single , calling it among " the fruits from that era that don 't get the respect they deserve " . Foley added , that after Jackson 's Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , " I Want You " " got lost in the wash . The starry @-@ eyed , Motown @-@ inspired ballad had Janet vulnerable and lovesick , boo hooing for her lover 's attention . "
Jim Abott of Orlando Sentinel classified " the sweetly melodic old @-@ school " song among Jackson 's " occasional bursts of inspiration , " declaring it " a beautifully big arrangement that 's Motown @-@ esque . " Additionally , its " depth and sweetness " was considered unexpected by Dan LeRoy from The Scene , commenting " West 's swaying ' 50s pastiche " I Want You " is delightful " . Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times exclaimed the track " has a swooning charm , with a chimes @-@ studded texture that suggests the sweeping light @-@ points of a disco ball . " Mikael Wood of Baltimore City Paper gave a similar critique , saying the " luscious slow jam " ultimately " shimmers with the sweet lovesickness Karen Carpenter had to fight through a scrim of suburban sang @-@ froid to express . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic declared the song " on the slower side " , containing " a verse that 's memorable . " Plugged In observed subtle sexuality within its lyrics , commenting that Jackson is insatiable . The song 's production from West also received acclaim . Music critic Kevin Nottingham ranked it as West 's second best production , classifying it as a " gorgeous piece of work . " He exclaimed . " The drums hit at the beginning and the listener should already fall in love . Janet 's voice should intrigue you , but frankly , those strings and those drums grab my attention all the time . " Nottingham added that West 's beat takes the listener on a joyful ride , while the beat evokes happiness .
= = Chart performance = =
The song was released exclusively in North America and Europe to urban radio formats . Due to the blacklist , " I Want You " quickly rose to number eighteen in airplay before stalling on the chart . The song generated an audience impression of nearly twenty @-@ two million on formats able to play the song during its first week . The song debuted at number 74 on the Billboard Hot 100 on April 3 , 2004 , before peaking at number 57 weeks later . It also peaked at number 18 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , becoming her thirty @-@ third consecutive top forty hit on the chart . It had also reached number sixteen on Radio and Records 's weekly airplay report . Additionally , it also peaked at number four on Billboard 's Urban Adult Contemporary airplay chart . Due to strong sales , the song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
" All Nite ( Don 't Stop ) " was released as the album 's second single in most international markets as a double A @-@ Side with " I Want You " , making the song ineligible to chart . However , " I Want You " reached number 19 in the United Kingdom . It also reached number ten on the United Kingdom 's BBC Radio 2 airplay chart , while lead single " Just a Little While " spent multiple weeks atop the chart . It received a Grammy nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance at the 47th Annual Grammy Awards .
= = = Blacklist = = =
" I Want You " , along with Jackson 's other singles from Damita Jo and her following two albums , was blacklisted by many major radio formats following her controversial Super Bowl Halftime Show incident , regarding several media conglomerates receiving massive U.S. Federal Communications Commission fines in its aftermath , such as Viacom , which owns many radio formats , MTV , and CBS , which broadcast the event and owns Clear Channel Communications . The blacklisting of Jackson drew attention and commentary from music critics ; many deciding the song to likely have achieved much greater success if the blockage had not occurred . Glenn Gamboa of Newsweek stated , " Unfortunately , it 's not clear whether these songs will get heard , " saying after the incident , " Jackson has been put in the pop culture penalty box . The result is that despite some initial backing for " Just a Little While " , radio and TV support for her music has withered , as the conglomerates worry about angering the FCC and Congress " in fear of receiving fines for supporting Jackson . Gamboa added that " I Want You " would have been an " across @-@ the @-@ board smash pre @-@ Nipplegate . " In retrospect , Rich Juzwiak of Gawker commented the " lush " single would have been successful for Jackson , given another set of circumstances .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " I Want You " was directed by Dave Meyers , who previously directed Jackson 's music videos for " All for You " and " Just a Little While " . It debuted on March 16 , 2004 , on BET 's Access Granted . Intended to resemble Brooklyn , New York , the video was shot in Los Angeles . It portrays Jackson traveling through the city at night to meet her boyfriend , interacting with the various people she encounters along the way . Jackson commented that the video was simple , and there was not a major production for wardrobe , hair and makeup . Explaining its concept , she stated " I 'm coming out of my apartment building and walking down the street , and you see all the goings @-@ on in the neighborhood . " Jackson praised Meyers as a director , saying " I think he 's a wonderful director and he 's a good friend , we 've been friends since the " All for You " video . He has a great eye . " Hollywood casting agents sought a wide variety of extras , ranging from teenage delinquents to mothers picking up her babies and children from day care , and other people commuting by bus to and from work . The video was desired to have an intimate " community " feel . Meyers stated :
" The song has kind of an old school vibe to it , so we wanted to be really stripped down and really simple with the video . Every time we get the chance to work together I always try to do something a little different , you know . I hadn 't seen her a do a real stripped down , really basic video . I got a taste of it when I did another video with her where she was a guest star , and I got her really stripped down in that but it was still in a Jamaican environment . I just wanted to put her in a really contemporary American environment and bring out the emotions in the song and the bittersweetness of it . Me and her were just vibing off that , and thought it would be really fun to do something just really simple . No visual effects , no gags . The whole strength of the video is on just the honesty of the piece , and that was sort of what we set out to do . Sometimes it 's an important visual effect , today it 's an important emotion . "
A portion of the clip 's premise was inspired by Jackson 's then @-@ relationship with record producer Jermaine Dupri , which was unconfirmed and had generated speculation within the media . Meyers explained , " In the other video we were shooting , she came out of the trailer wearing a So So Def jacket , and that 's when I got the idea , ' it would be great if you do a whole video if you look like you do now when you 're going home ' . It took her a minute , she thought about it , she asked JD if he 'd be okay with doing the video , ' cus I was begging and I was like , ' if I could get the two of you in a simple video together , it 's gonna be gold . ' She asked and he said yea , and that 's when my video came to life . " Meyers also had the idea for Dupri 's cameo due to persistent rumors of their relationship circulating in the media , saying " That 's the whole concept here , a real simple video and then the slam dunk is JD 's in the video . He hasn 't been in any of her stuff and all the rumors of ' are they together , are they not together . ' "
The video begins with Jackson leaving her apartment before walking through the city 's various settings , including a grocery store before taking the bus , and ends with Jackson entering a Boys & Girls Club recreation center to visit her then @-@ boyfriend , record producer Jermaine Dupri . Along with Dupri , actor Bobb 'e J. Thompson makes a brief cameo . Jackson is shown wearing her trademark midriff @-@ baring outfits and naval piercing in the clip . A scene of Jackson purchasing Trojan condoms was filmed to promote safe sex , but was omitted from the final video . Jackson previously included a similar message at the finale of her video for " Any Time , Any Place " ( 1994 ) .
= = = Release and reception = = =
The video generally received positive reception , although Dupri 's cameo was ultimately panned . A review considered the portrayal of Jackson " walking down some really shady parts of the neighbourhood in pursuit of Jermaine Dupri " as unrealistic . In an interview with Launch.com , Jackson said she was not hesitant to feature Dupri in the video , although revealed it was the director 's idea to do so .
= = = Blacklist = = =
Following her highly controversial Super Bowl incident , Jackson 's singles and music videos were blacklisted by various entertainment conglomerates involved with the event who received massive FCC fines , including Viacom , which owns MTV , VH1 , and co @-@ produced the event , and CBS , which aired the event and owns Clear Channel Communications . A senior executive for Viacom stated , " [ We are ] absolutely bailing on the record . The pressure is so great , they can 't align with anything related to Janet . The high @-@ ups are still pissed at her , and this is a punitive measure . " As a result , the video for " I Want You " video , in addition to other releases from Damita Jo and Jackson 's following two albums , received minimal or no rotation on major music channels , despite Jackson 's appeal and iconic status in pop culture . In British publication Music Week , Virgin Record 's marketing director Elizabeth Nordy stated MTV 's lack of support due to the Super Bowl incident had been a " major catalyst " in the performance of Jackson 's singles . Jam also responded to an MTV statement claiming the network never received Jackson 's videos , while it was sent to the channel .
= = Live performances = =
During promotional campaign for Damita Jo , Jackson performed " I Want You " on Good Morning America , On Air with Ryan Seacrest , Much Music , Canada AM , and Spain 's Gala Xacobeo . Additionally , the performances from On Air with Ryan Seacrest and Much Music are included on Jackson 's From Janet to Damita Jo : The Videos compilation .
