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= Return of Saturn =
Return of Saturn is the fourth studio album by the American rock band No Doubt , released on April 11 , 2000 by Interscope Records . It marked the band 's first album as a quartet , following the departure of original keyboardist Eric Stefani in 1994 . After touring for two and a half years to promote their breakthrough third studio album , Tragic Kingdom , No Doubt wrote several dozen songs for its follow @-@ up and eventually settled on working with producer Glen Ballard . Creating the album became a tumultuous process lasting two years , during which there was dissension among band members and between the band and its label . The album was completed after the band returned to the studio and recorded what became two of the album 's singles .
The album maintains the ska punk and reggae influences of the band 's previous work , but with slower , more ballad @-@ like songs . The lyrics to many of the songs describe singer Gwen Stefani 's pining for a more domestic life , contrasting that with her commitment to a music career .
Upon release , Return of Saturn received favorable reviews from music critics , although several of them were divided over its different sound to its predecessor . It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 but was unable to measure up to the sales of Tragic Kingdom . The album produced four singles , only one of which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 . At the 43rd Grammy Awards , Return of Saturn was nominated for Best Rock Album .
= = Background = =
After the success of No Doubt 's breakthrough album Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) , the band wrote more than twenty songs for a new album , influenced by artists such as The Cure . Having toured extensively for two and a half years since the release of Tragic Kingdom , they initially had trouble producing material and decided to experiment with new sounds . Many of the songs were written in a rented house in Hollywood Hills , Los Angeles , California , where bassist Tony Kanal was living . During early production in mid @-@ 1998 the band worked on seven tracks in Los Angeles with Matthew Wilder , who had produced Tragic Kingdom , but had creative differences with him . They planned on going to New York to work with producer Michael Beinhorn , who had produced for alternative rock acts such as Red Hot Chili Peppers , Hole , and Soundgarden .
When scheduling conflicts arose with Beinhorn , the band interviewed several producers and decided on Glen Ballard , who had produced Alanis Morissette 's Jagged Little Pill ( 1995 ) , because of pressure from manager Jimmy Iovine and Ballard 's belief in not using heavy production techniques . Ballard went through the band 's forty demos and ruled out half of them . They frequently missed due dates , arguing that hurrying the album to cash in on the success of Tragic Kingdom was unwise since three years had passed . In early 1999 , No Doubt released " New " , co @-@ produced by Talking Heads member Jerry Harrison , for the soundtrack to the 1999 film Go .
By that July , the band stopped work on the album , intending to be done with the record . Interscope , however , recommended that they continue writing so they would have a more marketable single . The band was split when singer Gwen Stefani offered to do so but drummer Adrian Young and guitarist Tom Dumont did not want to , hesitant to trust Interscope after it had sublicensed Tragic Kingdom to Trauma Records . After a brief break , Dumont sent Stefani some of his demos as a peace offering . The band returned to the studio to create more upbeat songs and penned " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and " Simple Kind of Life " . More recording , audio mixing and audio mastering were done late that year , and David LaChapelle photographed the band for the album cover in January 2000 .
The album 's working title was originally announced as Magic 's in the Makeup in May 1998 and later as Saturn Returns in November 1999 . Stefani was confused by her feelings of depression and interest in Sylvia Plath while recording the album . Her boyfriend Gavin Rossdale told her that she was going through her Saturn return . Saturn 's orbit takes 29 @.@ 4 Earth years and , in astrology , the time when Saturn returns to its position during a person 's birth is believed to be a period of self @-@ evaluation . Stefani was born October 3 , 1969 , and many of the songs were written during her Saturn return .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
The music of Return of Saturn further explores No Doubt 's new wave influences , while adding an alternative rock feel and maintaining some of the band 's ska and reggae sounds . Adrian Young 's drum part on " Simple Kind of Life " was mixed through low fidelity filters to give it the sound of a lo @-@ fi power ballad . " Six Feet Under " and " Staring Problem " were described as a more self @-@ aware return to the band 's earlier material , a combination of work by New Wave band Missing Persons and hard rock band Van Halen .
No Doubt experiments with several new styles on the album . " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , which originally featured a Prince @-@ style funk sound , was rewritten and includes rapped vocals over piano and flamenco guitar parts . After opening with Gabrial McNair 's jazz funeral horn part over Young 's beatboxing , " Bathwater " proceeds into a song written in swing time . It was described as a combination of the band 's 2 Tone roots with the operatic slapstick of Gilbert and Sullivan . " Marry Me " features use of the tabla , a pair of tuned hand drums prominent in India . Young and bassist Tony Kanal 's contributions were compared to the rhythm of nu metal music , and the fragmented progression of " Comforting Lie " was likened to the work of Korn .
= = = Lyrics = = =
The album 's lyrics depict Stefani 's maturation and femininity , reflected by images of oral contraceptives , a wedding cake and makeup on the album cover , as well as her romantic relationship with Rossdale . Her lyrics drew comparisons to the bitter , confessional styling of Hole frontwoman Courtney Love . " New " was written while the band was touring about the excitement of meeting Rossdale and her infatuation with him . Later compositions , however , discuss the problems that the two had maintaining a long @-@ distance relationship . " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " discusses a failing relationship , and " Suspension Without Suspense " and " Home Now " detail feelings of resentment , loneliness , and indecision . On " Simple Kind of Life " , she confesses to hoping for a mistake with her birth control and a desire to leaving music for a domestic life . She contrasts this , however , with her need for independence :
Anyone who knows me knows having a family has always been the most important thing to me . I wanted to be a mother — which is an unconditional giving of love — and a supportive wife , and suddenly , I can 't even be a good girlfriend , because I can 't seem to find the right time to call . I want to do it all , but I can only do one thing good , and right now I 've chosen to do this . Being in a band is a bit of a selfish choice .
= = Reception = =
Return of Saturn received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 68 , based on 16 reviews . Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne characterized the album as filled with " smoother , layered mid @-@ tempo ballads as creamily textured as extra @-@ thick napoleon pastries " , but stated that Stefani 's lyrics were too much of a throwback to the alternative rock scene of the early 1990s and contrasted with the boom of teen pop . Robert Christgau , writing for The Village Voice , described the emotions Stefani expressed as shallow , and the NME stated that her preoccupation with Rossdale was distracting and weakened the intense , Madonna @-@ like character she had established on Tragic Kingdom . Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine , however , gave it four and a half stars , calling it " a terrific , layered record that exceeds any expectations set by Tragic Kingdom " . Barry Walters from Rolling Stone referred to it as " a superstar follow @-@ up that not only betters its predecessor but also radically departs from it . " The publication included the album in its list of the top fifty albums of the year , describing it as " a record that charges ahead like gangbusters while biting its nails . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that although the album did not have any successful singles , Return of Saturn was " a solid album and proof of a healthy , genre @-@ breaking future for No Doubt . "
In the United States the album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , behind ' N Sync 's No Strings Attached , and sold 202 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified Return of Saturn platinum in May 2000 , and the album went on to sell 1 @.@ 4 million copies . The album was successful in the modern rock market and its first two singles , " New " and " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " reached the top ten of the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . It was less successful in the mainstream market , and " Simple Kind of Life " was the only single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , where it peaked at number thirty @-@ eight . The album was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 2001 Grammy Awards , but lost out to Foo Fighters ' There Is Nothing Left to Lose . In Canada it peaked at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart . Return of Saturn was awarded a Platinum certification by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) in June 2000 , denoting sales in excess of 100 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
" Too Late ( Reprise ) " is a hidden track after " Dark Blue " . On international versions , this is after " Big Distraction " , the bonus track .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Helping Hand ( Body of Proof ) =
" Helping Hand " is the third episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on April 5 , 2011 . The episode was directed by John Terlesky and written by Corey Miller .
In this episode , Megan ( Dana Delany ) is shocked after the victim in a shooting is a previous patient when she was a neurosurgeon ; however she only remembers the procedure of the woman . Detective Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) and Detective Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) lead the case , interviewing many leads from the crime scene , which results in finding the unexpected killer . Meanwhile ; Megan tries to build a better relationship with her colleagues .
The episode received overwhelming positive reviews , and was watched by 11 @.@ 15 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Tuesday night it aired in the United States . Delany and Lynch received praise from critics for their double act , with being Bud called a " real joy to watch " and his lines , " the best " and that he is the shows " funny guy " . The episode 's storyline was well received and critics thanked the show for not being " too gory " .
= = Plot = =
Social worker Elena Rosas ( Charise Castro Smith ) is found shot dead in a motel . When Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) looks through her autopsy scan , she notices Elena had brain surgery and gets a shock when she realizes that Elena was one of her patients as she used to be a neurosurgeon , however she cannot remember her , just the procedure . Megan speaks with Elena 's father Armando ( Tony Plana ) , who remembers Megan from the surgery , and tells her that Elena saw Megan as a role model , due to Elena 's mother early death . After speaking with Elena 's boss Jeremy Nicholls ( Edoardo Ballerini ) , he states that he cannot understand why Elena was in a motel , as she had no appointments near that location . Traces of breast milk are found on Elena 's shirt , showing she was near a baby when she died , which leads them to Holly Bennett ( Yaya DaCosta ) , one of Elena 's clients . She reveals that her baby nearly got taken away due to her drug addicted boyfriend , and that whilst Elena was visiting her baby vomited on her , but left in a hurry before she could clean it up . Megan and Detective Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) visit Armando to ask if Elena was in a relationship ; hence why she was in a motel . They find out that it is Jeremy , but he says that Elena ended their relationship hours before she died .
Megan finds out that the shooter was in fact outside the room . They find Sean Wilcox 's ( Tobias Segal ) skin on the bullet , a recently released criminal . Sean denies killing Elena , but states that he was one of Elena 's patients , and that she had rented the motel room for him , to give him a place to stay . After falling asleep in the room , he awoke after hearing a shot . After seeing Elena dead on the floor , and himself injured , he ran after thinking no one would believe his account of what happened . After Bud and Detective Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) meet with Sean 's " friend " Vincent Stone ( Zach McGowan ) , he admits that he was warned off by Elena after phoning Sean six times in one day , so Samantha and Bud start to develop a theory about how Vincent killed Elena . After persuasion by Peter Dunlop ( Nicholas Bishop ) , Sean helps the police , which allows them to get an arrest warrant for Vincent , however Megan finds rice flour on the bullet , which concludes that Vincent did not kill Elena . The rice flour leads them back to Holly , as she has a baby , and rice flour is commonly used for babies . They arrest Holly , who reveals that Elena visited her and discovers Holly was back on drugs , and was going to take Holly ’ s baby . Holly followed Elena , and shot her to prevent this from happening . After the confession , social services arrive , and take Holly 's baby away . Back at the office , Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) plays pranks towards Megan and Peter tells Megan that Bud is experiencing marriage problems , so Megan tells him about how to deal with the marriage problems , as Megan is a divorcée .
= = Production = =
" Helping Hand " was written by Corey Miller and directed by John Terlesky , most known for directing television series such as Ugly Betty and , Boston Legal . Daniel Licht who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . After the previous episode " Letting Go " aired on Sunday April 3 , the normal timeslot of a Tuesday was resumed for this episode . Actor Tony Plana ( best known for his role in Ugly Betty , Resurrection Blvd and more recently Desperate Housewives ) guest starred in the episode as Armando Rosas . Yaya DaCosta , runner up of America 's Next Top Model , Cycle 3 appeared as Holly Bennett and Tobias Segal starred as Sean Wilcox . Playing more minor roles were ; Edoardo Ballerini as Jeremy Nicholls , Zach McGowan as Vincent Stone and Charise Castro Smith as this episode 's victim , Elena Rosas . This episode was originally meant to mark the first appearance of Joan Hunt ( Joanna Cassidy ) , Megan 's mother , however for unknown reasons , her debut episode was changed to the sixth episode of the first season , " Society Hill " .
" Helping Hand " , along with the eight episode 's from Body of Proof 's first season , were released on a two @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episode 's , a preview of season 2 and a 10 @-@ minute " featurette " on the making of the show , with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script , as well as a " Contaminated Evidence " blooper reel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on April 5 , 2011 , " Helping Hand " was seen by 11 @.@ 15 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 9 share ; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing . This episode achieved a much higher amount of viewers than the previous episode , " Letting Go " . However , the higher ratings than " Letting Go " was likely due to that episode moving from the normal Tuesday timeslot to a Sunday night . This episode also had a minimal higher amount than subsequent episode " Talking Heads " . Body of Proof came fourth in the ratings on Tuesday night , it was outperformed by the ABC 's Dancing with the Stars and two episode 's of CBS 's NCIS . " Helping Hand " was watched by 1 @.@ 77 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Helping Hand " received overwhelming positive reviews . Of the episode , Christine Orlando of TV Fanatic said , " As I 'm realizing how much I 'm thoroughly enjoying the characters on Body of Proof , " Helping Hand " has Megan finally noticing how little she knows about them . The best part is , she does something to try and change that and the results are both comical and touching " . Orlando praised the scenes between Megan and Curtis , calling them " great " and saying , " Nothing makes you a part of the team like falling for a well @-@ meaning office prank " . On the Megan and Bud scenes she said that Megan was " sweet " and " funny " but called her attempts at consoling Bud " clumsy " , adding ; " Neither completely trusts the other but their growing professional respect has the potential to also become a personal friendship " . On this , she said that Bud had some of the best lines in the episode , calling them " the best " . She hoped that Peter and Megan 's relationship will be explored further and wanted to know " just how these two became partners " . Finally , she was glad it was not too " gory " and summarized , " On Body of Proof I 'm more interested in the characters than the graphic medical details . Thankfully they continue to give me plenty of what I want " . TV OverMind 's Carissa Pavlica said she was " really enjoying " the relationship between Kate Murphy ( Jeri Ryan ) and Megan . Pavlica explained , " In the Pilot , the other medical examiners seemed to hope they could somehow get rid of Megan by tattling on things to Kate . This week , as she saw Megan struggle in her connection with the living , she attempted to reach out and give advice " . Of the plot of the episode , Pavlica said ;
Did anyone else see the conclusion of the case ahead of time ? I was at a total loss . I had written off the baby 's mother as soon as they spoke with her . No many shows are able to do that . I can almost always narrow it down to at least two and one of them would be right . I was so far off the mark on with this and I loved it ! I love when a show can surprise me .
Like TV Fanatic 's Christina Orlando , Pavlica commented on Bud adding that he was a " real joy to watch " saying he said the " craziest things " , adding that he is the shows " funny guy " . Like Orlando , she praised the interaction between Bud and Megan , saying that " her talk with Bud about his divorce gave her a more human feel " , adding " The show should get stronger as the interpersonal relationships do " . TV Equals 's Michelle Carlbert said she liked the music throughout the episode and the scenes with Bud and Megan . She also stated that one of her " favourite bits " was when she was " just as curious as Hunt when Peter and Baker were discussing Bud " . Finally , Carlbert said that she enjoyed the scenes between Curtis , Megan and Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) .
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= Test the Store =
" Test the Store " is the seventeenth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 169th episode overall . The episode was written by Mindy Kaling , directed by Brent Forrester , and aired on NBC in the United States on March 1 , 2012 .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) attempts to put on a theatrical presentation to impress Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) . Meanwhile , in Scranton , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) comes to work with an embarrassing black eye .
" Test the Store " contains many cultural allusions , including several to the NBC action @-@ comedy series Chuck . The episode received mixed reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Test the Store " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 95 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked first in its time slot and was also ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC program of the night .
= = Plot = =
At the Sabre store opening , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) attempts to put on a theatrical presentation to impress Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) . Dwight assigns the members of his team various tasks : Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) is to act like a hipster to make the Sabre Pyramid more appealing , Cathy ( Lindsay Broad ) is to flirt with the bloggers , Ryan ( B. J. Novak ) is to give a presentation to wow the critics , and Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) is to play the part of a sexual predator — much to Packer 's chagrin . As the grand opening progresses , things begin to fall apart . Several bloggers notice Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) using his old cell phone instead of his Sabre Arrowhead phone , resulting in a reprimand from Nellie . Erin disappears with a group of seniors after Dwight drives them away , fearing their age will frighten the youth . Ryan has a panic attack and , after being consoled by Dwight and Jim — who imitate Kelly and his mother respectively in an attempt to calm him down — leaves to go to his parents ' house . Jim is forced to give the presentation , which , despite a rocky start , impresses the crowd . After the opening , Dwight is named vice president by Nellie .
Back in Scranton , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) tries to protect Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) from a group of kids who are throwing pine cones at her , and a young girl , " Tiffany " ( Caitlin Williams ) , punches him , giving him a black eye . Andy tells his co @-@ workers that he stepped in when a " gang " harassed Pam , and Pam plays along out of gratitude to Andy . Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) arranges a meeting in the conference room to discuss self @-@ defense . Andy is then humiliated when Tiffany is brought in by her mother and half @-@ apologizes to him and Pam . After Kelly begins physically harassing Toby , Andy steps in between the two to break the fight up , resulting in his other eye being blackened . The rest of the office laughs but shuts up when Andy points out he got hit twice because he defended other people who were being attacked . The episode concludes with Andy noting that he took a bunch of pain medication , drank a bottle of wine , and took his pants off , thus greatly improving his feelings as the day ends .
= = Production = =
" Test the Store " was written by executive producer Mindy Kaling , her second script of the eighth season after the Christmas special , " Christmas Wishes . " The episode was directed by consulting producer and series writer Brent Forrester . The episode marks the fourth appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her third consecutive appearance . Her character , Nellie , worked with several of the office workers on a special project for Sabre in a six episode arc . Matt Selman and Matt Warburton , writers for the long @-@ running animated comedy series The Simpsons , appeared in the episode as bloggers . The episode also features a guest appearance from David Koechner , who appears as Todd Packer in the series . He recently had made a deal with NBC to do more episodes for the series and also possibly join the cast of series developer Greg Daniels 's next series , Friday Night Dinner , an adaption of the British series of the same name .
The episode also marks the eleventh appearance of Lindsey Broad who plays Cathy , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave . She appeared in a recurring role for the season , after she initially appeared in " Pam 's Replacement " . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Erin and the senior citizen that she forcibly removed from the Sabre store discussing rent payments over pretzels , Nellie and Dwight lying and telling the team that they went to church , Jim and Cathy having an awkward moment , and Stanley attempting to convince a group of bloggers that he is Al Roker 's brother and Raven @-@ Symoné 's father .
= = Cultural references = =
" Test the Store " featured several direct allusions and references to the action @-@ comedy series Chuck , which had just finished its five season run on NBC on January 27 , 2012 . In the episode , a cut @-@ out of Zachary Levi is used by the sales team to garner support for the Sabre Pyramid ; Jim and Dwight both mention that Jim was originally supposed to dress as the titular character Chuck ; during Jim 's presentation , Jim mentions that the Sabre Pyramid has the capability to watch movies and TV shows ranging from " Chuck to Cars 2 " ; and lastly , Dwight admits to Nellie that the before @-@ mentioned presentation could have used more Chuck references .
As evidenced by the title , Sabre 's Pyramid tablet makes a reappearance . The device serves as a parody of several tablet computers , specifically the Apple iPad . B. J. Novak described the device as " really the worst piece of technology that you 've ever seen . " The device was created by Paul Lieberstein , who originally envisioned that the device only had the rights to the 1993 film Coneheads . The concept was then expanded and changed : the Pyramid would only have the rights to Chuck and Cars 2 .
The episode contains several direct mentions to popular music . Nellie mentions that , when she was younger , she tried out for the Spice Girls , failing to secure a call @-@ back for " the black one . " During Jim 's presentation , the opening of the song " Clocks " by the British rock band Coldplay is played . When pretending to be a hipster , Erin mispronounces both Coachella and Zooey Deschanel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Test the Store " originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 1 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 95 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode finished first in its time slot , beating re @-@ runs of the CBS drama Person of Interest , the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and The CW drama series Supernatural . In addition , " Test the Store " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics . Myles McNutt from The A.V. Club awarded the episode a C rating , noting that " ' Test The Store ' was just too dumb to build any further momentum ; I wish I had a better word for it , but I just can ’ t think of one . " However , McNutt appreciated Jim 's presentation , noting that " the final presentation was a pretty decent setpiece . " What Culture ! reviewer Joseph Kratzer awarded the episode three out of five stars , noting that the episode fell victim to " the overall lack of focus and believability that has plagued The Office all season . " Jeffrey Hyatt from Screen Crave gave the episode a review of seven out of ten , noting that " The Office continues to get the comedy boost it needs from the Florida storyline . " Hyatt called the scene featuring Dwight and Jim imitating Kelly and Ryan 's mom as " one of my favorite moments of the season so far . " Despite this , he did call the episode " uneven , " noting that the Scranton story @-@ line was " ho @-@ hum . " Dan Forcella from TV Fanatic awarded the episode four out of five stars and praised Jim 's presentation , writing , " Between Jim 's outfit and makeup , the fact that he embraced the presentation throughout , and all of the Chuck references , I was speechless by the end of that thing . "
Many reviews were critical of the Scranton sub @-@ plot . McNutt wrote that , " Andy getting hit by a girl plays into the most weak , infantile parts of his character , and making Pam his accomplice was a complete non @-@ starter . " Kratzer wrote , " Don ’ t get me wrong , the idea of Andy getting punched in the face by a female fifth grader isn ’ t necessarily unbelievable or unfunny , it ’ s just that it had so little relevance or realism that it was difficult to follow for more than five minutes and it constituted an entire plot line . "
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= Speed of Sound ( song ) =
" Speed of Sound " is a song by British alternative rock band Coldplay . It was written by all members of the band for their third studio album , X & Y ( 2005 ) . Built around a piano riff , the song builds into a huge , synthesiser @-@ heavy chorus . It was released by Parlophone Records as the lead single from the album . " Speed of Sound " was released in the US on 18 April 2005 , and then made its radio premiere on BBC Radio 1 with Lamacq on the day of the release on 19 April . The single was pressed with two B @-@ sides : " Things I Don 't Understand " and " Proof " . The song premiered in the UK on 23 May .
Coldplay vocalist Chris Martin admitted that the song was developed after the band had listened to English art rock singer Kate Bush . The song 's drum beat is similar to Bush 's 1985 song " Running Up That Hill " . Upon the song 's release , it charted in the UK Singles Chart in the number two position . In the United States , it debuted at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , their first top ten hit in the country , and their most successful song until " Viva la Vida " reached number one in 2008 .
" Speed of Sound " was recognised Song of the Year by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) and it was nominated twice at the 48th Grammy Awards . The song won a Brit Award in the category for Best British Single in 2006 . The track 's music video was nominated for four MTV Video Music Awards . " Speed of Sound " was also the billionth song downloaded from the iTunes Store .
= = Background = =
In an interview , Coldplay vocalist Chris Martin revealed that the song was written in mid @-@ 2004 and was inspired by Martin 's daughter , Apple , and English alternative rock singer Kate Bush : " That 's a song where we were listening to a lot of Kate Bush last summer , and we wanted a song which had a lot of tom @-@ toms in it . I just had my daughter up also , and was kind of feeling in a sense of awe and wonderment , so the song is kind of a Kate Bush song about miracles . " The drumbeat of the song was inspired by Bush 's 1985 song " Running Up that Hill " . In a separate interview , bassist Guy Berryman , in discussion of " Speed of Sound " , said : " We were listening to a Kate Bush song called ' Running Up that Hill ' and we were really trying to recreate the drums on that song for this song , and the chords . Some bands are reluctant to admit that they take things from other artists and bands that they listen to and we 're shameless in that respect , we don 't mind telling . "
The band 's opinion towards the song , however , has soured . Martin has said that he dislikes " Speed of Sound " , saying in a 2011 interview , " We never got it right . " During an interview with Howard Stern , Martin said that his dislike of " Speed of Sound " stems from the song having " a shit recording . " Due to this , Martin is reluctant to perform the song live , citing his feelings towards the song , noting that " an audience can pick up real fast if you ’ re not convinced by something . "
= = Composition = =
" Speed of Sound " is a piano @-@ based song . The song benefits from an insistently ornate keyboard riff and a busy but less @-@ hummable chorus , in which the song builds into a huge drum beat and a synthesiser @-@ heavy chorus , which also includes an upbeat tempo . The song is written in the key of A Mixolydian .
The lyrics in the song are cryptic ; the ending lines of the third verse emphasise in belief and faith : " If you could see it then you 'd understand / ah , when you see it then you 'll understand , " and " Some things you have to believe / others are puzzles puzzling me . " The fourth line in the second verse alludes to discovering your place in the world : " How long am I gonna stand / with my head stuck under the sand . "
In his review of X & Y , Bill White of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer newspaper noted that the " slowing ... creative juices " evident in " Speed of Sound " compare to " melodies from both Jeff Buckley ( ' Last Goodbye ' ) and Keane ( ' Everybody 's Changing ' ) " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was met with a polarised response from critics upon its release . PopMatters felt that the song " comes close to sounding too safe , almost like the band is on autopilot . " MusicOMH commented that " Speed Of Sound , the lead single , has ' Clocks ' -like drumming contrasts with synth sequences that remind more of Enya than rock music " and criticised it for sounding " familiar and far older than it is . " Pitchfork Media likewise criticised the song 's " uncanny resemblance to ' Clocks ' " and continued " Certainly , it rarely hurts to stick with what works , but this is not just a near @-@ exact replica of its successful predecessor ; it 's also a less memorable song riding a piano hook that has so deeply infiltrated the pop @-@ culture landscape that I 've become numb to it . " The reviewer did , however , comment that " the track 's vocal melody outperforms the one from ' Clocks ' by a hair . "
The Village Voice felt that the song was " unusually accomplished , fresh , and emotional . " Paste Magazine praised the song , saying that it " reveals the hand [ Coldplay are ] playing : a piano riff as memorable as the one in ' Clocks , ' ringing guitars , martial drums , orchestral pomp and , in the center , Chris Martin 's keening vocal , so vulnerable and yet forceful enough to stand out from the mass of sonic detail . " The New York Times , contrariwise , dinged X & Y for " trying to carry beauty of ' Clocks ' across an entire album – not least in its first single , ' Speed of Sound , ' which isn 't the only song on the album to borrow the ' Clocks ' drumbeat . " Rolling Stone magazine gave a mixed review , calling it " an appealing but not thrilling song " and noted " ... it sounds a bit like ... " Clocks " but without the swagger . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Speed of Sound " was beaten to the number one spot on the UK Singles Chart by the novelty song " Axel F " by the Crazy Frog , instead peaking at number two for a week , although it did stay in the Top 75 for sixteen non @-@ consecutive weeks . However , it became Coldplay 's first UK download number one .
It also became Coldplay 's first and ( at that point ) biggest single to chart in the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 , debuting as well as peaking at number eight , making it the band 's most successful single until " Viva la Vida " reached number one in 2008 . The single marked the first time a British band entered directly in the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 chart since " Say You 'll Be There " by the Spice Girls . The song was also the billionth song downloaded from Apple , Inc . ' s iTunes Store . A ringtone was available from Cingular Wireless , which had a song clip from " Speed of Sound " available a week before it was heard on radio . The song was also included in " Weird Al " Yankovic 's polka medley " Polkarama ! " from his 2006 album Straight Outta Lynwood .
= = Accolades = =
" Speed of Sound " was nominated for two Grammy Awards in the categories of Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance By a Duo or Group With Vocals at the 2006 Grammy Awards . The song won an MTV Europe Music Award in the category for Best Song . In December 2005 , " Speed of Sound " appeared at number nine on Q magazine 's " 100 Greatest Tracks of the Year " . In 2006 , the song won a Brit Award for Best British Single . That same year , American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) named the track Song of the Year .
= = Music video = =
The video promo for " Speed of Sound " was shot on a Los Angeles sound stage on 22 and 23 April 2005 . Shooting took place on large sets backed by large Light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) displays developed by Element Labs . The performance @-@ based video was directed by Mark Romanek . The video features the band performing in front of a curved ellipse wall that consists of 640 Element Labs ' VersaTubes placed on 6 " centres .
The on @-@ set animations were programmed and performed live during the shoot . Romanek wanted the song 's stem " split out " and to have the drums , bass , guitar , and vocals on separate tracks , which were then animated , and the lights were synthesised to each of the tracks . In the end , Romanek and Michael Keeling , the lighting designer , opted to use Chris Martin 's vocal track to animate " because it had such dynamics . Roughly 75 % of the video is driven by voice @-@ activated animation " , said Keeling .
The video opens in pitch @-@ black , followed by a light framing Martin as he reaches skyward out of the shadows . The scene then shifts to the band , as they play the song . When Martin spread his hands , the two @-@ story @-@ high LED lights erupt in a colour of rainbow hues . The LED background changes colours as the band continues . The video concludes its ending with the band lined up , one @-@ by @-@ one , and the LED set displaying a white light background .
The video debuted on 23 May 2005 and proved successful on video @-@ chart programs . It debuted on 11 June 2005 on Fuse 's No. 1 Countdown Rock , at number six , and retired on 5 August at number seven of the countdown . It also reached number sixteen in MuchMusic 's Countdown a month after its debut . At the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , the video was nominated for four nominations in the categories of Video of the Year , Best Special Effects , Best Editing , and Best Cinematography . The video was the ranked at number 10 on VH1 's Top 40 of 2005 .
= = Personnel = =
Chris Martin – vocals , piano , synthesizer
Jonny Buckland – electric guitar
Guy Berryman – bass guitar , backing vocals
Will Champion – drums , backing vocals
= = Track listing = =
UK CD CDR6664 , 7 " R6664 , 12 " 12R6664 , 10 " 10R6664
Australia CD 872 9862 released 23 May 2005 by Capitol Records
Japan CD TOCP @-@ 40179 released 11 May 2005 by Toshiba @-@ EMI
= = Charts = =
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= Third Transjordan attack =
The Third Transjordan attack by Chaytor 's Force , part of the British Empire 's Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) , took place between 21 and 25 September 1918 , against the Ottoman Empire 's Fourth Army and other Yildirim Army Group units . These operations took place during the Battle of Nablus , part of the Battle of Megiddo which began on 19 September in the final months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I. Fought on the right flank and subsidiary to the Battle of Nablus , the Third Transjordan attack began northwards , with the assault on Kh Fasail . The following day a section of Chaytor 's Force , attacked and captured the Ottoman Empire 's 53rd Division ( Seventh Army ) on the main eastwards line of retreat out of the Judean Hills across the Jordan River . Retreating columns of the Yildirim Army Group were attacked during the battle for the Jisr ed Damieh bridge , and several fords to the south were also captured , closing this line of retreat . Leaving detachments to hold the captured bridge and fords , Chaytor 's Force began their eastwards advance by attacking and capturing the Fourth Army garrison at Shunet Nimrin on their way to capture Es Salt for a third time . With the Fourth Army 's VIII Corps in retreat , Chaytor 's Force continued their advance to attack and capture Amman on 25 September during the Second Battle of Amman . Several days later , to the south of Amman , the Fourth Army 's II Corps which had garrisoned the southern Hejaz Railway , surrendered to Chaytor 's Force at Ziza , effectively ending military operations in the area .
The British Empire victories during the Third Transjordan attack resulted in the occupation of many miles of Ottoman territory and the capture of the equivalent of one Ottoman corps . Meanwhile , the remnants of the Fourth Army were forced to retreat in disarray north to Damascus , along with the remnants of the Seventh and Eighth Armies after the EEF victories during the Battle of Sharon and Battle of Nablus . Fighting extended from the Mediterranean Sea during these seven days of battle , resulting in the capture of many thousands of prisoners , and extensive territory . After several days pursuing remnant columns , Desert Mounted Corps captured Damascus on 1 October . The surviving remnants of Yildirim Army Group which escaped Damascus were pursued north during the Pursuit to Haritan when Homs was occupied and Aleppo was captured by Prince Feisal 's Sherifial Army Force . Soon after , on 30 October , the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire , ending the Sinai and Palestine campaign .
= = Background = =
Following the victory at the Battle of Jerusalem at the end of 1917 , and the Capture of Jericho in February 1918 , the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) crossed the Jordan River , establishing bridgeheads in March prior to the First Transjordan attack on Amman . These bridgeheads remained after the Second Transjordan attacks on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt when a second withdrawal back to the Jordan Valley took place from 3 to 5 May . This marked the end of major operations in the area until September 1918 . General Edmund Allenby , the commander of the EEF , decided to occupy the Jordan Valley during the summer of 1918 for a number of reasons . A retreat out of the valley would further enhance the morale of the German and Ottoman forces , and their standing among the peoples living in the region , following their two Transjordan victories . So important did Allenby consider the support of the Hedjaz Arabs to the defence of his right flank , that they were substantially subsidised :
I think we shall manage the subsidy required as well as the extra £ 50 @,@ 000 you require for Northern Operations ... I am urging for another £ 500 @,@ 000 additional to the £ 400 @,@ 000 en route from Australia and I am sure you will do what you can , through the WO to represent the importance of not risking a delay again in the payment of our Arab subsidy .
The road from the Hedjaz railway station at Amman to Shunet Nimrin remained a serious threat to the occupation of the Jordan Valley , as a large German and Ottoman force could quickly be moved along this line of communication from Amman to Shunet Nimrin , from where they could mount a major attack into the Jordan Valley . As Allenby explains ,
I am not strong enough to make holding attacks on both flanks , and the Turks can transfer their reserves from flank to flank as required . The Turks have more of these , the VII Army have 2400 , and the VIII Army 5800 in Reserve . I must maintain my hold on the bridges of the Jordan , and my control of the Dead Sea . This will cause the Turks to keep a considerable force watching me , and ease pressure on Feisal and his forces . It is absolutely essential to me that he should continue to be active . He is a sensible , well – informed man ; and he is fully alive to the limitations imposed on me . I keep in close touch with him , through Lawrence . I have now in the valley two Mounted Divisions and an Indian Infantry Brigade . I cannot lessen this number yet .
By July , Allenby was " very anxious to make a move in September , " when he aimed to capture Tulkarm , Nablus and the Jisr ed Damieh bridge across the Jordan River . He stated , " The possession by the Turks of the road Nablus – Jisr ed Damie – Es Salt is of great advantage to them ; and , until I get it , I can 't occupy Es Salt with my troops or the Arabs . " He hoped the capture of this important Ottoman line of communication from Nablus along the Wadi Fara to the Jordan River at Jisr ed Damieh and on to Es Salt would also " encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies . "
= = = EEF front line = = =
From the departure of the Australian Mounted Division in August steps were taken to make it appear the valley was still fully garrisoned . On 11 September the 10th Cavalry Brigade , which included the Scinde Horse , left the Jordan Valley . They marched via Jericho , 19 miles ( 31 km ) to Talaat de Dumm , then a further 20 miles ( 32 km ) to Enab , reaching Ramleh on 17 September in preparation for the beginning of the Battle of Megiddo .
Chaytor 's Force held the right flank from their junction with the XX Corps in the Judean Hills 8 miles ( 13 km ) north west of Jericho , across the Jordan Valley , and then southwards through the Ghoraniye and Auja bridgeheads to the Dead Sea . This area was overlooked by well sited Ottoman or German long range guns and an observation post on El Haud .
= = = Ottoman front line = = =
The Ottoman front line had been strengthened after the Second Transjordan attack . It began in the south , where Ottoman cavalry guarded tracks to Madaba before continuing with strongly wired entrenchments . In front of these , advanced posts extended from the foothills opposite the ford across the Jordan River at Makhadet Hijla to about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north of the Jericho to Es Salt road . The road had been cut at the Ghorianyeh Bridge before the First Transjordan attack , in the vicinity of Shunet Nimrin . The front line was strengthened by advanced posts which were also wired on the left flank at Qabr Said , Kh. el Kufrein and Qabr Mujahid . From their right flank in the foothills a wired line of redoubts and trenches facing south ran from 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) north of Shunet Nimrin , across the Jordan Valley to the Jordan River , 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) south of the Umm esh Shert ford . This line was continued west of the river by a series of individual " wired @-@ in redoubts with good fields of fire , " then as a series of trenches and redoubts along the northern or left bank of the Wadi Mellaha . These were followed by a " series of trenches and redoubts towards Bakr Ridge which were entrenched but not wired . A strong advanced position of well built sangars and [ sic ] [ which were ] wired in was held at Baghalat . " Bakr Ridge in the Judean Hills was situated to the west of the salient at El Musallabe which was held by the EEF . The Ottoman front line was supported by entrenched positions on Red Hill beside the Jordan River , which was also the site of their main artillery observation point .
= = = Battle of Megiddo 19 to 20 September = = =
During the first 36 hours of the Battle of Megiddo , between 04 : 30 on 19 September and 17 : 00 on 20 September , the German and Ottoman front line had been cut by infantry of the EEF 's XXI Corps . This allowed the cavalry of the Desert Mounted Corps to pass through the gap and begin their ride towards their objectives at Afulah , Nazareth , and Beisan . The two Ottoman armies were left without effective communications , and so could not organize any combined action against the continuing onslaught by the British Empire infantry in the Judean Hills . The Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies were forced to withdraw northwards along the main roads and railways from Tulkarm and Nablus , which converged to run through the Dothan Pass to Jenin on the Esdrealon Plain . There , retreating columns from these two Ottoman armies would be captured during the evening of 20 September by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , who already occupied the town .
= = = Liman von Sanders escapes = = =
Otto Liman von Sanders , the commander of the Yildirim Army Group , was forced out of his headquarters at Nazareth during the Battle of Nazareth on the morning of 20 September by elements of the 5th Cavalry Division . He drove via Tiberias and Samakh where he alerted the garrisons , to arrive at Deraa on the morning of 21 September , on his way to Damascus . At Deraa , Liman von Sanders received a report from the Fourth Army , which he ordered to withdraw to the Deraa to Irbid line without waiting for the troops which garrisoned the southern Hejaz .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Chaytor 's Force = = =
While the Battles of Sharon and Nablus were taking place , it was necessary to deploy a strong force , to defend the right flank of the Desert Mounted Corps , the XXI and the XX Corps fighting from the Mediterranean coast and into the Judean Hills . Their right flank in Jordan Valley was protected by Chaytor 's Force from the threat of a flanking attack by the Ottoman Fourth Army . This composite force commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor has been described by Bou as " nearly equivalent to two divisions , " being a reinforced mounted infantry division of 11 @,@ 000 men . By the end of operations on 30 September Chaytor 's Force consisted of " 8 @,@ 000 British , 3 @,@ 000 Indian , 500 Egyptian Camel Transport Corps troops . "
= = = = Medical support = = = =
In addition to the Anzac Mounted Division 's medical units , the 1 / 1st Welsh and the 157th Indian Field Ambulances , the Anzac Field Laboratory , and a new operating unit formed from personnel of the 14th Australian General and the 2nd Stationary Hospitals , were attached to Chaytor 's Force .
A receiving station was formed from the immobile sections of light horse and mounted rifle brigades ' field ambulances , a section from the 1 / 1st Welsh and the 157th Indian Field Ambulances with an operating unit , the Anzac Field Laboratory , and a detachment from an Egyptian hospital . This Receiving Station took over the site near Jericho , occupied by the main dressing station during the two Transjordan attacks , which could accommodate 200 patients in mud huts , 400 patients in tents , and 700 patients in the abandoned Desert Mounted Corps headquarters .
= = = = Air support = = = =
The Royal Air Force 's ( RAF ) ' s 5th ( Corps ) Wing , headquartered at Ramle , deployed one flight of the No. 142 Squadron RAF on 18 September to Chaytor 's Force . The flight was based at Jerusalem , with responsibility for cooperation with artillery , contact patrols , and tactical reconnaissance up to 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) in advance of Chaytor 's Force .
No. 1 Squadron , Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , operating Bristol Fighters , was to carry out bombing and strategic reconnaissance missions , provide a general oversight of the whole Megiddo battlefield , and report all developments . Meanwhile , Nos. 111 and 145 Squadrons , which were equipped with S.E.5.a aircraft , were to constantly patrol over Jenin aerodrome throughout the day to bomb and machine gun all targets in the area , and prevent any aircraft from taking off . Airco DH.9 aircraft from No. 144 Squadron were to bomb the Afulah telephone exchange and railway station , the Messudieh Junction railway lines , and the Ottoman Seventh Army headquarters and telephone exchange at Nablus . The newly arrived Handley Page bomber , armed with 16 112 @-@ pound ( 51 kg ) bombs and piloted by the Australian Ross Smith , was to support No. 144 Squadron 's bombing of Afulah .
= = = = Jordan Valley deployments = = = =
Chaytor took command of the Jordan Valley garrison on 5 September 1918 . The right sector , under the command of Brigadier General G. de L. Ryrie , was held by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the 20th Indian Brigade . The left sector , under the command of Brigadier @-@ General W. Meldrum , was held by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , the 38th Battalion Royal Fusiliers , and the 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment , supported by a field artillery battery and an Indian mountain battery . The 39th Battalion Royal Fusiliers formed the sector reserve , while the 1st Light Horse Brigade was in force reserve .
While the Ottoman Fourth Army continued to hold the eastern side of the Jordan Valley , Es Salt , Amman and the Hejaz railway , Chaytor 's smaller force was to continue the EEF 's occupation of the Jordan Valley . As soon as possible , Chaytor 's Force was to advance northwards to capture the Jisr ed Damieh bridge , which would cut a main line of retreat for the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies . This was also a main line of communication between the two armies west of the Jordan River in the Judean Hills with the Fourth Army in the east . The expectation was that , the attacks on the Eighth Army by the XXI and Desert Mounted Corps , and the start of the Battle of Nablus attacks on the Seventh Army , would force the Fourth Army to withdraw northwards along the Hejaz railway to conform with the withdrawals of the Seventh and Eighth Armies .
= = = = Preliminary operations = = = =
Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel , the Australian commander of Desert Mounted Corps , instructed Chaytor to hold his ground " for the present , " but to closely watch the Ottoman forces during around @-@ the @-@ clock patrolling , and to immediately occupy any abandoned enemy positions . From 16 September , the Ottoman front line was closely monitored , while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the British West Indies Regiment 's infantry battalions carried out demonstrations to the north on the western side of the Jordan River . Chaytors Force was prepared to exploit all withdrawals by the Fourth Ottoman Army , including a third Occupation of Es Salt and a Second Battle of Amman .
In addition to the close patrol work , demonstrations against Ottoman defences were made during the nights of 17 and 18 September , by the 1st Light Horse Brigade and a regiment of 2nd Light Horse Brigade , which rode out from the bridgeheads in the Jordan Valley . The Ottoman " heavy high @-@ velocity gun " retaliated , firing shells on Jericho , and to the north of town on Chaytor 's headquarters in the Wadi Nueiame .
= = = Yildirim Army Group = = =
The Yildirim Army Group commanded by von Sanders consisted of 40 @,@ 598 front line infantrymen armed with 19 @,@ 819 rifles , 273 light machine guns and 696 heavy machine guns in August 1918 . The high number of machine guns reflected the Ottoman Army 's new tables of organization and the machine gun component of the German Asia Corps . The infantry were organised into 12 divisions and deployed along the 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) of front line from the Mediterranean to the Dead Sea : the Eighth Army from the coast into the Judean Hills , the Seventh Army in the Judean Hills and towards the Jordan , with the Fourth Army east of the Jordan River .
An operational reserve was formed from the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division in the Eighth Army area and the 3rd Cavalry Division in the Fourth Army area .
= = = = Fourth Army = = = =
The Ottoman Fourth Army consisting of 6 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry supported by 74 guns was commanded by General Mohammed Jemal Pasha . The army was headquartered at Amman . This army was composed of the VIII Corps ' 48th Infantry Division , the Composite Division of a German battalion group , the Caucasus Cavalry Brigade , the division @-@ sized Serstal Group , the 24th and 62nd Infantry Divisions , with the 3rd Cavalry Division in reserve . There were 6 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers with 30 guns in the II Corps , known as the Seria Group or Jordan Group , which garrisoned the Hejaz railway along the line from Ma 'an southwards towards Mecca .
Deployment
The Seventh and Fourth Armies touched at Baghalat , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) west north west of Umm esh Shert . Both sides of the Jordan River were defended by the 24th Infantry Division and the 3rd Cavalry Division , and both sides of the Ghoraniyeh to Es Salt Road were held by the VIII Corps 's 48th Division . The Composite Division was on their left , while the Caucasus Cavalry Brigade and the Mule @-@ Mounted Infantry Regiment held outposts extending southwards towards the Dead Sea . The II Corps was responsible for some 200 miles ( 320 km ) of the Hejaz Railway , a strong detachment of about seven battalions was at Ma 'an and about eight battalions were deployed between Ma 'an and Amman . The Fourth Army 's reserve was formed by the German 146th Regiment , the 3rd Cavalry Division and part of the 12th Regiment at Es Salt .
The Fourth Army strongly garrisoned Shunet Nimrin , the entrenched area in the foothills which had repulsed an attack by Chetwode on 18 April and a second attack at the end of April during the Second Transjordan attack . The Fourth Army also held substantial forces at Amman , and guarding tunnels and viaducts along the Hejaz railway near Amman .
= = Battle of Nablus eastern flank 19 to 21 September = =
Chaytor 's Force continued to vigorously patrol the eastern flank as the Battles of Sharon and Nablus developed . They were opposed on the western side of the Jordan River by the Ottoman 53rd Division ( Seventh Army ) to the west of Baghalat and units of the Fourth Army , which held the Ottoman front line to east of Baghalat . The Auckland Mounted Rifle and Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiments carried out patrols north from the Wadi Aujah and west of Baghalat before dawn on 19 September , but were " compelled to withdraw " due to heavy artillery and machine gun fire . Progress made by the 160th Brigade ( 53rd Division , XX Corps ) , in the Judean Hills enabled one of its mountain batteries to direct fire at the Ottoman front line position on the Bakr Ridge during the afternoon . Three companies of the 2nd Battalion British West Indies Regiment , ( Chaytor 's Force ) supported by the 160th Brigade 's battery , " drove in " Ottoman outposts and captured a ridge to the south of Bakr Ridge at 15 : 25 , despite intense enemy artillery and machine gun fire . Although heavily shelled , they dug in and held their position . The British West Indies Regiment advances towards Bakr Ridge were consolidated , and continued at dawn on 20 September , when their 2nd Battalion captured Bakr Ridge . An attack by the 38th Battalion Royal Fusiliers ( Chaytor 's Force ) at Mellaha opposed by machine gun and rifle fire , was less successful . An advance by the 1st and 2nd Battalions , British West Indies Regiment had by 7 : 00 captured Grant Ridge , Baghalat and Chalk Ridge . A large Ottoman force was seen south of Kh . Fusail in the late morning on the western side of the Jordan River . By 19 : 00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade had begun its advance towards Tel sh edh Dhib . Jericho was shelled again in the mid @-@ afternoon .
The 2nd Light Horse Brigade and Patiala Infantry , ( Chaytor 's Force ) advanced on 20 September eastwards across the Jordan Valley toward the strongly entrenched Shunet Nimrin position , and Derbasi on the Ottoman left flank . The 6th Light Horse and 7th Light Horse Regiments , with a company of Patiala Infantry , were shelled by guns from El Haud in the foothills of Moab as they moved across the valley . Positions east of the Jordan River , including Mellaha , continued to be strongly held by Fourth Army units .
Aircraft reconnaissance , during a second dawn patrol on 20 September reported the whole area quiet , from Jisr ed Damieh bridge north to Beisan and from the bridge east across the Jordan Valley to Es Salt . Bristol Fighters attacked 200 vehicles at the Wadi Fara elbow , seen withdrawing from Nablus towards Khurbet Ferweh . The last aerial reconnaissance of the day reported seeing a brigade of Desert Mounted Corps ' cavalry entering Beisan on the Esdrealon Plain . They also reported that three large fires were burning at Nablus railway station , while fires were also reported at the Balata dumps , and the whole Ottoman line from El Lubban to the Jordan appeared to be " alarmed " , according to Cutlack .
Only the Fourth Army remained intact by 21 September after the successful attacks during the Battle of Sharon and the Battle of Nablus . Allenby 's next priority became the destruction of the Fourth Army , which had begun to move to conform with the withdrawals of the Seventh and Eighth Armies . Chaytor 's Force was to advance eastwards to capture Es Salt and Amman , and to intercept and capture the 4 @,@ 600 @-@ strong southern Hejaz garrison . During the first days of the Battle of Megiddo , the Fourth Army had remained in position , while Chaytor 's Force carried out demonstrations against it .
= = = Asia Corps retreat = = =
Liman von Sanders had been out of contact with his three armies until he reached Samakh on the afternoon of 20 September . As soon as he was able , he placed the 16th and 19th Infantry Divisions of the Asia Corps ( Eighth Army ) under his direct orders . These two divisions made contact with Asia Corps commander von Oppen to the west of Nablus during the morning of 21 September , when Asia Corps was being reorganised ; remnants of the 702nd and 703rd Battalions ( Asia Corps ) were amalgamated into one battalion , while the 701st Battalion remained intact . At 10 : 00 that morning , von Oppen was informed that the EEF was approaching Nablus and that the Wadi Fara road was blocked . He attempted to retreat down to the Jordan at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge via Beit Dejan , 7 miles ( 11 km ) east south east of Nablus , but found this way blocked by Chaytor 's Force . He then ordered a retreat via Mount Ebal , leaving behind all guns and baggage . Asia Corps bivouacked at Tammun with the 16th and 19th Divisions at Tubas on the evening of 21 September , unaware that Desert Mounted Corps had already occupied Beisan .
= = = Capture of Kh Fasail on 21 September = = =
The Seventh and Fourth Armies had begun to withdraw , and before dawn on 21 September Chaytor ordered the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment to advance and capture Kh Fasail , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Baghalat on the road to the Jisr ed Damieh bridge . The regiment , supported by one section of their brigade 's machine gun squadron and two guns from 29th Indian Mountain Battery , advanced along an old Roman road on the western bank of the Jordan River , with patrols pushed towards Jisr ed Damieh and Umm esh Shert . They captured Kh Fusail and Tel es edh Dhiab , along with 26 prisoners and two machine guns . Shortly afterwards the regiment discovered an Ottoman defensive line stretching from the ford at Mafid Jozele on the Jordan River to El Musetterah 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) to the north west , defending the Jisr ed Damieh bridge . Units of the Seventh Army were seen withdrawing along the Wadi el Fara road from Nablus towards the Jisr ed Damieh bridge . This Ottoman defensive line was reported at 08 : 05 to be strongly held , but movement in the rear was detected and at 16 : 15 the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment reported they were withdrawing from Mafid Jozele .
Meldrum 's Force , commanded by Brigadier @-@ General W. Meldrum , was formed at 20 : 30 from the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and their machine gun squadron , mounted sections of the 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment , the 29th Indian Mountain Battery , and the Ayrshire ( or Inverness ) Battery RHA . This force concentrated half an hour later east of Musallabeh , to begin their advance to Kh . Fusail where they arrived just before midnight . At the same time , the Commander Royal Artillery ( CRA ) pushed guns forward into Mellaha to attack Ottoman guns on Red Hill on the eastern bank of the Jordan River , while the 1st Light Horse Brigade took over the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade position at Madbeh .
Kh . Fusail was about half way to the Jisr ed Damieh bridge , and after waiting for the dismounted sections of Meldrum 's Force to arrive , the consolidated force advanced to attack Jisr ed Damieh . The 2nd Battalion , British West Indies Regiment remained to garrison Kh . Fusail , occupying a position at Talat Armah to protect Meldrum 's right flank and rear , and if necessary to block the track from Mafid Jozele . Aerial reconnaissance flights during the evening of 21 September , confirmed that Shunet Nimrin in the rear of Meldrum 's Force was still strongly garrisoned , and that the roads and tracks running west from Amman were carrying normal traffic .
= = Battle for Jordan River crossings 22 September = =
= = = Jisr ed Damieh = = =
Chaytor ordered Meldrum to cut the Wadi el Fara road from Nablus to Es Salt west of the Jordan River , occupy the headquarters of the Ottoman 53rd Division at El Makhruk , and capture the Jisr ed Damieh on the Wadi el Fara road over the Jordan River . Meldrum 's Force left Kh Fusail at midnight on 22 September with the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment as vanguard , followed by the 1st Battalion British West Indies Regiment , which dumped their kits and blankets to move " at once " towards the bridge .
The Auckland and Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments advanced north along a Roman road , across a narrow plain between the Judean Hills to the west , but exposed to artillery fire on the eastern side across the Jordan River . The Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment 's objective was to capture the Damieh crossing from the north east , while the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment 's objectives were to make a frontal attack on El Makhruk , capture the headquarters of the Ottoman 53rd Division , and cut the Nablus road .
The Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment , with one section of machine gun squadron attached , reached the Nablus to Jisr ed Damieh road early on the morning of 22 September and captured their objectives . Meanwhile the Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiments , supported by the 1st Battalion , British West Indies Regiment , advanced to attack the Ottoman garrison holding Jisr ed Damieh . After a " hot fight " by the infantry and mounted riflemen , they forced the defenders to withdraw in disorder , and the bridge was captured intact .
= = = Umm esh Shert and Mafid Jozele fords = = =
To the south of Jisr ed Damieh , the Umm esh Shert ford was captured by the 38th Battalion Royal Fusiliers ( Chaytor 's Force ) . At 03 : 00 on 22 September they took advantage of the absence of Ottoman defenders at Mellaha , to advance to occupy trenches overlooking the ford at Umm esh Shert , which was captured shortly afterwards .
The Mafid Jozel ford was captured by the 2nd Battalion British West Indies Regiment , reinforced by the 3rd Light Horse Regiment , 1st Light Horse Brigade . Despite encountering strong resistance at Mellahet umm Afein , this force attacked and " drove in " the rearguard defending the ford and an Ottoman column withdrawing across the ford . Mafid Jozele was captured by 05 : 50 on 23 September , along with 37 prisoners , but the bridge had been destroyed at the ford . The last remaining Ottoman defences on the western bank of the Jordan south of the Jisr ed Damieh bridge had thus been captured , although most of the Ottoman defenders of these two fords managed to escape . Captures included 105 prisoners , 4 machine guns , 4 automatic rifles , transport , horses and stores .
= = = Air support on 22 September = = =
No. 1 Squadron ( AFC ) patrols found the Shunet Nimrin garrison still in place on the morning of 22 September , but Rujm el Oshir camp ( to the east of Jericho , half way between the Jordan River and the Hedjaz railway ) had been broken up , and fires burned west of the Amman railway station . Ain es Sir camp ( south east of Es Salt , half way between the Jordan River and Amman ) was found to be full of Ottoman troops , but at about midday the Ottoman garrison at Es Salt was hastily packing . Australian airmen reported the whole area east of the Jordan to be on the move towards Amman by between 15 : 00 and 18 : 00 , when two Bristol Fighters bombed a mass of traffic at Suweile , half @-@ way between Es Salt and Amman , and fired nearly 1 @,@ 000 machine @-@ gun rounds .
= = = Asia Corps withdrawal continues = = =
Von Oppen 's battalions and about 700 German and 1 @,@ 300 Ottoman soldiers in the 16th and 19th Infantry Divisions were moving north towards Beisan on 22 September when they learned it had already been captured . He planned to continue his withdrawal north to Samakh during the night of 22 September , where he correctly guessed that Liman von Sanders would order a strong rearguard action . However , Jevad , the commander of the Eighth Army which included Asia Corps , ordered von Oppen to move eastwards across the Jordan River . Von Oppen got all the German and some of his Ottoman soldiers across the Jordan River before the 11th Cavalry Brigade attacked and closed that line of retreat during fighting to close the Jordan River gaps . All those who had not crossed the river were captured .
= = = Fourth Army withdrawal = = =
While at Deraa on 21 September during his withdrawal from Nazareth to Damascus , Liman von Sanders ordered the Fourth Army to withdraw . They were to move without waiting for the II Corps / Southern Force , which had also begun to withdraw north from Ma 'an and the southern Hejaz railway . The army was in general moving northwards from Amman along the railway towards Deraa by 22 September , where they were ordered to form a rearguard line from Deraa to Irbid . Aerial reconnaissance aircraft spotted the Ottoman army withdrawal from Amman towards Deraa . Ottoman units in the hills to the south west , and a column of all arms , were seen moving from the Es Salt area towards Amman . The aircraft bombed and machine gunned this column , then flew back to report at Ramleh .
= = Advance to Es Salt 23 September = =
Chaytor 's Force issued orders at midnight for attacks on Shunet Nimrin , Kabr Mujahid and Tel er Ramr when the retreat of the Fourth Army became apparent at 23 : 35 on 22 / 23 September . These attacks were to be carried out by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the mobile sections of the 20th Indian Brigade , armed with 1 @,@ 500 rifles and supported by three sections of machine guns and 40 Lewis guns . This force moved eastwards along the main road from Jericho , across the Jordan River at Ghoranyeh to Es Salt towards Shunet Nimrin , while the immobile section remained in defence in the right sector of the occupied Jordan Valley . The CRA was to support this advance by targeting Shunet Nimrin . Before Haifa on the Mediterranean coast , was captured by the 14th Cavalry Brigade during the Battle of Sharon , Chaytor 's Force had crossed the Jordan River on 23 September to climb to the Plateau of Moab and Gilead on their way to capture Es Salt that evening . ( See Gullett 's Map 35 . )
Chaytor 's Force entered the hills of Moab on a front stretching from north to south of almost 15 miles ( 24 km ) . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , the northernmost , left one squadron and the 1st Battalion British West Indies Regiment to hold the Jisr ed Damieh bridge . The brigade then advanced south east along the road from the bridge 8 miles ( 13 km ) across the Jordan Valley to the foothills of Moab , with patrols to the east and north , to make the 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) climb to Es Salt . The 1st Light Horse Brigade in the centre , advanced across the Jordan River at the Umm esh Shert ford at 09 : 10 . They met no opposition as they rode up the Arseniyet track ( also known as the Wadi Abu Turra track ) to arrive at Es Salt at midnight . To the south , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade moved round the southern flank of the Shunet Nimrin position , captured Kabr Muahid at 04 : 45 , before climbing to Es Salt via the village of Ain es Sir . All wheeled transport vehicles moved along the Shunet Nimrin road to Es Salt .
Chaytor 's Anzac Mounted Division headquarters moved at 14 : 25 to the Ghoraniyeh crossing of the Jordan River on the main road to Es Salt from Jericho . By 18 : 15 in the evening , the 20th Indian Brigade had reached Shunet Nimrin with a squadron of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade as advance guard . Here they found the 150 @-@ mm long @-@ range naval gun " Jericho Jane " , also known as " Nimrin Nellie " , abandoned on its side in a gully beside the road . Patterson 's Column , which had been formed at 15 : 00 on 22 September by the 38th and 39th Battalions Royal Fusiliers ( Chaytor 's Force ) under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Patterson , concentrated at the Auja bridgehead just across the Jordan River to the north of Ghoraniyeh , ready to follow the 20th Indian Brigade to Shunet Nimrin .
= = = Capture of Es Salt = = =
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ' advanced guard was opposed by a line of outposts and a strongly wired Ottoman redoubt located across the main Jisr ed Damieh to Es Salt road 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Es Salt . This extensive rearguard position was attacked and outflanked by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade advanced guard consisting of the Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment . The Ottoman redoubt had been defended by nine officers and 150 other ranks armed with rifles and machine guns . All defenders were captured , and at 16 : 20 on 23 September , Es Salt was occupied by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade . After establishing outpost lines and searching for prisoners and intelligence , the brigade bivouacked at Suweileh for the night , to the east of Ain Hummar on the north western road to Amman . Total captures for the day were 538 prisoners , four machine guns , two automatic rifles , two 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch howitzers , one 77 @-@ mm gun , and supplies of stores and ammunition . The brigade was reinforced by the 1st Light Horse Brigade , which reached Es Salt at 24 : 00 , while Patterson 's Column , less the 38th Royal Fusiliers , moved towards Shunet Nimrin .
This was the third time Es Salt had been captured by the EEF in six months . The 3rd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) had captured Es Salt on 25 March , and the 8th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) had captured Es Salt on 30 April .
= = = Air support on 23 September = = =
At dawn on 23 September , aircraft " observed a column of fairly orderly traffic of all arms streaming down the road from Es Salt to Amman , " which was subsequently bombed and machine gunned . Groups of retreating Ottoman soldiers were seen moving from the hills to the south @-@ west towards Amman . Bombing formations attacked these columns with 48 bombs and 7 @,@ 000 machine gun rounds shortly after 07 : 00 . Eight direct hits on lorries and wagons blocked the road , and the retreat became a disorderly rout . At about the same time , airmen reported that camps at Samakh and Deraa were burning and long trains " with steam up [ were ] facing east " and north , but " would never arrive anywhere " because the railway lines were cut . Retreating German and Ottoman forces from Nablus were seen approaching Deraa . " And this was the refuge towards which the Fourth Army from Amman was making in headlong retreat ! "
= = = Consolidation of Chaytor 's Force at Es Salt = = =
During the night of 23 / 24 September , Allenby 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) instructed Chaytor 's Force to continue harassment of the Fourth Army , cut off their retreat north from Amman , gain touch with the Arab Army , and maintain the detachment guarding the Jisr ed Damieh bridge .
The main road from Jericho to Es Salt , along which all wheeled transport and supplies for Chaytor 's Force travelled , had been severely damaged by the retreating Fourth Army . The 20th Indian Brigade , which had been marching up this road , was ordered to provide working parties to unblock it . This was completed by 08 : 50 on 24 September , when the 20th Indian Brigade continued their march to Es Salt , where they took over garrison duties from the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade .
The 2nd Light Horse Brigade continued their advance to Es Salt up the Wadi Jeria and Wadi Sir , reaching Ain es Sir at 10 : 30 , with forward patrols to the cross roads and north east of the village . During this advance the brigade was fired on by two Ottoman 77 mm guns located near Sueifiye . These guns fired 16 shells , then withdrew as the light horse patrols approached . The brigade bivouacked for the night on the road from Ain es Sir to Ain Hummar when a strong picquet line was maintained throughout the night . ( See Falls Sketch Map 24 Amman detail ) Most of the land to the west of Amman was cleared of enemy forces during the afternoon of 24 September , and by that evening Chaytor 's Force , less the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , the 38th Royal Fusiliers at Shunet Nimrin and the Jisr ed Damieh detachment , was concentrated at Es Salt with mounted troops at Suweileh .
= = = Raid on Hejaz railway = = =
Four officers and 100 men from the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment carried out a successful raid from Suweileh on the Hejaz railway line north of Amman during the night of 24 / 25 September . This force , carrying nothing but tools and weapons , advanced 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the railway , where they destroyed part of the Hejaz railway line 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of Amman near Kalaat ez Zerka station . They " returned next morning without the loss of a man " to rejoin their regiment eleven hours and 20 miles ( 32 km ) later .
= = = Allenby 's assessment of the battle = = =
The Turks East of Jordan are retreating North ; and I am sending all available troops from the Jordan Valley after them , via Es Salt . I 've been going round hospitals today . All the sick and wounded are very cheerful and content . I 've told them that they 've done the biggest thing in the war – having totally destroyed two Armies in 36 hours ! The VII and VIII Armies , now non – existent , were the best troops in the Turkish Empire ; and were strongly backed by Germans and Austrians ... I have just heard that my cavalry have taken Haifa and Acre , today . They had a bit of a fight , at Haifa ; but I have no details yet . I think my Jordan troops will probably reach Es Salt tomorrow ; but they won 't catch many Turks there . However , my aeroplanes have been pulverising the retreating Turks in that locality .
= = Battle of Amman 25 September = =
Amman was an important city on the Ottoman lines of communication . All of the supplies and reinforcements for the Ottoman army force defending the line on the eastern edge of the Jordan Valley had passed through it . Now the city was on the main line of retreat .
The defences at Amman had been greatly strengthened since the First Transjordan attack on Amman , with the construction of a series of redoubts that were defended by machine guns . However , the boggy ground which had limited movement during the first attack in March , was by the early autumn , firm and now favoured a rapid mounted attack .
Orders were issued for the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and the 2nd Light Horse Brigades to advance at 06 : 00 on 25 September to capture Amman followed by the 1st Light Horse Brigade who left at 06 : 30 . They were to strongly assault the defenders , if the town was lightly held . If Amman was found to be held in strength the assault on the town was to be deferred until infantry could reinforce the mounted infantry . Only the outlying or forward trenches were to be attacked , artillery was to fire on the town , all lines of retreat northwards were to be cut . Aerial bombing of Amman was requested . The 1st Battalion British West Indies Regiment arrived at Suweileh at 07 : 00 to take over garrison duties from the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade .
Within two hours the light horse and mounted rifle brigades were in sight of Amman and the attack had begun . The movement of Ottoman units were seen behind Amman , on Hill 3039 . Two batteries of small guns and a number of machine guns opened fire . Several Ottoman posts 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Amman were attacked and captured by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade along with 106 prisoners and four machine guns . One regiment of the 1st Light Horse Brigade was sent at 10 : 00 to reinforce the left flank of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and came under Meldrum 's command . The Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment advanced half an hour later , on the right of the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment , with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade on their left . They eventually forced the Ottoman front line defenders to retire back to the main line of defence , which was also strongly supported by machine guns . At noon the Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment advanced towards " the main entrance to Amman , " but they were stopped by fire from concealed machine guns . However , by 13 : 30 , fighting in the streets of the town was underway , when the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment continued their steady advance , and the 5th Light Horse Regiment entered the southern part of the town . At 14 : 30 , a second regiment of 1st Light Horse Brigade was ordered to reinforce the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's left . The Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment advanced to a position from which they were able to enfilade the defenders in the Citadel , and shortly afterwards the 10th Squadron , with a troop of the 8th Squadron , attacked and " stormed " the Citadel . By 15 : 00 the Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment was in Amman and , with the 5th Light Horse Regiment , were " hunting out snipers and capturing prisoners . "
By 16 : 30 on 25 September the Anzac Mounted Division , captured Amman along with between 2 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 563 prisoners , 300 sick , ten guns ( three of which were heavy ) , and 25 machine guns . The mounted infantry method of systematically " galloping to points of vantage and bringing fire to bear on the flanks of such machine gun nests , " combined with quick outflanking of machine guns eventually won all obstacles , and the opposition was broken .
During the Third Transjordan attack , Chaytor 's Force suffered 139 casualties , consisting of 27 killed , 7 missing and 105 wounded . Of these the Anzac Mounted Division suffered 16 men killed and 56 wounded , while the 2nd Battalion British West Indies Regiment suffered 41 casualties . Historian Earl Wavell notes that " the Anzac Mounted Division here ended a very fine fighting record . It had taken a gallant part in practically every engagement since the EEF had set out from the Canal two and a half years previously . "
= = Aftermath = =
By the evening of 25 September , the 1st Light Horse Brigade held the Amman railway station area , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade held the area to the south , while the 2nd Light Horse Brigade bivouaced on the western slope of Hill 3039 . A squadron from the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment was sent to Madeba where they captured a number of prisoners and a very large amount of grain . Emergency rations were supplemented by food bought from the inhabitants . The 20th Indian Brigade along with the VIIIXX RHA Brigade and 1st Battalion British West Indies Regiment were ordered to march to Amman , leaving the 39th Royal Fusiliers at Suweileh to take over the defence of Es Salt .
Allenby wrote to Henry Wilson , Chief of the Imperial General Staff at the War Office regarding his plans for the Anzac Mounted Division : " I shall leave one cavalry division in the Amman area to operate against and cut off the enemy retreating Northwards from Ma 'an , and thereafter it will proceed to Damascus and rejoin Desert Mounted Corps . "
= = = Pursuit of Fourth Army north of Amman = = =
Only a rearguard of the Fourth Army was captured at Amman . The remainder of the garrison was already retreating northwards , following orders received from Liman von Sanders on 21 September , four days before Chaytor 's attack . Those who had escaped by train , before the line was cut by Chaytor 's Force during the night of 24 / 25 September , were forced to detrain south of Deraa . Here they found the railway line cut by Arab Sherifial forces . A retreating column of 3 @,@ 000 infantry and cavalry , 300 horse transport and guns , and 600 camels was seen at Mafrak , withdrawing northwards from Amman in the early morning of 25 September . Ten Australian aircraft bombed Mafrak between 06 : 00 and 08 : 00 . The railway station , a long train and several dumps were destroyed , and the railway was completely blocked . A number of trains continued to arrive at Mafrak from Amman during the day , but each was attacked by aircraft . No. 1 Squadron AFC bombed the area three times , dropping four tons of bombs and firing almost 20 @,@ 000 machine gun rounds . The survivors were forced to abandon their wheeled @-@ transport , and only a few thousand managed to escape on foot or horse towards Deraa and Damascus .
The 1st Light Horse Brigade was ordered to capture the nearest water in the Wadi el Hamman 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of Amman , to deny it to the retreating columns . A regiment of the brigade captured Kalaat ez Zerka railway station , 12 miles ( 19 km ) north east of Amman . Here , " after a short action " on 26 September , they captured 105 prisoners and one gun . Aircraft guided the 1st Light Horse Brigade to the location of an Ottoman force on 27 September , which the aircraft then machine gunned . Subsequently the light horsemen captured 300 prisoners and two machine guns . By evening , they had captured the water at Wadi el Hamman , while one regiment occupied Kalaat ez Zerka . The next day the 1st Light Horse Regiment advanced to Qalat el Mafraq , 30 miles ( 48 km ) north north east of Amman . Here they captured several trains , one Red Crescent train full of wounded , along with 10 officers and 70 other ranks found sick at Kh es Samra . Woodward claims the Red Crescent train at Qalat el Mafraq had been looted and all the sick and wounded killed .
A total of 6 @,@ 000 or 7 @,@ 000 retreating soldiers from the three Ottoman armies , mostly from the Fourth Army , escaped the combined encirclement by the XX Corps , the XXI Corps , the Desert Mounted Corps and Chaytor 's Force , to retreat towards Damascus .
= = = Capture of Fourth Army units south of Amman = = =
Chaytor 's Force blocked the road and railway at Amman and prepared to intercept the Ottoman II Corps of the Fourth Army , which was retreating north from Ma 'an . This large Ottoman force which had garrisoned the towns and railway stations on the southern Hejaz Railway , was reported to be 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of Amman on the evening of 25 September , advancing quickly north towards Chaytor 's Force .
Consisting of Ottoman , Arab and Circassian soldiers , the II Corps had three options : to pass to the east of Amman along the Darb el Haj direct to Damascus , although water would be a problem in that desert region , to attack Chaytor 's Force at Amman , or to move westwards , to try to get to the Jordan Valley . Patterson 's Column was ordered to entrench Shunet Nimrin , Es Salt and Suweileh in case they moved westwards . On the Royal Fusiliers ' right the 2nd Light Horse Brigade closely guarded the country to the south , in particular the Madaba to Naur to Ain Hummar road across the plateau , with a strong detachment occupying Ain es Sir . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade sent a detachment at about midday on 26 September to investigate a report of Ottoman and German soldiers with guns at Er Rumman , but none were found . They subsequently sent a second detachment east of Amman to watch the Darb el Haj . The 20th Indian Brigade of infantry arrived after dark on 26 September to take over garrison duties at Amman .
The 2nd Light Horse Brigade was ordered to blow up the railway line as far to the south as they could , in order to obstruct and delay the northward movement of the Ottoman II Corps . They cut the railway line just north of Ziza Station . By 08 : 30 on 27 September , they had captured some Ottoman soldiers south of Leban Station , 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the south of Amman . One of the prisoners said the advanced guard of a 6 @,@ 000 strong retreating column had reached Kastal , 15 miles ( 24 km ) south of Amman . Aircraft located the Ottoman Southern Force at 06 : 55 on 28 September at Ziza , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of Amman , where three trains were in the station . A message dropped at 15 : 15 called on them to surrender . They were warned that all water north of Kastal was in EEF hands , and that they would be bombed the next day , if they refused to surrender . No answer had been received by 08 : 45 on 29 September , and arrangements were made for the bombing to be carried out in the afternoon .
The 5th Light Horse Regiment ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) , meanwhile had reached 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Ziza at 10 : 30 , where an Ottoman officer delivered a letter from the commander of the II Corps . The 5th Light Horse regimental commander was informed at 11 : 40 by 2nd Light Horse Brigade headquarters that , unless the Ottoman force surrendered , they would be bombed at 15 : 00 . Negotiations for a surrender began at 11 : 45 , and the 5th Light Horse Regiment moved across the railway to within 700 yards ( 640 m ) of the Ottoman force , which was surrounded by Bedouin . Reports were received by 12 : 45 that the Ottoman force at Ziza would surrender , and the bombing raid was cancelled . The remainder of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade was ordered to " make a forced march " from Amman to Ziza , and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was ordered to follow at dawn the next day . The 7th Light Horse Regiment ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) arrived at Ziza late in the afternoon . The remainder of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , less details and patrols , left Amman at 13 : 45 . They moved slowly at first , through hilly and stony country between Amman and Leban , then trotted to Ziza , where they arrived at 17 : 20 . The Bedouin force which surrounded the Ottoman II Corps were Beni Sakhr Bedouin Arabs . They demanded that the Ottoman force be handed over to them . This was refused , and after the arrival of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , the Beni Sakhr force became openly hostile .
Chaytor arrived at about 17 : 00 , and informed the Ottoman commander that his soldiers were to " be prepared to defend " themselves for the coming night . The Ottoman commander Colonel Kaaimakan Ali Bey Whahaby agreed to be a hostage in exchange for the cooperation of his men with Chaytor 's Force , and left for Amman with Chaytor at 17 : 30 . The 5th and 7th Light Horse Regiments galloped through the encircling Arabs into the Ottoman position , and placed troops in position at intervals in the Ottoman line , where they remained until the morning . Two small clashes between Beni Sakhr Arabs and Ottomans occurred before dark , but a cordon was put round the Ottoman force after the arrival of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade . The Beni Sakhr were warned to keep back , though they attempted to raid the hospital . During the night , several attacks by the Beni Sakhr Arab force were driven off by Ottoman machine gun fire and light horse rifles .
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade arrived at 05 : 30 on 30 September to take over the position and the care of the 534 sick , as well as collecting the 14 guns , 35 machine guns , two automatic rifles , three railway engines , 25 railway trucks , lorries and large amounts of ammunition and stores . After assurances by Brigadier General Ryrie commanding the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , that the sick and wounded Ottoman soldiers would be cared for , the Ottoman force concentrated at dawn near Ziza railway station while the light horsemen took the bolts from the Ottoman rifles . Two Anatolian battalions remained armed in case the Beni Sakhr attacked during the march . The 5th Light Horse Regiment marched between 4 @,@ 068 and 4 @,@ 082 prisoners , including walking wounded , north to Amman . They were followed by 502 sick .
All prisoners were mustered . Walking sick cases were collected under shelter of the station buildings , and cot cases were transferred to 2nd Light Horse Field Ambulance cacolets . The prisoners escorted by 5th Light Horse Regiment , less one squadron at Amman with one squadron 7th Light Horse attached , moved off to Amman at 07 : 15 . All arms and equipment were collected and put in railway trucks . This task was finished by 15 : 30 . The Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment remained to guard the sick until transport was organised . One hundred sick walking cases were sent on to Amman in New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade transport wagons and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade commenced its return journey to Amman . They arrived at 21 : 00 , while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade remained in charge at Ziza .
Chaytor 's Force 's total captures from the beginning of operations to 30 September were 10 @,@ 322 prisoners , 57 guns including one 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch gun , three 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch howitzers , one anti aircraft gun , ten 10 cm guns , 32 77 mm guns , six 75 mm guns , two 3 @-@ inch guns and two 13 pounder HAC guns , 147 machine guns , 13 automatic rifles including one Hotchkiss rifle and one Lewis gun , two wireless sets , 11 railway engines , 106 railway rolling @-@ stock , 142 vehicles and large quantities of artillery shells , small arms ammunition ( SAA ) and other material .
= = = Medical establishments and evacuations = = =
The mobile sections of the field ambulances followed their brigades to Es Salt with their camel transport . They travelled up the Umm esh Shert and Jisr ed Damieh tracks , while their wheeled transport followed by the Shunet Nimrim road . A divisional collecting station was established at Suweileh , during the Second Battle of Amman , by the immobile section of the 1st Light Horse Field Ambulance and the Anzac ( No. 7 ) Sanitary Section . Both of these units arrived from Jerusalem early on 25 September , following the wheeled supply vehicles along the Shunet Nimrin road . Subsequently a dressing @-@ station was opened in the ruins of the Roman amphitheatre at Amman . There , 268 sick and wounded light horsemen were admitted up to 30 September and evacuated from Amman by motor ambulance wagons . Two Ottoman hospitals in the town were found to hold 480 patients , a number which quickly grew to more than 1 @,@ 000 . These patients and the Ottoman medical staff were evacuated to Jerusalem by motor lorries . There were also 1 @,@ 269 British and Indian sick evacuated from Amman in the ten days between 30 September and 9 October .
These large numbers of evacuations to Jericho , eight to ten hours away , travelled mostly in motor lorries . Motor ambulances were reserved for the most severe cases . The trip was broken about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Es Salt , where the Welsh Field Ambulance fed the patients and rested them for two hours before they resumed their journey . One group of motor ambulances drove between Amman and the Welsh Field Ambulance , and a second group drove from the Welsh Field Ambulance to Jericho . Motor lorries and some cars of No. 35 Motor Ambulance Convoy evacuated the sick from the Anzac Mounted Division receiving station near Jericho to the casualty clearing station at Jerusalem .
= = = Sick = = =
Many of the troops at Amman had garrisoned the malarial Jordan Valley for over six months , during the summer . The hot , humid Jordan Valley sits at about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) below sea level , while the troops at Amman were now some 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in a climate where the nights were cold . With malaria dormant in their blood , the change of climate caused many cases of attacks of malaria fever . Before the returning 2nd Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades reached Jerusalem on their way back to Deiran , they , along with the 1st Light Horse Brigade still the Amman area , were struck by a heavy outbreak of disease . " Between 19 September and 3 November , 6920 men in Chaytor 's Force were listed as sick . In the Anzac division , 1088 men were sick in September ; the number trebled in the following month ... In some regiments , riderless horses were let loose and herded down into the valley like a mob of cattle . "
The Anzac Mounted Division evacuated more than 3 @,@ 000 sick in the last three weeks of September 2700 of which were cases of malignant malaria . The divisional collecting station was brought forward from Suweileh on 30 September , and at one time treated as many as 246 cases , the majority of which were seriously ill . The 1st Light Horse Brigade evacuated 126 cases during the seven days following 28 September , and 239 cases by 10 October . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade evacuated 316 cases and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade had 57 cases , many of whom suffered a high fever of 105 ° to 106 ° F. More than 700 cases of mostly malignant malaria were reported during the first 12 days of October , and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade lost about one third of its strength . Of the approximately 5 @,@ 000 New Zealanders , about 3 @,@ 000 were either in hospital or in convalescent depots , mostly with malaria .
On 21 September 1 Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigades accompanied by the 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment advanced to the Jisr ed Damieh . The surrounding area was swampy ground where no mosquito management had been carried out . " The air was full of hordes of peculiarly aggressive and blood – thirsty mosquitoes , laden with as subsequent events proved the parasites of malignant malaria . " While the other units advanced to Es Salt and Amman , the 2nd Battalion remained to guard the bridge and was subsequently virtually the whole unit was infected with malaria . By 19 October 726 soldiers from this unit , had been evacuated with malignant malaria . Within the units of Chaytor 's Force which moved to Es Salt and Amman cases of malignant malaria began to appear in much smaller numbers on 28 September and up to 10 October 2 Light Horse Brigade which had not been in the Jisr ed Damieh area evacuated 57 soldiers compared with 239 from the 1st Light Horse Brigade and 316 from the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade .
To people accustomed to ordinary benign tertian malaria the serious and dramatic nature of the malignant type was most alarming . The men attacked were suddenly prostrated in high fever , 105 ° and 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) . being frequently reported , they were often delirious and occasionally maniacal . Unless treated immediately and efficiently with quinine the mortality was high .
Of the many hundreds sent to hospital with malaria , many died , many recovered in hospital but later suffered a relapse and went to hospital again , many men were invalided home as a result of malaria , with their health badly undermined .
= = = = Care of horses = = = =
With so many men sick , it became common to see one man in charge of eight horses . At this time , the horses were fed newly threshed barley , which resulted in the death of 15 horses and 160 seriously ill horses in Chaytor 's Force .
= = = Return to Richon le Zion = = =
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade returned from Ziza to Amman between 1 and 2 October , then continued on to Ain es Sir on 3 October and returned to the Jordan Valley the next day . At Ain es Sir , the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment captured a number of Circassians " suspected of involvement in the May attack and escorted them to Jerusalem for trial . "
The brigade left the Jordan Valley after three days at Jericho , bivouacking at Tallat ed Dumm on 8 October . They paused at midday on 9 October at the Mount of Olives , near Bethany , then " rode down into the Valley of Jehosophat for the last time , past the Garden of Gethsemane , up round the old walls and then through the streets of Jerusalem , past the Jaffa Gate , on to the Hebron road . " The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade rested for a few days near Jerusalem , then returned to Richon le Zion on 14 October to rest and recuperate .
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= French battleship Vergniaud =
Vergniaud was one of the six Danton class semi @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy in the late 1900s . When World War I began in August 1914 , she unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in the Western Mediterranean and escorted convoys . Later that month , the ship participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser . Vergniaud spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent German , Austro @-@ Hungarian and Turkish warships from breaking out into the Mediterranean .
She briefly participated in the occupation of Constantinople after the end of the war and was deployed in the Black Sea in early 1919 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . The ship 's crew mutinied after one of its members was killed when a protest against intervention against the Bolsheviks was bloodily suppressed . Vergniaud returned to France and was later placed in reserve after a brief deployment in the Eastern Mediterranean . She was condemned in 1921 and used as a target ship until 1926 . The ship was sold for scrap two years later .
= = Design and description = =
Although the Danton @-@ class battleships were a significant improvement from the preceding Liberté class , they were outclassed by the advent of the dreadnought well before they were completed . This , combined with other poor traits , including the great weight in coal they had to carry , made them rather unsuccessful ships , though their numerous rapid @-@ firing guns were of some use in the Mediterranean .
Vergniaud was 146 @.@ 6 meters ( 481 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 25 @.@ 8 meters ( 84 ft 8 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 2 meters ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 736 metric tons ( 19 @,@ 424 long tons ) at deep load and had a crew of 681 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered by four Parsons steam turbines using steam generated by twenty @-@ six Niclausse boilers . The turbines were rated at 22 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) and provided a top speed of around 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Vergniaud reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 7 knots ( 36 @.@ 5 km / h ; 22 @.@ 7 mph ) on her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 027 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 3 @,@ 370 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 240 km ; 3 @,@ 880 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Vergniaud 's main battery consisted of four 305mm / 45 Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of twelve 240mm / 50 Modèle 1902 guns in twin turrets , three on each side of the ship . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included sixteen 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 65 guns and ten 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship was also armed with two submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship 's waterline armor belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower also had 300 mm thick sides .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
During the war 75 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed on the roofs of the ship 's two forward 240 mm gun turrets . During 1918 , the mainmast was shortened to allow the ship to fly a captive kite balloon and the elevation of the 240 mm guns was increased which extended their range to 18 @,@ 000 meters ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) .
= = Career = =
Construction of Vergniaud was begun on 26 December 1906 by Forges et Chantiers de la Gironde in Bordeaux and the ship was laid down on November 1907 . She was launched on 12 April 1909 and was completed on 18 December 1911 at cost of 55 @,@ 247 @,@ 307 francs . The ship was assigned to the First Division of the First Squadron ( escadre ) of the Mediterranean Fleet when she was commissioned . The ship participated in combined fleet maneuvers between Provence and Tunisia in May – June 1913 and the subsequent naval review conducted by the President of France , Raymond Poincaré on 7 June 1913 . Afterwards , Vergniaud joined her squadron in its tour of the Eastern Mediterranean in October – December 1913 and participated in the grand fleet exercise in the Mediterranean in May 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
At the beginning of the war , the ship , together with her sister Condorcet and the dreadnought Courbet , unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau in the Balearic Islands . She later escorted troop convoys from North Africa to France before she joined her sisters at Malta . On 16 August 1914 the combined Anglo @-@ French Fleet under Admiral Auguste Boué de Lapeyrère , including Vergniaud , made a sweep of the Adriatic Sea . The Allied ships encountered the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta , escorted by the destroyer SMS Ulan , blockading the coast of Montenegro . There were too many ships for Zenta to escape , so she remained behind to allow Ulan to get away and was sunk by gunfire during the Battle of Antivari off the coast of Bar , Montenegro . Vergniaud was one of the ships that bombarded Cattaro on 1 September and blockaded the Strait of Otranto for the rest of the year and through August 1915 . She was based at Malta and Bizerte until February 1916 when she sailed to Toulon .
Vergniaud was transferred to the Second Squadron on 27 March 1916 and resumed her former duties of blockading the Strait of Otranto from bases in Argostoli and Corfu for most of the rest of the war . The ship transferred some of her men to her sister Mirabeau that participated in the Allied attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia in Athens on 1 December 1916 . The lieutenant in charge of her landing party was killed as were several other men during the incident . She was given a short refit at Toulon from 9 November 1917 to January 1918 and returned to Corfu . Vergniaud was transferred to Mudros in May to prevent Goeben from breaking out into the Mediterranean . A boiler burst on 14 September , killing four men and wounding nine others . After the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire , the ship participated in the early stage of the occupation of Constantinople . She returned to Toulon on 17 December for a short refit .
= = = Postwar career = = =
In early 1919 , Vergniaud was among the ships stationed off Sevastopol as an Allied deterrent to Soviet forces who were encroaching on the city during the Russian civil war . Despite Allied support , the city 's White Russian forces were in a seemingly hopeless position , and in April 1919 the French naval high command ordered the ships to evacuate . Rejecting this , the commander of the Second Squadron , Vice @-@ Admiral ( vice @-@ amiral ) Jean @-@ Françoise @-@ Charles Amet , attempted to have his forces intervene in the fighting , only to have a mutiny erupt on several of his ships . War @-@ weary sailors demanded to return home and the ensuing standoff culminated in a mass shooting of sailor demonstrators . Fifteen people were wounded , but only one died , a sailor from Vergniaud . The battleship 's crew had thus far remained neutral in the conflict but quickly joined the ranks of the most radical mutineers , unfurling red banners in support of the Bolshevik forces . The four @-@ day stalemate ended in a victory for the sailors : the ships withdrew from the Black Sea and Vergniaud returned to France . The ship departed on 29 April , towing the merchant ship SS Jerusalem to Constantinople .
Vergniaud was based in Beirut from May to August 1919 to monitor Turkish activities off the coasts of Palestine , Lebanon and Syria . She arrived in Toulon on 6 September and was placed in special reserve on 1 October . This ship was later found to be in poor shape , decommissioned in June 1921 and condemned on 27 October . She was disarmed in 1922 and her 240mm guns handed over for coastal defence , nine being installed around Dakar , some still existing there .
Vergniaud became a target ship and was used to evaluate the effects of poison gases and bombs until 1926 . She was listed for disposal on 5 May 1927 and was sold for breaking up on 27 November 1928 for the price of 5 @,@ 623 @,@ 123 francs . A monument to the French mutineers of 1919 was erected by the Soviets in Sevastopol , at Morskaïa Square where Vergniaud 's sailor was killed .
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= Al Pollard =
Alfred Lee Pollard ( September 7 , 1928 – March 3 , 2002 ) was a professional football fullback and halfback . After a brief stint at Loyola University , he decided to transfer to the United States Military Academy ( Army ) in the spring of 1949 where he played under the renowned Vince Lombardi as his backfield coach . In his 1950 season , he was Army 's statistical leader in scoring and rushing , resigned from the school after being involved in an all sports wide cribbing scandal which decimated the ranks of Army 's Sports teams . He was drafted by the New York Yanks in the 21st round of the 1951 NFL Draft , and Pollard played a total of 30 games in the NFL with the Yanks and the Philadelphia Eagles , scoring one career touchdown . In 1954 , he left the Eagles for opportunity and played in the Western Interprovincial Football Union , later known as the Canadian Football League , for the BC Lions , achieving " All Canadian " status . After retiring from football in 1957 , he pursued a number of business ventures in Canada including a beverage distributorship and a well regarded Steakhouse restaurant . He move back to Pennsylvania and became a color commentator on Eagles broadcasts , first with CBS television from 1961 – 1964 , and then on WIP radio , where he worked with play @-@ by @-@ play man Charlie Swift from 1969 @-@ 1976 . Pollard also anchored a postgame Eagles program for WCAU @-@ TV . During his broadcasting years , he worked as a regional sales manager with a large commercial printing company and developed an ice skating and tennis court facility in Berwyn , Pa . He died of lymphoma on March 3 , 2002 .
= = Early life and high school = =
Pollard was born in Glendale , California , on September 7 , 1928 . His mother was Phyllis Pollard . He starred as a halfback at Loyola High School , where he excelled at executing T formations . In 1946 , his senior year , he scored 23 touchdowns and gained a total of 1 @,@ 772 yards from scrimmage . These achievements earned him his second consecutive " Player of the Year " award for Southern California high school football players by the Helms Athletic Foundation .
= = College = =
= = = Loyola = = =
Not heavily recruited by major colleges , Pollard decided to attend Loyola University , now known as Loyola Marymount , where high school coach William H. Sargent would be coaching . His 1947 recruiting class was known as the " Golden Boys " , and the Los Angeles Times said he was the most glamorous of them . Injuries plagued his redshirt freshman campaign , and he dropped out of Loyola on February 18 , 1949 . This decision surprised Loyola officials ; Pollard said he simply needed rest .
= = = Army = = =
Pollard transferred to the United States Military Academy on March 22 , where he played under coach Red Blaik . Vince Lombardi was their backfield coach . Due to transfer rules , Pollard was forced to sit out the 1949 season , and he enrolled at Rutherford Preparatory School to pass West Point 's entrance exam . While at Army , he was known to focus his attention mainly on football , and not care much for academics . Gil Reich , his roommate at West Point , noted that he and several other friends of Pollard frequently helped each other so as to not see anyone drop out .