= = Track listings = =
" I Want You " was released as a double A @-@ side with " All Nite ( Don 't Stop ) " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Janet Jackson – vocals , producer
Kanye West – songwriter , producer
James Harris III - producer , keyboards
Terry Lewis - producer
John Legend - songwriter
Harold Lilly - songwriter
Miri Ben @-@ Ari – violin
Burt Bacharach – songwriter
Hal David - songwriter
Bobby Ross Avila - guitarist
Keenan Holloway - bassist
Ervin Pope - keyboards
Ian Cross - engineer
Tats Sato - engineer
Credits and personnel adapted from Damita Jo album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Old St Paul 's Cathedral =
Old St Paul 's Cathedral was the medieval cathedral of the City of London that , until 1666 , stood on the site of the present St Paul 's Cathedral . Built from 1087 to 1314 and dedicated to Saint Paul , the cathedral was the fourth church on the site at Ludgate Hill .
Work on the cathedral began during the reign of William the Conqueror after a fire in 1087 that destroyed much of the city . Work took more than 200 years , and construction was delayed by another fire in 1135 . The church was consecrated in 1240 and enlarged again in 1256 and the early 14th century . At its completion in the middle of the 14th century , the cathedral was one of the longest churches in the world and had one of the tallest spires and some of the finest stained glass .
The presence of the shrine of Saint Erkenwald made the cathedral a pilgrimage site during the Medieval period . In addition to serving as the seat of the Diocese of London , the building developed a reputation as a hub of the City of London , with the nave aisle , " Paul 's walk " , known as a centre for business and the London grapevine . After the Reformation , the open @-@ air pulpit in the churchyard , St Paul 's Cross , became the stage for radical evangelical preaching and Protestant bookselling .
The cathedral was already in severe structural decline by the 17th century . Restoration work by Inigo Jones in the 1620s was halted by the English Civil War . Sir Christopher Wren was attempting another restoration in 1666 when the cathedral was destroyed in the Great Fire of London . After demolition of the old structure , the present , domed cathedral was erected on the site , with an English Baroque design by Wren .
= = Construction = =
The cathedral could be the fourth church on the site at Ludgate Hill dedicated to St Paul . A devastating fire in 1087 , detailed in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , destroyed much of the city and the cathedral . King William I donated the stone from the destroyed Palatine Tower on the River Fleet towards the construction of a new , Romanesque Norman cathedral , sometimes said to be his last act before his death .
Bishop Maurice oversaw early preparations , although it was primarily under his successor , Richard de Beaumis , that construction work fully commenced . Beaumis was assisted by King Henry I , who gave the bishop stone and commanded that all material brought up the River Fleet for the cathedral should be free from toll . To fund the cathedral , Henry gave Beamis rights to all fish caught within the cathedral neighbourhood and tithes on venison taken in the County of Essex . Beaumis also gave a site for the original foundation of St Paul 's School .
After Henry I 's death , a civil war known as " The Anarchy " broke out . Henry of Blois , Bishop of Winchester , was appointed to administer the affairs of St Paul 's . Almost immediately , he had to deal with the aftermath of a fire at London Bridge in 1135 . It spread over much of the city , damaging the cathedral and delaying its construction .
During this period , the style of the building was changed from heavy Romanesque into Early English Gothic . Although the base Norman columns were left alone , lancet pointed arches were placed over them in the triforium and some heavy columns were substituted with clustered pillars . The steeple was erected in 1221 and the cathedral was rededicated by Bishop Roger Niger in 1240 .
= = = New work ( 1255 – 1314 ) = = =
After a succession of storms , in 1255 Bishop Fulk Basset appealed for funds to repair the damaged roof . The roof was once more rebuilt in wood , which was ultimately to doom the building . At this time , the east end of the cathedral church was lengthened , enclosing the parish church of St Faith , which was now brought within the cathedral . The eastward addition was always referred to as " The New Work " .
After complaints from the dispossessed parishioners of St Faith 's , the east end of the west crypt was allotted to them as their parish church . The congregation were also allowed to keep a detached tower with a peal of bells east of the church which had historically been used to peal the summons to the Cheapside Folkmote . The parish later moved to the Jesus chapel during the reign of Edward VI and was merged with St Augustine Watling Street after the 1666 fire .
This " New Work " was completed in 1314 , although the additions had been consecrated in 1300 . Excavations in 1878 by Francis Penrose showed it was 586 feet ( 179 m ) long ( excluding the porch later added by Inigo Jones ) and 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide ( 290 feet ( 88 m ) across the transepts and crossing ) . By way of comparison , the current cathedral is 574 feet ( 175 m ) in length including the portico , and 246 feet ( 75 m ) across the transepts , and Winchester Cathedral , the longest remaining medieval church , is 556 feet ( 169 m ) long and 231 feet ( 70 m ) across the transepts .
The cathedral had one of Europe 's tallest church spires , the height of which is traditionally given as 489 feet ( 149 m ) , surpassing all but Lincoln Cathedral . The King 's Surveyor , Christopher Wren ( 1632 – 1723 ) , judged that an overestimate and gave 460 feet ( 140 m ) . William Benham noted that the cathedral probably " resembled in general outline that of Salisbury , but it was a hundred feet longer , and the spire was sixty or eighty feet higher . The tower was open internally as far as the base of the spire , and was probably more beautiful both inside and out than that of any other English cathedral . "
According to the architectural historian John Harvey , the octagonal chapter house , built about 1332 by William Ramsey , was the earliest example of Perpendicular Gothic . This is confirmed by Alec Clifton @-@ Taylor , who notes that the chapter house and St Stephen 's chapel at Westminster Abbey predate the early Perpendicular work at Gloucester Cathedral by several years . The foundations of the chapter house were recently made visible in the redeveloped south churchyard of the new cathedral .
= = Interior = =
The finished cathedral of the Middle Ages was renowned for the beauty of its interior . Canon William Benham wrote in 1902 : " It had not a rival in England , perhaps one might say in Europe . "
The nave 's immense length was particularly notable , with a Norman triforium and vaulted ceiling . The length earned it the nickname " Paul 's walk " . The cathedral 's stained glass was reputed to be the best in the country , and the east @-@ end Rose window was particularly exquisite . The poet Geoffrey Chaucer uses the windows as a metaphor in " The Miller 's Tale " from The Canterbury Tales , in the knowledge that other Londoners would understand the comparison :
His rode was red , his eyen grey as goose ,
With Paule 's windows carven on his shoes
In hosen red he went full fetisly .
From the cathedral 's construction until its destruction at the Reformation , the shrine of Erkenwald was a popular site for pilgrimage . Under Bishop Maurice , reports of miracles attributed to the shrine increased , with the shrine attracting thousands of pilgrims to the cathedral . The alliterative Middle English poem St. Erkenwald ( sometimes attributed to the " Pearl Poet " , c.14 ) begins with a description of the construction of the cathedral , referring to the building as the " New Werke " .
The shrine was adorned with gold , silver and precious stones . In 1339 , three London goldsmiths were employed for a whole year to rebuild the shrine to a higher standard . William Dugdale records that the shrine was pyramidal in shape with an altar table placed in front for offerings .
Monarchs and other dignitaries were often in attendance at the cathedral , and the court occasionally held session there . The building was also the scene of several incidents of mediaeval intrigue . In 1191 , whilst King Richard I was in Palestine , his brother John summoned a council of bishops to St Paul 's to denounce William de Longchamp , Bishop of Ely — to whom Richard had entrusted the affairs of government — for treason .
Later that year , William Fitz Osbern gave a fiery speech against the oppression of the poor at Paul 's Cross and incited a riot which saw the cathedral invaded , halted only by an appeal for calm by Hubert Walter , Archbishop of Canterbury . Osbern barricaded himself in nearby St Mary @-@ le @-@ Bow and was later executed , after which Paul 's Cross was silent for many years .
Arthur , Prince of Wales , son of Henry VII , married Catharine of Aragon in St Paul 's on November 14 , 1501 . Chroniclers are profuse in their descriptions of the decorations of the cathedral and city on that occasion . Arthur died five months later , at the age of 15 , and the marriage was later to prove contentious during the subsequent reign of his brother , Henry VIII .
Several kings of the Middle Ages lay in state in St Paul 's before their funerals at Westminster Abbey , including Richard II , Henry VI and Henry VII . In the case of Richard II , the display of his body in such a public place was to counter rumours that he was not deceased . The walls were lined with the tombs of mediaeval bishops and nobility . In addition to the shrine of Erkenwald , two Anglo @-@ Saxon kings were buried inside : Sebbi , King of the East Saxons , and Ethelred the Unready .
A number of figures such as John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster and John Beauchamp , 3rd Baron Beauchamp de Somerset had particularly large monuments constructed within the cathedral , and the building later contained the tombs of the Crown minister Nicholas Bacon , the poet , courtier and soldier Sir Philip Sidney , and of the poet and clergyman John Donne , who was dean of the cathedral between 1621 until his death in 1631 . Donne 's monument survived the 1666 fire , and is on display in the present building .
= = Paul 's Walk = =
The first historical reference to the nave , " Paul 's walk " , being used as a marketplace and general meeting area is recorded during the 1381 – 1404 tenure of Bishop Braybrooke . The bishop issued an open letter decrying the use of the building for selling " wares , as if it were a public market " and " others ... by the instigation of the Devil [ using ] stones and arrows to bring down the birds , jackdaws and pigeons which nestle in the walls and crevises of the building . Others play at ball ... breaking the beautiful and costly painted windows to the amazement of spectators . " His decree goes on to threaten perpetrators with excommunication .
By the 15th century , the cathedral had become the centre of the London grapevine . " News mongers " , as they were called , gathered there to pass on the latest news and gossip . Those who visited the cathedral to keep up with the news were known as " Paul 's walkers " .
According to Francis Osborne ( 1593 – 1659 ) :
It was the fashion of those times ... for the principal gentry , lords , courtiers , and men of all professions not merely mechanic , to meet in Paul 's Church by eleven and walk in the middle aisle till twelve , and after dinner from three to six , during which times some discoursed on business , others of news . Now in regard of the universal there happened little that did not first or last arrive here ... And those news @-@ mongers , as they called them , did not only take the boldness to weigh the public but most intrinsic actions of the state , which some courtier or other did betray to this society .
St Paul 's became the place to go to hear the latest news of current affairs , war , religion , parliament and the court . In his play Englishmen for my Money , William Haughton ( d . 1605 ) described Paul 's walk as a kind of " open house " filled with a " great store of company that do nothing but go up and down , and go up and down , and make a grumbling together " .
Infested with beggars and thieves , Paul 's walk was also a place to pick up gossip , topical jokes , and even prostitutes . In his Microcosmographie ( 1628 ) , a series of satirical portraits of contemporary England , John Earle ( 1601 – 1665 ) , described Paul 's walk thus :
Is the land 's epitome , or you may call it the lesser isle of Great Britain . It is more than this , the whole world 's map , which you may here discern in its perfectest motion , justling and turning . It is a heap of stones and men , with a vast confusion of languages ; and were the steeple not sanctified , nothing liker Babel . The noise in it is like that of bees , a strange humming or buzz mixed of walking tongues and feet : it is a kind of still roar or loud whisper ... It is the great exchange of all discourse , and no business whatsoever but is here stirring and a @-@ foot ... It is the general mint of all famous lies , which are here like the legends of popery , first coined and stamped in the church .
= = Decline ( 16th century ) = =
By the 16th century the building was deteriorating . Under Henry VIII and Edward VI , the Dissolution of the Monasteries and Chantries Acts led to the destruction of interior ornamentation and the cloisters , charnels , crypts , chapels , shrines , chantries and other buildings in the churchyard .
Many of these former religious sites in St Paul 's Churchyard , having been seized by the crown , were sold as shops and rental properties , especially to printers and booksellers , such as Thomas Adams , who were often evangelical Protestants . Buildings that were razed often supplied ready @-@ dressed building material for construction projects , such as the Lord Protector 's city palace , Somerset House .
Crowds were drawn to the northeast corner of the Churchyard , St Paul 's Cross , where open @-@ air preaching took place . It was there in the Cross Yard in 1549 that radical Protestant preachers incited a mob to destroy many of the cathedral 's interior decorations . In 1554 , in an attempt to end inappropriate practices taking place in the nave , the Lord Mayor decreed that church should return to its original purpose as a religious building , issuing a writ stating that the selling of horses , beer and " other gross wares " was " to the great dishonour and displeasure of Almighty God , and the great grief also and offence of all good and well @-@ disposed persons " .
= = = Fire ( 1561 ) = = =
On 4 June 1561 the spire caught fire and crashed through the nave roof . According to a newsheet published days after the fire , the cause was a lightning strike . In 1753 , David Henry , a writer for The Gentleman 's Magazine , revived a rumour in his Historical description of St. Paul 's Cathedral , writing that a plumber had " confessed on his death bed " that he had " left a pan of coals and other fuel in the tower when he went to dinner . " However , the number of contemporary eyewitnesses to the storm and a subsequent investigation appears to contradict this .
Whatever the cause , the subsequent conflagration was hot enough to melt the cathedral 's bells and the lead covering the wooden spire " poured down like lava upon the roof " , destroying it . This event was taken by both Protestants and Catholics as a sign of God 's displeasure at the other faction 's actions . Queen Elizabeth contributed towards the cost of repairs and the Bishop of London Edmund Grindal gave £ 1200 , although the spire was never rebuilt . The repair work on the nave roof was sub @-@ standard , and only fifty years after the rebuilding was in a dangerous condition .
= = = Restoration work ( 1621 – 1666 ) = = =
Concerned at the decaying state of the building , King James I appointed England 's first classical architect , Inigo Jones , to restore the building . The poet Henry Farley records the king comparing himself to the building at the commencement of the work in 1621 : " I have had more sweeping , brushing and cleaning than in forty years before . My workmen looke like him they call Muldsacke after sweeping of a chimney . "
In addition to cleaning and rebuilding parts of the Gothic structure , Jones added a classical @-@ style portico to the cathedral 's west front in the 1630s , which William Benham notes was " altogether incongruous with the old building ... It was no doubt fortunate that Inigo Jones confined his work at St Paul 's to some very poor additions to the transepts , and to a portico , very magnificent in its way , at the west end . "
Work stopped during the English Civil War , and there was much defacement and mistreatment of the building by Parliamentarian forces during which old documents and charters were dispersed and destroyed , and the nave used as a stable for cavalry horses . Much of the detailed information historians have of the cathedral is taken from William Dugdale 's 1658 History of St Pauls Cathedral , written hastily during The Protectorate for fear that " one of the most eminent Structures of that kinde in the Christian World " might be destroyed .
Indeed , a persistent rumour of the time suggested that Cromwell had considered giving the building to London 's returning Jewish community to become a synagogue . Dugdale embarked on his project due to discovering hampers full of decaying 14th and 15th century documents from the Cathedral 's early archives . In his book 's dedicatory epistle , he wrote :
... so great was your foresight of what we have since by wofull experience seen and felt , and specially in the Church , ( through the Presbyterian contagion , which then began violently to breake out ) that you often and earnestly incited me to a speedy view of what Monuments I could , especially in the principall Churches of this Realme ; to the end , that by Inke and paper , the Shadows of them , with their Inscriptions might be preserved for posteritie , forasmuch as the things themselves were so neer unto ruine .
Dugdale 's book is also the source for many of the surviving engravings of the building , created by Bohemian etcher Wenceslaus Hollar . In July 2010 , an original sketch for Hollar 's engravings was rediscovered when it was submitted to Sotheby 's auction house .
= = The Great Fire ( 1666 ) = =
After the Restoration of King Charles II , Sir Christopher Wren , the Surveyor to the King 's Works , was appointed to restore the cathedral in a style matching Inigo Jones ' classical additions of 1630 . Wren instead recommended that the building be completely demolished ; according to his first biographer , James Elmes , Wren “ expressed his surprise at the carelessness and want of accuracy in the original builders of the structure ” ; Wren 's son described the new design as " The Gothic rectified to a better manner of architecture " .
Both the clergy and citizens of the city opposed such a move . In response , Wren proposed to restore the body of the gothic building , but replace the existing tower with a dome . He wrote in his 1666 Of the Surveyor 's Design for repairing the old ruinous structure of St Paul 's :
It must be concluded that the Tower from Top to Bottom and the adjacent parts are such a heap of deformaties that no Judicious Architect will think it corrigible by any Expense that can be laid out upon new dressing it .
Wren , whose uncle Matthew Wren was Bishop of Ely , admired the central lantern of Ely Cathedral and proposed that his dome design could be constructed over the top of the existing gothic tower , before the old structure was removed from within . This , he reasoned , would prevent the need for extensive scaffolding and would not upset Londoners ( " Unbelievers " ) by demolishing a familiar landmark without being able to see its " hopeful Successor rise in its stead . "
The matter was still under discussion when the restoration work on St Paul 's finally began in the 1660s but soon after being sheathed in wooden scaffolding , the building was completely gutted in the Great Fire of London of 1666 . The fire , aided by the scaffolding , destroyed the roof and much of the stonework along with masses of stocks and personal belongings that had been placed there for safety . Samuel Pepys recalls the building in flames in his diary :
Up by five o 'clock , and blessed be God ! find all well , and by water to Paul 's Wharf . Walked thence and saw all the town burned , and a miserable sight of Paul 's Church , with all the roof fallen , and the body of the choir fallen into St. Faith 's ; Paul 's School also , Ludgate , and Fleet Street .