In his only season on the football team ( 1950 ) , he was Army 's statistical leader in rushing , averaging 7 @.@ 3 yards per carry , and in scoring , with 83 total points . Prior to Army 's game with Penn , a scout for the latter team said Pollard was the best fullback in college football . In December , the Helms Athletic Foundation named him to their 1950 All @-@ American team , along with fellow Army cadet Dan Foldberg . He was also named to the Associated Press and United Press All @-@ East teams . The Associated Press praised his running capabilities , commenting that " any time he lugs the ball he 's liable to go all the way . "
Following the end of that season , he was one of the 90 cadets , also including coach Blaik 's son , who were forced to resign from the academy because of a cribbing scandal . The scandal was chronicled in the ESPN original film Code Breakers . According to Pollard in a 1951 interview with the Philadelphia Inquirer , the whole fiasco " broke [ his ] heart . " Following the scandal , he received scholarship offers from five major schools and a number of smaller ones . Pollard called Moose Krause , athletic director at Notre Dame , about transferring and playing for their football program , but was informed the Notre Dame Fighting Irish had not accepted transfers for six years . Although he was technically a sophomore , Pollard 's class had graduated and he declared himself eligible for the 1951 NFL Draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = National Football League = = =
Paul Myerberg of USA Today named Pollard the fifth best player from Army to play in the NFL . Pollard was selected by the New York Yanks as the eighth pick in the 21st round of the 1951 NFL Draft and 251st overall . In his third practice with New York , Pollard tore a ligament . He played six games with the Yanks , where he rushed for two yards and received 18 . In addition , he returned three punts and five kickoffs for 34 and 134 yards , respectively . The Yanks , who offered him a salary of $ 7 @,@ 000 , waived him in November , and he was signed to the Philadelphia Eagles for $ 100 .
Finishing the last six games of the 1951 season , he carried the ball 24 times and in the process gained 119 yards . He also recoved two fumbles , returned 15 punts for 114 yards , and returned 14 kickoffs for 326 yards . Pollard 's best season statistically was in 1952 , when , in 12 games , he rushed for 186 yards and his sole touchdown in the NFL , received eight passes for 59 yards , recovered three fumbles , and returned 28 kickoffs for 528 yards . In 1953 he played in 12 games which saw him rush for 44 yards and receive for 33 , recover three fumbles , gain 106 yards in 20 punt returns , and gain 150 yards in 13 kickoff returns .
Pollard was at the center of a small brawl with the San Francisco 49ers in their game on September 28 , 1953 . The brawl erupted in the fourth quarter , when San Francisco 's Charley Powell squared off against Pollard . The Eagles ended up losing 31 @-@ 21 , and Pollard received no disciplinary action , although Powell was ejected .
= = = Western Interprovincial Football Union = = =
In September 1954 , he heard his minutes would be slashed , and after the second exhibition game , Pollard retired from the Eagles . As he was under contract , Pollard was threatened with legal action from General Manager Vince McNally . He avoided the legal tangle by never officially signing with another team again , thus voiding the reserve clause on his contract . Pollard explained his rationale in a 1954 interview with the Philadelphia Inquirer : " I just got fed up ... I knew they wouldn 't give me much of a chance to play ... I carried the ball only 23 times in 12 games last year , so something had to be wrong . "
When considering joining the Western Interprovincial Football Union ( now Canadian Football League ) , Pollard reported being given a good deal of propaganda to turn him away . He was picked up by the British Columbia Lions of the WIFU , with whom he played for until 1956 . Pollard then played a single season for the Calgary Stampeders in 1957 . He did not see much action with the Stampeders and ended his career due to health problems .
= = Later life and broadcasting career = =
While in Canada , Pollard opened a beverage store and a restaurant . He became sports director of CKLG radio station in Vancouver . After moving back to Pennsylvania , Pollard was a color commentator on broadcasts of Eagles games for WIP radio and worked with Charlie Swift , the play @-@ by @-@ play man , from 1969 to 1976 . The former anchored a postgame Eagles program for WCAU @-@ TV and occasionally commented for CBS television . His voice and knowledge of sports was praised by Eagles publicist Jim Gallagher .
Between 1976 until the mid @-@ 1980s , upon retiring from broadcasting , Pollard owned and managed an ice skating rink and tennis court facility in Valley Forge , Pennsylvania . He also was regional sales manager for a large commercial web printing company and participated in organizations such as Eagles Alumni . In addition , he chaired the committee which ran the Liberty Bowl .
= = Death = =
On March 2 , 2002 , Pollard died at his home in Devon , Pennsylvania , at the age of 73 . The stated cause of death was lymphoma . Patricia , his wife of 47 years ; children John , Kurt ( 1962 – 2007 ) , and Melissa Mozer ; and eight grandchildren survived him in death . He was buried on March 7 at SS . Peter and Paul Cemetery in Marple Township , Pennsylvania .
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= Edward II of England =
Edward II ( 25 April 1284 – 21 September 1327 ) , also called Edward of Caernarfon , was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed in January 1327 . The fourth son of Edward I , Edward became the heir to the throne following the death of his older brother Alphonso . Beginning in 1300 , Edward accompanied his father on campaigns to pacify Scotland , and in 1306 he was knighted in a grand ceremony at Westminster Abbey . Edward succeeded to the throne in 1307 , following his father 's death . In 1308 , he married Isabella of France , the daughter of the powerful King Philip IV , as part of a long @-@ running effort to resolve the tensions between the English and French crowns .
Edward had a close and controversial relationship with Piers Gaveston , who had joined his household in 1300 . The precise nature of Edward and Gaveston 's relationship is uncertain ; they may have been friends , lovers or sworn brothers . Gaveston 's arrogance and power as Edward 's favourite provoked discontent both among the barons and the French royal family , and Edward was forced to exile him . On Gaveston 's return , the barons pressured the King into agreeing to wide @-@ ranging reforms called the Ordinances of 1311 . The newly empowered barons banished Gaveston , to which Edward responded by revoking the reforms and recalling his favourite . Led by Edward 's cousin , the Earl of Lancaster , a group of the barons seized and executed Gaveston in 1312 , beginning several years of armed confrontation . English forces were pushed back in Scotland , where Edward was decisively defeated by Robert the Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 . Widespread famine followed , and criticism of the King 's reign mounted .
The Despenser family , in particular Hugh Despenser the Younger , became close friends and advisers to Edward , but in 1321 Lancaster and many of the barons seized the Despensers ' lands and forced the King to exile them . In response , Edward led a short military campaign , capturing and executing Lancaster . Edward and the Despensers strengthened their grip on power , revoking the 1311 reforms , executing their enemies and confiscating estates . Unable to make progress in Scotland , Edward finally signed a truce with Robert . Opposition to the regime grew , and when Isabella was sent to France to negotiate a peace treaty in 1325 , she turned against Edward and refused to return . Isabella allied herself with the exiled Roger Mortimer , and invaded England with a small army in 1326 . Edward 's regime collapsed and he fled into Wales , where he was captured in November . Edward was forced to relinquish his crown in January 1327 in favour of his fourteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Edward III , and he died in Berkeley Castle on 21 September , probably murdered on the orders of the new regime .
Edward 's relationship with Gaveston inspired Christopher Marlowe 's 1592 play Edward II , along with other plays , films , novels and media . Many of these have focused on the possible sexual relationship between the two men . Edward 's contemporaries criticised his performance as a king , noting his failures in Scotland and the oppressive regime of his later years , although 19th @-@ century academics later argued that the growth of parliamentary institutions during his reign was a positive development for England over the longer term . Debate has continued into the 21st century as to whether Edward was a lazy and incompetent king , or simply a reluctant and ultimately unsuccessful ruler .
= = Background = =
Edward II was the fourth son of Edward I and his first wife , Eleanor of Castile . His father was the King of England , and had also inherited Gascony in south @-@ western France , which he held as the feudal vassal of the King of France , and the Lordship of Ireland . His mother was from the Castilian royal family , and held the County of Ponthieu in northern France . Edward I proved to be a successful military leader , leading the suppression of the baronial revolts in the 1260s , and joining the Ninth Crusade . During the 1280s he conquered North Wales , removing the native Welsh princes from power , and in the 1290s he intervened in Scotland 's civil war , claiming suzerainty over the country . He was considered an extremely successful ruler by his contemporaries , largely able to control the powerful earls that formed the senior ranks of the English nobility . The historian Michael Prestwich describes Edward I as " a king to inspire fear and respect " , while John Gillingham characterises him as an efficient bully .
Despite his successes , when Edward I died in 1307 he left a range of challenges for his son to resolve . One of the most critical was the problem of English rule in Scotland , where Edward 's long but ultimately inconclusive military campaign was ongoing when he died . Edward 's control of Gascony created tension with the French kings . They insisted that the English kings should give homage to them for the lands ; the English kings saw this demand as insulting to their honour , and the issue remained unresolved . Edward I also faced increasing opposition from his barons over the taxation and requisitions required to resource his wars , and left his son debts of around £ 200 @,@ 000 on his death .
= = Early life ( 1284 – 1307 ) = =
= = = Birth = = =
Edward II was born in Caernarfon Castle in North Wales on 25 April 1284 , less than a year after Edward I had conquered the region , and as a result is sometimes called Edward of Caernarfon . The King probably deliberately chose the castle as the location for Edward 's birth , as it was an important symbolic location for the native Welsh , associated with Roman imperial history , and it formed the centre of the new royal administration of North Wales . Edward 's birth brought with it predictions of greatness from contemporary prophets who believed that the Last Days of the world were imminent , declaring him to be a new King Arthur , who would lead England to glory . David Powel , a 16th @-@ century clergyman , suggested that the baby was offered to the Welsh as a prince " that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English " , but there is no evidence to support this account .
Edward 's name was English in origin , linking him to the Anglo @-@ Saxon saint Edward the Confessor , and was chosen by his father instead of the more traditional Norman and Castilian names selected for Edward 's brothers : Edward had three elder brothers : John and Henry who had died before Edward was born , and Alphonso , who died in August 1284 , leaving Edward as the heir to the throne . Although Edward was a relatively healthy child , there were enduring concerns throughout his early years that he too might die and leave his father without a male heir . After his birth , Edward was looked after by a wet @-@ nurse called Mariota or Mary Maunsel for a few months until she fell ill , when Alice de Leygrave became his foster mother . He would have barely known his natural mother Eleanor , who was in Gascony with his father during his earliest years . An official household complete with staff was created for the new baby , under the direction of a clerk , Giles of Oudenarde .
= = = Childhood , personality and appearance = = =
Spending on Edward 's personal household increased as he grew older , and in 1293 William of Blyborough took over as its administrator . Edward was probably given a religious education by the Dominican friars , whom his mother invited into his household in 1290 . He was assigned one of his grandmother 's followers , Guy Ferre , as his magister , who was responsible for his discipline , training him in riding and military skills . It is uncertain how well educated Edward was ; there is little evidence for his ability to read and write , although his mother was keen that her other children were well educated , and Ferre was himself a relatively learned man for the period . Edward likely mainly spoke Anglo @-@ Norman French in his daily life , in addition to some English and possibly Latin .
Edward had a normal upbringing for a member of a royal family . The prince was interested in horses and horsebreeding , and became a good rider ; he also liked dogs , in particular greyhounds . In his letters , he shows a quirky sense of humour , joking about sending unsatisfactory animals to his friends , such as horses who disliked carrying their riders , or lazy hunting dogs too slow to catch rabbits . He was not particularly interested in hunting or falconry , both popular activities in the 14th century . He enjoyed music , including Welsh music and the newly invented crwth instrument , as well as musical organs . He did not take part in jousting , either because he lacked the aptitude or because he had been banned from participating for his personal safety , but he was certainly supportive of the sport .
Edward grew up to be tall and muscular , and was considered good looking by the standards of the period . He had a reputation as a competent public speaker and was known for his generosity to his household staff . Unusually , he enjoyed rowing , as well as hedging and ditching , and enjoyed associating with labourers and other lower @-@ class workers . This behaviour was not considered normal for the nobility of the period and attracted criticism from contemporaries .
In 1290 , Edward 's father had confirmed the Treaty of Birgham , in which he promised to marry his six @-@ year @-@ old son to the young Margaret of Norway , who had a potential claim to the crown of Scotland . Margaret died later that year , bringing an end to the plan . Edward 's mother , Eleanor , died shortly afterwards , followed by his grandmother , Eleanor of Provence . Edward I was distraught at his wife 's death and held a huge funeral for her ; his son inherited the County of Ponthieu from Eleanor on her death . Next , a French marriage was considered for the young Edward , to help secure a lasting peace with France , but war broke out in 1294 . The idea was replaced with the proposal of a marriage to a daughter of the Count of Flanders , but this too failed after it was blocked by King Philip IV of France .
= = = Early campaigns in Scotland = = =
Between 1297 and 1298 , Edward was left as regent in charge of England while the King campaigned in Flanders against Philip IV , who had occupied part of the English King 's lands in Gascony . On his return , Edward I signed a peace treaty , under which he took Philip 's sister , Margaret , as his wife and agreed that Prince Edward would in due course marry Philip 's daughter , Isabella , who was then only two years old . In theory , this marriage would mean that the disputed Duchy of Gascony would be inherited by a descendant of both Edward and Philip , providing a possible end to the long @-@ running tensions . The young Edward seems to have got on well with his new stepmother , who gave birth to Edward 's two half @-@ brothers , Thomas of Brotherton and Edmund of Woodstock , in 1300 and 1301 . As king , Edward later provided his brothers with financial support and titles .
Edward I returned to Scotland once again in 1300 , and this time took his son with him , making him the commander of the rearguard at the siege of Caerlaverock . In the spring of 1301 , the King declared Edward the Prince of Wales , granting him the earldom of Chester and lands across North Wales ; he seems to have hoped that this would help pacify the region , and that it would give his son some financial independence . Edward received homage from his Welsh subjects and then joined his father for the 1301 Scottish campaign ; he took an army of around 300 soldiers north with him and captured Turnberry Castle . Prince Edward also took part in the 1303 campaign during which he besieged Brechin Castle , deploying his own siege engine in the operation . In the spring of 1304 , Edward conducted negotiations with the rebel Scottish leaders on the King 's behalf and , when these failed , he joined his father for the siege of Stirling Castle .
In 1305 , Edward and his father quarrelled , probably over the issue of money . The Prince had an altercation with Bishop Walter Langton , who served as the royal treasurer , apparently over the amount of financial support Edward received from the Crown . Edward I defended his treasurer , and banished his son and his companions from his court , cutting off their financial support . After some negotiations involving family members and friends , the two men were reconciled .
The Scottish conflict flared up once again in 1306 , when Robert the Bruce killed his rival John Comyn and declared himself the King of the Scots . Edward I mobilised a fresh army , but decided that this time his son would be formally in charge of the expedition . Prince Edward was made the Duke of Aquitaine and then , along with many other young men , he was knighted in a lavish ceremony at Westminster Abbey called the Feast of the Swans . Amid a huge feast in the neighbouring hall , reminiscent of Arthurian legends and crusading events , the assembly took a collective oath to defeat Bruce . It is unclear what role Prince Edward 's forces played in the campaign that summer , which , under the orders of Edward I , saw a punitive , brutal retaliation against Bruce 's faction in Scotland . Edward returned to England in September , where diplomatic negotiations to finalise a date for his wedding to Isabella continued .
= = = Piers Gaveston and sexuality = = =
During this time , Edward became close to Piers Gaveston . Gaveston was the son of one of the King 's household knights whose lands lay adjacent to Gascony , and had himself joined Prince Edward 's household in 1300 , possibly on Edward I 's instruction . The two got on well ; Gaveston became a squire and was soon being referred to as a close companion of Edward , before being knighted by the King during the Feast of Swans in 1306 . The King then exiled Gaveston to Gascony in 1307 for reasons that remain unclear . According to one chronicler , Edward had asked his father to allow him to give Gaveston the County of Ponthieu , and the King responded furiously , pulling his son 's hair out in great handfuls , before exiling Gaveston . The official court records , however , show Gaveston being only temporarily exiled , supported by a comfortable stipend ; no reason is given for the order , suggesting that it may have been an act aimed at punishing the prince in some way .
The possibility that Edward had a sexual relationship with Gaveston or his later favourites has been extensively discussed by historians , complicated by the paucity of surviving evidence to determine for certain the details of their relationships . Homosexuality was fiercely condemned by the Church in 14th @-@ century England , equating it with heresy , but engaging in sex with another man did not necessarily define an individual 's personal identity in the same way that it might in the 21st century . Edward and Gaveston both had sexual relationships with their wives , who bore them children ; Edward also had an illegitimate son , and may also have had an affair with his niece , Eleanor de Clare .
The contemporary evidence supporting their homosexual relationship comes primarily from an anonymous chronicler in the 1320s who described how Edward " felt such love " for Gaveston that " he entered into a covenant of constancy , and bound himself with him before all other mortals with a bond of indissoluble love , firmly drawn up and fastened with a knot " . The first specific suggestion that Edward engaged in sex with men was recorded in 1334 , when Adam Orleton , the Bishop of Winchester , was accused of having stated in 1326 that Edward was a " sodomite " , although Orleton defended himself by arguing that he had meant that Edward 's advisor , Hugh Despenser the Younger , was a sodomite , rather than the late King . The Meaux Chronicle from the 1390s simply notes that Edward gave himself " too much to the vice of sodomy . "
Alternatively , Edward and Gaveston may have simply been friends with a close working relationship . Contemporary chronicler comments are vaguely worded ; Orleton 's allegations were at least in part politically motivated , and are very similar to the highly politicised sodomy allegations made against Pope Boniface VIII and the Knights Templar in 1303 and 1308 respectively . Later accounts by chroniclers of Edward 's activities may trace back to Orleton 's original allegations , and were certainly adversely coloured by the events at the end of Edward 's reign . Such historians as Michael Prestwich and Seymour Phillips have argued that the public nature of the English royal court would have made it unlikely that any homosexual affairs would have remained discreet ; neither the contemporary Church , Edward 's father nor his father @-@ in @-@ law appear to have made any adverse comments about Edward 's sexual behaviour .
A more recent theory , proposed by the historian Pierre Chaplais , suggests that Edward and Gaveston entered into a bond of adoptive brotherhood . Compacts of adoptive brotherhood , in which the participants pledged to support each other in a form of " brotherhood @-@ in @-@ arms " , were not unknown between close male friends in the Middle Ages . Many chroniclers described Edward and Gaveston 's relationship as one of brotherhood , and one explicitly noted that Edward had taken Gaveston as his adopted brother . Chaplais argues that the pair may have made a formal compact in either 1300 or 1301 , and that they would have seen any later promises they made to separate or to leave each other as having been made under duress , and therefore invalid . Such a compact , however , might not have excluded their relationship from having a sexual dimension as well .
= = Early reign ( 1307 – 11 ) = =
= = = Coronation and marriage = = =
Edward I mobilised another army for the Scottish campaign in 1307 , which Prince Edward was due to join that summer , but the elderly King had been increasingly unwell and died on 7 July at Burgh by Sands . Edward travelled from London immediately after the news reached him , and on 20 July he was proclaimed king . He continued north into Scotland and on 4 August received homage from his Scottish supporters at Dumfries , before abandoning the campaign and returning south . Edward promptly recalled Piers Gaveston , who was then in exile , and appointed him as the Earl of Cornwall , before arranging his marriage to the wealthy Margaret de Clare . Edward also arrested his old adversary Bishop Langton , and dismissed him from his post as treasurer . Edward I 's body was kept at Waltham Abbey for several months before being taken for burial to Westminster , where Edward erected a simple marble tomb for his father .
In 1308 , Edward 's marriage to Isabella of France proceeded . Edward crossed the English Channel to France in January , leaving Gaveston as his custos regni in charge of the kingdom in his absence . This arrangement was unusual , and involved unprecedented powers being delegated to Gaveston , backed by a specially engraved Great Seal . Edward probably hoped that the marriage would strengthen his position in Gascony and bring him much needed funds . The final negotiations , however , proved challenging : Edward and Philip IV did not like each other , and the French King drove a hard bargain over the size of Isabella 's dower and the details of the administration of Edward 's lands in France . As part of the agreement , Edward gave homage to Philip for the Duchy of Aquitaine and agreed to a commission to complete the implementation of the 1303 Treaty of Paris .
The pair were married in Boulogne on 25 January . Edward gave Isabella a psalter as a wedding gift , and her father gave her gifts worth over 21 @,@ 000 livres and a fragment of the True Cross . The pair returned to England in February , where Edward had ordered Westminster Palace to be lavishly restored in readiness for their coronation and wedding feast , complete with marble tables , forty ovens and a fountain that produced wine and pimento , a spiced medieval drink . After some delays , the ceremony went ahead on 25 February , under the guidance of Robert Winchelsey , the Archbishop of Canterbury . As part of the coronation , Edward swore to uphold " the rightful laws and customs which the community of the realm shall have chosen " . It is uncertain what this meant : it might have been intended to force Edward to accept future legislation , it may have been inserted to prevent him from overturning any future vows he might take , or it may have been an attempt by the King to ingratiate himself with the barons . The event was marred by the large crowds of eager spectators who surged into the palace , knocking down a wall and forcing Edward to flee by the back door .
Isabella was only 12 years old at the time of her wedding , young by the standards of the period , and Edward probably had sexual relations with mistresses during their first few years together . During this time Edward fathered an illegitimate son , Adam , who was born possibly as early as 1307 . Edward and Isabella 's first son , the future Edward III , was born in 1312 amid great celebrations , and three more children followed : John in 1316 , Eleanor in 1318 and Joan in 1321 .
= = = Tensions over Gaveston = = =
Gaveston 's return from exile in 1307 was initially accepted by the barons , but opposition quickly grew . He appeared to have an excessive influence on royal policy , leading to complaints from one chronicler that there were " two kings reigning in one kingdom , the one in name and the other in deed " . Accusations , probably untrue , were levelled at Gaveston that he had stolen royal funds and had purloined Isabella 's wedding presents . Gaveston had played a key role at Edward 's coronation , provoking fury from both the English and French contingents about the earl 's ceremonial precedence and magnificent clothes , and about Edward 's apparent preference for Gaveston 's company over that of Isabella 's at the feast .
Parliament met in February 1308 in a heated atmosphere . Edward was eager to discuss the potential for governmental reform , but the barons were unwilling to begin any such debate until the problem of Gaveston had been resolved . Violence seemed likely , but the situation was resolved through the mediation of the moderate Henry de Lacy , the Earl of Lincoln , who convinced the barons to back down . A fresh parliament was held in April , where the barons once again criticised Gaveston , demanding his exile , this time supported by Isabella and the French monarchy . Edward resisted , but finally acquiesced , agreeing to send Gaveston to Aquitaine , under threat of excommunication by the Archbishop of Canterbury should he return . At the last moment , Edward changed his mind and instead sent Gaveston to Dublin , appointing him as the Lieutenant of Ireland .
Edward called for a fresh military campaign for Scotland , but this idea was quietly abandoned , and instead the King and the barons met in August 1308 to discuss reform . Behind the scenes , Edward started negotiations to convince both Pope Clement V and Philip IV to allow Gaveston to return to England , offering in exchange to suppress the Knights Templar in England , and to release Bishop Langton from prison . Edward called a new meeting of members of the Church and key barons in January 1309 , and the leading earls then gathered in March and April , possibly under the leadership of Thomas , the Earl of Lancaster . Another parliament followed , which refused to allow Gaveston to return to England , but offered to grant Edward additional taxes if he agreed to a programme of reform .
Edward sent assurances to the Pope that the conflict surrounding Gaveston 's role was at an end . On the basis of these promises , and procedural concerns about the how the original decision had been taken , the Pope agreed to annul the Archbishop 's threat to excommunicate Gaveston , thus opening the possibility of Gaveston 's return . Gaveston arrived back in England in June , where he was met by Edward . At the parliament the next month , Edward made a range of concessions to placate those opposed to Gaveston , including agreeing to limit the powers of the royal steward and the marshal of the royal household , to regulate the Crown 's unpopular powers of purveyance and to abandon recently enacted customs legislation ; in return , the parliament agreed to fresh taxes for the war in Scotland . Temporarily , at least , Edward and the barons appeared to have come to a successful compromise .
= = = Ordinances of 1311 = = =
Following his return , Gaveston 's relationship with the major barons became increasingly difficult . He was considered arrogant , and he took to referring to the earls by offensive names , including calling one of their more powerful members the " dog of Warwick " . The Earl of Lancaster and Gaveston 's enemies refused to attend parliament in 1310 because Gaveston would be present . Edward was facing increasing financial problems , owing £ 22 @,@ 000 to his Frescobaldi Italian bankers , and facing protests about how he was using his right of prises to acquire supplies for the war in Scotland . His attempts to raise an army for Scotland collapsed and the earls suspended the collection of the new taxes .
The King and parliament met again in February 1310 , and the proposed discussions of Scottish policy were replaced by debate of domestic problems . Edward was petitioned to abandon Gaveston as his counsellor and instead adopt the advice of 21 elected barons , termed Ordainers , who would carry out a widespread reform of both the government and the royal household . Under huge pressure , Edward agreed to the proposal and the Ordainers were elected , broadly evenly split between reformers and conservatives . While the Ordainers began their plans for reform , Edward and Gaveston took a new army of around 4 @,@ 700 men to Scotland , where the military situation had continued to deteriorate . Robert the Bruce declined to give battle and the campaign progressed ineffectually over the winter until supplies and money ran out in 1311 , forcing Edward to return south .
By now the Ordainers had drawn up their Ordinances for reform and Edward had little political choice but to give way and accept them in October . The Ordinances of 1311 contained clauses limiting the King 's right to go to war or to grant land without parliament 's approval , giving parliament control over the royal administration , abolishing the system of prises , excluding the Frescobaldi bankers , and introducing a system to monitor the adherence to the Ordinances . In addition , the Ordinances exiled Gaveston once again , this time with instructions that he should not be allowed to live anywhere within Edward 's lands , including Gascony and Ireland , and that he should be stripped of his titles . Edward retreated to his estates at Windsor and Kings Langley ; Gaveston left England , possibly for northern France or Flanders .
= = Mid @-@ reign ( 1311 – 21 ) = =
= = = Death of Gaveston = = =
Tensions between Edward and the barons remained high , and the earls opposed to the King kept their personal armies mobilised late into 1311 . By now Edward had become estranged from his cousin , the Earl of Lancaster , who held the earldoms of Lancaster , Leicester , Lincoln , Salisbury and Derby , with an income of around £ 11 @,@ 000 a year from his lands , almost double that of the next wealthiest baron . Backed by the earls of Arundel , Gloucester , Hereford , Pembroke and Warwick , Lancaster led a powerful faction in England , but he was not personally interested in practical administration , nor was he a particularly imaginative or effective politician .
Edward responded to the baronial threat by revoking the Ordinances and recalling Gaveston to England , being reunited with him at York in January 1312 . The barons were furious and met in London , where Gaveston was excommunicated by the Archbishop of Canterbury and plans were put in place to capture Gaveston and prevent him from fleeing to Scotland . Edward , Isabella and Gaveston left for Newcastle , pursued by Lancaster and his followers . Abandoning many of their belongings , the royal party fled by ship and landed at Scarborough , where Gaveston stayed while Edward and Isabella returned to York . After a short siege , Gaveston surrendered to the earls of Pembroke and Surrey , on the promise that he would not be harmed . He had with him a huge collection of gold , silver and gems , probably part of the royal treasury , which he was later accused of having stolen from Edward .
On the way back from the north , Pembroke stopped in the village of Deddington in the Midlands , putting Gaveston under guard there while he went to visit his wife . The Earl of Warwick took this opportunity to seize Gaveston , taking him to Warwick Castle , where Lancaster and the rest of his faction assembled on 18 June . At a brief trial , Gaveston was declared guilty of being a traitor under the terms of the Ordinances ; he was executed on Blacklow Hill the following day , under the authority of the Earl of Lancaster . Gaveston 's body was not buried until 1315 , when his funeral was held in King 's Langley Priory .
= = = Tensions with Lancaster and France = = =
Reactions to the death of Gaveston varied considerably . Edward was furious and deeply upset over what he saw as the murder of Gaveston ; he made provisions for Gaveston 's family , and intended to take revenge on the barons involved . The earls of Pembroke and Surrey were embarrassed and angry about Warwick 's actions , and shifted their support to Edward in the aftermath . To Lancaster and his core of supporters , the execution had been both legal and necessary to preserve the stability of the kingdom . Civil war again appeared likely , but in December , the Earl of Pembroke negotiated a potential peace treaty between the two sides , which would pardon the opposition barons for the killing of Gaveston , in exchange for their support for a fresh campaign in Scotland . Lancaster and Warwick , however , did not give the treaty their immediate approval , and further negotiations continued through most of 1313 .
Meanwhile , the Earl of Pembroke had been negotiating with France to resolve the long @-@ standing disagreements over the administration of Gascony , and as part of this Edward and Isabella agreed to travel to Paris in June 1313 to meet with Philip IV . Edward probably hoped both to resolve the problems in the south of France and to win Philip 's support in the dispute with the barons ; for Philip it was an opportunity to impress his son @-@ in @-@ law with his power and wealth . It proved a spectacular visit , including a grand ceremony in which the two kings knighted Philip 's sons and 200 other men in Notre Dame , large banquets along the River Seine , and a public declaration that both kings and their queens would join a crusade to the Levant . Philip gave lenient terms for settling the problems in Gascony , and the event was spoiled only by a serious fire in Edward 's quarters .
On his return from France , Edward found his political position greatly strengthened . After intense negotiation , the earls , including Lancaster and Warwick , came to a compromise in October 1313 , fundamentally very similar to the draft agreement of the previous December . Edward 's finances improved , thanks to parliament agreeing to the raising of taxes , a loan of 160 @,@ 000 florins ( £ 25 @,@ 000 ) from the Pope , £ 33 @,@ 000 that he borrowed from Philip , and further loans organised by Edward 's new Italian banker , Antonio Pessagno . For the first time in his reign , Edward 's government was well @-@ funded .
= = = Battle of Bannockburn = = =
By 1314 , Robert the Bruce had recaptured most of the castles in Scotland once held by Edward , pushing raiding parties into northern England as far as Carlisle . In response , Edward planned a major military campaign with the support of Lancaster and the barons , mustering a large army between 15 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 strong . Meanwhile , Robert had besieged Stirling Castle , a key fortification in Scotland ; its English commander had stated that unless Edward arrived by 24 June , he would surrender . News of this reached the King in late May , and he decided to speed up his march north from Berwick to relieve the castle . Robert , with between 5 @,@ 500 and 6 @,@ 500 troops , predominantly spearmen , prepared to prevent Edward 's forces from reaching Stirling .
The battle began on 23 June as the English army attempted to force its way across the high ground of the Bannock Burn , which was surrounded by marshland . Skirmishing between the two sides broke out , resulting in the death of Sir Henry de Bohun , whom Robert killed in personal combat . Edward continued his advance the following day , and encountered the bulk of the Scottish army as they emerged from the woods of New Park . Edward appears not to have expected the Scots to give battle here , and as a result had kept his forces in marching , rather than battle , order , with the archers − who would usually have been used to break up enemy spear formations − at the back of his army , rather than the front . His cavalry found it hard to operate in the cramped terrain and were crushed by Robert 's spearmen . The English army was overwhelmed and its leaders were unable to regain control .
Edward stayed behind to fight , but it became obvious to the Earl of Pembroke that the battle was lost and he dragged the King away from the battlefield , hotly pursued by the Scottish forces . Edward only just escaped the heavy fighting , making a vow to found a Carmelite religious house at Oxford if he survived . The historian Roy Haines describes the defeat as a " calamity of stunning proportions " for the English , whose losses in the battle were huge . In the aftermath of the defeat , Edward retreated to Dunbar , then travelled by ship to Berwick , and then back to York ; in his absence , Stirling Castle quickly fell .
= = = Famine and criticism = = =
After the fiasco of Bannockburn , the earls of Lancaster and Warwick saw their political influence increase , and they pressured Edward to re @-@ implement the Ordinances of 1311 . Lancaster became the head of the royal council in 1316 , promising to take forward the Ordinances through a new reform commission , but he appears to have abandoned this role soon afterwards , partially because of disagreements with the other barons , and possibly because of ill @-@ health . Lancaster refused to meet with Edward in parliament for the next two years , bringing effective governance to a standstill . This stymied any hopes for a fresh campaign into Scotland and raised fears of civil war . After much negotiation , once again involving the Earl of Pembroke , Edward and Lancaster finally agreed to the Treaty of Leake in August 1318 , which pardoned Lancaster and his faction and established a new royal council , temporarily averting conflict .
Edward 's difficulties were exacerbated by prolonged problems in English agriculture , part of a wider phenomenon in northern Europe known as the Great Famine . It began with torrential rains in late 1314 , followed by a very cold winter and heavy rains the following spring that killed many sheep and cattle . The bad weather continued , almost unabated , into 1321 , resulting in a string of bad harvests . Revenues from the exports of wool plummeted and the price of food rose , despite attempts by Edward II 's government to control prices . Edward called for hoarders to release food , and tried to encourage both internal trade and the importation of grain , but with little success . The requisitioning of provisions for the royal court during the famine years only added to tensions .
Meanwhile , Robert the Bruce exploited his victory at Bannockburn to raid northern England , initially attacking Carlisle and Berwick , and then reaching further south into Lancashire and Yorkshire , even threatening York itself . Edward undertook an expensive but unsuccessful campaign to stem the advance in 1319 , but the famine made it increasingly difficult to keep his garrisons supplied with food . Meanwhile , a Scottish expedition led by Robert 's brother successfully invaded Ireland in 1315 , where Edward Bruce declared himself the King of Ireland . He was finally defeated in 1318 by Edward II 's Irish justiciar , Edmund Butler , at the Battle of Faughart , and Edward Bruce 's decapitated head was sent back to the King . Revolts also broke out in Lancashire and Bristol in 1315 , and in Glamorgan in Wales in 1316 , but were suppressed .
The famine and the Scottish policy were felt to be a punishment from God , and complaints about Edward multiplied , one contemporary poem describing the " Evil Times of Edward II " . Many criticised Edward 's " improper " and ignoble interest in rural pursuits . In 1318 , a mentally ill man named John of Powderham appeared in Oxford , claiming that he was the real Edward II , and that Edward was a changeling , swapped at birth . John was duly executed , but his claims resonated with those criticising Edward for his lack of regal behaviour and steady leadership . Opposition also grew around Edward 's treatment of his royal favourites .
He had managed to retain some of his previous advisers , despite attempts by the Ordainers to remove them , and divided the extensive de Clare inheritance among two of his new favourites , the former household knights Hugh Audley and Roger Damory , instantly making them extremely rich . Many of the moderates who had helped deliver the peaceful compromise in 1318 now began to turn against Edward , making violence ever more likely .
= = Later reign ( 1321 – 26 ) = =
= = = The Despenser War = = =
The long @-@ threatened civil war finally broke out in England in 1321 , triggered by the tension between many of the barons and the royal favourites , the Despenser family . Hugh Despenser the Elder had served both Edward and his father , while Hugh Despenser the Younger had married into the wealthy de Clare family , become the King 's chamberlain , and acquired Glamorgan in the Welsh Marches in 1317 . Hugh the Younger subsequently expanded his holdings and power across Wales , mainly at the expense of the other Marcher Lords . The Earl of Lancaster and the Despensers were fierce enemies , and Lancaster 's antipathy was shared by most of the Despensers ' neighbours , including the Earl of Hereford , the Mortimer family and the recently elevated Hugh Audley and Roger Damory . Edward , however , increasingly relied on the Despensers for advice and support , and he was particularly close to Hugh the Younger , whom one chronicler noted he " loved ... dearly with all his heart and mind " .
In early 1321 , Lancaster mobilised a coalition of the Despensers ' enemies across the Marcher territories . Edward and Hugh the Younger became aware of these plans in March and headed west , hoping that negotiations led by the moderate Earl of Pembroke would defuse the crisis . This time , Pembroke made his excuses and declined to intervene , and war broke out in May . The Despensers ' lands were quickly seized by a coalition of the Marcher Lords and the local gentry , and Lancaster held a high @-@ level gathering of the barons and clergy in June which condemned the Despensers for having broken the Ordinances . Edward attempted reconciliation , but in July the opposition occupied London and called for the permanent removal of the Despensers . Fearing that he might be deposed if he refused , Edward agreed to exile the Despensers and pardoned the Marcher Lords for their actions .
Edward began to plan his revenge . With the help of Pembroke , the King formed a small coalition of his half @-@ brothers , a few of the earls and some of the senior clergy , and prepared for war . Edward started with Bartholomew of Badlesmere , and Isabella was sent to Bartholomew 's stronghold , Leeds Castle , to deliberately create a casus belli . Bartholomew 's wife , Margaret , took the bait and her men killed several of Isabella 's retinue , giving Edward an excuse to intervene . Lancaster refused to help Bartholomew , who was his personal enemy , and Edward quickly regained control of south @-@ east England . Alarmed , Lancaster now mobilised his own army in the north of England , and Edward mustered his own forces in the south @-@ west . The Despensers returned from exile and were pardoned by the royal council .
In December , Edward led his army across the River Severn and advanced into the Welsh Marches , where the opposition forces had gathered . The coalition of Marcher Lords crumbled and the Mortimers surrendered to the King , but Damory , Audley and the Earl of Hereford marched north in January to join Lancaster , who had laid siege the King 's castle at Tickhill . Bolstered by fresh reinforcements from the Marcher Lords , Edward pursued them , meeting Lancaster 's army on 10 March at Burton @-@ on @-@ Trent . Lancaster , outnumbered , retreated without a fight , fleeing north . Andrew Harclay cornered Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge , and captured the Earl . Edward and Hugh the Younger met Lancaster at Pontefract , where , after a summary trial , the earl was found guilty of treason and beheaded .
= = = Edward and the Despensers = = =
Edward punished Lancaster 's supporters through a system of special courts across the country , with the judges instructed in advance how to sentence the accused , who were not allowed to speak in their own defence . Many of these so @-@ called " Contrariants " were simply executed , and others were imprisoned or fined , with their lands seized and their surviving relatives detained . The Earl of Pembroke , whom Edward now mistrusted , was arrested and only released after pledging all of his possessions as collateral for his own loyalty . Edward was able to reward his loyal supporters , especially the Despenser family , with the confiscated estates and new titles . The fines and confiscations made Edward rich : almost £ 15 @,@ 000 was brought in during the first few months , and by 1326 , Edward 's treasury contained £ 62 @,@ 000 . A parliament was held at York in March 1322 at which the Ordinances were formally revoked through the Statute of York , and fresh taxes agreed for a new campaign against the Scots .
The English campaign against Scotland was planned on a massive scale , with a force of around 23 @,@ 350 men . Edward advanced through Lothian towards Edinburgh , but Robert the Bruce declined to meet him in battle , drawing Edward further into Scotland . Plans to resupply the campaign by sea failed , and the large army rapidly ran out of food . Edward was forced to retreat south of the border , pursued by Scottish raiding parties . Edward 's illegitimate son , Adam , died during the campaign , and the raiding parties almost captured Isabella , who was staying at Tynemouth and was forced to flee by sea . The King planned a fresh campaign , backed by a round of further taxes , but confidence in Edward 's Scottish policy was diminishing . Andrew Harclay , instrumental in securing Edward 's victories the previous year and recently made the Earl of Carlisle , independently negotiated a peace treaty with Robert the Bruce , proposing that Edward would recognise Robert as the King of Scotland and that , in return , Robert would cease to interfere in England . Edward was furious and immediately executed Harclay , but agreed to a thirteen @-@ year truce with Robert .
Hugh Despenser the Younger lived and ruled in grand style , playing a leading role in Edward 's government , and executing policy through a wide network of family retainers . Supported by Robert Baldock and Walter Stapledon , Edward 's chancellor and lord treasurer , the Despensers accumulated land and wealth , using their position in government to provide superficial cover for what historian Seymour Phillips describes as " the reality of fraud , threats of violence and abuse of legal procedure " . Meanwhile , Edward faced growing opposition . Miracles were reported around the late Earl of Lancaster 's tomb , and at the gallows used to execute members of the opposition in Bristol . Law and order began to break down , encouraged by the chaos caused by the seizure of lands . The old opposition consisting of Marcher Lords ' associates attempted to free the prisoners Edward held in Wallingford Castle , and Roger Mortimer , one of the most prominent of the imprisoned Marcher Lords , escaped from the Tower of London and fled to France .
= = = War with France = = =
The disagreements between Edward and the French Crown over the Duchy of Gascony led to the War of Saint @-@ Sardos in 1324 . Charles , Edward 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , had become King of France in 1322 , and was more aggressive than his predecessors . In 1323 , he insisted that Edward come to Paris to give homage for Gascony , and demanded that Edward 's administrators in Gascony allow French officials there to carry out orders given in Paris . Matters came to a head in October when a group of Edward 's soldiers hanged a French sergeant for attempting to build a new fortified town in the Agenais , a contested section of the Gascon border . Edward denied any responsibility for this incident , but relations between Edward and Charles soured . In 1324 , Edward dispatched the Earl of Pembroke to Paris to broker a solution , but the earl died suddenly of an illness along the way . Charles mobilised his army and ordered the invasion of Gascony .
Edward 's forces in Gascony were around 4 @,@ 400 strong , but the French army , commanded by Charles of Valois , numbered 7 @,@ 000 . Valois took the Agenais and then advanced further and cut off the main city of Bordeaux . In response , Edward ordered the arrest of any French persons in England and seized Isabella 's lands , on the basis that she was of French origin . In November 1324 he met with the earls and the English Church , who recommended that Edward should lead a force of 11 @,@ 000 men to Gascony . Edward decided not to go personally , sending instead the Earl of Surrey . Meanwhile , Edward opened up fresh negotiations with the French king . Charles advanced various proposals , the most tempting of which was the suggestion that if Isabella and Prince Edward were to travel to Paris , and the Prince was to give homage to the French King for Gascony , he would terminate the war and return the Agenais . Edward and his advisers had concerns about sending the prince to France , but agreed to send Isabella on her own as an envoy in March 1325 .
= = Fall from power ( 1326 – 27 ) = =
= = = Rift with Isabella = = =
Isabella , with Edward 's envoys , carried out negotiations with the French in late March . The negotiations proved difficult , and they arrived at a settlement only after Isabella personally intervened with her brother , Charles . The terms favoured the French crown : in particular , Edward would give homage in person to Charles for Gascony . Concerned about the consequences of war breaking out once again , Edward agreed to the treaty but decided to give Gascony to his son , Edward , and sent the prince to give homage in Paris . The young Prince Edward crossed the English Channel and completed the bargain in September .
Edward now expected Isabella and their son to return to England , but instead she remained in France and showed no intention of making her way back . Until 1322 , Edward and Isabella 's marriage appears to have been successful , but by the time the Queen left for France in 1325 , it had deteriorated . Isabella appears to have disliked Hugh Despenser the Younger intensely , not least because of his abuse of high @-@ status women . Isabella was embarrassed that she had fled from Scottish armies three times during her marriage to Edward , and she blamed Hugh for the final occurrence in 1322 . When Edward had negotiated the recent truce with Robert the Bruce , he had severely disadvantaged a range of noble families who owned land in Scotland , including the Beaumonts , close friends of Isabella 's . She was also angry about the arrest of her household and seizure of her lands in 1324 . Finally , Edward had taken away her children and given the custody of them to Hugh Despenser 's wife .
By February 1326 , it was clear that Isabella was involved in a relationship with the exiled Marcher Lord , Roger Mortimer . It is unclear when Isabella first met Mortimer or when their relationship began , but they both wanted to see Edward and the Despensers removed from power . The King appealed for his son to return , and for Charles to intervene on his behalf , but this had no effect .
Edward 's opponents began to gather around Isabella and Mortimer in Paris , and Edward became increasingly anxious about the possibility that Mortimer might invade England . Isabella and Mortimer turned to William , the Count of Hainaut , and proposed a marriage between Prince Edward and William 's daughter , Philippa . In return for the advantageous alliance with the English heir to the throne , and a sizeable dower for the bride , William offered 132 transport vessels and 8 warships to assist in the invasion of England . Prince Edward and Philippa were betrothed on 27 August , and Isabella and Mortimer prepared for their campaign .
= = = Invasion = = =
During August and September 1326 , Edward mobilised his defences along the coasts of England to protect against the possibility of an invasion either by France or by Roger Mortimer . Fleets were gathered at the ports of Portsmouth in the south and Orwell on the east coast , and a raiding force of 1 @,@ 600 men was sent across the English Channel into Normandy as a diversionary attack . Edward issued a nationalistic appeal for his subjects to defend the kingdom , but with little impact . The regime 's hold on power at the local level was fragile , the Despensers were widely disliked , and many of those Edward entrusted with the defence of the kingdom proved incompetent , or promptly turned against the regime . Some 2 @,@ 000 men were ordered to gather at Orwell to repel any invasion , but only 55 appear to have actually arrived .
Roger Mortimer , Isabella , and thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Prince Edward , accompanied by King Edward 's half @-@ brother Edmund of Woodstock , landed in Orwell on 24 September with a small force of men and met with no resistance . Instead , enemies of the Despensers moved rapidly to join them , including Edward 's other half @-@ brother , Thomas of Brotherton ; Henry of Lancaster , who had inherited the earldom from his brother Thomas ; and a range of senior clergy . Ensconced in the residence halls of the fortified and secure Tower of London , Edward attempted to garner support from within the capital . The city of London rose against his government , and on 2 October the King left London , taking the Despensers with him . London descended into anarchy , as mobs attacked Edward 's remaining officials and associates , killing his former treasurer Walter Stapledon in St Paul 's Cathedral , and taking the Tower and releasing the prisoners inside .
Edward continued west up the Thames Valley , reaching Gloucester between 9 and 12 October ; he hoped to reach Wales and from there mobilise an army against the invaders . Mortimer and Isabella were not far behind . Proclamations condemned the Despensers ' recent regime . Day @-@ by @-@ day they gathered new supporters Edward and the younger Despenser crossed over the border and set sail from Chepstow , probably aiming first for Lundy and then for Ireland , where the King hoped to receive refuge and raise a fresh army . Bad weather drove them back , though , and they landed at Cardiff . Edward retreated to Caerphilly Castle and attempted to rally his remaining forces .
Edward 's authority collapsed in England where , in the King 's absence , Isabella 's faction took over the administration with the support of the Church . Her forces surrounded Bristol , where Hugh Despenser the Elder had taken shelter ; he surrendered and was promptly executed . Edward and Hugh the Younger fled their castle around 2 November , leaving behind jewellery , considerable supplies and at least £ 13 @,@ 000 in cash , possibly once again hoping to reach Ireland , but on 16 November they were betrayed and captured by a search party north of Caerphilly . Edward was escorted first to Monmouth Castle , and from there back into England , where he was held at Henry of Lancaster 's fortress at Kenilworth . The King 's final remaining forces , by now besieged in Caerphilly Castle , surrendered after five months in April 1327 .
= = = Abdication = = =
Isabella and Mortimer rapidly took revenge on the former regime . Hugh Despenser the Younger was put on trial , declared a traitor and sentenced to be drawn , disembowelled , castrated and quartered ; he was duly executed on 24 November 1326 . Edward 's former chancellor , Robert Baldock , died in Fleet Prison ; the Earl of Arundel was beheaded . Edward 's position , however , was problematic ; he was still married to Isabella and , in principle , he remained the king , but most of the new administration had a lot to lose were he to be released and potentially regain power .
There was no established procedure for removing an English king . Adam Orleton , the Bishop of Hereford , made a series of public allegations about Edward 's conduct as king , and in January 1327 a parliament convened at Westminster at which the question of Edward 's future was raised ; Edward refused to attend the gathering . Parliament , initially ambivalent , responded to the London crowds that called for Prince Edward to take the throne . On 12 January the leading barons and clergy agreed that Edward II should be removed and replaced by his son . The following day it was presented to an assembly of the barons , where it was argued that Edward 's weak leadership and personal faults had led the kingdom into disaster , and that he was incompetent to lead the country .
Shortly after this , a representative delegation of barons , clergy and knights was sent to Kenilworth to speak to the King . On 20 January 1327 , Henry of Lancaster and the bishops of Winchester and Lincoln met privately with Edward in the castle . They informed Edward that if he were to resign as monarch , his son Prince Edward would succeed him , but if he failed to do so , his son might be disinherited as well , and the crown given to an alternative candidate . In tears , Edward agreed to abdicate , and on 21 January , Sir William Trussell , representing the kingdom as a whole , withdrew his homage and formally ended Edward 's reign . A proclamation was sent to London , announcing that Edward , now known just as Edward of Caernarvon , had freely resigned his kingdom and that Prince Edward would succeed him . The coronation took place at Westminster Abbey on 2 February 1327 .
= = Death ( 1327 ) = =
= = = Death and aftermath = = =
Those opposed to the new government began to make plans to free Edward , and Roger Mortimer decided to move Edward to the more secure location of Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire , where the former King arrived around 5 April 1327 . Once at the castle , Edward was kept in the custody of Mortimer 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Thomas Berkeley , and John Maltravers , who were given £ 5 a day for Edward 's maintenance . It is unclear how well cared for Edward was ; the records show luxury goods being bought on his behalf , but some chroniclers suggest that he was often mistreated . A poem , the Lament of Edward II , was once thought to have been written by Edward during his imprisonment , although modern scholarship has cast doubt on this .
Concerns continued to be raised over fresh plots to liberate Edward , some involving the Dominican order and former household knights , and one such attempt got at least as far as breaking into the prison within the castle . As a result of these threats , Edward was moved around to other locations in secret for a period , before returning to permanent custody at the castle in the late summer of 1327 . The political situation remained unstable , and new plots appear to have been formed to free him .
On 23 September Edward III was informed that his father had died at Berkeley Castle during the night of 21 September . Most historians agree that Edward II did die at Berkeley on that date , although there is a minority view , described below , that he died much later . Edward 's death was , as Mark Ormrod notes , " suspiciously timely " , as it simplified Mortimer 's political problems considerably , and most historians believe that Edward probably was murdered on the orders of the new regime , although it is impossible to be certain . Several of the individuals suspected of involvement in the death , including Sir Thomas Gurney , Maltravers and William Ockley , later fled . If Edward did die from natural causes , his death may have been hastened by depression following his imprisonment .
The rule of Isabella and Mortimer did not last long after the announcement of Edward 's death . They made peace with the Scots in the Treaty of Northampton , but this move was highly unpopular . Isabella and Mortimer both amassed , and spent , great wealth , and criticism of them mounted . Relations between Mortimer and the young Edward III became strained and in 1330 the King conducted a coup d 'état at Nottingham Castle . He arrested Mortimer and then executed him on fourteen charges of treason , including the murder of Edward II . Edward III 's government sought to blame Mortimer for all of the recent problems , effectively politically rehabilitating the late King . The King spared Isabella , giving her a generous allowance , and she soon returned to public life .
= = = Burial and cult = = =
Edward 's body was embalmed at Berkeley Castle , where it was viewed by local leaders from Bristol and Gloucester . It was then taken to Gloucester Abbey on 21 October , and on 20 December Edward was buried by the high altar , the funeral having probably been delayed to allow Edward III to attend in person . Gloucester was probably chosen because other abbeys had refused or been forbidden to take the King 's body , and because it was close to Berkeley . The funeral was a grand affair and cost £ 351 in total , complete with gilt lions , standards painted with gold leaf and oak barriers to manage the anticipated crowds . Edward III 's government probably hoped to put a veneer of normality over the recent political events , increasing the legitimacy of the young King 's own reign .
A temporary wooden effigy with a copper crown was made for the funeral ; this is the first known use of a funeral effigy in England , and was probably necessary because of the condition of the King 's body , which had been dead for three months . Edward 's heart was removed , placed in a silver container , and later buried with Isabella at Newgate Church in London . His tomb includes a very early example of an English alabaster effigy , with a tomb @-@ chest and a canopy made of oolite and Purbeck stone . Edward was buried in the shirt , coif and gloves from his coronation , and his effigy depicts him as king , holding a sceptre and orb , and wearing a strawberry @-@ leaf crown . The effigy features a pronounced lower lip , and may be a close likeness of Edward .
The King 's tomb rapidly became a popular site for visitors , probably encouraged by the local monks , who lacked an existing pilgrimage attraction . Visitors donated extensively to the abbey , allowing the monks to rebuild much of the surrounding church in the 1330s . Miracles reportedly took place at the tomb , and modifications had to be made to enable visitors to walk around it in larger numbers . The chronicler Geoffrey de Baker depicted Edward as a saintly , tortured martyr , and Richard II gave royal support for an unsuccessful bid to have Edward canonised in 1395 . The tomb was opened by officials in 1855 , uncovering a wooden coffin , still in good condition , and a sealed lead coffin inside it . The tomb remains in what is now Gloucester Cathedral , and was extensively restored between 2007 and 2008 at a cost of over £ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Controversies = = =
Controversy rapidly surrounded Edward 's death . With Mortimer 's execution in 1330 , rumours began to circulate that Edward had been murdered at Berkeley Castle . Accounts that he had been killed by the insertion of a red @-@ hot iron or poker into his anus slowly began to circulate , possibly as a result of deliberate propaganda ; chroniclers in the mid @-@ 1330s and 1340s spread this account further , supported in later years by Geoffrey le Baker 's colourful account of the killing . It became incorporated into most later histories of Edward , typically being linked to his possible homosexuality . Most historians now dismiss this account of Edward 's death , querying the logic in Edward 's captors murdering him in such an easily detectable fashion .
Another set of theories surround the possibility that Edward did not really die in 1327 . These theories typically involve the " Fieschi Letter " , sent to Edward III by an Italian priest called Manuel Fieschi , who claimed that Edward escaped Berkeley Castle in 1327 with the help of a servant , and ultimately retired to become a hermit in the Holy Roman Empire . The body buried at Gloucester Cathedral was said to be that of the porter of Berkeley Castle , killed by the assassins and presented by them to Isabella as Edward 's corpse to avoid punishment . The letter is often linked to an account of Edward III meeting with a man called William the Welshman in Antwerp in 1338 , who claimed to be Edward II .
Some parts of the letter 's content are considered broadly accurate by historians , although other aspects of its account have been criticised as implausible . A few historians have supported versions of its narrative . Paul Doherty questions the veracity of the letter and the identity of William the Welshman , but nonetheless has suspicions that Edward may have survived his imprisonment . The popular historian Alison Weir believes the events in the letter to be essentially true , using the letter to argue that Isabella was innocent of murdering Edward . The historian Ian Mortimer suggests that the story in Fieschi 's letter is broadly accurate , but argues that it was in fact Mortimer and Isabella who had Edward secretly released , and who then faked his death , a fiction later maintained by Edward III when he came to power . Ian Mortimer 's account was criticised by most scholars when it was first published , in particular by historian David Carpenter .
= = Edward as king = =
= = = Kingship , government and law = = =
Edward was ultimately a failure as a king ; the historian Michael Prestwich observes that he " was lazy and incompetent , liable to outbursts of temper over unimportant issues , yet indecisive when it came to major issues " , echoed by Roy Haines ' description of Edward as " incompetent and vicious " , and as " no man of business " . Edward did not just delegate routine government to his subordinates , but also higher level decision making , and Pierre Chaplais argues that he " was not so much an incompetent king as a reluctant one " , preferring to rule through a powerful deputy , such as Piers Gaveston or Hugh Despenser the Younger . Edward 's willingness to promote his favourites had serious political consequences , although he also attempted to buy the loyalty of a wider grouping of nobles through grants of money and fees . Edward could take a keen interest in the minutiae of administration , however , and on occasion engaged in the details of a wide range of issues across England and his wider domains .
One of Edward 's persistent challenges through most of his reign was a shortage of money ; of the debts he inherited from his father , around £ 60 @,@ 000 was still owing in the 1320s . The King worked his way through many treasurers and other financial officials , few of whom stayed long , raising revenues through often unpopular taxes , and requisitioning goods using his right of prise . He also took out many loans , first through the Frescobaldi family , and then through his banker Antonio Pessagno . Edward took a strong interest in financial matters towards the end of his reign , distrusting his own officials and attempting to increase revenues directly by cutting back on the expenses of his own household .
Edward was responsible for implementing royal justice through his network of judges and officials . It is uncertain to what extent Edward took a personal interest in dispensing justice , but he appears to have involved himself to some degree during the first part of his reign , and to have increasingly intervened in person after 1322 . Edward made extensive use of Roman civil law during his reign when arguing in defence of his causes and favourites , which may have attracted criticism from those who perceived this as abandoning the established principles of the English Common Law . Edward was also criticised by contemporaries for allowing the Despensers to exploit the royal justice system for their own ends ; the Despensers certainly appear to have abused the system , although just how widely they did so is unclear . Amid the political turbulence , armed gangs and violence spread across England under Edward 's reign , destabilising the position of many of the local gentry ; much of Ireland similarly disintegrated into anarchy .
Under Edward 's rule , parliament 's importance grew as a means of making political decisions and answering petitions , although as the historian Claire Valente notes , the gatherings were " still as much an event as an institution " . After 1311 , parliament began to include , in addition to the barons , the representatives of the knights and burgesses , who in later years would constitute the " commons " . Although parliament often opposed raising fresh taxes , active opposition to Edward came largely from the barons , rather than parliament itself , although the barons did seek to use the parliamentary meetings as a way of giving legitimacy to their long @-@ standing political demands . After resisting it for many years , Edward began intervening in parliament in the second half of his reign to achieve his own political aims . It remains unclear whether Edward was deposed in 1327 by a formal gathering of parliament or simply a gathering of the political classes alongside an existing parliament .
= = = Court = = =
Edward 's royal court was itinerant , travelling around the country with the King . When housed in Westminster Palace , the court occupied a complex of two halls , seven chambers and three chapels , along with other smaller rooms , but , due to the Scottish conflict , the court spent much of its time in Yorkshire and Northumbria . At the heart of the court was Edward 's royal household , in turn divided into the " hall " and the " chamber " ; the size of the household varied over time , but in 1317 was around 500 strong , including household knights , squires , kitchen and transport staff . The household was surrounded by a wider group of courtiers , and appears to have also attracted a circle of prostitutes and criminal elements .
Music and minstrels were very popular at Edward 's court , but hunting appears to have been a much less important activity , and there was little emphasis on chivalric events . Edward was interested in buildings and paintings , but less so in literary works , which were not extensively sponsored at court . There was an extensive use of gold and silver plates , jewels and enamelling at court , which would have been richly decorated . Edward kept a camel as a pet and , as a young man , took a lion with him on campaign to Scotland . The court could be entertained in exotic ways : by an Italian snake @-@ charmer in 1312 , and the following year by 54 nude French dancers .
= = = Religion = = =
Edward 's approach to religion was normal for the period , and the historian Michael Prestwich describes him as " a man of wholly conventional religious attitudes " . There were daily chapel services and alms @-@ giving at his court , and Edward blessed the sick , although he did this less often than his predecessors . Edward remained close to the Dominican Order , who had helped to educate him , and followed their advice in asking for papal permission to be anointed with the Holy Oil of St Thomas of Canterbury in 1319 ; this request was refused , causing the King some embarrassment . Edward supported the expansion of the universities during his reign , establishing King 's Hall in Cambridge to promote training in religious and civil law , Oriel College in Oxford and a short @-@ lived university in Dublin .
Edward enjoyed a good relationship with Pope Clement V , despite the King 's repeated intervention in the operation of the English Church , including punishing bishops with whom he disagreed . With Clement 's support , Edward attempted to gain the financial support of the English Church for his military campaigns in Scotland , including taxation and borrowing money against the funds gathered for the crusades . The English Church did relatively little to influence or moderate Edward 's behaviour during his reign , possibly because of the bishops ' self @-@ interest and concern for their own protection .
Pope John XXII , elected in 1316 , sought Edward 's support for a new crusade , and was also inclined to support him politically . In 1317 , in exchange for papal support in his war with Scotland , Edward agreed to recommence paying the annual Papal tribute , which had been first agreed by King John in 1213 ; Edward soon ceased the payments , however , and the King never offered his homage , another part of the 1213 agreement . In 1325 Edward asked Pope John to instruct the Irish Church to openly preach in favour of his right to rule the island , and to threaten to excommunicate any contrary voices .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historiography = = =
No chronicler for this period is entirely trustworthy or unbiased , often because their accounts were written to support a particular cause , but it is clear that most contemporary chroniclers were highly critical of Edward . The Polychronicon , Vita Edwardi Secundi , Vita et Mors Edwardi Secundi and the Gesta Edwardi de Carnarvon for example all condemned the King 's personality , habits and choice of companions . Other records from his reign show criticism of Edward by his contemporaries , including the Church and members of his own household . Political songs were written about him , complaining about his failure in war and his oppressive government . Later in the 14th century , some chroniclers , such as Geoffrey le Baker and Thomas Ringstead , rehabilitated Edward , presenting him as a martyr and a potential saint , although this tradition died out in later years .
Historians in the 16th and 17th centuries focused on Edward 's relationship with Gaveston , drawing comparisons between Edward 's reign and the events surrounding the relationship of the Duc d 'Épernon and Henry III of France , and between the Duke of Buckingham and Charles I. In the first half of the 19th century , popular historians such as Charles Dickens and Charles Knight popularised Edward 's life with the Victorian public , focusing on the King 's relationship with his favourites and , increasingly , alluding to his possible homosexuality . From the 1870s onwards , however , open academic discussion of Edward 's sexuality was circumscribed by changing English values . By the start of the 20th century , English schools were being advised by the government to avoid overt discussion of Edward 's personal relationships in history lessons . Views on Edward 's sexuality have continued to develop over the years .
By the end of the 19th century , more administrative records from the period had become available to historians such as William Stubbs , Thomas Tout and J. C. Davies , who focused on the development of the English constitutional and governmental system during his reign . Although critical of what they regarded as Edward 's inadequacies as a king , they also emphasised the growth of the role of parliament and the reduction in personal royal authority under Edward II , which they perceived as positive developments . During the 1970s the historiography of Edward 's reign shifted away from this model , supported by the further publishing of records from the period in the last quarter of the 20th century . The work of Jeffrey Denton , Jeffrey Hamilton , John Maddicott and Seymour Phillips re @-@ focused attention on the role of the individual leaders in the conflicts . With the exceptions of Hilda Johnstone 's work on Edward 's early years , and Natalie Fryde 's study of Edward 's final years , the focus of the major historical studies for several years was on the leading magnates rather than Edward himself , until substantial biographies of the King were published by Roy Haines and Seymour Phillips in 2003 and 2011 .
= = = Popular culture = = =
Several plays have shaped Edward 's contemporary image . Christopher Marlowe 's play Edward II was first performed around 1592 , and focuses on Edward 's relationship with Piers Gaveston , reflecting 16th @-@ century concerns about the relationships between monarchs and their favourites . Marlowe presents Edward 's death as a murder , drawing parallels between the killing and martyrdom ; although Marlowe does not describe the actual nature of Edward 's murder in the script , it has usually been performed following the tradition that Edward was killed with a red @-@ hot poker . The character of Edward in the play , who has been likened to Marlowe 's contemporaries James VI of Scotland and Henry III of France , may have influenced William Shakespeare 's portrayal of Richard II . In the 17th century , the playwright Ben Jonson picked up the same theme for his unfinished work , Mortimer His Fall .
The filmmaker Derek Jarman adapted the Marlowe play into a film in 1991 , creating a postmodern pastiche of the original , depicting Edward as a strong , explicitly homosexual leader , ultimately overcome by powerful enemies . In Jarman 's version , Edward finally escapes captivity , following the tradition in the Fieschi letter . Edward 's current popular image was also shaped by his contrasting appearance in Mel Gibson 's 1995 film Braveheart , where he is portrayed as weak and implicitly homosexual , wearing silk clothes and heavy makeup , shunning the company of women and incapable of dealing militarily with the Scots . The film received extensive criticism , both for its historical inaccuracies and for its negative portrayal of homosexuality .
Edward 's life has also been used in a wide variety of other media . The director David Bintley used Marlowe 's play as the basis for the ballet Edward II , first performed in 1995 ; the music from the ballet forms a part of composer John McCabe 's symphony Edward II , produced in 2000 . Novels such as John Penford 's 1984 The Gascon and Chris Hunt 's 1992 Gaveston have focused on the sexual aspects of Edward and Gaveston 's relationship , while Stephanie Merritt 's 2002 Gaveston transports the story into the 20th century . Marcus Stone 's painting Edward II and Piers Gaveston strongly hinted at a homosexual relationship between the pair , while avoiding making this aspect explicit ; it was initially shown at the Royal Academy in 1872 , but was marginalised in later decades as the issue of homosexuality became more sensitive .
= = Issue = =
Edward II had four children with Isabella :
Edward III of England ( 13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377 ) . Married Philippa of Hainault on 24 January 1328 and had issue .
John of Eltham ( 15 August 1316 – 13 September 1336 ) . Never married . No issue .
Eleanor of Woodstock ( 18 June 1318 – 22 April 1355 ) . Married Reinoud II of Guelders in May 1332 and had issue .
Joan of The Tower ( 5 July 1321 – 7 September 1362 ) . Married David II of Scotland on 17 July 1328 and became Queen of Scots , but had no issue .
Edward also fathered the illegitimate Adam FitzRoy ( c . 1307 – 1322 ) , who accompanied his father in the Scottish campaigns of 1322 and died shortly afterwards .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Mycena californiensis =
Mycena californiensis is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family . It is a common and abundant species in the coastal oak woodlands of California , where it grows saprobically , feeding on the fallen leaves and acorns of various oak species . First described in 1860 by Berkeley and Curtis , the species was collected four years earlier during an exploring and surveying expedition . It was subsequently considered a doubtful species by later Mycena researchers , until a 1999 publication validated the taxon . Mycena elegantula is considered a synonym .
Making their appearance in late autumn to early winter , the small and fragile fruit bodies are characterized by reddish @-@ brown tones in the cap , stem , and the edges of the gills . If cut , the mushroom tissue will " bleed " a deep reddish to orangish latex . As is typical of the genus Mycena , caps of M. californiensis are bluntly conical , becoming bell @-@ shaped to convex , and eventually flatten out when old . They measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , and are attached to thin , hollow stems that are up to 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long .
= = History and taxonomy = =
The species was originally collected for science purposes by the American botanist Charles Wright during the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition of 1853 – 56 . The single collection was found growing on fallen oak leaves at Mare Island Naval Shipyard , in Solano County , California in January 1856 . The specimen was sent by American mycologist Moses Ashley Curtis to his British colleague Miles Joseph Berkeley , who published a brief description of the species in 1860 , calling it Agaricus californiensis , in what was then the subgenus Mycena . Berkeley and Curtis noted that it differed from A. aurantio @-@ marginatus ( known today as Mycena aurantiomarginata ) in the nature of the gills , and they called it " a more graceful species . " In his 1887 Sylloge Fungorum , Pier Andrea Saccardo raised the subgenus Mycena to generic status , so the species became known as Mycena californiensis .
In his 1947 monograph of North American Mycena , Alexander H. Smith included it as an " excluded or doubtful species " , saying that the species " cannot be recognized until the microscopic characters of the type are known . " Researching his 1982 monograph of Mycena , Maas Geesteranus examined the holotype material — the particular specimen designated by Berkeley and Curtis to represent the type of the species . Because of its deteriorated condition , however , he was unable to corroborate the distinguishing features proposed by Berkeley and Curtis , and he agreed with Smith 's assessment of the species .
In the late 1990s , as part of his studies on the Mycena of California , Brian Perry noted that a common species in California , usually referred to as Mycena elegantula or M. sanguinolenta , presented characteristics not congruent with either ( in particular , M. elegantula had not previously been reported to contain latex ) . He compared isotype material ( material collected at the same time and place as the holotype ) of M. californiensis with Californian specimens and the type of M. elegantula and found all of them to represent the same species , publishing the results with Dennis Desjardin in their 1999 Mycotaxon article " Mycena californiensis resurrected " . Part of the confusion , they noted , was apparently due to Smith 's concept of M. elegantula not agreeing with the species ' type ( something also noticed by Geesteranus ) .
Because M. californiensis is the earlier name ( published in 1860 vs. 1895 for Mycena elegantula ) , it has priority over the later name M. elegantula , according to the rules of botanical nomenclature .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. californiensis is initially conic or bell @-@ shaped , but flattens out in maturity , and typically reaches dimensions of up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) . The cap margins ( edges ) are curved inwards when young , but as they age they become wavy or crenate ( with rounded scallops ) , develop striations ( radial grooves ) and may even split . The surface of the cap is dull and smooth . Its color ranges from reddish @-@ brown to brownish @-@ orange in young specimens , with the color fading as the mushroom matures ; the center of the cap is usually darker than the margins . The flesh is thin , and either the same color as the cap or ligher ; it may stain a dark red color when bruised .
The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem — broadly attached slightly above the bottom of the gill , with most of the gill fused to the stem . They are not closely spaced together , and there are about 15 – 20 of them . Some of the gills do not extend the full distance from the edge of the cap to the stem . These short gills , called lamellulae , form one to two groups of roughly equal length . All of the gills have a white to pinkish @-@ buff color , with the gill edges ranging from reddish @-@ orange to reddish @-@ brown to brownish @-@ orange . The hollow stem is 29 – 130 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) long by 1 – 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 12 in ) thick , and roughly the same thickness throughout . The top of the stem may be either pruinose ( appearing to be covered with a very fine whitish powder on a surface ) or smooth , while the stem base is covered with " hairs " that may be strigose ( large , coarse , and bristle @-@ like ) to downy ( soft and fuzzy ) . The stem is some shade of brown . The mushroom tissue will " bleed " a brownish @-@ range to reddish brown latex when it is cut . The edibility of M. californiensis is unknown .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
In deposit , such as with a spore print , the spores appear white . Further details are revealed with a light microscope : the spores are ellipsoid to almond @-@ shaped , smooth , thin @-@ walled , and measure 8 – 12 by 4 – 6 µm . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and typically have dimensions of 26 – 37 @.@ 5 by 7 – 10 @.@ 5 µm . M. californiensis has cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edges ) that measure 16 – 50 by 6 @.@ 5 – 20 µm . These cells have irregular projections that can range in size from 1 @.@ 5 – 18 @.@ 8 by 1 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm and are variously shaped , from knob @-@ like to cylindrical . The cells contain brownish contents that will stain darkly with Melzer 's reagent , a common chemical reagent used in mushroom identification . With the exception of the medullary hyphae of the stem ( longitudinally @-@ arranged hyphae making up the stem surface ) , all hyphae contain clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena californiensis may be distinguished from the closely related M. atromarginata by its smaller size and the purplish tint to the edge of the gills , and from M. purpureofusca by its differently shaped , longer spores . Another Mycena commonly confused with M. californiensis is M. sanguinolenta , a species that also exudes reddish latex . It can be distinguished from M. californiensis by the fusiform ( tapering at each end ) cheilocystidia that do not have outgrowths . An additional difference between the two is that M. sanguinolenta is associated with conifer wood and debris .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies grow in clusters or scattered on the decomposing leaves and acorns of oak trees , such as Coast Live Oak , Valley Oak and Black Oak . It is common in the coastal oak woodlands of California , where it appears from late autumn to early winter .
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= Nokota horse =
The Nokota horse is a feral and semi @-@ feral horse breed located in the badlands of southwestern North Dakota in the United States . The breed developed in the 19th century from foundation bloodstock consisting of ranch @-@ bred horses produced from the horses of local Native Americans mixed with Spanish horses , Thoroughbreds , harness horses and related breeds . The Nokota was almost wiped out during the early 20th century when ranchers , in cooperation with state and federal agencies , worked together to reduce competition for livestock grazing . However , when Theodore Roosevelt National Park was created in the 1940s , a few bands were inadvertently trapped inside , and thus were preserved .
In 1986 , the park sold off a large number of horses , including herd stallions , and released several stallions with outside bloodlines into the herds . At this point , brothers Leo and Frank Kuntz began purchasing the horses with the aim of preserving the breed , and in 1999 started the Nokota Horse Conservancy , later beginning a breed registry through the same organization . Later , a second , short @-@ lived , registry was begun by another organization in Minnesota . In 2009 , the North Dakota Badlands Horse Registry was created , which registers the slightly different type of horses which have been removed from the park in recent years . Today , the park conducts regular thinning of the herd to keep numbers between 70 and 110 , and the excess horses are sold off .
The Nokota horse has an angular frame , is commonly blue roan in color , and often exhibits an ambling gait called the " Indian shuffle " . The breed is generally separated into two sections , the traditional and the ranch type , which differ slightly in conformation and height . They are used in many events , including endurance riding , western riding and English disciplines .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The Nokota horse has an angular frame with prominent withers , a sloped croup , and a low set tail . Members of the breed are often blue roan , which is a color rare in other breeds , although black and gray are also common . Other , less common , colors include red roan , bay , chestnut , dun , grullo and palomino . Pinto patterns such as overo and sabino occur occasionally . There are two general types of the Nokota horse . The first is the traditional Nokota , known by the registry as the National Park Traditional . They tend to be smaller , more refined , and closer in type to the Colonial Spanish Horse , and generally stand between 14 and 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 56 and 59 inches , 142 and 150 cm ) high . The second type is known as the ranch @-@ type or National Park Ranch , more closely resemble early " foundation type " Quarter Horses , and generally stand from 14 @.@ 2 to 17 hands ( 58 to 68 inches , 147 to 173 cm ) . Members of the breed often exhibit an ambling gait , once known as the " Indian shuffle . " Nokota horses are described as versatile and intelligent . Members of the breed have been used in endurance racing and western riding , and a few have been used in events such as fox hunting , dressage , three @-@ day eventing and show jumping . Sources vary on the etymology of the breed 's name , with one source stating that the Nokota derives its name from the Nakota people who inhabited North and South Dakota , while another says that the name was a combination of North Dakota created by the Kuntz brothers .
= = History = =
The Nokota horse developed in the southwestern corner of North Dakota , in the Little Missouri River Badlands . Feral horses were first encountered by ranchers in the 19th century , and horses from domestic herds mingled with the original feral herds . Ranchers often crossbred local Indian ponies , Spanish horses from the southwest , and various draft , harness , Thoroughbred and stock horses to make hardy , useful ranch horses . Theodore Roosevelt , who ranched in the Little Missouri area between 1883 and 1886 , wrote :
In a great many — indeed in most — localities there are wild horses to be found , which , although invariably of domestic descent , being either themselves runaways from some ranch or Indian outfit , or else claiming such for their sires and dams , yet are quite as wild as the antelope on whose domain they have intruded .
In 1884 , the HT Ranch , located near Medora , North Dakota , bought 60 mares from a herd of 250 Native American @-@ bred horses originally confiscated from the Lakota leader Sitting Bull and sold at Fort Buford , North Dakota in 1881 . Some of these mares were bred to the Thoroughbred racing stallion Lexington , also owned by the HT Ranch .
By the early 20th century , the feral horse herds became the target of local ranchers looking to limit grazing competition for their livestock . Many horses were rounded up , and either used as ranch horses , sold for slaughter or shot . From the 1930s through the 1950s , federal and state agencies worked with ranchers to remove horses from western North Dakota . However , when Theodore Roosevelt National Park was established in the 1940s , during construction , a few bands of horses were accidentally enclosed within the Park fence , and by 1960 these bands were the last remaining feral horses in North Dakota . Nonetheless , the park sought to eliminate these horses . The National Park Service was declared exempt from the Wild and Free @-@ Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 that covered free @-@ roaming horses and burros on other federal lands . This allowed them to view the herds as nuisances and deal with them as such , including sending many to slaughter .
In the late 1970s , growing public opposition to the removal of feral horses prompted management strategy changes , and today the herds within the Theodore Roosevelt National Park are managed for the purposes of historical demonstration . However , in 1986 the park added outside bloodlines with the aim of modifying the appearance of the Nokota . Park management felt that the horses created with the outside bloodlines would sell better at subsequent auctions . The dominant herd stallions were removed and replaced with two feral stallions from Bureau of Land Management Mustang herds , a crossbred Shire stallion , a Quarter Horse stallion and an Arabian stallion . At the same time that the stallion replacements took place , a large number of horses from the park were rounded up and sold at auction . At the 1986 auction , concerned about the welfare of the Nokota horse , Leo and Frank Kuntz purchased 54 horses , including the dominant stallion , a blue roan . This was in addition to smaller numbers of horses purchased in 1981 , 1991 and 1997 . After researching the history of the breed , the Kuntzs stated that they had found evidence that the horses in the park were probably related to the remaining horses from the band of 250 Sitting Bull horses , who had been range @-@ bred by the Marquis de Mores , who founded the town of Medora . However , the short @-@ lived Nokota Horse Association claimed that there was no evidence for this claim .
= = = 1990s to today = = =
By 1993 , the Kuntz brothers had a herd of 150 horses , including those purchased from the park over the course of several auctions and their descendants . They used the horses mainly for ranching and endurance races . In 1993 , the Nokota was declared the Honorary State Equine of the state of North Dakota . In 1994 , researchers conducted a study of the horses in the park and on the Kuntz 's ranch , and discovered that none of the horses in the park , and only about 20 on the ranch , had characteristics consistent with the Colonial Spanish Horse . Since then , the horses on the Kuntz ranch have been bred to maintain and improve their Spanish characteristics . In 1999 , the Kuntz brothers founded the Nokota Horse Conservancy to protect and conserve the Nokota horse . The Nokota Horse Conservancy tracks around 1 @,@ 000 living and dead horses , and Nokota horses can be found throughout the United States .
Theodore Roosevelt National Park has continued thinning the herd , with several roundups conducted throughout the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century . In 2000 , the last horses to be considered of " traditional " Nokota type was removed from the wild , with some being purchased by supporters of the Nokota Horse Conservancy . The National Park Service currently maintains a herd of 70 to 110 horses . In 2006 , the breed was chosen to be the beneficiary of Breyer Animal Creations ' annual " Benefit Horse " Campaign for the following year ; a Breyer model was created , manufactured , and marketed in 2007 , with a portion of the proceeds going to the Nokota Horse Conservancy . As of 2006 , the Kuntz family owned approximately 500 Nokota horses , with the Nokota Horse Conservancy owning an additional 40 . At that point , there were less than 1 @,@ 000 living Nokotas in the world .
The Nokota Horse Registry is the breed registry , organized by the Nokota Horse Conservancy . There was briefly a second registry : a Minnesota @-@ based organization called the Nokota Horse Association . In October 2009 , the two registries disputed which had the right to the Nokota breed name , with the Association claiming that they own the legal trademark to the name . The Registry sued , contending that they created the name and had a longer history with the breed . A US District Court ordered that the Association cease registering horses until the matter was settled , and the association disappeared from public view soon after . In the fall of 2009 , another organization , the North Dakota Badlands Horse Registry , was created . This organization registers horses that have been removed from the park in recent years , stating that these horses are not accepted by the Nokota Horse Registry . As of March 2011 , approximately 40 horses had been registered . These horses tend to be of a slightly different phenotype and genotype than the horses registered by the Nokota Horse Registry due to the additional blood from different breeds released into the park .
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= Confessions Tour =
Confessions Tour was the seventh concert tour by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It supported her tenth studio album , Confessions on a Dance Floor . Madonna confirmed the possibility of going out on a tour as early as November 2005 . Jamie King , Madonna 's longtime collaborator , was then hired on to direct . The set list consisted of mainly songs from the supporting studio album and rehearsals started during 2006 . As with many of her prior tours , the Confessions Tour did not go to Australia , prompting Madonna to release an apology statement on her website .
The concert was divided into four parts : Equestrian , Bedouin , Glam – Punk , and Disco . Equestrian had horse @-@ themed , bondaged performances , Bedouin had performances accompanied by messages , Glam @-@ Punk performances had Madonna playing guitars and the final Disco segment consisted of dancing in general . The tour garnered positive appreciation from contemporary critics and commercial success . Tickets were completely sold as soon as dates and venues for the tour were announced , prompting the organizers to add more dates . After its ending , the Confessions Tour was dubbed as the highest grossing tour ever for a female artist , grossing over US $ 194 @.@ 7 million ( $ 228 @,@ 542 @,@ 703 @.@ 86 in 2016 dollars ) from 60 shows with 1 @.@ 2 million spectators . It is also recognized as the highest @-@ grossing music tour per concert in the 2007 edition of the Guinness World Records . Confessions Tour received the " Most Creative Stage Production " at the Pollstar Concert Industry Awards as well as " Top Boxscore " from the Billboard Touring Awards .
Madonna 's performance of the song " Live to Tell " while hanging on a giant mirrored cross wearing a crown of thorns was met with strong negative reaction from religious groups . The performance at Rome 's Stadio Olimpico was condemned as an act of hostility toward the Roman Catholic Church by religious leaders . Madonna responded saying that her main intention with the performance was to bring attention to the millions of children dying in Africa from hunger and poverty . The tour was recorded and broadcast on such channels as NBC in the United States and Channel 4 in the United Kingdom . A CD + DVD recording titled The Confessions Tour was also released .
= = Background = =
In November 2005 , during an interview with The Guardian , Madonna confirmed that she was going out on tour in 2006 and it would likely be named either the Confessions Tour or the Confess Your Sins Tour . Jamie King was next hired on as the director of the tour . During an interview with MTV in February 2006 , Madonna explained that she wanted to play first at small venues like Roseland Ballroom in New York or the Wiltern Theatre in Los Angeles , then move out to perform at stadiums and arenas . That way she deduced that she would not feel bored during her performances . King clarified ,
" A typical Madonna show is quite produced , [ ... ] She likes things large , she likes things theatrical , but this time , being that Confessions on a Dance Floor is an intimate album , we want to try to make people have an intimate experience as well as a big produced theatrical experience . So look for us doing some small venues , some smaller venues . [ ... ] I would like to put her as close to her people — her fans , her dancers , her fellow supporters — as possible , "
King also confirmed that the set list for the tour consisted mainly of songs from the supporting album , with few of Madonna 's old hits making the cut . Some of the dancers from the music videos of " Hung Up " and " Sorry " , both singles from Confessions on a Dance Floor , were signed to perform on the tour as well . In March 2006 , Madonna , along with her then @-@ husband Guy Ritchie and with their kids , moved to Los Angeles , to begin rehearsing for the tour . In the summer of 2006 , Madonna 's manager Guy Oseary announced that her Australian leg to the tour had been dropped . Her official website released the following statement :
To my fans in Australia ,
Please forgive me . I really did hope and expect to come to Australia during the Confessions Tour and asked my managers to try to include some shows there . I have fond memories from previous tours . Unfortunately , the logistics just didn 't work out this time around . We looked into going from Japan to Australia and ending the show there but I have to get my kids back into school in England and they are , as you can understand , my most important priority . The important thing to remember is that I 'm not retiring anytime soon and I am gonna get to Australia as soon as I can . You remain in my heart and Thank you for your continued love & support . — Love , Madonna
= = Development = =
The stage and associated props took twenty @-@ four semi @-@ trailer trucks to transport . The setup consisted of a main stage with three elevators and a turntable ( which rose and lowered ) , a central runway with LED and strobe lights connected to a central stage with a LED view screen in the construction and an elevator . The two secondary runways were raised up into the stands and also had view screens inside the construction . Two projection screens were raised above the audience so those who couldn 't get a clear view of the stage could still see the performance . There were also 3 LED screens that moved around during the performance , including one semicircular transparent screen lowered onto the stage during the video interludes .
Among the various props present for the tour , was a $ 2 million disco ball embellished with a further of $ 2 million worth of Swarovski crystals , bringing it to a weight of two tons . The ball was lowered onto the stage at the end of the runway during the opening number , and then opened to reveal Madonna . The ball contained hydraulic tubing to hold it open , two sets of stairs , and hundreds of LED lights . Other props include the turntable @-@ pummel horse used during " Like a Virgin " , a set of jungle gym @-@ like metal bars used during " Jump " , the steel cage used for " Isaac " and " Sorry " , and the boom box used during " Hung Up " . The promotional poster for the tour featured one of the photographs of Madonna taken by Steven Klein during the performances at G @-@ A @-@ Y club in London , as part of the promotional tour of the Confessions on a Dance Floor album .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The concert was divided into four parts : Equestrian , Bedouin , Glam – Punk and Disco . The Equestrian segment of the show began with images of Madonna , riding crop in hand , and horses cantering across windswept plains on the big screens . A giant disco ball was then lowered onstage , and opened like a flower bud to reveal Madonna inside . As she took her dancers ' reins , she performed " Future Lovers / I Feel Love " . This was followed by " Get Together " backed by her dancers in horse reins . She rode a carousel horse @-@ like dancepole during " Like a Virgin " . The backdrops displayed the X @-@ Ray of Madonna 's broken bones , which she had during a previous accident . " Jump " followed this performance , where the dancers displayed the physical discipline parkour . After Madonna disappeared backstage , three of her dancers then revealed personal tragedies during an interlude called " Confessions " . The second segment titled Bedouin started with Madonna appearing on a mirrored crucifix to sing " Live to Tell " as a death toll of African AIDS victims counted down onscreen above her . She stepped down off the cross to perform " Forbidden Love " where two male dancers intertwined each other while displaying religious symbolism on the screens like blood corpuscles connecting to form symbols of hope and unity . Madonna brought a guest vocalist from her Confessions on a Dance Floor album onstage for " Isaac " , when a female dancer in an oversized Middle @-@ Eastern burka danced within a cage with the backdrops displaying sand dunes . Madonna then recreated the dance @-@ off scene from her " Sorry " music video live with her troupe for her performance of the song . The performance was followed by the song " Like It Or Not " where burlesque @-@ style dancing was performed by Madonna with the help of a chair as a prop . After the performance , her dancers performed krump dancing for a remix interlude of " Sorry " as social , political , and ecological images flashed onscreens .
Madonna returned for the Glam @-@ Punk segment of the show and strapped on a guitar for rocked @-@ out versions of " I Love New York " and " Ray of Light " . The backdrop during the performances displayed the New York skyline sliding off and stars respectively . " Ray of Light " was accompanied by her dancers in new wave style dance , while wearing black clothes and white ties . An energetic rendition of " Let It Will Be " followed before she sat down for some minutes to talk with her audience . She later started singing " Drowned World / Substitute for Love " without any choreography or backdrop video , only sitting on the floor , and then recalled co @-@ singer Yitzhak Sinwani out for an acoustic version of " Paradise ( Not for Me ) " . The final segment Disco started after a brief radio @-@ style mini @-@ mix of old hits . Madonna emerged in a butterfly @-@ collared suit influenced by John Travolta in Saturday Night Fever for a mash @-@ up of " Music " and The Trammps ' 1976 single " Disco Inferno " This also included a sample of her 1986 song " Where 's The Party " at the beginning of the song while dancers rollerskated circles around her . Stuart Price 's remixed dance version of " Erotica " , which sampled the song 's original demo " You Thrill Me " , is performed . The next song was a Tropical @-@ Dance version of " La Isla Bonita " , where the screens displayed clips of different beautiful islands , the sea and its fauna . This is followed by " Lucky Star " ; this dance re @-@ invention of the song shared the same musical arrangement than the following and final song of the evening " Hung Up " , which is accompanied by a sing @-@ along with the audience and confetti and golden balloons falling from above . The show ended as the phrase " Have you confessed ? " appeared onscreen .
= = Critical response = =
The Confessions Tour received positive critical response . Steve Baltin of Rolling Stone wrote : " Madonna had played many roles in the first night of her Confessions tour – but confessor was not one of them . Apparently , in all the pomp and circumstance , there was no room for warmth , or even the attitude that made her recent Coachella festival performance so memorable . " Don Chareunsy of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune commented that Madonna 's previous tours , Drowned World Tour ( 2001 ) and Re @-@ Invention World Tour ( 2004 ) , " were excellent concerts ... but she stepped it up a few notches " for the Confessions Tour . Ben Wener of The Orange County Register reported that " No one – but no one – stages elaborate eye @-@ candy productions like Madonna , whose highly impressive Confessions Tour opened Sunday night at a packed Forum so sweltering it seemed as though it were being prepped for the world 's largest Bikram yoga session . " Lina Das from the Daily Mail complimented the show , saying that Madonna still had the ability to grab the headlines with her shock tactics . Thomas Inskeep from Stylus Magazine complimented the finale of the tour saying , " There 's not a better way the Confessions Tour could ’ ve closed . " Tom Young from the BBC called the show " a big fat neon light of a pop @-@ dance explosion . There 's a party going on , and unless you were there in the first place , you ’ re not invited . Whistles and whoops rarely cease and applause ripples throughout building into regular raptures for a consistently first @-@ class performer . It 's almost enough to make those who weren ’ t there jealous . Almost . "
Jim Harrington of the ANG Newspapers commented that fans were " certainly happy " with the tour , though , Terry Armour of the Chicago Tribune noted from a report from The Arizona Republic that fans were " hot and bothered " over Madonna 's alleged requests that the air conditioning be turned down in venues during her tour . It was reported that the result of this was due to Madonna wanting to preserve her voice . In one article , it was said that the air conditioning concerns " are nothing new in the entertainment business " in which voice problems " can cost performers millions in lost revenue . " Another story said that Madonna does not like the air conditioning on during her performance because it dries out her throat . Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine stated that the tour was a " reminder that Madonna 's music need not be motivated by sex or politics to be good as long as it displays a smidgen of heart and soul . [ ... ] Her Confessions Tour , though spotty and compromised but often breathtaking , is something of a coup after the fierce but icy theatrics of her Drowned World Tour and the shrill aggression of her Re @-@ Invention Tour . " Bill Lamb of About.com noted that the " highest points of the Confessions Tour prove [ d ] that a combination of great songs , riveting staging , and accomplished choreography always amount to a brilliant concert experience . " Christian John Wikane of PopMatters commented that " even the most rabid anti @-@ Madonna listener or cynical music lover would find elements of the Confessions Tour impressive . "
= = Commercial reception = =
Tickets for the tour sold out within minutes of going on sale at many venues in North America and Europe , and new dates were immediately announced – included five new dates at Wembley Arena and new dates in New York , Chicago , Paris and Los Angeles . Madonna rang up eight sellouts at Wembley Arena beginning August 1 , 2006 , notching the highest Billboard gross of 2006 in the process . She grossed $ 80 million ( $ 93 @,@ 905 @,@ 579 in 2016 dollars ) for the US shows alone throughout the summer , and it instantly became the highest grossing summer tour of the year 2006 . In particular , NRJ reported that the two French dates sold out within 15 minutes of going on sale , resulting in two shows being added . The two original dates in London sold out almost instantly , and five new shows at Wembley Arena were announced . On April 8 , 2006 , Madonna sold 30 @,@ 000 tickets in under 40 minutes in Montreal , breaking a record previously held by U2 . On July 9 , 2006 , 50 @,@ 000 tickets went on sale for Madonna 's Osaka and Tokyo shows . The tickets were sold out in a record breaking five minutes . It was Madonna 's first time touring Japan in 13 years , and an additional date was added , September 21 , 2006 , at the Tokyo Dome , to meet high demand . On August 8 , 2006 , more than 35 @,@ 000 tickets for the first ever Madonna concert in Moscow went on sale and , as claimed by show organizers , all were sold out in four days , which could be a new record in that country as all other artists had taken more than two weeks to sell out the tickets in the region . However , after many problems with the concert including venue uncertainty , rescheduling , ticket exchange and huge amount of tickets in the hands of speculators , tickets were on sale at their nominal values until the last minute .
According to Billboard and tour producer Arthur Fogel , the tour grossed over US $ 194 @.@ 7 million ( $ 228 @,@ 542 @,@ 704 in 2016 dollars ) from 60 shows and 1 @.@ 2 million audience , becoming highest grossing tour ever for a female artist and breaking the record previously held by Cher for her Living Proof : The Farewell Tour ( 2002 – 2005 ) . Madonna broke her own record in 2008 , with her Sticky & Sweet Tour , which became the highest grossing tour by a solo artist , earning US $ 408 million ( $ 450 @,@ 021 @,@ 405 in 2016 dollars ) . Confessions Tour is also recognized as the highest @-@ grossing music tour per concert in the 2007 edition of the Guinness World Records , with $ 3 @.@ 2 million ( $ 3 @,@ 756 @,@ 223 in 2016 dollars ) grossed per concert . It received the " Most Creative Stage Production " at the Pollstar Concert Industry Awards , as well as , " Top Boxscore " from the Billboard Touring Awards .
= = Reaction to the performance of " Live to Tell " = =
Madonna 's performance of " Live to Tell " faced strong reaction from religious groups . The performance included Madonna being raised from the floor hanging on a mirrored cross wearing a red blouse and velvet pants , with a crown of thorns on her head . During the performance , the number 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 flashed above her on the stage 's backdrop screens , along with images of African children . This was intended to detail the estimated number of children who have been orphaned by the AIDS pandemic in Africa .
German prosecutors in Düsseldorf threatened to sue her for blasphemy , and Protestant bishop Margot Käßmann said that " maybe the only way an aging superstar can attract attention is to offend people 's religious sentiments . " The Russian Orthodox Church and the Federation of Jewish Communities of Russia ( FJCR ) described Madonna 's performance as amoral , and urged all members to boycott her upcoming concert in Moscow . The performance at Rome 's Olympic Stadium — located near the Vatican — was condemned as an act of hostility toward the Roman Catholic Church by religious leaders . Italian cardinal Ersilio Tonini called the concert " a blasphemous challenge to the faith " and a " profanation of the cross " , also calling for Madonna to be excommunicated . Reverend Manfredo Leone described it as " disrespectful , in bad taste and provocative " .
Muslim and Jewish leaders also criticized the performance . Mario Scialoja , the head of Italy 's Muslim League commented " I think her idea is in the worst taste and she 'd do better to go home . " Riccardo Pacifici , the spokesman for Rome 's Jewish community said " It 's a disrespectful act , and to do it in Rome is even worse . " Madonna released a statement about the controversy :
" I am very grateful that my show was so well received all over the world . But there seems to be many misinterpretations about my appearance on the cross and I wanted to explain it myself once and for all . There is a segment in my show where three of my dancers ' confess ' or share harrowing experiences from their childhood that they ultimately overcame . My ' confession ' follows and takes place on a Crucifix that I ultimately come down from . This is not a mocking of the church . It is no different than a person wearing a Cross or ' Taking Up the Cross ' as it says in the Bible . My performance is neither anti @-@ Christian , sacrilegious or blasphemous . Rather , it is my plea to the audience to encourage mankind to help one another and to see the world as a unified whole . I believe in my heart that if Jesus were alive today he would be doing the same thing .
My specific intent is to bring attention to the millions of children in Africa who are dying every day , and are living without care , without medicine and without hope . I am asking people to open their hearts and minds to get involved in whatever way they can . The song ends with a quote from the Bible 's Book of Matthew : ' For I was hungry and you gave me food . I was naked and you gave me clothing . I was sick and you took care of me and God replied , ' Whatever you did for the least of my brothers ... you did it to me.'
Please do not pass judgment without seeing my show . "
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
The show was filmed at the Wembley Arena , in London on August 15 and 16 , 2006 . After plans failed with HBO , The Confessions Tour – Live from London aired on November 22 , 2006 on NBC . The television version omitted the performances of the " Sorry " video interlude , " Drowned World / Substitute for Love " , " Paradise ( Not For Me ) " and " Lucky Star " . In the United States , the performance of " Live to Tell " was censored , the broadcast displayed the video backdrop shown on the tour instead of Madonna performing on the mirrored cross . She does not appear until she has come down from it . Outside of the US , the performance was not censored . In the UK it was broadcast on Channel 4 and later on E4 .
In January 2007 , Warner Bros. Records released The Confessions Tour CD + DVD package . After its release , the album reached the top of the official charts in a number of European nations while reaching the top ten in United Kingdom and Canada . It reached a peak of fifteen on the Billboard 200 albums chart in United States . At the 2008 Grammy Awards held on February 10 , 2008 at Staples Center in Los Angeles , the album won an award for Best Long Form Music Video .
A photography book by Guy Oseary , titled Madonna : Confessions was released in October 2008 during Madonna 's Sticky & Sweet Tour . It contains over 250 never @-@ before @-@ seen images from the 2006 Confessions Tour with photographs from backstage and during the show . All author proceeds from the book will be donated to Raising Malawi . On January 13 , 2013 , MTV broadcast a high definition version of The Confessions Tour – Live from London special for the very first time at 00 : 00 AM ( CET time ) with more scheduled broadcasts at 7 AM and 10 AM CET the following days .
= = Set list = =
" Future Lovers / I Feel Love "
" Get Together "
" Like a Virgin "
" Jump "
" Confessions " ( Dancers Interlude ) ( contains elements from " Live to Tell " )
" Live to Tell "
" Forbidden Love "
" Isaac "
" Sorry " ( Pet Shop Boys Remix )
" Like It or Not "
" Sorry " ( Remix ) ( Video Interlude )
" I Love New York "
" Ray of Light "
" Let It Will Be " ( Paper Faces Remix )
" Drowned World / Substitute for Love "
" Paradise ( Not for Me ) " ( performed with Yitzhak Sinwani )
" The Duke Mixes the Hits " ( Video Interlude ) ( contains excerpts from " Borderline " , " Erotica " , " Dress You Up " , " Holiday " and " Disco Inferno " )
" Music Inferno " ( contains elements from " Disco Inferno " , with excerpts from " Where 's the Party " )
" Erotica " ( contains excerpts from " You Thrill Me " )
" La Isla Bonita "
" Lucky Star " ( contains elements from " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " along with excerpts from " Hung Up " )
" Hung Up " ( contains elements from " Lucky Star " )
Source :
= = Shows = =
= = Personnel = =
Personnel adapted as per the Confessions Tour booklet and DVD .
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= Lockheed Martin VH @-@ 71 Kestrel =
The Lockheed Martin VH @-@ 71 Kestrel is a variant of the AgustaWestland AW101 ( formerly EH101 ) built to replace the United States Marine Corps ' Marine One U.S. Presidential transport fleet . It was developed and built by the Lockheed Martin – led " US101 Team " of Lockheed Martin Systems Integration – Owego ( LMSI ) , AgustaWestland and Bell Helicopter .
In February 2009 , President Barack Obama asked Secretary of Defense Robert Gates about placing the project on hold or canceling it because of its high cost : over $ 13 billion for the planned 28 helicopters . In June 2009 , the U.S. Navy terminated the contract after spending about $ 4 @.@ 4 billion and taking delivery of nine VH @-@ 71s .
The helicopters were then sold to Canada for $ 164 million for use as spare parts for its fleet of AgustaWestland CH @-@ 149 Cormorant search @-@ and @-@ rescue helicopters .
= = Development = =
= = = US101 and VXX competition = = =
The AgustaWestland AW101 , first designated as EH101 , was originally developed and produced by EH Industries , a joint venture between the British Westland Helicopters and Italian Agusta companies ; Westland merged with Agusta in 2001 . On 23 July 2002 , Lockheed Martin and AgustaWestland signed a 10 @-@ year agreement to jointly market , produce and support a medium @-@ lift helicopter , an AW101 derivative designated US101 , in the United States . The companies envisaged the aircraft performing three major roles ; U.S. Air Force combat search and rescue , U.S. Coast Guard search and rescue , and U.S. Marine Corps executive transport .
On 15 May 2003 , AgustaWestland signed an agreement with Bell Helicopter to undertake final assembly of the US101 in the U.S. Under the pact , AgustaWestland would produce the main rotor blades and main fuselage sections at its Yeovil , UK , facility . The company would produce other components , including the gearbox , at its Cascina Costa , Italy facility . This represents a work share of 36 % . The remaining 64 % work share is split between Lockheed Martin ( 31 % ) and Bell Helicopter ( 27 % ) and others ( 6 % ) .
On 18 December 2003 , the United States Department of Defense issued a Request for Proposals ( RFP ) to supply 23 helicopters to replace the 11 VH @-@ 3Ds and 8 VH @-@ 60Ns of the Marine Corps ' HMX @-@ 1 squadron , which performs the role of Presidential helicopter transportation . This requirement was given the designation of VXX , or the Presidential Helicopter Replacement Program . Two companies , AgustaWestland and Sikorsky Aircraft responded to the VXX RFP .
Sikorsky had proposed the VH @-@ 92 , a variant of the H @-@ 92 Superhawk , in partnership with FlightSafety International , L @-@ 3 Communications , Northrop Grumman , Rockwell Collins , Vought Aircraft Industries , and GE @-@ Aviation . On 28 January 2005 , the Department of Defense announced that it had selected the US101 as the winner . It has been speculated that the US101 's three engines had been a decisive factor over the rivaling twin @-@ engined VH @-@ 92 . The US101 team was awarded a US $ 1 @.@ 7 billion contract for the System Development and Demonstration phase . In July 2005 , the US101 was given the designation VH @-@ 71 Kestrel .
= = = Program problems and delays = = =
Delays and engineering issues plagued the VH @-@ 71 's development . By 2007 , the estimated cost of developing and modifying the aircraft had risen by 40 % to $ 2 @.@ 4 billion and had passed the $ 4 @.@ 2 billion expected for the production of the fleet . In March 2008 , the program cost had risen and was projected to cost a total $ 11 @.@ 2 billion , or about $ 400 million per helicopter .
During dialogue over the CSAR @-@ X ( in which the EH101 was LMSI 's offering ) , the Air Force Source Selection Authority ( SSA ) stated the program 's performance had been " unsatisfactory " . In March 2007 , a Government Accountability Office ( GAO ) report , upholding Sikorsky and Lockheed 's protests against Boeing 's HH @-@ 47 , mentioned " LMSI had received a little confidence rating for past performance due to unsatisfactory performance under its current contract for the VH @-@ 71 Presidential helicopter , which was evaluated as the most highly relevant to this procurement . " The SSA stated that LMSI had " show [ n ] that it could not reliably meet important schedule requirements and had difficulty in systems engineering flow @-@ downs to their subcontractors . " Lockheed responded that government insistence on extensive modifications , unanticipated in the RFP , as the source of cost overruns . A GAO report in 2011 concluded that the VH @-@ 71 's development was not allowed flexibility or trade @-@ offs considered by the customer .
In December 2007 , DoD officials met with the White House Military Office to discuss the program 's future ; the Pentagon had apparently wanted to terminate the VH @-@ 71 due to setbacks , budget issues , and design problems . The White House overruled a decision to cancel ; the program was effectively placed on hold while options were considered . In July 2008 , the VH @-@ 71A ( also called Increment 1 ) was to reach operating capability in 2010 . The second phase of the development , VH @-@ 71B ( Increment 2 ) was expected to start entering service in 2017 .
In October 2008 , while commenting on defense programs likely to be cut following the change in government , John Young , the Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition , Technology and Logistics , stated that the VH @-@ 71 " is very high on that list " . The rising cost of VH @-@ 71 program contrasted poorly with President Barack Obama 's stance on curbing government spending ; during a White House gathering in February 2009 President Obama commented that the procurement process had " gone amok and we are going to have to fix it . " He additionally stated that " The helicopter I have now seems perfectly adequate to me . " In March 2009 the projected total cost for the planned 28 VH @-@ 71s was over $ 13 billion . On 6 April 2009 the proposed Defense budget announced by Defense Secretary Robert Gates had not included funding for the VH @-@ 71 . On 1 June 2009 , the U.S. Navy announced that the contract was officially canceled , and that remaining funds were to be reinvested in upgrades to the existing fleet of VH @-@ 3D and VH @-@ 60N helicopters . Nine VH @-@ 71s had been completed at time of the cancellation .
The aircraft 's cancellation provoked commentators to speak out about its impact on future acquisition contracts with European businesses . The failure by the U.S. Department of Defense acquisition process as demonstrated by the VH @-@ 71 may scare away potential partners . Around March 2009 , a coalition of lawmakers encouraged the Administration to continue a variation of the VH @-@ 71 program . A letter issued by several members of Congress urged the President to support a VH @-@ 71 program . On 22 July 2009 , the House Appropriations Committee approved $ 485 million to make five VH @-@ 71As operational .
= = = Options and restructuring = = =
The Congressional Research Service ( CRS ) estimated that shutting down VH @-@ 71 production , upgrading the existing fleet , and later implementing a successor program would cost $ 14 – $ 21 billion . It was reported not only that a new fleet would not be available until 2024 ( at which point the existing helicopters would have remained in service while being over 50 years old ) , but that terminating the existing program would waste more than $ 3 billion in sunk VH @-@ 71 costs . Following the President ’ s decision to terminate the program a variety of law makers , think tanks and media outlets publicly concluded it would be more cost effective and less time consuming to continue with a variation of the existing VH @-@ 71 program .
In 2009 , the CRS proposed four options : Option 1 was to continue the VH @-@ 71 program with Increment I and II versions ; the additional cost was estimated at $ 10 billion and the entry into service date was 2019 . Option 2 was to restructure the program to provide 23 Increment I aircraft ; at an additional cost of $ 6 @.@ 4 billion and would be operational by 2012 . Option 3 was a restructure to provide 19 Increment I aircraft to replace the current fleet ; the additional cost for this option was estimated at $ 5 @.@ 6 billion and the entry into service by 2012 . The last option was to upgrade and extend life of current fleet at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 4 billion ; however this would not meet the standards required for future presidential helicopters , and would require replacement sooner .
In addition to the cost of a new procurement program , industry officials stated that to merely extend the operating life of the current fleet is a risky choice because it is both less secure and costly to maintain . Lawmakers from both sides of the aisle , including Senator Chuck Schumer ( D @-@ NY ) and Representative Roscoe Bartlett ( R @-@ MD ) have been outspoken critics of the Pentagon in the matter — Bartlett recently claiming that " they had this conversation outside the partnership and we regret that . " Loren Thompson , an analyst for the Lexington Institute , stated " I do not believe that the story of VH @-@ 71 is over ... Secretary Gates has not made a convincing case for terminating the program , and there is no alternative helicopter that can satisfy range and payload requirements while still landing on the White House lawn . "
On 19 December 2009 , President Obama signed a joint House and Senate Defense Appropriation Bill for FY 2010 , which includes $ 130 million funding for the Marine One program : $ 100 million to recoup technologies developed under the VH @-@ 71 Kestrel program , and $ 30 million for the Navy 's initial studies on a new VH @-@ XX program . In February 2010 , the Navy issued a request for information to the aviation industry . In April 2010 , Lockheed Martin announced they would team with Sikorsky in offering the Sikorsky S @-@ 92 instead of the VH @-@ 71 . In June 2010 , Boeing announced it was considering a U.S.-built licensed version of the AgustaWestland AW101 for the renewed VXX program as well as the Bell @-@ Boeing V @-@ 22 Osprey and Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook .
In June 2011 , nine VH @-@ 71s were purchased for $ 164 million by Canada for use as spare parts for its fleet of AgustaWestland CH @-@ 149 Cormorant search and rescue helicopter , which is also based upon the AW101 . The transferred VH @-@ 71s were stripped of sensitive parts , a total of seven remained in an airworthy condition . In 2013 , media reports stated Canada is studying whether up to four of the VH @-@ 71s can be certified for operational use ; manufacturer AgustaWestland has openly stated their support for the regeneration initiative .
= = Testing = =
The first test VH @-@ 71A , Test Vehicle # 2 ( TV @-@ 2 ) , made its initial flight on 3 July 2007 at AgustaWestland 's facility in Yeovil in the UK . Lockheed Martin also used an EH101 , designated TV @-@ 1 , for initial testing in the United States ; these tests included landing on the lawn of the White House .
The first production VH @-@ 71A , Pilot Production # 1 ( PP @-@ 1 ) , made its maiden flight on 22 September 2008 from Yeovil . The US Air Force transported the helicopter in a C @-@ 17 Globemaster III to Naval Air Station Patuxent River , Maryland for further testing . The first production VH @-@ 71 joined the test program at NAS Patuxent River , beginning ground testing in early December 2008 .
= = Variants = =
VH @-@ 71A
The initial production VH @-@ 71 aircraft or Increment one of the presidential helicopter replacement program , designed to meet an urgent need for new helicopters .
VH @-@ 71B
Increment two was to provide 23 operational helicopters with increased range , and upgraded navigation and communications systems that fulfill White House requirements to maintain continuity of government and allow the president to carry out the duties of the office .
= = = Other competitions = = =
The US101 is also competing for two USAF contracts , the 141 @-@ aircraft Combat Search and Rescue Replacement ( CSAR @-@ X ) project ( originally won by the Boeing HH @-@ 47 on 10 November 2006 , but now subject to a second procurement competition ) , and the 70 @-@ aircraft Common Vertical Lift Support Program ( CVLSP ) .
= = Operators = =
United States of America
United States Marine Corps ( proposed )
HMX @-@ 1 's Marine One fleet
= = Specifications ( VH @-@ 71 ) = =
Specifications with an asterisk ( * ) next to them are specifically for the VH @-@ 71 . All others are for AW101 .
Data from Jane 's All The World 's Aircraft 2003 – 2004 , others
General characteristics
Crew : 4
Capacity : 14 seated troops *
Length : 64 ft 1 in ( 19 @.@ 53 m )
Rotor diameter : 61 ft ( 18 @.@ 59 m )
Height : 21 ft 8 ¾ in ( 6 @.@ 62 m )
Disc area : 2 @,@ 992 @.@ 5 ft ² ( 271 @.@ 51 m ² )
Empty weight : 23 @,@ 149 lb ( 10 @,@ 500 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 34 @,@ 392 lb ( 15 @,@ 600 kg )
Powerplant : 3 × General Electric CT7 @-@ 8E turboshafts , 2 @,@ 520 shp ( 1 @,@ 879 kW ) ( take @-@ off power ) each
Performance
Never exceed speed : 167 knots ( 192 mph , 309 km / h )
Cruise speed : 150 knots ( 167 mph , 278 km / h )
Range : 863 mi ( 1 @,@ 389 km )
Service ceiling : 15 @,@ 010 ft ( 4 @,@ 575 m )
Rate of climb : 2 @,@ 010 ft / min ( 10 @.@ 2 m / s )
Disc loading : 11 @.@ 0 lb / ft ² ( 53 @.@ 8 kg / m ² )
Power / mass : 0 @.@ 174 shp / lb ( 0 @.@ 2849 kW / kg )
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= Light in August =
Light in August is a 1932 novel by the Southern American author William Faulkner . It belongs to the Southern gothic and modernist literary genres .
Set in the author 's present day , the interwar period , the novel centers on two strangers who arrive at different times in Jefferson , Yoknapatawpha County , Mississippi , a fictional county based on Faulkner 's home , Lafayette County , Mississippi . The plot first focuses on Lena Grove , a young pregnant white woman from Alabama looking for the father of her unborn child , and then shifts to explore the life of Joe Christmas , a man who has settled in Jefferson and passes as white , but who secretly believes he has some black ancestry . After a series of flashbacks narrating Christmas 's early life , the plot resumes with his living and working with Lucas Burch , the father of Lena 's child , who fled to Jefferson and changed his name when he found out that Lena was pregnant . The woman on whose property Christmas and Burch have been living , Joanna Burden , a descendant of Yankee abolitionists hated by the citizens of Jefferson , is murdered . Burch is caught at the scene of the crime and reveals that Christmas had been romantically involved with her and is part black , thus implying that he is guilty of her murder . While Burch sits in jail awaiting his reward for turning in Christmas , Lena is assisted by Byron Bunch , a shy , mild @-@ mannered bachelor who falls in love with her . Bunch seeks the aid of another outcast in the town , the disgraced former minister Gail Hightower , to help Lena give birth and protect Christmas from being lynched . Though Hightower refuses the latter , Christmas escapes to his house and is shot and castrated by a state guardsman . Burch leaves town without his reward , and the novel ends with an anonymous man recounting a story to his wife about some hitchhikers he picked up on the road to Tennessee — a woman with a child and a man who was not the father of the child , both looking for the woman 's husband .
In a loose , unstructured modernist narrative style that draws from Christian allegory and oral storytelling , Faulkner explores themes of race , sex , class and religion in the American South . By focusing on characters that are misfits , outcasts , or are otherwise marginalized in their community , he portrays the clash of alienated individuals against a Puritanical , prejudiced rural society . Early reception of the novel was mixed , with some reviewers critical of Faulkner 's style and subject matter . However , over time , the novel has come to be considered one of the most important literary works by Faulkner and one of the best English @-@ language novels of the 20th century .
= = Plot = =
The novel is set in the American South in the 1930s , during the time of Prohibition and Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation in the South . It begins with the journey of Lena Grove , a young pregnant white woman from Doane 's Mill , Alabama , who is trying to find Lucas Burch , the father of her unborn child . He has been fired from his job at Doane 's Mill and moved to Mississippi , promising to send word to her when he has a new job . Not hearing from Burch and harassed by her older brother for her illegitimate pregnancy , Lena walks and hitchhikes to Jefferson , Mississippi , a town in Faulkner 's fictional Yoknapatawpha County . There she expects to find Lucas working at another planing mill , ready to marry her . Those who help her along her four @-@ week trek are skeptical that Lucas Burch will be found , or that he will keep his promise when she catches up with him . When she arrives in Jefferson , Lucas is there , but he has changed his name to Joe Brown . Looking for Lucas , sweet , trusting Lena meets shy , mild @-@ mannered Byron Bunch , who falls in love with Lena but feels honor @-@ bound to help her find Joe Brown . Thoughtful and quietly religious , Byron is superior to Brown in every way but his shyness prevents him from revealing his feelings to Lena .
The novel then switches to the second plot strand , the story of Lucas Burch / Joe Brown 's partner Joe Christmas . The surly , psychopathic Christmas has been on the run for years , ever since killing his strict Methodist adopted father . Although he has light skin , Christmas suspects that he is of African American ancestry . Consumed with rage , he is a bitter outcast who wanders between black and white society , constantly provoking fights with blacks and whites alike . Christmas comes to Jefferson three years prior to the central events of the novel and gets a job at the mill where Byron , and later Joe Brown , works . The job at the mill is a cover for Christmas 's bootlegging operation , which is illegal under Prohibition . He has a sexual relationship with Joanna Burden , an older woman who descended from a formerly powerful abolitionist family whom the town despises as carpetbaggers . Though their relationship is passionate at first , Joanna begins menopause and turns to religion , which frustrates and angers Christmas . At the end of her relationship with Christmas , Joanna tries to force him , at gunpoint , to kneel and pray . Joanna is murdered soon after : her throat is slit and she is nearly decapitated .
The novel leaves readers uncertain whether Joe Christmas or Joe Brown is the murderer . Brown is Christmas ' business partner in bootlegging and is leaving Joanna 's burning house when a passing farmer stops to investigate and pull Joanna 's body from the fire . The sheriff at first suspects Joe Brown , but initiates a manhunt for Christmas after Brown claims that Christmas is black . The manhunt is fruitless until Christmas arrives undisguised in Mottstown , a neighboring town ; he is on his way back to Jefferson , no longer running . In Mottstown , he is arrested and jailed , then moved to Jefferson . His grandparents arrive in town and visit Gail Hightower , the disgraced former minister of the town and friend of Byron Bunch . Bunch tries to convince Hightower to give the imprisoned Joe Christmas an alibi , but Hightower initially refuses . Though his grandfather wants Christmas lynched , his grandmother visits him in the Jefferson jail and advises him to seek help from Hightower . As police escort him to the local court , Christmas breaks free and runs to Hightower 's house . A childishly cruel white vigilante , Percy Grimm , follows him there and , over Hightower 's protest , shoots and castrates Christmas . Having redeemed himself at last , Hightower is then depicted as falling into a deathlike swoon , his whole life flashing before his eyes , including the past adventures of his Confederate grandfather , who was killed while stealing chickens from a farmer 's shed .
Before Christmas ' escape attempt , Hightower delivers Lena 's child in the cabin where Brown and Christmas had been staying before the murder , and Byron arranges for Brown / Burch to come and see her . Brown deserts Lena once again , but Byron follows him and challenges him to a fight . Brown beats the braver , smaller Bunch , then skilfully hops a moving train and disappears . At the end of the story , an anonymous man is talking to his wife about two strangers he picked up on a trip to Tennessee , recounting that the woman had a child and the man was not the father . This was Lena and Byron , who were conducting a half @-@ hearted search for Brown , and they are eventually dropped off in Tennessee .
= = Characters = =
= = = Major characters = = =
Lena Grove – a young pregnant woman from Alabama who has traveled to Jefferson while looking for Lucas Burch , the father of her unborn child .
Byron Bunch – a bachelor who works at the planing mill in Jefferson , who meets and falls in love with Lena when she arrives in town . She has been told that a man named Bunch works at the mill and assumes it is Lucas , because the name sounds similar .
Gail Hightower – the former minister of Jefferson , forced to retire after his wife was discovered to be having an affair in Memphis and committed suicide . He is a friend and mentor to Byron .
Lucas Burch / Joe Brown – the young man who fathered Lena 's child in Alabama and ran away when she told him she was pregnant . He has been living in Jefferson with Joe Christmas in a cabin on Joanna Burden 's property under the name Joe Brown and working with Christmas and Byron at the planing mill . He is also a bootlegger .
Joe Christmas – a man who came to Jefferson three years prior to the events in the novel . He lives in a cabin on the property of Joanna Burden and has a secret sexual relationship with her . Although he has light skin and is an orphan with no knowledge of his family background , he believes that one of his parents are of African @-@ American ancestry , and this secret has caused him to be a habitual wanderer . He is employed at the planing mill until he begins to make a profit as a bootlegger .
Joanna Burden – the sole survivor in Jefferson of a family of abolitionists from New England who came to Jefferson after the Civil War . She is unmarried , lives alone in a manor house outside of Jefferson , and is secretly engaged in a sexual relationship with Joe Christmas . She is murdered , presumably by Christmas , at the start of the novel , and her house is burned down .
= = = Secondary characters = = =
Eupheus " Doc " Hines – the grandfather of Joe Christmas . He hates Christmas and gives him away to an orphanage when he is born , staying on as a janitor there in order to monitor the boy . Later , when he hears that Christmas is being held on suspicion of murdering Joanna Burden , he travels to Jefferson with his wife and begins to incite a lynch mob to kill Christmas .
Mrs. Hines – the grandmother of Joe Christmas . She has never seen Christmas after the night of his birth and travels to Jefferson to ensure that her husband does not successfully have him lynched , because she wants to see him again once more before he is tried for murder .
Milly Hines – the teenage mother of Joe Christmas . She conceives after a tryst with a member of a traveling circus , whom she claims is Mexican . She dies in childbirth after Eupheus Hines refuses to call a doctor for her .
Mr. McEachern – the adoptive father of Joe Christmas . He is a devout Presbyterian and tries to instill religion in the young orphan he has adopted . He disapproves of Christmas 's growing disobedience and is killed by his adopted son when the boy is 18 .
Mrs. McEachern – the adoptive mother of Joe Christmas . She tries to protect Christmas , though he hates her and pulls away from her attempts to be kind to him .
The dietitian – a woman who worked at the orphanage where Joe Christmas was raised . After he accidentally sees her with a man in her room , she tries unsuccessfully to have him transferred to an all @-@ black orphanage .
Mr. Armstid – a man who picks up Lena on her way to Jefferson , lets her spend the night at his house , and then gives her a ride to the city on his wagon .
Mrs. Armstid – Armstid 's wife , who gives Lena money in spite of her disdain for the young woman .
Bobbie – a waitress at a restaurant in Memphis whom the adolescent Joe Christmas falls in love with and proposes to on the night that he kills his father at a local dance . She scorns him and leaves him .
Gavin Stevens – an educated man and district attorney who lives in Jefferson and offers commentary on some of the events at the end of the novel .
Percy Grimm – the captain of the State National Guard who kills Joe Christmas and castrates him .
= = Style and structure = =
Due to its naturalistic , violent subject matter and obsession with the ghosts of the past , Light in August is characterized as a Southern gothic novel , a genre also exemplified by the works of Faulkner 's contemporary Carson McCullers , and by later Southern writers like Flannery O 'Connor , and Truman Capote . However , critics like Diane Roberts and David R. Jarraway view Faulkner 's use of Southern gothic genre tropes , such as the dilapidated plantation house and the focus on mystery and horror , as self @-@ conscious modernist commentary on man 's " warped relationship with the past " and the impossibility of determining true identity .
According to Daniel Joseph Singal , Faulkner 's literary style gradually developed from 19th century Victorian to modernist , with Light in August more firmly grounded in the tradition of the latter . The novel is characteristic of the modernist fascination with polarities — light and dark , good and evil — the burden of history on the present , and the splintering of personal identity . The plot is also divided into dual currents , one focusing on Lena Grove and the other on Joe Christmas , a technique that Faulkner continued to use in other works . The narrative is not structured in any particular order , as it is often interrupted by lengthy flashbacks and constantly shifts from one character to another . This lack of organization and narrative continuity was viewed negatively by some critics . As in his other novels , Faulkner employs elements of oral storytelling , allowing different characters to lend voice to the narrative in their own distinct Southern idiom . Unlike some of the other Yoknapatawpha County novels , notably The Sound and the Fury , Light in August does not rely solely on stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness narration , but also incorporates dialogue and an omniscient third @-@ person narrator that develop the story .
= = = Title = = =
The title refers to the fire of the house that is at the center of the story . The whole novel revolves around one event , the fire , which is visible for miles around , and happens in August .
Some critics have speculated that the meaning of the title derives from a colloquial use of the word " light " to mean giving birth — typically used to describe when a cow will give birth and be " light " again — and connect this to Lena 's pregnancy . Speaking of his choice of title , Faulkner denied this interpretation and stated ,
. . .in August in Mississippi there ’ s a few days somewhere about the middle of the month when suddenly there ’ s a foretaste of fall , it ’ s cool , there ’ s a lambence , a soft , a luminous quality to the light , as though it came not from just today but from back in the old classic times . It might have fauns and satyrs and the gods and — from Greece , from Olympus in it somewhere . It lasts just for a day or two , then it ’ s gone . . .the title reminded me of that time , of a luminosity older than our Christian civilization . "
Within the novel itself , the title is alluded to when Gail Hightower sits at his study window waiting for his recurring vision of his grandfather 's last raid . The vision always occurs in " that instant when all light has failed out of the sky and it would be night save for that faint light which daygranaried leaf and grass blade reluctant suspire , making still a little light on earth though night itself has come . " The story that would eventually become the novel , started by Faulkner in 1931 , was originally titled " Dark House " and began with Hightower sitting at a dark window in his home . However , after a casual remark by his wife Estelle on the quality of the light in August , Faulkner changed the title .
= = Themes = =
= = = Alienation = = =
All of the protagonists in the novel are misfits and social outcasts surrounded by an impersonal and largely antagonistic rural community , which is represented metonymically through minor or anonymous characters . Joanna Burden and Reverend Hightower are hounded by the people of Jefferson for years , in a failed effort to make them leave town . Byron Bunch , though more accepted in Jefferson , is still viewed as a mystery or simply overlooked . Both Joe Christmas and Lena Grove are orphans , strangers in town , and social outcasts , though the former draws anger and violence from the community , while the latter is looked down upon but receives generous assistance in her travels . According to Cleanth Brooks , this opposition between Joe and Lena is a pastoral reflection of the full spectrum of social alienation in modern society .
= = = Christian allegory = = =
There are a variety of parallels with Christian scripture in the novel . The life and death of Joe Christmas is reminiscent of the passion of Christ , Lena and her fatherless child parallel Mary and Christ , and Byron Bunch acts as a Joseph figure . Christian imagery such as the urn , the wheel , and the shadow , can be found throughout .
Light in August has 21 chapters , as does the Gospel of St. John . As Virginia V. James Hlavsa points out , each chapter in Faulkner corresponds to themes in John . For example , echoing John 's famous , " In the beginning was the Word , and the Word was with God " , is Lena 's insistent faith in the " word " of Lucas , who is , after all , the father . John 5 , the healing of the lame man by immersion , is echoed by Christmas 's repeatedly being immersed in liquids . The teaching in the temple in John 7 is echoed by McEachern 's attempts to teach Christmas his catechism . The crucifixion occurs in John 19 , the same chapter in which Christmas is slain and castrated . However , the Christian references are dark and disturbing — Lena is obviously not a virgin , Christmas is an enraged murderer — and may be more appropriately viewed as pagan idols mistakenly worshipped as saints .
= = = Race and sex = = =
Faulkner is considered one of the foremost American writers on race in the United States , and his novels , including Light in August , often explore the persistent obsession with blood and race in the South that have carried over from the antebellum era to the 21st century . Christmas has light skin but is viewed as a foreigner by the people he meets , and the children in the orphanage in which he was raised call him " nigger . " Because of this , he is fixated on the idea that he has some African American blood , which Faulkner never confirms , and views his parentage as an original sin that has tainted his body and actions since birth . Because of his obsessive struggle with his twin identities , black and white , Christmas lives his life always on the road . The secret of his blackness is one that he abhors as well as cherishes ; he often willingly tells white people that he is black in order to see their extreme reactions and becomes violent when one white Northern woman reacts nonchalantly . Though Christmas is guilty of violent crimes , Faulkner emphasizes that he is under the sway of social and psychological forces that are beyond his control and force him to reenact the part of the mythical black murderer and rapist from Southern history .
Christmas exemplifies how existing outside of categorization , being neither black nor white , is perceived as a threat by society that can only be reconciled with violence . He is also perceived as neither male nor female , just as Joanna Burden , whom Faulkner portrays as " masculinized , " is also neither male nor female and is rejected by her community . Because of this , an early critic concluded that blackness and women were the " ' twin Furies of the Faulknerian deep Southern Waste Land ' " and reflected Faulkner 's animosity toward life .
However , while women and minorities are both viewed as " subversive " and are restricted by the patriarchal society depicted in the novel , Lena Grove is able to travel safely and be cared for by people who hate and mistrust her , because she plays on the conventional rule that men are responsible for a woman 's wellbeing . Thus , she is the only stranger who is not alienated and destroyed by the people of Jefferson , because the community recognizes her as the embodiment of nature and life . This romantic view of women in the novel posits that men have lost their innocent connection to the natural world , while women instinctively possess it .
= = = Class and religion = = =
In Light in August , as in most of the other novels set in Yoknapatawpha County , Faulkner focuses mainly on poor white Southerners , both from the upper and lower classes , who struggle to survive in the ruined post @-@ war economy of the South . The characters in Light in August — who are mostly from the lower classes , with the exception of Reverend Hightower and Joanna Burden — are united by poverty and Puritanical values that cause them to regard an unwed mother like Lena Grove with disdain . Faulkner shows the restrictiveness and aggression of their Puritanical zeal , which has caused them to become " deformed " in their struggle against nature .
= = Reception = =
When it was first published in 1932 , the novel was moderately successful ; 11 @,@ 000 copies were initially printed , with a total of four printings by the end of the year , although a significant number of copies from the fourth printing had not been sold by 1936 . In 1935 , Maurice Coindreau translated the novel into French . In the same year , it was translated into German along with several other novels and short stories by Faulkner . These works initially met with approval from the Nazi censors and received much attention from German literary critics , because they assumed that Faulkner was a conservative agrarian positively depicting the struggle for racial purity ; soon after , however , Faulkner 's works were banned by the Nazis , and post @-@ war German criticism reappraised him as an optimistic Christian humanist .
According to Michael Millgate , though it is not typically considered Faulkner 's best novel , Light in August was recognized early on as being " a major text , central to any understanding or evaluation of his career as a whole . " He argues that many of the early American critics , most of whom were urban Northerners who viewed the South as backward and reactionary , focused on Faulkner 's technical innovation in the field of narrative but missed or ignored the regional details and interconnectedness of the characters and setting to other works by the author . Some reviewers saw Faulkner 's narrative techniques not as innovations but as errors , offering Faulkner recommendations on how to improve his style and admonishing him for his European modernist " ' tricks ' " . Critics were also displeased with the violence depicted in the novel , pejoratively labeling it " gothic fantasy , " despite the fact that lynching was a reality in the South . In spite of these complaints , the novel came to be viewed positively because of its violence and dark themes , as this was a contrast to the sentimental , romantic Southern literature of the time .
In 1998 , the Modern Library ranked Light in August 54th on its list of the 100 best English @-@ language novels of the 20th century . Additionally , Time magazine included the novel in its TIME 100 Best English @-@ language Novels from 1923 to 2005 .
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= Polish Underground State =
The Polish Underground State ( Polish : Polskie Państwo Podziemne , also known as the Polish Secret State ) is a collective term for the underground resistance organizations in Poland during World War II , both military and civilian , that were loyal to the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile in London . The first elements of the Underground State were established in the final days of the German invasion of Poland that began in September 1939 . The Underground State was perceived by supporters as a legal continuation of the pre @-@ war Republic of Poland ( and its institutions ) that waged an armed struggle against the country 's occupying powers : Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union . The Underground State encompassed not only military resistance , one of the largest in the world , but also civilian structures , such as education , culture and social services .
Although the Underground State enjoyed broad support throughout much of the war , it was not supported or recognized by the far left ( communists ) . The nationalists from the National Radical Camp Falanga and National Radical Camp ABC opposed the German occupation of Poland and the two movements were quickly replaced by the Konfederacja Narodu , a part of the Polish Underground State which also included most members of the pre @-@ war far @-@ right . Influence of the communists eventually declined amid military reversals ( most notably , the failure of the Warsaw Uprising ) and the growing hostility of the USSR . The Soviet Union had created an alternative , puppet government in 1944 ( the Polish Committee of National Liberation ) and ensured it formed the basis of the post @-@ war government in Poland . During the Soviet @-@ backed communist takeover of Poland at the end of the war , many Underground State members were prosecuted as alleged traitors and died in captivity . Abandoned by the Western Allies , finding it impossible to negotiate with the Soviets , and wishing to avoid a civil war , the key institutions of the Underground State dissolved themselves in the first half of 1945 .
Ultimately , hundreds of thousands of people were directly involved with various agencies of the Underground State ( the estimates for membership in Armia Krajowa alone are often given at approaching half a million people ) , and they were quietly supported by millions of Polish citizens . The rationale behind the creation of the secret civilian authority drew on the fact that the German and Soviet occupation of Poland was illegal . Hence , all institutions created by the occupying powers were considered illegal , and parallel Polish underground institutions were set up in accordance with Polish law . The scale of the Underground State was also inadvertently aided by the actions of the occupiers , whose attempts to destroy the Polish state , nation , and its culture , including most importantly genocidal policies that targeted Polish citizens , fuelled popular support for the Polish resistance movement and its development .
During the Cold War era , research on the Underground State was curtailed by Polish communist officials , who instead emphasized the role that communist partisans played in the anti @-@ Nazi resistance . Hence , until recently , the bulk of research done on this topic was carried out by Polish scholars living in exile .
= = History = =
= = = 1939 – 1940 : Formation = = =
In many respects , the history of the Polish Underground State mirrors that of the Polish non @-@ communist resistance in general . The Underground State traces its origins to the Service for Poland 's Victory ( Służba Zwycięstwu Polski , SZP ) organization , which was founded on 27 September 1939 , one day before the surrender of the Polish capital of Warsaw , at a time when the Polish defeat in the German invasion of Poland ( accompanied by the Soviet one ) appeared inevitable . SZP founder General Michał Karaszewicz @-@ Tokarzewski received orders from Polish Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Marshal Edward Rydz @-@ Śmigły to organize and carry out the struggle in occupied Poland . Karaszewicz @-@ Tokarzewski decided that the organization he was creating needed to move beyond a strictly military format ; and in line with the traditions of the underground 19th @-@ century Polish National Government and World War I @-@ era Polish Military Organization , it would need to encompass various aspects of civilian life . Hence , the SZP , in contact with ( and subordinate to ) the Polish Government in Exile , envisioned itself not only as an armed resistance organization , but also as a vehicle through which the Polish state continued to administer its occupied territories .
Following the Polish Constitution , President Ignacy Mościcki , interned in Romania after the Polish government evacuated itself from Poland on 17 September , resigned and appointed General Bolesław Wieniawa @-@ Długoszowski as his successor ; unpopular with the French government , Wieniawa @-@ Długoszowski was replaced by Władysław Raczkiewicz on 29 September . General Władysław Sikorski , a long @-@ term opponent of the Sanacja regime who resided in France and had the support of the French government , would become the Polish Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ( on 28 September ) and Poland 's Prime Minister ( on 30 September ) . This government was quickly recognized by France and the United Kingdom . Raczkiewicz , described as " weak and indecisive " , held relatively little influence compared to charismatic Sikorski .
Due to political differences among factions in the Polish exile government , and in particular , SZP ties to the Sanacja regime which dominated the Polish government since mid @-@ 1920s , the SZP was reorganized into the Union of Armed Struggle ( Związek Walki Zbrojnej , ZWZ ) on 13 November 1939 . Karaszewicz @-@ Tokarzewski supported that move , aiming to include parties marginalized by the Sanacja regime , and supported the formation of the Main Political Council ( Główna Rada Polityczna , GRP ) . Sikorski named General Kazimierz Sosnkowski the head of the ZWZ and Colonel Stefan Rowecki was appointed the commander of the ZWZ German occupation zone . Karaszewicz @-@ Tokarzewski became the commander of the ZWZ Soviet zone , but was arrested in March 1940 by the Soviets when attempting to cross the new German @-@ Soviet border . In June Sikorski appointed Rowecki as the commander of both zones .
Given that the ZWZ focused on military aspects of the struggle , its civilian dimension was less clearly defined and developed more slowly — a situation exacerbated by the complex political discussions that were then unfolding between politicians in occupied Poland and the government in exile ( first located in Paris , and after the fall of France , in London ) . Sikorski 's government opted for a much more democratic procedure then the less democratic prewar Sanacja regime . The National Council ( Rada Narodowa ) was formed by the government in exile in December 1939 , including representatives from different Polish political factions . Meanwhile , in occupied Poland , a major step toward the development of the organization 's civilian structure was taken in late February 1940 , when the ZWZ established its local version of the National Council , the Political Consultative Committee ( Polityczny Komitet Porozumiewawczy , PKP ) . The structures in occupied Poland maintained close communication with the government in exile , through radio communications and " hundreds , if not thousands " of couriers , such as Jan Karski . One of the most significant developments of 1940 was the creation of the office of Government Delegation for Poland ( Delegatura Rządu na Kraj ) , with Cyryl Ratajski ( nominated on 3 December ) as the first Delegate ; this event marked the official beginning of the Underground State ( Ratajski would be followed by Jan Piekałkiewicz , Jan Stanisław Jankowski and Stefan Korboński ) . The post of the Delegate could be seen as equivalent to that of a Deputy Prime Minister ( particularly since the legislation of 1944 ) . Unlike the GRP and PKP , which operated alongside the military structures but had no influence over them , the Delegation had budgetary control over the military . The Delegation was to oversee the military , and recreate the civilian administration .
As early as 1940 , the Underground State 's civilian arm was actively supporting underground education ; it then set out to develop social security , information ( propaganda ) and justice networks .
= = = 1941 – 1943 : Growth = = =
By 1942 , most of the differences between politicians in occupied Poland and those in exile had been positively settled . By 1943 , the PKP had evolved into the Home Political Representation ( Krajowa Reprezentacja Polityczna , KRP ) , which served as the basis of the Council of National Unity ( Rada Jedności Narodowej , RJN ) , created on 9 January 1944 . The Council , headed by Kazimierz Pużak , was seen as the Underground State 's parliament . Meanwhile , the military arm of the Underground State expanded dramatically , and the ZWZ was transformed into Armia Krajowa ( AK , or the Home Army ) in 1942 . ZWZ @-@ AK commanders included Stefan Rowecki , Tadeusz Komorowski and Leopold Okulicki .
In August 1943 and March 1944 , the Polish Underground State announced its long @-@ term plan , which was partly designed to undercut the attractiveness of some of the communists ' proposals . The communists , in their increasingly radical What We Fight For declarations ( from March and November 1943 ) , were proposing the creation of a heavily socialist or even communist state , denouncing capitalism , which they equated to slavery . They demanded nationalization of most if not all of the economy , introduction of central planning , The Underground State 's declaration What the Polish Nation is Fighting For declared the reconstruction of Poland as a democratic parliamentary state as its goal , guaranteeing full equality to the minorities , as well as full freedom of speech , freedom of religion , and freedom of political activity . The plan also called for the creation of a Central European federal union , without domination by any single state . In the economic sector , planned economy would be endorsed , by embracing the socialist and Christian Democrat principles , such as income redistribution , aiming at a reduction of economic inequality . The plan promised land reform , nationalization of the industrial base , demands for territorial compensation from Germany , and re @-@ establishment of the country 's pre @-@ 1939 eastern border . According to the plan , the country 's Eastern borders , as delineated by the 1921 Treaty of Riga , would be kept while in the north and west compensation would be sought from German territories . Thus , the main differences between the Underground State and the communists , in terms of politics , were not rooted in radical economic and social reforms , which both sides advocated , but rather in their divergent positions on such issues as national sovereignty , borders , and Polish @-@ Soviet relations . The program was criticized by the nationalist factions , for being too socialist , and not " Christian " enough .
The Underground State achieved its zenith of influence in early 1944 . In April , the Polish government in exile recognized the administrative structure of the Delegate 's Office as the Temporary Governmental Administration . This was when the Delegate officially became recognized as the Deputy Prime Minister , and the Council of Ministers at Home ( Krajowa Rada Ministrów , KRM ) was created . The Underground State however declined sharply in the aftermath of the nationwide uprising , Operation Tempest , initiated in the Spring of 1944 . In addition to the costly and eventually unsuccessful Warsaw Uprising part of the Operation Tempest , the hostile attitude of the Soviet Union and its puppet Polish government , the Polish Committee of National Liberation ( Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego , PKWN ) towards the non @-@ communist resistance loyal to the Polish government in exile proved to be disastrous . The Underground State assumed that the Polish resistance would aid the advancing Soviet forces , and AK commanders and representatives of the administrative authority would assume the role of legitimate hosts . Instead , the Soviets commonly surrounded , disarmed and arrested the Underground 's military authority members and its civilian representatives , instituting their own administrative structures instead . In early July 1944 , even as the AK resistance continued its struggle against the Germans , the Underground State was forced to order the AK and its administrative structure to remain in hiding from the Soviets , due to continued arrests and reprisals experienced by those who revealed themselves .
= = = 1944 – 1945 : Decline and dissolution = = =
Events taking place in 1943 significantly weakened the Polish government in exile . A rift developed between Poland and the Soviet Union , an increasingly important ally for the West , particularly after the revelation of the Katyn massacre in 1943 ( on 13 April ) , followed by the breaking @-@ off of diplomatic relations with Poland by the Soviets ( on 21 April ) . The subsequent death ( on 4 July ) of the charismatic General Sikorski , succeeded by less influential Stanisław Mikołajczyk as the Prime Minister , and General Sosnkowski as the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , contributed to the decline . No representative of the Polish government was invited to the Tehran Conference ( 28 November 28 – 1 December 1943 ) or the Yalta Conference ( 4 – 11 February 1945 ) , the two crucial events in which the Western Allies and the Soviet Union discussed the shape of the post @-@ war world and decided on the fate of Poland , assigning it to the Soviet sphere of influence . In Teheran , neither Churchill nor Roosevelt objected to Stalin 's suggestion that the Polish government in exile in London was not representing Polish interests ; as historian Anita Prażmowska noted , " this spelled the end of that government 's tenuous influence and raison d 'être . " After the Teheran Conference , Stalin decided to create his own puppet government for Poland , and the PKWN was proclaimed in 1944 . PKWN was recognized by the Soviet Government as the only legitimate authority in Poland , while Mikołajczyk ’ s Government in London , was termed by the Soviets an " illegal and self @-@ styled authority . " Mikołajczyk would serve in the Prime Minister 's role until 24 November 1944 , when , realizing the increasing powerlessness of the government in exile , he resigned and was succeeded by Tomasz Arciszewski , " whose obscurity " , in the words of historian Mieczysław B. Biskupski , " signaled the arrival of the government in exile at total inconsequentiality . "
The communists refused to deal with the Underground State just like they refused to deal with the government in exile ; its leaders and soldiers in " liberated " Polish territories were persecuted . A number of prominent leaders of the Underground State , including the Government Delegate , Jan Stanisław Jankowski and the last AK Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Leopold Okulicki , who decided to reveal themselves and upon the Soviet invitation begun open negotiations with the communist authorities , were arrested and sentenced by the Soviets in Moscow in the infamous Trial of the Sixteen ( arrests were carried out in March 1945 , and the trial itself took place in June that year ) . On 27 June 1945 the Council of National Unity held its last session , issuing a 12 @-@ point declaration demanding that the Soviet army leave Poland and the repression of the non @-@ communist political parties cease . The Government Delegate 's Office at Home , restructured after the arrests of its leadership and headed by the last Delegate , Stefan Korboński , disbanded on 1 July , after the creation in Moscow of the Provisional Government of National Unity ( Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej , TRJN ) on 28 June 1945 . The disbanding of those structures marked the end of the Underground State .
The TRJN was composed primarily of communist representatives from the PKWN , with a token representation of the opposition as a gesture towards the Western Allies . With the establishment of the TRJN , the government in exile stopped being recognized by the Western Allies ( France withdrew its recognition on 29 June , followed by United Kingdom and the United States on 5 July ) , who decided to support the Soviet @-@ backed and increasingly communist TRJN body . Seeing this as a " Western betrayal " , the government in exile protested that decision and continued to operate till the fall of communism in 1989 , when it recognized the post @-@ communist Polish government . The rigged Polish legislative election of 1947 marked the onset of undisguised Communist rule in Poland ; few independent politicians like Mikołajczyk who attempted to form an opposition were threatened with arrests , retired or emigrated .
The Underground State 's military arm , Armia Krajowa , officially disbanded on 19 January 1945 to avoid armed conflict with the Soviets and a civil war . Over the next few years the communists solidified their hold on Poland , falsifying elections , persecuting the opposition and eliminating it as a political power . Remnants of the armed resistance ( NIE , Armed Forces Delegation for Poland , Freedom and Independence ) that refused to lay down their weapons and surrender to the communist regime continued to hold out for several years as the cursed soldiers , fighting the Soviet @-@ backed communist forces until eradicated .
= = Political representation = =
The Underground State represented most , though not all , political factions of the Second Polish Republic . The Political Consultative Committee ( PKP ) represented four major Polish parties : the Socialist Party ( PPS @-@ WRN ) , the People 's Party ( SL ) , the SN , and the Labor Party ( SP ) . The SP joined the PKP in June 1940 , four months after the PKP was created ; and the PPS @-@ WRN withdrew from the PKP between October 1941 and March 1943 . Those parties , known as the Big Four , were also represented in the Home Political Representation ( KRP ) . Compared to PKP and KRP , the Council of National Unity was much more representative , and included representatives of several smaller political groupings . Several other groups lacked significant representation in PKP and KRP , but nonetheless had supported the Underground State . Non @-@ Polish ethnic minorities , primarily the Ukrainians and the Belarusians , were not represented in the Underground State ; however the Jews were .
The most important groups that lacked representation in the Underground State included the communist ( Polish Workers Party ( PPR ) and its military arm , the Gwardia Ludowa ) , and the far right ( Group Szaniec and its military arm , the Military Organization Lizard Union ) . Both the extreme left ( the communists ) and the extreme right ( the nationalists ) saw themselves in opposition to the Underground State . Only the PPR , however , opposed to Polish independence and supporting full inclusion of Poland in the Soviet Union , was seen as completely outside the framework of the State ; the other groups were seen as a legitimate opposition . In 1944 PPR would become part of the PKWN Soviet puppet government .
= = Structure = =
= = = Civilian = = =
The government in exile , located first in France and later in the United Kingdom , with the President , Prime Minister and the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Polish Army was the top military and civilian authority , recognized by the authorities of the Underground State as their commanders . The government in exile was represented in the occupied Poland by the Government Delegation for Poland , headed by the Government Delegate for Poland .
The main role of the civilian branch of the Underground State was to preserve the continuity of the Polish state as a whole , including its institutions . These institutions included the police , the courts , and schools . This branch of the state was intended to prepare cadres and institutions to resume power after the German defeat in World War II . By the final years of the war , the civilian structure of the Underground State included an underground parliament , administration , judiciary ( courts and police ) , secondary and higher level education , and supported various cultural activities such as publishing of newspapers and books , underground theatres , lectures , exhibitions , concerts and safeguarded various works of art . It also dealt with providing social services , including to the destitute Jewish population ( through the Council to Aid Jews , or Żegota ) . Through the Directorate of Civil Resistance ( 1941 – 1943 ) the civil arm was also involved in lesser acts of resistance , such as minor sabotage , although in 1943 this department was merged with the Directorate of Covert Resistance , forming the Directorate of Underground Resistance , subordinate to AK .
The departments can be seen as loosely corresponding to ministries . Three departments were dedicated to war @-@ related issues : the Department for Elimination of the Consequences of War , the Department for Public Works and Reconstruction , and the Department for Information and the Press ; the other departments mirrored pre @-@ war Polish ministries ( e.g. , Department of Post Offices and Telegraphs , or Department of the Treasury ) . The Delegate 's Office was divided into departments , 14 of which existed toward the end of the war ; the full list included : the Presidential Department , the Department of Internal Affairs , Justice Department , Employment and Social Welfare Department , Agriculture Department , Treasury Department , Trade and Industry Department , Postal and Telegraph Services Department , the Department for Elimination of the Consequences of War , Transport Department , Information and the Press , Department of Public Works and Reconstruction , Department of Education and Culture and the Department of National Defence .
On the geographical division level , the Delegation had local offices , dividing Polish territories into 16 voivodeships , each under an underground voivode , further divided into powiats headed by starostas , and with separate municipal bodies . In early 1944 , the Delegation employed some 15 @,@ 000 people in its administration ; those were primarily older people , as the younger ones were recruited for the military side of the operations .
= = = Military = = =
The military arm of the Polish Underground State consisted primarily of various branches of the Armia Krajowa ( AK ) and , until 1942 , the Union of Armed Struggle . This arm of the state was designed to prepare the Polish society for a future fight for the country 's liberation . Apart from armed resistance , sabotage , intelligence , training , and propaganda , the state 's military arm was responsible for maintaining communication with the London @-@ based government in exile , and for protecting the civilian arm of the state .
The Armia Krajowa 's primary resistance operations were the sabotage of German activities , including transports headed for the Eastern Front in the Soviet Union . The sabotage of German rail and road transports to the Eastern Front was so extensive it is estimated that one eighth of all German transports to the Eastern Front were destroyed or significantly delayed due to AK 's activities .
The AK also fought several full @-@ scale battles against the Germans , particularly in 1943 and 1944 during Operation Tempest . They tied down significant German forces , worth at least several divisions ( upper estimates suggest about 930 @,@ 000 troops ) , diverting much @-@ needed supplies , while trying to support the Soviet military . Polish intelligence operatives supplied valuable intelligence information to the Allies ; 43 percent of all reports received by British secret services from continental Europe in 1939 – 45 came from Polish sources . At its height , AK numbered over 400 @,@ 000 and was recognized as one of the three largest , or even the largest , resistance movement of the war . Axis fatalities due to the actions of the Polish underground , of which AK formed the bulk , are estimated at up to 150 @,@ 000 .
= = Definition , historiography and remembrance = =
For decades , research on the Polish Underground State was restricted , largely because the communist People 's Republic of Poland did not wish to fully acknowledge the role of the non @-@ communist resistance . During the first postwar Stalinist years , efforts to explore this topic were regarded as dangerous , bordering on illegal . Research into the events occurring in the Soviet @-@ annexed territories in the 1939 – 1941 period was particularly difficult . The limited research devoted to the Underground State that did take place was done mainly by Polish émigré historians living in the West . The communist state downplayed the importance of the non @-@ communist resistance movements , while the communist movement ( Armia Ludowa ) was emphasized as being of primary importance ; in fact , the opposite was true . The absence of research by Polish scholars , along with obstacles presented to foreign scholars seeking access to source material in communist Poland , contributed to a situation in which there was virtually no discussion by Western scholars of one of Europe 's largest resistance movements — the non @-@ communist Polish resistance movement . The bulk of Western research centred on the much smaller French Resistance ( la Résistance ) .
With the fall of communism , Poland regained full independence and Polish scholars could begin unrestricted research into all aspects of Polish history . Scholars who chose to investigate the Underground State were also confronted with the issue of its uniqueness ( no country or nation has ever created a similar institution ) , and hence , the problem of defining it . Polish historian Stanisław Salmonowicz , discussing the historiography of the Polish Underground State , defined it as a " collection of state @-@ legal , organizational and citizenship structures , which were to ensure constitutional continuation of Polish statehood on its own territory " . Salmonowicz concluded that " This constitutional continuity , real performance of the state 's functions on its past territory and the loyalty of a great majority of Polish society were the most significant elements of its existence . "
The Underground State also became officially recognized by the Polish government , local authorities and the community , with most major cities in Poland erecting various memorials to the Underground State affiliated resistance . In Poznań , there is a dedicated Polish Underground State Monument , erected in 2007 . On 11 September 1998 the Sejm ( parliament ) of Poland declared the day of 27 September ( anniversary of the founding of the Service for Poland 's Victory organization ) to be the Day of the Polish Underground State .
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= Green iguana =
The green iguana ( Iguana iguana ) , also known as common iguana or American iguana , is a large , arboreal , mostly herbivorous species of lizard of the genus Iguana native to Central , South America , and the Caribbean . Usually , this animal is simply called the iguana . The green iguana ranges over a large geographic area , from southern Brazil and Paraguay as far north as Mexico and the Caribbean Islands . They have been introduced from South America to Puerto Rico and are very common throughout the island , where they are colloquially known as " Gallina de palo " and considered an invasive species ; in the United States feral populations also exist in South Florida ( including the Florida Keys ) , Hawaii , the U.S. Virgin Islands and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas .
An herbivore , it has adapted significantly with regard to locomotion and osmoregulation as a result of its diet . It grows to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length from head to tail , although a few specimens have grown more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) with bodyweights upward of 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) .
Commonly found in captivity as a pet due to its calm disposition and bright colors , it can be very demanding to care for properly . Space requirements and the need for special lighting and heat can prove challenging to an amateur hobbyist .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The species was first officially described by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . In the two centuries since then , numerous subspecies have been identified , but later classified as merely regional variants of the same species .
Using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA @-@ sequence data to explore the phylogenic history of the green iguana , scientists from Utah Valley State College studied animals collected from 17 different countries . The topology of phylogeny indicated that the species originated in South America and eventually radiated through Central America and the Caribbean . The study revealed no unique mitochondrial DNA haplotypes for subspecific status but did indicate the deep lineage divergence between Central and South American populations .
The word iguana is derived from a Spanish form of the Taíno name for the species : iwana . In some Spanish speaking countries , males of the species are referred to as gorrobo or ministro and juveniles are called iguanita or gorrobito .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The native range of the green iguana extends from southern Mexico to central Brazil , Dominican Republic , Paraguay , and Bolivia and the Caribbean ; specifically Grenada , Curaçao , Trinidad and Tobago , St. Lucia , St. Vincent , and Útila . They have been introduced to Grand Cayman , Puerto Rico , Texas , Florida , Hawaii , and the United States Virgin Islands ; and colonised the island of Anguilla in 1995 after being washed ashore following a hurricane . Though the species is not native to Martinique , a small wild colony of released or escaped green iguanas endures at historic Fort Saint Louis .
Green iguanas are diurnal , arboreal , and are often found near water . Agile climbers , Iguana iguana can fall up to 50 feet ( 15 m ) and land unhurt ( iguanas use their hind leg claws to clasp leaves and branches to break a fall ) . During cold , wet weather , green iguanas prefer to stay on the ground for greater warmth . When swimming , an iguana remains submerged , letting its four legs hang limply against its side . They propel through the water with powerful tail strokes .
In South and Central America , where the green iguana is native , it is an endangered species in some countries because people have been hunting and eating this “ chicken of the trees ” for a long time .
= = Anatomy and morphologies = =
Despite their name , green iguanas can come in different colors . In southern countries of their range , such as Peru , green iguanas appear bluish in color with bold blue markings . On islands such as Bonaire , Curaçao , Aruba , and Grenada , a green iguana 's color may range from green to lavender , black , and even pink . Green iguanas from the western region of Costa Rica are red and animals of the northern ranges , such as Mexico , appear orange . Juvenile green iguanas from El Salvador are often bright blue as babies , however they lose this color as they get older .
Adult iguanas found on most of St Lucia , mainly on the north east coast ; Louvette and Grand Anse , have many differences compared to all other green iguana populations . They are light green with predominant black stripes . Instead of the typical orange dewlap , the iguanas of St. Lucia have a black dewlap . When compared to the common green iguana , females lay about half the amount of eggs , 25 instead of 50 . Scales to the back of their head , near the jawbone , are smaller . Their iris is white or cream . Other green iguanas have yellow eyes .
Green iguanas possess a row of spines along their backs and along their tails , which helps to protect them from predators . Their whip @-@ like tails can be used to deliver painful strikes and like many other lizards , when grabbed by the tail , the iguana can allow it to break , so it can escape and eventually regenerate a new one . In addition , iguanas have a well developed dewlap , which helps regulate their body temperature . This dewlap is used in courtships and territorial displays .
Green iguanas have excellent vision , enabling them to detect shapes and motions at long distances . As green iguanas have only a few rod cells , they have poor vision in low @-@ light conditions . At the same time , they have cells called “ double cone cells ” that give them sharp color vision and enable them to see ultraviolet wavelengths . This ability is highly useful when basking so the animal can ensure that it absorbs enough sunlight in the forms of UVA and UVB to produce vitamin D.
Green iguanas have a white photosensory organ on the top of their heads called the parietal eye ( also called third eye , pineal eye or pineal gland ) , in contrast to most other lizards that have lost this primitive feature . This " eye " has only a rudimentary retina and lens and cannot form images , but is sensitive to changes in light and dark and can detect movement . This helps the iguana detect predators stalking it from above .
Green iguanas have very sharp teeth that are capable of shredding leaves and even human skin . These teeth are shaped like a leaf , broad and flat , with serrations on the edge . The similarity of these teeth to those of one of the first dinosaurs discovered led to the dinosaur being named Iguanodon , meaning " iguana @-@ tooth " , and the incorrect assumption that it had resembled a gigantic iguana . The teeth are situated on the inner sides of the jawbones , which is why they are hard to see in smaller specimens .
Primarily herbivorous , green iguanas are presented with a special problem for osmoregulation ; plant matter contains more potassium and as it has less nutritional content per gram , more must be eaten to meet metabolic needs . As green iguanas are not capable of creating liquid urine more concentrated than their bodily fluids , like birds they excrete nitrogenous wastes as urate salts through a salt gland . As a result , green iguanas have developed a lateral nasal gland to supplement renal salt secretion by expelling excess potassium and sodium chloride .
Green iguanas from Guatemala and southern Mexico predominantly have small horns on their snouts between their eyes and their nostrils , whereas others do not . Naturalists once classified these iguanas as a separate subspecies ( Iguana iguana rhinolopha ) ; however , this classification has been found to be invalid based on mitochondrial DNA and iguanas with similar nose projections appear randomly in other populations and interbreed freely with those that do not share this trait .
The green iguana is a large lizard and is probably the largest species in the iguana family , though a few in the Cyclura genus may match or exceed it in weight . Adults typically grow to 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 7 m ( 3 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 6 ft ) in length from head to tail . As in all iguanas , the tail comprises much of this length , and the snout @-@ to @-@ vent length of most green iguanas is 30 to 42 cm ( 12 to 17 in ) . An average adult male will weigh around 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) while the smaller adult female will typically weigh 1 @.@ 2 to 3 kg ( 2 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 6 lb ) . A few large males can reach or exceed 6 to 8 kg ( 13 to 18 lb ) in weight and 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long . Some specimens have even reportedly been measured at a body weight of greater than 20 lb ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) .
= = Reproductive biology = =
Male green iguanas have highly developed femoral pores on the underside of their thighs which secrete a scent ( females have femoral pores , but they are smaller in comparison to those of the males ) . In addition , the dorsal spines that run along a green iguana 's back are noticeably longer and thicker in males than they are in females , making the animals somewhat sexually dimorphic .
Male green iguanas tend to display more dominant behaviors , such as head bobbing and tail whipping . They also tend to develop a taller dorsal crest than females , as well as taller dorsal spines ( or spikes ) . Large , round , very pronounced jowls are generally a male characteristic . Jowls are located under the jaw and are protected by the subtympanic plate , which is a large , green , circular @-@ shaped scale .
Green iguanas are oviparous with females laying clutches of 20 to 71 eggs once per year during a synchronized nesting period . The female green iguana gives no parental protection after egg laying , apart from defending the nesting burrow during excavation . In Panama , the green iguana has been observed sharing nest sites with American crocodiles and in Honduras with spectacled caimans .
The hatchlings emerge from the nest after 10 – 15 weeks of incubation . Once hatched , the young iguanas look similar to the adults in color and shape , resembling adult females more so than males and lacking dorsal spines .
Juveniles stay in familial groups for the first year of their lives . Male green iguanas in these groups often use their own bodies to shield and protect females from predators and it appears to be the only species of reptile which does this .
= = Behavior = =
When frightened by a predator , green iguanas will attempt to flee , and if near a body of water , they dive into it and swim away . If cornered by a threat , the green iguana will extend and display the dewlap under its neck , stiffen and puff up its body , hiss , and bob its head at the aggressor . If threat persists the iguana can lash with its tail , bite and use its claws in defense . The wounded are more inclined to fight than uninjured prey .
Green iguanas use " head bobs " and dewlaps in a variety of ways in social interactions , such as greeting another iguana or to court a possible mate . The frequency and number of head bobs have particular meanings to other iguanas .
Green iguanas are hunted by predatory birds and their fear of these is exploited as a ploy to catch them in the wild . The sound of a hawk 's whistle or scream makes the iguana freeze and it becomes easier to capture .
= = Diet = =
Green Iguanas are primarily herbivores , with captives feeding on leaves such as turnip greens , mustard greens , dandelion greens , flowers , fruit , and growing shoots of upwards of 100 different species of plant . In Panama one of the green iguana 's favorite foods is wild plum , Spondias mombin .
Although they will consume a wide variety of foods if offered , green iguanas are naturally herbivorous and require a precise ratio of minerals ( 2 to 1 calcium to phosphorus ) in their diet . It is important for captive iguanas to have a variety of leafy greens along with fruits and vegetables such as turnip greens , collards , butternut squash , acorn squash , mango , and parsnip . Juvenile iguanas often eat feces from adults in order to acquire the essential microflora to digest their low @-@ quality and hard to process vegetarian only diet .
There is some debate as to whether captive green Iguanas should be fed animal protein . There is evidence of wild iguanas eating grasshoppers and tree snails , usually as a byproduct of eating plant material . Wild adult green iguanas have been observed eating bird 's eggs . Zoologists , such as Adam Britton , believe that such a diet containing protein is unhealthy for the animal 's digestive system resulting in severe long @-@ term health damage including kidney failure and leading to premature death . On the other side of the argument is that green iguanas at the Miami Seaquarium in Key Biscayne , Florida , have been observed eating dead fish and individuals kept in captivity have been known to eat mice without any ill effects . De Vosjoli writes that captive animals have been known to survive and thrive on eating nothing but whole rodent block , or monkey chow , and one instance of romaine lettuce with vitamin and calcium supplements . However , it is only recommended that captive iguanas are not fed lettuce or meat , and instead receive the vitamins and minerals they need via a purely herbivore diet .
= = Captivity = =
The American pet trade has put a great demand on the green iguana ; 800 @,@ 000 iguanas were imported into the U.S. in 1995 alone , primarily originating from captive farming operations based in their native countries ( Honduras , El Salvador , Colombia , and Panama ) . However , these animals are demanding to care for properly over their lifetime , and many die within a few years of acquisition .
Although green iguanas in captivity will eat meat if presented with it , excessive consumption of animal protein results in severe kidney problems and possible premature death . Misinformed pet owners tend to feed iguanas iceberg lettuce , which provides iguanas with water but has no other nutritional value . A captive Green Iguana 's diet should consist of fresh leafy vegetables such as mustard greens , collard greens , dandelion , arugula , or kale and access to fresh water .
Green iguanas will thrive only in temperatures of 79 ° F ( 26 ° C ) to 95 ° F ( 35 ° C ) and must have appropriate sources of UVB and UVA lighting , or else their bodies cannot produce vitamin D that promotes calcium absorption , which can result in a metabolic bone disease that can be fatal . In some locales ( New York City and Hawaii ) , iguanas are considered exotic pets , and are prohibited from ownership . Due to the potential impact of an introduced species on Hawaii 's ecosystem , the state has strict regulations regarding the import and possession of green iguanas ; violators can spend three years in jail and be fined up to $ 200 @,@ 000 .
= = As an invasive species = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
In the aftermath of Hurricane Luis and Hurricane Marilyn in 1995 , a raft of uprooted trees carrying fifteen or more green iguanas landed on the east side of Anguilla – an island where green iguanas have never been recorded before . The new iguanas had apparently been accidentally caught on the trees and rafted two hundred miles across the ocean from Guadeloupe , where green iguanas are indigenous . Examination of the weather patterns and ocean currents indicated that the iguanas had probably spent three weeks at sea before arriving on Anguilla . This colony began breeding on the new island within two years of its arrival .
In February 2012 , the government of Puerto Rico proposed that the islands ' iguanas , which were said to have a population of four million and considered to be a non @-@ native nuisance , be eradicated and sold for meat .
= = = Fiji = = =
The green iguana is present as an invasive species on some of the islands of Fiji , where it is known as the American iguana . They pose a threat to the native iguanas through the potential spread of disease and to humans by spreading salmonella . They were initially brought to Qamea in 2000 by an American who wanted them to eat the numerous insects on the island , although they are primarily vegetarian . They are now on the islands of Laucala , Matagi and Taveuni .
= = = United States = = =
The green iguana is established on Oahu and Maui , Hawaii as a feral species ( despite strict legislation banning the importation of any reptiles ) and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas . As most reptiles carry salmonella , this is a concern and a reason legislation has been sought to regulate the trade in green iguanas .
Due to a combination of events , the green iguana is considered an invasive species in South Florida and is found along the gulf coast of Florida from Key West to Pinellas County . The original small populations in the Florida Keys were stowaways on ships carrying fruit from South America . Over the years , other iguanas were introduced into the wild , mostly originating through the pet trade . Some escaped and some were intentionally released by their owners ; these iguanas survived and then thrived in their new habitat . They commonly hide in the attics of houses and on beaches . They often destroy gardens and landscaping . They seem to be fond of eating a native endangered plant , Cordia globosa and feeding on nickernut ( Caesalpinia ) a primary food plant of the endangered Miami blue butterfly ( Cyclargus thomasi bethunebakeri ) ; additionally on Marco Island , green iguanas have been observed using the burrows of the Florida burrowing owl , a species of special concern , all of which can make them more of a serious threat to Florida 's ecosystem than originally believed .
In January 2008 , large numbers of iguanas established in Florida dropped from the trees in which they lived , due to uncommonly cold nights that put them in a state of torpor and caused them to lose their grip on the tree branches . Though no specific numbers were provided by local wildlife officials , local media described the phenomenon as a " frozen iguana shower " in which dozens " littered " local bike paths . Upon the return of daytime warmth many ( but not all ) of the iguanas " woke up " and resumed their normal activities . This occurred again in January 2010 after a prolonged cold front once again hit southern Florida .
= = Cultural references = =
The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted Green Iguanas in their art . The Green iguana and its relative the Black iguana ( Ctenosaura similis ) have been used as a food source in Central and South America for the past 7 @,@ 000 years . It is possible that some of the populations in the Caribbean were translocated there from the mainland by various tribes as a food source . In Central and South America , Green Iguanas are still used as a source of meat and are often referred to as gallina de palo , " bamboo chicken " or " chicken of the trees , " because they are said to taste like chicken .
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= Frank Berryman =
Lieutenant General Sir Frank Horton Berryman , KCVO , CB , CBE , DSO ( 11 April 1894 – 28 May 1981 ) was an Australian Army officer who served as a general during the Second World War . The son of an engine driver , he entered Duntroon in 1913 . His class graduated early after the First World War broke out , and he served on the Western Front with the field artillery . After the war , he spent nearly twenty years as a major .
Berryman joined the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 4 April 1940 with the rank of full colonel , and became General Staff Officer Grade 1 ( GSO1 ) of the 6th Division . He was responsible for the staff work for the attacks on Bardia and Tobruk . In January 1941 , Berryman became Commander , Royal Artillery , 7th Division , and was promoted to brigadier . During the Syria @-@ Lebanon campaign , he commanded " Berryforce " . He returned to Australia in 1942 , becoming Major General , General Staff , of the First Army . Later that year , he became Deputy Chief of the General Staff under the Commander in Chief , General Sir Thomas Blamey , who brought him up to Port Moresby to simultaneously act as chief of staff of New Guinea Force . Berryman was intimately involved with the planning and execution of the Salamaua @-@ Lae campaign and the Huon Peninsula campaign . In November 1943 he became acting commander of II Corps , which he led in the Battle of Sio . In the final part of the war , he was Blamey 's representative at General of the Army Douglas MacArthur 's headquarters and the Australian Army representative at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay .
After the war , Berryman commanded Eastern Command . He directed the military response to the 1949 Australian coal strike . Berryman hoped to become Chief of the General Staff but was passed over as he was seen as a " Blamey man " by Prime Minister Ben Chifley . He retired and became the Director General of the Royal Tour of Queen Elizabeth II in 1954 . He was Chief Executive Officer of the Royal Agricultural Society of New South Wales from 1954 to 1961 .
= = Education and early life = =
Frank Horton Berryman was born in Geelong , Victoria , on 11 April 1894 , the fourth of six children and the eldest of three sons of William Lee Berryman , a Victorian Railways engine driver , and his wife , Annie Jane , née Horton . William Berryman joined in the 1903 Victorian Railways strike and , when it failed , was reinstated with a 14 per cent pay cut , only regaining his 1903 pay level in 1916 . Frank was educated at Melbourne High School , where he served in the school Cadet Unit , and won the Rix prize for academic excellence . On graduation , he took a job with the Victorian railways as a junior draughtsman .
In 1913 , Berryman entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , having ranked first among the 154 candidates on the entrance examination . Of the 33 members in his class , nine died in the First World War , and six later became generals : Leslie Beavis , Berryman , William Bridgeford , John Chapman , Edward Milford and Alan Vasey . Berryman rose to fifth in order of merit before his class graduated early , in June 1915 , because of the outbreak of the First World War .
= = First World War = =
Berryman 's Duntroon class had not yet completed its military training . Major General William Throsby Bridges decided that regimental duty would rectify that deficiency , so he assigned the Duntroon cadets as regimental officers of the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , rather than as staff officers . Cadets were given the choice of service in the infantry or light horse . One cadet , Lawrence Wackett , protested that he wished to serve in the technical services . When asked if they would prefer the technical services , twelve cadets , including Berryman , Beavis , Clowes , Vasey , and Wackett stepped forward . Berryman was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Permanent Military Forces ( PMF ) on 29 June 1915 and again in the First AIF on 1 July 1915 . He was posted to Lieutenant Colonel Harold Grimwade 's 4th Field Artillery Brigade of the 2nd Division Artillery , along with Vasey and Milford . Berryman embarked for Egypt with the 4th Field Artillery Brigade on the transport Wiltshire on 17 November 1915 . In Egypt , Berryman briefly commanded the 4th Brigade Ammunition Column before it was absorbed into the 2nd Division Ammunition Column .
The 2nd Division moved to France in March 1916 . Berryman became a temporary captain on 1 April 1916 , a rank which became substantive on 10 June 1916 . In January 1917 , he was posted to the 7th Infantry Brigade as a trainee staff captain . During the Second Battle of Bullecourt he served with 2nd Division headquarters . He was appointed to command the 18th Field Artillery Battery , and became a temporary major on 1 September 1917 , which became substantive on 10 September 1917 . This was as far as he could go , for Duntroon graduates could not be promoted above major in the AIF . This policy was aimed at giving them a broad range of experience , which would benefit the Army , while not allowing them to outnumber the available post @-@ war positions .
While commanding the 18th Field Battery , he saw action at the Battle of Passchendaele . For his service as a battery commander in this battle , he received a Mention in Despatches :
This officer has commanded the Battery during the whole of the period under review and did particularly good and effective work during the operations in September , October and November in the Hooge area [ in Belgium ] . He showed great initiative in reconnoitring Battery positions often under heavy fire ; in keeping touch with the Infantry Companies in the front line area and in observing and reporting on hostile movements rendering many useful reports . In particular he did a very fine piece of work on 14th September in moving his Battery forward behind Clapham Junction in the dusk under very heavy shelling over a very difficult road . He subsequently during the very heavy German counter attacks on 16th September succeeded in registering his Battery and using it in the operation notwithstanding the heavy hostile fire . The Battery suffered many casualties both in personnel and materiel but it fought with splendid determination and the men who had never previously been under the command of this officer in action throughout the operations before Hooge were kept in the most excellent fighting spirit by his determination , lead and strong personality . He has shewn himself to be an officer of remarkable judgement and great technical ability .
In September 1918 , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order . His citation , signed by Major General Charles Rosenthal , read :
This officer has commanded the 14th Battery from 8th May 1918 to the present date [ September 1918 ] . During the recent operations on the Somme he has shown conspicuous activity and ability and as Group liaison with Infantry Brigades has earned great praise from Infantry Brigade commanders for his conscientious and untiring work . The work and appearance of his Battery both when in and out of the line , has been excellent , and his sound judgement and technical ability have been of the greatest assistance to his Brigade .
Berryman was later nominated for a bar to his Distinguished Service Order for the September 1918 fighting , but this was subsequently downgraded to a second Mention in Despatches . He was wounded in the right eye in September 1918 while he was commanding the 14th Field Artillery Battery . Although his wound was serious enough to warrant hospitalisation , there was no permanent damage to his vision . However , it was the end of his career as a battery commander , as the Army took the opportunity to transfer him to a staff post . From 28 October 1918 to 1 July 1919 , he was Brigade Major of the 7th Infantry Brigade . With the war over , he returned to Australia in October 1919 .
= = Between the wars = =
Berryman was appointed to the Staff Corps on 1 October 1920 . Although he was entitled to keep his AIF rank of major as an honorary rank , his substantive rank — and pay grade — was still lieutenant . Promotion was painfully slow . He was promoted to captain and brevet major on 1 March 1923 , but was not promoted to the substantive rank of major until 1 March 1935 .
Berryman attended the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , from 1920 to 1923 . On returning to Australia , he became an inspecting ordnance officer at the 2nd Military District . From its headquarters at Victoria Barracks , Sydney , the 2nd Military District administered the Army in most of New South Wales . He enrolled in a Bachelor of Science program at the University of Sydney . On 30 November 1925 , he married Muriel Whipp . They eventually had a daughter and a son .
Berryman discontinued his university studies to prepare for the entrance examination for Staff College , Camberley . Eighteen Australian Army officers sat the exam that year , but only Berryman and one other officer passed . Only two Australian officers were accepted into staff college each year , so Berryman 's attendance from 1926 to 1928 marked him out as one of the Australian Army 's rising talents . It also allowed him to forge useful contacts with the British Army . Berryman later recalled , " The advantage of this was that in war we had the same doctrine of tactics and administration , which was essential if we had to work together . More than that , the officers who had to carry out their duties in cooperation knew each other personally . " After graduation he was posted to the High Commission of Australia , London , from 1929 to 1932 , where he served under the Military Liaison Officer , Major General Julius Bruche .
After nearly twenty years as a major , Berryman was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel on 12 May 1935 . Promotion to substantive rank , which carried the rank 's pay as well as status , occurred on 1 July 1938 , when he became Assistant Director of Military Operations at Army Headquarters . From December 1938 to April 1940 he was General Staff Officer Grade 1 ( GSO1 ) of the 3rd Division . The slow rate of promotion of regular officers in the inter @-@ war years fostered a sense of injustice and frustration among officers with good war records who found themselves outranked by Militia officers who had enjoyed faster promotion .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Libya = = =
The final straw for many regular officers was Prime Minister Robert Menzies ' announcement that all commands in the Second AIF would go to Militia officers , which Berryman considered " a damn insult to the professional soldier , calculated to split the Army down the centre . We were to be the hewers of wood and the drawers of water . We , the only people who really knew the job , were to assist these Militia fellows . "
Berryman joined the Second AIF on 4 April 1940 with the rank of full colonel , receiving the AIF serial number of VX20308 , and became General Staff Officer Grade 1 ( GSO1 ) of Major General Iven Mackay 's 6th Division , in succession to Sydney Rowell who stepped up to become chief of staff of I Corps . Berryman soon established a good working relationship with Mackay . Despite the friction between Militia and Staff Corps officers , Berryman chose to assess officers on performance . This meant that while Berryman viewed some Militia officers , like Brigadier Stanley Savige of the 17th Infantry Brigade , with disdain , he maintained good relations with others . There were also personal and professional rivalries with other Staff Corps officers , such as Alan Vasey . Yet even those who disliked Berryman personally for his lack of patience and tact and referred to him as " Berry the Bastard " respected his abilities as a staff officer .
Mackay and Berryman were determined that the Battle of Bardia would not be a repeat of the disastrous landing at Anzac Cove in 1915 . Berryman 's talent for operational staff work came to the fore . From studies of aerial photographs , he selected a spot for the attack where the terrain was most favourable . His plan provided for the coordination of infantry , armour and artillery . While at times he proved secretive and hard to deal with , during the battle his forceful personality provided a good foil to the sometimes indecisive Mackay . Later that month Berryman planned the equally successful Battle of Tobruk . For his services in this campaign , he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) .
= = = Syria = = =
In January 1941 , Berryman became Commander , Royal Artillery , in Arthur " Tubby " Allen 's 7th Division , and was promoted to brigadier . During the Syria @-@ Lebanon campaign , Berryman demonstrated that he was a thrusting commander who led from the front and repeatedly demonstrated his coolness under fire . When his headquarters came under shell fire for the first time , Berryman sat calmly eating his breakfast " among the flying brick dust and bursting shells " , simply telling the men to shut the door , " so they can eat breakfast without being covered in dust " .
During the Vichy French counterattack , Berryman was given command of the Australian forces in the centre of the position around Merdjayoun . This scratch force became known as " Berryforce " . His mission was to check the enemy advance in the Merdjayoun area . Berryman decided that the best way to do this would be to recapture Merdjayoun . This presented considerable difficulty , for although his force contained two infantry battalions , the 2 / 25th and 2 / 33rd , and a pioneer battalion , the 2 / 2nd , his headquarters was not equipped to control a battle in the manner of an infantry brigade , as it lacked appropriate staff and communications . Moreover , while he was supported by mechanised cavalry and 22 artillery pieces , the opposing French forces had tanks .
For the next two weeks , the outnumbered Berryforce attempted to retake the strategically important town in the Battle of Merdjayoun . His first attempt was a failure . After carrying out a personal reconnaissance on 18 June , Berryman tried again . This time his attack was halted by staunch defence by the French Foreign Legion and tanks . Berryman then tried a different approach . Instead of attempting to capture the town , he seized high ground overlooking the French supply lines . Faced with being cut off , the French withdrew from the town . Berryforce was then dissolved and Berryman returned to his role as commander of the 7th Division artillery .
The 7th Division was now concentrated in the coastal sector . Berryman clashed with Brigadier Jack Stevens of the 21st Infantry Brigade over the siting of Berryman 's artillery observation posts , which were forward of the infantry 's front lines . Berryman wanted Stevens ' positions advanced so as to obtain effective observation of the enemy 's lines for Berryman 's gunners . Stevens refused , hampering Berryman 's efforts to support him in the Battle of Damour . Despite this , Berryman implemented an effective artillery plan . In the final stage of the battle , Berryman , without authority , ordered Lieutenant Colonel Denzil MacArthur @-@ Onslow of the 2 / 6th Cavalry Regiment to pursue the retreating French forces , but was overruled by Savige and Allen . For his part in the campaign , Berryman received a third Mention in Despatches .
= = = Papua = = =
On 3 August 1941 , Berryman became Brigadier , General Staff ( chief of staff ) of I Corps under Lieutenant General John Lavarack , again in succession to Rowell , who became Deputy Chief of the General Staff ( DCGS ) . Berryman arrived in Jakarta by air with the advanced party of the I Corps headquarters staff on 26 January 1942 to plan its defence . Berryman reconnoitred Java and prepared an appreciation of the situation . Berryman also attempted to find out as much as possible about Japanese tactics through interviewing Colonel Ian MacAlister Stewart . This information found its way into papers circulated throughout the Army in Australia . It soon became apparent that the situation was hopeless and any troops committed to the defence of Java would be lost .
Berryman returned to Australia , where he was promoted to major general on 6 April 1942 , when he became Major General , General Staff ( chief of staff ) of Lavarack 's First Army . On 14 September 1942 , Berryman became DCGS under the Commander in Chief , General Sir Sir Thomas Blamey , in succession to Vasey . When New Guinea Force split into a rear headquarters under Blamey and an advanced headquarters under Lieutenant General Edmund Herring , so the latter could go forward to direct the Battle of Buna @-@ Gona , Blamey brought Berryman up from Advanced LHQ in Brisbane to simultaneously act as chief of staff of New Guinea Force from 11 December 1942 . Berryman formed a very close professional and personal relationship with Blamey , and henceforth Berryman would be Blamey 's chief of staff and head of operational planning , which made him " one of the most important officers in the Australian Army in its struggle against the Japanese . "
= = = New Guinea = = =
Blamey and Berryman remained close for the rest of the war , and Blamey came to rely heavily on Berryman for advice . It was Berryman who was sent to Wau to investigate the difficulties that Savige was having , and it was Berryman who exonerated Savige . " I reported the situation [ to Blamey and Herring ] , " Berryman record in his diary , " and said Savige had done well and we had misjudged him . " Berryman was intimately involved with the planning of the Salamaua @-@ Lae campaign , working closely with Brigadier General Stephen J. Chamberlin at General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) in Brisbane . Berryman established good working relations with the Americans , even though their staff practices were quite different from those of the Australian Army .
Berryman was also involved in the plan 's execution , once more becoming chief of staff at New Guinea Force under Blamey in August 1943 . Berryman was frustrated at the failure of Vasey 's 7th Division to destroy the Japanese retreating from Lae , and personally annoyed by the way that Vasey forwarded compliments to Major General Ennis Whitehead while leaving any complaints about air support to be taken up by Berryman . Berryman was next involved with the planning for the landing at Finschhafen , brokering a compromise landing plan between Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey and Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring . When Berryman discovered that the United States Seventh Fleet did not intend to reinforce the 9th Division he immediately went to Blamey , who took the matter up with MacArthur . However , it was Berryman who brokered a compromise deal with Vice Admiral Arthur S. Carpender to reinforce Finschhafen with a battalion in APDs .
On 7 November 1943 , Berryman became acting commander of II Corps , a post which became permanent on 20 January 1944 , superseding Vasey , whose 7th Division was diplomatically placed directly under Lieutenant General Sir Leslie Morshead 's New Guinea Force . II Corps was left with the 5th and 9th Divisions . Berryman was promoted to lieutenant general on 20 January 1944 . As in Syria , Berryman proved a hard @-@ driving commander . In December 1943 , II Corps broke out of the position around Finschhafen and began a pursuit along the coast . Whenever the Japanese Army attempted to make a stand , Berryman attacked with 25 @-@ pounder artillery barrages and Matilda tanks . Berryman was aware that seasonal changes were making the surf rougher and making it ever harder to operate the US Army landing craft ( LCMs ) and Australian Army amphibious trucks ( DUKWs ) that he depended on for the logistical support of his troops , but he realised that the Japanese Army 's supply difficulties were greater than his own , and he gambled that if he pushed hard enough the Japanese would be unable to regroup and organise a successful defence .
In the first phase of the Battle of Sio , the advance from Finschhafen to Sio , 3 @,@ 099 Japanese dead were counted and 38 prisoners taken , at a cost of 8 Australians killed and 48 wounded . In the 5th Division 's subsequent drive from Sio to link up with the US 32nd Infantry Division at Saidor , 734 Japanese were killed and 1 @,@ 775 found dead , while 48 prisoners were taken . Australian casualties came to 4 killed and 6 wounded . MacArthur considered Berryman 's performance " quite brilliant " . For his part in the campaign , Berryman was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) on 8 March 1945 .
= = = Borneo = = =
II Corps was renumbered I Corps on 13 April 1944 and returned to Australia , where Blamey gave Berryman his next assignment . In preparation for the Philippines Campaign , General MacArthur moved the advanced element of GHQ to Hollandia in Dutch West Papua , where it opened in late August 1944 . To maintain contact with GHQ , Blamey formed a new headquarters , Forward Echelon LHQ , which opened at Hollandia on 7 September under Berryman , who became Blamey 's personal representative at GHQ . Forward Echelon LHQ subsequently moved with GHQ to Leyte in February 1945 , and Manila in April 1945 . Berryman 's role was to " safeguard Australian interests " at GHQ , but he also defended GHQ against criticism from the Australian Army . As well as liaising with GHQ , Forward Echelon LHQ became responsible for planning operations involving Australian troops . It worked on plans for operations on Luzon and Mindanao before it was finally decided that Borneo would be the Australian Army 's next objective . In all of this Berrymen kept in close contact with Blamey , and the two were Australian Army representatives at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay in September 1945 . For his services in the final campaigns , Berryman received a fourth and final Mention in Despatches on 6 March 1947 .