John Evelyn 's account paints a similar picture of destruction :
September 3rd – I went and saw the whole south part of the City burning from Cheapeside to the Thames , and ... was now taking hold of St. Paule 's Church , to which the scaffolds contributed exceedingly .
September 7th – I went this morning on foote from White @-@ hall as far as London Bridge , thro ' the late Fleete @-@ streete , Ludgate Hill , by St. Paules ... At my returne I was infinitely concern 'd to find that goodly Church St. Paules now a sad ruine , and that beautiful portico ... now rent in pieces , flakes of vast stone split asunder , and nothing now remaining intire but the inscription in the architrave , shewing by whom it was built , which had not one letter of it defac 'd . It was astonishing to see what immense stones the heate had in a manner calcin 'd , so that all the ornaments , columns , freezes , capitals , and projectures of massie Portland @-@ stone flew off , even to the very roofe , where a sheet of lead covering a great space ( no less than six akers by measure ) was totally mealted ; the ruines of the vaulted roofe falling broke into St. Faith 's , which being fill 'd with the magazines of bookes belonging to the Stationers , and carried thither for safety , they were all consum 'd , burning for a weeke following . It is also observable that the lead over the altar at the East end was untouch 'd , and among the divers monuments , the body of one Bishop remain 'd intire . Thus lay in ashes that most venerable Church , one of the most antient pieces of early piety in the Christian world .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Temporary repairs were made to the building . While it might have been salvageable , albeit with almost complete reconstruction , a decision was taken to build a new cathedral in a modern style instead , a step which had been contemplated even before the fire . Wren declared that it was impossible to restore the old building .
The following April , the Dean William Sancroft wrote to him that he had been right in his judgement : " Our work at the west end , " he wrote , " has fallen about our ears . " Two pillars had collapsed , and the rest was so unsafe that men were afraid to go near , even to pull it down . He added , " You are so absolutely necessary to us that we can do nothing , resolve on nothing without you . "
Following this declaration by the Dean , demolition of the remains of the old cathedral began in 1668 . Demolition of the Old Cathedral proved unexpectedly difficult as the stonework had been bonded together by molten lead . Wren initially used the then @-@ new technique of using gunpowder to bring down the surviving stone walls . Like many experimental techniques , the use of gunpowder was not easy to control ; several workers were killed and nearby residents complained about noise and damage . Eventually , Wren resorted to using a battering ram instead . Building work on the new cathedral began in June 1675 .
Wren 's first proposal , the " Greek cross " design , was considered too radical by members of a committee commissioned to rebuild the church . Members of the clergy decried the design as being too dissimilar from churches that already existed in England at the time to suggest any continuity within the Church of England . Wren 's approved " Warrant design " sought to reconcile the Gothic with his " better manner of architecture " , featuring a portico influenced by Inigo Jones ' addition to the old cathedral . However , Wren received permission from the king to make " ornamental changes " to the submitted design , and over the course of the construction made significant alterations , including the addition of the famous dome .
The topping out of the new cathedral took place in October 1708 and the cathedral was declared officially complete by Parliament in 1710 . The consensus on the finished building was mixed ; James Wright ( 1643 – 1713 ) wrote " Without , within , below , above the eye / Is filled with unrestrained delight . " Meanwhile , others were less approving , noting its similarity to St. Peter 's Basilica in Rome : " There was an air of Popery about the gilded capitals , the heavy arches ... They were unfamiliar , un @-@ English . "
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= Super Meat Boy =
Super Meat Boy is an independent video game designed by Edmund McMillen and Tommy Refenes and developed by Team Meat . It is the successor to McMillen and Jonathan McEntee 's 2008 Flash game Meat Boy . Super Meat Boy was released on the Xbox 360 through Xbox Live Arcade in October 2010 , on Microsoft Windows in November 2010 , on OS X a year later in November 2011 , on Linux in December 2011 as a part of the Humble Indie Bundle # 4 , in May 2012 as a part of the Humble Indie Bundle V , on PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita in October 2015 , and on Wii U in May 2016 . In the game the player controls Meat Boy , a red , cube @-@ shaped character , as he attempts to rescue his girlfriend , Bandage Girl , from the game 's antagonist Dr. Fetus . The gameplay is characterized by fine control and split @-@ second timing as the player runs and jumps through over 300 hazardous levels while avoiding obstacles . Additional player @-@ created levels are available for free download .
Development of the game began in January 2009 . McMillen worked on level design and artwork , while Refenes coded the game ; it was tested primarily by the pair and their families . Initially intended for release in early 2010 for personal computers and the WiiWare download service , the release date was pushed back as the design was changed to include more levels and exclude multiplayer modes . The WiiWare version was canceled due to the service 's technical limitations . The music for the game was created by Danny Baranowsky , who had also composed the music for Meat Boy . The soundtrack was released as an album , and music from it was released as downloadable content for Rock Band 3 .
The game was critically acclaimed . In 2010 , it received awards for Most Challenging Game from IGN , and for Best Downloadable Game from GameSpot and GameTrailers . Critics lauded the game 's precise control , retro artwork , and soundtrack . Reviewers generally praised the game 's challenge , although some warned that not all players would appreciate the level of difficulty . The game was a commercial success , and sold more than one million copies as of January 2012 . A spin @-@ off , Super Meat Boy Forever , is currently in development .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Meat Boy is a platform game in which players control a small , dark red , cube @-@ shaped character named Meat Boy , who must save his cube @-@ shaped , heavily bandaged girlfriend Bandage Girl from the evil scientist Dr. Fetus . The game is divided into chapters , which together contain over 300 levels . Players attempt to reach the end of each level , represented by Bandage Girl , while avoiding crumbling blocks , saw blades , and various other fatal obstacles . The player can jump and run on platforms , and can jump off or slide down walls . The core gameplay requires fine control and split @-@ second timing , and was compared to , regarding both gameplay and level of difficulty , traditional platform games such as Super Mario Bros. and Ghosts 'n Goblins .
Levels in each chapter can be played in any order , but a certain number of levels need to be completed to access the boss stage , which unlocks the next chapter if cleared . The player has an unlimited number of attempts to complete each level . If Meat Boy is killed , he immediately restarts the level , though the ornamental red meat juice left behind on surfaces that the player has touched remains . A replay function , which may be accessed after a level is completed , simultaneously shows all the player 's attempts to complete the level . Completing a level within a certain time earns an " A + " grade , which unlocks a harder alternate version of the level in the " dark world " , an optional set of especially difficult levels . Hidden stages called warp zones are accessed by finding portals in specific levels . These warp zones feature bonus levels that have either the art style of older video games and a limit of three lives , or are patterned after another indie video game such as Castle Crashers or Braid . The player may control characters other than Meat Boy , many of whom first appeared in other independent video games . Each character has different attributes , such as Commander Video 's ability to momentarily float in midair . These characters can be unlocked by collecting bandage items placed throughout the game 's levels or completing certain warp zones . Some bandages can only be collected by using certain characters . Some levels , such as warp zones and boss levels , can only be played with specific characters . The available characters vary depending on the version of the game played .
The Xbox Live Arcade ( XBLA ) version features an unlockable mode called " Teh Internets " , which is updated with new , free , officially curated levels . The PC version has a " Super Meat World " section , which allows users to play and rate additional levels that players have created with a level editor . This editor was released in May 2011 . Players can also access an unsupported developer mode inside the game to edit their own levels using the " rough " tools that Team Meat used to create the game .
= = Development and marketing = =
The original Meat Boy is an Adobe Flash game created by Edmund McMillen and programmed by Jonathan McEntee . The game was developed over a three @-@ week period , and was released on Newgrounds on October 5 , 2008 . By April 2009 , it had garnered over 840 @,@ 000 views at Newgrounds , and 8 million overall . A map pack for the Flash version was released on December 8 , 2008 . McMillen began development of Super Meat Boy after Nintendo and Microsoft requested that he make a game for their download services , WiiWare and Xbox Live Arcade , as they were impressed by the success of his Flash games Aether and Meat Boy . At the time , he was working with Tommy Refenes on a Flash game titled Grey Matter . Although McMillen initially pitched the companies a sequel to Gish or Aether , the pair decided to form Team Meat and work on an expanded version of Meat Boy instead . Team Meat also includes soundtrack composer Danny Baranowsky and sound effects designer Jordan Fehr . According to the developers , Super Meat Boy is " a big throwback to a lot of super hardcore NES classics like Ghosts 'n Goblins , Mega Man , and the Japanese version of Super Mario Bros. 2 " , with the plot written as " a mash @-@ up of every videogame story from the early 90s " . The game was explicitly designed by the team to be reminiscent of Super Mario Bros. , and McMillen considered it a tribute to Shigeru Miyamoto , the developer of Super Mario Bros.
McMillen worked on level design and artwork , while Refenes coded the game ; it was tested primarily by the pair and their families . McMillen and Refenes lived on opposite sides of the United States , and met only a few times in person while working on the game . They developed the control scheme by iterating through several designs , trying to find one that felt fluid and logical . Rather than use a pre @-@ built game engine , Refenes programmed an original one . The game was initially set to include around 100 levels , and to have co @-@ operative and competitive multiplayer modes . During development , however , the multiplayer option was dropped and the number of levels was greatly increased . The pair designed the game to be deliberately " retro " , imitating the aesthetics of traditional platform games , but with a modern sensibility regarding difficulty . They wanted the game to be rewarding and challenging , rather than frustrating ; to this end they included infinite lives , quick restarts of levels , obvious goals , and short levels . They felt the replay feature transformed death into a form of reward .
Development of Super Meat Boy began in January 2009 . Initially announced for WiiWare and PC , the game was set to be released in the first quarter of 2010 . The release date was pushed back to the fourth quarter because the developers wanted more time to create extra levels , such as the dark worlds . A picture released on Team Meat 's Twitter page on February 22 , 2010 , revealed that the game would also be released for XBLA . The next day , they announced that , while all versions would be released in the same month , the game would be released for XBLA first due to " contractual obligations " . In August 2010 , the developers were contacted by Microsoft with the prospect of inclusion in Microsoft 's 2010 Fall GameFeast XBLA promotion two months later . As they were almost out of money , they did not believe that they could financially support themselves until the Spring event , but felt they had four months ' worth of work left to complete on the game . For the final two months of development they worked daily , slept five hours a night , and frequently forgot to eat — a process that McMillen said he " would never voluntarily go through " again . According to McMillen , due to Microsoft 's low expectations for the game , Super Meat Boy was lightly promoted . The level of promotion was not increased during the GameFeast , though the game greatly outsold the rest of the games in the event . The team described the effort required to finish the game for the promotion as " by far the biggest mistake [ they ] made during SMB 's development " . Their development struggle is depicted in the documentary Indie Game : The Movie . The game was released on XBLA in October 2010 and on PCs via Steam and Direct2Drive a month later . McMillen noted that the PC release was more heavily promoted than the XBLA version . A version for Mac OS X was released in November 2011 , while another version for Linux operating systems was released in December 2011 as part of the Humble Indie Bundle # 4 game pack .
Due to Sony 's initial lack of interest in the game , Team Meat entered into contractual obligations that prohibited Super Meat Boy from ever being released on the PlayStation 3 . Despite this a version for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita was eventually announced The WiiWare version was canceled because the game 's file size had been expanded beyond the limits imposed by Nintendo . Team Meat looked into releasing it as a retail Wii game , but were told by all third @-@ party publishers they approached that a budget title would not be profitable so late into the Wii 's lifecycle . However , after Team Meat hinted it in October 2015 , Super Meat Boy has been confirmed for the Wii U eShop via a release reel shown on the European Nintendo Direct of March 2016 . The Wii U port is handled by BlitWorks , a separate indie developer , and is expected to be released in 2016 . A limited edition retail version of the PC game was released in April 2011 . It included bonuses such as behind @-@ the @-@ scenes videos , a sample disc of the game 's music , and a Super Meat Boy comic . In 2012 Team Meat began prototyping an iOS and Android version of the game . The game is intended to be a different take on the Super Meat Boy concept that is more adapted to touch @-@ screen controls than a direct port would be . Later Team Meat released two images of the new game one with the new graphics and other with the new chapter named The Green Hills .
Team Meat released several pieces of merchandise related to Super Meat Boy . These include Super Meat Boy Handheld , an iOS app released on April 3 , 2010 and styled on a Tiger Electronics handheld . It was released as a joke after Refenes ' game Zits & Giggles was removed from the iTunes Store following a statement by Refenes that likened the iPhone to a Tiger handheld . McMillen has released a Super Meat Boy microgame for WarioWare D.I.Y. Team Meat sells charms , plush toys , and posters related to the game , as well as T @-@ shirts , stickers , stress balls , and a limited edition Super Meat Boy comic . In 2011 , Voxelous released a set of four Super Meat Boy figures of Meat Boy , Bandage Girl , Brownie , and Tofu Boy , later making figures of Commander Video , Jill , Ogmo , and Dr. Fetus .
= = = Music = = =
Super Meat Boy 's soundtrack was composed by Danny Baranowsky , who previously composed the soundtracks for the indie video games Canabalt , Cortex Command , and Gravity Hook . He also composed the music for the original Meat Boy . McMillen knew of Baranowsky 's other work , and approached him late in Meat Boy 's development , asking him to supply whatever tracks he had on hand . For the soundtrack of Super Meat Boy , Baranowsky incorporated the music he had provided for Meat Boy into an expanded soundtrack . He tried to ensure that the music would accompany the action on the screen without overpowering the sound effects . Baranowsky was given complete freedom for the game 's music , and retained all of the rights to it ; McMillen believed that being more invested in the game would let Baranowsky express the part of him that was " manic , obsessive , complex , and full of life " . McMillen feels that the soundtrack " gets your heart rate up , complements every aspect of its gameplay , and stays with you for days " .
On October 26 , 2010 , the game 's soundtrack was released as a download @-@ only album via the online Bandcamp store titled Super Meat Boy ! Soundtrack . This release features 34 tracks and a 100 @-@ minute runtime , and includes several remixes of tracks from the game . On January 11 , 2011 , Baranowsky and Team Meat released a special edition soundtrack on Bandcamp as both a downloadable and physical album . This edition includes a second disc of songs not included in the original release , as well as additional remixes . The album , titled Nice to Meat You , has a total of 73 tracks , is 2 hours 25 minutes long , and features album artwork by McMillen . Three music tracks from the game were released as downloadable content for Rock Band 3 in June 2011 .
Baranowsy 's music was not used for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita versions , as he " no longer [ had ] a working relationship with Team Meat " and they could not agree on licensing terms . Instead , those versions of the game feature a soundtrack composed by Ridiculon ( Matthias Bossi and Jon Evans ) , David " Scattle " Scatliffe , and Laura Shigihara , who have previously worked on games such as The Binding of Isaac : Rebirth , Hotline Miami , and Plants vs Zombies respectively . A soundtrack album for the new music , titled Songs in the Key of Meat : Music from SMB 5th Anniversary , was released on Bandcamp on October 6 , 2015 .
= = = = Track lists = = = =
Nice to Meat You track list
= = Reception = =
Super Meat Boy was critically well received . The Xbox 360 version of the game has aggregate scores of 90 / 100 and 90 @.@ 41 % at websites Metacritic and GameRankings , respectively . The Windows version has similar scores , with a 91 @.@ 25 % at GameRankings and 87 / 100 at Metacritic . After being showcased at the Penny Arcade Expo 2010 , Super Meat Boy was declared Game of the Show by Destructoid and nominated for the same award by Machinima.com. The game received nominations for the Grand Prize and Excellence in Audio awards at the 2010 Independent Games Festival . It won the award for Most Challenging Game in IGN 's Best of 2010 awards , and received nominations for Best Soundtrack and Best Retro Design . It was voted GameSpot 's Best Downloadable Console Game of 2010 , and won the Best Downloadable Game award from GameTrailers . Sales were strong , with nearly 140 @,@ 000 units of the Xbox 360 version sold by the end of 2010 . The Steam and Xbox 360 versions had sold over 600 @,@ 000 copies combined by April 2011 ; 400 @,@ 000 of these sales were through Steam . On January 3 , 2012 , Team Meat announced on Twitter that the game had surpassed 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sales .
Critics praised Super Meat Boy 's platforming elements , and often commented on the game 's difficulty . X @-@ Play reviewer Alexandra Hall said the game had " riveting platforming action " , and added that " Super Meat Boy 's designers are masters of their craft . " Henry Gilbert of GamesRadar felt the platforming was " perfect " . He wrote that " while it 's always tough and demanding , it never feels cheap , or like the game is cheating you . " A reviewer from GameTrailers stated that " the difficulty rides the perfect line between driving you utterly bonkers when you fail and making you feel like a platform pro when you succeed " . Joystiq 's Richard Mitchell echoed other reviewers ' comments : " Super Meat Boy is tough , as tough as the toughest nails in the toughest universe . " Gilbert cited the level of difficulty , which he believed made the game inaccessible to some players , as his reason for not awarding the game a perfect score . Tom McShea of GameSpot praised the game 's " precise control " , " excellent level design " , and " smooth difficulty curve " . Reviewer Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer warned that Super Meat Boy is " a hard game . It should make you want to throw the pad across the room " .