= = Later life = =
After the war , Berryman took charge of Eastern Command , an appointment he held from March 1946 until his retirement at age 60 in April 1954 . Berryman became known for his involvement in charitable organisations such as the War Widows Association , and as head of the Remembrance Drive Project . For this and his commitment to beautifying the Army barracks , Berryman became colloquially known in the Army as " Frank the Florist " .
In June 1949 , the country was rocked by the 1949 Australian coal strike . The strike began when stocks of coal were already low , especially in New South Wales , and rationing was introduced . Prime Minister Ben Chifley turned to the Army to get the troops to mine coal . This became possible when the transport unions agreed to transport coal that was mined . Responsibility for planning and organising the effort fell to Berryman . Soldiers began mining at Muswellbrook and Lithgow on 1 August , and by 15 August , when the strike ended , some 4 @,@ 000 soldiers and airmen were employed . They continued work until production was fully restored .
Berryman hoped to become Chief of the General Staff in succession to Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee but he was seen as a " Blamey man " by Chifley and his Labor government colleagues , who disliked the former Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . The job was instead given to Rowell . The United States government awarded Berryman the Medal of Freedom with Silver Palm in 1948 . Following the change of government in 1949 , Berryman lobbied Sir Eric Harrison , the Liberal Minister for Defence Production , for the job on the retirement of Rowell in 1954 , but he was now considered too old for the job .
Berryman became the Director General of the Royal Tour of Queen Elizabeth II in 1954 , for which he was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( KCVO ) . He was Chief Executive Officer of the Royal Agricultural Society of New South Wales from 1954 to 1961 . He died on 28 May 1981 at Rose Bay , New South Wales , and was cremated with full military honours . At the time of his funeral the Ambassador for Lebanon , Raymond Heneine , wrote in the Canberra Times : " The inhabitants of Jezzine will never forget General Berryman , who liberated their town from the forces of the Vichy French in collaboration with the Italian and German forces . He was for them not only a great general but also a great benefactor who provided them with food supplies and medical care . In fact he was the example of humanitarianism " .
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= College of All Saints , Maidstone =
The College of All Saints was an ecclesiastical college in Maidstone , Kent , England , founded in 1395 by Archbishop Courtenay . It was part of the establishment of the nearby Archbishop 's Palace , but was closed in 1546 . The College church was the neighbouring Church of All Saints . Following its closure , the College estate was sold . The buildings and land passed through the ownership of three aristocratic families , being farmed until the late 19th century . A number of the College 's buildings survive and all are listed buildings . Additionally , the whole site of the College is protected as a scheduled monument .
= = History = =
The College was founded by Archbishop of Canterbury William Courtenay in 1395 . Courtenay died in 1396 and the College and church were completed by his successor , Thomas Arundel . Richard II endowed the College with land and income from the Hospital of St Peter and St Paul in Maidstone and from the parishes of Linton , Farleigh , Sutton and Crundale . The College was also granted the advowsons for the parishes . To cover the cost of building the College , Courtenay obtained a bull to levy a charge of fourpence in the pound on all ecclesiastical revenue raised in his archbishopric . For most of its existence , the college had an establishment of a master and six chaplains .
Masters of the College between its founding and its dissolution were :
When the College was closed in 1546 following the passing of the Chantries Act , its annual income was valued at £ 208 6s 2d ( equivalent to £ 111 @,@ 590 in 2015 ) . The church and the College were separated ; the church became the parish church for the whole of Maidstone and the College and its lands were sold . Sixteen members of the College 's establishment were granted pensions totalling £ 100 17s . In 1549 , the College estate was granted to George Brooke , Baron Cobham for the sum of £ 1081 18s 1d ( equivalent to £ 468 @,@ 540 in 2015 ) . Plate and other valuables belonging to the College were sold for £ 200 ( equivalent to £ 86 @,@ 610 in 2015 ) .
Much of the Cobham family 's estate was forfeited to the Crown in 1603 when his grandson , Henry Brooke , the 11th Baron Cobham , was charged with high treason for his part in the Main Plot against James I. The College was granted for life to the 11th Baron 's wife after which it reverted to Robert Cecil , 1st Earl of Salisbury , husband of Baron Cobham 's sister . The College remained in the ownership of the Cecil family until 1697 when it was sold to Sir Robert Marsham of Mote House . The College estate was subsequently owned by Marsham 's heirs , the Earls of Romney .
The College buildings were used as a farm into the 19th century , until the expansion of Maidstone led to their demolition as the neighbouring area was developed . Part of the site was developed in the late 19th century for the Cutbush Almshouses , a collection of grade II listed buildings . The buildings are currently owned by Maidstone Borough Council having been donated to the borough by Sir Garrard Tyrwhitt @-@ Drake , mayor of the borough in 1949 – 50 . A plaque commemorating the presentation is fixed inside the archway of the Gatehouse .
= = Buildings = =
The College , like the Church of All Saints , is constructed of Kentish rag @-@ stone in the Perpendicular style . The main building , a two @-@ storey structure with attic , was mostly built in the 14th century and served originally as the Master 's house . Some later 18th century alterations have been made and later windows added . The building contains a collar beam roof and a 16th @-@ century staircase , moulded ceiling and aumbry cupboard . Poste records in his 1847 history of the College that some of the rooms retained traces of decorative wall painting .
The College Gateway to the north of the site is a three @-@ storey rectangular tower with a two @-@ storey stone @-@ ribbed vaulted archway through it with an exterior opening 8 feet 11 inches ( 2 @.@ 72 m ) wide with a pedestrian opening 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide alongside . The ground floor room to the east of the archway was the College bakehouse where evidence existed prior to the 1845 alterations of a large bakery oven . The room on the west side of the archway housed the porter . The roof of the gateway tower is hipped , projecting above a crenellated parapet . A small turret is located in the south @-@ west corner . Adjacent to the tower on the west side is a two @-@ storey building that contained the College refectory , kitchen and scullery on the ground floor with a dormitory and infirmary on the first floor . Poste records that restoration and alterations carried out in 1845 included the removal of part of a range of rooms and cloisters attached to the main building as well as separate farm buildings including oast houses . On the north @-@ west corner of this building is a small three @-@ storey tower known as the River Tower or Muniment Tower . Poste records that around 1847 a peaked roof on the river tower was removed and replaced with a lower roof not visible above the parapet .
The two @-@ storey Master 's Tower was the original access to the College from the river . A single @-@ storey structure is attached to the south side . The ruined gateway stands to the south separated from the other structures by the almshouses . Poste records that in 1847 it stood between two barns , neither of which now remain . It consists of a pointed arch for carriages in a roughly coursed rag @-@ stone wall flanked by buttress walls on each side .
The Gateway and refectory are listed Grade I , the Master 's house is listed Grade II * and the Master 's Tower and the ruined gateway are listed Grade II . The College site is also a scheduled monument with the protection covering the ruined gateway and buried remains of demolished buildings .
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= Battle of Salamis ( 306 BC ) =
The naval Battle of Salamis in 306 BC took place near Salamis , Cyprus between the fleets of Ptolemy I of Egypt and Antigonus I Monophthalmus , two of the Diadochi , the generals who , after the death of Alexander the Great , fought each other for control of his empire . Antigonus ' fleet was led by his son Demetrius , who had invaded Cyprus and was besieging Ptolemy 's brother Menelaus at Salamis . The battle was a complete victory for Demetrius , and resulted in the surrender of Menelaus and his capture of Cyprus . As a result , Antigonus assumed the royal title that had been vacant since the murder of Alexander 's underage son , followed by the other Diadochi soon after .
= = Background = =
During the wars of the Diadochi that followed the death of Alexander the Great , Ptolemy , who had seized control of Egypt , had taken over the island of Cyprus and used it as a base of operations against his rival Antigonus I Monophthalmus . From Cyprus , Ptolemy 's forces were able to raid the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor . In early 306 BC , Antigonus resolved to remove this threat , and ordered his son , Demetrius , to capture the island . Demetrius at the time was in Greece , where he had in the previous year overthrown the garrison installed in Athens by the ruler of Macedon , Cassander . The city , along with neighbouring Megara , was restored to democratic rule , and allied itself with Demetrius . As a result , when Demetrius sailed from Athens in spring 306 to capture Cyprus , he was accompanied by 30 Athenian quadriremes .
Crossing the Aegean , Demetrius made for the coast of Caria , whence he called upon the Rhodians to join him , per their alliance with his father . The Rhodians , however , who maintained good relations with Ptolemy , refused . Going on to Cilicia , where he was reinforced with more troops , Demetrius then crossed over to Cyprus with an army of 15 @,@ 000 infantry and 500 cavalry . This was accompanied by a fleet numbering 53 heavy ships — 7 heptereis , 10 hexereis , 20 quinqueremes — and upwards of 110 lighter vessels — triremes and quadriremes — although the exact numbers are somewhat unclear . He was opposed by Ptolemy 's brother , Menelaus , who disposed of 12 @,@ 000 infantry , 800 cavalry , and 60 ships .
Demetrius landed on the Karpasia Peninsula on the northeast of the island and captured the towns of Carpasia and Urania . Leaving his fleet there , he then marched on land against the city of Salamis . Menelaus confronted Demetrius in battle some five miles from the city , but was defeated with heavy loss ( 1 @,@ 000 dead and 3 @,@ 000 captured ) and had to retreat behind its walls . Demetrius then brought his fleet and siege train into action and laid siege to the city . This was the first of the sieges that would earn Demetrius his later nickname of " Poliorcetes " ( " the Besieger " ) , featuring for the first time a nine @-@ story siege tower or helepolis . Demetrius ' machines opened a breach in the wall and his subsequent assault nearly proved decisive , but Menelaus was able to repel the attack and burn down the siege machines . In the meantime , in response to his brother 's appeals , Ptolemy himself had arrived at Paphus at the head of 140 warships ( all quadriremes and quinqueremes ) and over 10 @,@ 000 men on 200 transports .
= = Battle = =
Ptolemy decided to try to make a night dash from Citium , round Cape Greko , to Salamis , hoping to surprise Demetrius and combine his fleet with his brother ’ s sixty ships so they could then outnumber Demetrius . Demetrius , however , informed of Ptolemy 's arrival , took steps just in order to prevent this from happening : he equipped his ships with missile @-@ throwers , brought aboard his best troops as marines , and sailed his fleet to anchor just outside the harbour of the city , bottling up Menelaus in the harbour and interposing himself between the two enemy fleets . This meant that Demetrius took a calculated risk that he would be able to defeat Ptolemy before Menelaus could sail out of the harbour and attack him in the rear .
As Ptolemy 's fleet came into view of the city right after dawn on the day of the battle , they found Demetrius ' fleet deployed and waiting for them . His fleet augmented to some 180 vessels with ships captured in Cyprus , Demetrius concentrated the bulk against Ptolemy , leaving only 10 quinqueremes under Antisthenes to blockade the narrow exit of the harbour of Salamis and prevent or at least delay Menelaus ' intervention . Demetrius had gathered his best ships — the 7 Phoenician heptereis , the Athenian squadron , and behind them 10 hexereis and 10 quinqeremes — on the left , under command of the admiral Medius of Larissa . Medius was apparently the actual overall commander of the fleet , although Demetrius himself was also present on the left wing on his flagship , a hepteres . His centre comprised the lightest vessels in his fleet , under the command of Themison of Samos and Marsyas of Pella , while the right was entrusted to Hegesippus of Halicarnassus and Pleistias of Cos , the chief pilot ( archikybernetes , the second @-@ in @-@ command after Medius ) of the fleet . Ptolemy quickly matched his fleet to mirror his opponent 's dispositions : he ordered the transports carrying his army to fall back , and massed the largest ships of his fleet on his own left , which he commanded in person . As the historian Richard Billows writes , " the battle was in effect a race to see which of the two dynasts could first defeat the enemy 's right wing and turn to attack the enemy 's center " , with the " added question of whether or not Menelaus would succeed in breaking out of Salamis in time to intervene " .
According to Diodorus Siculus , who provides the fullest , and probably most reliable , account of the battle , when the two fleets were about three stadia apart , both Demetrius and Ptolemy raised the signal to attack ( a gilded shield ) , and the two fleets charged each other . Diodorus describes the ramming and boarding actions , as well as the missile exchanges , that dominated the fight :
[ U ] sing their bows and their ballistae at first , then their javelins in a shower , the men wounded those who were within range ; then when the ships had come close together and the encounter was about to take place with violence , the soldiers on the decks crouched down and the oarsmen , spurred on by the signalmen , bent more desperately to their oars . As the ships drove together with force and violence , in some cases they swept off each other 's oars so that the ships became useless for flight or pursuit , and the men who were on board , though eager for a fight , were prevented from joining in the battle ; but where the ships had met prow to prow with their rams , they drew back for another charge , and the soldiers on board shot at each other with effect since the mark was close at hand for each party . Some of the men , when their captains had delivered a broadside blow and the rams had become firmly fixed , leaped aboard the ships of the enemy , receiving and giving severe wounds ; for certain of them , after grasping the rail of a ship that was drawing near , missed their footing , fell into the sea , and at once were killed with spears by those who stood above them ; and others , making good their intent , slew some of the enemy and , forcing others along the narrow deck , drove them into the sea . As a whole the fighting was varied and full of surprises : many times those who were weaker got the upper hand because of the height of their ships , and those who were stronger were foiled by inferiority of position and by the irregularity with which things happen in fighting of this kind .
Demetrius himself won distinction for his bravery when Ptolemy 's men boarded his flagship , " by hurling his javelins at some of them and by striking others at close range with his spear " , despite being himself subject to " many missiles of all sorts " . Of his three bodyguards , who tried to protect him with their shields , one was killed and the others severely wounded . The Athenians also fought with distinction , as Demetrius awarded 1 @,@ 200 suits of armour to Athens from the spoils taken . In the end , both left wings proved victorious , but it was Demetrius who won the race : by the time Ptolemy turned to attack Demetrius ' centre , he found the rest of his fleet already defeated and in flight . Menelaus ' 60 ships meanwhile , under the command of Menoetius , managed to break through Demetrius ' blockade , only to find the battle already lost . Demetrius tasked Neon and Burichus with pursuing the defeated enemy and picking up the men from the sea , and returned in triumph to his camp . His fleet had only lost 20 damaged ships , all of which returned to service after repairs , while Ptolemy 's fleet had lost 80 ships . More importantly , Demetrius ' forces had captured fully 40 of Ptolemy 's warships intact with their crews , as well as over a hundred of the transports with some 8 @,@ 000 troops aboard .
= = Aftermath = =
Following this defeat , Ptolemy retreated to Egypt , and Menelaus was forced to surrender Salamis and its garrison , further increasing Demetrius ' strength . Demetrius then moved to take over the rest of Cyprus , taking over the garrisons , some 16 @,@ 000 infantry and 800 cavalry , into his own army as well . Menelaus and other relatives and friends of Ptolemy , however , who had been captured , were soon sent back to Egypt with their personal possessions .
The victory at Salamis was used by Antigonus as a suitable pretext for his own royal proclamation , the Macedonian throne having lain vacant since the murder of Alexander IV of Macedon by Cassander in 309 BC . At the same time , Demetrius was raised to co @-@ king alongside his father . Antigonus ' assumption of the royal title was followed by an attempt to eliminate Ptolemy for good in a massive , but failed , invasion of Egypt in autumn 306 , and then by the celebrated , but equally unsuccessful , Siege of Rhodes by Demetrius in 305 – 304 BC . Finally , in 302 BC the remaining dynasts — Ptolemy , Cassander , Seleucus , and Lysimachus — having in turn assumed the royal title themselves , allied against Antigonus and defeated him in the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC . Antigonus was killed , and his realm was broken up and divided among the victors .
The Battle of Salamis is proposed by modern scholars as one of three possible naval battles — along with the Battle of Amorgos ( 322 BC ) and the Battle of Cos ( 261 / 255 BC ) — that provided the occasion for the erection of the statue of the Nike of Samothrace .
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= Best Mistake =
" Best Mistake " is a song by American recording artist Ariana Grande that features American hip hop recording artist Big Sean . The song served as a promotional single from Grande 's second studio album , My Everything ( 2014 ) , and was released at midnight on August 12 , 2014 . Written by Denisia " Blu June " Andrews , Brittany Coney , Grande , Big Sean , and produced by Key Wane , the song is a ballad with piano , string , and drum machine instrumentation that lyrically deals with a couple trying to decide on what their future , troubled relationship is going to be like . Grande has claimed it is her favorite track off My Everything .
" Best Mistake " has earned positive reviews from critics , who have praised the song 's production and Grande 's talent . However , response to Big Sean 's verse on the track has been mixed . It peaked on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 49 , and within the top 50 on other record charts in North America , Europe , and Oceania . On the US Digital Songs chart , it debuted at number six , making Grande the first act since Michael Jackson , and also the first female artist , to have three songs in the top ten on that chart the same week , with the other two songs being " Bang Bang " ( with Jessie J and Nicki Minaj ) and " Break Free " ( featuring Zedd ) . Grande and Big Sean have performed the song live , including at the iHeartRadio theater in Los Angeles .
= = Production and composition = =
" Best Mistake " was written by Denisia " Blu June " Andrews , Brittany Coney , Ariana Grande , Big Sean , Corey Jackson Carter , and with production , programming and instruments done by Key Wane . The vocals were produced by Curtis " Sauce " Wilson , with Gregg Rominiecki engineering Big Sean 's vocals . Serban Ghenea handled the mixing of the track , which was engineered by John Hanes , and finally the mix was mastered by Aya Merrill and Tom Coyne . It is a minimal hip @-@ hop piano ballad lament that utilizes instrumentation from strings and a drum machine . It is about a couple trying to " make up their minds about the future of their relationship , with deep affection buried underneath their problems . " Grande revealed that " Best Mistake " was her favorite track on My Everything : " I just think the world of [ Big Sean ] and I 'm obsessed with his writing on this song in particular . I 'm a huge fan of his in general but I feel like his writing on this song is so , so fantastic , it like strikes a chord in my heart . I love it so much . "
= = Release and commercial performance = =
Grande first confirmed the title of " Best Mistake " on June 28 , 2014 , the same day that she confirmed the name of her second studio album , My Everything . On July 8 , 2014 , Grande released a 15 @-@ second snippet of " Best Mistake " onto her Instagram profile . The song finally came out on August 12 , and the release added more speculation to the relationship rumors between Grande and Big Sean .
In the United States , shortly after its release , the song reached number two on the weekly Billboard Twitter Real @-@ Time chart and topped the iTunes singles chart . It sold 104 @,@ 000 units in its first week , landing at number six on the Digital Songs chart . This made Grande the first female to have three songs in the top ten on that chart , the other two being " Bang Bang " and " Break Free . " The last artist to do this was Michael Jackson , shortly after his death , on the issue dated July 18 , 2009 . The sales of " Best Mistake " also helped it land at number 49 on the Hot 100 . On the Canadian Hot 100 , it appeared at number 39 .
In European nations , " Best Mistake " debuted at number 49 and 10 on the Flanders Ultratop 50 and Urban chart respectively , number 29 on the Danish Tracklisten chart , 23 on the Finnish Singles Chart , 103 on the French SNEP chart , 5 on the Billboard Greek Digital chart , 67 on the Netherlands Mega Single Top 100 , 35 on the Spain PROMUSICAE chart , and number 154 on the UK Singles Chart . In Oceania , it reached number 45 and 19 on the Australian ARIA pop and urban songs chart respectively , and 29 on the Official New Zealand Music Chart . On the Japan Hot 100 , it peaked at the 74th spot .
= = Critical reception = =
" Best Mistake " received acclaim from critics . Evan Sawdey , a Popmatters interview Editor , called it the second best song from My Everything , coming close to " Love Me Harder " , and Bustle writer Kadeen Griffiths called it " one of Grande 's best love songs so far . " HollywoodLife 's Caitlin Beck said it was " sure to be another hit ! " Carolyn Menyes of the Music Times applauded Grande for her calming vocals and transition into a more mature sound of music . Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz called the production " impressive " and said the song " rows stickier upon each listen " . Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner and Entertainmentwise 's Shaun Kitchener noted the song showed her R & B roots , the latter stating that it " wouldn 't have sounded out of place on Kelly Rowland 's under @-@ rated last album [ Talk a Good Game ] . " The Official Charts Company critic Rob Copsey felt it was " like an extension of Yours Truly , albeit moodier and more grown up . " Brennan Carley of Spin called it " classic Grande , eshcewing any of the bells and whistles that she 's fond of , instead focusing entirely on her carefully sung vocals and the quiet piano line in the song 's background . " Newsday critic Glenn Gamboa described " Best Mistake " as a " gorgeous hip @-@ hop " song that " showcases her wide @-@ ranging voice , without focusing on the upper notes too much . " Sydney Gore of The 405 called it an improvement of the two 's previous collaboration " Right There " , writing that " the singer and rapper serenade us on the grounds that sneaking around with each other was the best mistake they ever made . "
There were , however , some mixed reviews of " Best Mistake " . Idolator 's Kathy Iandoli described it as " the average looking cousin of their previous duet " Right There " " . Reviewing for Slant Magazine , Andrew Chan said it " makes the mistake of hemming her into her frail middle register , where she has a habit of delivering every word as if it were a pout . " Big Sean 's appearance on " Best Mistake " also got varied reception . Pitchfork Media 's Meaghan Garvey said his rap on the track made " a mockery of the song 's serious tone with hysterically awful lines like " How can we keep the feelings fresh / How do we Ziploc it ? " " Lipshutz found his verse " unnecessary , yet [ it ] has morphed into an interesting confessional now that the dating rumors are on . " Sawdey called it a " pretty outstanding verse , " with " his own voice never overpowering the sparse atmosphere , his rhymes measured and metered in a way that fits the song perfectly " , while James Shotwell of Under the Gun Review said " Grande is a treat , but I think it 's Big Sean who steals the show . "
= = Live performances = =
In 2014 , Grande and Big Sean performed " Best Mistake " on the Honda Stage at the iHeartRadio Theater in Los Angeles . They also performed " Best Mistake " at A Very Grammy Christmas on November 18 , 2014 . Grande also performed the song during The Honeymoon Tour . Big Sean performed the song with her at the tour 's stop in Detroit .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of My Everything .
= = Charts = =
= = Sales = =
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= Thomas Cranmer =
Thomas Cranmer ( 2 July 1489 – 21 March 1556 ) was a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII , Edward VI and , for a short time , Mary I. He helped build the case for the annulment of Henry 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon , which was one of the causes of the separation of the English Church from union with the Holy See . Along with Thomas Cromwell , he supported the principle of Royal Supremacy , in which the king was considered sovereign over the Church within his realm .
During Cranmer 's tenure as Archbishop of Canterbury , he was responsible for establishing the first doctrinal and liturgical structures of the reformed Church of England . Under Henry 's rule , Cranmer did not make many radical changes in the Church , due to power struggles between religious conservatives and reformers . However , he succeeded in publishing the first officially authorised vernacular service , the Exhortation and Litany .
When Edward came to the throne , Cranmer was able to promote major reforms . He wrote and compiled the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer , a complete liturgy for the English Church . With the assistance of several Continental reformers to whom he gave refuge , he changed doctrine in areas such as the Eucharist , clerical celibacy , the role of images in places of worship , and the veneration of saints . Cranmer promulgated the new doctrines through the Prayer Book , the Homilies and other publications .
After the accession of the Roman Catholic Mary I , Cranmer was put on trial for treason and heresy . Imprisoned for over two years and under pressure from Church authorities , he made several recantations and apparently reconciled himself with the Roman Catholic Church . However , on the day of his execution , he withdrew his recantations , to die a heretic to Roman Catholics and a martyr for the principles of the English Reformation . Cranmer 's death was immortalised in Foxe 's Book of Martyrs and his legacy lives on within the Church of England through the Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles , an Anglican statement of faith derived from his work .
= = Early years ( 1489 – 1527 ) = =
Cranmer was born in 1489 in Aslockton in Nottinghamshire , England . His parents , Thomas and Agnes ( née Hatfield ) Cranmer , were of modest wealth and were not members of the aristocracy . Their oldest son , John , inherited the family estate , whereas Thomas and his younger brother Edmund were placed on the path to a clerical career . Today historians know nothing definite about Cranmer ’ s early schooling . He probably attended a grammar school in his village . At the age of fourteen , two years after the death of his father , he was sent to the newly created Jesus College , Cambridge . It took him a surprisingly long eight years to reach his Bachelor of Arts degree following a curriculum of logic , classical literature and philosophy . During this time , he began to collect medieval scholastic books , which he preserved faithfully throughout his life . For his master 's degree he took a different course of study , concentrating on the humanists , Jacques Lefèvre d 'Étaples and Erasmus . This time he progressed with no special delay , finishing the course in three years . Shortly after receiving his Master of Arts degree in 1515 , he was elected to a Fellowship of Jesus College .
Sometime after Cranmer took his MA , he married a woman named Joan . Although he was not yet a priest , he was forced to forfeit his fellowship , resulting in the loss of his residence at Jesus College . To support himself and his wife , he took a job as a reader at Buckingham Hall ( later reformed as Magdalene College ) . When Joan died during her first childbirth , Jesus College showed its regard for Cranmer by reinstating his fellowship . He began studying theology and by 1520 he had been ordained , the university already having named him as one of their preachers . He received his Doctor of Divinity degree in 1526 .
Not much is known about Cranmer ’ s thoughts and experiences during his three decades at Cambridge . Traditionally , he has been portrayed as a humanist whose enthusiasm for biblical scholarship prepared him for the adoption of Lutheran ideas , which were spreading during the 1520s . However , a study of his marginalia reveals an early antipathy to Martin Luther and an admiration for Erasmus . When Cardinal Wolsey , the king 's Lord Chancellor , selected several Cambridge scholars , including Edward Lee , Stephen Gardiner and Richard Sampson , to be diplomats throughout Europe , Cranmer was chosen to take a minor role in the English embassy in Spain . Two recently discovered letters written by Cranmer describe an early encounter with the king , Henry VIII of England : upon Cranmer 's return from Spain , in June 1527 , the king personally interviewed Cranmer for half an hour . Cranmer described the king as " the kindest of princes " .
= = In the service of Henry VIII ( 1527 – 1532 ) = =
Henry VIII 's first marriage had its origins in 1502 when his elder brother , Arthur , died . Their father , Henry VII , then betrothed Arthur 's widow , Catherine of Aragon , to the future king . The betrothal immediately raised questions related to the biblical prohibition ( in Leviticus 18 and 20 ) against marriage to a brother ’ s wife . The couple married in 1509 and after a series of miscarriages , a daughter , Mary , was born in 1516 . By the 1520s , Henry still did not have a son to name as heir and he took this as a sure sign of God ’ s anger and made overtures to the Vatican about an annulment . He gave Cardinal Wolsey the task of prosecuting his case ; Wolsey began by consulting university experts . From 1527 , in addition to his duties as a Cambridge don , Cranmer assisted with the annulment proceedings .
In the summer of 1529 , Cranmer stayed with relatives in Waltham Holy Cross to avoid an outbreak of the plague in Cambridge . Two of his Cambridge associates , Stephen Gardiner and Edward Foxe , joined him . The three discussed the annulment issue and Cranmer suggested putting aside the legal case in Rome in favour of a general canvassing of opinions from university theologians throughout Europe . Henry showed much interest in the idea when Gardiner and Foxe presented him this plan . It is not known whether the king or his Lord Chancellor , Thomas More , explicitly approved the plan . Eventually it was implemented and Cranmer was requested to join the royal team in Rome to gather opinions from the universities . Edward Foxe coordinated the research effort and the team produced the Collectanea Satis Copiosa ( " The Sufficiently Abundant Collections " ) and The Determinations , historical and theological support for the argument that the king exercised supreme jurisdiction within his realm .
Cranmer ’ s first contact with a Continental reformer was with Simon Grynaeus , a humanist based in Basel , Switzerland , and a follower of the Swiss reformers , Huldrych Zwingli and Johannes Oecolampadius . In the summer of 1531 , Grynaeus took an extended visit to England to offer himself as an intermediary between the king and the Continental reformers . He struck up a friendship with Cranmer and after his return to Basel , he wrote about Cranmer to the German reformer Martin Bucer in Strasbourg . Grynaeus ' early contacts initiated Cranmer ’ s eventual relationship with the Strasbourg and Swiss reformers .
In January 1532 , Cranmer was appointed the resident ambassador at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor , Charles V. As the emperor travelled throughout his realm , Cranmer had to follow him to his residence in Ratisbon ( Regensburg ) . He passed through the Lutheran city of Nuremberg and saw for the first time the effects of the Reformation . When the Imperial Diet was moved to Nuremberg in the summer , he met the leading architect of the Nuremberg reforms , Andreas Osiander . They became good friends , and during that July Cranmer took the surprising action of marrying Margarete , the niece of Osiander 's wife . This was all the more remarkable given that the marriage required him to set aside his priestly vow of celibacy . He did not take her as his mistress , as was the prevailing custom with priests for whom celibacy was too rigorous . Scholars note that Cranmer had moved , however moderately at this stage , into identifying with certain Lutheran principles . This progress in his personal life , however , could not be matched in his political life as he was unable to persuade Charles , Catherine 's nephew , to support the annulment of his aunt 's marriage .
= = Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury ( 1532 – 1534 ) = =
While Cranmer was following Charles through Italy , he received a royal letter dated 1 October 1532 informing him that he had been appointed the new Archbishop of Canterbury , following the death of archbishop William Warham . Cranmer was ordered to return to England . The appointment had been secured by the family of Anne Boleyn , who was being courted by Henry . When Cranmer 's promotion became known in London , it caused great surprise as Cranmer had previously held only minor positions in the Church . Cranmer left Mantua on 19 November and arrived in England at the beginning of January . Henry personally financed the papal bulls necessary for Cranmer ’ s promotion to Canterbury . The bulls were easily acquired because the papal nuncio was under orders from Rome to please the English in an effort to prevent a final breach . The bulls arrived around 26 March 1533 and Cranmer was consecrated as archbishop on 30 March in St Stephen 's Chapel . Even while they were waiting for the bulls , Cranmer continued to work on the annulment proceedings , which required greater urgency after Anne announced her pregnancy . Henry and Anne were secretly married on 24 or 25 January 1533 in the presence of a handful of witnesses . Cranmer did not learn of the marriage until a fortnight later .
For the next few months , Cranmer and the king worked on establishing legal procedures on how the monarch 's marriage would be judged by his most senior clergy . Several drafts of the procedures have been preserved in letters written between the two . Once the procedures were agreed , Cranmer opened his court on 10 May , inviting Henry and Catherine of Aragon to appear . Gardiner represented the king ; Catherine did not appear or send a proxy . On 23 May Cranmer pronounced the judgement that Henry 's marriage with Catherine was against the law of God . He even issued a threat of excommunication if Henry did not stay away from Catherine . Henry was now free to marry and , on 28 May , Cranmer validated Henry and Anne ’ s marriage . On 1 June , Cranmer personally crowned and anointed Anne queen and delivered to her the sceptre and rod . Pope Clement VII was furious at this defiance , but he could not take decisive action as he was pressured by other monarchs to avoid an irreparable breach with England . However , on 9 July he provisionally excommunicated Henry and his advisers ( which included Cranmer ) unless he repudiated Anne by the end of September . Henry kept Anne as his wife and , on 7 September , Anne gave birth to Elizabeth . Cranmer baptised her immediately afterwards and acted as one of her godparents .
It is difficult to assess how Cranmer ’ s theological views had evolved since his Cambridge days . There is evidence that he continued to support humanism ; he renewed Erasmus ' pension that had previously been granted by Archbishop Warham . In June 1533 , he was confronted with the difficult task of not only disciplining a reformer , but also seeing him burnt at the stake . John Frith was condemned to death for his views on the eucharist : he denied the real presence . Cranmer personally tried to persuade him to change his views without success . Although he rejected Frith ’ s radicalism , by 1534 he clearly signalled that he had broken with Rome and that he had set a new theological course . He supported the cause of reform by gradually replacing the old guard in his ecclesiastical province with men who followed the new thinking such as Hugh Latimer . He intervened in religious disputes , supporting reformers to the disappointment of religious conservatives who desired to maintain the link with Rome .
= = Under the vicegerency ( 1535 – 1538 ) = =
Cranmer was not immediately accepted by the bishops within his province . When he attempted a canonical visitation , he had to avoid locations where a resident conservative bishop might make an embarrassing personal challenge to his authority . In 1535 , Cranmer had difficult encounters with several bishops , John Stokesley , John Longland , and Stephen Gardiner among others . They objected to Cranmer ’ s power and title and argued that the Act of Supremacy did not define his role . This prompted Thomas Cromwell , the king 's chief minister , to activate and to take the office of the vicegerent , the deputy supreme head of ecclesiastical affairs . He created another set of institutions that gave a clear structure to the royal supremacy . Hence , the archbishop was eclipsed by Vicegerent Cromwell in regards to the king 's spiritual jurisdiction . There is no evidence that Cranmer resented his position as junior partner . Although he was an exceptional scholar , he lacked the political ability to outface even clerical opponents . Those tasks were left to Cromwell .
On 29 January 1536 , when Anne miscarried a son , the king began to reflect again on the biblical prohibitions that had haunted him during his marriage with Catherine of Aragon . Shortly after the miscarriage , the king started to take an interest in Jane Seymour . By 24 April , he had commissioned Cromwell to prepare the case for a divorce . Unaware of these plans , Cranmer had continued to write letters to Cromwell on minor matters up to 22 April . Anne was sent to the Tower of London on 2 May , and Cranmer was urgently summoned by Cromwell . On the very next day , Cranmer wrote a letter to the king expressing his doubts about the queen ’ s guilt , highlighting his own esteem for Anne . After it was delivered , however , Cranmer was resigned to the fact that the end of Anne 's marriage was inevitable . On 16 May , he saw Anne in the Tower and heard her confession and the following day , he pronounced the marriage null and void . Two days later , Anne was executed ; Cranmer was one of the few who publicly mourned her death .
The vicegerency brought the pace of reforms under the control of the king . A balance was instituted between the conservatives and the reformers and this was seen in the Ten Articles , the first attempt at defining the beliefs of the Henrician Church . The articles had a two @-@ part structure . The first five articles showed the influence of the reformers by recognising only three of the former seven sacraments : baptism , eucharist , and penance . The last five articles concerned the roles of images , saints , rites and ceremonies , and purgatory , and they reflected the views of the traditionalists . Two early drafts of the document have been preserved and show different teams of theologians at work . The competition between the conservatives and reformers is revealed in rival editorial corrections made by Cranmer and Cuthbert Tunstall , the bishop of Durham . The end product had something that pleased and annoyed both sides of the debate . By 11 July , Cranmer , Cromwell , and the Convocation , the general assembly of the clergy , had subscribed to the Ten Articles .
In the autumn of 1536 , the north of England was convulsed in a series of uprisings collectively known as the Pilgrimage of Grace , the most serious opposition to Henry ’ s policies . Cromwell and Cranmer were the primary targets of the protesters ’ fury . Cromwell and the king worked furiously to quell the rebellion , while Cranmer kept a low profile . After it was clear that Henry 's regime was safe , the government took the initiative to remedy the evident inadequacy of the Ten Articles . The outcome after months of debate was The Institution of a Christian Man informally known from the first issue as the Bishops ' Book . The book was initially proposed in February 1537 in the first vicegerential synod , ordered by Cromwell , for the whole Church . Cromwell opened the proceedings , but as the synod progressed , Cranmer and Foxe took on the chairmanship and the co @-@ ordination . Foxe did most of the final editing and the book was published in late September .
Even after publication , the book ’ s status remained vague because the king had not given his full support to it . In a draft letter , Henry noted that he had not read the book , but supported its printing . His attention was most likely occupied by the pregnancy of Jane Seymour and the birth of the male heir , Edward , that Henry had sought for so long . Jane died shortly after giving birth and her funeral was held on 12 November . That month Henry started to work on the Bishops ’ Book ; his amendments were sent to Cranmer , Sampson , and others for comment . Cranmer 's responses to the king were far more confrontational than his colleagues ' and he wrote at much greater length . They reveal unambiguous statements supporting reformed theology such as justification by faith or sola fide ( faith alone ) and predestination . However , his words did not convince the king . A new statement of faith would be delayed until 1543 with the publication of the King ’ s Book .
In 1538 , the king and Cromwell arranged with Lutheran princes to have detailed discussions on forming a political and religious alliance . Henry had been seeking a new embassy from the Schmalkaldic League since summer 1537 . The Lutherans were delighted by this and they sent a joint delegation from various German cities , including a colleague of Martin Luther , Friedrich Myconius . The delegates arrived in England on 27 May 1538 . After initial meetings with the king , Cromwell , and Cranmer , discussions on theological differences were transferred to Lambeth Palace under Cranmer ’ s chairmanship . Progress on an agreement was slow partly due to Cromwell being too busy to help expedite the proceedings and partly due to the negotiating team on the English side , which was evenly balanced between conservatives and reformers . The talks dragged on through the summer with the Germans becoming weary despite the Archbishop ’ s strenuous efforts . The negotiations , however , were fatally neutralised by an appointee of the king . Cranmer ’ s colleague , Edward Foxe , who sat on Henry ’ s Privy Council , had died earlier in the year . The king chose as his replacement Cranmer ’ s conservative rival , Cuthbert Tunstall , who was told to stay near Henry to give advice . On 5 August , when the German delegates sent a letter to the king regarding three items that particularly worried them ( compulsory clerical celibacy , the withholding of the chalice from the laity , and the maintenance of private masses for the dead ) , Tunstall was able to intervene for the king and to influence the decision . The result was a thorough dismissal by the king of many of the Germans ’ chief concerns . Although Cranmer begged the Germans to continue with the negotiations using the argument " to consider the many thousands of souls in England " at stake , they left on 1 October having made no substantial achievements .
= = Reforms reversed ( 1539 – 1542 ) = =
Continental reformer Philipp Melanchthon was aware that he was very much admired by Henry . In early 1539 , Melanchthon wrote several letters to Henry criticising his views on religion , in particular his support of clerical celibacy . By late April another delegation from the Lutheran princes arrived to build on Melanchthon ’ s exhortations . Cromwell wrote a letter to the king in support of the new Lutheran mission . However , the king had begun to change his stance and concentrated on wooing conservative opinion in England rather than reaching out to the Lutherans . On 28 April 1539 , Parliament met for the first time in three years . Cranmer was present , but Cromwell was unable to attend due to ill health . On 5 May the House of Lords created a committee with the customary religious balance between conservatives and reformers to examine and determine doctrine . However , the committee was given little time to do the detailed work needed for a thorough revision . On 16 May , the Duke of Norfolk noted that the committee had not agreed on anything , and proposed that the Lords examine six doctrinal questions — which eventually formed the basis of the Six Articles . They affirmed the conservative interpretation of doctrines such as the real presence , clerical celibacy , and the necessity of auricular confession , the private confession of sins to a priest . As the Act of the Six Articles neared passage in Parliament , Cranmer moved his wife and children out of England to safety . Up until this time , the family was kept quietly hidden , most likely in Ford Palace in Kent . The Act passed Parliament at the end of June and it forced Latimer and Nicholas Shaxton to resign their dioceses given their outspoken opposition to the measure .
The setback for the reformers was short @-@ lived . By September , Henry was displeased with the results of the Act and its promulgators ; the ever @-@ loyal Cranmer and Cromwell were back in favour . The king asked his archbishop to write a new preface for the Great Bible , an English translation of the Bible that was first published in April 1539 under the direction of Cromwell . The preface was in the form of a sermon addressed to readers . As for Cromwell , he was delighted that his plan of a royal marriage between Henry and Anne of Cleves , the sister of a German prince was accepted by the king . In Cromwell 's view , the marriage could potentially bring back contacts with the Schmalkaldic League . Henry was dismayed with Anne when they first met on 1 January 1540 but married her reluctantly on 6 January in a ceremony officiated by Cranmer . However , the marriage ended in disaster as Henry decided shortly thereafter that he would request a royal divorce . This resulted in Henry being placed in an embarrassing position and Cromwell suffered the consequences . His old enemies , including the Duke of Norfolk , took advantage of the weakened Cromwell and he was arrested on 10 June . He immediately lost the support of all his friends , including Cranmer . However , as Cranmer had done for Anne Boleyn , he wrote a letter to the king defending the past work of Cromwell . Henry 's marriage to Anne of Cleves was quickly annulled on 9 July by the vice @-@ gerential synod , now led by Cranmer and Gardiner .
Following the annulment , Cromwell was executed on 28 July . Cranmer now found himself in a politically prominent position , with no one else to shoulder the burden . Throughout the rest of Henry ’ s reign , he clung to Henry ’ s authority . The king had total trust in him and in return , Cranmer could not conceal anything from the king . At the end of June 1541 , Henry with his new wife , Catherine Howard , left for his first visit to the north of England . Cranmer was left in London as a member of a council taking care of matters for the king in his absence . His colleagues were Lord Chancellor Thomas Audley and Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford . This was Cranmer 's first major piece of responsibility outside the Church . In October , while the king and queen were away , a reformer named John Lascelles revealed to Cranmer that Catherine engaged in extramarital affairs . Cranmer gave the information to Audley and Seymour and they decided to wait until Henry ’ s return . Afraid of angering the king , Audley and Seymour suggested that Cranmer inform Henry . Cranmer slipped a message to Henry during mass on All Saints Day . An investigation revealed the truth of the marital indiscretions and Catherine was executed in February 1542 .
= = Support from the king ( 1543 – 1547 ) = =
In 1543 , several conservative clergymen in Kent banded together to attack and denounce two reformers , Richard Turner and John Bland , before the Privy Council . They prepared articles to present to the Council , but at the last moment , additional denunciations were added by Stephen Gardiner ’ s nephew , Germain Gardiner . These new articles attacked Cranmer and listed his misdeeds back to 1541 . This document and the actions that followed were the basis of the so @-@ called Prebendaries ' Plot . The articles were delivered to the Council in London and were probably read on 22 April 1543 . The king most likely saw the articles against Cranmer that night . The archbishop , however , appeared unaware that an attack on his person was made . His commissioners in Lambeth dealt specifically with Turner ’ s case where he was acquitted , much to the fury of the conservatives .
While the plot against Cranmer was proceeding , the reformers were being attacked on other fronts . On 20 April , the Convocation reconvened to consider the revision of the Bishops ’ Book . Cranmer presided over the sub @-@ committees , but the conservatives were able to overturn many reforming ideas , including justification by faith . On 5 May , the new revision called A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian Man or the King ’ s Book was released . Doctrinally , it was far more conservative than the Bishops ’ Book . On 10 May , the reformers received another blow . Parliament passed the Act for the Advancement of True Religion , which abolished " erroneous books " and restricted the reading of the Bible in English to those of noble status . From May to August , reformers were examined , forced to recant , or imprisoned .
For five months , Henry took no action on the accusations against his archbishop . The conspiracy was finally revealed to Cranmer by the king himself . According to Cranmer ’ s secretary , Ralph Morice , sometime in September 1543 the king showed Cranmer a paper summarising the accusations against him . An investigation was to be mounted and Cranmer was appointed chief investigator . Surprise raids were carried out , evidence gathered , and ringleaders identified . Typically , Cranmer put the clergymen involved in the conspiracy through immediate humiliation , but he eventually forgave them and continued to use their services . To show his trust in Cranmer , Henry gave Cranmer his personal ring . When the Privy Council arrested Cranmer at the end of November , the nobles were stymied by the symbol of the king ’ s trust in him . Cranmer ’ s victory ended with two second @-@ rank leaders imprisoned and Germain Gardiner executed .
With the atmosphere in Cranmer ’ s favour , he pursued quiet efforts to reform the Church , particularly the liturgy . On 27 May 1544 the first officially authorised vernacular service was published , the processional service of intercession known as the Exhortation and Litany . It survives today with minor modifications in the Book of Common Prayer . The traditional litany uses invocations to saints , but Cranmer thoroughly reformed this aspect by providing no opportunity in the text for such veneration . Additional reformers were elected to the House of Commons and new legislation was introduced to curb the effects of the Act of the Six Articles and the Act for the Advancement of True Religion .
In 1546 , the conservatives in a coalition including Gardiner , the Duke of Norfolk , the Lord Chancellor Wriothesley , and the bishop of London , Edmund Bonner , made one last attempt to challenge the reformers . Several reformers with links to Cranmer were targeted . Some such as Lascelles were burnt at the stake . However , powerful reform @-@ minded nobles Edward Seymour and John Dudley returned to England during the summer from overseas and they were able to turn the tide against the conservatives . Two incidents in autumn tipped the balance . Gardiner was disgraced before the king when he refused to agree to exchange episcopal estates and the son of the Duke of Norfolk was charged with treason and executed . There is no evidence that Cranmer played any part in these political games and there were no further plots as the king 's health ebbed in his final months . Cranmer performed his final duties for the king on 28 January 1547 when he gave a reformed statement of faith while gripping Henry ’ s hand instead of giving him his last rites . Cranmer mourned Henry ’ s death and it was later said that he demonstrated his grief by growing a beard . The beard was also a sign of his break with the past . Continental reformers grew beards to mark their rejection of the old Church and this significance of clerical beards was well @-@ understood in England . On 31 January , he was among the executors of the king ’ s final will that nominated Edward Seymour as Lord Protector and welcomed the boy king , Edward VI .
= = Foreign divines and reformed doctrines ( 1547 – 1549 ) = =
Under the regency of Seymour , the reformers were now part of the establishment . A royal visitation of the provinces took place in August 1547 and each parish that was visited was instructed to obtain a copy of the Homilies . This book consisted of twelve homilies of which four were written by Cranmer . His reassertion of the doctrine of justification by faith elicited a strong reaction from Gardiner . In the " Homily of Good Works annexed to Faith " , Cranmer attacked monasticism and the importance of various personal actions involved in liturgical recitations and ceremonies . Hence , he narrowed the range of good works that would be considered necessary and reinforced the primacy of faith . In each parish visited , injunctions were put in place that resolved to , " ... eliminate any image which had any suspicion of devotion attached to it . "
Cranmer ’ s eucharistic views , which had already moved away from official Catholic doctrine , received another push from Continental reformers . Cranmer had been in contact with Martin Bucer since the time when initial contacts were made with the Schmalkaldic League . However , Cranmer and Bucer 's relationship became ever closer due to Charles V ’ s victory over the League at Mühlberg , which left England as the sole major nation that gave sanctuary to persecuted reformers . Cranmer wrote a letter to Bucer ( now lost ) with questions on eucharistic theology . In Bucer 's reply dated 28 November 1547 , he denied the corporeal real presence and condemned transubstantiation and the adoration of the elements . The letter was delivered to Cranmer by two Italian reformed theologians , Peter Martyr and Bernardino Ochino who were invited to take refuge in England . Martyr also brought with him an epistle written allegedly by John Chrysostom ( now regarded as a forgery ) , Ad Caesarium Monachum , which appeared to provide patristic support against the corporeal real presence . These documents were to influence Cranmer ’ s thoughts on the eucharist .
In March 1549 , the city of Strasbourg forced Martin Bucer and Paul Fagius to leave . Cranmer immediately invited the men to come to England and promised that they would be placed in English universities . When they arrived on 25 April , Cranmer was especially delighted to meet Bucer face to face after eighteen years of correspondence . He needed these scholarly men to train a new generation of preachers as well as assist in the reform of liturgy and doctrine . Others who accepted his invitations include the Polish reformer , Jan Łaski , but Cranmer was unable to convince Osiander and Melanchthon to come to England .
= = Book of Common Prayer ( 1548 – 1549 ) = =
As the use of English in worship services spread , the need for a complete uniform liturgy for the Church became evident . Initial meetings to start what would eventually become the Book of Common Prayer were held in the former abbey of Chertsey and in Windsor Castle in September 1548 . The list of participants can only be partially reconstructed , but it is known that the members were balanced between conservatives and reformers . These meetings were followed by a debate on the Eucharist in the House of Lords which took place between 14 and 19 December . Cranmer publicly revealed in this debate that he had abandoned the doctrine of the corporeal real presence and believed that the Eucharistic presence was only spiritual . Parliament backed the publication of the Prayer Book after Christmas by passing the Act of Uniformity 1549 ; it then legalized clerical marriage .
It is difficult to ascertain how much of the Prayer Book is actually Cranmer ’ s personal composition . Generations of liturgical scholars have been able to track down the sources that he used , including the Sarum Rite , writings from Hermann von Wied , and several Lutheran sources including Osiander and Justus Jonas . More problematic is determining how Cranmer worked on the book and with whom he worked . Despite the lack of knowledge of who might have helped him , however , he is given the credit for the editorship and the overall structure of the book .
The use of the new Prayer Book was made compulsory on 9 June 1549 . This triggered a series of protests in Devon and Cornwall , the Prayer Book Rebellion . By early July , the uprising had spread to other parts in the east of England . The rebels made a number of demands including the restoration of the Six Articles , the use of Latin for the mass with only the consecrated bread given to the laity , the restoration of prayers for souls in purgatory , and the rebuilding of abbeys . Cranmer wrote a strong response to these demands to the King in which he denounced the wickedness of the rebellion . On 21 July , Cranmer commandeered St Paul 's Cathedral where he vigorously defended the official Church line . A draft of his sermon , the only extant written sample of his preaching from his entire career , shows that he collaborated with Peter Martyr on dealing with the rebellion .
= = Consolidating gains ( 1549 – 1551 ) = =
The Prayer Book Rebellion and other events had a negative effect on the Seymour regency . The Privy Council became divided when a set of dissident Councillors banded together behind John Dudley in order to oust Seymour . Cranmer and two other Councillors , William Paget , and Thomas Smith initially rallied behind Seymour . However , after a flurry of letters passed between the two sides , a bloodless coup d ’ état resulted in the end of Seymour ’ s Protectorship on 13 October 1549 . Despite the support of religiously conservative politicians behind Dudley ’ s coup , the reformers managed to maintain control of the new government and the English Reformation continued to consolidate gains . Seymour was initially imprisoned in the Tower , but he was shortly released on 6 February 1550 and returned to the Council . The archbishop was able to transfer his former chaplain , Nicholas Ridley from the minor see of Rochester to the diocese of London , while John Ponet took Ridley ’ s former position . Incumbent conservatives were uprooted and replaced with reformers .
The first result of co @-@ operation and consultation between Cranmer and Bucer was the Ordinal , the liturgy for the ordination of priests . This was missing in the first Prayer Book and was not published until 1550 . Cranmer adopted Bucer ’ s draft and created three services for commissioning a deacon , a priest , and a bishop . In the same year , Cranmer produced the Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ , a semi @-@ official explanation of the eucharistic theology within the Prayer Book . It was the first full @-@ length book to bear Cranmer ’ s name on the title @-@ page . The preface summarises his quarrel with Rome in a well @-@ known passage where he compared " beads , pardons , pilgrimages , and such other like popery " with weeds , but the roots of the weeds were transubstantiation , the corporeal real presence , and the sacrificial nature of the mass .
Although Bucer assisted in the development of the English Reformation , he was still quite concerned about the speed of its progress . Both Bucer and Fagius had noticed that the 1549 Prayer Book was not a remarkable step forward , although Cranmer assured Bucer that it was only a first step and that its initial form was only temporary . However , by the winter 1550 , Bucer was becoming disillusioned . Cranmer , however , made sure that he did not feel alienated and kept in close touch with him . This attention paid off during the vestments controversy . This incident was initiated by John Hooper , a follower of Heinrich Bullinger who had recently returned from Zürich . Hooper was unhappy with Cranmer ’ s Prayer Book and Ordinal and he particularly objected to the use of ceremonies and vestments . When the Privy Council selected him to be the Bishop of Gloucester on 15 May 1550 , he laid down conditions that he would not wear the required vestments . He found an ally among the Continental reformers in Jan Łaski who had become a leader of the Stranger church in London , a designated place of worship for Continental Protestant refugees . His church ’ s forms and practices had taken reforms much further than Cranmer would have liked . However , Bucer and Peter Martyr , while they sympathised with Hooper ’ s position , supported Cranmer 's arguments of timing and authority . Cranmer and Ridley stood their ground . This led to Hooper ’ s imprisonment and he eventually gave in . He was consecrated on 8 March 1551 according to the Ordinal and he preached before the king in his episcopal garments . Cranmer ’ s vision of reform through careful steps under the authority of the government was maintained .
= = Final reform programme ( 1551 – 1553 ) = =
Cranmer ’ s role in politics was diminishing when on 16 October 1551 Seymour was arrested on charges of treason . In December he was put on trial and although acquitted of treason , he was judged guilty of felony and put to death on 22 January 1552 . This was the beginning of the breach between Cranmer and Dudley . It was aggravated during the year by the gradual appropriation of ecclesiastical property by the regency . However , even throughout this political turmoil , Cranmer worked simultaneously on three major projects in his reform programme : the revision of canon law , the revision of the Prayer Book , and the formation of a statement of doctrine .
The original Roman canon law that defined governance within the Church clearly needed revision following Henry 's break with Rome . Several revision attempts were made throughout Henry 's reign , but these initial projects were shelved as the speed of reform outpaced the time required to work on a revision . As the reformation stabilised , Cranmer formed a committee in December 1551 to restart the work . He recruited Peter Martyr to the committee and he also asked Łaski and Hooper to participate , demonstrating his usual ability to forgive past actions . Cranmer and Martyr realised that a successful enactment of a reformed ecclesiastical law @-@ code in England would have international significance . Cranmer planned to draw together all the reformed churches of Europe under England ’ s leadership to counter the Council of Trent , the Roman Catholic Church 's response to the Protestant Reformation . In March 1552 , Cranmer invited the foremost Continental reformers , Bullinger , John Calvin , and Melanchthon to come to England and to participate in an ecumenical council . The response was disappointing : Melanchthon did not respond , Bullinger stated that neither of them could leave Germany as it was riven by war between the Emperor and the Lutheran princes , and while Calvin showed some enthusiasm , he said he was unable to come . Cranmer acknowledged Calvin and replied stating , " Meanwhile we will reform the English Church to the utmost of our ability and give our labour that both its doctrines and laws will be improved after the model of holy scripture . " One partial manuscript of the project survived that was annotated with corrections and comments by Cranmer and Martyr . When the final version was presented to Parliament , the breach between Cranmer and Dudley was complete and the regent effectively killed the canon law bill in the House of Lords .
As in the first Prayer Book , the origins and participants in the work of its revision are obscure , but it was clear that Cranmer led the project and steered its development . It had begun as early as the end of 1549 when the Convocation of Canterbury met to discuss the matter . Late in 1550 , the opinions of Martyr and Bucer were sought on how the liturgy might be improved and they significantly influenced the revision . The spiritual presence view was clarified by the use of entirely different words when the communicants are offered the bread and the wine . New rubrics noted that any kind of bread could be used and any bread or wine that remained could be used by the curate , thus disassociating the elements from any physical presence . The new book removed any possibility of prayers for the dead , as such prayers implied support for the doctrine of purgatory . The Act of Uniformity 1552 , which authorised the book 's use , specified that it be exclusively used from 1 November . However , the final version was not officially published until nearly the last minute , due to Dudley 's intervention . While travelling in the north of the country , he met the Scots reformer , John Knox , then based in Newcastle . Impressed by his preaching , Dudley selected him to be a royal chaplain and brought him south to participate in the reform projects . In a sermon before the king , Knox attacked the practice of kneeling during communion . On 27 September 1552 , the Privy Council stopped the printing of the new Prayer Book and told Cranmer to revise it . He responded with a long letter using the argument that it was for Parliament with the royal assent to decide any changes in the liturgy . On 22 October , the council decided to keep the liturgy as it is and add the so @-@ called Black Rubric , which explained that no adoration was intended when kneeling at communion .
The origins of the Statement that eventually became the Forty @-@ Two Articles are equally obscure . As early as December 1549 , the archbishop was demanding from his bishops subscription to certain doctrinal articles . In 1551 Cranmer presented a version of a statement to the bishops , but its status remained ambiguous . Cranmer did not devote much effort into developing the articles , most likely due to work on the canon law revision . He became more interested once the hope for an ecumenical council began to fade . By September 1552 , draft versions of the articles were being worked on by Cranmer and John Cheke , his scholarly friend who was commissioned to translate them into Latin . When the Forty @-@ Two Articles were finally published in May 1553 , the title @-@ page declared that the articles were agreed upon by the Convocation and were published by the authority of the king . This was not in fact the case and the mistake was likely caused by miscommunications between the archbishop and the Privy Council . Cranmer complained about this to the council , but the authorities responded by noting that the articles were developed during the time of the Convocation — hence evading a direct answer . The council gave Cranmer the unfortunate task of requiring subscription to the articles from the bishops , many of whom opposed them and pointed out the anomaly of the title @-@ page . It was while Cranmer was carrying out this duty that events unfolded that would render the subscriptions futile .
= = Trials , recantations , death ( 1553 – 1556 ) = =
Edward VI became seriously ill from tuberculosis and the councillors were told that he did not have long to live . In May 1553 , the council sent several letters to Continental reformers assuring them that Edward 's health was improving . Among the letters was one addressed to Melanchthon inviting him to come to England to take up the Regius Chair in Cambridge which was vacant since the death of Martin Bucer in February 1551 . Both Henry VIII and Cranmer had previously failed to convince Melanchthon to come ; this time the council made a serious effort by sending him an advance to cover his travel expenses . Cranmer sent a personal letter urging him to take the offer . Despite his plea , Melanchthon never made the voyage to England . While this effort to shore up the reformation was taking place , the council was working to convince several judges to put on the throne Lady Jane Grey , Edward 's cousin and a Protestant , instead of Mary , Henry and Catherine of Aragon 's daughter and a Catholic . On 17 June 1553 the king made his will noting Jane would succeed him , contravening the Third Succession Act . Cranmer tried to speak to Edward alone , but he was refused and his audience with Edward occurred in the presence of the councillors . Edward told him that he supported what he wrote in his will . Cranmer ’ s decision to support Jane must have occurred before 19 June when royal orders were sent to convene the Convocation for the recognition of the new succession .
By mid @-@ July , there were serious provincial revolts in Mary ’ s favour and support for Jane in the council fell . As Mary was proclaimed queen , Dudley , Ridley , Cheke , and Jane ’ s father , the Duke of Suffolk were imprisoned . However , no action was taken against the archbishop . On 8 August he led Edward ’ s funeral according to the rites of the Prayer Book . During these months , he advised others , including Peter Martyr , to flee England , but he himself chose to stay . Reformed bishops were removed from office and conservative clergy , such as Edmund Bonner , had their old positions restored . Cranmer did not go down without a fight . When rumours spread that he authorised the use of the mass in Canterbury Cathedral , he declared them to be false and said , " ... all the doctrine and religion , by our said sovereign lord king Edward VI is more pure and according to God 's word , than any that hath been used in England these thousand years . " Not surprisingly , the government regarded Cranmer 's declaration as tantamount to sedition . He was ordered to stand before the council in the Star Chamber on 14 September and on that day he said his final goodbye to Martyr . Cranmer was sent straight to the Tower to join Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley .
On 13 November 1553 Cranmer and four others were brought to trial for treason , found guilty , and condemned to death . Throughout February 1554 Jane Grey and other rebels were executed . It was now time to deal with the religious leaders of the reformation and so on 8 March 1554 the Privy Council ordered Cranmer , Ridley , and Latimer to be transferred to Bocardo prison in Oxford to await a second trial for heresy . During this time Cranmer was able to smuggle out a letter to Martyr who had fled to Strasbourg , the last surviving document written in his own hand . He stated that the desperate situation of the church was proof that it will eventually be delivered and wrote , " I pray that God may grant that we may endure to the end ! " Cranmer remained isolated in Bocardo prison for seventeen months before the trial started on 12 September 1555 . Although it took place in England , the trial was under papal jurisdiction and the final verdict would come from Rome . Under interrogation , Cranmer admitted to every fact that was placed before him , but he denied any treachery , disobedience , or heresy . The trial of Latimer and Ridley started shortly after Cranmer 's but their verdicts came almost immediately and they were burnt at the stake on 16 October . Cranmer was taken to a tower to watch the proceedings . On 4 December , Rome decided Cranmer 's fate by depriving him of the archbishopric and giving permission to the secular authorities to carry out their sentence .
In his final days Cranmer 's circumstances changed , which led to several recantations . On 11 December , Cranmer was taken out of Bocardo and placed in the house of the Dean of Christ Church . This new environment was very different from that of his two years in prison . He was in an academic community and treated as a guest . Approached by a Dominican friar , Juan de Villagarcia , he debated the issues of papal supremacy and purgatory . In his first four recantations , produced between the end of January and mid @-@ February , Cranmer submitted himself to the authority of the king and queen and recognised the pope as head of the church . On 14 February 1556 , he was degraded from holy orders and returned to Bocardo . He had conceded very little and Edmund Bonner was not satisfied with these admissions . On 24 February a writ was issued to the mayor of Oxford and the date of Cranmer 's execution was set for 7 March . Two days after the writ was issued , a fifth statement , the first which could be called a true recantation was issued . Cranmer repudiated all Lutheran and Zwinglian theology , fully accepted Catholic theology including papal supremacy and transubstantiation , and stated that there was no salvation outside the Catholic Church . He announced his joy of returning to the Catholic faith , asked for and received sacramental absolution , and participated in the mass . Cranmer 's burning was postponed and under normal practice of canon law , he should have been absolved . Mary , however , decided that no further postponement was possible . His last recantation was issued on 18 March . It was a sign of a broken man , a sweeping confession of sin . Despite the stipulation in Canon Law that recanting heretics be reprieved , Mary was determined to make an example of Cranmer , arguing that " his iniquity and obstinacy was so great against God and your Grace that your clemency and mercy could have no place with him " , and pressed ahead with his execution .
Cranmer was told that he would be able to make a final recantation but this time in public during a service at the University Church . He wrote and submitted the speech in advance and it was published after his death . At the pulpit on the day of his execution , he opened with a prayer and an exhortation to obey the king and queen , but he ended his sermon totally unexpectedly , deviating from the prepared script . He renounced the recantations that he had written or signed with his own hand since his degradation and as such he stated his hand would be punished by being burnt first . He then said , " And as for the pope , I refuse him , as Christ 's enemy , and Antichrist with all his false doctrine . " He was pulled from the pulpit and taken to where Latimer and Ridley had been burnt six months before . As the flames drew around him , he fulfilled his promise by placing his right hand into the heart of the fire while saying " that unworthy hand " and his dying words were , " Lord Jesus , receive my spirit ... I see the heavens open and Jesus standing at the right hand of God . "
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The Marian government produced a pamphlet with all six recantations plus the text of the speech Cranmer was to have made in the University Church . His subsequent withdrawal of his recantations was not mentioned , though what actually happened soon became common knowledge , undermining the effectiveness of Marian propaganda . Similarly , the Protestant party had difficulty in making use of the event , given Cranmer 's recantations . The exiles ' propaganda concentrated on publishing various specimens of his writings . Eventually John Foxe put Cranmer 's story to effective use in 1559 , and it features prominently in his Acts and Monuments when it was first printed in 1563 .
Cranmer 's family had been exiled to the Continent in 1539 . It is not known exactly when they returned to England , but it was soon after the accession of Edward VI in 1547 that Cranmer publicly acknowledged their existence . Not much is known about the early years of the children . His daughter , Margaret , was likely born in the 1530s and his son , Thomas , came later , probably during the reign of Edward . Sometime around Mary 's accession , Cranmer 's wife , Margarete , escaped to Germany , while his son was entrusted to his brother , Edmund Cranmer , who took him too to the Continent . Margarete Cranmer eventually married Cranmer 's favourite publisher , Edward Whitchurch . The couple returned to England after Mary 's reign and settled in Surrey . Whitchurch also negotiated for the marriage of Margaret to Thomas Norton . Whitchurch died in 1562 and Margarete married for the third time to Bartholomew Scott . She died in the 1570s . Both of Cranmer 's children died without issue and his line became extinct .
When Elizabeth I came to power she restored the Church of England 's independence from Rome under the Elizabethan Religious Settlement . The church that she re @-@ established represented , in effect , a snapshot of the Edwardian Church from September 1552 . Thus the Elizabethan Prayer Book was basically Cranmer 's 1552 edition but without the " Black Rubric " . In the Convocation of 1563 the Forty @-@ Two Articles which were never adopted by the Church were altered in the area of eucharistic doctrine to form the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles . Most of the exiles returned to England and resumed their careers in the Church . To some like Edmund Grindal , an Archbishop of Canterbury during Elizabeth 's reign , Cranmer provided a shining example whose work should be upheld and extended .
Cranmer 's greatest concerns were the maintenance of the royal supremacy and the diffusion of reformed theology and practice . Scholars note that he is best remembered for his contribution to the realms of language and of cultural identity . His prose helped to guide the development of the English language , and the Book of Common Prayer is a major contribution to English literature that influenced many lives in the Anglophone world . It guided Anglican worship for four hundred years .
Catholic biographers sometimes depict Cranmer as an unprincipled opportunist , a Nicodemite , and a tool of royal tyranny . For their part , hagiographic Protestant biographers sometimes overlook the times that Cranmer betrayed his own principles . Yet both sides can agree in seeing Cranmer as a committed scholar whose life showed the strengths and weaknesses of a very human and often under @-@ appreciated reformer . The Anglican Communion commemorates him as a Reformation Martyr on 21 March , the anniversary of his death .
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= Makinti Napanangka =
Makinti Napanangka ( c . 1930 – 9 January 2011 ) was a Pintupi @-@ speaking Indigenous Australian artist from Australia 's Western Desert region . She was referred to posthumously as Kumentje . The term Kumentje was used instead of her personal name as it is customary among many indigenous communities not to refer to the deceased by their original given name for some time after their death . She lived in the communities of Haasts Bluff , Papunya , and later at Kintore , about 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) north @-@ east of the Lake MacDonald region where she was born , on the border of the Northern Territory and Western Australia .
Makinti Napanangka began painting Contemporary Indigenous Australian art at Kintore in the mid @-@ 1990s , encouraged by a community art project . Interest in her work developed quickly , and she is now represented in most significant Australian public art galleries , including the National Gallery of Australia . A finalist in the 2003 Clemenger Contemporary Art Award , Makinti won the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award in 2008 . Her work was shown in the major indigenous art exhibition Papunya Tula : Genesis and Genius , at the Art Gallery of New South Wales .
Working in synthetic polymer on linen or canvas , Makinti 's paintings primarily take as their subjects a rockhole site , Lupul , and an indigenous story ( or " dreaming " ) about two sisters , known as Kungka Kutjarra . She was a member of the Papunya Tula Artists Cooperative , but her work has been described as more spontaneous than that of her fellow Papunya Tula artists .
= = Personal life = =
Makinti Napanangka 's year of birth is uncertain , but several sources indicate she was born around 1930 , although other sources indicate she may have been born as early as 1922 or as late as 1932 at a location described by some sources as Lupul rockhole but by one major reference work as Mangarri . All sources agree that she comes from the area of Karrkurritinytja or Lake MacDonald , which straddles the border between Western Australia and the Northern Territory , 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south @-@ west of Kintore , and about 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) west of Alice Springs .
Makinti was a member of the Pintupi group of indigenous people , who are associated with the communities of Papunya , Kintore , and Kiwirrkura . " Napanangka " is a skin name , one of eight used to denote the subgroups in the Pintupi kinship system , not a surname in the sense used by Europeans . Thus her personal name was " Makinti " . The uncertainty around Makinti 's date and place of birth arises from the fact that Indigenous Australians often estimate dates of birth by comparison with other events , especially for people born before contact with European Australians . They may also cite the place of birth as being where the mother first felt the foetus move , rather than where the birth took place .
Makinti 's first contact with white people was seeing them riding camels , when she was living at Lupul . She was one of a large group of people who walked into Haasts Bluff in the early 1940s , together with her husband Nyukuti Tjupurrula ( brother of artist Nosepeg Tjupurrula ) , and their son Ginger Tjakamarra , born around 1940 . At Haasts Bluff they had a second child , Narrabri Narrapayi , in 1949 . The population moved to Papunya in the late 1950s , where Makinti had another child , Jacqueline Daaru , in 1958 . She had a daughter , Winnie Bernadette , in 1961 in Alice Springs . The family moved to Kintore when it was established in the early 1980s , and by 1996 Kumentje was painting there for the Papunya Tula Artists Cooperative . Her children Ginger , Narrabri , and Jacqueline also became artists , all of them painting for Papunya Tula Artists .
Physically tiny yet robust and strong , Kumentje was described as " a charmer and an irascible character " , with an infectious smile . She died in Alice Springs in January 2011 .
= = Artistic career = =
Artists of the Papunya Tula movement were painting at Haasts Bluff in the late 1970s , but the deaths of some of the main painters in the early 1980s led to a period of decline . In 1992 , the Ikuntji Women 's Centre was opened at Haasts Bluff and a new painting movement quickly developed , supported by founding art coordinator Marina Strocchi , who assisted in artists ' development at both Haasts Bluff and Kintore . It was through this initiative that Kumentje began painting in 1994 for the Minyma Tjukurrpa ( Kintore / Haasts Bluff Project ) and by 1997 her work was being acquired by major collecting institutions . She was one of the " Kintore ladies " who joined earlier generations of the famous Papunya Tula artists , and was referred to as " number one " by her fellow artists , of whom she was considered a leader . She painted with the Papunya Tula Artists Cooperative , in which she was a shareholder , from 1996 .
The only break in her career was in 1999 , when she underwent a cataract operation , an event that journalist Nicolas Rothwell suggested was associated with a distinct shift in her work , including the increasing use of thick lines . Johnson said the operation resulted in " a collection of light @-@ flooded canvases " ; Art Gallery of New South Wales curator Hetti Perkins said that , after her recovery , " her work showed renewed vigour " .
Makinti 's works were selected to hang in five consecutive National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Award ( NATSIAA ) exhibitions , beginning in 1997 . In 2000 , she held her first solo exhibition , and was one of the artists whose works were included in the major exhibition Papunya Tula : Genesis and Genius at the Art Gallery of New South Wales . The following year , she was a finalist at the NATSIAA . 2003 saw her named by Australian Art Collector magazine as one of the country 's 50 most collectible artists , an assessment repeated by that magazine in 2004 , 2005 , and 2006 . Also in 2003 , she was among the finalists for the Clemenger Contemporary Art Award . By 2006 , her works were commanding " the upper end of the price spectrum " , though the resale values of those of her works not sold through Papunya Tula artists were considered precarious , owing to such works being of variable quality .
In August 2008 , Makinti won the $ 40 @,@ 000 NATSIAA , but her age and circumstances prevented her from accepting it in person . In October 2008 , she was one of several prominent artists whose works featured in a charity auction securing funds for the Menzies School of Health Research in Darwin . Her painting sold for A $ 18 @,@ 500 , a significant contribution to the quarter of a million dollars raised . In 2009 , she was again a finalist in the NATSIAA , with an untitled painting and was also a finalist in the Togart Contemporary Art Award the same year . In 2011 she was a finalist in the 36th Alice Art Prize and in 2011 she was posthumously awarded the Member of the Order of Australia , for " service to the arts as a contemporary Indigenous artist , to women painters of the Western Desert Art movement , and to the community of the Northern Territory " .
Most of Australia 's public collections hold one or more works by Makinti , including the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of New South Wales , the National Gallery of Victoria , the Queensland Art Gallery , Brisbane and the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory . She participated in some major group exhibitions , such as Papunya Tula : Genesis and Genius at the Art Gallery of New South Wales , and Colour Power at the National Gallery of Victoria , as well as having had a small number of solo exhibitions at private galleries , including the gallery of influential art dealer Gabrielle Pizzi . The National Portrait Gallery in Canberra has in its collection a photographic portrait of Kumentje , by Malaysian @-@ born Australian artist Hari Ho . Her work was selected for inclusion in the 2012 Sydney Biennale .
= = Style of painting = =
Makinti 's works , including her Clemenger Award and NATSIAA paintings , are created with synthetic polymer on linen or canvas .
Many paintings by artists of the Western Desert relate to water , while the story ( or " dreaming " ) most frequently portrayed by Western Desert women is Kungka Kutjarra , or Two Women , concerning the travel of two sisters . Makinti 's works reflect those themes , and are particularly associated with a rockhole site , Lupul , and with Kungka Kutjarra . Her untitled painting in the Genesis and Genius exhibition was based on Kungka Kutjarra , while the painting that won the 2008 Telstra award related to Lupul . The iconography of her paintings includes the use of lines representing paths and ceremonial hair @-@ string skirts , and circles representing water @-@ holes .
According to Art Gallery of New South Wales indigenous art curator and NATSIAA judge Hetti Perkins , Makinti and her work are " very dynamic and charismatic " . Although a member of the Papunya Tula Artists , Makinti 's work has been described as taking " a more spontaneous approach in illustrating the traditional iconography than that done by previous artists painting at Papunya " . Her style evolved over time , beginning with gestural brush strokes in ordered compositions , and developing into more closely interwoven representations of the hair @-@ string skirts and designs reflecting those used in body painting . Throughout this evolution , her colour palette has consistently included a subtle range of yellows and pinks , through to oranges and whites .
Judith Ryan , senior curator at the National Gallery of Victoria , described Makinti 's entry in the 2003 Clemenger Contemporary Art Award as :
concerned with touching and sensing with fingers , rather than purely visual . The repetition of colour chords and textured striations , which closely echo each other , has a rhapsodic effect akin to many bodies in dance and reveals the inner or spiritual power , the essence , of Makinti Napanangka 's country and cultural identity . The energetic lines invoke body paint for women ’ s business , and more particularly represent spun hair @-@ string , which is used to make belts worn by women during ceremonies associated with the rockhole site of Lupulnga , a Peewee Dreaming place .
Reviewing the same exhibition , Robert Nelson described Makinti 's work as " sensual and chromatically effusive painting " . The work of the " Kintore ladies " has created " some of the most richly textured surfaces in the history of the ( Papunya Tula ) company " ; Makinti 's painting for Genesis and Genius was hailed as " a painterly celebration of colour and form " .
= = Major collections = =
Art Gallery of New South Wales
Campbelltown City Art Gallery
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
National Gallery of Australia
National Gallery of Victoria
Queensland Art Gallery
Macquarie Bank collection
Shell Aboriginal Art Fund Collection
= = Solo exhibitions and awards = =
1997 – 14th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
1998 – 15th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
1999 – 16th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
2000 – 17th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
2000 – Utopia Art , Sydney
2001 – finalist , 18th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
2001 – Utopia Art , Sydney
2002 – Gallery Gabrielle Pizzi , Melbourne
2003 – Utopia Art , Sydney
2003 – finalist , Clemenger Contemporary Art Award at the National Gallery of Victoria
2007 – finalist , 24th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
2008 – winner , 25th National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
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= HMS Trump ( P333 ) =
HMS Trump ( pennant number P333 ) was a British submarine of the third group of the T class . She was built by Vickers Armstrong , Barrow , and launched on 25 March 1944 . So far she has been the only ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Trump . She spent the majority of her life attached to the 4th Submarine division based in Australia . She was kept in service following the war and was refitted for greater underwater performance , and was the final RN submarine to be posted in Australia , departing in January 1969 . She was sold off and broken up for scrap in August 1971 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Trump was one of the group three of T class submarines . She was part of the second batch of the third group to be ordered , in 1941 . She was one of a number of boats which had an all @-@ welded hull which increased diving depth to 350 feet ( 110 m ) , an increase of 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The torpedo armament was the same as the earlier group two , although by the time group three was coming into service it was realised that external torpedo tubes had major problems and affected the streamlining of the boats ; the external tubes were abandoned in the following Amphion class submarine . Because of expected use in tropical climates , boats of group three were equipped with freon blowers in order to deal with the increased temperatures .
= = Service = =
= = = World War II = = =
Trump was commissioned in July 1944 . After trials and a work @-@ up in the North Sea in mid @-@ October she was sent to Perth in Western Australia . On arrival , she joined the 4th Submarine division , supported by the depot ship HMS Adamant . From Perth , Trump carried out four patrols before the end of the war .
During her Far East service , Trump sank the Japanese guardboat No. 15 Shosei Maru on 13 May ; a Japanese sailing vessel on 24 May ; and two coasters , one on 29 May and the other on 1 June . She sank a tanker on 5 June and together with her sister HMS Tiptoe , she sank a Japanese cargo vessel on 9 August .
Also with Tiptoe , Trump carried out an attack on a convoy on 3 August . Although the it was escorted by a Japanese patrol boat , they successfully sank Tencho Maru , an army cargo ship , with the sinking credited to Tiptoe .
= = = Post war = = =
Trump survived the war and continued in service with the Royal Navy . Trump was one of several all @-@ welded T @-@ Class submarines rebuilt for greater underwater performance . This " Slippery T " or " Super T " conversion involved the removal of the deck gun and the replacement of the conning tower with a streamlined " fin " . Extra batteries were installed below the control room and additional electric motors were accommodated by cutting through the pressure hull and adding in a new 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) hull section inserted aft of the control room . The diesel engines were modified and supercharged with output increased by 300 BHP . The gun armaments and external torpedo tubes were removed , and the bow reshaped . Trump was one of two submarines , the other being HMS Tabard , which had the bridge incorporated into the added fin section ; and was the last to undergo this conversion .
In 1960 , Trump , along with Taciturn and Tabard , rejoined the 4th Submarine Flotilla at Sydney , Australia . There , they operated with units of the Far East Fleet , the Royal Australian Navy , and the Royal New Zealand Navy . In June 1964 , she participated in the NEWS EX anti @-@ submarine exercise in the Hauraki Gulf off the coast of New Zealand .
Trump underwent refits at Cockatoo Dockyard , between January 1962 and April 1963 , and again between August 1965 and October 1966 . She was the final Royal Navy submarine to be on station in Australia , departing on 10 January 1969 when the 1st Australian Submarine squadron was formed from the RN 4th Submarine Squadron . She was temporarily transferred to Royal Australian Navy service while boats of the Oberon class were under construction . Trump was scrapped at Newport from 1 August 1971 .
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= General John A. Rawlins =
General John A. Rawlins is a statue depicting John Aaron Rawlins , a United States Army general who served during the Civil War and later as Secretary of War . The statue is a focal point of Rawlins Park , a small public park in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington , D.C. It was installed in 1874 , but relocated several times between 1880 and 1931 . The statue was sculpted by French @-@ American artist Joseph A. Bailly , whose best known work is the statue of George Washington in front of Independence Hall in Philadelphia .
The bronze statue , which rests on a granite base , is one of the city 's eighteen Civil War monuments that were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The monument and park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department . The statue is considered by historians to be one of the better portrait statues in Washington , D.C.
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
John Aaron Rawlins ( 1831 – 1869 ) was a lawyer and native of Illinois who organized the 45th Illinois Infantry for the Union Army during the Civil War . He served as a confidant and the closest advisor to General Ulysses S. Grant during the war and served as Grant 's Secretary of War after Grant was elected president of the United States . Rawlins died of tuberculosis five months into his term as secretary . During his short term in office , Rawlins spoke passionately about the plight of recently freed slaves and tried to protect Native Americans from military officers who were cruel to them . He also tried to protect Grant from men who would " lead him away from the straight and true . " One of Rawlins ' colleagues said " he had blunt , wrathful words of objurgation for those who put in Grant 's way temptations that he knew to be dangerous . "
Soon after Rawlins ' death in 1869 , efforts were under way to erect a statue honoring him . Interest in the project waned until 1872 when Grant wrote a letter to Congress to address the delay . On June 10 , 1872 , a congressional bill sponsored by Illinois Senator John A. Logan , who had served under Grant and admired Rawlins , was approved with $ 10 @,@ 000 appropriated for the erection of the statue . The legislation included instructions for a committee to be created that would solicit models and select an artist . The committee consisted of General Orville E. Babcock , Architect of the Capitol Edward Clark , and Librarian of Congress Ainsworth Rand Spofford . Sculptors that submitted designs included Theophilus Fisk Mills , son of Clark Mills , and Lot Flannery , sculptor of the 1868 Abraham Lincoln statue . The artist chosen was Joseph A. Bailly ( 1825 – 1883 ) , a French @-@ born American sculptor whose best known work is the 1869 statue of George Washington in Philadelphia . Bailly 's other works in Washington , D.C. include sculptures of Benjamin Hallowell and Alexander " Boss " Shepherd . The statue was founded by Robert Wood & Company . The bronze used for the statue was cast from Confederate cannons captured during the Civil War .
The total cost of the statue and its installation was $ 13 @,@ 000 . The original planned site for the statue was Franklin Square , though the site where it was installed was Rawlins Park , a small park in what was then an unkept and remote area . There was no formal dedication ceremony when it was installed in November 1874 . The following year , the statue was placed atop a granite base constructed by the Westham Granite Company of Richmond , Virginia .
= = = Later history = = =
In 1880 , members of the Grand Army of the Republic visited the statue and were dismayed by the park and its surroundings . They petitioned to have the statue moved to a more prominent location , 10th and D Streets NW , where it stood until a newspaper plant was built on that site . It was then moved to the north side of Pennsylvania Avenue between 7th Street and 9th Street NW , but a public restroom was built on the site in 1886 and the statue was moved across the street . In 1931 , construction began on the National Archives Building and the statue was moved for the last time to its original location , Rawlins Park . Rawlins Park was greatly improved with the addition of walkways and a reflecting pool in 1938 . In 1963 , Wyoming Representative William H. Harrison unsuccessfully attempted to have the statue moved to Rawlins , a town named after the general .
The statue is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. that were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . It is one of the few Civil War monuments that is a not an equestrian sculpture . The others are the Dupont Circle Fountain , Stephenson Grand Army of the Republic Memorial , Nuns of the Battlefield , the Peace Monument , and statues of Admiral David G. Farragut and Brigadier General Albert Pike . The statue and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department . Historian James M. Goode , author of Outdoor Sculpture of Washington , D.C. , considers it one of the better portrait statues in Washington , D.C. , and thinks the statue has a " certain elegance and spirit . "
= = Design and location = =
The statue is sited on the eastern end of Rawlins Park , a small public park located between 18th Street , 19th Street , E Street and New York Avenue NW in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington , D.C. The Main Interior Building lies to the south of the park , General Services Administration Building is on the north side of the park , and The Octagon House is on the northeast corner of the park .
The bronze statue measures 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall and the light gray , pedestal @-@ style granite base measures 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high and 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide . The statue depicts Rawlins standing while wearing his Civil War military uniform : a hat , long belted jacket , tall boots , and gloves . His left leg is slightly forward and his right hand is holding a pair of field glasses by his side . He left hand is holding the sword handle which rests at his side . Rawlins is depicted with a beard and moustache . The inscription " RAWLINS " is on the front of the base . The inscriptions " R. WOOD & CO / BRONZE FOUNDERS / PHILA " and " A. BAILLY , sculpt / 1873 " are on the sculpture .
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= All the Lovers =
All the Lovers is a song recorded by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue for her eleventh studio album , Aphrodite ( 2010 ) . One of the last songs to be recorded for the album , " All the Lovers " was written by Jim Eliot and Mima Stilwell and produced by the former . Stuart Price , the executive producer of Aphrodite , was responsible for additional production and mixing of the song . Minogue felt " All the Lovers " summarised the " euphoria " of the album perfectly and chose it to be the lead single from Aphrodite . It was then globally released by Parlophone as a CD single and digital download on 11 June 2010 . " All the Lovers " is a midtempo disco song with influences of electropop music . The lyrics of the song serve as an invitation to the dance floor and an assertion that Minogue 's past relationships do not " compare " to the one she shares with her present lover .
Upon its release , " All the Lovers " garnered critical acclaim and was commended for its chorus and production . Many critics found it similar to Minogue 's 2004 single " I Believe in You " . Compared to the lead singles from Minogue 's previous albums , " All the Lovers " underperformed in Australia and missed peaking inside the top ten of the Australian Singles Chart . However , it was a commercial success in Europe , reaching the top ten in numerous countries including Austria , Belgium , France , Italy , Spain and Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In the latter country , " All the Lovers " peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart . A club hit in the United States , it topped the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " All the Lovers " was certified silver in the United Kingdom and gold in Australia and Italy .
An accompanying music video for " All the Lovers " was filmed in Downtown Los Angeles by Joseph Kahn , and features Minogue singing the song from atop a pyramid of underwear @-@ clad couples . Critical reception towards the video was favourable , with many critics enjoying its concept and imagery . The music video was banned in several Asian countries due to its sexual nature . For additional promotion , Minogue performed the song on various television shows , such as Germany 's Next Topmodel and Alan Carr : Chatty Man . It was included on the set list of the Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour and was performed during the encore segment of the concert shows . An orchestral version of the song was featured on the track list of Minogue 's 2012 compilation album The Abbey Road Sessions .
= = Background and release = =
Following her recovery from breast cancer , Minogue released her tenth studio album X in 2007 . Slated to be released as Minogue 's comeback album , X went platinum in her native @-@ country Australia after it debuted at number one on the Australian Albums chart . In the United Kingdom , the album entered and peaked at number four on the UK Albums Chart and was eventually certified platinum . Critical reception towards X was generally favourable , but many critics felt that it lacked introspection from Minogue 's side . Later on , critics argued that the album did not serve as a worthy comeback for Minogue .
Soon , Minogue began working on her eleventh studio album Aphrodite . Grammy award @-@ winning British electronic music producer Stuart Price was enlisted as the executive producer of the album . " All the Lovers " was one of the last tracks to be written for Aphrodite and " only really came up " during the last three weeks of the recording sessions . It was written by Jim Eliot and Mima Stilwell , known collectively as British electropop group Kish Mauve . The duo had previously collaborated with Minogue on " 2 Hearts " , the lead single from X. Eliot produced the track and Price handled additional production and mixing . Minogue also recorded a Spanish @-@ language version of the song entitled " Los Amores " .
Minogue premiered " All the Lovers " on radio stations in the United Kingdom on 14 May 2010 . It was released worldwide as the lead single from the album on 11 June 2010 in CD single formats . The song was also made available to download digitally at the iTunes Store on the same day . In the United Kingdom , " All the Lovers " was initially released digitally on 13 June and later received a physical release in various formats on 28 June 2010 . " Los Amores " and " Go Hard or Go Home " were included as the B @-@ sides to the song .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " All the Lovers " is an electropop @-@ influenced disco track . Minogue 's breathy and whisper @-@ y vocal delivery and the electronic production of the song make it similar to " I Believe in You " , a single from Minogue 's greatest hits album Ultimate Kylie ( 2004 ) . Through the lyrics of the song , Minogue invites her lover to dance with her , beginning with a line in which she softly sings " Dance , it 's all I wanna do , so won 't you dance ? I 'm standing here with you , why won 't you move ? " . During the anthemic chorus of the song , which is backed by a warbling synthesizer riff , Minogue asserts that her previous relationships do not " compare " to her present one , singing " All the lovers that have gone before , they don 't compare to you / Don 't be frightened , just give me a little bit more / They don 't compare , all the lovers . " UK @-@ based music website Popjustice opined that the song is " not really about relaxing while you dance , it 's about relaxing into a relationship . " Fraser McAlpine from BBC Chart Blog felt the " elegiac " and sad @-@ toned chorus " makes the verses transform from a straightforward plea for dancefloor action into what sounds like a demand that everyone join Kylie for one last dance before things become spoiled forever . " The song features a bridge section in which Minogue again asks her lover to dance with her , after which an electronic breakdown takes place . According to the sheet music of the song published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " All the Lovers " is composed in the key of C major and follows a midtempo of 142 beats per minute . Minogue 's vocal range spans from the key of G3 to A4 .
= = Critical reception = =
" All the Lovers " was acclaimed by music critics and fans alike . Fraser McAlpine from BBC Chart Blog rated the single five out of five stars and applauded its chorus , calling it a " dancing / crying / loving feeling [ ... ] applied to everyone in a universal gesture of affection and regret . " The critic praised the electropop influences of the song and Minogue 's vocal delivery . Nick Levine from Digital Spy also rewarded " All the Lovers " a perfect five @-@ star score and called it a " shimmering midtempo electro @-@ disco tune with a lovely arms @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air chorus . " He found the song similar to " I Believe in You " . Entertainment Weekly critic Adam Markovitz opined that " All the Lovers " was not a " full @-@ on dance track production @-@ wise , " but predicted the song would attain " near @-@ ubiquity in gyms , gay clubs , and clothing stores . " Robbie Daw from Idolator felt its production stayed true to Minogue 's roots , labelling the song " 100 % pure Kylie , " and found it comparable to " I Believe in You . " Daily Mirror critic Gavin Martin gave " All the Lovers " a four out of five rating and complimented the song 's production and mixing , saying they " ensure Kylie 's pint @-@ size pop queen status is consolidated . " Martin also enjoyed Minogue 's " generously sensual " vocal performance . Chris Ryan from MTV Buzzworthy termed the song " classic Kylie , " praising its subtle production and the chorus for being " ecstatic , breathtaking . " MuuMuse editor Bradley Stern commended Minogue 's breathy delivery and felt that its instrumentation and Minogue 's vocals were reminiscent of " I Believe in You " . Stern rated it five out of five stars and concluded that " [ " All the Lovers " is ] a sing @-@ along track , it 's sad disco , it 's everything you 've been waiting for . " The Popjustice review of the song was also positive ; they pointed out that it would please fans of the singer and become the " sound of dancefloor stampedes from now until the end of time " due to its mature style . Rob Harvilla from The Village Voice wrote that the song features Minogue at her peak form and labelled it a " pleasingly vapid synth @-@ cheese jam . "
Upon the release of Aphrodite , critics viewed " All the Lovers " as one of the highlights of the album . Tim Sendra from AllMusic gave the song a " Track Pick , " calling it " massively catchy " and praising the synthesizer riffs in its instrumentation . Ian Wade from BBC Music found " All the Lovers " a far more superior effort than X , saying it " emits everything that X didn 't . " Neil McCormick from Daily Telegraph complimented the chorus and commented " once ' All The Lovers ' gets in your head , it is impossible to dislodge . " Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly encouraged readers to download the song , terming it a " thumping opener . " Helen Clarke from MusicOM likened it to the works of British electronic music duo Goldfrapp and called it a " Kylie classic , " but found its placement as the opening track of the album unusual . Christel Loar from PopMatters found its synth riffs similar to those in songs by British synthpop duo Erasure and felt the song was perfect to dance to . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine , who gave Aphrodite a mixed review , picked the song as one of the better tracks from the album , comparing its hook to a " summer breeze . " Sophia Money @-@ Coutts from The National called the song a " euphoric , electro tune ripe for remixing and which will no doubt have the hordes waving their hands about in Ibiza " but criticised it for being too similar to " I Believe in You " .
= = = Accolades and recognition = = =
At the 24th Annual ARIA Music Awards in 2010 , Minogue was nominated for " Best Female Artist " , but lost to Megan Washington . At the 31st Annual Brit Awards in 2011 , Minogue was nominated for " International Female Solo Artist , " but lost to Barbadian recording artist Rihanna . In the same year , at the 26th Annual International Dance Music Awards ( IDMA ) ceremony , " All the Lovers " was nominated for " Best Pop Dance Track " while Minogue was nominated for " Best Solo Artist . " At the 2011 Virgin Media Music Awards , " All the Lovers " was voted the " Best Single " by British music fans .
About.com critic Bill Lamb ranked the song number 25 on his list of " Top 100 Pop Songs of 2010 , " saying " ' All the Lovers ' sounds like a grand culmination of Kylie Minogue 's international pop success . " PopMatters placed " All the Lovers " at number 43 on their list of " The 60 Best Songs of 2010 , " with critic Jer Fairall writing " Celebratory yet wistfully elegiac , ' All the Lovers ' is retro in the best possible way , Kylie 's disco fetishism channelled towards its most meaningful purpose yet . " Comparing it to Donna Summer 's 1978 song " Last Dance " and Cher 's 1998 song " Believe " , the critic termed " All the Lovers " a " rare love song that acknowledges the existence of both personal and cultural history , and the euphoric realization that these are things that brought us to who and where we are now . " " All the Lovers " received around a million " scrobbles " on Last.fm and is Minogue 's second most @-@ played song on the website after her 2001 hit " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Commercially , " All the Lovers " underperformed in Minogue 's native country Australia in comparison to lead singles from her previous albums . It entered the ARIA Singles Chart at number 14 and failed to chart inside the top 10 , having reached its peak position of number 13 . In total , " All the Lovers " charted for a total of nine weeks and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) in 2012 for completing shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units .
In the United Kingdom , " All the Lovers " entered at number four on the UK Singles Chart . Two weeks later , it peaked at number three . The song spent four weeks inside the top ten of the chart and nineteen weeks inside the top hundred . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified " All the Lovers " silver for completing shipments of 200 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom . As of March 2014 , the single has sold 370 @,@ 000 units in the country ( according to the Official Charts Company ) .
Similarly , the single charted strongly throughout the rest of Europe . In Austria , it became Minogue 's first single since " I Believe in You " to appear inside the top ten of the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart after it debuted at number 10 . It later peaked at number five and stayed on the chart for 20 consecutive weeks . The song entered the Ultratop chart in the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of Belgium at a low position of 31 , but peaked at number eight two weeks later . " All the Lovers " entered and peaked at number three on the SNEP chart in France , becoming Minogue 's highest @-@ debuting single in the country . Its total stay on the chart lasted for 29 weeks . In Germany , it peaked at number 10 on the Media Control Charts for two weeks and achieved Minogue 's longest charting period for a solo @-@ single in the country , appearing for 25 weeks in total . On the Hungarian Airplay Chart , " All the Lovers " reached number two , thus tying with " In Your Eyes " as her highest @-@ peaking single in the country . The single debuted and peaked at number six in Ireland .
In Italy , the song entered the top 20 of the FIMI Singles chart at number six . The following week , it dropped out of the top 20 and did not chart inside it again . Despite this , " All the Lovers " performed well in the country and was certified gold by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for selling 15 @,@ 000 certified units . The song debuted at number 30 on the Slovak Airplay Chart and jumped to number four the next week . It appeared on the chart for a total of 20 weeks . On the PROMUSICAE chart in Spain , it peaked at number six and spent a total of 22 weeks . Similarly , it attained the same peak position in Switzerland after it debuted at number six on the Swiss Hitparade chart . It charted within the top 10 for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks and in the top 75 for 21 weeks .
In Canada , " All the Lovers " only reached number 72 on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart . " All the Lovers " became a club hit in the United States . During its eight @-@ week on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , it peaked at number one and displaced American recording artist Kesha 's song " Your Love Is My Drug " from the top spot . " All the Lovers " was the third most played song in American clubs in 2010 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
The accompanying music video for " All the Lovers " was directed by Joseph Kahn , who is known for having previously collaborated with American recording artist Britney Spears on the videos for her singles " Toxic " and " Womanizer " . It was filmed in Downtown Los Angeles , the central business district of Los Angeles , California , in early May 2010 . Aiming to pay " homage " to her large gay audience , Minogue wanted the video to express " what I 'm about and what I love " and thus it was made to depict scenes of same @-@ sex kissing . Arts and culture magazine BlackBook reported that the video , which portrays a large group of underwear @-@ clad men and women , is a re @-@ imagination of the installations of Spencer Tunick , an American photographer known for organising large @-@ scale nude shoots . Minogue credited Kahn for the idea behind the video , saying " He came up with a brilliant , simple idea and executed it so sensitively , I thought . It 's still cutting edge , it still gets you a little hot under the collar , but I think there 's a real sensitivity . " Initially , two ideas for the storyline arose , one which was a " little gentler " and one which was " edgier , " and in the end the latter option was finalised . When Kahn submitted his cut of the video to Parlophone , a person working for the label refused to release it and wanted a new one to be shot . However , at Minogue 's interference the video was finally commissioned and released . A preview of the video was released on 25 May 2010 while the full version was premiered five days later . It was made available to download at the iTunes Store on 11 June 2010 . In 2011 , Kahn talked about working with Minogue and called her the " dream artist to work with " and a " joy to photograph , " praising her ability to " understand " directors . He further commented that : " [ The music video of " All the Lovers " ] is one of my favourite videos I did last year , and one of my favourites ever really . The message Kylie wanted to say with this video is important , and I am lucky to have worked with her on it . "
= = = Synopsis and analysis = = =
The video begins with close @-@ up shots of several items , including a soft @-@ drink glass , a bottle of milk , marshmallows , and pages from a briefcase , falling on to the ground . A QR code , which was said to produce the word " LOVE " when scanned , can be seen printed on the glass and bottle , and on the ground during the scene of the marshmallows falling . In their analysis of the video , Popjustice commented that the falling objects convey an environment of excitement , saying : " the general idea here is that something exciting is happening and someone is so excited by the exciting thing that they have dropped their drink . " Several couples are shown removing their clothes , stripping down to their underwear , and proceeding to kiss and caress each other . Minogue then rises up from the inside of a " mountain of writhing bodies " and a flock of doves flies around them . Her attire consists of a black bra , similar to the one Madonna wore in the 1990 music video of " Vogue " , wore underneath a " shredded " white top coupled with white go @-@ go boots and knee @-@ pads . She continues singing the song while laying atop the pyramid of couples and changes her position as the song approaches its second verse . A convertible standing in the middle of a road is shown releasing a bunch of white balloons from its top . The scene switches back to Minogue , from where the camera pans upward to reveal a large white inflatable elephant floating in between two skyscrapers . The flash mob continues growing in size and the height of the pyramid increases . Minogue sways her hand above the participants of the mob , emphasising rings and jewellery designed by UK @-@ based jeweller Shaun Leane . During of the bridge section of the song , Minogue is pulled inside the pyramid and the lighting is dimmed down . The song 's breakdown coincides with scenes of a white horse galloping on a road amid various couples kissing each other . As the chorus begins , Minogue again rises up and stands atop the pyramid , which has greatly increased in height . Popjustice pointed out that the increment in the height of the pyramid is reflective of the lines of the song in which Minogue repeats the word " higher " . The camera switches to a distant view of the scene , showing the pyramid in between the skyscrapers and the floating elephant and balloons . The video ends with Minogue realising a dove in the air .
Writing for New York Press , film and music critic Armond White deeply analysed the music video and found the flash mob , which consists of a few homosexual couples , a representation of the historic 1969 Stonewall riots , a series of spontaneous , violent demonstrations by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place at the Stonewall Inn , in the Greenwich Village neighbourhood of New York City . He also compared the video to two documentaries based on the riots . White commented that through the video , Kahn had corrected directors Kate Davis and David Heilbroner 's " blundering " in their 2010 documentary of the riots . The critic said that Davis and Heilbroner had misinterpreted the riots and that Kahn and Minogue had offered a more accurate version which was similar to the concept of the 1995 historical comedy @-@ drama film based on the uprising . He commented that the flash mob Minogue organises is " not a riot , not an orgy " and instead " an uprising as the swaying lovers amass and their joy takes them literally higher and higher . " He then concluded of the video :
Kahn 's gleaming fantasy of paradisical urban cleanliness is a creative act that idealizes an historical fact . Like Spencer Tunick , who photographs mass public undressings , Kahn and Kylie emcee a multiracial party ; as critic John Demetry points out , restricting participants to the young , pretty , physically fit is part of their idealization . Importantly , Kahn and Kylie serenade their partiers by the Stonewall @-@ era term " lovers " ( out @-@ moded by today ’ s " partner " ) . Stonewall Uprising is a whitewash ; this is a resurrection of affection . Rainbow Pride expressed as Kylie 's bliss [ sic ]
= = = Reception = = =
Nick Levine from Digital Spy felt the video was unique and commented that " There aren 't many popstars who could make a video featuring doves , balloons , a galloping horse , a giant inflatable elephant and a mass grope @-@ fest in the middle of LA ... and get away with it [ sic ] . " Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly complimented its sexuality and said that the video could " best described as either a makeout flash mob , a Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade gone wild , or some serious " the touch , the feel of cotton " guerrilla marketing . " MuuMuse @-@ editor Bradley Stern praised the concept of the video as " incredible " and complimented the inclusion of the horse . Popjustice called the music video a " lovely pervoramic pop moment . " Due to its sexual content and nature , the music video was censored and banned in numerous Asian countries including Singapore , Malaysia , and Indonesia . In an interview with Spanish television channel Cuatro , Minogue responded to the censorship and said : " I think , yes , it 's sexy but I also think it 's very touching and sensual and the message is love . "
= = Live performances = =
Minogue 's first live performance of " All the Lovers " was at the Wind Music Awards in Italy on 29 May 2010 . She sang the song dressed in a white gown inspired by the toga , a distinctive garment of Ancient Rome . During the performance , she struck a pose similar to Leonardo DiCaprio 's " I 'm the king of the world ! " pose in the 1997 film Titanic as male back @-@ up dancers lifted her in the air . On 10 June , she performed the song at the finale of the fifth season of reality television show Germany 's Next Topmodel . The performance was a re @-@ enactment of the music video and Minogue started the performance standing atop a pyramid of underwear @-@ clad dancers . At her Madrid Pride Parade concert on 6 July , Minogue performed " All the Lovers " , along with " Get Outta My Way " and " Better than Today " , dressed in a toga @-@ inspired white gown and golden bodice . She performed " All the Lovers " in a red dress on British comedy chat show Alan Carr : Chatty Man on 18 July . Minogue appeared at Australian television show Hey Hey It 's Saturday on 21 July to perform the single . On 25 July she sang it from atop a " dazzling " mountaintop @-@ like platform on the tenth season of the Australian version of Dancing with the Stars . Minogue performed " All the Lovers " , " Get Outta My Way " , and " In My Arms " at the Los Premios 40 Principales awards ceremony on 10 December . On 8 September 2012 , Minogue headlined at the Proms in the Park event in Hyde Park , London , to promote her orchestral compilation album The Abbey Road Sessions . At the event , she sang the orchestral version of " All the Lovers " , which was included as the opening track of the album .
Beginning from early 2011 , Minogue embarked on the Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour to promote Aphrodite . " All the Lovers " was included in the encore segment of the setlist and was the last performance of the shows . During the performances of the song , Minogue stood atop a rotating " three @-@ tiered cake stage " , which was " layered " with her back @-@ up dancers , as fountains and " swirling near @-@ naked dancers spinning on harnesses " surrounded her . The performance received positive reviews from critics . Jon O 'Brien from AllMusic commented that " the euphoric glittery disco of " All the Lovers " , [ ... ] benefit [ s ] from a live setting . " Dawn Collinson from Liverpool Echo praised the encore segment and its visuals , saying " All The Lovers took Aphrodite [ : Les Folies Tour ] to an incredible climax . " Ina Andersson from The National Student felt that through the performance Minogue " delivers a powerful finish . " Megan Buerger from The Washington Post also gave it a favourable review and concluded that " Minogue is proof that it pays to know your audience . " Minogue performed " All the Lovers " as part of her seven song set at the closing ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games . The track was most recently performed on the Kiss Me Once Tour and Kylie Summer 2015 Tour as the last song of the fifth and third segment before the encore .
= = Cover versions = =
On 22 June 2010 , American pop group Scissor Sisters performed a country @-@ inspired version of " All the Lovers " on the Live Lounge segment of the British radio station BBC Radio 1 . The group performed this version of the song for the second time at the annual Australian music festival Splendour in the Grass in Melbourne , which is Minogue 's birthplace . She joined the group during the performance .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of " All the Lovers " .
Kylie Minogue - backing vocals , lead vocals
Jim Eliot – songwriting , production , piano , keyboards , bass and drum programming
Mima Stilwell – songwriting , additional backing vocals
Stuart Price – additional production , mixing
Dave Emery – mixing assistant
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Greyhound Lines =
Greyhound Lines , Inc . , usually shortened to Greyhound , is an intercity bus common carrier serving over 2 @,@ 700 destinations across North America . The company 's first route began in Hibbing , Minnesota , in 1914 , and the company adopted the name The Greyhound Corporation in 1929 . Since October 2007 , Greyhound has been a subsidiary of Scottish transportation company FirstGroup , but continues to be based in Dallas , Texas , where it has been headquartered since 1987 . Greyhound and sister companies in FirstGroup America are the largest motorcoach operators in the United States and Canada .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1914 – 1930 ) = = =
Carl Eric Wickman was born in Sweden in 1887 . In 1905 he moved to the United States where he was working in a mine as a drill operator in Alice , Minnesota , until he was laid off in 1914 . In the same year , he became a Hupmobile salesman in Hibbing , Minnesota . He proved unable to sell the car . In 1914 , using his remaining vehicle , a 7 @-@ passenger car , he began a bus service with Andy ( Bus Andy ) Anderson and C.A.A. ( Arvid ) Heed , by transporting iron ore miners from Hibbing to Alice ( known for its saloons ) at 15 cents a ride .
In 1915 Wickman joined forces with Ralph Bogan , who was running a similar service from Hibbing to Duluth , Minnesota . The name of the new organization was the Mesaba Transportation Company , and it made $ 8 @,@ 000 in profit in its first year .
By the end of World War I in 1918 , Wickman owned 18 buses and was making an annual profit of $ 40 @,@ 000 . In 1922 , Wickman joined forces with Orville Caesar , the owner of the Superior White Bus Lines . Four years later , Wickman purchased two West Coast operations , the Pioneer Yelloway System ( the operator of the nation 's first transcontinental bus ) and the Pickwick Lines , creating a national intercity bus company .
The Greyhound name had its origins in the inaugural run of a route from Superior , Wisconsin to Wausau , Wisconsin . While passing through a small town , Ed Stone , the route 's operator , saw the reflection of his 1920s era bus in a store window . The reflection reminded him of a greyhound dog , and he adopted that name for that segment of the Blue Goose Lines . The Greyhound name became popular and later applied to the entire bus network . Stone later became General Sales Manager of Yellow Truck and Coach , a division of General Motors ( GM ) , which built Greyhound buses . Wickman , as the president of the company , continued to expand it so that by 1927 , his buses were making transcontinental trips from California to New York . In 1928 , Greyhound had a gross annual income of $ 6 million .
In 1929 , Greyhound acquired additional interests in Southland Transportation Company , the Gray Line , and part of the Colonial Motor Coach Company to form Eastern Greyhound Lines . Greyhound also acquired an interest in Northland Transportation Company , and renamed it Northland Greyhound Lines .
= = = 1930 – 1945 = = =
By 1930 more than 100 bus lines had been consolidated into what was called the " Motor Transit Company " . Recognizing that the company needed a more memorable name , the partners of the Motor Transit Company decided to rename it after the " Greyhound " marketing phrase used by earlier bus lines .
Wickman 's business suffered during the Great Depression , and by 1931 was over $ 1 million in debt .
As the 1930s progressed and the economy improved , the Greyhound Corporation began to prosper again . In 1934 , intercity bus lines ( of which Greyhound was the largest ) carried approximately 400 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 passengers — nearly as many passengers as the Class I railroads . The 1934 hit film , It Happened One Night , the first movie to win the Big Five Academy Awards , centered on an heiress traveling by Greyhound bus . The movie is credited by the company for spurring bus travel nationwide . In 1935 , national intercity bus ridership climbed 50 % to 651 @,@ 999 @,@ 000 passengers , surpassing the volume of passengers carried by the Class I railroads for the first time . In 1935 Wickman was able to announce record profits of $ 8 million . In 1936 , already the largest bus carrier in the United States , Greyhound began taking delivery of 306 new buses .
To accommodate the rapid growth in bus travel , Greyhound also built many new stations in the period between 1937 and 1945 , most of them in a late Art Deco style known as Streamline Moderne . In 1937 , Greyhound embarked on a program of unifying its brand identity by acquiring both buses and terminals in the Streamline style . By the outbreak of World War II , the company had 4 @,@ 750 stations and nearly 10 @,@ 000 employees .
= = = Expansion , desegregation , and diversification ( 1945 – 1983 ) = = =
Wickman retired as president of the Greyhound Corporation in 1946 , being replaced by his long @-@ time partner Orville Caesar . Wickman died at the age of 66 in 1954 .
After World War II , and the building of the Interstate Highway System beginning in 1956 , automobile ownership and travel became a preferred mode of travel in the United States . This , combined with the increasing affordability of air travel , spelled trouble for Greyhound and other intercity bus carriers .
In 1955 , the Interstate Commerce Commission ruled in the case of Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. that U.S. interstate bus operations , such as Greyhound 's , could not be segregated by race . In 1960 , in the case of Boynton v. Virginia , the U.S. Supreme Court found that an African American had been wrongly convicted of trespassing in a " whites only " terminal area . In May 1961 , civil rights activists organized interracial Freedom Rides as proof of the desegregation rulings . On May 14 , a mob attacked pair of buses ( a Greyhound and a Trailways ) traveling from Washington , D.C. , to New Orleans , Louisiana , and slashed the Greyhound bus 's tires . Several miles outside of Anniston , Alabama , the mob forced the Greyhound bus to stop , broke its windows , and firebombed it . The mob held the bus ' doors shut , intending to burn the riders to death . Sources disagree , but either an exploding fuel tank or an undercover state investigator brandishing a revolver caused the mob to retreat . When the riders escaped the bus , the mob beat them , while warning shots fired into the air by highway patrolmen prevented them from being lynched . Title II and Title III of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 broadened protections beyond federally regulated carriers such as Greyhound , to include non @-@ discrimination in hotels , restaurants , and other public accommodations , as well as state and local government buildings .
Later in the 1960s , Greyhound leadership saw a trend of declining ridership and began significant changes , including using the profitable bus operations to invest in other industries . By the 1970s , Greyhound had moved its headquarters to Phoenix , Arizona and was a large and diversified company , with holdings in everything from the Armour meat @-@ packing company ( which in turn owned the popular Dial deodorant soap brand ) , acquired in 1970 ; Traveller 's Express money orders , MCI bus manufacturing company , and even airliner leasing . Indeed , Greyhound had entered a time of great change , even beginning to hire African American and female drivers in the late seventies .
In 1972 , Greyhound introduced the special unlimited mileage " Ameripass . " The pass was initially marketed as offering " 99 days for $ 99 " ( equal to $ 560 @.@ 05 today ) or , in other words , transportation to anywhere at any time , for a dollar a day . For decades it was a popular choice for tourists on a budget who wanted to wander across the cities and towns of America . Over time Greyhound raised the price of the pass , shortened its validity period and rebranded it as the Discovery Pass , before finally discontinuing it in 2012 .
Greyhound acquired Premier Cruise Line in 1984 . Between 1985 and 1993 , Premier operated as the " Official Cruise Line of Walt Disney World " with onboard Disney characters .
= = = Consolidation , strikes , and bankruptcies ( 1983 – 2001 ) = = =
= = = = 1983 Greyhound drivers ' strike = = = =
In 1983 , Greyhound operated a fleet of 3 @,@ 800 buses and carried about 60 percent of the United States ' bus @-@ travel market . Starting November 2 , 1983 , Greyhound suffered a major and bitter drivers ' strike with one fatality in Zanesville , Ohio , when a company bus ran over a worker at a picket line . A new contract was ratified December 19 , and drivers returned to work the next day .
= = = = Spin @-@ off , merger , and first bankruptcy ( 1986 – 1990 ) = = = =
By the time contract negotiations with the Amalgamated Transit Union ( ATU ) were due again at the end of 1986 , the bus line was in the process of being sold to Dallas @-@ based investors . By early 1987 , Greyhound Lines had returned to being a stand @-@ alone bus transportation company . Under CEO Fred Currey , a former executive of rival Continental Trailways , Greyhound 's corporate headquarters relocated to Dallas , Texas .
In February 1987 , Greyhound Lines ' new ownership and the ATU agreed on a new , 3 @-@ year contract . In June 1987 , Greyhound Lines acquired Trailways , Inc . ( formerly Continental Trailways ) , the largest member of the rival National Trailways Bus System , effectively consolidating into a national bus service . Greyhound was required by the ICC , in their action approving the merger , to maintain coordinated schedules with other scheduled service operators in the U.S.
Between 1987 and 1990 , Greyhound Lines ' former parent continued to be called Greyhound Corp. , confusing passengers and investors alike . Greyhound Corp. retained both Premier Cruise Lines , and ten Greyhound @-@ brand non @-@ bus subsidiaries , such as Greyhound Leisure Services , Inc . ( an operator of airport and cruise ship duty @-@ free shops ) , and Greyhound Exhibits . In March 1990 , the former conglomerate parent changed its name to Greyhound Dial . Because Greyhound Dial 's switchboard continued to get questions from misdirected bus passengers , it ultimately changed its name to Dial Corporation in March 1991 , to eliminate any association with bus travel .
= = = = 1990 Greyhound drivers ' strike = = = =
In early 1990 , the drivers ' contract from 1987 expired at the end of its three @-@ year term . In March , the ATU began its strike against Greyhound . The 1990 drivers ' strike was similar in its bitterness to the strike of 1983 , with violence against both strikers and their replacement workers . One striker in California was killed by a Greyhound bus driven by a strikebreaker , and a shot was fired at a Greyhound bus . During the strike by its 6 @,@ 300 drivers , Greyhound idled much of its fleet of 3 @,@ 949 buses and cancelled 80 % of its routes . At the same time , Greyhound was having to contend with the rise of low @-@ cost airlines like Southwest Airlines , which further reduced the market for long @-@ distance inter @-@ city bus transportation . Without the financial strength provided in the past by a parent company , the strike 's lower revenues and higher costs for security and labor @-@ law penalties caused Greyhound to file for bankruptcy in June 1990 . The strike would not be settled for 38 months under terms favorable to Greyhound . While the National Labor Relations Board ( NLRB ) had awarded damages for unfair labor practices to the strikers , this liability was discharged during bankruptcy reorganization .
= = = = Early 1990s : Bankruptcy and antitrust cases = = = =
At the end of 1990 , the company had $ 488 million in assets and $ 654 million in liabilities . During bankruptcy , the company ultimately had to address claims for $ 142 million in back @-@ pay for its striking drivers , and $ 384 million of pre @-@ bankruptcy debts owed mostly to the investor group led by Fred G. Currey .
According to the company , upon emergence from bankruptcy in August 1991 , Greyhound had shrunk its overall workforce to 7 @,@ 900 employees ( from 12 @,@ 000 pre @-@ bankruptcy ) , and trimmed its fleet to 2 @,@ 750 buses and 3 @,@ 600 drivers .
In August 1992 , Greyhound canceled its bus terminal license ( BTL ) agreements with other carriers at 200 terminals , and imposed the requirement that Greyhound be the sole @-@ seller of the tenant 's bus tickets within a 25 @-@ mile radius of such a Greyhound terminal . In 1995 , The United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division brought suit to stop this practice , alleging that it was an illegal restraint of trade , bad for consumers , and reduced competition . In February 1996 , the United States won its case , and Greyhound agreed to permit its tenants to sell tickets nearby and permit its tenants to honor interline tickets with competitors .
Greyhound 's total revenues in 1994 were $ 616 million .
= = = = Trailways @-@ Laidlaw mergers and bankruptcy of 2001 = = = =
In the late 1990s , Greyhound Lines acquired two more members of the National Trailways Bus System . The company purchased Carolina Trailways in 1997 , followed by the intercity operations of Southeastern Trailways in 1998 . Following the acquisitions , most of the remaining members of the Trailways System began interlining cooperatively with Greyhound , discontinued their scheduled route services , diversified into charters and tours , or went out of business altogether .
On September 3 , 1997 , Burlington , Ontario @-@ based transportation conglomerate Laidlaw Inc. announced it would buy Greyhound Canada Transportation ULC ( Greyhound 's Canadian operations ) for US $ 72 million .
In October 1998 , Laidlaw announced it would acquire the U.S. operations of Greyhound Lines , Inc . , including Carolina Trailways and other Greyhound affiliates , for about $ 470 million . When the acquisition was completed in March 1999 , all of Greyhound and much of Trailways had become wholly owned subsidiaries of Laidlaw .
After incurring heavy losses through its investments in Greyhound Lines and other parts of its diversified business , Laidlaw Inc. filed for protection under both U.S. and Canadian bankruptcy laws in June 2001 .
= = = Laidlaw years ( 2002 – 2007 ) = = =
Naperville , Illinois @-@ based Laidlaw International , Inc. listed its common shares on the New York Stock Exchange on February 10 , 2003 and emerged from re @-@ organization on June 23 , 2003 as the successor to Laidlaw Inc .
After this bankruptcy filing , Greyhound dropped low @-@ demand rural stops and started concentrating on dense , inter @-@ metropolitan routes . It cut nearly 37 percent of its network . In some rural areas local operators took over the old stops ( often with government subsidies ) particularly in the Plains states , parts of the upper Midwest ( such as Wisconsin ) , and the Pacific Northwest .
Starting in 1997 , Greyhound had faced significant competition in the northeast from Chinatown bus lines . By 2003 , more than 250 buses , operated by competitors like Fung Wah and Lucky Star Bus were competing fiercely from curbsides in the Chinatowns of New York City , Boston , Philadelphia , and Washington , D.C. When operating on inter @-@ city routes , the Chinatown buses offered prices about 50 % less than Greyhound 's . Between 1997 and 2007 , Chinatown buses took 60 % of Greyhound 's market share in the northeast United States .
= = = FirstGroup ownership ( 2007 – present ) = = =
On February 7 , 2007 , Scottish transport group FirstGroup purchased Laidlaw International for $ 3 @.@ 6 billion . The deal closed on September 30 , 2007 and the acquisition was completed on October 1 , 2007 Although FirstGroup 's interest was primarily the school and transit bus operations of Laidlaw , FirstGroup decided to retain the Greyhound operations and in 2009 exported the brand back to the United Kingdom as Greyhound UK .
Today , Greyhound 's 1 @,@ 229 buses serve over 3 @,@ 800 destinations in North America , traveling 5 @.@ 5 billion miles ( 8 @.@ 8 billion km ) on North America 's roads .
= = = = The " New Greyhound " = = = =
Almost immediately after acquiring the carrier , FirstGroup sought to improve Greyhound 's image and create what it called the " New Greyhound " , by refurbishing many terminals , expanding the fleet with new buses , refurbishing old buses , and retraining customer service staff . Greyhound also started a new advertising campaign with Butler , Shine , Stern & Partners aimed at attracting 18- to 24 @-@ year @-@ olds and Hispanics back to " The New Greyhound " .
The " New Greyhound " also saw the introduction of a refreshed logo and a new navy blue and dark gray livery for buses , which was rolled out to the nationwide fleet over several years . As the older buses were repainted they were also refurbished , receiving wireless Internet access , power outlets , and new leather seating with increased legroom .
= = = = Addressing " overbooking " = = = =
During its ownership by Laidlaw , Greyhound had come under criticism for its ticket sale practices , specifically that although tickets had departure dates and times printed on them , Greyhound did not always stop sales after all the seats were purchased for each departure . In periods of high demand Greyhound added additional " sections " ( buses ) , but the threshold required to trigger an additional section varied , often leaving passengers behind to wait for the next bus departure .
Shortly after the sale to FirstGroup closed , Greyhound began a program in select markets , where riders could reserve a seat for an additional $ 5 . However , only a limited number of seats could be reserved and the fee would have to be paid at the terminal 's ticking counter , even if the ticket was bought in advance online .
The problem was further addressed in 2014 when Greyhound rolled out a new yield management computer system . With the new system , Greyhound is now able to more closely manage the number of tickets sold for each departure and dynamically adjust pricing based on sales . Although the amount of overbooked buses has been sharply reduced with this new system , Greyhound still does not explicitly guarantee a seat to everyone with a ticket ( except on Greyhound Express routes ) .
= = = = Services Launched since 2010 = = = =
The next major change made by FirstGroup was the launch of a brand of premium bus routes called " Greyhound Express " in 2010 . This came at the same time that competitor Megabus launched its third and fourth US hubs at Philadelphia and Washington D.C. and began to emphasize express services . Greyhound 's express routes make fewer stops between major cities ( compared to regular Greyhound routes ) , use only newer model or refurbished buses , have guaranteed seating , and tickets start at $ 1 . Expansions in Greyhound 's network and upgrades in its services in the early 2010s were at least partly a competitive response to Megabus . In 2014 , Greyhound CEO David S. Leach claimed a profit of $ 73 million on revenues of $ 990 @.@ 6 million , and attributed the company 's success to mix of changing urban populations , less attractive driving options , and competition that was benefiting all carriers .
In July 2015 , the company announced that it would open terminals in Monterrey and Nuevo Laredo , Mexico , and begin services between the two cities with onward schedules to existing terminals in Texas . In so doing , Greyhound claimed to be the first American bus company to operate an intra @-@ Mexican route . In September 2015 , Greyhound announced expanded service in Missouri and Kansas shortly after Megabus announced that it would be ending service to several cities and college campuses .
= = Services = =
Greyhound operates 123 routes serving over 2 @,@ 700 destinations across America . Greyhound 's scheduled services compete with the private automobile , low @-@ cost airlines , Amtrak , and other intercity coach companies .
= = = Greyhound Express = = =
Greyhound Express is a low @-@ cost express city @-@ to @-@ city service that makes either no stops or fewer stops compared to a traditional route . Fares start at $ 1 and seating is guaranteed since buses are not overbooked . Greyhound Express was designed to directly compete with low @-@ cost carriers like Megabus and the Chinatown bus lines .
The service began on September 28 , 2010 with several routes radiating from New York to major cities in the Northeastern United States and rapidly expanded to serve destinations in the Midwestern , Southern and Southwestern United States . Currently the Greyhound Express network has expanded to serve 930 city pairs in nearly 120 markets , with further expansion planned .
Greyhound Express routes are assigned new or refurbished buses that are equipped with Wi @-@ Fi , power outlets , leather seats , and extra legroom . In many stations Greyhound Express customers can take advantage of dedicated waiting areas , separate from passengers traveling on other Greyhound services or other carriers . Some stations also board passengers onto Greyhound Express buses using numbers printed on tickets . This number is assigned in the order in which the ticket was purchased , which means that passengers who bought their tickets earlier get to board the bus and choose their seats earlier .
= = = Greyhound Connect = = =
Greyhound Connect is a connector service that operates shorter routes to take passengers from stops in smaller , rural cities to stations in larger , urban cities . Buses are either from Greyhound 's existing fleet or smaller , mid @-@ sized buses ( that are not equipped with a lavatory ) . Currently the Greyhound Connect service is offered in Alabama , Arkansas , Colorado , Maryland , Missouri , Montana , North Carolina , and Utah . Some routes are operated using funds from the " Federal Formula Grant Program for Rural Areas " from the Federal Transit Administration .
= = = Greyhound Charter Services = = =
Greyhound Charter Services arranges charter buses for customers using Greyhound 's fleet of motorcoaches . Unlike many smaller charter operators , Greyhound is able to operate nationwide and offer one @-@ way services , due to its network of routes . In addition to providing transportation to individual groups , schools , and event operators , Greyhound Charter Services is also approved by the military and the government as a charter bus vendor .
= = = Greyhound Package Express = = =
In addition to carrying passengers and their luggage , Greyhound buses also carry packages . Through Greyhound Package Express customers can book expedited cargo shipping door @-@ to @-@ door or station @-@ to @-@ station . The company says that shipping by bus offers a cost @-@ effective alternative to other ground or air carriers for same @-@ day delivery .
= = = Special routes = = =
= = = = Lucky Streak = = = =
Lucky Streak is Greyhound 's brand for routes between cities with casinos and other nearby cities . All fares are sold as open @-@ ended round @-@ trips , with passengers allowed to return to their origin at any time . On the Atlantic City routes , casinos offer special bonuses ( gambling credit , room / dining discounts ) to Lucky Streak passengers .
There are currently three Lucky Streak routes :
Atlantic City : Baltimore , Brooklyn , New York City , Philadelphia and Washington , D.C.
Connecticut ( Mohegan Sun & Foxwoods Casino ) : Boston , Bridgeport , New Haven , New York City , Providence , and Stamford
Las Vegas : Anaheim , Barstow , Claremont , Compton , El Monte , Hollywood , Long Beach , Los Angeles , Phoenix , Riverside , San Bernardino , San Diego , Santa Ana , and Victorville
= = = = QuickLink = = = =
QuickLink is Greyhound 's brand of commuter bus service that runs frequently during the peak weekday commuting hours . In addition to one @-@ way and round @-@ trip tickets QuickLink offers monthly and 10 @-@ trip passes . Passes and tickets on QuickLink are flexible and passengers can board any bus with available seating . Currently the only QuickLink route is between Mt . Laurel , New Jersey and New York City . Routes were formerly operated from Sacramento , California to the San Francisco Bay Area and Macon , Georgia to Atlanta .
= = Other brands and partnerships = =
= = = BoltBus = = =
BoltBus is Greyhound 's brand of non @-@ stop and limited @-@ stop , premium level bus routes . Fares start as low as $ 1 , with the lowest fares depending on how far in advance a trip is booked and demand for the trip , with fares increasing for trips booked closer to departure . BoltBus uses newer model coaches that are equipped with Wi @-@ Fi , power outlets , and leather seats with extra legroom .
The first buses started running between Boston , New York City , and Washington , D.C. on March 27 , 2008 . In the Northeastern US BoltBus is operated in partnership with Peter Pan Bus Lines .
BoltBus expanded to the West Coast in May 2012 with a route in the Pacific Northwest ( between Vancouver , BC , Seattle , and Portland ) . Service was expanded again in October 2013 with a route between the two largest metropolitan areas in California , Los Angeles and the San Francisco Bay Area ( San Jose & Oakland ) . A stop in the city of San Francisco was added in December 2013 along with a new route between Los Angeles and Las Vegas . West Coast routes are owned and operated directly by Greyhound without a regional partner .
= = = Amtrak Thruway Motorcoach = = =
Greyhound is one of the largest operators of Amtrak 's Thruway Motorcoach service even though the two companies are competitors in some markets . Amtrak issues rail passengers a ticket for a regularly scheduled Greyhound route that connects with their train , often with buses making a stop at the train station . These Thruway Motorcoach routes allow Amtrak to serve passengers in areas without rail service and offer passengers in areas with rail service a wider selection of destinations .
= = Security = =
After the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks , government scrutiny of train and airplane passengers substantially increased , but bus passengers are largely free of it . Baggage is seldom inspected , and cash customers do not require identification . Greyhound says that security wands have been deployed on buses , but they do not appear to be routinely used .
In February 2013 , in partnership with DriveCam , Greyhound deployed video cameras across its entire fleet to increase safety and driver compliance by combining data and video analytics with real @-@ time driver feedback and coaching .
At some major Greyhound stations , passengers are subject to open @-@ bag checks , ticket checks , and pat @-@ downs with metal detectors .
= = Fleet = =
As of 2014 , Greyhound operates 1 @,@ 272 motorcoaches produced mainly by Motor Coach Industries and Prevost .
In an effort to improve its image , between 2007 and 2014 , the company aggressively purchased new coaches and refurbishing existing ones . As of 2016 , the majority of Greyhound 's fleet has the navy blue and grey " neoclassic " livery on the exterior , wireless internet access , leather seating , and 120 @-@ volt power outlets at most seats . Greyhound 's coaches have one fewer row of seats than the industry standard , giving passengers additional legroom . All buses purchased since 2009 have three @-@ point seat belts installed .
The majority of the Greyhound fleet consists of the following models :
= = Stations and stops = =
( This list covers stations within or adjacent to larger transportation centers . )
Greyhound serves over 2 @,@ 700 destinations across America . There are 230 Greyhound operated stations in most major cities , where passengers can catch a bus and buy tickets . All stations have Greyhound branding and are staffed by company representatives . Some stations stand alone , while others are a part of larger transportation centers with a Greyhound ticket counter and waiting area .
In small to mid @-@ size cities Greyhound buses stop at either locations operated by an agent ( like a convenience store or another business ) or at a curbside stop . At most agent operated locations , the staff can also sell tickets .
Greyhound buses also stop at stations belonging to partner bus companies . At most of these locations , representatives are able to sell tickets for Greyhound routes .
= = Notable incidents and accidents = =
Below is a list of major incidents and accidents on Greyhound buses and buses of subsidiaries in the United States .
August 4 , 1952 : In Greyhound 's most deadly collision two Greyhound buses collided head @-@ on with each other along the then @-@ U.S. Route 81 near Waco , Texas . The fuel tanks of both buses then ruptured , bursting into flames . Of the 56 persons aboard both coaches , 28 were killed , including both drivers .
May 13 , 1972 : Near Bean Station , Tennessee , between Knoxville and Bristol , a Greyhound Scenicruiser on a scheduled trip from Memphis to New York City collided head @-@ on with a tractor @-@ trailer truck . The driver of the bus had begun to pass a car . Fourteen people , including both the bus and truck drivers , died . The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the cause of the crash was the Greyhound driver 's overtaking maneuver and his failure to avoid the truck .
May 9 , 1980 : A cargo ship collided with the Sunshine Skyway Bridge , near St. Petersburg , Florida , causing a part of the roadway to collapse and causing several vehicles , including a Greyhound bus , to fall into Tampa Bay . All 26 people aboard the bus died , as did nine others .
December 18 , 1990 : A Greyhound bus left Salt Lake City for Chicago and became entrenched in a driving snowstorm on I @-@ 80 . Just short of the Wyoming border , the bus was hit by a semi @-@ tractor trailer that had crossed the median heading the opposite direction . The force of the collision tipped the bus onto its right side and steered it down a steep embankment . The bus slid for 150 feet and came to rest against a fence , about 35 feet below the eastbound lanes of I @-@ 80 . 7 passengers were killed and more than 40 injured .
June 20 , 1998 : A Greyhound bus on a scheduled trip from New York City to Pittsburgh ran off a road near Burnt Cabins , Pennsylvania , and hit a truck parked in an emergency parking area . Six passengers and the driver died . The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the probable cause of the accident was the driver 's use of a sedating antihistamine and driver fatigue , due to an irregular work @-@ rest schedule .
October 3 , 2001 : At approximately 4 : 15 a.m. local time , a passenger , Damir Igric , assaulted the driver of his bus , attempting to slit his throat , and causing the bus to crash near Manchester , Tennessee , killing Igric himself and five other passengers and injuring 32 others . Since the incident occurred three weeks after the September 11 terrorist attacks , Greyhound temporarily suspended all schedules as soon as the company learned of the incident for fear that it may have been part of a larger co @-@ ordinated attack . After investigation by the company and the FBI , it was confirmed that Igric had acted alone and service resumed later that afternoon . After the incident , Greyhound bus stations increased security , though not nearly to the same level as airports or train stations .
September 30 , 2002 : Arturo Martinez Tapia assaulted a Greyhound driver near Fresno , California , resulting in two passenger deaths after the bus then rolled off an embankment and crashed . Following this attack , an aisle gate and driver 's shield were installed on most Greyhound buses which prevent passengers from having direct contact with the driver when the bus is in motion , even if the aisle gate is forced open .
January 23 , 2014 : Maquel Donyel Morris , ' who reportedly was hallucinating , screamed " Everybody 's going to die , " pummeled the driver and grabbed the steering wheel ' of a bus traveling on Interstate 10 near Tonopah , Arizona , 50 miles ( 80 km ) west of Phoenix . 24 passengers were injured , including 21 who were airlifted to nearby hospitals . Police credited the driver for keeping the bus upright and preventing it from crossing into oncoming traffic .
January 19 , 2016 : An overnight bus carrying 20 passengers that had departed from Los Angeles the previous night crashed on Highway 101 in San Jose , California , killing two and hospitalizing eight others . Investigators have ruled out mechanical failure , leaving driver fatigue as the likely cause .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Films = = =
The 1934 film It Happened One Night shows the main character on a Greyhound bus from Florida to New York City .
The 1961 film Breakfast at Tiffany 's shows the main character seeing her ex @-@ husband off from New York City .
The 1969 film Midnight Cowboy shows the main character holding his hustler friend on a New York City to Florida bus .
The 1974 film Harry and Tonto shows the main character , played by Art Carney , traveling cross @-@ country with his cat aboard a Greyhound bus .
The 1991 film Sleeping with the Enemy sees the main character escape from Cape Cod , Massachusetts , to Cedar Falls , Iowa , on a Greyhound bus .
= = = Songs = = =
The Barry Mann / Cynthia Weil 1963 song " On Broadway " ( remade most famously by The Drifters and later George Benson ) mentions " I 'll catch a Greyhound bus for home " .
Chuck Berry rides a Greyhound bus from Norfolk , Virginia , to Birmingham , Alabama , in his 1965 song " Promised Land " .
Country singer Roy Clark sang about a romantic breakup in his 1970 song " Thank God and Greyhound . "
The Allman Brothers Band referenced Greyhound Lines in their 1973 song " Ramblin ' Man " .
Simon and Garfunkel referred to Greyhound Lines in their 1972 song " America " .
In his song " Me and the Devil Blues " , blues singer and guitarist Robert Johnson expresses a wish that his body be buried beside a road so that his " old evil spirit " can " catch a Greyhound bus and ride " .
Country star Sara Evans ' 2003 song " Backseat of a Greyhound Bus " describes a pregnant woman who escapes the confines of a small town and gives birth in a Greyhound bus .
On indie rock band The Hang Ups ' album So We Go , the last song is called " Greyhound Bus " .
Creedence Clearwater Revival mention Greyhound in their 1969 song , " Lodi " .
Billy Joel 's " New York State of Mind " from the Turnstiles album , released on May 19 , 1976 , refers to taking " a Greyhound on the Hudson River Line " .
American rock band The Mountain Goats references the narrator being " headed for the greyhound " in " See America Right " off of the album Tallahassee .
Kenny Chesney 's song " Pirate Flag " describes the singer 's escape from a small mountain town by taking a Greyhound bus to ( what is implied to be ) Key West , Florida .
Dexter Freebish 's 2000 hit " Leaving Town " mentions Greyhound ( " Take a drag and wait for the Greyhound , the world is your playground " ) .
Los Angeles – based rapper Skee @-@ Lo recites Greyhound 's advertising slogan in his 1995 hit single " I Wish " ( " Cause if you don 't want me around , See I go simple , I go easy , I go Greyhound " ) .
Death Cab for Cutie 's 2005 song " Soul Meets Body " contains the lyric " Cause in my head there ’ s a Greyhound station ... " .
= = = Stage productions = = =
The stage musical Violet , like the short story " The Ugliest Pilgrim " on which it is based , follows the title character on a Greyhound Bus trip from Spruce Pine , North Carolina , to Tulsa , Oklahoma , and back .
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= Circinus =
Circinus is a small , faint constellation in the southern sky , first defined in 1756 by the French astronomer Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille . Its name is Latin for compass , referring to the drafting tool used for drawing circles ( it should not be confused with Pyxis , a constellation that represents a mariner 's compass which points north ) . Its brightest star is Alpha Circini , with an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 19 . Slightly variable , it is the brightest rapidly oscillating Ap star in the night sky . AX Circini is a Cepheid variable visible with the unaided eye , and BX Circini is a faint star thought to have been formed from the merger of two white dwarfs . Two sun @-@ like stars have planetary systems : HD 134060 has two small planets , and HD 129445 has a Jupiter @-@ like planet . Supernova SN 185 appeared in Circinus in 185 AD and was recorded by Chinese observers . Two novae have been observed more recently , in the 20th century .
The Milky Way runs through the constellation , featuring prominent objects such as the open cluster NGC 5823 and the planetary nebula NGC 5315 . Circinus hosts one notable spiral galaxy , the Circinus Galaxy , which was discovered in 1977 and is the closest Seyfert galaxy to the Milky Way . The Alpha Circinids ( ACI ) , a meteor shower also discovered in 1977 , radiate from this constellation .
= = History = =
In 1756 , French astronomer Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille introduced the constellation of Circinus with the French name le Compas , representing a pair of dividing compasses , on a chart of the southern sky . On that chart , Lacaille portrayed the constellations of Norma , Circinus , and Triangulum Australe , respectively , as a set square and ruler , a compass , and a surveyor 's level in a set of draughtsman 's instruments . Circinus was given its current name in 1763 , when Lacaille published an updated sky map with Latin names for the constellations he introduced .
= = Characteristics = =
Bordered by Centaurus , Musca , Apus , Triangulum Australe , Norma and Lupus , Circinus lies adjacent to the Alpha and Beta Centauri stars . As it is at declination − 50 ° to − 70 ° , the whole constellation is only visible south of latitude 30 ° N. The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 14 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 13h 38.4m and 15h 30.2m , and the declination coordinates are between − 55 @.@ 43 ° and − 70 @.@ 62 ° . Circinus culminates each year at 9 p.m. on 30 July . The recommended three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Cir ' .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Circinus is a faint constellation , with only one star brighter than fourth magnitude . Alpha Circini , a white main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 19 , is 54 light @-@ years away and 4 ° south of Alpha Centauri . Not only the brightest star in the constellation , it is also the brightest example of a rapidly oscillating Ap ( RoAp ) star in the night sky . It has the unusual spectral type A7 Vp SrCrE , showing increased emissions of strontium , chromium and europium . Stars of this type have oddly localised magnetic fields and are slightly variable . Alpha Circini forms a binary star system with an orange dwarf companion of spectral type K5 and magnitude 8 @.@ 5 , which with a separation of 5 @.@ 7 arcseconds is only discernible with a telescope . The distance between the two stars is 260 AU and they take 2600 years to rotate around a common centre of gravity . The second brightest star is Beta Circini , a white main sequence star of spectral type A3Va and a magnitude of 4 @.@ 07 , about 100 light @-@ years away . It has around 1 @.@ 8 times the diameter of the Sun .
Gamma Circini is a binary star 450 light @-@ years away , whose components need a telescope of 150 mm to be seen , as they are only 0 @.@ 8 arcseconds apart . The brighter component is a bluish Be star of spectral type B5IV + and magnitude 4 @.@ 51 , while the dimmer component is a yellow star of magnitude 5 @.@ 5 . They orbit each other every 180 years . Delta Circini is also a multiple star whose components have magnitudes of 5 @.@ 1 and 13 @.@ 4 and orbit around a common centre of gravity every 3 @.@ 9 days . The brighter component is a close eclipsing binary ( specifically , a rotating ellipsoidal variable ) , with a minor dip of magnitude ( 0 @.@ 1 ) . Both are hot blue stars of spectral types O7III @-@ V and O9.5V , respectively , and are estimated to have around 22 and 12 times the Sun 's mass . Over 3600 light @-@ years away , this system would outshine Venus at magnitude − 4 @.@ 8 if it were 32 light @-@ years ( 10 parsecs ) distant . The two main components are separated by 50 arcseconds , resolvable to the naked eye for individuals with good vision and easily discernible with a telescope .
Eta Circini is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III and magnitude 5 @.@ 17 , located around 276 light @-@ years distant , and Zeta Circini is a blue @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type B3V and magnitude 6 @.@ 09 , located around 1273 light @-@ years away .
493 variable stars have been recorded in Circinus , but most have a very small range or are quite dim . Three prominent examples are Theta Circini , T Circini , and AX Circini . Theta Circini is a B @-@ class irregular variable , ranging in magnitude from 5 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 4 . T Circini has a B @-@ type spectrum , ranging in magnitude from 10 @.@ 6 to 9 @.@ 3 over a period of 3 @.@ 298 days , although it is actually an eclipsing binary system rather than a pulsating star . AX is a Cepheid variable that varies between magnitudes 5 @.@ 6 and 6 @.@ 19 over 5 @.@ 3 days . It is a yellow @-@ white supergiant of spectral type F8II + , 1600 light @-@ years away . BP Circini is another Cepheid variable with an apparent magnitude ranging from 7 @.@ 37 to 7 @.@ 71 over 2 @.@ 4 days . Both cepheids are spectroscopic binaries , with companions that are blue @-@ white stars of spectral type B6 and 5 and 4 @.@ 7 solar masses respectively . BX Circini is a faint star that fluctuates between magnitudes 12 @.@ 57 and 12 @.@ 62 over a period of 2 hours 33 minutes . Over 99 % of its composition appears to be helium . Its origin is unclear , but thought to be the result of the merger of a helium and a carbon / oxygen white dwarf .
Several stars with planetary systems lie within the borders of Circinus , although none of the host stars are particularly prominent . HD 134060 is a sun @-@ like yellow dwarf star of spectral type G0VFe + 0 @.@ 4 and magnitude 6 @.@ 29 , around 79 light @-@ years away . Its two planets were discovered in 2011 through the radial velocity method : the smaller , HD 134060 b , has a mass of 0 @.@ 0351 MJ ( Jupiter masses ) and orbits its star every 3 @.@ 27 days , at 0 @.@ 0444 AU ; the larger , HD 134060 c ( 0 @.@ 15 MJ ) , orbits farther out at 2 @.@ 226 AU , with a period of approximately 1161 days . Even fainter , at magnitude 8 @.@ 8 , HD 129445 is 220 light @-@ years away and has 99 % of the Sun 's mass and a similar spectral type of G8V . HD 129445 b , a Jupiter @-@ like planet ( 1 @.@ 6 MJ ) discovered in 2010 via the radial velocity method , orbits this star at a distance of 2 @.@ 9 AU , approximately every 1840 days .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Three open clusters and a planetary nebula are found within the borders of Circinus , all visible with amateur telescopes of varying sizes . NGC 5823 , also called Caldwell 88 , is an 800 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old open cluster , located 3500 light @-@ years away and spanning a 12 @-@ light @-@ year region along the constellation 's northern border . Despite having an integrated magnitude of 7 @.@ 9 , the cluster can be seen by star hopping from Beta Circini or from Alpha Centauri . It contains 80 – 100 stars of 10th magnitude and fainter , which are spread out over a diameter of 10 arcseconds . The brighter stars , however , are not true members of the cluster , as they are closer to the Earth than the dimmer ones . NGC 5823 appears distinct to the observer , sometimes seen as a reversed " S " , as described by John Herschel , although it has also been described as " tulip @-@ shaped " and " boxy " . That cluster can be easily mistaken with a similar cluster , NGC 5822 , nearby in Lupus . Comparatively , open cluster NGC 5715 is fainter ( integrated magnitude of 9 @.@ 8 ) — its brightest star is only 11th magnitude — and smaller ( 7 @.@ 0 arcminutes ) , comprising only 30 stars . The third open cluster , Pismis 20 , contains 12 stars in a diameter of 4 @.@ 5 arcseconds but exhibits a magnitude similar to NGC 5823 ( 7 @.@ 8 ) . At 8270 light @-@ years , it requires an amateur telescope with an aperture over 300 mm to be easily discerned .
The planetary nebula NGC 5315 has a magnitude of 9 @.@ 8 around a central star of magnitude 14 @.@ 2 , located 5 @.@ 2 degrees west @-@ southwest of Alpha Circini . It is only visible as a disc at magnifications over 200 @-@ fold . Bernes 145 is a dark and reflection nebula first listed in the 1971 Bernes Catalog . The dark nebula component is easily visible in a large amateur telescope , and it measures 12 by 5 arcminutes . The smaller reflection nebula component requires a larger instrument and averted vision to be seen .
Circinus also houses ESO 97 @-@ G13 , commonly known as the Circinus Galaxy . Discovered in 1977 , it is a relatively unobscured galaxy ( magnitude 10 @.@ 6 ) , which is unusual for galaxies located in constellations near the Milky Way , since their dim light is obscured by gas and dust . This oblong spiral galaxy with 6 @.@ 9 by 3 @.@ 0 arcminutes and 26 @,@ 000 light @-@ years in diameter , is located 13 million light @-@ years away from Earth and lies 4 degrees off the galactic plane . It is the closest Seyfert galaxy to the Milky Way , and therefore hosts an active galactic nucleus .
Circinus X @-@ 1 is an X @-@ ray binary star system that includes a neutron star . Observations of Circinus X @-@ 1 in July 2007 revealed the presence of X @-@ ray jets normally found in black hole systems . Located at 19 @,@ 000 light @-@ years , the pulsar PSR B1509 @-@ 58 , also called the Circinus Pulsar , has expelled a 20 @-@ light @-@ year @-@ long jet of material from its southern pole , clearly visible in the X @-@ ray spectrum . Another supernova remnant in Circinus is that of SN 185 . Recorded by Chinese observers in 185 AD , SN 185 was visible in the night sky for around eight months ; its remnants , known as RCW 86 , cover an area larger than the typical full moon .
A white dwarf star in a close binary system can accumulate material from its companion until it ignites and blows off in a thermonuclear explosion , known as a nova . These stars generally brighten by 7 to 16 magnitudes . Nova Circini 1926 , also known as X Circini , was observed at magnitude 6 @.@ 5 on 3 September 1926 , before fading and fluctuating between magnitudes 11 @.@ 7 and 12 @.@ 5 , during 1928 , and magnitude 13 , in 1929 . Nova Circini 1995 ( BY Circini ) reached an maximum apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 2 in January 1995 . BW Circini is a low mass X @-@ ray binary system , comprising a black hole of around 8 solar masses and a yellow G0III @-@ G5III subgiant star . X @-@ ray outbursts were recorded in 1987 and 1997 , and possibly 1971 – 72 .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
Circinus is the radiant of an annual meteor shower , the Alpha Circinids ( ACI ) . First observed in Queensland in 1977 , the meteors have an average velocity of 27 @.@ 1 km / s and are thought to be associated with a long @-@ period comet . In 2011 , Peter Jenniskens proposed that the debris trail of comet C / 1969 T1 could intersect with the Earth 's orbit and generate a meteor outburst coming from a radiant close to Beta Circini . The ACI shower peaks on 4 June , the day it was first observed .
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= Byzantine civil war of 1341 – 47 =
The Byzantine civil war of 1341 – 47 , sometimes referred to as the Second Palaiologan Civil War , was a conflict that broke out after the death of Andronikos III Palaiologos over the guardianship of his nine @-@ year @-@ old son and heir , John V Palaiologos . It pitted on the one hand Andronikos III 's chief minister , John VI Kantakouzenos , and on the other the Empress @-@ Dowager Anna of Savoy , the Patriarch of Constantinople John XIV Kalekas , and the megas doux Alexios Apokaukos . The war polarized Byzantine society along class lines , with the aristocracy backing Kantakouzenos and the lower and middle classes supporting the regency . To a lesser extent , the conflict acquired religious overtones . Byzantium was embroiled in the Hesychast controversy , and adherence to the mystical doctrine of Hesychasm was often equated with support for Kantakouzenos .
As the chief aide and closest friend of Emperor Andronikos III , Kantakouzenos became regent for the under @-@ age John V upon the Emperor 's death in June 1341 . While Kantakouzenos was absent from Constantinople in September the same year , a coup d 'état led by Alexios Apokaukos and the Patriarch John XIV secured the support of Empress Anna and established a new regency . In response , Kantakouzenos ' army and supporters proclaimed him co @-@ emperor in October , cementing the rift between himself and the new regency . The split immediately escalated into armed conflict .
During the first years of the war , forces of the new regency prevailed . In the wake of several anti @-@ aristocratic uprisings , most notably that of the Zealots in Thessalonica , a majority of the cities in Thrace and Macedonia came under regency control . With assistance from Stefan Dušan of Serbia and Umur Beg of Aydin , Kantakouzenos successfully reversed these gains . By 1345 , despite Dušan 's defection to the opposition and the withdrawal of Umur , Kantakouzenos retained the upper hand through the assistance of Orhan , ruler of the Ottoman emirate . The June 1345 murder of megas doux Apokaukos , the regency 's chief administrator , dealt the regency a severe blow . Formally crowned as emperor in Adrianople in 1346 , Kantakouzenos entered Constantinople on 3 February 1347 . By agreement , he was to rule for ten years as the senior emperor and regent for John V , until the boy came of age and ruled alongside him . Despite this apparent victory , subsequent resumption of the civil war forced John VI Kantakouzenos to abdicate and retire to become a monk in 1354 .
The consequences of the prolonged conflict proved disastrous for the Empire , which had regained a measure of stability under Andronikos III . Seven years of warfare , the presence of marauding armies , social turmoil , and the advent of the Black Death devastated Byzantium and reduced it to a rump state . The conflict also allowed Dušan to conquer Albania , Epirus and most of Macedonia , where he established the Serbian Empire . The Bulgarian Empire also acquired territory north of the Evros river .
= = Background = =
In 1341 , the once @-@ mighty Byzantine Empire was in a state of turmoil . Despite the restoration of the Empire 's capital to Constantinople and the recovery of a measure of its former power by Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1259 – 1282 ) , the policies implemented during his reign had exhausted the state 's resources , and the Empire 's strength waned under his successor , Andronikos II Palaiologos ( r . 1282 – 1328 ) . During Andronikos II 's long reign , the remaining Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor slowly fell to the advancing Turks , most notably the newly established Ottoman emirate . This caused a flood of refugees into Byzantium 's European provinces , while at the same time the Catalan Company wrought havoc in the imperial domains . Taxes also rose dramatically to finance tributes to the Empire 's enemies . A combination of these failures and personal ambition moved the Emperor 's grandson and heir , the young Andronikos III Palaiologos , to revolt . Supported by a group of young aristocrats led by John Kantakouzenos and Syrgiannes Palaiologos , Andronikos III deposed his grandfather after a series of conflicts during the 1320s . Although successful in removing the old Emperor from power , the war did not augur well for the future , as the Empire 's neighbours — the Serbs , Bulgarians , Turks , Genoese and Venetians — took advantage of Byzantine infighting to gain territory or expand their influence within the Empire .
The only son of a former governor of the Byzantine holdings in the Morea , John Kantakouzenos was related to the Palaiologoi through his mother . He inherited vast estates in Macedonia , Thrace and Thessaly , and became a childhood friend and the closest and most trusted advisor of Andronikos III . During Andronikos III 's reign ( 1328 – 1341 ) , John Kantakouzenos acted as his chief minister , holding the office of megas domestikos , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Byzantine army . The relationship between the two remained close , and in 1330 , when the heirless Andronikos III ( John V was born in 1332 ) fell ill he insisted that Kantakouzenos be proclaimed Emperor or regent after his death . Their ties were further strengthened in the spring of 1341 , when the latter 's eldest son , Matthew Kantakouzenos , wed Irene Palaiologina , a cousin of the Emperor .
Unlike Andronikos II , who had disbanded the Byzantine army and navy , and who favoured monks and intellectuals , Andronikos III was an energetic ruler who personally led his forces in military campaigns . In 1329 , his first campaign against the Ottomans resulted in a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Pelekanos , after which the Byzantine position in Bithynia rapidly collapsed . Subsequent sorties into the Balkans were nevertheless successful in shoring up Andronikos ' tottering realm . Thessaly and the Despotate of Epirus , two territories separated from the Empire after the Fourth Crusade , were restored to imperial rule , almost without bloodshed in 1328 and 1337 respectively . Andronikos III also rebuilt a modest fleet , which allowed him to recover the rich and strategically placed island of Chios from the Genoese Zaccaria family in 1329 as well as to claim the allegiance of Andreolo Cattaneo , the Genoese governor of Phocaea on the Anatolian mainland . In 1335 , however , Andreolo 's son Domenico captured the island of Lesbos with Genoese assistance . The Emperor led a fleet to recover it and Phocaea , and requested the aid of the Turkish emirs of Saruhan and Aydin . Saruhan sent troops and supplies , but Aydin 's ruler Umur Beg came to meet the Emperor in person . It was during this encounter that Kantakouzenos and Umur established a long @-@ lasting close friendship and alliance .
A war with Serbia in 1331 – 1334 proved less successful for the Emperor when several towns in Macedonia were captured by the Serbs , led by the renegade Syrgiannes Palaiologos . These gains were only curtailed when the assassination of Syrgiannes and the threat of a Hungarian invasion forced the Serbian ruler , Stefan Dušan , to seek a negotiated settlement . The subsequent peace treaty concluded between Andronikos III and Dušan was important for the future of Byzantine @-@ Serbian relations . For the first time , the Byzantines recognized the extensive gains the Serbs had made at the Empire 's expense in the central Balkans during Andronikos II 's reign . In the aftermath of the pact , Dušan also moved his seat , and with it his realm 's centre of gravity , south to Prilep .
Although the loss of Asia Minor proved irreversible , successes in Epirus and Thessaly led to a consolidation of the Empire in the Greek @-@ speaking lands of the southern Balkans . Andronikos III and Kantakouzenos planned further campaigns to recover the Latin principalities of southern Greece , a project of major long @-@ term importance , for , as the historian Donald Nicol writes , " if the whole peninsula of Greece could be united under Byzantine government then the Empire would once again be a homogeneous structure , able to stand up to the Serbians , the Italians and its other enemies . It would be small , but it would be a compact and manageable economic and administrative unit running from Cape Matapan to Thessalonica and Constantinople " .
= = Kantakouzenos ' regency : June – September 1341 = =
Following a short illness , on the night of 14 – 15 June 1341 the emperor Andronikos III died at the relatively early age of 45 , possibly due to chronic malaria . His nine @-@ year @-@ old son John ( John V ) was the obvious successor , but he had not been officially proclaimed or crowned as co @-@ emperor . This left a legal vacuum , and raised the question of who would lead the Empire 's government .
According to Byzantine custom , the empress @-@ dowager automatically headed any regency . Nevertheless , despite the lack of any formal appointment , Kantakouzenos placed Andronikos III 's sons and the Empress @-@ dowager Anna of Savoy under armed guard in the palace , and in a meeting of the Byzantine Senate claimed for himself the regency and governance of the state by virtue of his close association with the deceased Emperor . He also demanded that John V marry forthwith his own daughter Helena Kantakouzene . This claim was disputed by Patriarch John XIV Kalekas , who presented a document from Andronikos dating from 1334 , assigning to him the care of the imperial family in the case of his death . Only after a demonstration of the capital 's troops on 20 June did Kantakouzenos secure recognition as regent and control of the reins of government , as well as maintaining control over the army as its megas domestikos .
Nevertheless , opposition to Kantakouzenos began to coalesce around three figures : the Patriarch , a forceful man determined to have a voice in the governance of the Empire , the Empress @-@ regent , who feared that Kantakouzenos would dispossess her son , and last but not least Alexios Apokaukos , the ambitious megas doux ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the navy ) and head of the bureaucracy . A " new man " promoted to high office as the protégé of Andronikos III and possibly the richest man in the Empire by 1341 , Apokaukos was distrusted by the hereditary aristocracy . The only surviving narrative accounts of the period , Kantakouzenos 's memoirs and the history of Nikephoros Gregoras , with their pro @-@ aristocracy bias , paint a very negative picture of the man . According to Kantakouzenos , Apokaukos ' adherence to the Patriarch 's camp resulted from his ambition : Apokaukos sought further advancement by trying to convince Kantakouzenos to declare himself Emperor . When the latter refused , Apokaukos secretly switched his allegiance .
In Donald Nicol 's opinion , had Kantakouzenos remained at Constantinople , his authority might have remained secure . As the megas domestikos and regent however , he had the duty of dealing with the Empire 's various enemies , who sought to take advantage of Andronikos ' death . Dušan had invaded Macedonia , the Emir of Saruhan raided the coasts of Thrace , and Tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria threatened war . In July Kantakouzenos left the capital at the head of the army , leaving control of the government to Apokaukos , whom he still believed loyal to him . Kantakouzenos ' campaign proved successful . He persuaded Dušan to withdraw and repulsed the Turkish raiders , while Ivan Alexander , threatened by a fleet from the Emirate of Aydin , renewed his peace treaty with Byzantium . To crown this success , Kantakouzenos received an embassy of the Latin barons of the Principality of Achaea in the Morea . They expressed readiness to surrender the country in exchange for a guarantee of their property and rights . It was a unique opportunity , as Kantakouzenos himself recognized in his memoirs , since if successful , the Catalan @-@ controlled Duchy of Athens was bound to follow , consolidating Byzantine control over Greece .
At this point Kantakouzenos received grave news from Constantinople . In late August Apokaukos attempted a coup and tried to kidnap John V. Having failed , he fled to his fortified house at Epibatai , where he was blockaded by troops . Kantakouzenos returned to Constantinople in early September , where he stayed for a few weeks consulting with the Empress . On his way back to Thrace to prepare for a campaign into the Morea , he went to Epibatai , where he pardoned Apokaukos and restored him to his former offices .
= = Outbreak of the war : Autumn 1341 = =
Kantakouzenos ' second departure proved a great error . Back in the capital , his enemies moved in his absence . Apokaukos gathered a group of high @-@ ranking aristocrats around him , including men such as the megas droungarios John Gabalas or George Choumnos , whom he tied to himself by marriage alliances . The Patriarch , backed by Apokaukos ' group and the authority of the Empress , dismissed Kantakouzenos from his offices and declared him a public enemy . Kalekas himself was proclaimed regent and Apokaukos named Eparch of Constantinople . Kantakouzenos ' relatives and supporters were imprisoned or forced to flee the city , and their properties confiscated . Although Kantakouzenos ' wife and children were safe in his headquarters at Demotika ( Didymoteicho ) , the regency placed his mother , Theodora , under house arrest . The privations she suffered during her imprisonment were to cause her eventual death .
As the first groups of his partisans fleeing the capital arrived at Demotika , Kantakouzenos , by his own account , tried to negotiate with the new regency , but his approach was rebuffed . Finally forced to take decisive action , on 26 October 1341 , the army ( 2 @,@ 000 cavalry and 4 @,@ 000 infantry , according to Gregoras ) and his supporters , largely drawn from the land @-@ holding aristocracy , proclaimed Kantakouzenos Emperor . Although he still presented himself officially as a junior colleague to John V , and claimed to be only acting in the boy 's name , having staked his claim on the throne , he had effectively started a civil war . Kantakouzenos still hoped that negotiation might resolve the situation , but all his envoys were imprisoned and he and his supporters excommunicated by Patriarch John XIV . On 19 November 1341 , the regency responded to Kantakouzenos ' proclamation as Emperor with the formal coronation of John V.
Reaction to Kantakouzenos ' proclamation caused a rift in Byzantine society , with the rich and powerful land @-@ holding magnates ( traditionally called the dynatoi , the " powerful ones " ) who dominated the countryside quickly rallying to support him , while the ordinary population , often living in abject conditions and suffering under oppressive taxation , supported the Empress @-@ dowager and the Patriarch . Apokaukos was especially quick to capitalize upon this division and foment popular dislike for the aristocracy , by widely publicizing the immense wealth confiscated from Kantakouzenos ' and his supporters ' houses and estates . In the words of Donald Nicol , " it was against him [ Kantakouzenos ] and everything that he stood for as a millionaire and landowning aristocrat that the people rose up . ' Kantakouzenism ' became their war cry , the slogan of their discontent " .
Thus the battle lines of the civil war were drawn up between urban and rural factions . The cities , dominated by the middle @-@ class civil bureaucracy and merchant class ( the " people of the market " ) , favoured a more mercantile economy and close relations with the Italian maritime republics , while the countryside remained under the control of the conservative landed aristocracy , which derived its wealth from its estates and traditionally shunned commercial and entrepreneurial activities as unworthy of its status . The lower social strata tended to support the respective dominant faction , the middle classes in the cities and the landholding magnates in the countryside .
Polarization of this nature was not new in the Byzantine Empire . Evidence of competition between the landed aristocracy and the city @-@ based middle classes in the political , economic and social spheres has been attested since the 11th century , but the scale of the conflict that erupted in 1341 was unprecedented . This class conflict was mirrored in the breakaway Byzantine Empire of Trebizond as well , where a pro @-@ imperial and pro @-@ Constantinopolitan urban faction confronted the provincial landholding aristocracy between 1340 and 1349 ( cf . Niketas Scholares ) . The more conservative and anti @-@ Western tendencies of the aristocrats , and their links to the staunchly Orthodox and anti @-@ Catholic monasteries , also explain their increased attachment to the mystical Hesychasm movement advocated by Gregory Palamas , whose views were mostly opposed in the cities . Although several significant exceptions leave the issue open to question among modern scholars , in the contemporary popular mind ( and in traditional historiography ) , the supporters of " Palamism " and of " Kantakouzenism " were usually equated . Kantakouzenos ' eventual victory also meant the victory of Hesychasm , confirmed in a synod in Constantinople in 1351 . Hesychasm eventually became a hallmark of the Orthodox church tradition , although it was rejected by the Catholics as a heresy .
The first manifestation of this social division appeared in Adrianople where , on 27 October , the populace expelled the city 's aristocrats , securing it for the regency . This event was repeated over the next weeks in town after town throughout Thrace and Macedonia , as the people declared their support for the regency and against the despised forces of " Kantakouzenism " . In this hostile atmosphere , many of Kantakouzenos ' soldiers abandoned him and returned to Constantinople . In Demotika alone the popular uprising was quelled , and the town remained Kantakouzenos ' main stronghold in Thrace throughout the war .
= = Kantakouzenos seeks Dušan 's aid : 1342 = =
When heavy snowfall rendered campaigning impossible during the following winter , Kantakouzenos instead sent envoys , including an embassy of monks from Mount Athos to Constantinople . However , they too were dismissed by the Patriarch . By then , almost all of the Byzantine provinces and their governors had declared themselves for the regency . Only Theodore Synadenos , an old associate of Kantakouzenos who was the governor of the Empire 's second city , Thessalonica , indicated his support . Synadenos had kept his allegiance to Kantakouzenos secret from the city 's populace , and intended to surrender Thessalonica in collusion with the local aristocracy . Furthermore , Hrelja , the Serbian magnate and virtually independent ruler of Strumica and the Strymon River valley , seemed to lean towards Kantakouzenos . Consequently , as soon as the weather improved , on 2 March 1342 , Kantakouzenos left his wife Irene Asanina , his brother @-@ in @-@ law Manuel Asen and his daughters to hold Demotika and marched west with his army toward Thessalonica . On the way , he first attacked Peritheorion but was repelled and continued westward . Kantakouzenos was however able to take fortress Melnik , where he met with Hrelja to forge an alliance . Their two armies marched toward Thessalonica , but arrived too late to take control . As they approached the city , they were met by Synadenos and other aristocrats , who had fled after an uprising led by a radical popular party , the Zealots . Soon afterwards a fleet of 70 ships led by Apokaukos reinforced the city . Synadenos , whose family had remained behind in Thessalonica , defected to the regency . Apokaukos ' son John was appointed governor of Thessalonica , although effective power rested with the Zealots , who for the next seven years led an autonomous regime unparalleled in Byzantine history .
At the same time , the regency 's army campaigned in Thrace , formally taking possession of towns secured by popular revolt . With Thessalonica barred against him , his supply lines to Thrace cut , and desertions having reduced his army to 2 @,@ 000 men , of whom half belonged to Hrelja , Kantakouzenos was forced to withdraw north to Serbia , where he hoped to secure the aid of Stefan Dušan . Soon after , Hrelja also deserted Kantakouzenos and joined the regency , hoping to gain control of Melnik for himself . In July 1342 , Kantakouzenos met Dušan near Pristina . The Serbian ruler appeared initially reluctant to form an alliance . Nevertheless , under pressure from his nobles , especially the powerful Jovan Oliver , he could not afford to miss this unique opportunity to expand south . Desperately in need of Serbian aid , Kantakouzenos apparently agreed that the Serbs could keep any town they took , despite his own later account to the contrary . According to Nikephoros Gregoras , the Serbs claimed all of Macedonia west of Christopolis ( Kavala ) , except for Thessalonica and its environs . The only concession Kantakouzenos secured was that an exception be made for those towns that surrendered to him in person . To seal the pact , Kantakouzenos ' younger son , Manuel , was to be wed to the daughter of Jovan Oliver , although after Dušan later broke the alliance , the marriage did not take place . Hrelja too acceded to the pact , in exchange for the surrender of Melnik by Kantakouzenos ' garrison . After Hrelja 's death later that year , Melnik was seized by Dušan .
In late summer 1342 , Kantakouzenos , accompanied by several Serbian magnates , marched into Macedonia at the head of a Greek and Serbian force , intending to break through to his wife , who still held out at Demotika . His advance was stopped almost immediately before Serres when the city refused to surrender , and the subsequent siege had to be abandoned after an epidemic killed most of his men , forcing him to retreat into Serbia with a rump force of barely 500 soldiers . Dušan led a more successful parallel campaign , capturing Vodena ( Edessa ) . Serbian forces captured Florina and Kastoria shortly afterwards , thereby extending their hold over western Macedonia . The Serbs also expanded their control over Albania , so that by the summer of 1343 , with the exception of Angevin @-@ controlled Dyrrhachium , all of the region appears to have fallen under Serbian rule . Morale among Kantakouzenos ' followers fell dramatically . Rumours circulated in Constantinople that a dejected Kantakouzenos planned to retire to Mount Athos as a monk , and riots broke out in the city in which several rich men were killed and their houses looted by the populace .
In late fall , Empress Anna twice sent embassies to Dušan trying to convince him to surrender Kantakouzenos , but the Serbian ruler , seeking to extract more profit from their alliance , refused . Kantakouzenos ' fortunes began to improve when a delegation of the nobles of Thessaly reached him and offered to accept his authority . Kantakouzenos appointed his relative John Angelos as the province 's governor . Although in effect a semi @-@ independent ruler , Angelos was both loyal and effective . He soon brought Epirus — which he had governed in Andronikos II 's name in 1340 — into the Kantakouzenist camp , and even made gains in Thessaly at the expense of the Catalans of Athens . Another effort by Kantakouzenos to break from Serbia into Macedonia failed before Serres . In the meantime , Kantakouzenos ' wife Irene called upon the aid of the Bulgarians to help relieve the blockade of Demotika by the regency 's army . Ivan Alexander dispatched troops , but although they clashed with the regency 's forces , they made no effort in assisting the city , instead pillaging the countryside .
= = Kantakouzenos resurgent : 1343 – 45 = =
At this point , Kantakouzenos ' position was greatly strengthened by the intervention of his old friend , Umur Bey , who in late 1342 or early 1343 sailed up the Evros river with a fleet of 300 ships and 29 @,@ 000 ( according to Kantakouzenos ) or 15 @,@ 000 ( according to Turkish sources ) men @-@ in @-@ arms and relieved Demotika both from the siege by the regency 's forces and from the depredations of the Bulgarians . After pillaging Thrace for a few months , Umur was forced to retreat to Asia at the onset of winter , to which the Turks were unaccustomed . This turn of events displeased Dušan , for Kantakouzenos now had an independent power base and was less reliant on the Serbian ruler 's goodwill . The final rift between Kantakouzenos and Dušan occurred in April 1343 , when Kantakouzenos persuaded the town of Berroia , besieged by the Serbs , to surrender to him instead of Dušan . This was followed by the surrender of several other forts in the area to Kantakouzenos , including Servia and Platamon . These moves strengthened Kantakouzenos ' position and independence from Dušan , thereby thwarting the latter 's plans for expansion . Realizing that he had little to gain by continuing to support Kantakouzenos , Dušan opened negotiations with the regency and concluded a formal alliance with them in the summer of 1343 .
Meanwhile , Kantakouzenos and his army camped outside Thessalonica , hoping to take the city through the aid of his supporters within the walls . Apokaukos arrived at the head of the Byzantine fleet to aid the Zealots , pinning Kantakouzenos down in Macedonia between Thessalonica and Dušan 's possessions . Once again Umur of Aydin came to Kantakouzenos ' assistance with a fleet carrying some 6 @,@ 000 men , whereupon Apokaukos and his ships fled from the superior Turkish navy . Nevertheless , a reinforced Thessalonica was able to hold out against a siege by Kantakouzenos and Umur . Although he had failed to take Thessalonica , the presence of his Turkish allies allowed Kantakouzenos to turn his attention towards Thrace . In late 1343 he left his son Manuel as governor of Berroia and western Macedonia and marched towards Demotika , relieving the city and seeing his wife for the first time in almost two years . On his way to Demotika , Kantakouzenos had seized a number of fortresses in Thrace , although another siege of Peritheorion failed . He followed up with a successful campaign that took Komotini and other fortresses in the Rhodope area . Over the next couple of years , the towns and forts of Thrace came over to Kantakouzenos ' camp one by one , but at great cost , as his mainly Turkish troops repeatedly plundered the countryside . The shifting tide of the war did not go unnoticed in the opposing camp . In late 1344 , several prominent personalities defected to Kantakouzenos , including John Vatatzes , a general and relative by marriage to both the Patriarch and Apokaukos , the Patriarch of Jerusalem Lazaros , and , most importantly , Manuel Apokaukos , son of the megas doux and governor of Adrianople .
At the same time , the regency 's alliance with Dušan was paying dividends for the Serbian ruler alone , as he had free rein to plunder and occupy all of Macedonia and Epirus . By the end of 1345 , only Thessalonica , held by the Zealots , Serres and the surrounding region , which remained loyal to the regency , along with Berroia , which still held out under Manuel Kantakouzenos , remained outside Serbian control .
These developments placed the regency in considerable difficulties . In spite of Apokaukos ' adroit management of the state 's finances , the devastation caused by the prolonged wars had emptied the treasury . In August 1343 , Empress Anna was forced to pawn the crown jewels to Venice for 30 @,@ 000 ducats . In addition , Turkish ravages in Thrace led to a scarcity of food in Constantinople . Hoping for Western aid , Anna appealed to the Pope , promising the submission of herself , John V , Apokaukos and even the Patriarch to his authority , and began persecuting the pro @-@ Kantakouzenists and anti @-@ Western Palamists .
In 1344 , the regency concluded a further alliance with Bulgaria , which required the surrender of Philippopolis ( Plovdiv ) and nine other towns in northern Thrace along the river Evros . Nevertheless , after their occupation , Ivan Alexander refrained from direct action against Kantakouzenos ' forces operating in southern and eastern Thrace . At the same time , Momchil , a former brigand whom Kantakouzenos had entrusted with control over the region of Merope in the Rhodope mountains , switched over to the regency . In early 1344 , Kantakouzenos was deprived of Umur and the bulk of his army , who had sailed home to repel a Latin attack on his main harbour , Smyrna . On their way , the Turkish force was attacked by the Serbs under Gregory Preljub , but prevailed at the Battle of Stephaniana . Nevertheless , Kantakouzenos was able to ward off joint attacks by Dušan and Apokaukos until Umur returned to his aid the next spring at the head of an army of 20 @,@ 000 men .
Kantakouzenos and Umur raided Bulgaria , and then turned against Momchil . The latter had exploited the power vacuum in the Rhodope , an effective no man 's land between the Serbs , Bulgarians and Byzantines , to set himself up as a quasi @-@ independent prince , supported by a substantial force of around 5 @,@ 000 men . On 7 July 1345 , the two armies clashed at Peritheorion . Momchil 's army was crushed , and he himself fell in the field . Soon afterwards , Dušan arrived before Serres and laid siege to the city . Rejecting demands by Kantakouzenos to withdraw , a clash appeared inevitable until the murder of Alexios Apokaukos in Constantinople forced Kantakouzenos to direct his attention there .
= = Last years of the war : 1345 – 47 = =
In early 1345 , Kantakouzenos sent Franciscan monks to the regency to make an offer of conciliation , but it was rejected . Despite this show of confidence , the regency 's position remained insecure . The defections of the previous winter had weakened their control of the capital , and in response Apokaukos launched a series of proscriptions . He also ordered the construction of a new prison to house political prisoners . On 11 June 1345 , while undertaking an inspection of the prison unaccompanied by his bodyguard , Apokaukos was lynched by the prisoners .
When Kantakouzenos heard the news he marched towards Constantinople , urged by his supporters , who expected that the death of Apokaukos would result in the collapse of the regency . Kantakouzenos was more sceptical , and indeed the Patriarch and Empress Anna quickly brought the situation under control . At the same time , Kantakouzenos suffered a series of reverses . These began when John Apokaukos , the nominal governor of Thessalonica , openly announced his allegiance to Kantakouzenos and his plans to surrender the city . He was immediately thwarted by the Zealots who rose up again and killed Apokaukos and the other Kantakouzenist sympathizers in the city . Then John Vatatzes , who had defected to Kantakouzenos the year before , once more switched sides . He attempted to take some of Kantakouzenos ' Turkish allies and a few Thracian cities with him , but was murdered soon afterwards . Finally , Kantakouzenos lost the support of his most crucial ally , Umur of Aydin , who left with his army to confront the crusaders in Smyrna . Kantakouzenos replaced him by allying himself with the Emir of Saruhan and , more importantly , Orhan of the rising Ottoman emirate in Bithynia .
In September 1345 , after a long siege , Serres fell to Dušan . The Serbian ruler , who by now controlled about half of the pre @-@ 1341 Byzantine realm , was spurred by this success to lay his own claim on the Byzantine throne . Consequently , on Easter Sunday , 16 April 1346 , he was crowned " Emperor of the Serbs and the Romans " in Skopje , thereby founding the Serbian Empire . This development prompted Kantakouzenos , who had only been acclaimed Emperor in 1341 , to have himself formally crowned in a ceremony held at Adrianople on 21 May , presided over by the Patriarch of Jerusalem , Lazaros . Lazaros then convened a synod of bishops to excommunicate the Patriarch of Constantinople , John Kalekas . Not long afterwards , Kantakouzenos ' ties with his new ally Orhan were cemented through the marriage of his daughter Theodora Kantakouzene to the Ottoman emir at an elaborate ceremony in Selymbria .
For the regency , the situation had become desperate . Empress Anna 's requests for aid from foreign powers proved unsuccessful , as both Orhan and the beylik of Karasi rebuffed her overtures for assistance . Only Balik , the ruler of Dobruja , sent an elite force of 1 @,@ 000 men under his brothers Theodore and Dobrotitsa , but they were routed by a Kantakouzenist army under protostrator George Phakrases . The emirate of Saruhan offered a more substantial force of 6 @,@ 000 men in the summer of 1346 , but instead of fighting , they plundered Thrace and then defected to join Kantakouzenos ' army . Revenue remained scarce for the regency , the Genoese once again seized the imperial possessions of Chios and Phocaea , and on 19 May 1346 , a part of the Hagia Sophia cathedral collapsed , a terrible omen in the eyes of the capital 's inhabitants .
By the summer of 1346 , Kantakouzenos stood on the verge of victory . He left Thrace under the control of his son Matthew and moved on to Selymbria , close to Constantinople . He did not attack the capital , but waited for almost a year for the city to surrender . In his memoirs , he explains that he did not want to turn his Turks on the city , although contemporaries such as Gregoras accused him of indecision and of needlessly prolonging the war .
As the months passed , and the privations in Constantinople increased , the pro @-@ Kantakouzenos faction in the capital grew as the Empress refused even to consider negotiations . Twice agents were sent to assassinate Kantakouzenos , but they failed . The Empress eventually fell out with Patriarch John Kalekas , who was deposed in a synod on 2 February 1347 . On the same night , supporters of Kantakouzenos opened the disused Golden Gate , and Kantakouzenos entered the city with 1 @,@ 000 men . Meeting no resistance , his troops surrounded the Palace of Blachernae , the imperial residence , the next morning , but the Empress refused to surrender for several days , still fearful of the fate that awaited her . Kantakouzenos ' men grew impatient and stormed part of the palace complex , and John V persuaded his mother to accept a settlement .
= = Peace settlement and Kantakouzenos ' reign = =
On 8 February 1347 , the war formally ended with an agreement making Kantakouzenos senior emperor for ten years , after which he and John V would reign as equals . Kantakouzenos also promised to pardon anyone who had fought against him . To seal the pact , John V married Kantakouzenos ' daughter Helena , and in May , Kantakouzenos was crowned again in the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae . In the end , as Donald Nicol commented , the long conflict had been meaningless , with terms that " could have been agreed five years before and saved the Empire so much bitterness , hatred and destruction . "
Despite the moderation and clemency shown by Kantakouzenos in this settlement , it did not gain universal acceptance . Supporters of the Palaiologoi still distrusted him , while his own partisans would have preferred to depose the Palaiologoi outright and install the Kantakouzenoi as the reigning dynasty . Kantakouzenos ' eldest son , Matthew , also resented being passed over in favour of John V , and had to be placated with the creation of a semi @-@ autonomous appanage covering much of western Thrace , which doubled as a march against Dušan 's Serbia . Of the remaining Byzantine territories , only the Zealots in Thessalonica , now an isolated exclave surrounded by the Serbs , refused to acknowledge the new arrangement , instead leading a de facto independent existence until Kantakouzenos conquered them in 1350 .
After 1347 , John VI Kantakouzenos tried to revive the Empire , but met with limited success . Aided by the depopulation brought by about by the Black Death , Dušan and his general Preljub took Kantakouzenos ' Macedonian strongholds as well as Epirus and Thessaly in 1347 – 1348 , thereby completing their conquest of the remaining Byzantine lands in mainland Greece . An attempt to break Byzantium 's dependence for food and maritime commerce on the Genoese merchants of Galata led to a Byzantine – Genoese war , which ended in 1352 with a compromise peace . In 1350 , Kantakouzenos took advantage of Dušan 's preoccupation with a war against Bosnia to recover Thessalonica from the Zealots as well as Berroia , Vodena and other Macedonian cities from the Serbs , but the Serbian emperor quickly reversed the Byzantine gains , leaving only Thessalonica in Byzantine hands .
Steadily deteriorating relations between Matthew Kantakouzenos , who now ruled eastern Thrace , and John V Palaiologos , who had taken over Matthew 's former domain in western Thrace , led to yet another internal conflict . Open warfare broke out in 1352 , when John V , supported by Venetian and Turkish troops , launched an attack on Matthew Kantakouzenos . John Kantakouzenos came to his son 's aid with 10 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops who retook the cities of Thrace , liberally plundering them in the process . In October 1352 , at Demotika , the Ottoman force met and defeated 4 @,@ 000 Serbs provided to John V by Stefan Dušan . This was the Ottomans ' first victory in Europe and an ominous portent . Two years later their capture of Gallipoli marked the beginning of the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans , which culminated a century later in the Fall of Constantinople . Meanwhile , John V fled to the island of Tenedos , from where he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize Constantinople in March 1353 . John VI Kantakouzenos responded by having Matthew crowned as co @-@ emperor , but John V Palaiologos , enlisting Genoese support and relying on the declining popularity of Kantakouzenos , succeeded in entering the capital in November 1354 . John VI abdicated and retired to a monastery . Matthew held out in Thrace until 1357 , when he too abdicated , leaving John V Palaiologos as the sole master of a rump state .
= = Consequences = =
The civil war proved a critical turning point in the history of the Byzantine Empire . In the words of the Byzantinist Angeliki Laiou , " after the end of the second civil war , Byzantium was an empire in name only " , while according to Eva de Vries @-@ Van der Velden , it marks " the point of rupture between the ' decline ' and ' the fall ' of the Byzantine Empire " .
The Byzantines ' division and reliance on foreign troops , especially the Serbs and Turks , encouraged the latter 's expansionism . Stefan Dušan in particular proved adept in exploiting the civil war to expand his state at Byzantium 's expense . Aside from huge territorial losses , the prolonged conflict exhausted the Byzantine state 's resources , as it brought " anarchy to the cities and devastation to the countryside " ( Alice @-@ Mary Talbot ) . Thrace , the largest contiguous territory remaining in the Empire , suffered such destruction that , along with Constantinople , it became dependent on grain imported from Bulgaria and the Crimea . Trade had stopped , and the treasury contained , in the words of Gregoras , " nothing but the atoms of Epicurus " . Kantakouzenos had exhausted his own personal fortune , and Empress Anne had left the Empire heavily indebted to the Venetians . The war also led to the collapse of the centralized imperial administration in the provinces , causing control of the Thracian countryside to shift to a manorial system run by the local magnates . Despite their considerable wealth , the magnates , through exemptions or outright evasion , managed to avoid paying taxes to the imperial government . In addition , the arrival in 1347 of the Black Death and its recurrent outbreaks further reduced the Empire 's tax and recruitment base , curtailing its ability to reverse the Serbian territorial gains .
Along with the renewal of the civil war in 1352 , these factors destroyed any chance of even a modest recovery similar to that experienced under Andronikos III . Thereafter , Byzantium remained under the menacing threat of stronger neighbours , unable to pursue an independent foreign policy , handicapped by a shortage of resources and riven by internal strife . Nevertheless , through a combination of fortuitous external circumstances and adroit diplomacy , it survived for another century , until finally conquered by the Ottomans in 1453 . Only the Byzantine exclave in the Morea remained prosperous , having been spared the ravages of the civil war because of its relative isolation . The appointment of Manuel Kantakouzenos as its despotes in 1349 heralded the creation of the semi @-@ independent Despotate of the Morea , which experienced the last economic and cultural flowering of the Byzantine world before it too fell to the Ottomans in 1460 .
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= Defense of the Ancients =
Defense of the Ancients ( DotA ) is a multiplayer online battle arena mod for the video game Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos and its expansion , Warcraft III : The Frozen Throne , based on the " Aeon of Strife " map for StarCraft . The scenario objective is for each team to destroy the opponents ' Ancient , heavily guarded structures at opposing corners of the map . Players use powerful units known as heroes , and are assisted by allied heroes and AI @-@ controlled fighters . As in role @-@ playing games , players level up their heroes and use gold to buy equipment during the mission .