Critics gave high marks to the game 's retro art direction and presentation . Official Xbox Magazine ( UK ) ' s Mike Channel appreciated the variety found in each set of levels . He stated that " while the graphics may look crude , the presentation is exceptional . Each level has a distinct visual style . " Daemon Hatfield , a reviewer for IGN , noted the uniqueness of the game 's visual presentation . He commented that the warp zone levels pay tribute to classic 8 @-@ bit games , and lauded the game 's soundtrack : " The rocking chiptune soundtrack is the best I 've heard since Scott Pilgrim vs. The World : The Game " . Joe Leonard of 1UP.com noted that the game 's humor and over @-@ the @-@ top gameplay help to calm frustrations regarding the difficulty : " Super Meat Boy 's greatest strength has to be how it never takes itself too seriously — as maddening as some of the levels got , I could never stay angry at the game for too long " , said Leonard . MTV Multiplayer reviewer Russ Frushtick praised the game 's visual design . He appreciated the game 's cutscenes , which he noted are " hand @-@ drawn animated [ shorts ] which [ bear ] more than a passing resemblance to a classic video game intro " .
While the game received high praise overall , certain publications voiced complaints . Hatfield noted that the cutscenes had low production values , stating that " they don 't have the polish of the rest of the game " . The reviewer for PC Gamer mentioned " a few minor , yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ patched bugs " . Eduardo Reboucas of Game Revolution said that " a lot of the levels in Super Meat Boy depend a little too much on twitch reflexes and trial @-@ and @-@ error memorization " . He also stated that " there are some bits of toilet humor here and there that are duds " , and that the game 's high level of difficulty " will make most casual players shy away " . Mitchell Dyer of GamePro agreed , saying that certain " absurdly difficult " levels broke the flow of the game , especially in the boss levels and the later chapters .
= = Legacy = =
Meat Boy has made cameo appearances in the video games Bit.Trip Runner , Bit.Trip Fate , and Bit.Trip Presents ... Runner2 : Future Legend of Rhythm Alien , as well as in Spelunky , Dust : An Elysian Tail , Ori and the Blind Forest and ilomilo . A parody Flash game , Super Tofu Boy , was released by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) on December 1 , 2010 , to protest the game and promote veganism . In response , Team Meat added its own interpretation of Tofu Boy to the PC version of the actual Super Meat Boy on December 2 , 2010 . The game 's success spurred the development of the upcoming 1930s @-@ style animated indie video game Cuphead .
On August 29 , 2014 , Team Meat announced that a follow @-@ up game , Super Meat Boy : Forever , was in development for smartphones , tablets , and Steam .
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= Nervous shark =
The nervous shark ( Carcharhinus cautus ) is a species of requiem shark , and part of the family Carcharhinidae , so named because of its timid behavior in regard to humans . It is common in shallow , coastal waters off northern Australia , Papua New Guinea , and the Solomon Islands . A small brownish or grayish shark typically measuring 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long , this species has a short , blunt snout , oval eyes , and a relatively large second dorsal fin . The leading margins of most fins are finely edged with black , and the lower caudal fin lobe is black @-@ tipped .
Small bony fishes are the main prey of the nervous shark , while crustaceans , molluscs , and snakes may also be eaten . It is viviparous , with the developing embryos nourished through a placental connection . The details of its life history seem to vary depending on latitude — for example , the timing of the breeding season and the length of the gestation period . Females produce litters of one to six young either annually or biennially . The harmless nervous shark is caught incidentally by coastal gillnet fisheries and perhaps also by line and trawl fisheries . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) lacks sufficient data to assess the conservation status of this species except in Australian waters , where its population seems healthy and has been listed under Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Australian ichthyologist Gilbert Percy Whitley originally described the nervous shark as a subspecies of Galeolamna greyi ( a junior synonym of Carcharhinus obscurus , the dusky shark ) , in a 1945 issue of the scientific journal Australian Zoologist . He gave it the name cauta , meaning " cautious " in Latin , because of its skittish demeanor when confronted by people . Later authors have recognized this shark as a distinct species , placed in the genus Carcharhinus . The type specimen consists of the preserved skin and teeth of a 92 cm ( 36 in ) long female caught in Shark Bay , Western Australia .
Based on morphology , Jack Garrick suggested in 1982 that the nervous shark is closely related to the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) . Leonard Compagno in 1988 tentatively grouped these two species with the blacknose shark ( C. acronotus ) , the copper shark ( C. brachyurus ) , the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) , and the night shark ( C. signatus ) . The close relationship between the nervous and blacktip reef sharks was upheld in a 1992 phylogenetic study by Shane Lavery , based on allozymes , and again in a 2011 study by Ximena Vélez @-@ Zuazoa and Ingi Agnarsson , based on nuclear and mitochondrial genes .
= = Description = =
The nervous shark has a rather stout , spindle @-@ shaped body and a short , broadly rounded snout . The anterior margin of each nostril is extended into a slender nipple @-@ shaped lobe . The moderately large eyes are horizontally oval in shape and equipped with nictitating membranes . The mouth lacks conspicuous furrows at the corners and contains 25 – 30 upper and 23 – 28 lower tooth rows . The upper teeth are narrow and angled , with coarsely serrated edges . The lower teeth are more slender and upright in shape , and have finer serrations . The five pairs of gill slits are medium in length .
The pectoral fins are moderately long , narrow , and pointed . The first dorsal fin originates over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins ; it is large and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) with a pointed apex . The second dorsal fin is positioned opposite the anal fin and is relatively large and high . There is no ridge between the dorsal fins . A crescent @-@ shaped notch is present on the caudal peduncle just before the upper caudal fin origin . The caudal fin is asymmetrical , with a strong lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The dermal denticles are overlapping and bear three horizontal ridges ( five in larger individuals ) leading to marginal teeth . This species is bronze to gray above and white below , with a white stripe on the flank . A thin black line runs along the leading margins of the dorsal fins , pectoral fins , and the upper caudal fin lobe , as well as the caudal fin trailing margin ; the lower caudal fin lobe and sometimes the pectoral fins are also tipped in black . The nervous shark typically reaches 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) in length and may grow up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long . Females attain larger sizes than males .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The nervous shark is found over continental and insular shelves off northern Australia from Shark Bay in the west to Moreton Bay in the east , as well as off Papua New Guinea and around the Solomon Islands . It is among the most common sharks in Darwin Harbor , the Gulf of Carpentaria , and Shark Bay . This species generally inhabits shallow inshore waters , to a depth of at least 45 m ( 148 ft ) . It seems to particularly favor mangrove @-@ lined areas with sandy @-@ muddy bottoms and avoids areas with dense seagrass cover .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diet of the nervous shark consists mainly of small teleost fishes ( including silversides , smelt @-@ whitings , wrasses , and grunters ) . Crustaceans ( including prawns , crabs , and mantis shrimps ) and molluscs ( predominantly cephalopods but also bivalves and gastropods ) constitute secondary food sources . This shark is also known to occasionally prey on the semiaquatic snakes Cerberus rynchops and Fordonia leucobalia . A known parasite of the nervous shark is the myxosporean Kudoa carcharhini .
Like other requiem sharks , the nervous shark is viviparous : once the embryos exhaust their initial supply of yolk , they are provisioned by the mother through a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . Adult females have a single functional ovary , on the right , and two functional uteruses . The male bites at the sides of the female as a prelude to mating . After mating , the female stores the sperm for approximately four weeks prior to fertilization . In Darwin Harbor , mating occurs from January to March and birthing occurs in October and November following a gestation period of eight to nine months . In Shark Bay , mating occurs from late October to early November and birthing occurs around the same time the following year , following a gestation period of 11 months ; this slower development likely reflects the cooler temperatures of Shark Bay .