The scenario was developed with the " World Editor " of Reign of Chaos , and was updated upon the release of its expansion , The Frozen Throne . There have been many variations of the original concept ; the most popular being DotA Allstars , which eventually was simplified to DotA with the release of version 6 @.@ 68 . This specific scenario has been maintained by several authors during development , the latest of whom is the anonymous developer known as " IceFrog " who has developed the game since 2005 .
Since its original release , DotA has become a feature at several worldwide tournaments , including Blizzard Entertainment 's BlizzCon and the Asian World Cyber Games , as well as the Cyberathlete Amateur and CyberEvolution leagues ; in a 2008 article of video game industry website Gamasutra , the article 's author claimed that DotA was probably " the most popular and most @-@ discussed free , non @-@ supported game mod in the world " . DotA is largely attributed to being the most significant inspiration for the multiplayer online battle arena genre . Valve Corporation acquired the intellectual property rights to DotA to develop a stand @-@ alone sequel , Dota 2 , which was released in July 2013 .
= = Gameplay = =
DotA pits two teams of players against each other : the Sentinel and the Scourge . Players on the Sentinel team are based at the southwest corner of the map , and those on the Scourge team are based at the northeast corner . Each base is defended by towers and waves of units which guard the main paths leading to their base . In the center of each base is the " Ancient " , a building that must be destroyed to win the game .
Each human player controls one hero , a powerful unit with unique abilities . In DotA , players on each side choose one of 112 heroes , each with different abilities and tactical advantages over other heroes . The scenario is highly team @-@ oriented ; it is difficult for one player to carry the team to victory alone . Defense of the Ancients allows up to ten players in a five @-@ versus @-@ five format .
Because the gameplay revolves around strengthening individual heroes , it does not require focus on resource management and base @-@ building , unlike most traditional real @-@ time strategy games . Killing computer @-@ controlled or neutral units earns the player experience points ; the player gains a level when enough experience is accumulated . Leveling up improves the hero 's toughness and the damage they inflict , and allows players to upgrade spells or skills . In addition to accumulating experience , players also manage a single resource of gold . The typical resource @-@ gathering of Warcraft III is replaced by a combat @-@ oriented money system ; in addition to a small periodic income , heroes earn gold by killing hostile units , base structures , and enemy heroes . This has caused emphasis on a technique called " last @-@ hitting , " which is when the player attacks a hostile unit when " its hit points are low enough to kill it with one blow " . Using gold , players buy items to strengthen their hero and gain abilities ; certain items can be combined with recipes to create more powerful items . Buying items that suit one 's hero is an important tactical element of the mod .
DotA offers a variety of game modes , selected by the game host at the beginning of the match . The game modes dictate the difficulty of the scenario , as well as whether people can choose their hero or are assigned one randomly . Many game modes can be combined , allowing more flexible options .
= = Development = =
Warcraft III is the third title in the Warcraft series of real @-@ time strategy games developed by Blizzard Entertainment . As with Warcraft II , Blizzard included a free " world editor " in the game that allows players to create custom scenarios or " maps " for the game , which can be played online with other players through Battle.net. These custom scenarios can be simple terrain changes , which play like normal Warcraft games , or they can be entirely new game scenarios with custom objectives , units , items , and events , like Defense of the Ancients .
The first version of Defense of the Ancients was released in 2003 by a mapmaker under the alias of Eul who based the map on a previous StarCraft scenario known as " Aeon of Strife " . After the release of Warcraft 's expansion The Frozen Throne , which added new features to the World Editor , Eul did not update the scenario . Other mapmakers produced spinoffs that added new heroes , items , and features . Among the DotA variants created in the wake of Eul 's map , there was DotA Allstars , originally created and developed by custom map makers Meian and Ragn0r , who took the most popular heroes and compiled them into one map . In March 2004 , map maker Guinsoo took control of development and began the 3.xx to 5.xx series of DotA Allstars . On February 28 , 2005 , soon after the release of 6.x , Guinsoo announced he would be leaving WC3 custom map making , and left the development in the hands of Neichus and IceFrog . Soon after , Neichus left the team and left it in the hand of IceFrog . This started the legendary 6.xx series of DotA Allstars which is currently developed by IceFrog and Valve .
Defense of the Ancients is maintained via official forums . Users can post ideas for new heroes or items , some of which are added to the map . Players have contributed icons and hero descriptions and created the artwork displayed while the map loads , and suggestions for changes to existing heroes or items are taken seriously ; IceFrog once changed a new hero less than two weeks after the new version of the map was released . Versions of the scenario where enemy heroes are controlled by artificial intelligences have also been released . Mescon continued to maintain dota @-@ allstars.com , which by the end of IceFrog 's affiliation in May 2009 had over 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 registered users and had received over one million unique visitors every month . Due to their separation , IceFrog announced that he would be further developing a new official site , playdota.com , while continuing game development ; Mescon closed dota @-@ allstars on July 22 , 2010 , citing dropping statistics and his new passion for League of Legends as the reason for its end .
Because Warcraft III custom games have none of the features designed to improve game quality ( matchmaking players based on connection speed , etc . ) , various programs are used to maintain Defense of the Ancients . External tools ping player 's locations , and games can be named to exclude geographic regions . Clans and committees such as TDA maintain their own official list of rules and regulations , and players can be kicked from matches by being placed on " banlists " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The popularity of Defense of the Ancients has increased over time . The scenario was featured by Computer Gaming World in a review of new maps and mods in Warcraft III . DotA Allstars became an important tournament scenario , starting with its prominence at the debut of Blizzard 's BlizzCon convention in 2005 . DotA Allstars was also featured in the Malaysia and Singapore World Cyber Games starting in 2005 , and the World Cyber Games Asian Championships beginning with the 2006 season . Defense of the Ancients was included in the game lineup for the internationally recognized Cyberathlete Amateur League and CyberEvolution leagues . Additionally , the scenario appeared in Electronic Sports World Cup ( ESWC ) 2008 ; Oliver Paradis , ESWC 's competition manager , noted that the high level of community support behind the scenario , as well as its worldwide appeal , were among the reasons it was chosen .
The scenario is popular in many parts of the world ; in the Philippines and Thailand , it is played as much as the game Counter @-@ Strike . It is also popular in Sweden and other Northern European countries , where the Defense of the Ancients @-@ inspired song " Vi sitter i Ventrilo och spelar DotA " by Swedish musician Basshunter reached the European 2006 charts at # 116 and cracked the top ten Singles Charts in Sweden , Norway , and Finland . LAN tournaments are a major part of worldwide play , including tournaments in Sweden and Russia ; however , due to a lack of LAN tournaments and championships in North America , several teams disbanded . Blizzard points to DotA as an example of what dedicated mapmakers can create using developer 's tools .
In June 2008 , captainSMRT , writing for Gamasutra , stated that DotA " is likely the most popular and most @-@ discussed free , non @-@ supported game mod in the world " . In pointing to the strong community built around the game , Walbridge stated that DotA shows it is much easier for a community game to be maintained by the community , and this is one of the maps ' greatest strengths . Former game journalist Luke Smith called DotA " the ultimate RTS " .
Defense of the Ancients has been credited as one of the influences for the 2009 Gas Powered Games title Demigod , with the video game publication GameSpy noting the game 's premise revolved around aspiring gods " [ playing ] DotA in real life " . Guinsoo went on to apply many of the mechanics and lessons he learned from Defense of the Ancients to the Riot Games title League of Legends . Other " DotA clones " include S2 Games ' Heroes of Newerth . Blizzard Entertainment has also developed a new game inspired by DotA titled Heroes of the Storm , which features an array of heroes from Blizzard 's franchises .
= = = Sequel = = =
In October 2009 , IceFrog was hired by Valve Corporation , leading a team in a project that he described as " great news for DotA fans " . Valve officially announced the stand @-@ alone sequel , Dota 2 , in October 2010 . Dota 2 follows heavily in the gameplay style of DotA , with aesthetics and heroes working mostly as direct ports to the original mod . In addition to the pre @-@ conceived gameplay constants , Dota 2 also features Steam support and profile tracking , intended to emphasize and support the game 's matchmaking and community .
The marketing and trademark of Dota as a franchise by Valve gained concern and opposition from the DotA Allstars contributors working at Riot Games , as well as Blizzard Entertainment , both of which legally opposed the franchising of Dota by Valve . The legal dispute was conceded on May 11 , 2012 , with Valve gaining undisputed franchising rights for commercial use to the trademark , while non @-@ commercial use remains open to the public . Dota 2 was officially released in July 2013 .
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= Dragon Quest VI =
Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Revelation ( ドラゴンクエストVI 幻の大地 , Doragon Kuesuto Shikkusu Maboroshi no Daichi , " Dragon Quest VI : Land of Illusion " ) , Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Reverie in Europe , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Heartbeat and published by Enix ( now Square Enix ) for the Super Famicom as a part of the Dragon Quest series and as the last Dragon Quest game in the Zenithia trilogy . It was released on December 9 , 1995 , in Japan , developed by Heartbeat ; whereas the previous Dragon Quest games were developed by Chunsoft . In July 2007 , Square Enix announced a series of remakes of Dragon Quest IV : Chapters of the Chosen , Dragon Quest V : Hand of the Heavenly Bride and Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Revelation for the Nintendo DS , making this the first time the game in question got released on other consoles and overseas . Like its predecessor , Dragon Quest VI was a Japan @-@ only release as the larger ROMs needed for English dialog were cost @-@ prohibitive ( the game was already 32 megabits in size , the limit for SNES ROMs without using bank switching ) . In addition , the game 's release occurred very late into the SNES 's lifespan , by which time Enix had dropped support for the console outside Japan . The title was finally released overseas for the Nintendo DS in North America on February 14 , 2011 , and in Europe on May 20 , 2011 . A version of the game for Android and iOS was released in Japan on June 10 , 2015 , and worldwide in English on June 24 , 2015 .
As the sixth installment to the Dragon Quest series , the graphics and gameplay remain close to the other games , with minor additions and upgrades . The graphics were vastly improved from Dragon Quest V : Hand of the Heavenly Bride , which was also for the SNES , but had rather unimpressive graphics due to being an early game on the console . Navigation remains largely unchanged from the previous games and the turn @-@ based battles are still in first @-@ person . The class system from Dragon Quest III returns , with minor adjustments . The large cartridge ROM used by the game resulted in an extremely high price of 11 @,@ 970 yen ( about 137 dollars ) , Dragon Quest VI sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies in Japan , becoming the best selling game of 1995 . The DS version sold an additional one million copies by March 2010 .
The story follows the traditional Dragon Quest " Hero " on a quest to save the world . In this particular installment , the heroes also have to endure the personal struggle of amnesia , as many of the main characters do not initially remember who they are . After completing a series of quests , the player learns that in addition to a Real World , there is also a Dream World , made up of people 's dreams , and that there is a great evil that wants to conquer both . The Hero and his new party work together to save both worlds from the ever @-@ growing threat .
= = Gameplay = =
Dragon Quest VI is a traditional , turn @-@ based role @-@ playing video game ( in an overhead perspective ) which features random battles and a character class system that the Hero and his party members acquire new skills and spells . The Hero travels around the world gathering a party throughout his adventure . To progress in the story , the party must defeat specific boss monsters or trigger specific flags . In order to defeat the bosses , the player must spend time training the party by gaining experience points from battles to advance in character and class levels .
Other new features were added to the series , such as the monsters being animated when they attack . The Slime Arena and Best Dresser Contest were new mini @-@ games introduced ; the casinos return from previous Dragon Quest games . Like previous games , mini medals can be found hidden throughout the worlds and can be traded for items . There are bonus dungeons and a few extra characters after beating the main storyline . There is a day and night system , as in some previous installments ; with certain storyline events happening at night . While the Monster Master class can catch monsters in the original Super Famicom version it is not a major part of the game . Another returning feature from the past two games is the use of the wagon , which allows characters to be swapped out for other ones on the world map .
This Dragon Quest , similar to Dragon Warrior III and Dragon Warrior VII , has a class system . Once the party gets to Alltrades Abbey , they have the option of becoming one of several starter classes . Each class has eight levels , which are gained by winning a specific number of battles ( unlike character levels , which are gained by earning experience points ) , and advancing in level teaches a character new spells and / or skills , which are retained across class changes . Once a character has mastered a specific set of two or three starter classes , they can change into a hybrid class which builds on their themes ; for example , mastering Warrior and Martial Artist unlocks the Gladiator Class , which learns powerful physical attacks , and mastering certain hybrid classes unlocks the Hero class . Some of the classes give special bonuses beyond their stats and abilities such as the Merchant who gives a small bonus to the party 's income after every battle , or the Sage who receives a discount to MP costs . To master a class , the character must fight a set number of battles as that class . Once certain hybrid classes are mastered , a stat relating to that class will permanently go up . There are two secret classes as well , Dragon ( Hackasaurus ) and Liquid Metal Slime , which are unlockable through consumable books . Dragon Quest VI was the first game in the series to include abilities or skills ( トクギ , tokugi ) ( special attacks and other techniques which are not spells and usually do not cost MP ) for human party members . These special techniques were added to the remakes of III , IV and V later on .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Like the other Dragon Quest games in the series , the setting of Dragon Quest VI is very medieval , complete with castles , knights , and magic . The main world is divided into the " Real World " and " Dream World " , each with a separate , but similar map . To get from one world to the other , the party uses special warps ( such as in wells ) , by ascending / descending stairs on the world map or falling through holes in the " Dream World " to the " Real World " . If something cannot be found in the " Real World " , it may appear in the " Dream World " , such as with Spiegelspire , at the middle of the game .
= = = Story = = =
Dragon Quest VI opens as the Hero and his party of a mysterious woman and a bulky man approach Murdaw , the demon king ’ s castle . After the girl uses an ocarina to summon a dragon , the party enters the castle and comes face to face with Murdaw ( Mudo " 魔王ムドー " in Japanese version ) . Overpowering the trio , the demon king appears to destroy each member of the party , but suddenly , the Hero wakes up in the mountain town Weaver 's Peak . Tania , a young woman from Weaver 's Peak , insists that he was having a bad dream and introduces herself as his sister .
After getting off the bed , the Hero is then given a task to get a crown in preparation for the annual Mountain Spirit festival from the elder which takes him to Haggleton . However he finds out the man that is supposed to make the crown has gone out somewhere to the northwest of town and never came back . The hero then heads in that direction and finds a large hole with the crown maker just barely hanging on . The hero attempts to rescue him and succeeds but in the process , slips and falls to the world below . In this mysterious world , the hero finds a nearby town in which the townspeople cannot see him . The hero grabs a tip from one of the townspeople that there 's a special well to the north which people went in never came back ; thus the hero heads in that direction and returns to his world .
After getting the ceremonial crown from the crown maker for no charge after saving his life , the hero heads back to Weaver 's Peak just in time for the festival to begin . During the festival , the hero receives a mysterious vision that a great evil was to take over the world and asks him to leave the village in preparation for this disaster . The next day , the hero finds out that the world that he stumbled onto was called the " Phantom World " and is given a pass by the elder which allows him entry into Somnia , where he can meet the king .
At Somnia , the hero meets Carver , which doesn 't seem to remember the hero . The Hero then meets Captain Blade , leader of Somnia 's military which gives the potential soldier candidates a task to find a special item in a tower . The hero manages to find this item successfully and formally becomes a soldier of Somnia . After a task which the Hero and Carver work together to get a horse for an old man , Carver also becomes a soldier of Somnia and himself and the hero are given permission to talk to the king where they learn to defeat Murdaw , they need the Mirror of Ra . The Hero and Carver discover another portal similar to the one near Haggleton , which eventually leads them to Port Haven , another town where they can not be seen . Milly , also appearing to have lost her memory , does see them and helps them become visible via Madame Luca 's help .
The party discovers a Somnia Castle in the “ Phantom World ” and learns that the prince is missing and that the Hero looks like him . They also meet Captain Rusty , who bears a striking resemblance to Captain Blade . Gaining entrance to the Moonmirror Tower , the party meets Ashlynn , a woman who was invisible in the “ Phantom World ” at first , too , and together they find the Mirror of Ra . The four of them travel to Murdaw 's castle , in the original world . After defeating Murdaw , the Hero uses the Mirror on him . Murdaw then turns into the King of Somnia , confused and unaware of what happened . The king reveals that the original world is in fact the Dream World and the Phantom World is the Real World . Upon traveling back to the Real World , the King of Somnia thanks the party for defeating Murdaw in his dreams , but that the real Murdaw lives and that the party must travel to Ghent to retrieve a boat to get to Murdaw 's lair . In Ghent , Nevan , a healer , joins the party and allows them to use the Ghent Clan 's ship . During the fight with the real Murdaw , the Hero gets is again sent back to Weaver 's Peak . However , with the Mirror of Ra , the Hero warps back into the battle and defeats Murdaw .
The Queen of Somnia tells the Hero to discover who he really is . The quest leads the party to Arkbolt , where a terrible monster is blocking a nearby cave . The reward for defeating the monster is the famed Sunderbolt Blade , but before the party can strike the final blow , a warrior by the name of Terry kills the monster , winning the sword . After traveling both worlds , the party learns that Murdaw was not the only evil in the world , having fought several other monsters that all seem to be connected .
In Sorceria , the party learns that this is Ashlynn 's home . The elders tell Ashlynn that the Demon Lord is watching her and give her the powerful spell Magic Burst to fight him . The party also learns that the only way to get to the Demon Lord is through Zenith Tower , but to activate the tower , they need to collect the sword , armor , shield , and helmet of legend . While doing so , the Hero meets his double in Real Weaver 's Peak , who gets spooked , and speaks ' Y @-@ You . Y @-@ You 're m @-@ m @-@ me ! ' , and says that he must prove himself to be faithful to his family if he is to join powers . Returning to Real Somnia , the King and Queen tell the Hero that he is indeed the prince . When he fused with his clone , the Hero gained his memory back , much like Ashlynn and Carver had done .
The party reaches Cloudsgate Citadel and meets Dhuran ( デュラン ) , who claims to have taken over the castle . He summons Terry to fight the party and then fights the party himself . Dhuran then reveals that all the enemies the party has faced were just pawns of Mortamor , the Archfiend . Milly reveals that Terry is her brother and Terry decides to join the party and fight against Mortamor .
Once Cloudsgate Citadel is back to normal , the party speaks to King Zenith who informs them of Mortamor 's doings and how to reach the Dread Realm . Mortamor plans on merging both worlds . The party ’ s horse fuses with Pegasus , allowing the party to fly to the Dread Realm . Several challenges await in the Dread Realm , with one such challenge being the party 's strength suddenly and unexpectedly plummeting . With the help of two Supreme Sage brothers , Benjamin and Isaac , the party enters Mortamor 's Castle . After solving many puzzles , they come face to face with Mortamor and defeat him . Isaac reveals that the Dread Realm is falling apart and Pegasus helps them escape . After returning to the Real World , everyone parts ways , with Ashlynn having to return to the Dream World since her Real World self doesn 't exist anymore . With Mortamor 's link between the Real World and the Dream World severed , the Dream World vanishes , with only Cloudgate Castle being the remaining visible portion in the Real World . It 's then shown that Ashlynn is in the castle , taking care of the newly hatched Zenithian Dragon .
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
The scenario designer , as in all previous Dragon Quest games , was Yuji Horii . Similarly , the lead artist was Akira Toriyama and the sound was composed by Koichi Sugiyama . This is the last game in the series to feature the Tenkuu no Shiro ( Castle in the Sky ) trilogy .
A prequel , Dragon Warrior Monsters ( Dragon Quest Monsters : Terry 's Wonderland in Japan ) , was released in 1998 . This game featured Terry and Milly years before the events of Dragon Quest VI . It was released in North America the next year , even though Dragon Quest VI was never released in North America . Along with Terry and Milly , several of the main enemies , including Mortamor , reappear , however , their previous roles have been eliminated , making them appear as just normal enemies . Mortamor and Murdaw ( DeathMore and Mudou , respectively , in the localization ) do appear as very challenging , very late in @-@ game bosses , though .
= = = Release = = =
The initial release was delayed over a year because of Enix wanting to further develop their game . The game was eventually shown at Shoshinkai in November 1995 . Dragon Quest VI was released a few weeks later on December 9 , with the very steep price of 11 @,@ 400 yen ( roughly over 100 U.S. dollars ) . The game went on to sell over 3 @.@ 2 million copies . In Japan , the game made the news in 2005 , when a Japanese student threatened another student over an argument about which Dragon Quest is the best , the student doing the threatening favoring Dragon Quest VI .
Like its predecessor , Dragon Quest VI did not receive an English @-@ language localization because of being cost @-@ ineffective . At 4MB , it was one of the largest games made for the SNES as well as the largest the console could support without adding bank @-@ switching circuitry to the cartridge , and translating it would have necessitated even bigger and more expensive ROMs . In addition , the game was a late release for the SNES and by the time an English localization could be finished , Enix had already dropped support for the console in North America and moved to the PlayStation .
= = = Nintendo DS remake = = =
The Dragon Quest VI enhanced remake for the Nintendo DS was announced in late 2007 by Square Enix and was developed by ArtePiazza . The game was released in Japan on January 28 , 2010 , in North America on February 14 , 2011 , and in Europe on May 20 , 2011 .
This version has a few differences
The after @-@ battle monster recruitment has been removed . In the original 1995 Super Famicon version of Dragon Quest VI , certain types of monsters can be randomly recruited if they are defeated with a Monster Master in the party . In the 2010 DS remake , this system has been removed , instead , there are certain Slimes that will join you once you accomplish a specific task . Lizzie still remains recruitable .
Since this version comes with a built in map of both worlds on the top of the screen , the World Map and the Magic Map have been removed .
The ' Tag Mode ' system from Dragon Quest IX has been implemented , which allows wireless communication and data transfer between two DS systems .
A Slime Curling mini @-@ game was added .
The names of the following characters from this game were changed in Dragon Quest IX as follows : Mireille ( Mireyu ) as Milly , Hassan as Carver , Barbara ( Bābara ) as Ashlynn , Redach ( Reidakku ) as Somnia , and San Marino as Port Haven .
On April 28 , 2008 , it was reported that Square Enix has applied for the trademark " The Realms of Reverie " at the United States Patent and Trademark Office , leading to speculation that it was the localized title for this game . On May 20 , 2008 , Square Enix opened up the North American site featuring the three Dragon Quest DS remakes , acknowledging Realms of Reverie as the official subtitle , as well as confirming a release in North America . The title was later changed to " Realms of Revelation " just prior to release . Listings in some stores , including on price tags and the like , still use the " Reverie " title .
Mark Franklin , director of Public Relations at Nintendo , made the claim that Dragon Quest VI : Realms of Revelation “ will give fans unique access to a classic game in the series for the first time ” outside Japan .
= = Related media = =
= = = Soundtracks = = =
As with every Dragon Quest , Koichi Sugiyama composed the music and directed all the associated spinoffs . Three soundtracks were released for the music of Dragon Quest VI . The first was a two @-@ disk soundtrack , which included an orchestral performance and an OST . The second soundtrack was released on August 23 , 2000 , and just had the orchestral version . This version was released by SPE Visual Works ( now Aniplex ) , and was named Dragon Quest VI ~ The Dream World ~ Symphonic Suite . This version was featured on Dragon Quest Daizenshu Vol . 2 , which is a compilation of Dragon Quest music . A second Symphonic Suite edition of the OST was performed in March 2005 and released on July 19 , 2006 , also by Aniplex . The Symphonic Suite tracklist is as follows :
All songs written and composed by Koichi Sugiyama .
= = = Manga = = =
A 10 @-@ volume manga adaptation of the game was also made , which titled Dragon Quest Maboroshi no Daichi ( ドラゴンクエスト 幻の大地 , lit . Dragon Quest : Land of Illusion ) . It was authored by Masaomi Kanzaki and published by Enix in the Monthly Shōnen Gangan between 1997 and 2001 . The storyline roughly follows that of the video game from which it was based but with several differences , such as the inclusion of the character Kizu Buchi , a spotted slime .
= = Reception = =
Kurt Kalata of Gamasutra praised the game 's storyline , particularly its innovative scenario . While comparable to the light @-@ dark world setting of The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past , Dragon Quest VI featured a unique real world and dream world setting , which he suggests had an influence on the later Square role @-@ playing games Chrono Cross and Final Fantasy X. Kalata also praised the gameplay improvements , including its class system that improves on Dragon Quest III and is now more similar to Final Fantasy V , and the addition of a bag that improves on the inventory management of previous games . He concludes that it is " still a fantastic game . "
= = = Sales = = =
Despite the very high price of 11 @,@ 970 yen ( about 100 US dollars ) , Dragon Quest VI sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies in Japan , of which 2 @.@ 5 million were sold before the end of 1995 resulting in it becoming the best selling game of 1995 . In 2010 , Dragon Quest VI for the Nintendo DS sold almost a million copies in Japan in its first week . The game sold over 1 @.@ 2 million copies by March 2010 .
According to Nintendo Power , Dragon Quest VI was originally planned for North American release in the spring of 1996 under the title " Dragon Warrior V. " However , the Super Nintendo localization of the game never happened , Enix having already given up on the U.S. market . Square , one of the only companies still willing to bring console role @-@ playing video games to the United States , was also still struggling to get their games to sell in the United States , and therefore , Dragon Quest VI had no companies willing to take a risk for it . In Nintendo Power vol . 81 , the staff wrote an article on Dragon Quest VI , hoping the game would find a North American release . They also suggested why the series might not appeal to the American audience : there is too much fighting and not enough adventuring . Other critics have mentioned that class building becomes tedious and that the dual worlds are too overwhelming , both possible reasons against a US release . Dragon Quest VI was listed as # 7 among the 10 Best Japanese Games Never Released in the U.S. by GamePro magazine in their May 2005 issue .
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= Atlantic campaign of May 1794 =
The Atlantic campaign of May 1794 was a series of operations conducted by the British Royal Navy 's Channel Fleet against the French Navy 's Atlantic Fleet , with the aim of preventing the passage of a strategically important French grain convoy travelling from the United States to France . The campaign involved commerce raiding by detached forces and two minor engagements , eventually culminating in the full fleet action of the Glorious First of June 1794 , at which both fleets were badly mauled and both Britain and France claimed victory . The French lost seven battleships ; the British none , but the battle distracted the British fleet long enough for the French convoy to safely reach port .
By the spring of 1794 , the French Republic , under the rule of the National Convention , was at war with all its neighbours . With famine imminent , the French Committee of Public Safety looked to France 's colonies and the United States to provide an infusion of grain ; this was to be convoyed across the Atlantic during April , May and June , accompanied by a small escort squadron and supported by a second , larger squadron in the Bay of Biscay . However , political upheaval had severely reduced the French Navy 's ability to fight coherently and supply shortages had devastated its morale , significantly weakening the fleet . Britain , by contrast , was at a high state of readiness with a well @-@ organised command structure , but was suffering from a severe shortage of trained seamen with which to man its large navy . The French Atlantic Fleet , under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse , was tasked with keeping the British Channel Fleet occupied long enough for the convoy to reach France safely . The Channel Fleet , commanded by Lord Howe , knew of the convoy 's passage , and dispatched squadrons to protect British commerce while pursuing Villaret himself with the main body of the Royal Navy 's Channel Fleet . For over a week the two battlefleets manoeuvred around one another , Villaret drawing Howe deeper westwards into the Atlantic and away from the convoy . Two partial but inconclusive fleet actions on 28 and 29 May followed , during which Howe seized the weather gage from Villaret , granting him freedom to choose the time and place of his next attack .
The culminating action of the campaign took place over 400 nautical miles ( 740 km ) into the Atlantic , and became known as the Glorious First of June . This final engagement saw Howe use the weather gage to attack Villaret directly while his opponent attempted to fight in a traditional line of battle formation . In the battle , the British fleet inflicted a heavy defeat on the French after a bitterly contested day of fighting . Forcing Villaret to retreat , Howe 's force captured seven French battleships , one of which later sank , and inflicted 7 @,@ 000 casualties on the enemy . Villaret however , claimed strategic success as his delaying tactics had bought enough time for the convoy to reach France safely . The battle was the first in a series of defeats the French Navy suffered during the early years of the war , which bred a defeatist attitude and an unwillingness among the French officer corps to engage the British at sea .
= = Background = =
In the winter of 1793 , war and internal disorder had combined with poor weather to leave France facing starvation following the collapse of the harvest . France 's ongoing conflict with her neighbours precluded overland imports ; the only nation willing and able to sell grain to the National Convention was the United States . Importing food from the Americas was a highly risky venture , as the British Royal Navy — at war with France since early 1793 — patrolled much of the Atlantic passage . To provide effective protection for the vessels involved , a plan was agreed between France and the United States to collect the supplies over a period of months and transport them in a single convoy . A gathering point was arranged at Hampton Roads in the Chesapeake Bay .
A squadron commanded by Admiral Pierre Vanstabel was dispatched to Hampton Roads to provide escort . Vanstabel would bring the convoy to the Bay of Biscay , where a second squadron under Joseph @-@ Marie Nielly would reinforce him for the rest of the journey . Together , these officers mustered six ships of the line and numerous smaller craft . The main French battlefleet of 25 ships under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse would cruise the Bay of Biscay in order to challenge the British Channel Fleet if it attempted to intercept the supplies . The convoy 's passage was expected to take approximately two months , and it included 117 merchant ships carrying enough food to feed France for a year .
Lord Howe , admiral of the British Channel Fleet , was aware of the convoy 's nature and destination long before it left the Chesapeake , and made preparations to block its passage . Sending several small squadrons to protect British commerce crossing the Bay of Biscay , Howe detailed Admiral George Montagu with six battleships to search for the convoy in the south of the Bay while Howe took the main body of the fleet , 26 ships of the line , to patrol near Brest .
= = May 1794 = =
April 1794 was a month of fevered activity on both sides of the English Channel as Villaret and Howe made their final preparations for the coming campaign . The slow French convoy had departed American waters on 2 April , and British convoys destined for the Empire had sailed from Portsmouth on 2 May . Howe used his whole force to provide them with protection as far as the Western Approaches , and on 5 May sent the frigates HMS Latona and HMS Phaeton close in to Brest to ascertain the status of the French — they reported that Villaret 's battlefleet was still in harbour .
= = = Commerce raiding = = =
Out in the Atlantic , the detached squadrons of Nielly ( French ) and Montagu ( British ) were commerce raiding against enemy merchant shipping , but had thus far failed to find the main food convoy . Nielly encountered a British convoy from Newfoundland and took ten ships as prizes — including the convoy escort , the 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Castor . Thomas Troubridge , captain of the Castor , would spend the entire campaign aboard Nielly 's flagship Sans Pareil . Montagu also met with some success on 15 May , recapturing the merchant ships Nielly had taken , along with the French corvette Marie @-@ Guiton and accurate intelligence on the direction and size of the French convoy which Montagu immediately passed to Howe . Resuming his patrol in the Mid @-@ Atlantic , Nielly found the convoy from America a few days later , and transferred two of his ships to Vanstabel 's escort to augment the convoy 's defences . He then returned to the Eastern Atlantic to look for signs of British activity which might pose a threat to its passage . He also dispatched frigates to Villaret , carrying information about the convoy 's location and speed .
While Nielly and Montagu searched out at sea , Howe took his fleet on a series of cruises back and forth across the Bay of Biscay in the hope of catching the convoy . Between 5 and 18 May he found nothing and so returned to Brest , where his scouting frigates reported that the French battlefleet had gone . Taking advantage of dense fog , Villaret had sailed the previous day , his ships passing within earshot of the British fleet . The French admiral was on the trail of Nielly 's squadron ; his intention was to meet both Nielly and the convoy and combine forces ; with superior numbers he would then be able to escort the convoy to France in safety . Having eluded Howe and still some days from his planned rendezvous , Villaret gained an unexpected success when he ran across a Dutch convoy of 53 vessels . Its escorts , Alliance and Waakzaamheid , fled at the sight of the approaching French fleet , and Villaret was free to attack the convoy , capturing 20 merchantmen .
= = = Howe 's pursuit = = =
Howe realised that the direction of Villaret 's departure would take him directly across Admiral Montagu 's planned route , and that , should Montagu meet Villaret , the British squadron would be destroyed . Setting all sail in pursuit , Howe followed Villaret into the Atlantic on 20 May . The next day Howe 's ships recaptured ten of the lost Dutch merchantmen , but he was forced to burn them since crewing them with British sailors would weaken his own already understrength fleet . Prisoners from these ships gave Howe the information that the French fleet was only a short distance ahead , but that it had been joined by an additional ship from Nielly 's squadron as well as several frigates . By now satisfied that Montagu was safely to the southwest , Howe pressed on hoped to bring Villaret to battle within the week . On 23 May however , the British fleet was driven southwards by strong winds and had to slowly work its way north to find the French track again . The detour did however enable him to recapture and destroy four more of Villaret 's Dutch prizes .
On the morning of 25 May Howe 's pursuit finally bore fruit , when his scouting frigates spotted a lone French ship of the line at 04 : 00 . This ship sighted Howe 's force at the same time , and immediately made off in the direction of the French fleet . The fleeing battleship left behind an American merchant ship she had been towing , which when taken reported that the French ship was Audacieux , of Nielly 's squadron . Pursuing Audacieux after burning the American prize , the British fleet also overran and burnt two French corvettes , the 20 @-@ gun Républicaine and 16 @-@ gun Inconnue . Continuing his chase over the next three days , on 28 May Howe 's lookouts spotted the French on the eastern horizon slightly to the south , indicating that the French held the weather gage . [ Note A ]
= = 28 May = =
With his enemy visible from the deck of his flagship by 06 : 30 , Howe recalled his frigates and ordered his fleet to press on all sail in the hope of engaging the rear of the scattered French line . By 10 : 35 Howe 's continued pursuit was making his own battleline ragged , but he pressed on in the belief that Villaret intended to use the weather gage to outrun him and escape . To counter this , Howe ordered his fastest ships into a flying squadron under Admiral Thomas Pasley . This squadron was significantly faster than the majority of the vessels in either fleet and rapidly closed with the French rear . The first shots of the engagement were fired at 14 : 30 by HMS Russell , commanded by John Willett Payne , which managed some long @-@ distance fire at the rearmost French ships on the opposite tack . Fire was returned by the French but without significant effect . In an attempt to hold off Pasley 's squadron , at 17 : 00 the French first rate 110 @-@ gun Révolutionnaire exchanged places with the smaller third rates at the rear of the line and engaged the pursuing British van . This manoeuvre was apparently conducted on the initiative of Captain Vandangel of Révolutionnaire without orders from Admiral Villaret or his political observer Jean Bon Saint @-@ André .
Through a sharp and skilful tack , HMS Bellerophon , one of the slowest ships in the British van , succeeded in bringing the Révolutionnaire to steady action at 18 : 00 . The ships exchanged fire for twenty minutes , the weaker Bellerophon taking severe damage to her rigging , and falling back to be replaced by HMS Marlborough under Captain George Cranfield Berkeley . Marlborough was joined by HMS Russell and HMS Thunderer , and between them they shot away much of the Révolutionnaire 's rigging , so that by 19 : 30 she was unmanageable . HMS Leviathan also joined the action , firing at an unidentified ship ahead of Révolutionnaire . Concerned about Pasley 's squadron becoming cut off from the main body of his fleet , Howe recalled them to the British line at 20 : 00 . All complied except the newly arrived HMS Audacious under Captain William Parker . Audacious had engaged Révolutionnaire so closely that she could not safely withdraw , and although her gunnery eventually dismasted her huge opponent , Audacious took severe damage .
It was not until 22 : 00 that Audacious and Révolutionnaire disentangled themselves and limped apart — their respective fleets now some way off . Audacious 's crew later claimed that Révolutionnaire had struck her colours during the engagement , although this has not been corroborated . Parker stated that he did not take possession of Révolutionnaire because he was concerned by the distant sighting of nine French battleships on the horizon . He had spotted a squadron under Commodore Jean @-@ Joseph Castagnier , which was uninvolved in the current campaign and which soon disappeared without participating in any of the subsequent engagements . Audacious 's crew made strenuous efforts to repair their ship and rejoin the British fleet during the night , but became disorientated and in the morning Audacious was still only half a mile from her former opponent .
Révolutionnaire had suffered much more severely than Audacious , but survived the encounter without being boarded thanks to a misread signal by Captain Albemarle Bertie of Thunderer , who failed to take possession of the dismasted three @-@ decker when ordered to . During the night Villaret sent reinforcements to rescue Révolutionnaire , and at dawn on 29 May Parker saw that his large opponent was soon to be supported by the undamaged ship of the line Audacieux , the frigate Bellone , and two corvettes . Once more Audacious came under fire from Révolutionnaire , leaving her no option but to flee this superior force . Audacious was chased for half an hour by Bellone and the corvettes , before losing them in a rain squall , and eventually returned to Plymouth on 3 June . Révolutionnaire also escaped pursuit and was taken under tow by Audacieux , who brought her safely to Rochefort several days later . For leaving the battlefleet before the main engagement , Révolutionnaire 's captain was subsequently arrested .
= = 29 May = =
With Audacious and Révolutionnaire lost in the dark behind them , both British and French fleets continued westwards towards the convoy rendezvous . At dawn on 29 May the British fleet saw Audacieux retiring to the east but did not follow , concentrating on the main French line with the hope of provoking a decisive engagement . Howe ordered his ships to pursue the enemy rear , and the British line was placed on a tack that was intended to cut through the French line and isolate and capture the ships east of the cut . Captain Anthony Molloy in HMS Caesar was chosen to lead the attack as his ship was the fastest in the fleet , but the manoeuvre was a complete failure due to the inexplicable refusal of Molloy to close with the enemy . Instead , Caesar and HMS Queen opened fire on the rearmost French ships from a distance . The vans of the opposing fleets then engaged in a long @-@ range broadside duel from 10 : 00 . This inflicted mild damage on both sides , the worst hit being the French Montagnard .
Having failed to cut the French line at his first attempt , Howe reissued the order at 12 : 30 . Once more Caesar was to lead the way , with the intention of splitting the enemy fleet in half . Captain Molloy then refused to carry out the order , signalling without cause that Caesar was unable to tack and then turning and sailing eastwards down the outside of the British fleet , rather than towards the enemy . This unexpected move threw the following ships into a state of confusion ; Queen , coming behind Caesar , attempted to obey Howe 's signal alone but was badly damaged by shot , and her captain John Hutt mortally wounded . Unable to effectively manoeuvre , Queen passed down the outside of the French line , firing as she went .
His plan in tatters , Howe responded by example , leading his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte towards the French line which was rapidly slipping ahead of the British , steering around the meandering Caesar as he did so . Queen Charlotte first attempted to break through the French between the sixth and seventh ships from the rear , but was unable to reach this gap and instead sailed between the fifth and sixth , raking the sixth ship Eole from close range . Bellerophon and Lord Hugh Seymour in Leviathan followed close behind the flagship . Both battleships attempted to cut between the subsequent French ships ; Bellerophon successfully , Leviathan prevented by damage to her helm . This manoeuvre changed the course of the battle , as Howe 's ships isolated and raked the Terrible , Tyrannicide , and Indomptable , forcing Villaret to either abandon his ships or sacrifice the weather gage to save them .
As Howe pressed after the main body of the French fleet — now tailed by the damaged Terrible — the rest of his fleet followed , bombarding the already battered Tyrannicide and Indomptable as they passed . As HMS Orion , HMS Invincible , and HMS Barfleur cut through the French in turn , Villaret wore his fleet round to face Howe . Encouraged by Caesar 's disobedience , he deliberately sacrificed the weather gage in the belief that Howe 's fleet was more damaged than it appeared . All of Villaret 's ships followed him except Montagnard , which refused to turn , claiming to be seriously damaged . Villaret 's manoeuvre soon isolated the Queen Charlotte , Bellerophon , and Leviathan , which were forced to retreat hastily before the main French force . Having driven away the ships threatening Indomptable and Tyrannicide , Villaret reformed his fleet and attempted to escape westwards , closely followed by the British van who were now holding the weather gage . Both fleets were too damaged to continue action in the remaining daylight and firing stopped at 17 : 00 . The British fleet has suffered 67 killed and 128 wounded during the day 's fighting .
Evening found the fleets approximately 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) apart , sailing northwest . Both were conducting hasty repairs and attempting to ready themselves for what all assumed would be another day of battle on 30 May . Significantly , Lord Howe was unaware that to the northeast , over the same sea as the previous day 's action had been fought , the ponderous convoy of merchant ships was passing , having successfully evaded British pursuit . Unlike his opponent Villaret knew the location of the convoy , which was joined that evening by the battered Montagnard . Escorting the convoy , Admiral Nielly had been appraised of the situation by Montagnard 's captain , and had left his escort duties to reinforce Villaret .
In a postscript to the day 's action the British frigate Castor , captured early in the campaign by Nielly , was attacked and retaken by the smaller HMS Carysfort under Captain Francis Laforey at the frigate action of 29 May 1794 . Some of the crew were released by their rescuers but most , including the officers , were not aboard , having been taken onto Nielly 's flagship Sans Pareil .
= = Between the actions = =
On the morning of 30 May , Howe sent a signal to all his captains asking if they considered their ships ready for combat . All but Caesar replied in the affirmative and Howe pushed his ships after the retreating French . Despite holding the weather gage , Howe 's pursuit was soon hampered by descending fog , and unable to see or come to grips with the enemy throughout the whole day , the admiral feared he may have lost his opportunity for battle . However , by 31 May the fog had cleared and the French were still within sight to the north . To the surprise of the British , none of the 26 battleships in the French fleet appeared to show battle damage , whereas many of the British ships were nursing damaged rigging and battered hulls . Villaret had made use of the fog to reorganise his force , losing Montagnard and the frigate Seine to the convoy but gaining the independently sailing battleship Trente @-@ un @-@ Mai and Nielly 's squadron of Sans Pareil , Trajan , and Téméraire . Villaret had also dispatched the battered Indomptable for home , escorted by an undamaged French ship .
Throughout 31 May Howe 's fleet closed with the French , making full use of the advantage of the weather gage . By 17 : 00 the fleets were five miles ( 9 km ) apart , but at 19 : 00 Howe gave orders to keep his ships out of shot range but within easy sailing of the French . He did not want a repeat of the confusion of 29 May and preferred to delay any combat until he was assured of a full day in which to conduct it , in order that his signals not be obscured or misinterpreted . During the night the fleets remained in visual contact , and by first light on 1 June the British were just six miles ( 11 km ) from Villaret 's fleet and organising in preparation to attack once more . Both fleets were now sailing in a western direction , Villaret still hoping to draw Howe away from the convoy .
= = Glorious First of June = =
At 09 : 24 on the morning of 1 June , Howe sent his ships into action using the original tactic of turning each ship in his line northwest simultaneously , so that they would bear down individually on Villaret 's fleet and each break the enemy line separately . His intention was to cut the French line in 25 places , raking the enemy vessels at both bow and stern and dividing their fire so they could be defeated piecemeal . Ultimately though this ambitious plan failed , due to ill @-@ discipline among Howe 's subordinates and the damage his fleet had sustained over the previous week . While six of Howe 's ships did break the French line as ordered , and several others came close , many of his captains failed to follow orders and instead engaged the enemy from a distance in desultory gun duels which had little effect .
As various British and French ships broke off into personal duels and some latecoming British ships struggled to get into action , Villaret led his flagship Montagne to the north and began assembling a coherent counter @-@ force from those of his fleet which had escaped Howe 's assault . In the melee itself several very hard @-@ fought engagements took place — particularly that between HMS Brunswick and Vengeur du Peuple . At least twelve ships were dismasted , with the British battleships HMS Marlborough and HMS Defence losing all three masts and ten French vessels suffering similarly .
By 11 : 30 the initial action was dying down , and Villaret brought his reconstituted force back towards the battle site to contest ownership of the dismasted hulks floating there . Howe likewise reformed his main force and met Villaret , who failed to capture any of the battered British ships but did regather six of his own , leaving Howe with seven prizes . Of these , the wrecked Vengeur soon sank , although British boats had removed many of her crew . Howe was left in possession of the battle site , but Villaret had successfully held off the British long enough for the convoy to pass to the east unmolested . Both fleets returned to their home ports over the next week .
= = The convoy arrives = =
While searching for the convoy during the first week of June , Montagu 's squadron became trapped between two French squadrons and was forced to sail southwards to avoid Villaret 's returning fleet . As a result , the French Atlantic seaboard was clear of British forces for a significant period . The food convoy arrived safely in France in the third week of June , and Montagu returned to Britain empty @-@ handed . Both nations claimed victory in the campaign ; the British by virtue of success in the only major action , and the French through the intact arrival of their convoy .
The campaign had notable effects on the navies of both Britain and France . The French did not directly contest British supremacy in Northern European waters again , spending most of the next 23 years in Brest and other ports , their few major sallies mainly directed at the Mediterranean . Continued upheavals in the French Navy resulted in a decline of quality in its officer corps , so that by the Battle of Trafalgar 11 years later the port @-@ bound nature of the French fleet had resulted in a cautious and inexperienced tactical outlook . In Britain , the battle created a division within the Royal Navy 's officer corps . Howe 's dispatch after the battle criticised some officers whom he believed had hesitated in action , and those officers received none of the honours distributed at the end of the campaign . Fallout from this dispute was widespread , with several senior figures resigning in disgust . Captain Molloy of HMS Caesar was ultimately court @-@ martialled and dismissed from the service for failing to support his admiral .
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= Charles Abbott , 1st Baron Tenterden =
Charles Abbott , 1st Baron Tenterden PC SL ( 7 October 1762 – 4 November 1832 ) , was a British barrister and judge who served as Lord Chief Justice of the King 's Bench between 1818 and 1832 . Born in obscure circumstances to a barber and his wife in Canterbury , Abbott was educated initially at a dame school before moving to The King 's School , Canterbury in 1769 . He was noted as an excellent student , receiving an exhibition scholarship from the school in March 1781 , when he matriculated at Corpus Christi College , Oxford . Here he was elected a fellow , and also served as a tutor to the son of Sir Francis Buller , which first made him consider becoming a barrister . He joined the Middle Temple in 1787 , transferring to the Inner Temple in 1793 , and was called to the Bar by the Inner Temple in 1796 . Abbott was noted as an excellent barrister , earning more than any other during his time at the Bar , despite being considered unimaginitive and a poor speaker . He was offered a position as a Justice of the Court of Common Pleas in 1808 , which he turned down ; he accepted the same offer in 1816 , receiving the customary knighthood and being appointed a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law .
Three months after he started sitting as a judge he was transferred to the Court of King 's Bench , where he was initially rather poor , being unfamiliar with the court 's business . Within two years he showed " the highest judicial excellence " , and when Lord Ellenborough had a stroke in 1818 , Abbott was chosen to replace him as Lord Chief Justice . His reign at the head of the Court of King 's Bench saw the court flourish , with strong justices and his own much @-@ admired abilities . He was appointed to the peerage in 1827 , sitting as Charles Abbott , 1st Baron Tenterden , and initially attended the House of Lords regularly . His opposition to the Reform Act 1832 , which he claimed treated city corporations " with absolute contempt " , led to his refusal to attend the Lords . Continuing to sit as Lord Chief Justice , Abbott gradually grew weaker , and finally fell ill halfway through a two @-@ day trial . His disease baffled doctors , and he eventually died on 4 November 1832 at his home in Queen Square , London .
= = Early life and education = =
Abbott was born on 7 October 1762 in Canterbury to John Abbott , a barber , and his wife Alice . Abbot lived in a " small , mean @-@ looking house " near the Cathedral , and was initially educated at a dame school . During his childhood he was noted as " industrious , apprehensive , regular and correct in all his conduct " . He attended The King 's School , Canterbury , from 1769 , where he was such a good student that he received an exhibition scholarship on his matriculation at Corpus Christi College , Oxford , in March 1781 . At the time there were only two awards at Oxford : the Chancellor 's medals for English and Latin prose . After an initial attempt to win them which failed , he won the Latin prize in his second year and the English prize in the third . Abbot was then elected a fellow of Corpus Christi where , acting as a tutor to the son of Sir Francis Buller , he first considered becoming a barrister . On 16 November 1787 he became a member of the Middle Temple , transferring to the Inner Temple in 1793 , and worked for two years under Sir George Wood as a special pleader ; it was said that he had finished his work as a special pleader faster than " any man before or since " . He was called to the Bar by the Inner Temple in 1796 .
= = Career = =
Abbott began practising on the Oxford Circuit ; while travelling there he had a fall from his horse , which broke his leg in two places and left him permanently lame . In 1802 he published a legal tract , On Merchants ' Ships and Seamen , which was praised by his fellow lawyers and earned him a large amount of commercial work ; it was later republished in the United States , where it was misattributed to Charles Abbot , the Speaker of the House of Commons . He was eventually " as eminent and prosperous as a counsel can be at the English bar " , although he refused to apply for silk . From 1802 to 1816 he served as " Devil to the Attorney General " , opening all government prosecutions , and was standing counsel for the Bank of England and many Deans and Prelates in the Church of England . By 1807 he was making £ 8 @,@ 000 a year , and later exceeded this amount ; it was remarked that he earned more money than any other barrister of that time . Abbott was not a " flashy " barrister ; although known as an excellent lawyer , his speeches were monotonous and he lacked an imagination .
In 1808 he was offered a position as a Justice of the Court of Common Pleas , but refused it . After eight more years of work , however , he felt that his health could no longer take the strain , and accepted a position in the Court of Common Pleas on 24 January 1816 , along with becoming a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law as required . Abbot was granted the customary knighthood , with the motto " Labore " , which he also used for his peerage . He stayed in this post for barely three months , with no records of his work there surviving , before being transferred against his will to the Court of King 's Bench on 3 May to replace Simon Le Blanc .
Abbott , unfamiliar with the Court of King 's Bench ( having been a regional lawyer rather than a London @-@ based one ) , was initially a disappointment , but soon improved . By 1818 he showed " the highest judicial excellence " , although he was criticised for snapping at boring barristers and for taking the government 's side in prosecutions . That year , the Lord Chief Justice Lord Ellenborough had a stroke , forcing his retirement . Most of the other judges and legal figures were inappropriate for the role ; Sir Samuel Shepherd , for example , was while an able lawyer too deaf to sit as a judge . As a result , Abbott was appointed , and formally took up his position on 4 November 1818 . As Lord Chief Justice he saw the Court of King 's Bench flourish , with competent Justices and his own abilities ; " [ Abbott ] had more knowledge of mankind than any of [ the Justices ] , and was more skilful as a moderator in forensic disputation " . Abbott 's central weakness as a judge was seen to be his support of James Scarlett , his leader when Abbott was a barrister ; " The timid junior , become Chief Justice , still looked up to his old leader with dread , was afraid of offending him , and was always delighted when he could decide in his favour " .
On 30 April 1827 , Abbott was made Baron Tenterden , of Hendon in the County of Middlesex ; having feared that " Lord Abbott " would leave him open to ridicule , he instead picked the name of a Kentish town near his roots . On 24 May Abbott formally took up his position , attending the House of Lords regularly , and was the last Chief Justice to wear his official robes to the Lords ( other than those acting as interim Speakers ) . In 1830 he introduced several bills to Parliament following reports on the state of the Ecclesiastical Courts , common law courts and law of real property ; all were passed , except the ecclesiastical bills , as Parliament ran out of time to hear them . They were heard during the next Parliamentary session in 1831 , and both passed ; they " by no means established for him the reputation of a skilful legislator ... the judges have found it infinitely difficult to put a reasonable construction upon them " . The Reform Act 1832 led to his departure from the Lords , and is considered to have greatly shortened his life ; he fought strongly for the city corporations , which he claimed the bill treated " with absolute contempt " , but was eventually defeated . Having threatened that , should it pass , " Never , never my Lords , shall I enter the doors of this House " , he was true to his word , and never returned to politics , although from 8 August to 3 September 1827 he was interim Chancellor of the Exchequer , following the convention that , when vacant , the position should be held by the Lord Chief Justice .
= = Death = =
Abbott first began to grow ill in May 1832 , when he wrote to Sir Egerton Brydges that " My spirit is so depressed , that when I am not strongly excited by some present object that admits of no delay , I sink into something very nearly approaching torpidity " . Although he got somewhat better , giving his annual dinner to the King 's Counsel , it was noticed that he was unable to drink his wine properly . He went to the Midland Circuit in June , as it was the easiest one , but he suffered from " a violent cough " and other symptoms , returning to his home in Hendon . After the first day of a two @-@ day case he found himself losing his appetite and suffering from a fever , which caused him to talk incoherently and become delirious . The disease baffled doctors , and finally killed him on 4 November 1832 at his home in Queen Square , London ; his last words were " and now , gentlemen of the jury , you will consider of your verdict " . He was buried at the Foundling Hospital , of which he was a governor .
= = Personal life = =
Abbott married Mary Lamotte on 30 July 1795 . He enjoyed the domestic element of his life , and records show love poetry written to his wife . Prior to their marriage Mary had sent him a lock of her hair ; in exchange , he wrote a poem for her entitled " The Answer of a Lock of Hair to the Inquiries of its Former Mistress " . The couple had two sons and two daughters ; John , Charles , Mary and Catherine . Catherine later married John Rowland Smyth .
Abbott was considered cautious , with an " aversion to all that was experimental " and a " want of fancy " which were considered excellent traits for a judge , giving him " a very prominent rank indeed amongst our ablest judges " . He possessed a violent disposition ; " his temper was naturally bad ; it was hasty and it was violent ; forming a natural contrast with the rest of his mind " , but he successfully controlled this . This occasionally came out in court , however , and he was noted as particularly caustic and intolerant of unnecessarily complex sentences . When one witness , an apothecary , used a particularly complex medical phrase , Abbott shouted that he should " Speak English sir , if you can , or I must swear in an interpreter " . He was considered " dull in private life as well as in public ; and neither crimes nor follies could ever be imputed upon him " ; despite this he was " a great magistrate , and his judgments [ were ] studied and admired " . Edward Foss wrote of him that " no judge ever sat on the bench who displayed greater learning , cleverness and discrimination ; nor whose judgments have ever been so undisputed .
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= John J. Tigert =
John James Tigert , IV ( February 11 , 1882 – January 21 , 1965 ) was an American university president , university professor and administrator , college sports coach and the U.S. Commissioner of Education . Tigert was a native of Tennessee and the son and grandson of Methodist bishops . After receiving his bachelor 's degree , he earned his master 's degree as a Rhodes Scholar .
After completing his education , Tigert taught at Central College ; served as the president of Kentucky Wesleyan College ; and worked as a professor , sports coach and administrator at the University of Kentucky .
Tigert gained his greatest national prominence as the U.S. Commissioner of Education from 1921 to 1928 , and the third president of the University of Florida , from 1928 to 1947 . He is remembered as a forceful advocate for American public education , intercollegiate sports and university curriculum reform .
= = Early life and education = =
Tigert was born in Nashville , Tennessee , in 1882 , the third son of a Methodist Episcopal minister , John James Tigert , III , and his wife , Amelia McTyeire Tigert . Tigert received his primary education in the public schools of Kansas City , Missouri , and Nashville , and earned his high school diploma , with honors , from the Webb School in Bell Buckle , Tennessee .
= = = Vanderbilt = = =
He was admitted to Vanderbilt University in Nashville , where he was a member of the Phi Delta Theta Fraternity ( Tennessee Alpha Chapter ) and a standout athlete in baseball , basketball , football and track . His time at Vanderbilt overlaps with Grantland Rice . As a senior , Tigert was honored as an All @-@ Southern halfback for the Vanderbilt Commodores football team . In his final game , he scored the first points netted all season against rival Sewanee .
Tigert graduated from Vanderbilt with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1904 ; he was selected for Phi Beta Kappa , and was chosen as a Rhodes Scholar , the first from the state of Tennessee , along with teammate Bob Blake . While at Oxford University in Oxford , England , he completed his Master of Arts degree at Pembroke College in 1907 , and he continued to participate in competitive university sports , including cricket , rowing and tennis .
= = Educator , administrator , reformer = =
After returning to the United States , Tigert taught at the Methodist @-@ affiliated Central College in Fayette , Missouri , and , at the age of 27 , was appointed president of Kentucky Wesleyan College in Owensboro , Kentucky in 1909 . That same year , he married the former Edith Jackson Bristol .
= = = University of Kentucky = = =
He later received an appointment as a professor of psychology and philosophy at the University of Kentucky in Lexington , Kentucky . He was perhaps best known for his work on psychology in advertising . While there , Tigert also served as the athletic director from 1913 to 1917 , the Kentucky Wildcats men 's basketball coach in 1913 , 1916 and 1917 , the Wildcats women 's basketball coach from 1911 to 1915 and again from 1916 to 1917 , and the Wildcats football coach in 1915 and 1916 .
= = = Commissioner of Education = = =
President Warren G. Harding appointed Tigert as the U.S. Commissioner of Education in 1921 , and he served for seven years during the administrations of Harding and Calvin Coolidge . As commissioner , he was an energetic advocate of education reform and greater educational opportunities for all classes of Americans , and he traveled widely and spoke often to virtually any group interested in education . In particular , he took an interest in rural education , and advocated innovative ways to impart public education to a wider audience , including the use of radio . During his time in Washington , D.C. , he also served a term as the national president of Phi Delta Theta Fraternity .
= = = University of Florida = = =
The Florida Board of Control selected Tigert as the third president of the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida in 1928 . He assumed leadership of the university during an extended period of economic crisis in the state of Florida . When the Great Depression began with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , Florida was already suffering from the after @-@ effects of the 1920s land boom and bust , as well the devastating aftermath of two major hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 .
The common thread of the nineteen years of Tigert 's administration was doing more with less . Faculty salary cuts were common ; Tigert himself never drew his full authorized annual salary of $ 10 @,@ 000 . Among Tigert 's many significant reforms , he decentralized the university budget to the level of the individual academic colleges , allowing them to set their own spending priorities . The University Council , composed of the president , the registrar and the college deans , retained final approval authority . Tigert also established the faculty senate , the Institute of Inter @-@ American Affairs and the Bureau of Economic and Business Research .
One of his most influential reforms as president was the founding of the new University College as an academic division within the University of Florida in 1935 . The college was modeled on the general education college at the University of Chicago , and administered the freshman and sophomore @-@ year liberal arts education of undergraduates before they were accepted to the university schools or colleges that administered their academic majors . The college 's stated purpose was to " stimulate intellectual curiosity " and " encourage independent work , " with new liberal arts requirements in biology , English language and literature , the humanities , logic , mathematics , physical sciences and social sciences , and thereby counter the growing trend toward " trade school " education at the university level .
As a former university athlete and coach , Tigert took a particular interest in athletics @-@ related policy issues while he was president and was an enthusiastic supporter of the Florida Gators sports program generally , and football in particular . He was responsible for the construction of the university 's first and only permanent football stadium , Florida Field , in 1930 . He borrowed $ 10 @,@ 000 to begin construction of the stadium , and then raised $ 118 @,@ 000 to pay the construction costs of the 22 @,@ 800 @-@ seat facility . Tigert was also instrumental in the organization of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) , which the University of Florida joined as one of the thirteen founding institutions in December 1932 . Tigert subsequently served two terms as SEC president ( 1934 – 1936 and 1945 – 1947 ) . As a key leader within the SEC , he worked to impose a uniform set of rules and standards for academic eligibility for SEC athletes . Appalled by the under @-@ the @-@ table payments to amateur college athletes that were prevalent at the time , he advocated the grant of scholarships to athletes which would become the grant @-@ in @-@ aid of other university athletic programs and as mandated by the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) in the years to follow .
Like his predecessor , Albert A. Murphree , Tigert was elected president of the National Association of State Universities , serving from 1939 to 1940 .
Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , students began to withdraw from the university in large numbers to enlist in the U.S. Armed Forces . The financial impact on the university had the potential to be devastating , but Tigert navigated the war years by making the university campus , dormitories and class rooms available for the training of U.S. Army Air Force flight crews . Tigert kept the lights on , and the bills paid . Veterans began to return to school with support from the GI Bill , and by the fall term of 1946 , over seventy percent of the University of Florida 's 7 @,@ 000 students were returning World War II veterans . Contributing to the shortage of facility space was the influx of new female students when the Florida Legislature reinstituted co @-@ education in 1947 . The university suddenly had more students than its available housing and classroom space could serve .
Tigert resigned as university president in 1947 , worked as an educational consultant to the government of India as a member of the Indian Higher Education Commission , and taught philosophy at the University of Miami until 1959 .
= = = = Legacy = = = =
Tigert served as president of the University of Florida for nineteen years , longer than any of the other presidents of the university . During his term , the university awarded its first doctoral degrees in 1934 , a chapter of Phi Beta Kappa was installed in 1938 , and total student enrollment grew from 2 @,@ 162 in 1928 to over 7 @,@ 500 in 1947 . As university president , he was responsible for significant and lasting academic , athletic and administrative reforms .
In recognition of Tigert 's long service as its president through depression and war , the University of Florida awarded him an honorary degree , a doctor of letters , during its 1953 centennial celebration , and renamed its main administrative building , Tigert Hall , for him in 1960 . Tigert died in Gainesville , Florida on January 21 , 1965 ; he was 82 years old . He was survived by his wife Edith , their son and daughter , and five grandchildren .
As a fitting final tribute to a professor , education reformer and administrator , who also fervently supported college sports , Tigert was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as an " Honorary Letter Winner , " and was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame as a player in 1970 .
= = Head coaching records = =
= = = Men 's basketball = = =
= = = Football = = =
= = = Women 's basketball = = =
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= Vätsäri Wilderness Area =
The Vätsäri Wilderness Area ( Finnish : Vätsärin erämaa , Swedish : Vätsäriområdet ) is located along the northeastern shore of Lake Inari in Inari , northern Finland , stretching all the way to the Finland – Norway border . The landscape is dominated by taiga forests of Scots pine , bog and bodies of water . The northeastern part rises as a treeless fell ridge . Vätsäri is one of twelve wilderness areas in Lapland and covers an area of 1 @,@ 550 square kilometers ( 600 sq mi ) . The wilderness has one marked trail and a few cabins . The reserve is under the management of Metsähallitus ( Administration of Forests ) and was established with the other wilderness reserves in 1991 . It is part of Pasvik – Inari Trilateral Park along with Øvre Pasvik National Park and Øvre Pasvik Landscape Protection Area in Norway , and the joint Norwegian – Russian Pasvik Nature Reserve .
The area has a short growing season , cold winters , little precipitation and poor soil quality created by the gneiss bedrock . Lake Inari has been affected by acid rain and loss of fish from the Paatsjoki River Hydroelectric Plants . The reserve is an important habitat of the brown bear and also has a large moose population ; reindeer husbandry is practiced by the Samis . Whitefish and vendace are the most common species of fish , the latter being an introduced species .
= = Geography = =
The wilderness area is located on the northeastern shore of Lake Inari and stretches northeastwards into a treeless fell ridge . It is located entirely within the municipality of Inari , and the reserve 's eastern border is the Finland – Norway border . The landscape consists of taiga forests of Scots pine in the lower areas , bog , thousands of small lakes , and creeks . The reserve covers an area of 1 @,@ 550 square kilometers ( 600 sq mi ) . Most streams in Vätsäri flow into Lake Inari , which has the Pasvik River as its outflow . Construction of the Paatsjoki River Hydroelectric Plants has changed the hydrology considerably , providing for a more stable regulation of Lake Inari , but reducing the flow speed . Water levels are now highest during autumn and lowest during spring , opposite of before .
The bedrock consists of basement gneiss with occasional slate and volcanic rock . The Inari Basin was created after the last glacial period when an ice blockage in the Pasvik River hindered the draining of melted water in the area . The climate is harsh and allows only a limited growing season of between 110 and 120 days . Temperatures may rise to 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) during summer , but fall to − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) in winter . The northeastern part of the reserve is moderated by the Barents Sea and so winter temperatures are higher and there is less snow . Precipitation is 200 to 500 millimeters ( 8 to 20 in ) during the year , half of which falls during the growing season . Not until June does the ice melt . Some lakes in the eastern part of the Wilderness are damaged by acid rain from the Norilsk Nickel plant in Nikel , Russia .
= = History = =
The area was populated in the Stone Age by Inari Sami people shortly after the last glacial period ended about 8000 BC . The first documents from the area are tax records from the 16th century . The Inari Sami originally engaged in reindeer husbandry , but later switched to farming and herding cattle and sheep . The area belonged to the Inari Siida beginning in the Middle Ages . Until the border was closed in 1852 , the Sami from Norway came during winter to herd their reindeer . The border closing caused some Norwegian Sami to settle in the area and continue with reindeer husbandry . This caught on among the Inari Sami , and the amount of husbandry increased during the 20th century . People in the area traveled up Lake Inari and onwards to the coast of Finnmark , Norway , to fish during summer . Records of markets in Finnmark date back to the 16th century , and in the 1880s about 150 people traveled to the coast each year . Logging in the southern part boomed during the 1920s , when logs were driven down the Pasvik River to Elvenes and Jakobsnes in Norway . Previously there were birch forests in the fells , but in the 1960s their leaves were eaten by the caterpillar of the Autumnal Moth , leaving the fells barren . The construction of the Paatsjoki River Hydroelectric Plants starting in the 1940s had a strong negative effect on the fish population ; in 1976 the authorities therefore enforced the obligatory introduction of fish in Lake Inari .
The twelve wilderness areas in Lapland were all created in 1991 to protect both the natural wilderness and the Sami culture . These areas combined cover an area of 14 @,@ 903 square kilometers ( 5 @,@ 754 sq mi ) , where such activities as road construction and mining are prohibited , as is logging in some areas . Pasvik – Inari Trilateral Park was established in several steps : Øvre Pasvik National Park was created in 1970 , the Russian part of Pasvik Nature Reserve was established in 1992 , and the Norwegian part created the following year . In 2003 the national park was expanded and Øvre Pasvik Landscape Protection Area was established , creating a continually protected area spanning three countries .
= = Management = =
The wilderness area is managed by Metsähallitus a government agency which manages the state @-@ owned land in Finland . The area is not a strictly protected area , instead falling into the Natura 2000 network . Limitations include the mandatory maintenance of forests in their natural state and a ban on logging . The sale and leasing of land is prohibited , as is construction of permanent roads and mining .
= = Nature = =
The area shares a common brown bear population with Norway and Russia . Other predators include red fox , stoat , pine marten and the rare wolverine and Eurasian lynx . The gray wolf was common until the 1940s . There is also a large population of moose . Inari – Pasvik has a shared population of 6 @,@ 000 reindeer , which are herded to different areas depending on the season . Fences have been installed to hinder reindeer from wandering across the national borders .
Whitefish and vendace are the most common fish species in Lake Inari , the latter having been accidentally naturalized . Lake trout can be caught in creeks . Other fish found in the park include Arctic char , grayling , pike , perch , burbot , three @-@ spined stickleback , ninespine stickleback and minnow . Stocking with fish has resulted in the introduction of Atlantic salmon , vendace and lake trout .
The lower areas of the wilderness area are covered by a taiga forest of Scots pine . Less common trees include downy birch , goat willow , aspen and rowan . Logging in the past has mostly occurred in the southern part ( " Kessi " ) , a large proportion of Vätsäri 's forests being old @-@ growth forests . The barren soil makes for poor growth conditions and most of the ground vegetation in the forests is subshrubs . One area with limestone rock features green spleenwort . The reserve is located in an area between a western and eastern vegetation zones , giving rise to unique combinations of species , such as Siberian spruce and red cottongrass .
= = Recreation = =
Most recreation takes place around Lake Inari , although a limited number of visitors hike into the fells . The reserve is a demanding hiking area and inexperienced hikers are recommended to avoid traversing the wilderness . The freedom to roam grants everyone the right to hike , ski and short @-@ term camping everywhere in the area . The park can be accessed from National Road 971 and 969 ; public transport is available to Nellim .
The Piilola Trail is the only marked trail in the park ; it is 35 kilometers ( 22 mi ) and connects the reserve to Øvre Pasvik National Park . Its northern starting point is at Sortbryststjern in Norway and the southern end is at Kessintie Road . The trail is so demanding that it is not recommended for beginners . Lake Inari offers good fishing , making it a popular visitor attraction in the reserve . Boating on the lake is popular and harbors are located in Inari , Veskoniemi and Nellim , in addition to several places where boats can be launched . The open parts of the lake can be stormy . There is a canoeing route which connects Lake Inari to several adjacent lakes , with two open wilderness huts along the route . During winter there is a snowmobile route between Nuorgam , Näätämö , Sevettijärvi , Nellim , Ivalo and Inari .
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= Ridiculous Fishing =
Ridiculous Fishing : A Tale of Redemption is a mobile fishing video game where players use motion and touch controls to catch fish and subsequently shoot them out of the sky for cash . The game is known for its developers ' battle against a cloned version of their game released by another company . The game was developed and published by Vlambeer — Rami Ismail and Jan Willem Nijman — and released for iOS on March 13 , 2013 , and later that year for Android .
Players cast a fishing line into the ocean and use motion controls to avoid fish as the hook sinks and to catch as many fish as possible as the reel retracts . Players then touch the screen to shoot fish out of the sky for money that can be spent on upgrades . Nijman developed the idea during a television show about tuna fishermen . The game was first released as Flash game Radical Fishing with the same basic mechanics . A year after Vlambeer began their iOS development , Gamenauts released Ninja Fishing , a clone of the game that hurt Vlambeer morale . The team worked on other games and spoke publicly about the situation to a standing ovation at the 2012 Game Developers Conference before resolving to scrap the majority of their work and finish the game . Artist Greg Wohlwend moved in with iOS developer Zach Gage to work 14 @-@ hour days on the game .
Ridiculous Fishing received " near @-@ universal perfect scores " at launch — what review score aggregator Metacritic describes as " universal acclaim " . It won an Apple 's 2013 Design Award and was their iPhone game of the year . Reviewers noted Vlambeer 's struggle against the copy of their game and praised the game 's balance and both visual and game design .
= = Gameplay = =
The player fishes in pursuit of fame as a fisherman named Billy . The game mechanics are " three tightly @-@ woven minigames in one " : casting the fishing line , catching fish , and shooting the fish in the air . The player casts the line and tilts the device to avoid the fish as the hook sinks . Upon hooking a fish , the hook ascends and the player tilts the device to catch as many fish as possible en route to the surface . Above water , the fish are launched into the air , and the player taps the screen to shoot the fish out of the sky to earn money before they fall into the water . The fish differ in characteristics including swim pattern and the number of shots required to cash in . The jellyfish shot detract from the total income . There are four stages , each with its own visual and audio theme and rare fish , and an endless mode where players can work towards the highest score . Earnings can be spent in a store towards persistent upgrades such as longer fishing line length , invulnerable drills , frivolous hats , bigger guns , chainsaw lures , a hair dryer and toaster ( to zap inadvertent catches ) , fuel for the chainsaw , and a necktie for greater income . There is also a Fish @-@ o @-@ pedia in Billy 's smartphone that gives gameplay hints and tracks stats such as fish caught , which is the progress for unlocking new levels . There are no in @-@ app purchases .
= = Development = =
Vlambeer developed Radical Fishing , an Adobe Flash @-@ based game where a fisherman sits in a boat and casts his line into the water , pulls up fish into the air , and shoots them with a gun . It was built to take " everything good " from habit @-@ forming browser games without artificially extending its length just to hook players . The game was designed with a feedback loop , where performance in one minigame led to a more rewarding experience in the next minigame . Vlambeer designer Jan Willem ( " JW " ) Nijman developed the idea based on a television show about tuna fishermen that led him to consider an intersection between catching big fish , slow @-@ motion photography , and Duck Hunt 's game mechanics . Nijman immediately drafted the design , which never changed . The company sold the Flash game to a browser games website in 2010 but kept the rights to produce an iOS version , which they would call Ridiculous Fishing . They began production on the iOS version on December 7 , 2010 , with the intention of a " 2012 / 2013 equivalent " of the original .
About a year later , Gamenauts released Ninja Fishing , a game with similar game mechanics but different art that became known as a clone of Radical Fishing . Polygon reports that the game " became an overnight sensation " . Since game mechanics were not eligible for copyright protection , Vlambeer did not pursue legal action . Vlambeer 's primary project had been Serious Sam : The Random Encounter , which was sidelined to handle the new clone situation . At one point , Vlambeer revealed its multiple in @-@ game fishing locations and Ninja Fishing added a similar feature with a " coming soon " sign .
Vlambeer was " completely demotivated " and stopped Ridiculous Fishing development for several weeks , but later resolved to continue . Another concurrent project at the company , Super Crate Box , released in 2012 to industry praise . Super Crate Box was nominated for an Independent Games Festival award at the 2011 Game Developers Conference ( GDC ) , where the team was largely unknown and the game did not win the award . By the next year , Ridiculous Fishing was nominated for the 2012 Independent Games Festival " Best Mobile Game " award at GDC , and Vlambeer had become known within the game development community for their two titles and struggle against Gamenauts 's Ninja Fishing . Their 2012 GDC talk on game clones received standing ovations . Polygon referred to the speech as " a shot heard around the game industry " . Ridiculous Fishing was shown at the 2012 Independent Games Festival GDC booth . The team also released a concurrent side project , Yeti Hunter , live from the GDC show floor . Nijman began development for Luftrausers on the plane home from the conference .
By now the team had four members : designer Jan Willem Nijman , marketer Rami Ismail , iOS developer Zach Gage , and artist Greg Wohlwend . The team continued work separately and sporadically , making meager headway and disheartened by the project 's obstacles . Upon return to the Netherlands from GDC , Nijman and Ismail , the co @-@ founders of Vlambeer , began to plan a " really large game " , but ultimately decided that the idea was a diversion from the realities of finishing Ridiculous Fishing . In August 2012 , after a road trip home across the United States from Penny Arcade Expo in Seattle to New York , the team set a deadline to finish the game . The game was in a " disjointed " state , with good fishing mechanics , but poor shooting and menu navigation . They scrapped the store , interface , and endgame along with " 90 percent " of their work , which revealed a specific direction for the rest of the game 's development . Wohlwend , the artist , moved in with Gage , the developer , in New York City , working 14 @-@ hour days during the final weeks . The music was composed by Eirik Suhrke . The last parts of the game assembled smoothly , and Ismail submitted the game to the iOS App Store for approval from New York .
Ridiculous Fishing was scheduled to release the same day as a new , unrelated game by Gamenauts , Castle Champions . Vlambeer feared that Gamenauts 's prior success with Ninja Fishing would advantage Castle Champions for the coveted " featured " marketing position in the iOS App Store , and consequently embarrass the company . Vlambeer asked Gamenauts to reschedule Castle Champions 's launch , but the company declined . The team 's emotional tensions eased upon learning that Noodlecake Studios 's Super Stickman Golf 2 would also release on the same day , as they felt this took Gamenauts out of consideration . Vlambeer prepared several trailers for the launch , including a seven @-@ second Vine video and a 90 @-@ second trailer . The game was released March 13 , 2013 . The company live @-@ streamed Ridiculous Fishing 's launch from their Utrecht office . A July 2013 patch added custom soundtracks , new fish , and an item for exiting the game early . Vlambeer released an Android version with the November 19 , 2013 Humble Bundle .
= = Reception = =
The game was well received at launch with " near @-@ universal perfect scores " . Review score aggregator Metacritic describes its reception as " universal acclaim " . As of April 2013 , the game was the highest @-@ rated for iOS in 2013 . It won the " featured " position in the App Store , and , later , an Apple Design Award at the 2013 Apple Worldwide Developers Conference and Apple 's iPhone game of the year . Pocket Gamer awarded it their gold award . In August 2013 , Vlambeer announced that the game was nearing one million dollars in sales .
Edge noted that Ridiculous Fishing did not carry the emotional baggage behind the company 's tumultuous development . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer called the balance beautiful and clever , an elaboration on their previous version 's " idiot @-@ savant design " without going too far . TouchArcade 's Eli Hodapp commended the upgrade structure that combined obtainable incentives alongside gameplay as engaging as Doodle Jump 's . IGN 's Justin Davis praised the game 's unpredictable and " poignant " ending at the bottom of the Arctic Floes . He added that the game could have been " even more ridiculous " and its levels more differentiated in theme and art style , though he found the " almost cubist design ... absolutely gorgeous " . Welsh of Eurogamer agreed that Wohlwend 's art was " achingly cool " and reflected a " retro and minimalist " indie gaming trend without overpowering the gameplay . Welsh also praised the game 's character by way of its fake Twitter feed , and Pocket Gamer 's Rob Hearn compared its imaginative character to that of Wes Anderson 's The Life Aquatic .
TouchArcade 's Eli Hodapp called Ridiculous Fishing so well packaged as to make his recommendation " effortless " for both short few @-@ minute play sessions as well as longer ones . Rob Hearn of Pocket Gamer lauded its " blossoming " progression and became more interested as he unlocked upgrades . But when there was nothing left to upgrade , Hearn wrote that " it 's a shame that the innovation is confined to the first few hours " . While Ridiculous Fishing offered many hours of secrets and unlocks , IGN 's Davis noted that the game was at its core a " simple arcade experience ... ultimately a polished arcade time @-@ killer " .
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= Australia at the 2014 Winter Paralympics =
Australia sent nine competitors to the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi , Russia . The delegation also consisted of two sighted guides and 15 support staff . The team won two bronze medals . Toby Kane won a bronze medal in the men 's Super combined standing , and Jessica Gallagher and guide Christian Geiger won one in the women 's giant slalom visually impaired event .
The Australian Team 's performance was affected by the death of para @-@ snowboarder Matthew Robinson just prior to the Games , and injuries to Cameron Rahles @-@ Rahbula and Joany Badenhorst forcing them to withdraw from their events .
= = Team Preparation = =
Australian Paralympic Winter Program members competed in competitions in Europe and the United States in the lead up to the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi , Russia . In September 2013 , Australia hosted the IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup at Thredbo , New South Wales . Australia finished the competition with three gold , three silver and one bronze medal to finish third on the medal tally behind the United States ( eight gold , six silver , eight bronze medals ) and Slovakia ( eight gold , two silver , three bronze medals ) . Australia 's Mitchell Gourley and Cameron Rahles @-@ Rahbula won gold medals .
Three team members – Toby Kane , Cameron Rahles @-@ Rahbula and Mitchell Gourley undertook wind tunnel testing at Monash University in 2013 to assist them in determining their optimal aerodynamic position whilst skiing .
= = = Pre Games Skiing Accidents = = =
The Australian Paralympic Team suffered two major skiing accidents just prior to the games . Matthew Robinson died after a skiing accident while competing at the IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup , Whilst Robinson 's event was not included in the Games , he was an integral member of the Australian Paralympic snowboard team . Less than a day after being named as Australia 's flagbearer for the Sochi Paralympics , Cameron Rahles @-@ Rahbula was injured while training for the 2014 Sochi Winter Paralympic Games . Rahles @-@ Rahbula suffered a knee injury that forced him to miss his opening races , but he still hoped to be able to compete in his pet event , the slalom , and in the giant slalom . On 10 March 2014 , it was revealed that Rahles @-@ Rahbula has a knee fracture and would not be able to compete in any of his Paralympic events .
= = Administration = =
Kate McLoughlin was appointed the Chef de Mission in March 2013 . This was the first time that a woman had been appointed a Chef de Mission . However , she stepped down due to family reasons , and was replaced by Chris Nunn in November 2013 . The Australian Paralympic Committee announced that it cost AUD $ 1 @.@ 5 million to send the Team to Sochi , with $ 200 @,@ 000 of the budget still outstanding . To raise additional funds , it launched the " Believe " campaign .
= = Team = =
On 4 February 2014 , Australian Paralympic Committee announced a team of nine athletes , as well as two sighted guides , to attend the 2014 Sochi Winter Paralympics . Their head coach is Steve Graham . Athletes selected were :
Alpine skiing
Jessica Gallagher
Christian Geiger ( guide for Gallagher )
Mitchell Gourley
Toby Kane
Victoria Pendergast
Melissa Perrine
Andrew Bor ( guide for Perrine )
Cameron Rahles @-@ Rahbula
Snowboard cross
Joany Badenhorst
Trent Milton
Ben Tudhope .
Victoria Pendergast became Australia 's first female sit @-@ skier to compete at a Winter Paralympics , and Ben Tudhope , who turned 14 in December 2013 , became Australia 's youngest competitor at the Winter Paralympics . The 14 @-@ year @-@ old Tudhope was the youngest competitor at the Games from any nation . The team included three medallists from previous Winter Paralympics : Jessica Gallagher , Toby Kane and Cameron @-@ Rahles @-@ Rahbula . Four athletes and one guide made their Games debut .
= = Ceremonies = =
Cameron Rahles @-@ Rahbula , competing at his fourth Winter Paralympics , was named as the Australian flag bearer for the Opening Ceremony . After being named flag bearer , Rahles @-@ Rahbula had a skiing training accident that made his participation doubtful . He went on to carry the flag but withdrew from the Games on medical advice . At Opening Ceremony , the entire Australian team of nine athletes , coaches , medical staff and administration officials wore the black arm bands to remember Matthew Robinson , who had recently died as a result of a skiing accident . Ben Tudhope , the youngest competitor at the Games , carried the Australian flag at the Closing Ceremony .
= = Medallists = =
= = Events = =
= = = Alpine skiing = = =
The International Paralympic Committee introduced para @-@ snowboard as an alpine skiing discipline for the 2014 Games . These events are for standing athletes with a lower body disability .
Women
DNF – did not finish
DSQ – disqualified . Melissa Perrine was disqualified after the slalom leg of the Super combined for wearing a visor , which was taped to her helmet , to keep rain from her goggles . This was a breach of the IPC Alpine Skiing rules . Jason Hellwig , CEO of the Australian Paralympic Committee described it as " mindnumbingly @-@ dumb mistake " as it was not picked up by relevant team officials . He indicated it was an honest mistake and there was no intention to cheat .
DNS – Badenhorst was forced to withdraw from the event after suffering an injury to her left knee whilst training on the morning of the event .
Men
DNF – did not finish .
DNS – did not start . Cameron Rahles @-@ Rahbula withdrew from all competitions after the Games commenced . This was due to injuries sustained in training just prior to the Games .
= = Broadcasting = =
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation showed a daily 30 minutes highlights program twice a day , and also streamed the alpine skiing and ice hockey live on its Grandstand website . The Games ' opening ceremony was broadcast live . The presenters for the ABC 's coverage were Amanda Shalala and Darren Boyd .
= = Outcome = =
Australia finished the Games with two bronze medals . Jason Hellwig stated that the aim was to win between two and five medals . He said : " wo medals absolutely is a pass ... so we 're really pleased with that but we 're absolutely disappointed we didn 't get the mission done to win that gold medal , but I tell you what , we are absolutely determined to get it done in four years ' time . It hasn 't been easy , we 've come in under the most difficult of circumstances that I 've ever seen a team at a major Games . " Chris Nunn , Chef de Mission , pointed to the future by stating that " We really need to focus on having good @-@ quality athletes who are robust and have financial support to get overseas . It 's not like living in Austria , Sweden or Germany where you can do this on the weekend and after work . "
Toby Kane and Cameron Rahles @-@ Rahbula indicated that Sochi Games would be their last Winter Paralympics . Kane and Dutch snowboarder Bibian Mentel @-@ Spee were named winners of the Whang Youn Dai Achievement Award , which is presented at every Paralympic Games for outstanding performances and overcoming adversity .
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= Kuala Lumpur =
Kuala Lumpur ( / ˈkwɑːləˈlʊmpʊər / or / -pər / ; Malaysian pronunciation : [ ˈkwalə ˈlumpʊr ] ) , officially the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur , is the national capital and most populous global city of Malaysia . The city covers an area of 243 km2 ( 94 sq mi ) and has an estimated population of 1 @.@ 7 million as of 2015 . Greater Kuala Lumpur , covering similar area as the Klang Valley , is an urban agglomeration of 7 @.@ 2 million people as of 2013 . It is among the fastest growing metropolitan regions in South @-@ East Asia , in terms of population and economy .
Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia . The city was once home to the executive and judicial branches of the federal government , but they were moved to Putrajaya in early 1999 . Some sections of the judiciary still remain in the capital city of Kuala Lumpur . The official residence of the Malaysian King , the Istana Negara , is also situated in Kuala Lumpur . Rated as an alpha world city , Kuala Lumpur is the cultural , financial and economic centre of Malaysia due to its position as the capital as well as being a key city .
Kuala Lumpur is one of three Federal Territories of Malaysia , enclaved within the state of Selangor , on the central west coast of Peninsular Malaysia . Since the 1990s , the city has played host to many international sporting , political and cultural events including the 1998 Commonwealth Games and the Formula One Grand Prix . In addition , Kuala Lumpur is home to the tallest twin buildings in the world , the Petronas Twin Towers , which have become an iconic symbol of Malaysia 's futuristic development .
= = History = =
= = = Etymology = = =
Kuala Lumpur means " muddy confluence " ; kuala is the point where two rivers join together or an estuary , and lumpur means " mud " . One suggestion is that it is named after Sungai Lumpur ( River Lumpur ) ; it was recorded in 1824 that Sungei Lumpoor was the most important tin @-@ producing settlement up the Klang River . Doubts however have been raised on such a derivation as Kuala Lumpur lies at the confluence of Gombak River and Klang River , therefore should rightly be named Kuala Gombak . It has been argued by some that Sungai Lumpur is in fact Gombak River ( therefore the point where it joined the Klang River would be Kuala Lumpur ) , although Sungai Lumpur has also been suggested to be another river a mile upstream from the Gombak confluence .
It has been proposed that Kuala Lumpur was originally named Pengkalan Lumpur ( a muddy landing place ) , while others suggest it was a corrupted Cantonese word lam @-@ pa meaning ' flooded jungle ' or ' decayed jungle ' . There is however no firm contemporary evidence for these suggestions other than anecdotes . It is also possible that the name is a corrupted form of an earlier but now unidentifiable forgotten name .
= = = Early years = = =
It is unknown who founded or named the settlement called Kuala Lumpur . Chinese miners were involved in tin mining up the Selangor River in the 1840s about ten miles north of present @-@ day Kuala Lumpur , and Mandailing Sumatrans led by Raja Asal and Sutan Puasa were also involved in tin mining and trade in the Ulu Klang region before 1860 , and Sumatrans may have settled in the upper reaches of Klang River in the first quarter of the 19th century , possibly earlier . Kuala Lumpur was originally a small hamlet of just a few houses and shops at the confluence of Sungai Gombak and Sungai Klang ( Klang River ) before it grew into a town . It is generally accepted that Kuala Lumpur become established as a town circa 1857 , when the Malay Chief of Klang , Raja Abdullah bin Raja Jaafar , aided by his brother Raja Juma 'at of Lukut , raised funds to hire some Chinese miners from Lukut to open new tin mines here . The miners landed at Kuala Lumpur and continued their journey on foot to Ampang where the first mine was opened . Kuala Lumpur was the furthest point up the Klang River to which supplies could conveniently be brought by boat ; it therefore became a collection and dispersal point serving the tin mines .
Although the early miners suffered a high death toll due to the malarial conditions of the jungle , the Ampang mines were successful , and the first tin was exported in 1859 . The tin @-@ mining spurred the growth of the town , and miners later also settled in Pudu and Batu . The miners formed gangs among themselves ; there were the Hakka @-@ dominated Hai San in Kuala Lumpur , and the Cantonese @-@ dominated Ghee Hin based in Kanching in Ulu Selangor . Fights between different gangs were frequent in this period , mainly to gain control of the best tin mines . Leaders of the Chinese community were conferred the title of Kapitan Cina ( Chinese headman ) by the Malay chief , and Hiu Siew , the owner of a mine in Lukut , was chosen as the first Kapitan of Kuala Lumpur . As one of the first traders to arrive in Ampang ( along with Yap Ah Sze ) , he sold provisions to the miners in exchange for tin .
Important Malay figures of early Kuala lumpur also include Dato ' Dagang and Haji Tahir . The Minangkabaus were another important group of people in the early period ; Minangkabau traders from Sumatra include Utsman Abdullah , and Haji Mohamed Taib who was involved in the early development of Kampung Baru . The Minangkabaus are also important socio @-@ religious figures , for example Utsman bin Abdullah was the first kadi of Kuala Lumpur as well as Muhammad Nur bin Ismail .
= = = Beginning of modern Kuala Lumpur = = =
Early Kuala Lumpur was a small town that suffered from many social and political problems – the buildings were made of wood and atap ( palm frond thatching ) that were prone to fire , lack of proper sanitation plagued the town with diseases , and it suffered from a constant threat of flooding . The town became embroil in the Selangor Civil War due in part to the fight for control of revenues from the tin mines . The third Chinese Kapitan of Kuala Lumpur appointed in 1868 , Yap Ah Loy , aligned himself with Tengku Kudin , and the rival Chinese gang allied themselves with Raja Mahdi . Kuala Lumpur was captured in 1872 and burnt to the ground , and Yap escaped to Klang . Kuala Lumpur was recaptured in March 1873 when Raja Mahdi forces were defeated with the help of fighters from Pahang . The war and other setbacks , such as a drop in tin prices , led to a slump , furthermore a major outbreak of cholera in late 1870s caused many to flee the town . The slump lasted until late 1879 , when a rise in the price of tin allowed the town to recover . In late 1881 , the town was severely flooded , following a fire that had destroyed the entire town in January that year . That the town was rebuilt a few times and thrived was due in large part to the tenacity and persistence of Yap Ah Loy . Yap , together with Frank Swettenham who was appointed the Resident in 1882 , were the two most important figures of early Kuala Lumpur with Swettenham credited with its rapid growth and development and its transformation into a major urban center .
The early Chinese and Malay settlements were along the east bank of the Klang River – the Chinese mainly settled around the commercial centre of Market Square ; the Malays , later Indian Chettiars and Indian Muslims resided along Java Street ( now Jalan Tun Perak ) . In 1880 , the state capital of Selangor was moved from Klang to the more strategically advantageous Kuala Lumpur by the colonial administration , and the British Resident William Bloomfield Douglas then decided that the government buildings and living quarters should be located to the west of the river . Government offices and a new police headquarter was built on Bukit Aman , and the Padang was created initially for police training . The Padang , now known as Merdeka Square , would later become the centre of the British administrative offices when the colonial government offices were moved to the Sultan Abdul Samad Building in 1897 .
Frank Swettenham , on becoming the British Resident , began improving the town by cleaning up the streets . He also stipulated that buildings should be constructed of brick and tile so that they would be less flammable , and that the town be rebuilt with wider streets to reduce fire risk . Kapitan Yap Ah Loy bought a sprawling piece of real estate to set up a brick industry for the rebuilding of Kuala Lumpur ; this place is the eponymous Brickfields . Destroyed atap buildings were replaced with brick and tiled ones , and many of the new brick buildings are characterised by the " five foot ways " as well as Chinese carpentry work . This resulted in a distinct eclectic shop house architecture typical to this region . Kapitan Yap Ah Loy expanded road access in the city significantly , linking up tin mines with the city ; these roads include the main arterial routes of the present Ampang Road , Pudu Road and Petaling Street . As Chinese Kapitan , he was vested with wide powers on a par with Malay community leaders . Law reforms were implemented and new legal measures introduced to the assembly . Yap also presided over a small claims court . With a police force of six , he was able to uphold the rule of law , constructing a prison that could accommodate 60 prisoners at any time . Kapitan Yap Ah Loy also built Kuala Lumpur 's first school and a major tapioca mill in Petaling Street of which the Selangor 's Sultan Abdul Samad held an interest .
A railway line between Kuala Lumpur and Klang , initiated by Swettenham and completed in 1886 , increased accessibility which resulted in the rapid growth of the town . The population grew from 4 @,@ 500 in 1884 to 20 @,@ 000 in 1890 . As development intensified in the 1880s , it also put pressure on sanitation , waste disposal and other health issues . A Sanitary Board was created on 14 May 1890 which was responsible for sanitation , upkeep of roads , lighting of street and other functions . This would eventually become the Kuala Lumpur Municipal Council . In 1896 , Kuala Lumpur was chosen as the capital of the newly formed Federated Malay States .
= = = 20th century – present = = =
The area that is defined as Kuala Lumpur expanded considerably in the 20th century . It was only 0 @.@ 65 km2 in 1895 , but was extended to encompass 20 km2 in 1903 . By the time it became a municipality in 1948 it had expanded to 93 km2 , and then to 243 km2 in 1974 as a Federal Territory .
The development of the rubber industry in Selangor in the early 20th century led to a boom of the town , with the population of Kuala Lumpur increasing from 30 @,@ 000 in 1900 to 80 @,@ 000 in 1920 . Previously the commercial activities of Kuala Lumpur were primarily run by Chinese businessmen such as Loke Yew who was then the richest and most influential Chinese of Kuala Lumpur . The growth of the rubber industry led to an influx of foreign capital and planters , with new companies and industries becoming established in Kuala Lumpur , and other companies previously based in Singapore and elsewhere also found a presence here .
During World War II , Kuala Lumpur was captured by the Imperial Japanese Army on 11 January 1942 . They occupied the city until 15 August 1945 , when the commander in chief of the Japanese Seventh Area Army in Singapore and Malaysia , Seishirō Itagaki , surrendered to the British administration following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Kuala Lumpur grew through the war , the rubber and tin commodity crashes and the Malayan Emergency , during which Malaya was preoccupied with the communist insurgency . In 1957 , the Federation of Malaya gained its independence from British rule . The ceremony for the Declaration of Independence was held at the Merdeka Stadium by the first Prime Minister of Malaya , Tunku Abdul Rahman . Kuala Lumpur remained the capital after the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963 . The Malaysian Houses of Parliament was completed at the edge of the Lake Gardens in 1963 .
On 13 May 1969 , the worst race riots on record in Malaysia took place in Kuala Lumpur . The so @-@ called 13 May Incident refers to the occurrence of violence between members of the Malay and the Chinese communities . The violence was the result of Malaysian Malays being dissatisfied with their socio @-@ political status . The riots caused the deaths of 196 people , and led to major changes in the country 's economic policy to promote and prioritise Malay economic development over that of the other ethnicities .
Kuala Lumpur achieved city status in 1972 , becoming the first settlement in Malaysia to be granted the status after independence . Later , on 1 February 1974 , Kuala Lumpur became a Federal Territory . Kuala Lumpur ceased to be the capital of Selangor in 1978 after the city of Shah Alam was declared the new state capital . On 14 May 1990 , Kuala Lumpur celebrated 100 years of local council . The new federal territory Kuala Lumpur flag and anthem were introduced . On 1 February 2001 , Putrajaya was declared a Federal Territory , as well as the seat of the federal government . The administrative and judicial functions of the government were shifted from Kuala Lumpur to Putrajaya . Kuala Lumpur however still retained its legislative function , and remained the home of the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong ( Constitutional King ) .
= = Geography = =
The geography of Kuala Lumpur is characterised by the huge Klang Valley . The valley is bordered by the Titiwangsa Mountains in the east , several minor ranges in the north and the south and the Strait of Malacca in the west . Kuala Lumpur is a Malay term that translates to " muddy confluence " as it is located at the confluence of the Klang and Gombak rivers .
Located in the centre of Selangor state , Kuala Lumpur was previously under the rule of Selangor State Government . In 1974 , Kuala Lumpur was separated from Selangor to form the first Federal Territory governed directly by the Malaysian Federal Government . Its location on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia , which has wider flat land than the east coast , has contributed to its faster development relative to other cities in Malaysia . The municipality of the city covers an area of 243 km2 ( 94 sq mi ) , with an average elevation of 81 @.@ 95 m ( 268 @.@ 9 ft ) .
= = = Climate and weather = = =
Protected by the Titiwangsa Mountains in the east and Indonesia 's Sumatra Island in the west , Kuala Lumpur has a tropical rainforest climate ( Köppen climate classification Af ) , which is warm and sunny , along with abundant rainfall , especially during the northeast monsoon season from October to March . Temperatures tend to remain constant . Maximums hover between 32 and 33 ° C ( 90 and 91 ° F ) and have never exceeded 38 @.@ 5 ° C ( 101 @.@ 3 ° F ) , while minimums hover between 23 @.@ 4 and 24 @.@ 6 ° C ( 74 @.@ 1 and 76 @.@ 3 ° F ) and have never fallen below 14 @.@ 4 ° C ( 57 @.@ 9 ° F ) . Kuala Lumpur typically receives minimum 2 @,@ 600 mm ( 100 in ) of rain annually ; June and July are relatively dry , but even then rainfall typically exceeds 131 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) per month .
Flooding is a frequent occurrence in Kuala Lumpur whenever there is a heavy downpour , especially in the city centre and downstream areas . Smoke from forest fires of nearby Sumatra sometimes cast a haze over the region . It is a major source of pollution in the city together with open burning , emission from motor vehicles and construction work .
= = Governance = =
Kuala Lumpur was administered by a corporation sole called the Federal Capital Commissioner from 1 April 1961 , until it was awarded city status in 1972 , after which executive power transferred to the Lord Mayor ( Datuk Bandar ) . Nine mayors have been appointed since then . The current mayor is Mhd Amin Nordin Abdul Aziz , who has been in office since 18 July 2015 .
= = = Local government = = =
The local administration is carried out by the Kuala Lumpur City Hall , an agency under the Federal Territories Ministry of Malaysia . It is responsible for public health and sanitation , waste removal and management , town planning , environmental protection and building control , social and economic development , and general maintenance functions of urban infrastructure . Executive power lies with the mayor in the city hall , who is appointed for three years by the Federal Territories Minister . This system of appointing the mayor has been in place ever since the local government elections were suspended in 1970 .
= = = Districts = = =
Kuala Lumpur 's eleven districts serve as administrative subdivisions under the Kuala Lumpur City Hall authority .
= = = Politics = = =
Kuala Lumpur is home to the Parliament of Malaysia . The hierarchy of authority in Malaysia , in accordance with the Federal Constitution , has stipulated the three branches , of the Malaysian government as consisting of the Executive , Judiciary and Legislative branches . The Parliament consists of the Dewan Negara ( Upper House / House of Senate ) and Dewan Rakyat ( Lower House / House of Representatives ) .
= = Economy = =
Kuala Lumpur and its surrounding urban areas form the most industrialised and economically , the fastest growing region in Malaysia . Despite the relocation of federal government administration to Putrajaya , certain government institutions such as Bank Negara Malaysia ( National Bank of Malaysia ) , Companies Commission of Malaysia and Securities Commission as well as most embassies and diplomatic missions have remained in the city .
The city remains as the economic and business centre of the country . Kuala Lumpur is a centre for finance , insurance , real estate , media and the arts of Malaysia . Kuala Lumpur is rated as an alpha world city , and is the only global city in Malaysia , according to the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network ( GaWC ) . The infrastructure development in the surrounding areas such as the Kuala Lumpur International Airport at Sepang , the creation of the Multimedia Super Corridor and the expansion of Port Klang further reinforce the economic significance of the city .
Bursa Malaysia or the Malaysia Exchange is based in the city and forms one of its core economic activities . As of 5 July 2013 , the market capitalisation stood at US $ 505 @.@ 67 billion .
The Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) for Kuala Lumpur is estimated at RM73,536 million in 2008 with an average annual growth rate of 5 @.@ 9 percent . The per capita GDP for Kuala Lumpur in 2013 is RM79,752 with an average annual growth rate of 5 @.@ 6 percent . The total employment in Kuala Lumpur is estimated at around 838 @,@ 400 . The service sector comprising finance , insurance , real estate , business services , wholesale and retail trade , restaurants and hotels , transport , storage and communication , utilities , personal services and government services form the largest component of employment representing about 83 @.@ 0 percent of the total . The remaining 17 percent comes from manufacturing and construction .
The average monthly household income for Kuala Lumpur was RM4,105 ( USD 1 @,@ 324 ) in 1999 , up from RM3,371 ( USD 1 @,@ 087 ) four years prior , making it 66 % higher than the national average . In terms of household income distribution , 23 @.@ 5 % of households in the city earned more than RM5,000 ( USD 1 @,@ 613 ) per month compared to 9 @.@ 8 % for the entire country , while 8 @.@ 1 % earned less than RM1,000 ( USD 323 ) a month .
The large service sector is evident in the number of local and foreign banks and insurance companies operating in the city . Kuala Lumpur is poised to become the global Islamic Financing hub with an increasing number of financial institutions providing Islamic Financing and the strong presence of Gulf 's financial institutions such as the world 's largest Islamic bank , Al @-@ Rajhi Bank and Kuwait Finance House . Apart from that , the Dow Jones & Company is keen to work with Bursa Malaysia to set up Islamic Exchange Trade Funds ( ETFs ) , which would help raise Malaysia 's profile in the Gulf . The city has a large number of foreign corporations and is also host to many multi national companies ' regional offices or support centres , particularly for finance and accounting , and information technology functions . Most of the countries ' largest companies have their headquarters based here and as of December 2007 and excluding Petronas , there are 14 companies that are listed in Forbes 2000 based in Kuala Lumpur .
Other important economic activities in the city are education and health services . Kuala Lumpur also has advantages stemming from the high concentration of educational institutions that provide a wide @-@ ranging of courses . Numerous public and private medical specialist centres and hospitals in the city offer general health services , and a wide range of specialist surgery and treatment that caters to locals and tourists .
There has been growing emphasis to expand the economic scope of the city into other service activities , such as research and development , which supports the rest of the economy of Malaysia . Kuala Lumpur has been home for years to important research centres such as the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia , the Forest Research Institute Malaysia and the Institute of Medical Research and more research centres are expected to be established in the coming years .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism plays an important role in the city 's service @-@ driven economy . Many large worldwide hotel chains have a presence in the city . One of the oldest hotels is the Hotel Majestic . Kuala Lumpur is the sixth most visited city in the world , with 8 @.@ 9 million tourists per year . Tourism here is driven by the city 's cultural diversity , relatively low costs , and wide gastronomic and shopping variety . MICE tourism , which mainly encompasses conventions — has expanded in recent years to become a vital component of the industry , and is expected to grow further once the Malaysian government 's Economic Transformation Programme kicks in , and with the completion of a new 93,000m2 @-@ size MATRADE Centre in 2014 . Another notable trend is the increased presence of budget hotels in the city .
The major tourist destinations in Kuala Lumpur include the Merdeka Square , the House of Parliament , the Petaling Street , the National Palace ( Istana Negara ) , the Kuala Lumpur Tower , the National Museum , the Central Market , Kuala Lumpur City Gallery , the National Monument , and religious sites such as the Jamek Mosque . Kuala Lumpur plays host to many cultural festivals such as the Thaipusam procession at the Sri Mahamariamman Temple . Every year during the Thaipusam celebration , a silver chariot carrying the statue of Lord Muruga together with his consort Valli and Teivayanni would be paraded through the city beginning at the temple all the way to Batu Caves in the neighboring Selangor .
The entertainment hub of the city is mainly centred in the Golden Triangle encompassing Jalan P. Ramlee , Jalan Sultan Ismail and Ampang Road . Trendy nightclubs , bars and lounges , such as the Beach Club , Espanda , the Hakka Republic Wine Bar & Restaurant , Hard Rock Cafe , the Luna Bar , Nuovo , Rum Jungle , the Thai Club , Zouk , and many others are located here .
= = = Retail = = =
Kuala Lumpur alone has 66 shopping malls and is the retail and fashion hub for Malaysia . Shopping in Malaysia contributed RM7.7 billion ( USD 2 @.@ 26 billion ) or 20 @.@ 8 percent of the RM31.9 billion tourism receipts in 2006 .
Suria KLCC is one of Malaysia 's premier shopping destinations due to its location beneath the Petronas Twin Towers .
Apart from Suria KLCC , Bukit Bintang district has the highest concentration of shopping malls in Kuala Lumpur . It includes : Pavilion , Fahrenheit 88 , Plaza Low Yat , Berjaya Times Square , Lot 10 , BB Plaza , Sungai Wang Plaza . Changkat area of Bukit Bintang hosts various cafes , alfresco dining outlets and illegal activities . Bangsar district also has a few shopping complexes , including Bangsar Village , Bangsar Shopping Centre , and Mid Valley Megamall . The Damansara subdivision north @-@ west of Kuala Lumpur , though not in the city @-@ proper , is the home of the one of the only two IKEA outlets in the country , and a cluster of locally operated malls like Cathay Multi Screen Cinemas , The Curve with KidZania , Ikano Power Centre and One Utama .
Apart from shopping complexes , Kuala Lumpur has designated numerous zones in the city to market locally manufactured products such as textiles , fabrics and handicrafts . The Chinatown of Kuala Lumpur , commonly known as Petaling Street , is one of them . Chinatown features many pre @-@ independence buildings with Straits Chinese and colonial architectural influences .
In 2000 , the Malaysian Ministry of Tourism introduced the mega sale event for shopping in Malaysia . The mega sale event is held three times a year — in March , May and December — during which all shopping malls are encouraged to participate to boost Kuala Lumpur as a leading shopping destination .
= = Demographics = =
Kuala Lumpur is the most populous city in Malaysia , with a population of 1 @.@ 7 million in the city proper as of 2015 . It has a population density of 6 @,@ 696 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 17 @,@ 340 / sq mi ) , and is the most densely populated administrative district in Malaysia . Residents of the city are colloquially known as KLites . Kuala Lumpur is also the centre of the wider Klang Valley conurbation ( covering Petaling Jaya , Klang , Subang Jaya , Shah Alam , Gombak and others ) which has an estimated metropolitan population of 7 @.@ 2 million as of 2012 .
Kuala Lumpur 's heterogeneous populace includes the country 's three major ethnic groups : the Malays , the Chinese and the Indians , although the city also has a mix of different cultures including Eurasians , as well as Kadazans , Ibans and other indigenous races from East Malaysia and Peninsula Malaysia .
Historically Kuala Lumpur was a predominantly Chinese city , with the Kuala Lumpur of 1872 ( before its destruction in the Selangor Civil War ) beside the Klang River described by Frank Swettenham as a " purely Chinese village " , although a Malay stockade already existed at Bukit Nanas at that time . By 1875 Swettenham noted Malay quarters near the Chinese area in a sketch map he had drawn . More recently the Bumiputra component of the city has increased substantially and they are now the dominant group . Large number of Malays now considered Bumiputra were originally from the Indonesian archipelago – the Minangkabaus , Javanese , and Buginese began arriving in Kuala Lumpur in the 19th century , while the Acehnese arrived in the late 20th century . Some Pahang Malays who fought in the Selangor Civil War in 1873 also chose to settle in Kuala Lumpur after the war . The population of Kuala Lumpur was estimated to be around three thousand in 1880 when it was made the capital of Selangor . In the following decade which saw the rebuilding of the town it showed considerable increase , due in large part to the construction of a railway line in 1886 connecting Kuala Lumpur and Klang .
A census in 1891 of uncertain accuracy gave a figure of 43 @,@ 796 inhabitants , 79 % of whom were Chinese ( 71 % of the Chinese were Hakka ) , 14 % Malay , and 6 % Indian . Another estimate put the population of Kuala Lumpur in 1890 at 20 @,@ 000 . In 1931 , 61 % of Kuala Lumpur 's 111 @,@ 418 inhabitants were Chinese , and in 1947 63 @.@ 5 % . The Malays however began to settle in the Kuala Lumpur in significant numbers , in part due to government employment , as well as the expansion of the city that absorbed the surrounding rural areas where many Malays lived . Between 1947 and 1957 the population of Malays in Kuala Lumpur doubled , increasing from 12 @.@ 5 to 15 % , while the proportion of Chinese dropped . The process continued after Malayan independence with the growth of a largely Malay civil service , and later the implementation of the New Economic Policy which encouraged Malay participation in urban industries and business . In 1980 the population of Kuala Lumpur had reached over a million , with 52 % Chinese , 33 % Malay , and 15 % Indian . From 1980 to 2000 the number of Bumiputras increased by 77 % , but the Chinese still outnumbered the Bumiputras in Kuala Lumpur in the 2000 census at 43 % compared to Bumiputras at 38 % . By the 2010 census , according to the Department of Statistics and excluding non @-@ citizens , the percentage of the Bumiputera population in Kuala Lumpur has reached around 45 @.@ 9 % , with the Chinese population at 43 @.@ 2 % and Indians 10 @.@ 3 % .
A notable phenomenon in recent times has been the increase of foreign residents in Kuala Lumpur , which rose from 1 % of the city 's population in 1980 to about 8 % in the 2000 census , and 9 @.@ 4 % in the 2010 census . These figures also do not include a significant number of illegal immigrants . Kuala Lumpur 's rapid development has triggered a huge influx of low @-@ skilled foreign workers from Indonesia , Nepal , Burma , Thailand , Bangladesh , India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Philippines , and Vietnam into Malaysia , many of whom enter the country illegally or without proper permits .
Birth rates in Kuala Lumpur have declined and resulted in the lower proportion of young people – the proportion of those in the below 15 years old category fell from 33 % in 1980 to slightly less than 27 % in 2000 . On the other hand , the working age group of 15 – 59 increased from 63 % in 1980 to 67 % in 2000 . The elderly age group , 60 years old and above has increased from 4 % in 1980 and 1991 to 6 % in 2000 .
Kuala Lumpur is pluralistic and religiously diverse . The city has many places of worship catering to the multi @-@ religious population . Islam is practised primarily by the Malays and the Indian Muslim communities . Buddhism , Confucianism and Taoism are practised mainly among the Chinese . Indians traditionally adhere to Hinduism . Some Chinese and Indians also subscribe to Christianity .
As of 2010 Census the population of Kuala Lumpur is 46 @.@ 4 % Muslim , 35 @.@ 7 % Buddhist , 8 @.@ 5 % Hindu , 5 @.@ 8 % Christian , 1 @.@ 1 % Taoist or Chinese religion adherent , 2 @.@ 0 % follower of other religions , and 0 @.@ 5 % non @-@ religious .
Bahasa Malaysia is the principal language in Kuala Lumpur . Kuala Lumpur residents are generally literate in English , with a large proportion adopting it as their first language . It has a strong presence , especially in business and is a compulsory language taught in schools . Cantonese and Mandarin are prominent as they are spoken by the local majority Chinese population . Another major dialect spoken is Hakka . While Tamil is dominant amongst the local Indian population , other Indian languages spoken include Telugu , Malayalam , Punjabi and Hindi . Beside the Malay language , there are a variety of languages spoken by people of Indonesian descent , such as Minangkabau and Javanese .
= = Cityscape = =
= = = Architecture = = =
The architecture of Kuala Lumpur is a mixture of old colonial influences , Asian traditions , Malay Islamic inspirations , modern , and postmodern architecture mix . Being a relatively young city compared with other Southeast Asian capitals such as Bangkok , Jakarta and Manila , most of Kuala Lumpur 's colonial buildings were built toward the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries . These buildings have Mughal / Moorish Revival , Tudor , Neo @-@ Gothic or Grecian @-@ Spanish style or architecture . Most of the styling has been modified to use local resources and acclimatised to the local climate , which is hot and humid all year around
Prior to the Second World War , many shophouses , usually two stories with functional shops on the ground floor and separate residential spaces upstairs , were built around the old city centre . These shop @-@ houses drew inspiration from Straits Chinese and European traditions . Some of these shophouses have made way for new developments but there are still many standing today around Medan Pasar ( Old Market Square ) , Chinatown , Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman , Jalan Doraisamy , Bukit Bintang and Tengkat Tong Shin areas .
Independence coupled with the rapid economic growth from the 1970s to the 1990s and with Islam being the official religion in the country , has resulted in the construction of buildings with a more local and Islamic flavour arise around the city . Many of these buildings derive their design from traditional Malay items such as the songkok and the keris . Some of these buildings have Islamic geometric motifs integrated with the designs of the building , signifying Islamic restriction on imitating nature through drawings . Examples of these buildings are Menara Telekom , Menara Maybank , Dayabumi Complex , and the Islamic Centre . Some buildings such as the Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia and National Planetarium have been built to masquerade as a place of worship , complete with dome and minaret , when in fact it is a place of science and knowledge . The 452 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 483 ft ) tall Petronas Twin Towers are the tallest twin buildings in the world . They were designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art .
Late modern and postmodern architecture began to appear in the late @-@ 1990s and early @-@ 2000s . With the economic development , old buildings such as Bok House have been razed to make way for new ones . Buildings with all @-@ glass shells exist throughout the city , with the most prominent examples being the Petronas Twin Towers and Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre . Kuala Lumpur 's central business district today has shifted around the Kuala Lumpur city centre ( KLCC ) where many new and tall buildings with modern and postmodern architecture fill the skyline . According to the World Tallest 50 Urban Agglomeration 2010 Projection by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat , Kuala Lumpur was ranked 10th among cities to have most buildings above 100 metres with a combined height of 34 @,@ 035 metres from its 244 high rise buildings .
= = = Parks = = =
The Lake Gardens , a 92 @-@ hectare ( 230 @-@ acre ) botanical garden , is the first recreational park created in Kuala Lumpur . The Malaysian Parliament building is located close by , and Carcosa Seri Negara which was once the official residence of British colonial administration is also sited here . The park includes a Butterfly Park , Deer Park , Orchid Garden , Hibiscus Garden and the Kuala Lumpur Bird Park , which is Southeast Asia 's largest bird park . Other parks in the city include the ASEAN Sculpture Garden , KLCC Park , Titiwangsa Lake Gardens , Metropolitan Lake Gardens in Kepong , Forest Research Institute Of Malaysia , Taman Tasik Permaisuri ( Queen 's Lake Gardens ) , Bukit Kiara Botanical Gardens , Equestrian Park and West Valley Park near TTDI , and Bukit Jalil International Park .
There are three forest reserves within the city namely the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve in the city centre , the oldest gazetted forest reserve in the country 10 @.@ 52 ha or 26 @.@ 0 acres , Bukit Sungai Putih Forest Reserve ( 7 @.@ 41 ha or 18 @.@ 3 acres ) and Bukit Sungai Besi Forest Reserve ( 42 @.@ 11 ha or 104 @.@ 1 acres ) . Bukit Nanas , in the heart of the city centre , is one of the oldest virgin forests in the world within a city . These residual forest areas are home to a number of fauna species particularly monkeys , treeshrews , pygmy goats , budgerigars , squirrels and birds .
There is another park in the close vicinity to Kuala Lumpur i.e. Templer Park initiated and opened by Sir Gerald Templer in 1954 during the " Emergency " time .
= = Education = =
According to government statistics , Kuala Lumpur has a literacy rate of 97 @.@ 5 % in 2000 , the highest rate in any state or territory in Malaysia . In Malaysia , Malay is the language of instruction for most subjects while English is a compulsory subject , but as of 2012 , English is still the language of instruction for mathematics and the natural sciences for certain schools . Some schools provide Mandarin and Tamil as languages of instruction for certain subjects . Each level of education demands different skills of teaching and learning ability .
Kuala Lumpur contains 13 tertiary education institutions , 79 high schools , 155 elementary schools and 136 kindergartens .
Several institutions in the city are older than 100 years — such as Bukit Bintang Girls ' School ( 1893 – 2000 , relocated to Taman Shamelin Perkasa in Cheras and renamed GIS Garden International school Seri Bintang Utara ) , Victoria Institution ( 1893 ) ; Methodist Girls ' School ( 1896 ) ; Methodist Boys ' School ( 1897 ) ; Convent Bukit Nanas ( 1899 ) , St. John 's Institution ( 1904 ) , Confucian Private Secondary School ( 1906 ) , Kuen Cheng High School ( 1908 ) and Tsun Jin High School ( 1913 ) .
Kuala Lumpur is home to the University of Malaya ( UM ) . Established in 1949 , it is the oldest university in Malaysia , and one of the oldest in the region . It was ranked the best university in Malaysia , the 32nd best in Asia , and 3rd in Southeast Asia in 2014 . In recent years , the number of international students at University of Malaya has risen , as a result of increasing efforts made to attract more international students .
Other universities located in Kuala Lumpur include International Islamic University Malaysia ( IIUM ) , Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman ( UTAR ) , UCSI University ( UCSI ) , International Medical University ( IMU ) , Open University Malaysia ( OUM ) , Kuala Lumpur University ( UniKL ) , Wawasan Open University ( WOU ) , Tunku Abdul Rahman University College ( TARUC ) and the branch campus of the National University of Malaysia ( UKM ) and University of Technology Malaysia ( UTM ) . The metropolitan state of Selangor , which surrounds KL to form Greater Kuala Lumpur , also has various universities , most notably the branch campuses of University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus located in Semenyih , National Institute of Ophthalmic Sciences in Petaling Jaya and Monash University Malaysia Campus in Sunway . The National Defence University of Malaysia is located at Sungai Besi Army Base , at the southern part of central Kuala Lumpur . It was established to be a major centre for military and defence technology studies . This institution covers studies in the field of army , navy , and air force .
= = Culture = =
= = = Arts = = =
Kuala Lumpur is a hub for cultural activities and events in Malaysia . Among the centres is the National Museum , which is situated along the Mahameru Highway . Its collection comprises artefacts and paintings collected throughout the country . Kuala Lumpur also has an Islamic Arts Museum , which houses more than seven thousand Islamic artefacts including rare exhibits as well as a library of Islamic art books . The museum 's collection not only concentrate on works from the Middle East , but also includes work from elsewhere in Asia , such as China and Southeast Asia . Kuala Lumpur has a Cultural Craft Complex coupled with a museum that displays a variety of textile , ceramic , metal craft and weaved products . All the information of the production process are portrayed in diorama format complete with historical facts , technique and traditionally engineered equipment . Among the processes shown are pottery making , intricate wood carving , silver @-@ smithing , weaving songket cloth , stamping batik patterns on cloth and boat making . Royal Selangor has an ultra modern visitor 's centre , which allows tours to be conducted through its pewter museum , gallery and its factory . In its pewtersmithing workshop , " The School of Hard Knocks , " participants are taught to create their own pewter dish using traditional tools and methods .
The premier performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall . The resident orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra ( MPO ) , consisting of musicians from all over the world and features regular concerts , chamber concerts and traditional cultural performances . The Kuala Lumpur Performing Arts Centre ( KLPac ) in Sentul West is one of the most established centres for the performing arts , notably theatre , music , and film screening , in the country . It has housed many local productions and has been a supporter of local and regional independent performance artists . One of the highlights in 2006 was the KL Sing Song 2006 music fest , which featured Malaysian singer @-@ songwriters of various cultural backgrounds , from both West and East Malaysia , through two days of performances and workshops .
The National Art Gallery of Malaysia is located on Jalan Temerloh , off Jalan Tun Razak on a 5 @.@ 67 @-@ hectare ( 14 @.@ 0 @-@ acre ) site neighbouring the National Theatre ( Istana Budaya ) and National Library . The architecture of the gallery incorporates elements of traditional Malay architecture , as well as contemporary modern architecture . The National Art Gallery serves as a centre of excellence and trustee of the national art heritage . The Petronas Art Gallery , another centre for fine art , is situated in Kuala Lumpur City Centre ( KLCC ) . The Galeri Tangsi near Dataran Merdeka houses exhibitions of works by local and foreign artists .
Kuala Lumpur holds the Malaysia International Gourmet Festival annually . Another event hosted annually by the city is the Kuala Lumpur Fashion Week , which includes international brands as well as local designers .
Kuala Lumpur also is becoming the centre for new media , innovation and creative industry development in the region and hosts the international creative industry event , Kreative.Asia. Kreative.Asia gathers local , regional and international experts in the creative industry who are involved in the creation , development and delivery of interactive content , arts , community and applications . Kuala Lumpur is at the forefront of the convergence of media , art , culture and communications .
= = = Sports and recreation = = =
Kuala Lumpur has numerous parks , gardens and open spaces for recreational purposes . Total open space for recreational and sport facilities land use in the city has increased significantly by 169 @.@ 6 percent from 5 @.@ 86 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 450 acres ) in 1984 to 15 @.@ 8 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 900 acres ) in 2000 .
Although Kuala Lumpur is touted as one of the host cities for the Formula One World Championship , the open @-@ wheel auto racing A1 Grand Prix and the Motorcycle Grand Prix , races are held at the Sepang International Circuit in Sepang in the neighbouring state of Selangor . The Formula One event contributes significantly to tourist arrivals and tourism income to Kuala Lumpur . This was evident during the Asian financial crisis in 1998 . Despite cities around Asia suffering declining tourist arrivals , Kuala Lumpur tourist arrivals increased from 6 @,@ 210 @,@ 900 in 1997 to 10 @,@ 221 @,@ 600 in 2000 , or 64 @.@ 6 % increase in tourist arrivals . In 2015 , the Kuala Lumpur Street Circuit was constructed to host the Kuala Lumpur City Grand Prix motor racing event .
Kuala Lumpur hosted the official Asian Basketball Championship in 1965 , 1977 and 1985 . The city 's basketball supporters cheered Malaysia 's national basketball team to a Final Four finish in 1985 , the team 's best performance to date . Further , the city is home to the Westports Malaysia Dragons , 2016 Champion of the ASEAN Basketball League . The team plays its home games in the MABA Stadium .
KL Grand Prix CSI 5 * , a five @-@ star international showjumping equestrian event is held annually in the city . This annual event draws the world 's top riders and their prized horses to Malaysia .
Other annual sport events hosted by the city include the KL Tower Run , the KL Tower International BASE Jump Merdeka Circuit and the Kuala Lumpur International Marathon . Kuala Lumpur is also one of the stages of the Tour de Langkawi cycling race .
The annual Malaysia Open Super Series badminton tournament is held in Kuala Lumpur .
Kuala Lumpur has a considerable array of sports facilities of international class after hosting the 1998 Commonwealth Games . Many of these facilities including the main stadium ( with running track and a football field ) , hockey stadium and swimming pools are located in the National Sports Complex at Bukit Jalil while a velodrome and more swimming pools are located in Bandar Tun Razak , next to the Taman Tasik Permaisuri Lake Gardens . There are also football fields , local sports complexes , swimming pools and tennis courts scattered around the suburbs . Badminton and ' takraw ' courts are usually included in community halls . The AFC House — current headquarters of the Asian Football Confederation — is built on a 4 @-@ acre ( 16 @,@ 000 m2 ) complex in the Kuala Lumpur suburb of Bukit Jalil .
Kuala Lumpur has several golf courses including the Kuala Lumpur Golf and Country Club ( KLGCC ) and the Malaysia Civil Service Golf Club in Kiara and the Berjaya Golf Course at Bukit Jalil . The city also has numerous large private fitness centres run by Celebrity Fitness , Fitness First , True Fitness and major five @-@ star hotels .
Kuala Lumpur is also the birthplace of Hashing , which began in December 1938 when a group of British colonial officers and expatriates began meeting on Monday evenings to run , in a fashion patterned after the traditional British Paper Chase or " Hare and Hounds " .
Kuala Lumpur hosted the 128th IOC Session in 2015 where the IOC elected Beijing as the host city of the 2022 Winter Olympics and Lausanne as the host city of the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics .
= = = Media = = =
Several newspapers , including daily , opposition , business , and digital papers , are based in Kuala Lumpur . Daily newspapers include The Star , New Straits Times , The Sun , Malay Mail , Kosmo ! , Utusan Malaysia , Berita Harian , and Harian Metro . Mandarin and Tamil newspapers are also published daily , for example Guang Ming Daily , Sin Chew Daily , China Press , Nanyang Siang Pau and Tamil Nesan , Malaysia Nanban , and Makkal Osai . Opposition newspapers such as Harakah , Suara Keadilan , Siasah and Wasilah are also based here .
Kuala Lumpur is also the headquarters for Malaysia 's state media public government terrestrial television stations : TV1 and TV2 , the subsidiaries of RTM , TV Alhijrah , a subsidiary of Alhijrah Media Corporation , and Media Prima Berhad , a media corporation that houses the private commercial terrestrial television stations : TV3 , NTV7 , 8TV and TV9 . Programmes are broadcast in Malay , English , Chinese and Tamil .
The city is home to the country 's main pay television service , Astro , a satellite television service which broadcasts local and international television channels such as CNN International Asia Pacific , BBC World News , STAR World , FOX Movies Premium and HBO Asia . Al @-@ Jazeera , the Doha @-@ based Arab news network , has launched a new English @-@ speaking channel called Al @-@ Jazeera English to boost its international viewership with one of its broadcast centres based in Kuala Lumpur . Phoenix TV , a Hong Kong @-@ based television broadcaster has also announced plans to expand its regional business by partnership with local satellite TV provider Astro .
In March 2008 , Time Out , an international listings and events magazine , was launched in Kuala Lumpur , its 24th global city .
Kuala Lumpur has been featured in all aspects of popular culture such as movies , television , music and books . Television series set in Kuala Lumpur include A Tale of 2 Cities ( starring Rui En and Joanne Peh ) . Movies set in Kuala Lumpur include Police Story 3 : Super Cop ( starring Jackie Chan and Michelle Yeoh ) , Entrapment ( starring Sean Connery and Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones ) and Children of Men ( starring Clive Owen ) , in which the Petronas Twin Towers were depicted in flames for a few seconds .
Kuala Lumpur was referenced in an episode of The Simpsons entitled " Bart Gets Famous " , in which the Bumblebee Man stated that " a powerful tidal wave in Kuala Lumpur has killed 120 people " .
Books set in Kuala Lumpur include KL 24 / 7 by Ida M Rahim , Shireen Zainudin and Rizal Zainudin , My Life As a Fake by Peter Carey , and Democracy by Joan Didion .
A few notable local films featured Kuala Lumpur as background location , such as Masam @-@ masam Manis ( 1965 ) , Keluarga Si Comat ( 1973 ) , Jiwa Remaja ( 1976 ) , Abang ( 1981 ) , Matinya Seorang Patriot ( 1984 ) , Kembara Seniman Jalanan ( 1986 ) , Orang Kampung Otak Kimia ( 1988 ) , Hati Bukan Kristal ( 1990 ) , Mat Som ( 1990 ) , Mira Edora ( 1990 ) , Femina ( 1993 ) , Maria Mariana ( 1996 ) , Hanya Kawan ( 1997 ) , KLU ( 1999 ) , Soal Hati ( 2000 ) , KL Menjerit ( 2002 ) , Laila Isabella ( 2003 ) , Gangster ( 2005 ) , Gol & Gincu ( 2005 ) , Remp @-@ it ( 2006 ) , Cinta ( 2006 ) , Anak Halal ( 2007 ) Evolusi KL Drift ( 2008 ) , Adnan Sempit ( 2010 ) , KL Gangster ( 2011 ) , Kepong Gangster ( 2012 ) , Lagenda Budak Setan 2 : Katerina ( 2012 ) and Kolumpo ( 2013 ) . A few local films featured Kuala Lumpur during the historical era , such as 1975 : Hati Malaya ( 2007 ) , Petaling Streets Warrior ( 2011 ) and Tanda Putera ( 2013 ) .
Kuala Lumpur is mentioned in many songs by local Malaysian artists , such as " Keroncong Kuala Lumpur ' " by P. Ramlee , " Kuala Lumpur , Ibu Kota " by Saloma , " Chow Kit Road " by Sudirman Arshad , " Senyumlah Kuala Lumpur " by Alleycats , " Streets of Kuala Lumpur " by Murkyway , " K.L. " by Vandal , " Kuala Lumpur " by Poetic Ammo , " Anak Dara " by Azmyl Yunor , " KL " ' by Too Phat , " Kotarayaku " by Hujan and Altimet , and " Lagu Untuk Kuala Lumpur " by Tom .
Kuala Lumpur , along with Putrajaya , was featured in the music video for the single " Dancing Out " by South Korean boy band Super Junior .
Kuala Lumpur was one of the destinations in The Amazing Race Asia and The Amazing Race .
Games have also been set in Kuala Lumpur , including include three levels of the game Hitman 2 : Silent Assassin and two levels of the PlayStation 2 game Burnout Dominator .
A reality game show set in Kuala Lumpur from February until April 2013 was aired on AXN Asia . The Apprentice Asia was launched on 22 May 2013 .
Several commercial radio stations licensed to cover the Great Klang Valley market together with federal government radio stations as list below :
= = Transport = =
Like most other Asian cities , driving is the main mode of commuting in Kuala Lumpur . Hence , every part of the city is well connected by highways . As capital of Malaysia , Kuala Lumpur has a comprehensive road network that leads to the rest of Peninsular Malaysia .
In terms of air connectivity , Kuala Lumpur is served by two airports . The main airport , Kuala Lumpur International Airport ( KLIA ) at Sepang , Selangor , which is also the aviation hub of Malaysia , is located about 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south of city . The other airport is Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport , also known as Subang Skypark and served as the main international gateway to Kuala Lumpur from 1965 until KLIA opened in 1998 . KLIA connects the city with direct flights to destinations in six continents around the world , and is the main hub for the national carrier , Malaysia Airlines and low @-@ cost carrier , AirAsia . KLIA can be reached using the KLIA Ekspres a airport rail link service from KL Sentral , which takes twenty @-@ eight minutes , while travelling by car or bus via highway will take about an hour . Air Asia and other low @-@ cost carrier flights do not fly out of KLIA main terminal but from KLIA2 which is two kilometres from KLIA . KLIA2 is served by an extension of the KLIA Ekspres and by buses from KL Sentral . As of 2007 , Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport is only used for chartered and turboprop flights by airlines such as Firefly and Berjaya Air .
Public transport in Kuala Lumpur and the rest of the Klang Valley covers a variety of transport modes such as bus , rail and taxi . Despite efforts to promote usage of public transport , utilisation rates are low as only 16 percent of the population used public transport in 2006 . However , public transport utilisation is set to rise with the opening of 2 light metro ( LRT ) extension lines on 30 June 2016 . Rail transport in Kuala Lumpur encompasses the light metro ( LRT ) , monorail , commuter rail and airport rail link . Kuala Lumpur is served by three separate rail operators with own brand service , which meet in the city and extend towards other parts of the Klang Valley , namely ERL , Rapid Rail for Rapid KL and KTM for KTM Komuter . The main rapid transit hub is KL Sentral , which facilitates as an interchange station for the rail systems . KL Sentral is also a hub for intercity railway service namely KTM Intercity and KTM ETS . It provides rail services to as far as Singapore in the south , and Hat Yai , Thailand , in the north .
The largest public transport operator in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley is Prasarana Malaysia via its subsidiaries of Rapid Rail and Rapid Bus using Rapid KL brands service . Since the take over from Intrakota Komposit Sdn Bhd , Prasarana Malaysia has redrawn the entire bus network of Kuala Lumpur and Klang Valley metropolitan area to increase passenger numbers and improve Kuala Lumpur 's public transport system . The Prasarana Malaysia has adopted the hub and spoke system to provide greater connectivity , and cut down the need of more buses . Rapid Rail is also the operator of three light metro ( LRT ) lines in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley , namely Ampang Line , Sri Petaling Line and Kelana Jaya Line . By 2017 , the 1st phase of Klang Valley Mass Rapid Transit ( MRT ) Project , Sungai Buloh @-@ Kajang Line will be completed providing a faster efficient ride to the city centre .
In Kuala Lumpur , most taxis have distinctive white and red liveries . Kuala Lumpur is one of the major ASEAN city with taxis extensively running on natural gas . Taxis can be hailed from taxi stands or from the streets . Nevertheless , taxis are known to charge high rates for foreigners .
Kuala Lumpur is served by Port Klang , located about 64 km ( 40 mi ) southwest of the city . The port is the largest and busiest in the country handling about 6 @.@ 3 million twenty @-@ foot equivalent units ( TEU ) of cargo in 2006 .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = =
Kuala Lumpur is twinned with :
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= André Morell =
André Morell ( born Cecil André Mesritz , 20 August 1909 – 28 November 1978 ) was an English actor . He appeared frequently in theatre , film and on television from the 1930s to the 1970s . His best known screen roles were as Professor Bernard Quatermass in the BBC Television serial Quatermass and the Pit ( 1958 – 59 ) , and as Doctor Watson in the Hammer Film Productions version of The Hound of the Baskervilles ( 1959 ) . He also appeared in the films The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) and Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 ) , in several of Hammer 's horror films throughout the 1960s and in the acclaimed ITV historical drama The Caesars ( 1968 ) .
His obituary in The Times newspaper described him as possessing a " commanding presence with a rich , responsive voice … whether in the classical or modern theatre he was authoritative and dependable . "
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Morell was born Cecil André Mesritz in London , England , the son of André and Rosa Mesritz . Prior to taking up acting professionally he trained as a motor engineer , while also participating in amateur theatrical productions . He turned professional in 1934 , initially acting under the name André Mesritz ; he anglicised this to André Morell in 1936 , and adopted the latter name legally by deed poll in 1938 .
In 1938 he joined the Old Vic theatre company , and appeared in several of their high @-@ profile productions both at their home theatre and on tour throughout Britain and across the rest of the world . He appeared in Hamlet as Horatio opposite Alec Guinness in the title role , and as Alonso in John Gielgud 's production of The Tempest . He played Mercutio in a production of Romeo and Juliet mounted by the Old Vic company at Streatham in 1939 , with Robert Donat as Romeo . This was Morell 's favourite role from his career . His performance in the play was praised by The Times 's critic as " a neat and carefully studied portrait ; he is admirable in all his cynical and humorous passages " , although the reviewer did add that " one could wish that he had left this manner for the speech about Queen Mab and addressed this , as a piece of direct poetry , directly to the audience . "
Towards the end of the 1930s he began appearing in films , making his debut on the big screen in 13 Men and a Gun ( 1938 ) . He appeared frequently in several early drama productions on the BBC 's fledgling television service , featuring in such roles as Mr Wickham in Pride and Prejudice ( 1938 ) and Le Bret in Cyrano de Bergerac ( 1938 ) . The onset of World War II interrupted his acting career , and he joined the Royal Welch Fusiliers in 1940 . He served with the regiment until 1946 , by which time he had attained the rank of major .
= = = Major film and television roles = = =
Morell returned to the theatre after the war , including another period at the Old Vic in the 1951 – 52 season . The New Statesman 's critic T. C. Worsley wrote of his performance in a star @-@ studded revival of King Lear that " Mr Morell 's Kent is the best I remember since Sir Ralph Richardson 's . " Of his performance in the title role in Tyrone Guthrie 's production of Timon of Athens , the Daily Mail wrote : " From his stage and screen performances we know him already as an eminently dependable actor , but last night he became a spectacular actor . "
The same profile quoted Morell 's catholic approach to stage assignments : " If a part is a good part and I feel I can enjoy playing it , it doesn 't matter whether it 's Shakespeare or modern farce … I 'd hate to be bogged down in Shakespeare or classic theatre all my life . It 's a good thing for an actor to do many different kinds of theatre , because it keeps his imagination stimulated . "
However , he now increasingly began to win leading parts on television , and in 1953 was cast by the television director Rudolph Cartier in a play called It Is Midnight , Dr Schweitzer . Cartier was impressed with Morell 's performance in this play , and offered him the leading role in a science @-@ fiction serial he was preparing with the writer Nigel Kneale , entitled The Quatermass Experiment . Morell considered the not @-@ yet @-@ completed script , but decided to decline the offer ; the part went instead to his co @-@ star from It Is Midnight , Dr Schweitzer , Reginald Tate .
He did take one of the leading parts in another Cartier and Kneale production the following year , when he played O 'Brien in their version of George Orwell 's novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , opposite Peter Cushing as Winston Smith . This was a successful and controversial production which provoked much comment and debate ; Morell 's part in it has been praised for his " coolly menacing performance [ that ] is at least equal to Cushing 's . "
This successful collaboration with Cartier and Kneale resulted , four years later , in him once again being offered the role of Professor Bernard Quatermass for the pair 's third serial in the series , Quatermass and the Pit , although on this occasion another actor – Alec Clunes – had already turned them down . This time Morell accepted the part , and is regarded by several critics as having provided the definitive interpretation of the character . Morell personally found that in later years it was the role for which he was most often remembered by members of the public .
As well as these and other television appearances , Morell gained several notable film roles towards the end of the 1950s . He appeared in two films which won the Academy Award for Best Picture ; The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) , as Colonel Green , and Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 ) as Sextus . With Peter Cushing as Sherlock Holmes , he played Arthur Conan Doyle 's character Doctor John H. Watson , in Hammer Film Productions ' version of The Hound of the Baskervilles ( also 1959 ) . Morell was particularly keen that his portrayal of Watson should be closer to that originally depicted in Conan Doyle 's stories , and away from the bumbling stereotype established by Nigel Bruce 's interpretation of the role . An earlier Hammer film in which Morell appeared was The Camp on Blood Island ( 1957 ) .
In 1960 , Morell appeared as Judge Brack in a production of Henrik Ibsen 's play Hedda Gabler at the Oxford Playhouse . Starring opposite him in the title role was the film actress Joan Greenwood . They fell in love and flew in secret to Jamaica , where they were married , remaining together until his death .
= = = Later career = = =
Morell continued to appear in Hammer 's horror films in the ensuing decade . He had parts in the Shadow of the Cat ( 1960 ) , She ( 1964 , again with Peter Cushing ) and its sequel Vengeance of She ( 1967 ) , the lead in The Plague of the Zombies ( 1965 ) , and The Mummy 's Shroud ( 1966 ) . He also starred with Cushing in Hammer 's Cash on Demand , playing the same role he had played opposite Richard Vernon in the original TV play , The Gold Inside . He turned down the opportunity of reprising the title role in Hammer 's feature film adaptation of Quatermass and the Pit ( 1967 ) . He did not wish to repeat himself .
Morell continued to act successfully on television throughout the decade , with guest roles in episodes of series such as The Avengers ( 1963 and 1965 ) , Danger Man ( 1965 ) , Doctor Who ( " The Massacre of St Bartholomew 's Eve " 1966 ) , The Saint ( 1965 ) and in The Caesars ( 1968 ) in a prominent role as the Roman emperor Tiberius .
In 1969 , he became the vice president of Equity , the trade union for British actors and performers . He then served as president of the organisation for a year from 1973 – 74 . During this time he was involved in a dispute in which Equity threatened to expel Laurence Olivier as a member due to comments he made in a newspaper feature about the possibility of forming a breakaway union . The union also suffered from financial problems , and Morell continued to warn against destructive divisions amongst the members when he stepped down as president .
Despite his involvement in union business he continued to be a busy working actor . He appeared in Stanley Kubrick 's Barry Lyndon ( 1975 ) as a nobleman friend of the title character . His last television work was an episode of the ITV series The Professionals in 1978 , the year of his death . The animated film version of The Lord of the Rings , in which he voiced the character of Elrond , was released the same year , but his final film work was not seen until the year after his death . This was as the judge in The First Great Train Robbery .
Morell , who smoked up to 60 cigarettes a day until he gave up in 1976 , died from lung cancer in London on 28 November 1978 , at the age of 69 . He was survived by his wife Joan Greenwood and their son Jason . Jason Morell also became an actor , appearing in films such as Mrs. Brown ( 1997 , as Lord Stanley ) and Wilde ( also 1997 , as Ernest Dowson ) .
= = Filmography = =
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= Adult animation =
Adult animation ( also known as adult cartoon ) is a genre of animation geared towards adults and sometimes teens . Works in this genre may be considered adult for any number of reasons . They may be noted for using risqué themes , graphic violence , explicit language , sexuality , or dark humor . Works in this genre may explore philosophical , political , or social issues . Some productions are noted for sophisticated and / or experimental storytelling and animation techniques .
Before the enforcement of the Hays Code , some cartoon shorts contained humor that was aimed at adult audience members rather than children . Following the introduction of the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system , independent animation producers attempted to establish an alternative to mainstream animation . Initially , few animation studios in the United States attempted to produce animation for adult audiences , but later examples of animation produced for adults would gain mainstream attention and success . The most successful animated features produced in the United States primarily for adult audiences were directed by Ralph Bakshi , including Fritz the Cat , Heavy Traffic and Coonskin .
Fox Broadcasting Company has also dedicated an entire evening programming block to adult animation programs , known as " Animation Domination . " In Canada , Teletoon offers up its own Teletoon at Night programming block .
= = History in the United States = =
= = = Pre @-@ code animation = = =
The earliest cartoon series were based upon popular comic strips , and were directed at family audiences . Most animation produced during the silent film era was not intended to be shown to any specific age group , but occasionally contained humor that was directed at adult audience members , including risqué jokes . The earliest known instance of censorship in animation occurred when the censorship board of Pennsylvania requested that references to bootlegging be removed from Walt Disney 's 1925 short Alice Solves a Puzzle . One of the earliest animated pornographic films was Eveready Harton in Buried Treasure , produced circa 1928 . It has often been suggested that the film was produced for a private party in honor of Winsor McCay . Rumors suggest that the film was developed in Cuba years after it was completed , because no lab in New York City would process the film . When a print was screened in San Francisco in the late 1970s , the program notes attributed the animation to George Stallings , George Canata , Rudy Zamora , Sr. and Walter Lantz .
The Motion Picture Association of America , then known as the Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors Association , was established in 1922 as the result of public objection to adult content in films , and a series of guidelines were established , suggesting content that should not be portrayed in films . Until the Hays Code was enforced , many animated shorts featured suggestive content , including sexual innuendo , references to alcohol and drug use , and mild profanity . In the 1933 short Bosko 's Picture Show , Bosko appears to use the word " fuck " , although it has also been suggested that the character is saying " fox " , or even " mug " . The Betty Boop series was known for its use of jokes that would eventually be considered taboo following the enforcement of the Hays Code , including the use of nudity . Betty Boop was initially drawn as a dog , and cast as the girlfriend of another Fleischer character , Bimbo . Betty was redesigned as a human , but the series continued to suggest a love relationship between the two that went farther than the normal relationship between humans and their pets . The short Is My Palm Read contains a scene in which Betty is shown as a child between the ages of four and five , bathing in the nude . In the 1970s , this scene was shown out of context in performances by The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo . Concert audiences were not aware that Betty was supposed to be a baby in the sequence .
Another short , Bamboo Isle , contains a sequence in which Betty dances the hula topless , wearing only a lei over her breasts and a grass skirt . According to animator Shamus Culhane , Fleischer Studios and Paramount Pictures were shocked by the sequence , but because it was a major sequence , it could not be cut out of the film . Culhane also states that he does not remember any instance in which the film was censored . Betty ’ s hula animation was reused for a cameo appearance with Popeye the Sailor in his self @-@ titled animated debut short .
Following the enforcement of the Hays Code , Betty 's clothing was redesigned , and all future shorts portrayed her with a longer dress which did not portray her physique and sexuality . Shorts produced following the enforcement of the Hays Code were also less surreal in nature , and Betty was portrayed as a rational adult .
= = = After the Hays Code = = =
By 1968 , the Hays Office had been eliminated , and the former guidelines were replaced by the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system . The lifting of the Code meant that animated features from other countries could be distributed without censorship , and that censorship would not be required for American productions . Some underground cartoon films from the late 1960s were also aimed at an adult audience , such as Bambi Meets Godzilla ( 1968 ) and the anti @-@ war films Escalation ( 1968 ) and Mickey Mouse in Vietnam ( 1969 ) . " Escalation " in particular is interesting because it was made by Disney animator Ward Kimball , independently from the Disney Studios . Film producer John Magnuson completed an animated short based upon an audio recording of a comedy routine by Lenny Bruce titled Thank You Mask Man ( 1971 ) , in which The Lone Ranger shocks the residents of the town he saves when he tells them that he wants to have sex with Tonto . The short was made by San Francisco @-@ based company Imagination , Inc. and directed by Jeff Hale , a former member of the National Film Board of Canada . The film was scheduled to premiere on the opening night of Z , as a supplement preceding the main feature , but was not shown . According to a former staff member of the festival , Magnuson ran up the aisle and shouted " They crucified Lenny when he was alive and now that he is dead they are screwing him again ! " The festival 's director told Magnuson that the producer of Z did not want any short shown that night . Rumors suggested that the wife of one of the festival 's financiers hated Bruce , and threatened to withdraw her husband 's money if the short was screened . Thank You Mask Man was later shown in art house screenings , and gained a following , but screenings did not perform well enough financially for Magnuson to profit from the film .
= = = Animated feature films = = =
= = = = Ralph Bakshi = = = =
By the late @-@ 1960s , animator Ralph Bakshi felt that he could not continue to produce the same kind of animation as he had in the past . Bakshi was quoted in a 1971 article for the Los Angeles Times as saying that the idea of " grown men sitting in cubicles drawing butterflies floating over a field of flowers , while American planes are dropping bombs in Vietnam and kids are marching in the streets , is ludicrous . " With producer Steve Krantz , Bakshi founded his own studio , Bakshi Productions , establishing the studio as an alternative to mainstream animation by producing animation his own way and accelerating the advancement of female and minority animators . He also paid his employees a higher salary than any other studio at that time .
In 1969 , Ralph 's Spot was founded as a division of Bakshi Productions to produce commercials for Coca @-@ Cola and Max , the 2000 @-@ Year @-@ Old Mouse , a series of educational shorts paid for by Encyclopædia Britannica . However , Bakshi was uninterested in the kind of animation he was producing , and wanted to produce something personal . Bakshi soon developed Heavy Traffic , a tale of inner @-@ city street life . However , Krantz told Bakshi that studio executives would be unwilling to fund the film because of its content and Bakshi 's lack of film experience . While browsing the East Side Book Store on St. Mark 's Place , Bakshi came across a copy of R. Crumb 's Fritz the Cat . Impressed by Crumb 's sharp satire , Bakshi purchased the book and suggested to Krantz that it would work as a film .
Fritz the Cat was the first animated film to receive an X rating from the MPAA , and the highest grossing independent animated film of all time . While the film is widely noted in its innovation for featuring content that had not been portrayed in American animation before , such as explicit sexuality and violence , the film also offered commercial potential for alternative and independent animated films in the United States , as the film offered a mature , satirical portrayal of the 1960s , including portrayal of drug use , political tension and race relations . Bakshi has been credited for playing an important role in establishing animation as a medium where any story can be told , rather than a medium for children . As a result of the acceptance of Bakshi 's features , the director suggested that War and Peace could be produced as an animated film .
Because of the perception that Fritz the Cat was pornographic , Krantz attempted to appeal the film 's rating , but the MPAA refused to hear the appeal . Praise from Rolling Stone and The New York Times , and the film 's acceptance into the 1972 Cannes Film Festival cleared up previous misconceptions . Bakshi then simultaneously directed a number of animated films , starting with Heavy Traffic . Krantz was nervous about showing too much nudity and sexual content , and had several versions of some scenes animated . Thanks to Heavy Traffic , Ralph Bakshi became the first person in the animation industry since Walt Disney to have two financially successful films released back @-@ to @-@ back . Although the film received critical praise , it was banned by the film censorship board in the province of Alberta , Canada when it was originally released .
Bakshi 's next film , Coonskin was produced by Albert S. Ruddy . The film , culled from Bakshi 's interest in African @-@ American history in America , was an attack on racism and racist stereotypes . Bakshi hired several African @-@ American animators to work on Coonskin and another feature , Hey Good Lookin ' , including Brenda Banks , the first African @-@ American female animator . After the release was stalled by protests from the Congress of Racial Equality , which accused both the film and Bakshi himself of being racist , the film was given limited distribution , advertised as an exploitation film , and soon disappeared from theaters .
Bakshi avoided controversy by producing fantasy films , including Wizards , The Lord of the Rings and Fire and Ice . Bakshi did not produce another animated feature film after the 1992 release of Cool World .
= = = = Other animated features = = = =
Although some adult @-@ oriented animated films achieved success , very few animation studios in the United States produced explicitly adult animation during the 1970s , and much of the adult @-@ oriented animation produced in the 1980s and 1990s was critically and commercially unsuccessful . Krantz produced The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat without Bakshi 's involvement , and it was released in June 1974 to negative reviews . Charles Swenson developed Down and Dirty Duck as a project for Flo and Eddie ( Howard Kaylan and Mark Volman , formerly of The Turtles and The Mothers of Invention ) under the title Cheap ! The film , produced by Roger Corman , was released in July 1974 under the title Dirty Duck , and received negative reviews .
The film Who Framed Roger Rabbit ( 1988 ) , distributed by Disney @-@ owned Touchstone Pictures , contains a number of risqué jokes that could barely be seen by audiences , but could be viewed by slowing down laserdisc copies of the film . In one scene , Baby Herman walks under a woman 's dress , raising his hand up her thighs as he passes , and emerging with an extended finger as he brings his hand down . An animator who worked on the film stated that director Robert Zemeckis never intended to censor the scene , as it was one of his favorite moments from the film . Part of the film was animated in England , and one of the film 's British animators drew a sequence in which Jessica Rabbit 's crotch was exposed without Disney 's knowledge . While the image cannot be clearly seen on the VHS , DVD and Blu @-@ ray version of the film , it appeared more clearly on the film 's laserdisc .
Animated films portraying serious stories began to regain notice from mainstream audiences in the beginning of the 21st century . Persepolis , a 2007 adaptation of Marjane Satrapi 's autobiographical graphic novel , won the Jury Prize at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival and was later nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature . The Iranian government protested the film 's inclusion in the Festival , but later allowed the film to be screened in a censored version , which altered the film 's sexual content . The 2008 Israeli film Waltz with Bashir , an animated documentary involving the 1982 Lebanon War , was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film .
The 2016 film The Killing Joke was the first film in the DC Universe Animated Original Movies series and the first animated Batman film to receive an R rating from the MPAA , with Warner Bros. Animation and Warner Digital Series president Sam Register explaining , " From the start of production , we encouraged producer Bruce Timm and our team at Warner Bros. Animation to remain faithful to the original story — regardless of the eventual MPAA rating … We felt it was our responsibility to present our core audience — the comics @-@ loving community — with an animated film that authentically represented the tale they know all too well . " The film was released in a limited theatrical screening on July 25 , 2016 .
= = = Festivals = = =
In 1988 , San Francisco exhibitor Expanded Cinema screened a compilation of adult @-@ oriented animated shorts under the title " Outrageous Animation " . Advertising the package as containing " the wildest cartoons ever " , the screenings contained shorts produced outside the United States , as well as independently produced American shorts . Reviews of the festival were mixed . San Francisco Chronicle writer Mick LaSalle hated almost everything screened at the festival , with the exception of Bill Plympton 's One of Those Days . In The San Francisco Examiner , David Armstrong gave the show a three @-@ star review and described the films screened as having " some of the rude vitality of the great old Warner Bros. cartoons — and a good deal of the sexual explicitness denied those old favorites from a more cautious age . "
In 1990 , Mellow Manor Productions began screening films under the title " Spike and Mike 's Sick and Twisted Festival of Animation " . Founders Craig " Spike " Decker and Mike Gribble promoted their festival by handing out flyers on the streets rather than with traditional promotional techniques . In 1991 , Decker and Gribble screened their first " All Sick and Twisted Festival of Animation " , promising " wild and zany films that could never be shown to our ' normal audience ' " . The festival screened newer independent shorts , as well as older shorts such as Bambi Meets Godzilla and Thank You Mask Man . Although the festival promoted works by animators who would later gain mainstream success , such as Plympton , Mike Judge , Trey Parker , and Don Hertzfeldt , many reviewers dismissed the bulk of the programming as shock value .
In 2003 , Mike Judge and Don Hertzfeldt created a new touring festival of animation marketed towards adults and college students . The Animation Show brought animated shorts into more North American theaters than any previous commercial festival . Though intended for adult audiences , the programming skewed more towards Academy Award nominated animated shorts and foreign films than it did explicit material .
= = = Television animation = = =
From 1972 to 1974 , Hanna @-@ Barbera produced Wait till Your Father Gets Home , an adult @-@ oriented sitcom in the style of All in the Family . The series dealt with subjects such as feminism and the generation gap . In the 1990s , a number of animated television programs appeared which challenged the Standards & Practices guidelines , including The Simpsons , Beavis and Butt @-@ Head , The Critic , The Brothers Grunt , Duckman , The Ren and Stimpy Show , and Rocko 's Modern Life . The Simpsons originated from series of shorts appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show . Because the shorts and television series aired in prime time , the show was not censored as much as programs intended to air on Saturday mornings . In addition to the show 's portrayal of brief nudity and mild language , the series has dealt with mature themes , subjects such as death , gambling addiction , religion and suicide .
As the result of the success of The Simpsons , ABC , CBS and NBC each developed animated series to air in prime time , but none of the shows were successful . One series , Capitol Critters , focused on subjects such as gun control , interracial violence and political corruption . In his review of the series , Variety critic Brian Lowry wrote that he felt that the series ' approach was " muddled " , and that " the bland central character and cartoonish elements [ ... ] will likely be off @-@ putting to many adults , who won 't find the political satire biting enough to merit their continued attention . Similarly , kids probably won 't be as smitten with the cartoon aspects or look " . The series was cancelled after one month . The Critic was somewhat more successful , but achieved low ratings because of ABC 's sporadic scheduling , and was cancelled by the network . The Fox Broadcasting Company picked up the series , but cancelled it four months later . While Fox allowed The Simpsons to portray animated depictions of the human buttocks , ABC would not allow similar scenes to appear on The Critic .
Beavis and Butt @-@ head was controversial for its portrayal of brief nudity , profanity and violence . Although the series was intended for adult audiences , it was shown in the afternoons , and multiple parents claimed that their children had imitated the show 's characters . The first instance of such an accusation occurred when animal lovers in Santa Cruz , California claimed that someone had blown up a cat after seeing Beavis and Butt @-@ head perform this act on television . In actuality , no such scene had ever been portrayed . When a five @-@ year @-@ old boy in Ohio set his bed on fire , killing his two @-@ year @-@ old sister , critics claimed that the incident was the result of an episode involving fire , although it has never been proven that the boy had ever watched the series . MTV responded by moving the series to a later airtime and adding disclaimers to future episodes stating explicitly not to imitate the actions of the characters , as well as removing all references to fire from the episodes .
Discussions involving a series based upon Trey Parker and Matt Stone 's video Christmas card , The Spirit of Christmas , led HBO to contact Ralph Bakshi in order to produce an animated series targeted specifically toward adults . Bakshi enlisted a team of writers , including his son , Preston , to develop Spicy Detective , later renamed Spicy City , an anthology series set in a noir @-@ ish , technology @-@ driven future . Each episode featuring a different story narrated by a female host named Raven , voiced by Michelle Phillips . The series premiered in July 1997 , beating South Park to television by over a month and becoming the first " adults only " cartoon series . Although critical reaction was mixed and largely unfavorable , Spicy City received acceptable ratings . A second season was approved , but the network wanted to fire Bakshi 's writing team and hire professional Los Angeles screenwriters . When Bakshi refused to cooperate with the network , the series was canceled .
Another notable show that paved the future of adult animation is Space Ghost Coast to Coast which is an animated parody talk show hosted by the 60s Hanna @-@ Barbera cartoon character Space Ghost . It was Cartoon Network 's first original program and also the first television show to mix live action and animation . Though it aired at an 11 : 00 pm timeslot , apart from the mild profanity , sexual references and violence it was not particularly risque like other mature shows at the time . In 2001 , Time Warner established Adult Swim as a programming block on Cartoon Network . Its schedule currently includes original programs such as Aqua Teen Hunger Force and Squidbillies and reruns of syndicated programs such as Family Guy , American Dad ! and King of the Hill ( all of which had their original run on Fox ) . While Adult Swim has been known to air a majority of high impact adult material , there have been some cases where some episodes from certain shows were pulled out of airing schedule for going overboard , one famous example is the animated series Moral Orel . Episodes of this show have depictions of children drinking alcohol and violence against homosexuals .
American audiences have become more accepting of adult @-@ oriented animation through the popularity of American @-@ produced comedic television shows . Dramatic series such as Aeon Flux and Invasion America are less common , and still rarely successful .
Notable examples of this genre include King of the Hill , Bob 's Burgers , Rick and Morty , The Simpsons , American Dad ! , Family Guy , Aqua Teen Hunger Force , South Park , Archer , Futurama , Beavis and Butt @-@ Head , Space Ghost Coast to Coast , Squidbillies , and The Ren & Stimpy Show .
In 2000 Energee Entertainment produced Australian Gloria 's House , in a series of The Storm and The Long Weekend characters Dorothy Perfeck ( voiced Jean Kittson ) and Millicent Perfeck ( voiced Michelle Doake ) , she said appears to use the word fucked and fucking .
= = Europe = =
In 1954 , a British studio produced an animated adaptation of George Orwell 's novel Animal Farm . This film is believed to have been one of the earliest examples of British animation , and like the book , is meant to be a portrayal or critique of Stalinism , with characters serving as analogues to figures from the Russian Revolution of 1917 .
For many years , it had been problematic to import films that did not meet the approval of the United States Customs Service . In 1972 , the Customs Service refused entry of a short film titled Sinderella , depicting scenes of sexual intercourse between characters based upon Cinderella , Little Red Riding Hood , Puss in Boots , Goldilocks and the Three Bears , and Prince Charming . The film was seized as obscene material , and its distributor filed a court case and an appeal in 1974 , but lost both .
In 1973 , Rene Laloux directed La Planète sauvage based on the French science fiction novel Oms en série by Stefan Wul . It has been aired on TV in the U.S. and U.K. as Fantastic Planet , and several DVD editions have been released . Also in 1973 , an Italian animated movie King Dick appeared , which became a cult cartoon in the UK . A West @-@ German cartoon short called Snow White and the Seven Perverts ( " Schneeflittchen unter die Sieben Bergen " ) also appeared . This little film mostly parodies Snow White and has been included as part of other compilation films .
Belgian animator Picha made an entire career of directing animated sex comedy films , such as the Tarzan parody Tarzoon : Shame of the Jungle ( 1975 ) , the Stone Age film The Missing Link ( 1980 ) , the science fiction satire The Big Bang ( 1987 ) and the Snow White parody Snow White : The Sequel ( 2007 ) . The first foreign animated film to receive both an X rating and wide distribution in the United States was Tarzoon : Shame of the Jungle . A dubbed version , which featured new dialogue performed by American actors and comedians such as John Belushi , Adolph Caesar , Brian Doyle @-@ Murray , Judy Graubart , Bill Murray and Johnny Weissmuller Jr . , received an R rating . According to distributor Stuart S. Shapiro , the X rating hurt the film 's distribution , but the dubbed version " took the bite out of the film . It lost its outrageousness . " Tarzoon was banned by the New Zealand Board of Censors in 1980 .
In England , Martin Rosen directed two animated feature films based on the novels of Richard Adams : Watership Down in 1978 and The Plague Dogs in 1982 . Both films deal with adult themes : Watership Down the negotiation of leadership to organize an exodus away from persecution , and The Plague Dogs on animal testing .
The Wall , an adaptation of Pink Floyd 's concept album of the same name , featured 15 minutes of painstaking traditional animation in addition to numerous live @-@ action sequences ; although the film was not by any stretch pornographic , it was an adult film ( with numerous references to drugs , mental illness and sex , along with one animated sequence portraying a character talking out of his rectum and having a scrotum for a beard ) and received an R rating when imported to the United States .
In 1986 , England produced yet another politically @-@ themed animation , When the Wind Blows , about an older couple whose home undergoes a nuclear attack .
Werner - a German animated film based on the comic book . In an episode of many characters use foul language and flip the bird .
Felidae ( 1994 ) , based on the novel by Akif Pirinçci , was an animated film about a cat inspecting various mysterious murders in his local neighborhood . The film is notable for graphic depictions of violence , coarse language and a scene where cats mate with each other .
= = Japan = =
Adult animation is known in Japan as アダルトアニメ ( adult anime ) . In both English and Japanese , the word ' adult ' may carry connotations of a sexual nature , but anime on serious topics such as Akira or Ghost in the Shell often get referred to as ' adult ' in Japan as well , even when sex is not a key part of the story .
Animated works of an erotic nature have come to be described in western fandom as ' hentai , ' the Japanese word for ' perverted , ' while in Japan they are more likely to be referred to as 18禁アニメ ( R @-@ 18 anime ) or エロアニメ ( erotic anime ) .
Some of the earliest manga magazines were aimed at adults , and this provided a prime source as the basis for adult anime works . Weekly Manga Times began publication in 1956 , and would be followed by Weekly Manga Goraku ( 1964 ) and Manga Action ( 1967 ) . Anime works based on adult manga include Berserk , Hellsing Ultimate , Maison Ikkoku , Mushishi , Golden Boy , and Tokyo Daigaku Monogatari .
In 1969 , Osamu Tezuka and Eiichi Yamamoto released Senya Ichiya Monogatari ( 千夜一夜物語 ) the first of a series of three animated feature films aimed at an adult audience . It was dubbed and released in the United States as One Thousand and One Arabian Nights . Osamu Tezuka and Eiichi Yamamoto collaborated on the second film in the Animerama series Kureopatora ( クレオパトラ ) released in the United States as Cleopatra : Queen of Sex . The third film Kanashimi no Beradonna ( 哀しみのベラドンナ ) was directed by Yamamoto alone . It was entered in the Berlin Film festival , but did not achieve commercial success .
In 1984 , original video animation ( OVA ) of an erotic nature began to be released , first Lolita Anime by Wonder Kids based on the manga work of Fumio Nakajima , and then later in the year Cream Lemon , a series which proved to be a big hit in Japan . La Blue Girl and New Angel are two other erotic anime to be released in U.S. and Europe in the early 1990s .
1988 saw the release of Akira directed by Katsuhiro Otomo which was dubbed and shown in U.S. theaters , and released on VHS around the world . Its success led to a greater interest in Japanese adult anime in the U.S. , and opened the door for other titles . In 1995 , Ghost in the Shell was released as a feature film , directed by Mamoru Oshii based on the manga by Masamune Shirow . It received critical acclaim in both Japan and abroad hinting further at the possibilities of adult animation .
The U.S. Adult Swim channel has been airing adult @-@ oriented anime series on their Saturday night Toonami block : Mobile Suit Gundam : Iron @-@ Blooded Orphans , Akame ga KILL ! , Parasyte , Attack on Titan , Sword Art Online , Kill la Kill , Hunter x Hunter , Neon Genesis Evangelion , Bleach , Deadman Wonderland , Casshern Sins , Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood , Ghost in the Shell Stand Alone Complex 2nd Gig , and Cowboy Bebop . Five of the Japanese TV networks have similar late night anime blocks : Fuji Television 's Noitamina , Mainichi Broadcasting System 's Animeism and Anime Shower , Asahi Broadcasting Corporation 's Wednesday Anime and Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation 's Manpa . The programs aired have included Angel Heart , Genji Monogatari Sennenki and Hellsing .
Starting in 2004 , Mahiro Maeda directed a multi @-@ episode anime adaptation of Alexandre Dumas ' novel as Gankutsuou : The Count of Monte Cristo . It was aired on Animax in Asia , and FUNimation in the United States , and received critical acclaim in the anime press .
Although some associate all anime with sexual content , hentai only makes up a very small portion of the Japanese animation industry . As the result of the misconceptions about Japanese animation , some video stores outside Japan have classified children 's anime as for adults only . Many video stores have also categorized all adult @-@ oriented animation as anime , including the works of Ralph Bakshi , the French animated film Fantastic Planet , the Canadian animated film Heavy Metal and the HBO television series Todd McFarlane 's Spawn . In the case of Spawn , Todd McFarlane directly listed anime as an influence , particularly Otomo 's Akira , and stated his hope that the show would help encourage the rise of adult animation on North American networks . This in part lead to the involvement of the Japanese studio Mad House in the production , in an attempt to " combine " the Eastern and Western styles .
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= Buzzcut Season =
" Buzzcut Season " is a song by New Zealand singer Lorde , taken from her debut studio album , Pure Heroine ( 2013 ) . It was released on 23 September 2013 by Universal Music Group ( UMG ) as a promotional single from the album . Written by Lorde and Joel Little , " Buzzcut Season " features elements from tropical music and discusses the " ridiculousness of modern life . "
Upon its release , " Buzzcut Season " was met with positive reviews from music critics , who praised its production and Lorde 's vocal delivery on the track . The song reached number twenty @-@ nine on the US Billboard Hot Rock Songs and number thirty @-@ eight on the ARIA Streaming Tracks . Lorde performed " Buzzcut Season " during a number of shows , including the Late Show with David Letterman .
= = Background = =
" Buzzcut Season " was written by Lorde ( credited under her birth @-@ name Ella Yelich @-@ O 'Connor ) and Joel Little , and was produced and mixed by Little . Similar to other songs from the album Pure Heroine , " Buzzcut Season " was recorded at Golden Age Studios in Auckland . On 23 September 2013 , the track was released as a digital download promotional single on iTunes Stores by Universal Music New Zealand .
= = Composition = =
" Buzzcut Season " draws inspirations from tropical music , and features " light percussive snaps " and " trickling xylophone " instrumentation . Lyrically , the song talks about the " ridiculousness of modern life . " Sammy Maine from the website Drowned in Sound commented that the song was a " heartbreaking comment on our war @-@ driven way of life . " She pointed out the lyrics " Explosions on TV and all the girls with heads inside a dream " against M.I.A. ' s pop @-@ reggae musical style . Gaby Whitehill from Gigwise website called the song a " melancholy affair " and praised the " epic piano laden beat combined with the 16 @-@ year @-@ old 's haunting vocals . "
= = Reception = =
Jason Lipshutz from Billboard praised the song 's production and Lorde 's vocal delivery . Writer Michelle Pitiris for Australian magazine Vulture chose " Buzzcut Season " as a highlight from Pure Heroine and compared its sound to Air . Idolator editor Mike Wass labelled it " another twinkling postcard from the streets of Auckland " but felt that it failed to " capture the attention " like " 400 Lux " or " Tennis Court " , two other songs from the album . " Buzzcut Season " spent five weeks on the Australian ARIA Streaming Tracks chart , peaking at number thirty @-@ eight . It also reached number 29 on the US Hot Rock Songs . In New Zealand , " Buzzcut Season " peaked at number 18 on the New Zealand National Singles chart , which lists the best @-@ performing singles by New Zealand artists in the country .
= = Live performances = =
On 3 October 2013 , the singer held a concert at the Warsaw Venue in Brooklyn and performed the song among other tracks from the album . On 12 October 2013 , Lorde performed " Buzzcut Season " in Studio Q of CBC . On 13 November 2013 , Lorde performed several songs from Pure Heroine during the Late Show with David Letterman to promote the album , including " Buzzcut Season " . According to Rolling Stone , the " sparkly @-@ dressed " and " big @-@ haired " singer performed only backed by a drummer and a keyboard player .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Buzzcut Season " – 4 : 06
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
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= Royal Australian Regiment =
The Royal Australian Regiment ( RAR ) is the parent administrative regiment for regular infantry battalions of the Australian Army and is the senior infantry regiment of the Royal Australian Infantry Corps . It was originally formed in 1948 as a three battalion regiment ; however , since then its size has fluctuated as battalions have been raised , amalgamated or disbanded in accordance with the Australian government 's strategic requirements . Currently , the regiment consists of seven battalions and has fulfilled various roles including those of light , parachute , motorised and mechanised infantry . Throughout its existence , units of the Royal Australian Regiment have deployed on operations in Japan , Korea , Malaya , Borneo , Vietnam , Somalia , Rwanda , Cambodia , East Timor , the Solomon Islands , Iraq and Afghanistan .
= = Organisation = =
The Royal Australian Regiment ( RAR ) is part of the Royal Australian Infantry Corps , along with the six state @-@ based infantry regiments of the Australian Army Reserve . It is the most senior of the corps ' regiments in the order of precedence , and currently consists of seven Regular Army light infantry battalions :
1st Battalion ( 1 RAR )
2nd Battalion ( 2 RAR )
3rd Battalion ( 3 RAR )
5th Battalion ( 5 RAR )
6th Battalion ( 6 RAR )
7th Battalion ( 7 RAR )
8th / 9th Battalion ( 8 / 9 RAR ) .
The battalions of the regiment are capable of providing seven of the ten regular battlegroups that the Australian Army has available for deployment . The current order of battle sees 5 and 7 RAR as part of the 1st Brigade based in Darwin and Adelaide ; 1 , 2 , and 3 RAR as part of the 3rd Brigade in Townsville ; and 6 and 8 / 9 RAR as part of the 7th Brigade in Brisbane .
= = = Former battalions = = =
2nd / 4th Battalion ( 1973 – 95 ) , delinked to 2 RAR and 4 RAR
4th Battalion ( 1964 – 73 and 1995 – 2009 ) , reflagged 2nd Commando Regiment
5th / 7th Battalion ( 1973 – 2006 ) , delinked to 5 RAR and 7 RAR
8th Battalion ( 1966 – 73 ) , amalgamated to 8 / 9 RAR
9th Battalion ( 1967 – 73 ) , amalgamated to 8 / 9 RAR
10th Independent Rifle Company ( 1974 – late 1990s ) , disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = Formation , 1948 = = =
The origins of the Royal Australian Regiment lie in the decision made by the Australian government to raise a force for occupation duties in Japan at the end of the Second World War . The 34th Australian Infantry Brigade was raised in October 1945 from Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) personnel then serving in the South West Pacific Area , with the three battalions of the brigade designated as the 65th , 66th and 67th Australian Infantry Battalions of the AIF . The 65th Battalion was formed from volunteers from the 7th Division and the 2 / 40th Battalion . The 66th Battalion received volunteers from the 9th Division and 1st Australian Corps troops . The 67th Battalion was formed from the 3rd , 6th , and 11th Divisions . After concentrating on the island of Morotai , the 34th Brigade moved to Japan and joined the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in February 1946 .
The 34th Brigade became the basis of the post @-@ war Regular Army in 1947 , and when the decision was taken in 1948 to withdraw two of the battalions to Australia , attention turned to the status and designation of these units . Brigadier Ronald Hopkins , commander of the brigade , was concerned that despite the unit prestige and regimental spirit developed since October 1945 , it would be undesirable to have the regular units the highest numbered , without battle honours or colours , and with precedence after Militia units . Consideration was given to whether the battalions might be designated as separate regiments . For example , the 65th Battalion might have become the 1st Infantry Battalion , City of Sydney 's Own Regiment under one proposal or the 1st Battalion , King George VI 's Australian Rifle Regiment under another . Instead , the decision was taken to number the units sequentially as part of one large regiment and so on 23 November 1948 the 65th , 66th and 67th Battalions became the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Australian Regiment . An application was made for a royal title , which was granted on 10 March 1949 . The Royal Australian Regiment thus came into being as Australia 's first regiment of regular infantry . Since formation the battalions of the regiment have competed against each other in an annual military skills competition known as the Gloucester Cup .
= = = Early years : Japan and Australia , 1948 – 50 = = =
The formation of the regiment following the end of the Second World War was fundamentally important to the post @-@ war Australian Army , forming a key component of the first " permanent , professional army , available in peace and war for any task the government might direct " . Prior to this time the Australian Army had been substantially a part @-@ time militia with a permanent cadre . A major influence in the raising of the regiment was Australia 's desire to secure a prominent role in the occupation of Japan and the eventual peace settlement . After some delays the 65th , 66th and 67th Battalions arrived in Japan 's Hiroshima Prefecture in February 1946 . Subsequent employment " involved activities designed to reinforce upon the Japanese the lesson of their defeat " , in addition to guard duty , patrolling and training . In December 1948 the Australian component of the BCOF was reduced from a brigade to one understrength battalion , with the 1st and 2nd Battalions returning to Australia , while the 3rd Battalion remained in Japan .
On return to Australia the 34th Brigade became the 1st Brigade . The 1st Battalion was subsequently based in Ingleburn , New South Wales , and the 2nd Battalion at Puckapunyal , Victoria . Both units were significantly understrength as many men discharged on returning to Australia , while others elected to remain in Japan with the 3rd Battalion . Alan Morrison , a former member of the regiment , later recalled that for the two battalions that returned to Australia " ... the first eighteen months of the regiment 's existence were harrowing times " . Many men discharged due to frustration and discontent , while the battalions were not strong enough to undertake meaningful training activities and their barracks were in a state of disrepair . Yet from this experience came the core " ... of dedicated soldiers destined to be the non @-@ commissioned officers of the regiment in the Korean War and the outstanding warrant officers and sergeants of the battalions that served in Malaya and in the early part of the Vietnam campaign " .
The regiment has provided units and individuals for virtually all Australian Army deployments and operations since its formation . The first period of sustained operational service began with the regiment 's first deployment in Korea in 1950 and continued until the withdrawal of combat units from Vietnam in 1972 . These 22 years were arguably the most significant for the regiment with between one and three battalions involved in combat operations in South @-@ East Asia at any one time . A second lengthy period of operational service commenced with the intervention in East Timor in 1999 , which became the first of many commitments for the regiment that have continued to the present day . Approximately 85 @,@ 000 personnel have served in the RAR during this time , with casualties sustained by the regiment on operations including 693 killed and over 3 @,@ 000 wounded .
= = = Korean War , 1950 – 53 = = =
The Korean War was the first major test of the regiment . Following preparations in Japan , 3 RAR arrived in Pusan on 28 September 1950 and was attached to the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade . The initial invasion of South Korea by the North Korean People 's Army ( NKPA ) had been broken by General Douglas MacArthur 's amphibious landing at Inchon , and so , in what was a complicated war of manoeuvre , 3 RAR was involved in the pursuit of the NKPA back across the 38th parallel . On 21 October 1950 , 3 RAR took part in the Battle of Yongju in an apple orchard north of Pyongyang , the first large @-@ scale engagement fought by a battalion of the regiment . The farthest north 3 RAR would advance into North Korea was the Pakchon – Chongju area following the Battle of Chongju , and it was near here that Lieutenant Colonel Charlie Green , the battalion 's commanding officer , was mortally wounded on 30 October 1950 . By November 1950 , following the Chinese intervention , 3 RAR was withdrawing south along with the rest of the allied Eighth Army , fighting the Battle of Pakchon . However , following a UN counteroffensive a defensive line was established about 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) north of Seoul and it was here in April 1951 that 3 RAR , along with the 2nd Battalion , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry and supporting UN forces , fought a successful defensive action at the Battle of Kapyong . This battle proved to be the climactic point of the regiment 's first year in Korea .
By June 1951 , 3 RAR moved to a position on the Imjin River under the command of the US I Corps and it was here that the battalion would spend the next two years of the war . The major action fought by the regiment in the second half of 1951 was the Battle of Maryang San , where 3 RAR , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Frank Hassett , assaulted Hill 317 on 5 October 1951 . Known as Operation Commando , Hill 317 was captured after five days of hard fighting . Following this action the war was defined by fixed defences of trenches , bunkers and wire , constant patrolling , and numerous clashes . In April 1952 , 3 RAR was joined by 1 RAR and command of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade , of which they were now a part , passed to an Australian officer as a result . Meanwhile , the expansion of the commitment in Korea to two battalions resulted in the establishment of a regimental depot at Ingleburn in 1952 to train and hold infantrymen for service in Korea . In April 1953 , 1 RAR was replaced by 2 RAR on a system of unit rotation . During this changeover a parade was held to mark the first occasion that all battalions of the regiment had been on parade together . 1 RAR served a year in Korea , 2 RAR for four months before the armistice , while 3 RAR served throughout the war , earning itself the nickname of " Old Faithful " . The last major action of the war for the regiment was the Battle of the Samichon River fought by 2 RAR over 24 – 26 July 1953 , repulsing a number of major Chinese assaults just hours before the Armistice Agreement was signed .
Following the armistice both sides withdrew and a demilitarised zone was created . The period that followed proved uneventful , yet the UN forces were required to maintain combat readiness and the ability to react quickly in case the North Koreans violated the ceasefire . In April 1954 , 2 RAR returned to Australia and was replaced by 1 RAR which remained in South Korea until March 1956 . 3 RAR finally returned to Australia in September 1954 after four years of continuous service in Korea and five years before that in Japan . Total Army casualties in Korea included 293 killed , 1 @,@ 210 wounded and 23 captured , the majority being infantrymen of the Royal Australian Regiment . The fighting in Korea provided the regiment with valuable combat experience , establishing a foundation for its further development and marking the emergence of the Australian Regular Army . The Korean War remains the only large @-@ scale , conventional war that the regiment has fought . During this time the Army developed the capability to maintain two battalions on major operations at the same time .
= = = Malaya and Borneo , 1955 – 66 = = =
In April 1955 the Australian government had committed army , navy and air force elements to the Far East Strategic Reserve to assist in the defence of Malaya from internal and external security threats . While British Commonwealth forces had been operating against the communist terrorists since 1948 , the battalions of the regiment came relatively late to the Malayan Emergency , and when 2 RAR arrived in theatre in October 1955 the war had been running for over seven years . 2 RAR was replaced by 3 RAR in 1957 , which was in turn replaced by 1 RAR in 1959 . During the Emergency the three battalions were involved in 45 contacts , killing 17 guerrillas for the loss of seven men killed in action . According to Jim Molan the attention to detail required of five years of infantry soldiering in Malaya exposed the regiment to jungle warfare skills developed by the British Army during its most successful counterinsurgency war . This experience later informed the development of its own doctrine , with the Malayan Emergency making a significant contribution to the professionalism of the regiment . Meanwhile , the regimental depot — which had been renamed 4 RAR soon after formation — was subsequently incorporated into the School of Infantry and renamed Depot Company , Royal Australian Regiment in 1960 . Despite the end of the State of Emergency in Malaya , 1 RAR was employed on anti @-@ terrorist operations along the Thai border in late 1960 . 1 RAR was replaced in Malaya by 2 RAR in 1961 , with the battalion involved in training and counter @-@ terrorist operations . It was subsequently employed on operations along the Thai border for three months in mid @-@ 1962 , and again in May and June 1963 , being involved in a number of minor contacts . 2 RAR handed over to 3 RAR in August , and returned to Australia . 3 RAR was also committed to operations along the Thai border in early 1964 .
Between 1963 and 1966 , Indonesia pursued a policy of Konfrontasi , or Confrontation , with Malaysia . 3 RAR , which was based at Camp Terendak in Malacca on mainland Malaysia , was subsequently used with British and New Zealand forces to mop up two small airborne and seaborne landings near Labis and Pontian in September and October 1964 . On 13 February 1965 , 3 RAR was warned for service in Sarawak on the island of Borneo , commencing in March . 3 RAR completed a four @-@ month tour mounting numerous security patrols in its area of operations , including a number of sensitive cross @-@ border patrols into the Indonesian regency of Sarawak as a part of Operation Claret , which resulted in actions at Sungei Koemba , Kindau and Babang , between late May and July . Operations on the Sarawak border " were a severe test of the skill , discipline and professionalism of the infantry , involving long periods in the jungle or in the company bases . " Out of the 30 Claret operations conducted by 3 RAR , 12 were reconnaissance patrols , while the remainder were ambushes or fighting patrols , four of which resulted in contact with Indonesian forces . 4 RAR , having been reformed as a battalion the previous year , assumed responsibility from 3 RAR at Camp Terendak in October 1965 . Deploying forward to Borneo in April 1966 , it remained there until September and like its predecessor , conducted a demanding routine of internal security and cross @-@ border patrols .
= = = Expansion of the regiment , 1960s = = =
The early 1960s were a period of strategic uncertainty and increasing commitments in South East Asia . Consequently , the Australian government re @-@ introduced selective conscription in late @-@ 1964 and directed a significant increase in the strength of the Army . Yet unlike during the 1950s when National Servicemen bolstered the strength of CMF , under the new scheme they would serve for two years in the Regular Army instead . This substantial period of service for the regiment in Australia , Malaysia , and Vietnam saw the government direct the expansion of the regiment from four to nine battalions . By September 1965 the regiment consisted of seven battalions ; by July 1966 , eight ; and by November 1967 , nine . 4 RAR was formed in February 1964 ; 1 RAR abandoned the Pentropic Establishment ( 1 @,@ 300 personnel ) to revert to the Tropical Establishment ( 800 personnel ) , allowing 5 RAR to form in March 1965 ; 6 RAR was formed from a cadre drawn from 2 RAR in June 1965 ; 3 RAR assisted the formation of 7 RAR in September 1965 ; 8 RAR formed in August 1966 ; and 9 RAR was raised in November 1967 .
= = = Vietnam War , 1962 – 72 = = =
Although individual members of the regiment had served as advisors with the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam ( AATTV ) since 1962 , it was not until April 1965 that the government announced that a battalion would be deployed to Vietnam . Between June 1965 and March 1972 the units of the regiment would conduct sixteen rotations in Vietnam , with the first seven battalions completing two 12 @-@ month tours , while 8 and 9 RAR would each serve one . Consequently , following a period of hurried training and administration 1 RAR joined the US 173rd Airborne Brigade at Bien Hoa airbase outside of Saigon in June 1965 . After initially defending the airbase , 1 RAR steadily increased the scope of its patrols . For example , in January 1966 , 1 RAR assaulted a large Viet Cong headquarters complex in the Ho Bo Woods as a part of Operation Crimp ; which the Americans hailed as the first strategic intelligence victory of the war . The battalion subsequently completed a 12 month @-@ tour attached to US forces , during which it developed new tactics and techniques that later became standard for Australian battalions and supporting arms and services that would subsequently operate in Vietnam .