Females produce litters on an annual cycle in Darwin Harbor and on a biennial cycle in Shark Bay . The litter size ranges from one to six and is not correlated with the size of the female . The newborns are relatively large , measuring 35 – 40 cm ( 14 – 16 in ) long , and are birthed in shallow nursery areas such as Herald Bight in Shark Bay . The juvenile growth rate is high for a shark ; males and females mature sexually at around 84 and 91 cm ( 33 and 36 in ) , respectively , in Darwin Harbour , and 91 and 101 cm ( 36 and 40 in ) , respectively , in Shark Bay . The age at maturity is around four years for males and six years for females ; the maximum lifespan is at least 12 years for males and 16 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
Shy and difficult to approach , the nervous shark is harmless to humans . It is occasionally marketed for food . This species is susceptible to being caught incidentally in coastal gillnets , such as the barramundi ( Lates calcarifer ) gillnet fishery operating off northern Australia . It may also be caught on line gear and in prawn trawls . The Australian nervous shark population does not appear to be threatened by fishing activities , and there the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Least Concern . No data on the impact of fishing are available elsewhere in its range , and thus the IUCN has listed it overall under Data Deficient .
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= All Hell Breaks Loose ( Supernatural ) =
" All Hell Breaks Loose " is the joint title for the two @-@ part second season finale of the CW television series Supernatural . It consists of the twenty @-@ first and twenty @-@ second episodes of the second season . " Part One " was first broadcast on May 10 , 2007 , and the second part aired the following week on May 17 , 2007 . The narrative follows series protagonist Sam Winchester ( Jared Padalecki ) — a young man who travels the continental United States with his brother Dean ( Jensen Ackles ) hunting supernatural creatures — as he is abducted by series villain Azazel ( Fredric Lehne ) and sent to an abandoned town . Azazel intends to find a leader for his demon army by having Sam and other psychic children like him fight to the death . Sam is eventually killed , but is resurrected after Dean sells his soul . The sole survivor , Jake ( Aldis Hodge ) , is sent by Azazel to a cemetery protected against demons , where he opens a gateway to Hell . At the end of the episode , Azazel is finally killed by Dean with the mystical Colt revolver , but not before hundreds of demons are released into the world .
The production process was plagued with problems , and changes had to be made throughout filming . " Part One " ' s setting was altered after production learned of a pre @-@ existing set , which had been used for the western television series Bordertown . The choice of location in turn influenced the type of supernatural monster that was featured . The once @-@ epic script of " Part Two " had to be toned down due to budgetary reasons , with weather conditions forcing the episode 's climax to be filmed on a sound stage rather than on location . The scenes featuring the return of John Winchester ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) had to be filmed weeks in advance using blue screen due to the actor 's limited availability .
Despite receiving season @-@ low ratings , the episodes garnered positive reviews from critics , who praised both the writing and the decision to end the main storylines . The performances of Fredric Lehne and Ona Grauer were also applauded , with Jessica Harmon gaining a Leo Award nomination for her role .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part one = = =
Sam Winchester ( Padalecki ) is abducted by the yellow @-@ eyed demon Azazel ( Lehne ) and taken to the abandoned town of Cold Oak , supposedly the most haunted place in America . Also placed there are Azazel 's other " psychic children " — young men and women whom the demon visited as babies , doing something that gives them supernatural abilities later in life — including Andy Gallagher ( Gabriel Tigerman ) and Ava Wilson ( Katharine Isabelle ) , as well as new characters Lily ( Jessica Harmon ) and Jake Talley ( Hodge ) . Ava had been abducted months earlier , but claims to have no knowledge of her whereabouts during the time gap . Lily tries to leave the town , but is killed by an Acheri demon , prompting the others to seek refuge in a building , protecting themselves from the demon with barriers of salt . As Dean Winchester ( Ackles ) and fellow hunter Bobby Singer ( Jim Beaver ) head to Harvelle 's Roadhouse — a saloon frequented by hunters — for help and find it burned to the ground with the body of hunter Ash ( Chad Lindberg ) buried in the wreckage , Andy uses his mind @-@ control abilities to send Dean his location telepathically .
After falling asleep that night , Sam is visited in a dream by Azazel , who reveals that he has brought them all together so that they can fight to the death , with the sole survivor becoming the leader of his army of demons . Admitting that he killed Sam 's girlfriend Jessica because he believed she was holding him back from returning to his old life of hunting supernatural creatures , the demon then shows him the night of his mother 's death . Azazel had come into Sam 's nursery and fed him his blood , with Mary Winchester ( Samantha Smith ) walking in and recognizing the demon .
Later , when Ava and Andy are alone together , she lets the Acheri demon into the building , and uses a new ability to command it to kill him . After revealing to Sam that she has actually been in the town all the months she has been missing , killing off other psychic children that Azazel has sent there , she sets the Acheri demon on him . However , Jake sneaks up behind her and uses his superhuman strength to break her neck , prompting the now free Acheri demon to flee . As Sam and Jake then start to leave the town , Jake attacks him out of distrust , but Sam gains the upper hand and apparently knocks him unconscious . However , as Sam is distracted by an arriving Dean and Bobby , Jake regains consciousness and fatally stabs him . Dean assures his brother that he will take care of him , but Sam dies in his arms .
= = = Part two = = =
Desperate to save his brother , Dean sells his soul to a Crossroads Demon ( Ona Grauer ) in exchange for Sam 's resurrection , and is given only one year before collection is due . They later conduct research at Bobby 's home , hoping to determine Azazel 's plan . Ellen Harvelle ( Samantha Ferris ) , owner of the now @-@ destroyed Roadhouse , then arrives , and is forced to drink holy water to prove that she is not possessed by a demon . After giving them a map of Wyoming that Ash had left in the Roadhouse 's safe , she points out five X 's that have been marked , representing frontier churches built by Samuel Colt — hunter and creator of the mystical Colt , a gun capable of killing anything . Research also shows that railway lines connect all the churches in the form of a pentagram , creating a giant devil 's trap that demons cannot enter .
At the pentagram 's center is an old cowboy cemetery , which Azazel forces Jake to go to by threatening his family . The Winchesters , Bobby , and Ellen are there to meet him , but Jake , having given in to his demonic side , develops mind @-@ control abilities and orders Ellen to put her gun to her head . Everyone is forced to lower their weapons , giving Jake time to use the Colt as a key to open a mausoleum . However , Sam then shoots Jake in the back , and finishes him off with multiple shots as he begs for mercy . As the mausoleum doors begin to open , they realize that it is a Devil 's Gate — a doorway to Hell . A rush of demons then escape and break the iron railway lines of the devil 's trap , allowing Azazel to enter . As Ellen and Bobby try to close the gateway , Sam and Dean take the Colt to confront Azazel . Unfortunately , the demon catches them by surprise and takes the gun . After taunting Dean about his demonic pact and questioning if what came back was " one hundred percent pure Sam " , Azazel prepares to kill them . To his surprise , the escaped spirit of John Winchester ( Morgan ) grabs him , distracting him long enough for Dean to take back the Colt and shoot him in the heart , finally killing him . As Bobby and Ellen manage to close the gates , John 's spirit moves on . Knowing that they now have to face an army of demons , Sam promises to try to free Dean from his deal .
= = Production = =
= = = Guest stars = = =
The first episode featured the return of many characters . Actress Samantha Smith reprised her role as Mary Winchester in a flashback , with Chad Lindberg making an appearance as the hunter Ash . Actor Gabriel Tigerman of the second season episode " Simon Said " guest starred as the mind @-@ controlling Andy Gallagher , and Katharine Isabelle of " Hunted " returned as the missing Ava Wilson . Other of Azazel 's psychic children introduced in the episode were the heart @-@ stopping Lily , portrayed by Jessica Harmon , and the super @-@ strong Jake Talley , who is played in both episodes by Aldis Hodge . Actor Jim Beaver also guest starred in both parts as recurring character Bobby Singer , as did Fredric Lehne as the yellow @-@ eyed demon Azazel . Lehne first portrayed the character in the second season premiere " In My Time of Dying " , and was originally meant to only play the part temporarily because the demon changes human hosts periodically . However , the show runners liked him so much they kept him in the role . Executive producer and director Kim Manners was happy with this decision , believing that Lehne brought to the character " a real Jack Nicholson flavor " . The second episode brought back actress Samantha Ferris as hunter Ellen Harvelle , as well as Jeffrey Dean Morgan as John Winchester , whose previous appearance was in the season premiere . Morgan 's busy schedule required his scenes for the episode to be filmed weeks in advance .
= = = Writing = = =
Multiple storylines spanning the first two seasons were brought to a close in the two @-@ part season finale , including the search for the demon Azazel and the existence of Azazel 's psychic children . As many of the show 's questions are answered in one long conversation by Azazel , series creator Eric Kripke and writer Sera Gamble had to rewrite the demon 's speech multiple times because they felt that " the payoff [ was ] never as good as the anticipation " . Though it would have been easier for them to keep postponing the revelations , the writers believed they would get " crushed under the anticipation " because they would not be able to satisfy fans if they kept building up more expectations . As for the psychic children , the writers originally intended to continue their storyline into the third season , but ultimately killed them off after deciding that the characters were not as interesting as demons and monsters . In the first version of the script , the character of Lily was two roles : a girl named Alex who could kill with a single touch , and a telepath named Lily . Believing they had too many characters , the writers combined Alex and Lily into one . Gamble had envisioned the episode as a " psychic Breakfast Club " , so the new Lily 's motivation was that she was Ally Sheedy . The Acheri demon responsible for two of the psychic children 's deaths was based on the Acheri from Hindu mythology ; writer Sera Gamble felt that it being a " diseased spirit " that comes down from the mountains and " kills everybody in the settlements " fit in with the abandoned mountain @-@ side town that the episode takes place in . Harvelle 's Roadhouse — a saloon frequented by demon hunters — was dropped from the show in these episodes as well , as Kripke disliked the concept of having a fixed home for a road @-@ based series . With the Roadhouse 's destruction came the death of recurring character Ash , whom the writers had been phasing out during the season because they felt his " comical " and " wacky " personality was too unrealistic for the show .
With John Winchester making a demonic pact in the second season première , it was decided early on that the season would also end with another demonic pact . This required the writers to kill Sam — they felt it was the only thing that could motivate Dean to sell his soul — with the pact becoming one of the driving forces behind the third season . At the same time , it opened up another new storyline by questioning if what returned was " one hundred percent pure Sam " . Additionally , the " war of demons against humanity " — hinted at throughout the first two seasons — finally started with the release of demons through the Devil 's Gate at the end of the second episode . This plotline continues throughout the rest of the series , with the Winchesters attempting to hunt down the demons in the third season .
While the final version of " Part Two " is quite enclosed , the initial script was considered epic , with production designer Jerry Wanek jokingly referring to it as a " six @-@ hour mini @-@ series " . In the original version , the giant devil 's trap keeping demons away from the gateway to Hell was much more complex , with each point in the pentagram being a church housing a holy relic — such as a sliver from the True Cross . With the artifacts powering the devil 's trap , Jake 's role would have been to go to each church and destroy them , the hunters following after him to try to stop him . Jake would then eventually destroy the final relic during a fight with Sam , and Dean would race to the gateway to prevent Azazel from opening it while Jake and Sam are " beating the crap out of each other " . However , when director and executive producer Kim Manners received the script , he realized it was huge , and had the storyboard artist make five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours of storyboards for the episode to prove that it could not be filmed without going hundreds of thousands of dollars over @-@ budget . Production suggested that a large amount of money could be saved by not depicting the churches , which were major set pieces for the intended story . Kripke realized that instead of using churches , he could have the points of the pentagram be connected by railroad tracks . With tracks being made of iron , it fit perfectly with the series mythology because iron is a demon deterrent . Kripke found this aspect to be more Western , matching the tone of show . Rather than destroying the devil 's trap as in the original script , Jake is instead sent by Azazel to open the gateway himself , and the major fight scene between Jake and Sam was then changed into a standoff between Jake and the hunters . Though the storyline had to be toned down , Kripke felt that this improved the overall episode by making it simpler .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming for the first episode lasted for a period of nine days . The diner at the beginning of the episode was built by Wanek , though a pre @-@ existing set — a deserted town built for the Western television series Bordertown that is filmed in the Vancouver area — was used for seven days of filming . Originally , the episode was meant to mainly take place in an abandoned orphanage with many hallways . However , producer Cyrus Yavneh had sent Kripke photos of the Bordertown set during production of Supernatural 's first season , and the " creepy " and " evocative " aspects of the town prompted the writers to change the setting . With the new location , references to the ghost town of Dudleytown , Connecticut were going to be included in the script , but were eventually edited out . Unfortunately for production , the Bordertown set was surrounded by mountains on one side and farmland on the other , making it difficult for the production team to access . It also rained all seven days , causing problems during filming . However , director Robert Singer felt that the gray skies and mist ended up helping the episode 's appearance .
The second episode 's climax was originally to take place in an actual cemetery , but problems at the potential filming locations prohibited this . The scene takes place at night , which , at that time of year , only lasts for nine and a half hours in Vancouver . With only four nights to film the sequence , production came up with the idea of having a " supernatural solar eclipse " so that the scenes could be shot day for night . However , the first filming location did not have trees , which were needed for the filming technique to work . After eventually finding a cemetery that did have trees , a rain storm during inspection forced the production team to realize that weather would interfere with the filming . It was decided at the last minute to film on a sound stage , and a cemetery set was constructed . However , the bark mulch used for the set had to contain manure , making it very rancid . According to actress Samantha Ferris , " It stunk so bad your eyes watered . "
= = = Effects = = =
As with all other episodes , visual effects were done in @-@ studio . Production wanted to keep the number of shots to a minimum for the opening of the Devil 's Gate at the second episode 's climax , so instead of just digitally creating demon smoke shots , visual effects supervisor Ivan Hayden filmed stand @-@ ins dressed as characters from past episodes — Woman in White , Hook Man , and the Reaper — on a blue screen and inserted them into the scene in post @-@ production during brief flashes of lightning . This filming technique also had to be used for the return of John Winchester . Actor Jeffrey Dean Morgan was busy filming the movie The Accidental Husband during the episode 's scheduled shooting , so he , Jensen Ackles , and Jared Padalecki filmed the scene six weeks earlier in front of a blue screen . The reunion was intended to be " more complex with a lot of fighting " , but the movie 's production crew believed Morgan would be at risk of getting injured and forbid it . Kripke trimmed the scene , removing Morgan 's dialogue and only having him being thrown to the ground by Azazel . The script was not yet complete during the scene 's filming , so Padalecki 's appearance was based on the original storyline in which Sam has a brutal fight with Jake and ends up covered in blood . When the fight scene was removed , Padalecki had to re @-@ film his part of the family reunion using tennis balls and a stand @-@ in as replacements for Ackles and Morgan who were not available .
= = = Music = = =
As is typical for the series , the synthesized orchestral score of the episodes was written alternately by Jay Gruska and Christopher Lennertz , with the former working on " Part One " and the latter scoring " Part Two " . Because he had worked on the pilot episode of the series — where he introduced a recurring musical theme for scenes related to the villain Azazel — Lennertz was happy to be the one to score the episode featuring the demon 's death , allowing him to " close that chapter " . With the opening of the gateway to Hell at the episode 's end , Lennertz felt that the music " became much larger in scope " than previous episodes , deeming it " an issue of making things larger than life " . As with most episodes of the series , classic rock music is also included .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Part One " was viewed by an estimated 2 @.@ 9 million viewers , with " Part Two " bringing in approximately 2 @.@ 72 million viewers . Compared to the rest of the second season , " Part Two " became the lowest @-@ rated episode behind " Born Under a Bad Sign " , which received only 2 @.@ 84 million viewers . Despite this , the episodes garnered positive reviews from critics . Tina Charles of TV Guide found " so much goodness " in the first episode , and called Dean 's speech to Sam " rip @-@ your @-@ heart @-@ out sad " . She deemed the second episode just plain " wow " , praising both the brotherly relationship depicted and the scenes between Jensen Ackles and Jim Beaver , but was disappointed that the brothers did not converse with the spirit of John Winchester after he escapes from Hell . Of particular interest to critics was the wrapping up the Azazel story arc , described by Charles as a " great way to cap off the season " . Kathie Huddleston of Sci @-@ fi.com noted that the " terrific " finale closed Sam and Dean 's " dad issues and their Yellow @-@ Eyed Demon issues " while opening up new problems for them to face , while TV Squad said it had a " weight and importance that a good finale should have " . TV Squad further stated that in " Part Two " , the show handled Sam 's coming back well , though it was apparent he would from " Part One " . The actors ' performances were also applauded , with Ona Grauer being deemed " delightful " as the Crossroads Demon , coming across as something of a " supernatural used @-@ car salesman " . Frederic Lehne received praise for his portrayal of the demon Azazel , described as " riveting " , " great " , and " appropriately creepy " .
However , Tom Burns of Underground Online had previously criticized Supernatural for ruining a surprise ending by giving it away in the show 's recap . For " Part One " , he noted that its ending was given away in the CW 's preview for the episode which showed Sam stabbed in the back and collapsing into Dean 's arms . Burns liked the episode , but did find some fault with it . He felt that " Part One " focusing on Sam and " Part Two " on Dean was a mistake since " Supernatural 's strongest asset has always been the chemistry between the leads " . In addition , Burns felt the season had set up the question of whether Sam was going to " go evil " , and the finale did not follow through , which Burns described as a " tease " .
Jessica Harmon gained a Leo Award nomination for " Best Guest Performance by a Female in a Dramatic Series " for her role as Lily in " Part One " .
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