In March 1966 , Prime Minister Harold Holt announced that Australia would increase its commitment to Vietnam . In May 1966 the newly raised 5 and 6 RAR arrived in theatre as a part of the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) in Phuoc Tuy Province , establishing a base at Nui Dat . After two months of constant patrolling by both battalions , 6 RAR was engaged in the action that would become a defining part of the regiment 's war in Vietnam ; the Battle of Long Tan . Fought on 18 August 1966 , 108 men from D Company , 6 RAR fought a ferocious meeting engagement with the Viet Cong 275th Regiment , possibly reinforced by at least one North Vietnamese battalion , and D445 Battalion ( between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 500 personnel ) . After fighting for two and a half hours , D Company was surrounded on three sides . However , with the assistance of strong artillery support they were able to hold their position until the timely arrival of a relief force of infantry and armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) finally forced the Viet Cong to break . In the words of the official historian , Ian McNeill , " D Company had achieved a stunning victory " .
In 1967 , 2 and 7 RAR assumed responsibility in Phuoc Tuy from their predecessors and continued the extensive patrolling , and cordon and searches characteristic of this conflict . In August 1967 , 7 RAR fought elements of the Viet Cong 3rd Battalion , 274th Regiment in the largely unheralded Battle of Suoi Chau Pha , where extensive artillery support again proved decisive . A third infantry battalion arrived in December 1967 as part of a significant expansion of 1 ATF . By the time of the Tet Offensive in 1968 , 1 and 3 RAR were serving in theatre . During actions at Fire Support Base ( FSB ) Coral by 1 RAR and at FSB Balmoral by 3 RAR in May and June 1968 , later known as the Battle of Coral – Balmoral , these two battalions of the regiment would fight battles with conventional attributes not seen since Kapyong . In June 1969 , an infantry company from 5 RAR , then on its second tour , and supported by a troop of tanks and another of APCs fought a significant combined arms action against a battalion @-@ sized force of North Vietnamese regulars and Viet Cong local force troops during the Battle of Binh Ba .
Following Binh Ba , the remainder of the regiment 's commitment to Vietnam would be characterised largely by the policies of " Pacification " and " Vietnamization " , with an emphasis on ambushing and patrolling to protect the local population and training South Vietnamese troops to increasingly replace US and allied forces . The withdrawal of Australian forces from South Vietnam began in November 1970 when 8 RAR completed its tour of duty and was not replaced . Where possible , the Australians still sought to bring Viet Cong units to battle , such as during Operation North Ward , where V Company , 4 RAR / NZ fought elements of the Chau Duc and Ba Long guerrilla units in August and September 1971 . On 18 August 1971 , Prime Minister William McMahon announced that 1 ATF would cease operations in October , with the last combat elements of the regiment ( D Company , 4 RAR ) returning to Australia in February 1972 . The regiment sustained losses of 325 killed and over 2 @,@ 000 wounded in Vietnam .
= = = Peacetime service , 1973 – 98 = = =
With the withdrawal of the battalion serving in Singapore as part of the Far East Strategic Reserve , 1973 finally saw all units of the regiment stationed in Australia for the first time . Thus began a period of peace @-@ time soldiering of a sort not before seen in the regiment . The end of National Service significantly diminished the strength of the Army , and at this time the government directed that the number of battalions in the regiment be reduced to six , which was achieved by linking 2 and 4 RAR , 5 and 7 RAR , and 8 and 9 RAR . The strength of units and resources were also reduced , with a shift in strategic and tactical concepts from forward defence to defence of continental Australia . Regardless , from September 1973 the battalions of the regiment provided a company on three monthly rotations to Rifle Company Butterworth in Malaysia as part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements . Meanwhile , the 10th Independent Rifle Company , Royal Australian Regiment ( 10 IRC ) was raised on 23 May 1974 to provide an opposing force for units training at the Jungle Training Centre at Canungra .
The 1980s saw the introduction of battalion specialisations — light , parachute , mechanised and motorised — in the regiment and the formation of a ready deployment force . The later concept was first tested during Operation Morris Dance , the contingency mounted in response to the 1987 Fiji coup . 5 / 7 RAR subsequently developed as a mechanised battalion equipped with M113 armoured personnel carriers , while 3 RAR re @-@ roled as a parachute battalion . In 1988 , during the Australian Bicentennial celebrations , a contingent drawn from the battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel John Salter of 1 RAR , supported by an Australian Army Band , was deployed as part of the bicentennial celebrations to mount public duties at Buckingham Palace Windsor Castle , St James ' Palace and the Tower of London , the first Australian troops to do so since the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 . In 1991 , the two Brisbane @-@ based battalions — 6 RAR and 8 / 9 RAR — then part of the 6th Brigade , became Ready Reserve battalions . Following trials of the concept 6 RAR requipped as a motorised battalion in 1992 , while 8 / 9 RAR commenced is conversion in 1996 . Each battalion was initially issued modified 6x6 Land Rover Perenties until a purpose @-@ built infantry mobility vehicle could be acquired .
Although individual members of the regiment served on deployment in such locations as the Sinai , the Balkans , Western Sahara and Bougainville , it was not until 1993 that the regiment conducted another formed @-@ body deployment . On 15 December 1992 the government announced that 1 RAR would deploy as a part of the US @-@ led and UN @-@ sanctioned Operation Restore Hope in Somalia . The Australian commitment , known as Operation Solace , saw 1 RAR deployed for 17 weeks to a 17 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 6 @,@ 600 sq mi ) Humanitarian Relief Sector ( HRS ) centred on the township of Baidoa . In the course of four months over 8 @,@ 311 tonnes of humanitarian aid was delivered . 1 RAR also protected Baidoa airfield , provided security in the township , conducted in @-@ depth patrolling of the HRS , as well as escorting aid convoys within it . 1 RAR was never seriously challenged by the Somali bandits , although there were a number of contacts which resulted in casualties on both sides . One Australian was accidentally killed during the deployment .
In May 1993 , a detachment from 12 Platoon , D Company , 2 / 4 RAR was deployed to Cambodia to provide security to the Australian contribution to the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia . Operating from Battambang airport in north @-@ west Cambodia in support of the Army Aviation Group , they conducted static defensive tasks , patrolling and provided a ready reaction force . They joined another detachment of personnel from 5 / 7 RAR 's Support Company , which had been deployed to undertake communications tasks as part of the Force Communications Unit . The deployment came to an end in November 1993 . In 1994 , the raising of a fifth battalion was approved , with 2 / 4 RAR de @-@ linked the following year , and 4 RAR returning to the order of battle in its own right .
Between August 1994 and August 1995 , two companies of the regiment , initially A Company , 2 / 4 RAR and then B Company , 2 RAR , served with the Australian contingent of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda ( UNAMIR ) . From 20 to 23 April 1995 , a 50 @-@ member detachment , including infantrymen from 5 Platoon , B Company , 2 RAR were forced to witness the Kibeho Massacre of around 4 @,@ 000 Hutu refugees at the Kibeho camp by members of the Rwandan Patriotic Army . Vastly outnumbered and frustrated by a mandate that did not allow them to engage the perpetrators , the infantrymen were forced into a passive role during the massacre . Throughout the incident , however , they worked under fire attempting to assist wounded refugees . Meanwhile , 8 / 9 RAR was disbanded in 1997 after the discontinuation of the Ready Reserve scheme .
= = = East Timor , Solomon Islands , Iraq and Afghanistan , 1999 – Present = = =
East Timor 's ballot in favour of independence after 24 years of Indonesian occupation on 30 August 1999 resulted in a wave of violence by militia groups and pro @-@ integration factions within the Indonesian military . 2 , 3 and 5 / 7 RAR were subsequently deployed from 20 September 1999 as part of the UN @-@ sanctioned International Force for East Timor ( INTERFET ) , charged with restoring peace and overseeing the Indonesian departure . Despite minor clashes , including a contact at Motaain on the Indonesian border on 10 October 1999 , control was quickly established and INTERFET handed over to the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor ( UNTAET ) in February 2000 . At this time , 5 / 7 RAR become the first battalion of the regiment to serve under UN command since the Korean War . From 1999 to 2004 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 / 7 , and 6 RAR would all serve in East Timor twice , giving the regiment a wealth of operational experience . One soldier was accidentally killed during these operations , while several more were wounded . Two years after being withdrawn , the deteriorating situation in the country — by then known as Timor Leste — again saw units of the regiment deployed to conduct stabilisation and security operations , this time under Operation Astute . In response to the initial crisis , 3 RAR was deployed along with special forces from 4 RAR ( Commando ) and the Special Air Service Regiment ( SASR ) in May 2006 . It was replaced in early September by a combined Australian and New Zealand battle group based on 6 RAR , designated the ANZAC Battle Group . Subsequent rotations included elements of 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 and 8 / 9 RAR in the years that followed . After a phased drawdown , the last elements were withdrawn in 2013 . Events in East Timor largely overshadowed developments in Solomon Islands , where elements of the regiment also served periodically from 2003 onwards . One member of the regiment died during operations in the Solomon Islands .
The regiment had only a minor role in the 2003 invasion of Iraq , providing a force element of about 40 Commandos from 4 RAR to support the Special Forces Task Group , which was based on an SASR Squadron . Following the invasion , the deteriorating security situation in Baghdad saw the deployment of a combined arms Security Detachment ( SECDET ) , charged with protecting the Australian embassy and its personnel . Over a dozen companies of the regiment provided force elements to the various rotations . In February 2005 Prime Minister John Howard committed a battle group to southern Iraq to partially replace a Dutch unit that had been operating in the Governorate of Al Muthanna . The regiment 's contribution to the first battle group , initially known as the Al Muthanna Task Group , was a rifle company , although the second and third rotations were led by 5 / 7 RAR and 2 RAR respectively . When Provincial Iraqi Control was declared in Al Muthanna in July 2006 , AMTG 3 , led by 2 RAR , was renamed the Overwatch Battle Group ( West ) ( OBG ( W ) ) . The fifth battle group to serve in Iraq was based on 5 RAR , by which time OBG ( W ) was operating in both the Al Muthanna and Dhi Qar Governorates as a part of the British Multi @-@ National Division South East ( MND ( SE ) ) . ( AMTG 1 , OBG ( W ) 2 and OBG ( W ) 4 were all based on cavalry regiment headquarters ) . During this time elements of the regiment conducted counterinsurgency operations until withdrawn in mid @-@ 2008 . Casualties in Iraq included one member of the regiment who was accidentally killed .
Meanwhile , a Reconstruction Taskforce ( RTF ) based around the 1st Combat Engineer Regiment with protective elements from the 5 / 7 RAR , 6 RAR and 2nd Cavalry Regiment began arriving in Uruzgan Province in southern Afghanistan in early September 2006 as part of Operation Slipper . The RTF formed part of a Dutch @-@ led Provincial Reconstruction Team , operating as part of Task Force Uruzgan and based at Forward Operating Base Ripley , outside of Tarin Kowt . However , as the Australian commitment expanded , by 2010 the task force had evolved into a combined arms battalion @-@ sized battle group consisting of infantry , engineers , cavalry , artillery and logistic elements , usually based on a unit of the Royal Australian Regiment . Known as the Mentoring Task Force ( MTF ) , it formed part of a multinational brigade known as Combined Team Uruzgan and was tasked with counter @-@ insurgency operations in conjunction with United States and other coalition forces . Partnered with the 4th Brigade , 205th Corps of the Afghan National Army ( ANA ) , it operated throughout Uruzgan Province . While attached to MTF @-@ 1 , soldiers from Combat Team Delta ( based on D Company , 6 RAR ) took part in heavy fighting during the Battle of Derapet in Deh Rahwod on 24 August 2010 . Corporal Daniel Keighran was later awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia for his role in the battle , the first member of the Royal Australian Regiment to receive the award . The task force was withdrawn in late 2013 following the handover of the province to Afghan forces , although a small force protection element remains as part of the ongoing but reduced Australian training and advisory mission . Twelve members of the regiment have been killed in Afghanistan .
= = = Special Operations = = =
The Special Air Service Regiment owes its heritage to the RAR . Originally formed as the 1st SAS Company in 1957 , in 1960 it became an independent company of the RAR and was tasked with providing the army 's special operations capability . The SASR became a regiment in its own right on 20 August 1964 , severing the link with the RAR at this time . Re @-@ raised as a commando battalion from 1997 , 4 RAR ( Commando ) served in East Timor as a conventional light @-@ role battalion in 2001 , before focusing on the development of its special operations capability . In this role the battalion was designed to be a flexible , self @-@ contained force element able to deploy at short notice to undertake offensive operations in support of Australia 's national interests . Once full operational capability was reached , elements of 4 RAR ( Commando ) would serve in Timor Leste , Iraq and Afghanistan , as well as providing a domestic counter terrorism capability as part of Tactical Assault Group ( East ) . In 2009 , 4 RAR ( Commando ) was renamed the 2nd Commando Regiment , and as such is no longer part of the RAR . Rather than being formally disbanded , 4 RAR remained on the Army 's order of battle with its colours and traditions maintained and protected , ready to be re @-@ raised in the future if required .
= = = Reorganisation , 2005 – 14 = = =
In 2005 , the Australian Army began planning for a reorganisation as part of an initiative known as " Hardening the Army " . The key impact of this plan on the regiment was that 3 RAR would surrender its parachute role , moving from Sydney to Adelaide to become the Army 's second mechanised battalion . However , in August 2006 the government announced that the regiment would expand from five to seven battalions , with the initiative retitled " Hardening and Networking the Army " . As such , 5 / 7 RAR conducted a de @-@ linking parade on 3 December 2006 , reforming as 5 RAR and 7 RAR . 5 RAR reformed in a largely mature state and included a company serving on operations in Iraq , while 7 RAR reformed with a company on operations in Afghanistan . Both battalions remained in the mechanised role . Meanwhile , the regiment marked its 60th Birthday on 23 November 2008 with a parade at Victoria Barracks , Sydney , including a Queens Guard provided by 3 RAR and the Colours of the Regiment . Achieving operational status in 2009 , 7 RAR relocated to Adelaide in 2011 . Under the new scheme 3 RAR relinquished the parachute role , becoming a light infantry battalion . It subsequently relocated to Townsville in 2012 . 8 / 9 RAR reformed as a motorised battalion at Enoggera on 31 October 2007 in the last element of the Enhanced Land Force , and was equipped with Bushmaster PMVs . It subsequently served on operations in Timor Leste and Afghanistan .
In 2009 , the reorganisation was again re @-@ titled , this time as the " Adaptive Army " which sought to re @-@ balance the Army and shape it to become an adaptive , learning organisation . Under the Plan Beersheba element of the Adaptive Army reforms announced in 2011 and confirmed in the 2013 Defence White Paper , the three Regular Army brigades will be restructured between 2014 and 2017 into three Combat Brigades with a similar structure and capabilities , each consisting of : a Brigade Headquarters , an Armoured Cavalry Regiment , two Standard Infantry Battalions , an Artillery Regiment , a Combat Engineer Regiment , a Combat Service Support Battalion and a Combat Signals Regiment . With the establishment of the Armoured Cavalry Regiments , 5 and 7 RAR have begun giving up their M113 armoured personnel carriers as they re @-@ role as light infantry . Meanwhile , the motorised battalions are also re @-@ roling as light infantry with a transport squadron being established in each Combat Service Support Battalion equipped with Bushmaster PMVs to provide protected mobility . 2 RAR has been selected to specialise in amphibious warfare .
= = Theatre and battle honours = =
The Royal Australian Regiment has been awarded theatre and battle honours for actions in Korea and Vietnam .
Korean War : Sariwon , Yongyu , Chongju , Pakchon , Uijeongbu , Chuam @-@ ni , Maehwa @-@ San , Kapyong , Kowang @-@ San , Maryang @-@ San , The Samichon , Korea 1950 – 53 .
Vietnam War : Long Tan , Bien Hoa , Coral – Balmoral , Hat Dich , Binh Ba , Vietnam 1965 – 72 .
Note : Not all theatre honours are displayed on battalion colours . The following battle honours are emblazoned upon each battalion 's Regimental Colour :
Korea 1950 – 53
Maryang @-@ San
Kapyong
Vietnam 1965 – 72
Long Tan
Coral – Balmoral
4 RAR ( Commando ) was presented with a Unit Citation for Gallantry ( UCG ) on 26 October 2007 for operations in Afghanistan . D Company , 6 RAR was belatedly also awarded a UCG on 18 August 2011 for its actions at the Battle of Long Tan .
= = = Foreign military decorations = = =
1 @,@ 3 and 6 RAR have all been awarded American military decorations for service alongside US troops . 1 RAR received the Meritorious Unit Commendation for its service in Vietnam . 3 RAR received the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation and United States Presidential Unit Citation ( formerly the Distinguished Unit Citation ) following the Battle of Kapyong during the Korean War ( honours it shares with the 2nd Battalion Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ) . D Company 6 RAR also received the Distinguished Unit Citation for its actions during the Battle of Long Tan in Vietnam . Although the respective battle honours are borne by the whole regiment , the three citations awarded by the United States are held solely by the battalions that received them , and are displayed as streamers on the regimental colours of those battalions . 8 RAR was awarded the South Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry with Palm Unit Citation for its service during the Vietnam War .
United States Presidential Unit Citation
Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation
United States Army Meritorious Unit Commendation
South Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry with Palm Unit Citation .
= = Music = =
The Royal Australian Regiment has a wide variety of regimental music . In addition to regimental quick and slow marches , each battalion has its own set of marches :
Royal Australian Regiment — Quick : El Alamein ( Band ) ; Black Bear ( Pipes and Drums ) ; Slow : Infantry Song
1st Battalion — Waltzing Matilda
2nd Battalion — Ringo ( Band ) ; Back in Black ( Pipes and Drums )
3rd Battalion — Our Director ( Band ) ; Hielan ' Laddie ( Pipes and Drums )
4th Battalion — Inverbrackie
5th Battalion — Dominique
6th Battalion — Spirit of Youth ( Band ) ; The Crusaders ( Pipes and Drums )
7th Battalion — Australaise ( Band ) ; Cock o ' the North ( Pipes and Drums )
8th / 9th Battalion — The Brown and Grey Lanyard
= = Lanyards = =
Each battalion of the regiment is identified by a different coloured lanyard worn on the left shoulder :
1st Battalion — Garter blue
2nd Battalion — Black
3rd Battalion — Rifle green
4th Battalion — Scarlet
5th Battalion — Gold
6th Battalion — Khaki
7th Battalion — Maroon
8th / 9th Battalion — Slate grey and beech brown ( braided )
= = Alliances = =
The Royal Australian Regiment is allied with the following regiments :
Canada — Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry
New Zealand — 1st Battalion , Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment
Malaysia — Royal Malay Regiment
United Kingdom — Brigade of Gurkhas
United Kingdom — Grenadier Guards ( 1 RAR )
United Kingdom — Coldstream Guards ( 2 RAR )
United Kingdom — Scots Guards ( 3 RAR )
United Kingdom — The Queens 's Royal Hussars ( Queen 's Own and Royal Irish ) ( 3 RAR )
United Kingdom — Irish Guards ( 4 RAR )
United Kingdom — Welsh Guards ( 5 RAR )
United Kingdom — The Highlanders ( 7 RAR )
United Kingdom — The Parachute Regiment ( 8 / 9 RAR )
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= His Band and the Street Choir =
His Band and the Street Choir ( also referred to as Street Choir ) is the fourth studio album by Northern Irish singer @-@ songwriter Van Morrison . It was released on 15 November 1970 by Warner Bros. Records . Originally titled Virgo 's Fool , Street Choir was renamed by Warner Bros. without Morrison 's consent . Recording began in early 1970 with a demo session in a small church in Woodstock , New York . Morrison booked the A & R Studios on 46th Street in New York City in the second quarter of 1970 to produce two sessions of songs that were released on His Band and the Street Choir .
Reviewers praised the music of both sessions for its free , relaxed sound , but the lyrics were considered to be simple compared with those of his previous work . Morrison had intended to record the album a cappella with only vocal backing by a vocal group he called the Street Choir , but the songs released on the album that included the choir also featured a backing band . Morrison was dissatisfied with additional vocalists to the original quintet that made up the choir , and these changes and others have led him to regard Street Choir poorly in later years .
His Band and the Street Choir was as well received as Morrison 's previous album , Moondance , peaking at number 32 on the Billboard 200 and number 18 on the UK Album Chart . It owes its success mainly to the US Top Ten single " Domino " , which was released before the album and surpassed Morrison 's 1967 hit , " Brown Eyed Girl " . As of 2010 , " Domino " remains the most successful single of Morrison 's solo career . Two other singles were released from the album , " Blue Money " and " Call Me Up in Dreamland " ; although less successful , they still managed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
Recording began with a demo session at a small church in Woodstock , which was not intended to produce any official releases . During its course Morrison worked on leftover material from his previous two albums ( Astral Weeks and Moondance ) , recorded songs that he had not performed in the studio before ( " Crazy Face " and " Give Me a Kiss " ) , as well as two instrumentals . Limited recording equipment was used , operated by drummer Dahaud Shaar , who was intending to open a recording studio in Woodstock at the time . Shaar remembered : " I found an old church and we would just load in . I 'd set up a pair of mikes and we would just run down some tracks with the tapes running . They became like a working thing for the album . "
For his new band Morrison brought back three musicians from the Moondance sessions : saxophonist Jack Schroer ; guitarist John Platania and bassist John Klingberg . The backing vocal trio of Emily Houston , Judy Clay and Jackie Verdell also returned to sing on " If I Ever Needed Someone " . Multi @-@ instrumentalist Dahaud Shaar joined for His Band and the Street Choir ; he was a veteran of the Moondance tour , though he had not played on the album . Keyboardist Alan Hand joined Morrison 's band in late April 1970 , replacing Jef Labes , who had left the band and moved to Israel before the end of the year . Keith Johnson completed the line @-@ up on trumpet and Hammond organ .
Between March and May 1970 Morrison began work on the album at the A & R recording studios in New York City . He intended to create a full a capella record , and with this in mind assembled a vocal group he called the Street Choir , consisting of his friends Dahaud Shaar , Larry Goldsmith , Andrew Robinson and then wife , Janet " Planet " Rigsbee , who all lived near Woodstock . He had wanted the choir to feature only four vocalists , but was persuaded to allow two additional members to join : the wives of Keith Johnson and Jack Schroer ( Martha Velez and Ellen Schroer ) . However , Morrison was later persuaded to abandon the use of a cappella : " I had a group of people in mind for the Street Choir ... I asked them if they wanted to sing ... then the old ladies got involved and it ruined the whole thing . " He was unhappy with the tracks recorded with the choir , as he wanted to use the group for a different effect : " I wanted these certain guys to form an a cappella group so that I could cut a lot of songs with just maybe one guitar . But it didn 't turn out . " During this session Morrison recorded the same tracks used for the demo session in Woodstock , as well as " Gypsy Queen " and an additional instrumental , six of which were used on Street Choir . Elliot Scheiner was used as the engineer for this session , after he helped to produce Moondance . However , according to biographer Clinton Heylin , Scheiner and Morrison had a disagreement , so he was not used for the rest of the album .
Morrison returned to the A & R studios between June and August to record the remaining six tracks that featured on the album . For this second session Dahaud Shaar filled the role of engineer , though Shaar did not remember Morrison giving the job to him : " Elliot thought he was going to be the co @-@ producer , but then again I never saw him calling takes or asking people to change parts ... I didn 't consider myself co @-@ producer . Van would ask me questions and I would give him answers , but it was never a defined role . " Morrison felt unsatisfied with some of the final recordings , and notably reworked the song " Street Choir " shortly before studio work concluded .
= = = Composition = = =
Some songs featured on His Band and the Street Choir were first recorded for the albums Astral Weeks and Moondance . Morrison rewrote and rearranged them for release on Street Choir because the recordings for his new album featured different personnel and instrumentation . The songs on the album , which Rolling Stone reviewer Jon Landau believes have a free , relaxed sound to them , borrow from various music genres ; the simple lyrics lack the complexity popularly expected from Morrison 's work .
The first recording that would feature on His Band and the Street Choir was " I 've Been Working " , an out @-@ take from the Astral Weeks sessions in 1968 and the Moondance sessions in 1969 . The final version produced on His Band and the Street Choir is upbeat and shows the influence of James Brown . Morrison notably sings the line " Woman , woman , woman , you make me feel alright " in unison with the horn section , which Jon Landau describes as " breathtaking " .
" Domino " had been recorded many times before its release . The first was in sessions from September to November 1968 , just after Astral Weeks was recorded . Morrison rearranged " Domino " frequently from 1968 to 1970 , notably recording rap and harmony versions . For its release it was arranged in a moderate 4 / 4 tempo and features rhythm guitar . Horn overdubs were later added to the recording . Morrison ad libs between the end of the chorus and the start of the verses , when he shouts the words " Dig it ! " , as well as near the end with " And the band ... one more time ! " , which , according to biographer Peter Mills , helps bring out the theme of " liveliness " in both the song and the album as a whole . The song was considered by musicologist Brian Hinton as a tribute to pianist and singer @-@ songwriter , Fats Domino . As with " Domino " , Morrison first recorded " If I Ever Needed Someone " in late 1968 ; it is one of many blues @-@ influenced tracks on the album .
" Virgo Clowns " was first recorded at the start of 1969 as " ( Sit Down ) Funny Face " . Morrison next recorded it during the first Street Choir session , renaming it simply " Funny Face " . It was re @-@ recorded during the second session under the completely different title of " Virgo Clowns " . In its final form , Morrison and John Platania duet on acoustic guitars . As the song fades out laughter is heard performed by Dahaud Shaar and Larry Goldsmith .
" Crazy Face " evolved from " Going Around with Jesse James " , a song Morrison first recorded for Astral Weeks on 15 October 1968 . Both songs contain references to American outlaw Jesse James . Morrison arranged " Crazy Face " in the irregular time signature 8 / 4 ; the first , third and seventh beats of the bar are emphasised . It begins with a gentle piano introduction , and ends abruptly , which , in Peter Mills ' view , represents a shot from a gun , consistent with the American outlaw theme .
" Give Me a Kiss " and " Gypsy Queen " are the final songs recorded during the first recording session . Morrison wrote " Give me a Kiss " about either Planet or his newly born baby girl Shana . It is a twelve bar blues in the style of boogie rock , a music genre prominent in the 1960s , leading reviewers to compare the song to the work of The Beatles and Elvis Presley . Reviewers believed the song " Gypsy Queen " was inspired by " Gypsy Woman " , first recorded by Curtis Mayfield and The Impressions . Johnny Rogan feels the song is " a failed attempt to recapture the spirit of ' Caravan ' " , another Morrison composition inspired by " Gypsy Woman " , released on the album Moondance . Morrison sings the song in falsetto , while keyboardist Alan Hand plays celeste , imitating a music box at both the beginning and end .
The second recording session yielded the remaining material . " Call Me Up in Dreamland " is a gospel @-@ style composition . The lyrics refer to life on the road , as Morrison was touring when he recorded the album . They also refer to Morrison and Janet Planet 's life at the time : " We were finally , really living in a dreamland — believe it or not — it was a magical time " , Planet recalled .
" I 'll Be Your Lover , Too " was inspired by Morrison and Planet 's marriage . This acoustic ballad has a moderate 4 / 4 tempo , with one 5 / 8 bar before the vocal comes in . " Blue Money " , a pun @-@ filled reference to Morrison 's financial situation , is about a model , perhaps his wife . ( Planet worked in the industry before meeting Morrison . ) " Sweet Jannie " is the second twelve @-@ bar blues on the album ; written about young love , the song is another that reviewers speculated was about Planet . The lyrics , " I 've been in love with you baby / Ever since you were in Sunday school " lead Clinton Heylin to believe it was written about memories from Morrison 's childhood when he attended Sunday school in Belfast ; Planet is a California @-@ raised Texan .
In the album closer , " Street Choir " , Morrison repeats the questions , " Why did you let me down / And now that things are better off / Why do you come around " . Because of these lyrics Heylin wrote that " such songs [ as " Street Choir " ] were spawned by an increasing awareness of just how badly ripped off he had been " . Ken Brooks has said that the lyric " Move On Up " is another reference on the album to a Curtis Mayfield song . The track prominently features Keith Johnson 's trumpet and Morrison 's harmonica . Writer Brian Hinton described the lyrics as perversely bitter , while Jon Landau wrote that " Street Choir " was one of the " two or three finest songs " of Morrison 's career because of its " musical and poetic energy " .
= = = Packaging = = =
Warner Bros. Records scheduled His Band and the Street Choir for rush @-@ release to sell over Christmas 1970 , leaving little time to plan the packaging . These pressured conditions led the company to mistitle the promotional releases as His Band and Street Choir and prepare an incorrectly ordered track listing . At the end of " I 'll Be Your Lover , Too " an unedited conversation is left on the finished record , which Peter Mills notes is an example of the album 's rough edges . Janet Planet designed the album cover and wrote the sleeve notes , which sound " a little desperate " , in the words of Brian Hinton , as she wrote , " This is the album that you must sing with , dance to , you must find a place for these songs somewhere in your life . "
David Gahr took the gatefold photos of Morrison surrounded by his musicians with their wives and children at a party for Planet 's son , Peter , born from a previous relationship . Morrison dismissed these photos as " rubbish " . However , Johnny Rogan commented that the front cover looks far worse ; it included a " hilarious " image of Morrison in a full @-@ length kaftan . Morrison complained about the stereotypical front cover as well : " people think you 're a hippie because of the long hair and beard . ... I 'd bought the kaftan in Woodstock , and that 's what people were wearing . " Mills agrees that " Van Morrison was never a hippie , but this was as close as he came . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
His Band and the Street Choir was first released on LP on 15 November 1970 and was Morrison 's third record to be produced for Warner Bros. It was re @-@ released by the record company on CD in 1987 , 1990 and 2005 , and LP in 2008 with Rhino Records .
His Band and the Street Choir peaked at number 32 on the Billboard 200 , and at number 18 on the UK Album Chart . The album received a warm reception in North America — as Moondance had done — largely due to the success of " Domino " , a sampler single that peaked at number 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 . This single remains Morrison 's biggest US hit ( as of 2010 ) , as it climbed one place higher than his 1967 hit " Brown Eyed Girl " , from the album Blowin ' Your Mind ! . " Domino " was also a hit in the Netherlands , reaching number 22 on the Dutch Top 40 . Jon Landau of Rolling Stone magazine attributed the success of " Domino " to the guitar figure at the beginning of the track , which he considered " not only a great way to start a single , but a fine way to begin the album " . " Blue Money " debuted as the second single , faltering outside the Top 20 at number 23 in the US . The final single , " Call Me Up in Dreamland " , managed only two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , while reaching number 95 ; biographer Ken Brooks believed it deserved better . John Platania recalled that Morrison " had designs " on securing radio airplay for Street Choir , and the success of its singles reflected a growing audience and commercial appeal for his music .
On October 30 , 2015 , along with Astral Weeks , the album was remastered and reissued by Warner Bros. Records with five session bonus tracks ; three alternate takes , and two alternate versions of " I 've Been Working " and " I 'll Be Your Lover , Too . "
= = = Critical response = = =
Reviewers generally praised Street Choir . Jon Landau compared it to Morrison 's previous work :
" His Band and the Street Choir is a free album . It was recorded with minimal over @-@ dubbing and was obviously intended to show the other side of Moondance . And if it has a flaw it is that , like Moondance , it is too much what it set out to be . A few more numbers with a gravity of ' Street Choir ' would have made this album as close to perfect as anyone could have stood . "
ZigZag magazine reviewer John Tobler felt , " even if it 's inferior to Moondance , it is still better than eighty per cent of the records you 've got in your collection . " Robert Christgau was more critical , calling it " a less compelling album than Moondance " containing " a few humdrum cuts and an occasional minor lapse of taste " . He nonetheless awarded the album an " A @-@ minus " , later upgraded to an " A " . Biographer Brian Hinton commented that His Band and the Street Choir is " vaguely reminiscent of Bob Dylan 's Nashville Skyline " . Singer @-@ songwriter Elvis Costello identified His Band and the Street Choir as one of his 500 essential albums and " Street Choir " as one of his favorite songs . In 2006 Johnny Rogan called the songs on the album " a severe disappointment when compared to the material on the previous two albums . "
= = Morrison and the musicians ' responses = =
Van Morrison regarded Street Choir poorly , as he told biographer Ritchie Yorke in 1973 : " Somewhere along the line I lost control of that album . I 'd rather not think about that album because it doesn 't mean much in terms of where I was at ... the album didn 't sell very well and I 'm glad . " Morrison first lost control of the album before its release , when it was retitled from Virgo 's Fool to His Band and the Street Choir :
" Somebody else got control of it and got the cover and all that shit while I was on the West Coast . I knew what was happening to it , but it was like I couldn 't stop it . I 'd given my business thing over to someone else and although I had final approval on things , they just went ahead and did the wrong thing . They told the record company it was one thing and it wasn 't . So the whole thing went wrong . "
Despite this , assistant producer and drummer Dahaud Shaar recalled that Morrison had positive feelings towards the album at the time of its release .
Janet Planet holds the view that " There is much to love about the songs on this album : ' Blue Money ' , ' Crazy Face ' , ' Call Me Up in Dreamland ' , ' Domino ' - these are just great songs in any era . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Van Morrison .
= = = Side one = = =
" Domino " – 3 : 06
" Crazy Face " – 2 : 56
" Give Me a Kiss ( Just One Sweet Kiss ) " – 2 : 30
" I 've Been Working " – 3 : 25
" Call Me Up in Dreamland " – 3 : 52
" I 'll Be Your Lover , Too " – 3 : 57
= = = Side two = = =
" Blue Money " – 3 : 40
" Virgo Clowns " – 4 : 10
" Gypsy Queen " – 3 : 16
" Sweet Jannie " – 2 : 11
" If I Ever Needed Someone " – 3 : 45
" Street Choir " – 4 : 43
= = Personnel = =
Musicians
Van Morrison – guitar , harmonica , tenor saxophone on " Crazy Face " and " Call Me Up in Dreamland " , vocals
Judy Clay – backing vocals on " If I Ever Needed Someone "
Alan Hand – piano , Hammond organ , celeste
Emily Houston – backing vocals on " If I Ever Needed Someone "
Keith Johnson – trumpet , Hammond organ
John Klingberg – bass
John Platania – electric and acoustic guitars , mandolin
Jack Schroer – soprano , alto , and baritone saxophones , piano
Dahaud Shaar ( David Shaw ) – drums , percussion , bass clarinet , backing vocals
Jackie Verdell – backing vocals on " If I Ever Needed Someone "
The Street Choir
Larry Goldsmith
Janet Planet
Andrew Robinson
Ellen Schroer
Dahaud Shaar ( David Shaw )
Martha Velez
Production
Van Morrison – producer
Dahaud Shaar – assistant producer
Elliot Scheiner – production coordinator , engineer
Dixon Van Winkle , Ed Anderson , Mark Harman , Richard Lubash – assisting engineers
David Gahr – photography
Janet Planet – album design
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= William de Chesney ( sheriff ) =
William de Chesney ( sometimes William of Norwich or William fitzRobert ; died 1174 ) was a medieval Anglo @-@ Norman nobleman and sheriff . Son of landholder in Norfolk , William inherited after the death of his two elder brothers . He was the founder of Sibton Abbey , as well as a benefactor of other monasteries in England . In 1157 , Chesney acquired the honour of Blythburgh , and was sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk during the 1150s and 1160s . On Chesney 's death in 1174 , he left three unmarried daughters as his heirs .
= = Early life = =
Chesney was the son of Robert fitzWalter and Sybil de Chesney , and a younger brother of John de Chesney . Sybil was the daughter of Ralph de Chesney . Robert fitzWalter was lord of Horsford in Norfolk , which was originally held by Walter de Caen , Robert 's father . The barony was assessed at 10 knight 's fees .
Roger was the eldest brother of William , but died childless during their father 's lifetime . The next son , John , inherited the family lands , but died around 1149 without children . William then inherited the lands . John and William had a sister called Margaret , who was the wife of Haimo de St Clair . Their father married a second time , and had a son named Simon by that marriage . William took his surname from his mother 's family , as did his half @-@ brother Simon , who was not related to the Chesney family except by marriage . Two further children of Robert 's , Elias and Peter , are known , but whether they were the children of the first marriage or the second is unclear . Chesney should be distinguished from another William de Chesney , who controlled the town of Oxford and its castle as well as the town of Deddington and its castle in the same time period .
= = Career = =
Chesney founded Sibton Abbey , and after his brother John 's death he confirmed the foundation of that Cistercian monastery , which was the only Cistercian house in Suffolk . Besides founding that monastery , he also gave lands or other gifts to Colne Priory , Essex , Thetford Priory , Castle Acre Priory , St John 's Abbey , Stoke @-@ by @-@ Clare Priory , and Blythburgh Priory .
Chesney acquired the barony of Blythburgh in Suffolk in 1157 . These lands were recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as being held by the king , and when Chesney was granted them they were assessed at one knight 's fee in feudal service . Besides Blythburgh , Chesney also acquired lands in Norfolk and Essex which he added to the family lands in Norfolk and Suffolk .
In 1153 or 1154 , Chesney was the recipient of the lordship of a hundred and a half in Norfolk , possibly in compensation for the loss of the manor of Mileham . Chesney likely lost Mileham to another noble family , the fitzAlans , as part of the settlement resulting from the Treaty of Wallingford which settled the civil war in England . Both William 's father Robert and his elder brother John had held these offices before him .
Chesney was Sheriff of Norfolk in the late 1140s and the 1150s , being recorded as holding that office in two documents – one dated to between 1146 and 1149 and the other dated to between 1146 and 1153 . The same documents record him as holding the office of Sheriff of Suffolk at concurrent times . He held both offices again between 1156 and 1163 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Chesney died in 1174 , having had three daughters with his wife Gilla . Her ancestry is unknown , and it is possible that William married another time , to Aubrey de Poynings , because a Lewes Priory charter dated to around 1165 names a William de Chesney and Aubrey his wife , but it is not clear whether this charter is referring to William de Chesney the sheriff or to another William . William and Gilla 's daughters were Margaret , Clemence , and Sara , all of whom were unmarried at the time of their father 's death . Margaret married twice – first to Hugh de Cressy and second to Robert fitzRoger . Clemence married Jordan de Sackville , and Sara married Richard Engaine . Margaret inherited the majority of her father 's estates .
At his death , Chesney had outstanding debts , both to the king and to Jewish moneylenders . In 1214 , his daughter Margaret was exempted from repaying any of her father 's debts to those moneylenders by a royal grant .
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= Archibald Dixon =
Archibald Dixon ( April 2 , 1802 – April 23 , 1876 ) was a U.S. Senator from Kentucky . He represented the Whig Party in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly , and was elected the 12th Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky in 1844 , serving under Governor William Owsley . In 1851 , the Whigs nominated him for governor , but he lost to Lazarus W. Powell , his former law partner .
Dixon represented Henderson County at the Kentucky constitutional convention of 1849 . In this capacity , he ensured that strong protections of slave property were included in the Kentucky Constitution of 1850 . Later , the General Assembly chose Dixon to fill the unexpired Senate term of Henry Clay . He served from September 1 , 1852 , to March 3 , 1855 , and did not stand for re @-@ election . During his short tenure , Dixon 's major accomplishment was convincing Stephen Douglas to include language in the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act that explicitly repealed the Missouri Compromise 's prohibition on slavery north of latitude 36 ° 30 ' .
Despite his pro @-@ slavery views , Dixon was loyal to the Union during the Civil War . He represented his county and his state in a number of failed conventions that sought to resolve the upcoming conflict before it began . In 1864 , he joined Kentucky governor Thomas E. Bramlette in an audience with President Abraham Lincoln protesting the recruitment of former slaves as Union soldiers in Kentucky . Dixon died on April 23 , 1876 .
= = Personal life = =
Archibald Dixon was born near Red House , Caswell County , North Carolina on April 2 , 1802 . He was the son of Captain Wynn and Rebecca Hart Dixon . Both Dixon 's father and grandfather fought in the Revolutionary War , the former enlisting at the age of sixteen . His grandfather , Colonel Henry Dixon , was commended by " Light Horse Harry " Lee for his service at the Battle of Camden . He was later killed at the Battle of Eutaw Springs .
In 1805 , Captain Dixon lost all of his property and moved the family to Henderson , Kentucky . Archibald Dixon was educated by his mother and attended the common schools of Henderson . In 1822 , he began to study law in the office of James Hillyer . He was admitted to the bar in 1824 , and commenced practice in Henderson . He became well known as a skilled defense attorney and was employed in a number of cases in Kentucky and Indiana .
In 1834 , Dixon married Elizabeth R. Cabell ; the couple had six children . [ a ] One of these was Rebecca Hart Dixon , second wife of future Kentucky governor John Y. Brown . Another daughter , Susan Bell Dixon , married Cuthbert Powell , a U.S. Representative from Virginia . One son , Henry , was elected a state senator in Kentucky , while another , Archibald , became a respected doctor in Henderson .
Elizabeth Cabell Dixon died in 1852 . On October 29 , 1853 , Dixon married Susan Peachy Bullitt . Bullitt was the paternal granddaughter of Alexander Scott Bullitt , the first lieutenant governor of Kentucky , and the maternal granddaughter of Dr. Thomas Walker , the first surveyor in the state of Kentucky . Dixon and Bullitt had additional children .
= = Political career = =
Dixon was elected to represent Henderson County in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1830 . He served three consecutive one @-@ year terms , leaving the House in 1833 . Following this , he returned to his law practice and in 1835 , partnered with Lazarus W. Powell . From 1836 to 1840 , he represented Henderson , Daviess , and Hopkins counties in the Kentucky Senate . The next year , he returned to the Kentucky House , serving from 1841 to 1843 .
In 1844 , Dixon was chosen as the Whig nominee for lieutenant governor on a ticket with William Owsley . Dixon defeated his opponent , William S. Pilcher , by more than 11 @,@ 000 votes . At the expiration of his term , the Whig party considered nominating Dixon for governor , but instead chose the more experienced John J. Crittenden , who defeated Dixon 's former law partner , Lazarus Powell .
The voters of Henderson County chose Dixon to represent them at the state constitutional convention of 1849 . The Whigs nominated him to chair the convention , but he lost to the Democratic nominee James Guthrie by a vote of 50 to 43 . A large slaveholder , Dixon introduced numerous measures to protect the rights of slaveholders in the new constitution . Among them were assertions that slave property was just as inviolable as any other property , that the rights of property were above constitutional sanction , and that absolute power over property cannot exist in a republic . Though some of these ideas were challenged , all eventually found their way into the Kentucky Constitution of 1850 .
The Whigs nominated Dixon for governor in 1851 . The Democrats countered with Lazarus Powell . Still friends from their earlier days as law partners , the two often traveled together during the campaign . Cassius Marcellus Clay also entered the contest , representing the emancipationist wing of the Whig Party . Clay drew about 6 @,@ 000 votes , mostly from Whigs , and Powell won the election by a small majority .
= = = In the Senate = = =
On December 17 , 1851 , Henry Clay submitted a letter of resignation of his seat in the U.S. Senate , to be effective September 1 of the following year ( 1852 ) . Clay 's announcement came while the Kentucky General Assembly was in session . This was intentional . The majority of the Assembly was Whig , and Clay knew that if he resigned while the Assembly was in session , the majority would elect a Whig to be his successor . By contrast , if he had waited until September 1 to announce his resignation the Assembly would already have closed its session , and Governor Powell , a Democrat , would appoint a temporary successor until the legislature convened again two years later .
The Assembly acted according to Clay 's plans . By a vote of 71 – 58 , they chose Dixon over Democrat James Guthrie to assume Clay 's seat effective September 1 . However , Clay died on June 29 , 1852 . Because Dixon 's commission stipulated an effective date of September 1 , Governor Powell proceeded to name Clay 's successor for the period until September 1 . He chose Democrat David Meriwether , who served those two months , then , with respect to the original commission issued by the legislature ( or by simply not returning to the Senate upon the commencement of the next session ) , effectively relinquished the seat to Dixon . After a lengthy Senate debate on the validity of his commission — it having been issued prior to Clay 's death , with an effective date subsequent to the executive appointment of a successor — Dixon was sworn in on December 20 , 1852 . He served the remainder of Clay 's term , but did not stand for reelection in 1854 .
A major issue during Dixon 's tenure in the Senate was the admission of the Nebraska Territory to the Union . Specifically , the question hinged upon the issue of whether or not slavery would be allowed in the state . Under the Missouri Compromise , slavery was prohibited in the territory . Because of this , the southern states opposed its admission . In an attempt to allay southern fears , Stephen Douglas introduced a bill in January 1854 that included a provision that " all questions pertaining to slavery in the territories , and in the new states to be formed therefrom are to be left to the people residing therein , through their appropriate representatives . " Douglas hoped to placate southerners with this language , which allowed for the possibility of legalized slavery in the potential state without specifically addressing the issue of the Missouri Compromise .
Southerners , however , saw that Douglas ' attempt was unlikely to result in legalization of slavery . While it allowed Nebraska to determine whether slavery would be legal there when it became a state , slavery was still forbidden under the Missouri Compromise as long as it remained a territory . If no slaveholders were allowed in the territory , it would be exceedingly unlikely that the state 's voters would allow for slavery in their constitution . Following this line of thought , Dixon drafted an amendment to Douglas ' bill that would repeal section eight of the Missouri Compromise , the section that prohibited slavery north of latitude 36 ° 30 ' . After a promise of support from Tennessee senator James C. Jones , Dixon introduced the amendment on January 16 , 1854 . This forced Douglas to confront the Missouri Compromise issue outright , and two days later , he visited Dixon to discuss his position . Douglas was reluctant to repeal the Compromise , but was ultimately convinced by Dixon 's logic . He concluded the interview by exclaiming " By God , Sir , you are right . I will incorporate it in my bill , though I know it will raise a hell of a storm . " Over the next several days , Douglas incorporated Dixon 's suggestion and other pro @-@ slavery measures into the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act , which President Franklin Pierce signed into law on May 30 , 1854 .
= = Later life = =
On June 1 , 1852 , the stockholders of the Henderson and Nashville Railroad met at Madisonville , Kentucky and elected Archibald Dixon as president of the company . He served until his resignation in spring 1853 .
Despite his pro @-@ slavery views , Dixon loyally supported the Union during the lead @-@ up to the Civil War . His sons , however , had Confederate sympathies . Dixon 's home county of Henderson was one of the first counties in Kentucky to express their feelings about the secession crisis . The county called an assembly at the county courthouse on November 10 , 1860 . Dixon was elected chair of the meeting , and immediately expressed a pro @-@ Union sentiment . A committee of five was appointed to draft resolutions stating Henderson County 's position . At a second meeting one week later – which Dixon also chaired – the committee reported their pro @-@ Union resolutions , which were approved .
In an attempt to stave off the Civil War , Dixon participated in a convention of border states and a peace convention in Frankfort , Kentucky , both in 1861 . Both conventions were unsuccessful . At the outset of the war , the Kentucky General Assembly elected six arbiters to recommend a course of action for the Commonwealth . Dixon represented the pro @-@ Union position along with John J. Crittenden and Samuel S. Nicholas . Kentucky governor Beriah Magoffin , John C. Breckinridge , and Richard Hawes represented the southern sympathizers . The arbiters met on May 11 , 1861 . After the pro @-@ Union men defeated a proposal to call a sovereignty convention , the six arbiters recommended a position of neutrality , which the General Assembly adopted .
In March 1864 , Dixon accompanied Kentucky Governor Thomas E. Bramlette and John Marshall Harlan , the state 's attorney general , to an audience with President Lincoln to protest the recruitment of blacks into the ranks of the Union Army . The governor eventually agreed to allow the practice , but only when whites failed to meet their draft quotas . Since recruitment of blacks had been taking place in the Commonwealth for more than two months already , the concession was little more than a face @-@ saving gesture by Bramlette . Following the end of the Civil War , Dixon retired from public life . He died in Henderson on April 23 , 1876 , and is buried in Fernwood Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
Archibald Dixon is the namesake of Dixon , Kentucky .
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= Colorado State Highway 112 =
State Highway 112 ( SH 112 ) is a 27 @.@ 802 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 44 @.@ 743 km ) state highway in southern Colorado . Built in 1916 and formally defined in 1922 , the route begins at its western end in Del Norte at a junction with U.S. Highway 160 ( US 160 ) . From there the road travels east crossing US 285 two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Center before reaching its eastern terminus at Hooper where it meets SH 17 .
= = Route description = =
The route begins at US 160 in central Del Norte . Here , it begins northward along Oak Street before crossing the Rio Grande , where the route exits the city and curves northeastward . The highway then straddles the Rio Grande – Saguache county line as it travels in a northeasterly direction . Soon , it intersects County Route 374 , which traverses east all the way to US 285 . The route then suddenly curves eastward when it meets Twelve Mile Road . As the route continues to meet numerous county roads along its length , the land along the side of the road transitions from plain grassland to circular @-@ shaped fields of crops . The route meets US 285 approximately twelve miles east of Del Norte .
East of US 285 , the route enters the town of Center , where it skirts the south side of town as 8th Street . Here , it meets a railroad that connects the town to Sugar Junction farther south . The route moves east through farmland , where it meets County Road 100 , which continues south to SH 15 . It then skirts along the county line all the way east to SH 17 at the north side of Hooper .
= = History = =
In 1916 , a 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) gravel road numbered as 10 @-@ S ran from Center to Hooper . Another unsurfaced part of the road continued to Alamosa from Hooper . By the late 1910s , the Highway Department of Colorado had built State Highway 68 , which ran from Del Norte to SH 36 . When built , the route had a five @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) gap along the Rio Grande – Saguache county line , on which work began in the 1920s . In 1922 , SH 68 was renumbered as SH 112 from Del Norte to Hooper .
By 1930 , SH 112 had been paved from Del Norte to the county line . Because the residents of San Luis Valley sought better roads , the Department of Highways began improving SH 112 around the area , but the highway was not fully surfaced until 1946 . The next year , Rio Grande and Saguache counties paid to resurface the rest of the road in asphalt . Since 1947 , there have been no major realignments in the routing .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Paramore ( album ) =
Paramore is the self @-@ titled fourth studio album by the American rock band Paramore . It was released on April 5 , 2013 , through Fueled by Ramen as a follow @-@ up to Brand New Eyes ( 2009 ) . It is their first full @-@ length album released after the departure of co @-@ founders Josh and Zac Farro in 2010 . Recorded between April and November 1 , 2012 , the album was described by the band as being a " statement " and a reintroduction of the band to the world and to themselves . The album was the final one recorded with bassist Jeremy Davis before departing the band in 2015 .
The album was produced by Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen , with lead guitarist Taylor York co @-@ producing on four tracks . In contrast to band 's previous work , the production of Paramore contains the band 's experimentation with new musical genres , such as new wave and funk rock , and features three acoustic interludes . Paramore received acclaim from music critics , who praised the band 's maturity and experimentation in terms of musicianship as well as Williams ' vocals and overall presence on the album . Several publications included the album in their year @-@ end lists , including The A.V. Club and The Guardian .
Paramore was a commercial success , debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 106 @,@ 000 copies . The album also topped the charts in Argentina , Australia , Brazil , Ireland , and New Zealand , where it became their first album to reach the summit . It also became their second chart topper in the United Kingdom . In March 2016 , Paramore was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for sales exceeding 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The group followed the record release with The Self @-@ Titled Tour in promotion , with European , North American , Asian , Latin American , and Oceania legs announced . In 2014 , Fall Out Boy and Paramore co @-@ headlined Monumentour . A deluxe edition of the album was released on November 24 , 2014 .
Four singles have been released from the album : " Now " , " Still Into You " , " Daydreaming " , and the Grammy @-@ winning song " Ain 't It Fun " . " Still Into You " and " Ain 't It Fun " have reached top @-@ ten positions in the United States and have been certified double @-@ platinum by the RIAA , making Paramore the first of the band 's albums to have produced more than one double @-@ platinum single and more than one platinum @-@ certified single .
= = Background = =
The recording of Paramore began in April 2012 with the song " Daydreaming " . After a brief pause , recording resumed on June 27 of that year and ended on November 1 , 2012 . It is the first Paramore album released after the departure of Josh Farro and Zac Farro , both of whom left the band in 2010 .
The album was produced by Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen , longtime bassist for Beck and Nine Inch Nails , who has previously produced records for M83 and Neon Trees . In an interview with Electronic Musician , Meldal @-@ Johnsen stated he wanted " the album to sound very visceral and a little bit less locked down and computerized , more 1981 than 2012 , with a nod to 2016 . " In an interview with Digital Spy , Taylor York stated " I don 't think we 've ever been so proud and satisfied with something we 've done . " On June 29 , 2012 , the band had confirmed that former Nine Inch Nails and current Angels & Airwaves drummer Ilan Rubin would be recording drums for the album .
In an interview with Rolling Stone , lead vocalist Hayley Williams explained " That whole time for our band was such a dark season . It was emotionally exhausting , and by the time we got around to the point where we were going to start writing , we just really wanted to enjoy the process of making an album ... " when asked about the direction of the band after Brand New Eyes . Regarding the album being self @-@ titled , Williams explained " The self @-@ titled aspect of the whole thing is definitely a statement . I feel like it 's not only reintroducing the band to the world , but even to ourselves ... By the end of it , it felt like we 're a new band . "
= = Promotion and release = =
On December 6 , 2012 , Paramore made an announcement through their official website revealing the name of the album and the release date as well as the name of the first single from the album . The tracklist was announced on January 18 , 2013 by Alternative Press . During the 2013 Soundwave Festival , Paramore held a listening party in Sydney , New South Wales on February 26 , 2013 , followed by Melbourne , Victoria two days later , run by Australian Music Channel , Channel V. Williams revealed a section of the lyrics for the song ' Part II ' which the winners were able to hear at the listening parties on a LiveJournal post . Williams told fans that " ' Let The Flames Begin ' has been a favorite of ours to play live , as well as being a favorite of most people who come out to our shows .... We wanted it to have a sequel . ' Part ll ' it is ! "
The vinyl version of the album was streamed beginning on April 1 , 2013 for four days , with each day playing one of the four sides . The album was then officially released on April 5 , 2013 . The band played an acoustic version of " Hate to See Your Heart Break " on the BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge on April 3 , 2013 , announcing that on the same night , the full song would be premiered on their official website . On April 20 , 2013 , the band released an EP for Record Store Day , titled The Holiday Sessions , released exclusively on a 7 " vinyl , and is composed of the three interludes from this album . A music video for " Anklebiters " was released on June 25 , 2013 . The song , however , was not released as a single .
The Self @-@ Titled Tour in North America took place from October 15 to November 27 , 2013 . The Self @-@ Titled Tour takes the band through 27 cities across North America , including Paramore 's first headline show at Madison Square Garden . On August 22 , 2013 , the band announced their own cruise , called the " PARAHOY ! Cruise " , sailing from Miami to the Bahamas and back on board the Norwegian Pearl , which took place from March 7 to March 11 , 2014 . On January 9 , 2014 , the band , along with Fall Out Boy , announced a co @-@ headlining North American summer tour dubbed , " Monumentour " , which took place from June 19 through August 31 , 2014 . On January 22 , 2015 , Paramore announced " Writing The Future " , a round of small shows across the United States , closing out the Paramore touring cycle . It lasted from April 27 to May 25 , 2015 .
A deluxe edition of the album was released on November 24 , 2014 . The deluxe edition includes a new version of " Hate To See Your Heart Break " featuring Joy Williams , Paramore 's first collaboration .
= = = Singles = = =
On January 5 , 2013 , Paramore released a teaser of the lead single " Now " , revealing a snippet of the song and the release date of the single , which was January 22 , 2013 . Paramore streamed the song on their website January 21 , and the song was then made available for sale along with an album pre @-@ order through iTunes the next day . In the UK , " Now " was instead released January 24 , 2013 . The music video for " Now " was directed by Daniel " Cloud " Campos and premiered live on MTV on February 11 . It was uploaded onto YouTube the next day .
The album 's second single , " Still Into You " , was released on March 14 , 2013 . A lyric video for " Still Into You " was uploaded to YouTube a day earlier , after the band performed it live for the first time at the 2013 South by Southwest festival in Austin , Texas . On September 18 , 2013 , " Still Into You " was certified ' platinum ' by the RIAA . " Daydreaming " serves as the third single from the album . It was released on December 2 , 2013 only in the UK . The music video premiered in November 5 on the UK MSN .
" Ain 't It Fun " is the fourth single from the album . The radio edit premiered August 28 , 2013 , and the single was released on February 4 , 2014 . A music video for the song was planned , but was put on hold in favor of a music video for " Daydreaming " , also , as informed by Williams , the band was unhappy with how the video was turning out ; A new video for " Ain 't It Fun " was shot and premiered on January 29 , 2014 . " Ain 't It Fun " then received the award for Best Rock Song at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards , a first for the band as this was their first Grammy win . On June 18 , 2014 , " Ain 't It Fun " was certified platinum by the RIAA and then on July 8 , 2015 , double @-@ platinum . Shortly after , " Still Into You " received double @-@ platinum certification as well from the RIAA .
= = = Other songs = = =
Though not released as a single , the band felt a special connection with the song " Anklebiters " and released a music video for it on April 5 , 2013 .
" Hate to See Your Heart Break " was re @-@ recorded in 2014 to feature Joy Williams on vocals for inclusion on the deluxe edition of the album . A black @-@ and @-@ white video for the song premiered November 24 , 2014 . It reached number 23 on the Billboard Hot Rock Songs chart .
= = Musical style = =
According to Patrick Bowman at Idolator , the album features the same alternative rock and pop punk sound of Paramore 's previous albums . Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star stated the band abandoned the emo genre in favor of power pop . Technology Tell 's Benjamin Duham described it as having a " more pop @-@ rock direction " . At Entertainment Weekly , Kyle Anderson characterized it as a " Blondie @-@ indebted 21st @-@ century new @-@ wave album " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon its release , Paramore was acclaimed by music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a " weighted average " rating out of 100 from selected independent ratings and reviews from mainstream critics , the album received a Metascore of 81 , based on 20 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " . Scott Heisel of Alternative Press praised the diversity of the album , calling the album " a sprawling , 17 @-@ song , 64 @-@ minute monster " , and regarded it as the best music Paramore have ever created . Entertainment Weekly 's Kyle Anderson gave the album an A- , where he stated " Paramore are making evolutionary leaps into something both refreshingly well @-@ adjusted and genuinely new " , and highlighted " Ain 't It Fun " and " Proof " as the album 's best tracks . The USA Today writer Brian Mansfield found that on the album the band " has super @-@ sized its sound " . Mansfield also commented that " Williams ' sarcasm seems less forced than her enthusiasm , still , Paramore shows a band determined to get out of the misery business . "
Matt Collar , writing for AllMusic , declared " The record 's collaborative foundation crackles on every track , but Hayley Williams , a ballsy , extroverted frontwoman with a voice big enough to stop time , proves unequivocally to be the cunning talent of the band , no matter how vital York and Davis may be " . Collar regards it their best album . At AbsolutePunk , Jack Appleby said " Instead of pursuing all things epic or intentionally moving to a specific sound , the band had a blast pursuing every genre under the sun , creating a damn good album in the process ... Chances are you won 't dedicate undivided attention to Paramore , but you 'll regularly queue the whole record . " He concluded with that the album isn 't for everyone , but has something that anyone could enjoy .
Rebecca Nicholson of The Guardian regarded the album as a pay off , despite the band " switching it up " , where she states " ... this is more loose and playful , while still indulging the band 's ability to pull off mammoth , arena @-@ friendly choruses . " She regarded the album a little too long , however . David Renshaw at NME observed " ... this mainstream rebirth feels like a transitional step to something gigantic . " Jon Pareles from The New York Times found that the band 's songwriting survived the departure of Josh Farro . In addition , Pareles noted that they " have pushed the band beyond pop @-@ punk without abandoning momentum or the big , catchy chorus . "
By contrast , Sputnikmusic 's staff reviewer Channing Freeman was highly critical of the album , giving it a one and a half out of five as well as calling it , " fucking foolishness " . Freeman criticized the exclusion of J. Farro and the songwriting , stating " I guess the sad conclusion here is that Paramore needs Josh Farro , who maybe could have tempered all of the crazy fucking songwriting decisions that were made on Paramore . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
The album has been a major commercial success worldwide , debuting at number one is eight countries including the UK , Ireland , Scotland , Argentina , New Zealand , Brazil and Australia ( where it was the eighth consecutive number one debut on the chart and also the 32nd self @-@ titled album to top the Australian chart ) . The album also peaked within the top 20 of 9 other countries . In the US , the album debuted at number 1 , with first week sales of 106 @,@ 000 copies . This marks the first Paramore album to reach the top spot on the chart .
" Still Into You " charted within the top 10 in Australia and Ireland and reached the top 20 in several others . The single topped the UK rock chart and peaked at number 14 in the singles chart , thus becoming the band 's second highest charting single in that country , behind Ignornace . In the US , the song peaked at number 24 , matching The Only Exception as the band 's highest charting single at the time . It also peaked at number 6 in the US Rock Chart and number 8 in the US Mainstream Top 40 . " Ain 't It Fun " shared similar success , charting within the top 10 in Canada and Hungary . It eventually became Paramore 's best selling single to date in the US , charting at number ten in the Billboard 100 , number 2 in the US Mainstream Top 40 and number 1 the US Rock Chart and Adult Top 40 . The single marks the first time a Paramore song has reached the Top 10 in the US .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album appeared on a number of " End Of Year " lists . It was ranked the 18th best album of 2013 by The A.V. Club . It was also ranked # 6 by Kerrang ! , # 21 by The Guardian , # 58 by PopMatters and # 34 by The Village Voice .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Paramore
Hayley Williams – lead vocals , keyboards , piano
Jeremy Davis – bass guitar , keyboards , backing vocals
Taylor York – guitar , drums , keyboards , programming
Additional personnel
Ilan Rubin - drums , percussion , vocals
Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen – producer , keyboards , programming , percussion
Carlos de la Garza – percussion , engineer
Interludes engineered by Kyle Black
Ken Andrews – mixing , keyboards , backing vocals
Joy Williams - guest vocals ( track 18 of Deluxe Edition )
Vincent Brantley – choir conductor , choir contractor
Vincent Brantley , Sean Dancy , Yolanda Harris @-@ Dancy , Katherine Dancy , Brandon Hampton , Talitha Manor , Joslyn James – choir members
Vanessa Freebairn @-@ Smith – string contractor
Strings arranged by Roger Joseph Manning , Jr .
Caroline Campbell – concert master , violin
Caroline Campbell , Alma Fernandez , Erik Arvinder , Kathleen Sloan , Khoa Truong , Luke Maurer , Sam Fischer , Vanessa Freebairn @-@ Smith , Songa Lee – string musicians
Steve Aho – copyist
Mike Schuppan – engineer
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Panzer I =
The Panzer I was a light tank produced in Germany in the 1930s . The name is short for the German Panzerkampfwagen I ( " armored fighting vehicle mark I " ) , abbreviated PzKpfw I. The tank 's official German ordnance inventory designation was SdKfz 101 ( " special purpose vehicle 101 " ) .
Design of the Panzer I began in 1932 and mass production began in 1934 . Intended only as a training tank to introduce the concept of armored warfare to the German Army , the Panzer I saw combat in Spain during the Spanish Civil War , in Poland , France , the Soviet Union and North Africa during the Second World War , and in China during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . Experiences with the Panzer I during the Spanish Civil War helped shape the German armored corps ' invasion of Poland in 1939 and France in 1940 . By 1941 , the Panzer I chassis design was used as the basis of tank destroyers and assault guns . There were attempts to upgrade the Panzer I throughout its service history , including by foreign nations , to extend the design 's lifespan . It continued to serve in the Spanish Armed Forces until 1954 .
The Panzer I 's performance in combat was limited by its thin armor and light armament of two machine guns . As a design intended for training , the Panzer I was not as capable as other light tanks of the era , such as the Soviet T @-@ 26 . Although weak in combat , it formed a large part of Germany 's tank forces and was used in all major campaigns between September 1939 and December 1941 . The small , vulnerable light tank would be surpassed in importance by other German tanks , such as the Panzer IV , Panther , and Tiger ; nevertheless , the Panzer I 's contribution to the early victories of Nazi Germany during World War II was significant . Later in that war the turrets of the then obsolete PzKpfw Is and PzKpfw IIs were repurposed as gun turrets on specially built defensive bunkers , particularly on the Atlantic Wall .
= = Development history = =
The post @-@ World War I Treaty of Versailles of 1919 prohibited the design , manufacture and deployment of tanks within the Reichswehr . Paragraph Twenty @-@ four of the treaty provided for a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ mark fine and imprisonment of up to six months for anybody who " [ manufactured ] armoured vehicles , tanks or similar machines , which may be turned to military use " .
Despite the manpower and technical limitations imposed on the German Army by the Treaty of Versailles , several Reichswehr officers established a clandestine General Staff to study World War I and develop future strategies and tactics . Although at first the concept of the tank as a mobile weapon of war met with apathy , German industry was silently encouraged to look into tank design , while quiet cooperation was undertaken with the Soviet Union . There was also minor military cooperation with Sweden , including the extraction of technical data that proved invaluable to early German tank design . As early as 1926 various German companies , including Rheinmetall and Daimler @-@ Benz , produced a single prototype armed with a large 75 @-@ millimeter cannon ( the Großtraktor , " large tractor " , was so codenamed to veil the true purpose of the vehicle ) . Only two years later , German companies produced prototypes of the new Leichttraktor ( " light tractor " ) , which were armed with 37 @-@ millimeter KwK L / 45 guns . The Großtraktor was later put into service for a brief period with the 1 Panzer Division ; the Leichttraktor remained in testing until 1935 .
In the late 1920s and early 1930s , German tank theory was pioneered by two figures : General Oswald Lutz and his chief of staff , Lieutenant Colonel Heinz Guderian . Guderian became the more influential of the two and his ideas were widely publicized . Like his contemporary Sir Percy Hobart , Guderian initially envisioned an armored corps ( panzerkorps ) composed of several types of tanks . This included a slow infantry tank , armed with a small @-@ caliber cannon and several machine guns . The infantry tank , according to Guderian , was to be heavily armored to defend against enemy anti @-@ tank guns and artillery . He also envisioned a fast breakthrough tank , similar to the British cruiser tank , which was to be armored against enemy anti @-@ tank weapons and have a large 75 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) main gun . Lastly , Germany would need a heavy tank , armed with a massive 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) cannon to defeat enemy fortifications , and even stronger armor . Such a tank would require a weight of 70 to 100 tonnes and was completely impractical given the manufacturing capabilities of the day .
Soon after rising to power in Germany , Adolf Hitler approved the creation of Germany 's first panzer divisions . Simplifying his earlier proposal , Guderian suggested the design of a main combat vehicle , which would be developed into the Panzer III , and a breakthrough tank , the Panzer IV . No existing design appealed to Guderian . As a stopgap , the German Army ordered a preliminary vehicle to train German tank crews . This became the Panzer I.
The Panzer I 's design history can be traced to 1932 's Landwirtschaftlicher Schlepper ( La S ) ( Agricultural Tractor ) armored fighting vehicle . The La S was intended not just to train Germany 's panzer troops , but to prepare Germany 's industry for the mass production of tanks in the near future ; a difficult engineering feat for the time . In July 1932 , Krupp revealed a prototype of the Landswerk Krupp A , or LKA , with a sloped front glacis plate and large central casemate , a design heavily influenced by the British Carden Loyd tankette . The tank was armed with two obsolescent 7 @.@ 92 @-@ millimeter ( .312 in ) MG @-@ 13 Dreyse machine guns . Machine guns were known to be largely useless against even the lightest tank armor of the time , restricting the Panzer I to a training and anti @-@ infantry role by design .
A mass @-@ produced version of the LKA was designed by a collaborative team from Daimler @-@ Benz , Henschel , Krupp , MAN , and Rheinmetall , exchanging the casemate for a rotating turret . This version was accepted into service after testing in 1934 . Although these tanks were referred to as the La S and LKA well beyond the start of production , its official designation , assigned in 1938 , was Panzerkampfwagen I Ausführung . A ( ' model A ' or , more accurately , ' batch A ' ) . The first 15 tanks , produced between February and March 1934 , did not include the rotating turret and were used for crew training . Following these , production was switched to the combat version of the tank . The Ausf . A was under @-@ armored , with steel plate of only 13 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) at its thickest . The tank had several design flaws , including suspension problems , which made the vehicle pitch at high velocities , and engine overheating . The driver was positioned inside the chassis and used conventional steering levers to control the tank , while the commander was positioned in the turret where he also acted as gunner . The two crewmen could communicate by means of a voice tube . Machine gun ammunition was stowed in five bins , containing various numbers of 25 @-@ round magazines . Author Lucas Molina Franco suggests that 833 Panzerkampfwagen I Ausf . A tanks were built in total , while authors Bryan Perrett offers the number of 300 and Terry Gander 818 units .
Many of the problems in the Ausf . A were corrected with the introduction of the Ausf . B. The engine was replaced by the water @-@ cooled , six @-@ cylinder Maybach NL 38 TR , developing 98 horsepower ( 73 kW ) , and the gearbox was changed to a more reliable model . The larger engine required the extension of the vehicle 's chassis by 40 cm ( 16 in ) , and this allowed the improvement of the tank 's suspension , adding another bogie wheel and raising the tensioner . The tank 's weight increased by 0 @.@ 4 tons . Production of the Ausf . B began in August 1935 and finished in early 1937 — Franco writes 840 were constructed , but notes that only 675 of these were combat models , while Perrett suggests a total number of 1 @,@ 500 ( offsetting the low number of Ausf . A he proposes ) and Gander a total of 675 .
= = = Sister tanks = = =
Two more combat versions of the Panzer I were designed and produced between 1939 and 1942 . By this stage , the design concept had been superseded by medium and heavy tanks and neither variant was produced in sufficient numbers to have a real impact on the progress of the war . These new tanks had nothing in common with either the Ausf . A or B except name . One of these , the Panzer I Ausf . C , was designed jointly between Krauss @-@ Maffei and Daimler @-@ Benz in 1939 to provide an amply armored and armed reconnaissance light tank . The Ausf . C boasted a completely new chassis and turret , a modern torsion @-@ bar suspension and five Schachtellaufwerk @-@ style interleaved roadwheels . It also had a maximum armor thickness of 30 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) , over twice that of either the Ausf . A or B , and was armed with an EW 141 semi autocannon , with a 50 round drum , firing 7.92mm anti @-@ tank shells . Forty of these tanks were produced , along with six prototypes . Two tanks were deployed to 1st Panzer Division in 1943 , and the other thirty @-@ eight were deployed to the LVIII Panzer Reserve Corps during the Normandy landings .
The second vehicle , the Ausf . F , was as different from the Ausf . C as it was from the Ausf . A and B. Intended as an infantry support tank , the Panzer I Ausf . F had a maximum armour thickness of 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 15 in ) and weighed between 18 and 21 tonnes . The Ausf . F was armed with two 7 @.@ 92 @-@ millimeter MG @-@ 34s . Thirty were produced in 1940 , and a second order of 100 was later canceled . In order to compensate for the increased weight , a new 150 horsepower ( 110 kW ) Maybach HL45 Otto engine was used , allowing a maximum road speed of 25 kilometers per hour ( 15 @.@ 5 mph ) and used five overlapping road wheels per side , dropping the Ausf . C 's interleaved units . Eight of the thirty tanks produced were sent to the 1st Panzer Division in 1943 and saw combat at the Battle of Kursk . The rest were given to several army schools for training and evaluation purposes .
= = Combat history = =
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
On 18 July 1936 , war broke out on the Iberian peninsula as Spain dissolved into a state of civil war . After the chaos of the initial uprising , two sides coalesced and began to consolidate their position — the Popular front ( the Republicans ) and the Spanish Nationalist front . In an early example of a proxy war , both sides quickly received support from other countries , most notably the Soviet Union and Germany , who wanted to test their tactics and equipment . The first shipment of foreign tanks , 50 Soviet T @-@ 26s , arrived on 15 October . The shipment was under the surveillance of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine and Germany immediately responded by sending 41 Panzer I 's to Spain a few days later . This first shipment was followed by four more shipments of Panzer I Ausf . B 's , with a total of 122 vehicles .
The first shipment of Panzer I 's was brought under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma in Gruppe Thoma ( also referred to as Panzergruppe Drohne ) . Gruppe Thoma formed part of Gruppe Imker , the ground formations of the German Condor Legion , who fought on the side of Franco 's Nationalists . Between July and October , a rapid Nationalist advance from Seville to Toledo placed them in position to take the Spanish capital , Madrid . The Nationalist advance and the fall of the town of Illescas to Nationalist armies on 18 October 1936 caused the government of the Popular Front 's Second Republic , including President Manuel Azaña , to flee to Barcelona and Valencia . In an attempt to stem the Nationalist tide and gain crucial time for Madrid 's defence , Soviet armor was deployed south of the city under the command of Colonel Krivoshein before the end of October . At this time , several T @-@ 26 tanks under the command of Captain Paul Arman were thrown into a Republican counterattack directed towards the town of Torrejon de Velasco in an attempt to cut off the Nationalist advance north . This was the first tank battle in the Spanish Civil War . Despite initial success , poor communication between the Soviet Republican armor and Spanish Republican infantry caused the isolation of Captain Arman 's force and the subsequent destruction of a number of tanks . This battle also marked the first use of the molotov cocktail against tanks . Ritter von Thoma 's Panzer Is fought for the Nationalists only days later on 30 October , and immediately experienced problems . As the Nationalist armor advanced , it was engaged by the Commune de Paris battalion , equipped with Soviet BA @-@ 10 armored cars . The 45 @-@ millimeter gun in the BA @-@ 10 was more than sufficient to knock out the poorly armored Panzer I at ranges below 500 meters ( 550 yd ) .
Although the Panzer I would participate in almost every major Nationalist offensive of the war , the Nationalist army began to deploy more and more captured T @-@ 26 tanks to offset their disadvantage in protection and firepower . At one point , von Thoma offered up to 500 pesetas for each T @-@ 26 captured . Although the Panzer I was initially able to knock out the T @-@ 26 at close range — 150 meters ( 165 yd ) or less — using an armor @-@ piercing 7 @.@ 92 millimeter bullet , the Republican tanks began to engage at ranges where they were immune to the machine guns of the Panzer I.
The Panzer I was upgraded in order to increase its lethality . On 8 August 1937 , Major General García Pallasar received a note from Generalísimo Francisco Franco that expressed the need for a Panzer I ( or negrillo , as their Spanish crews called them ) with a 20 @-@ millimeter gun . Ultimately , the piece chosen was the Breda Model 1935 , due to the simplicity of the design over competitors such as the German Flak 30 . Furthermore , the 20 mm Breda was capable of perforating 40 millimeters of armor at 250 meters ( 1 @.@ 57 in at 275 yd ) , which was more than sufficient to penetrate the frontal armor of the T @-@ 26 . Although originally 40 Italian CV.35 light tanks were ordered with the Breda in place of their original armament , this order was subsequently canceled after it was thought that the adaptation of the same gun to the Panzer I would yield better results . Prototypes were ready by September 1937 and an order was placed after successful results . The mounting of the Breda in the Panzer I required the original turret to be opened at the top and then extended by a vertical supplement . Four of these tanks were finished at the Armament Factory of Seville , but further production was canceled as it was decided sufficient numbers of Republican T @-@ 26 tanks had been captured to fulfill the Nationalist leadership 's request for more lethal tanks . The Breda modification was not particularly liked by German crews , as the unprotected gap in the turret , designed to allow the tank 's commander to aim , was found to be a dangerous weak point .
In late 1938 , another Panzer I was sent to the Armament Factory of Seville in order to mount a 45 mm gun , captured from a Soviet tank ( a T @-@ 26 or BT @-@ 5 ) . A second was sent sometime later in order to exchange the original armament for a 37 @-@ millimeter Maklen anti @-@ tank gun , which had been deployed to Asturias in late 1936 on the Soviet ship A. Andreiev . It remains unknown to what extent these trials and adaptations were completed , although it is safe to assume neither adaptation was successful beyond the drawing board .
= = = World War II in China = = =
In 1937 , around ten Ausf . As were sold to China during a period of Sino @-@ German cooperation until 1941 , which were used in the Battle of Nanjing by the 3rd Armored Battalion of the Chinese Nationalist Army to fight against the Japanese Imperial Army .
After the fall of Nanking , the Chinese Panzer I Ausf.As were captured by the Japanese and displayed at the Yasukuni Shrine . Because of the relationship between Germany and Japan , the Chinese Panzer I Ausf.As were labelled " Made in the USSR " .
= = = World War II in Europe = = =
During the initial campaigns of World War II , Germany 's light tanks , including the Panzer I , formed the bulk of its armored strength . In March 1938 , the German Army marched into Austria , experiencing a mechanical breakdown rate of up to thirty percent . However , the experience revealed to Guderian several faults within the German Panzerkorps and he subsequently improved logistical support . In October 1938 , Germany occupied Czechoslovakia 's Sudetenland , and the remainder of the country in March 1939 . The capture of Czechoslovakia allowed several Czech tank designs , such as the Panzer 38 ( t ) , and their subsequent variants and production , to be incorporated into the German Army 's strength . It also prepared German forces for the invasion of Poland .
= = = = Poland and the campaign in the west = = = =
On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland using seventy @-@ two divisions ( including 16 reserve infantry divisions in OKH reserves ) , including seven panzer divisions ( 1 . , 2 . , 3 . , 4 . , 5 . , 10 . , " Kempf " ) and four light divisions ( 1 . , 2 . , 3 . , 4 . ) . Three days later , France and Britain declared war on Germany . The seven panzer and four light divisions were arrayed in five armies , forming two army groups . The battalion strength of the 1st Panzer Division included no less than fourteen Panzer Is , while the other six divisions included thirty @-@ four . A total of about 2 @,@ 700 tanks were available for the invasion of Poland , but only 310 of the heavier Panzer III and IV tanks were available . Furthermore , 350 were of Czech design — the rest were either Panzer Is or Panzer IIs . The invasion was swift and the last Polish pockets of resistance surrendered on 6 October . The entire campaign had lasted five weeks ( with help of the Soviet forces , which attacked on 17 September ) , and the success of Germany 's tanks in the campaign was summed up in response to Hitler on 5 September : when asked if it had been the dive bombers who destroyed a Polish artillery regiment , Guderian replied , " No , our panzers ! "
Some 832 German tanks ( including 320 PzI , 259 PzII , 40 Pz III , 76 PzIV , 77 Pz35 ( t ) , 13 PzBef III , 7 PzBef 38 ( t ) , 34 other PzBef and some Pz38 ( t ) ) were lost during the campaign , approximately 341 of which were never to return to service . This represented about a third of Germany 's armor deployed for the Polish campaign . During the campaign , no less than half of Germany 's tanks were unavailable due to maintenance issues or enemy action , and of all tanks , the Panzer I proved the most vulnerable to Polish anti @-@ tank weapons .
Furthermore , it was found that the handling of armored forces during the campaign left much to be desired . During the beginning of Guderian 's attack in northern Poland , his corps was held back to coordinate with infantry for quite a while , preventing a faster advance . It was only after Army Group South had its attention taken from Warsaw at the Battle of Bzura that Guderian 's armor was fully unleashed . There were still lingering tendencies to reserve Germany 's armor , even if in independent divisions , to cover an infantry advance or the flanks of advancing infantry armies . Although tank production was increased to 125 tanks per month after the Polish Campaign , losses forced the Germans to draw further strength from Czech tank designs , and light tanks continued to form the majority of Germany 's armored strength .
Months later , Panzer Is participated in Operation Weserübung — the invasion of Denmark and Norway .
Despite its obsolescence , the Panzer I was also used in the invasion of France in May 1940 . Of 2 @,@ 574 tanks available for the campaign , no fewer than 523 were Panzer Is , while there were 627 Panzer IIIs and IVs , 955 Panzer II , 106 Czech Panzer 35 ( t ) , and 228 Panzer 38 ( t ) . For their defense , the French boasted up to 4 @,@ 000 tanks , including 300 Char B1 , armed with a 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) gun in the turret and a larger 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) low @-@ velocity gun in the hull . The French also had around 250 Somua S @-@ 35 , widely regarded as one of the best tanks of the period , armed with the same 47 mm main gun and protected by almost 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 17 in ) of armor at its thickest point . Nevertheless , the French also deployed over 3 @,@ 000 light tanks , including about 500 World War I @-@ vintage FT @-@ 17s . The two main advantages that German armor enjoyed were radios allowing them to coordinate faster than their British or French counterparts , and superior tactical doctrine , in addition to markedly faster speed , generally .
= = = = North Africa and campaigns in the east = = = =
Italian setbacks in Egypt and their colony of Libya caused Hitler to dispatch aircraft to Sicily , and a blocking force to North Africa . This blocking force was put under the command of Lieutenant General Erwin Rommel and included the motorized 5th Light Division and the 15th Panzer Division . This force landed at Tunis on 12 February 1941 . Upon arrival , Rommel had around 150 tanks , about half Panzer III and IV . The rest were Panzer I 's and IIs , although the Panzer I was soon replaced . On 6 April 1941 , Germany attacked both Yugoslavia and Greece , with fourteen divisions invading Greece from neighboring Bulgaria , which by then had joined the Tripartite Pact . The invasion of Yugoslavia included no less than six panzer divisions , which still fielded the Panzer I. Yugoslavia surrendered 17 April 1941 , and Greece fell on 30 April 1941 .
The final major campaign in which the Panzer I formed a large portion of the armored strength was Operation Barbarossa , 22 June 1941 . The 3 @,@ 300 German tanks included about 410 Panzer I 's . By the end of the month , a large portion of the Red Army found itself trapped in the Minsk pocket , and by 21 September Kiev had fallen , thereby allowing the Germans to concentrate on their ultimate objective , Moscow . Despite the success of Germany 's armor in the Soviet Union , between June and September most German officers were shocked to find their tanks were inferior to newer Soviet models , the T @-@ 34 and KV series . Army Group North quickly realized that none of the tank guns currently in use by German armor could penetrate the thick armor of the KV @-@ 1 . The performance of the Red Army during the Battle of Moscow and the growing numbers of new Soviet tanks made it obvious the Panzer I was not suitable for this front . Some less battle @-@ worthy Panzer Is were tasked with towing lorries through mud to alleviate logistics problems at the front .
= = = Others = = =
After Germany , Spain fielded the largest number of Panzer I tanks . A total of 122 were exported to Spain during the Spanish Civil War , and , as late as 1945 , Spain 's Brunete Armored Division fielded 93 . The Panzer I remained in use in Spain until aid arrived from the United States in 1954 when they were replaced by the relatively modern M47 Patton . Between 1935 and 1936 , an export version of the Panzer I Ausf . B , named the L.K.B. ( Leichte Kampfwagen B ) , was designed for export to Bulgaria . Modifications included up @-@ gunning to a 20 @-@ millimeter gun and fitting a Krupp M 311 V @-@ 8 gasoline engine . Although three examples were built , none were exported to Bulgaria , although a single Panzer I Ausf . A had previously been sold .
A final order was supplied to Hungary in 1942 , totalling eight Ausf . B 's and six command versions . These were incorporated into the 1st Armored Division and saw combat in late 1942 .
= = Variants = =
Between 1934 and the mid @-@ 1940s , several variants of the Panzer I were designed , especially during the later years of its combat history . Because they were obsolescent from their introduction , incapable of defeating foreign armor , and outclassed by newer German tanks , the Panzer I chassis were increasingly adapted as tank destroyers and other variants . One of the best @-@ known variants was the kleiner Panzerbefehlswagen ( " small armored command vehicle " ) , built on the Ausf . A and Ausf . B chassis — 200 of these were manufactured . The Panzer I Ausf . B chassis was also used to build the German Army 's first tracked tank destroyer , the Panzerjäger I. This vehicle was armed with a Czech 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) anti @-@ tank gun .
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= Richard Pacquette =
Richard Francis Pacquette ( born 28 January 1983 ) is a semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a striker for Isthmian League Premier Division club Metropolitan Police .
Pacquette started his career with Queens Park Rangers and he made his first team debut towards the end of the 2000 – 01 season . He had loan spells with Stevenage Borough , Dagenham & Redbridge and Mansfield Town before being released in 2004 , having made over 40 appearances . He had brief spells with Milton Keynes Dons and Brentford before dropping down to non @-@ League football , where he has played since . Following short spells at five different clubs , he played for Worthing for a season and scored 17 goals . He scored for Havant & Waterlooville in their FA Cup fourth round game against Liverpool at Anfield in 2008 , where they were defeated 5 – 2 .
Born in Kilburn , London to Dominican parents , Pacquette has played internationally for the Dominica national team . He scored on his debut against Barbados in 2008 and has earned two caps for the team . His second appearance came in a defeat to Barbados in the second leg .
= = Club career = =
Born in Kilburn , London to Dominican parents , Pacquette 's first club was Queens Park Rangers ( QPR ) , where he had been a member of the youth system since the age of 13 . He turned professional on 1 February 2000 and made his first team debut as a 77th minute substitute in a 2 – 1 defeat to Huddersfield Town on 21 April 2001 . He made one further appearance in the 2000 – 01 season , with a start in a 3 – 0 defeat to Stockport County . The season finished with QPR 's relegation to the Second Division , and Pacquette scored his first goal for the club in a 3 – 0 victory over Bury on 12 January 2002 . He scored his second , and final goal of the 2001 – 02 season , to give QPR the lead in a 1 – 1 draw with Cardiff City in March , but was later handed a red card . After the end of the season , in July , manager Ian Holloway placed him on the transfer list .
After having made four appearances and scored one goal for QPR during the 2002 – 03 season , he joined Conference National team Stevenage Borough on a three @-@ month loan on 18 October . He made his debut the following day in a 1 – 0 defeat to Burton Albion and scored in his next game , a 2 – 1 victory over Swansea City in the Football League Trophy first round . He went on to score for Stevenage in the southern section second round of the Football League Trophy , which finished in a 4 – 3 defeat to Luton Town . He finished the loan spell having scored four goals in 10 appearances . After returning to QPR , he scored three goals in the league and featured for them in both legs of the Second Division play @-@ off semi @-@ final , as well as the final , which was lost 1 – 0 to Cardiff at the Millennium Stadium .
Pacquette scored on his first appearance of the 2003 – 04 season , in a 2 – 0 victory over Kidderminster Harriers in the Football League Trophy in October 2003 . He featured against Dagenham & Redbridge in the Football League Trophy in November , which proved to be his final appearance for QPR . He later joined Dagenham on loan on 29 December and made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat to Aldershot Town on 1 January 2004 . He scored his first goal for Dagenham in a 5 – 0 victory over Shrewsbury Town and finished loan the spell with five appearances and two goals . He joined Mansfield Town in the Third Division on a one @-@ month loan on 4 February . He made his debut in a 3 – 0 defeat to Rochdale and scored in the following game , which finished as a 2 – 1 victory over York City . He finished the loan spell at Mansfield with five appearances and one goal , and after the end of the season , in June , he was released by QPR after not being offered a new contract .
He trained with newly formed League One team Milton Keynes Dons ( MK Dons ) and joined them on 24 September . Pacquette made his debut in a 4 – 2 victory over Hartlepool United and scored his first goal in his following match , a 3 – 0 victory over Brentford in the Football League Trophy . After making seven appearances for MK Dons , he was released in November , and subsequently signed for Southern League Division One East club Fisher Athletic later that month . He left the club to sign for Brentford in League One on non @-@ contract terms on 26 November . He played for Brentford in a 2 – 0 defeat to Hull City . He left the club by mutual consent and signed for Conference National side Farnborough Town on 7 December . His debut came in a 1 – 1 draw with Canvey Island and his first goal came in a 2 – 1 defeat to Morecambe .
After making five appearances for Farnborough , he rejoined Stevenage on non @-@ contract terms , after training with Grimsby Town . He made two appearances for Stevenage , and after failing to earn a long @-@ term contract he had another trial at Grimsby . He eventually joined St Albans City in February , where he made one appearance before signing for Hemel Hempstead Town in March . After making two appearances , he soon moved on after joining Hampton & Richmond Borough 10 days later . He made six appearances for Hampton before the end of the 2004 – 05 season . He joined Worthing after a trial in July 2005 , and was loaned to Thurrock of the Conference South in February 2006 , where he made four appearances after making his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Yeading . Before this loan , he was transfer @-@ listed by Worthing , and in March he was released by the club , after scoring 17 goals in 30 appearances during the 2005 – 06 season .
After leaving Worthing , Pacquette joined Conference South side Havant & Waterlooville in March , scoring three goals in eight league appearances during the remainder of the 2005 – 06 season . He scored his first goal of the 2006 – 07 season in a 2 – 0 victory over Dorchester Town on 11 September . He scored two goals for Havant in their 3 – 0 victory over Team Bath in the FA Trophy third qualifying round , which saw them progress to the first round . He played in both legs of Havant 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final defeat to Braintree Town , finishing the season with 41 appearances and 13 goals . Following the end of the season , he signed a new contract with Havant in June 2007 . He scored for Havant in their FA Cup fourth round tie against Premier League side Liverpool at Anfield on 26 January 2008 , putting Havant 1 – 0 in the lead on eight minutes , before they eventually lost 5 – 2 .
On transfer deadline day , 31 March 2008 , Pacquette joined rival Conference South club Maidenhead United on loan until the end of the 2007 – 08 season , after making 32 appearances and scoring 13 goals for Havant up to that point during the 2007 – 08 season . He made five appearances and scored three goals for Maidenhead before the end of the season , and signed for the club permanently during the summer . He signed for Conference Premier team Histon on a one @-@ month loan on 18 February 2009 , after having made 25 appearances and scored 15 goals for Maidenhead up to that point during the 2008 – 09 season . He made his debut for Histon as a 75th @-@ minute substitute against Eastbourne Borough on 21 February 2009 . He started the following game , a 2 – 0 victory over Barrow , before making his final appearance as an 83rd substitute in a 3 – 0 victory against Lewes . He was an unused substitute for the following four matches before he finished the loan spell at Histon with three appearances . He finished the 2008 – 09 season with 32 appearances and 20 goals for Maidenhead .
At the end of the season , Pacquette signed for Conference Premier team York City on 22 May 2009 . After being unavailable for the opening three games of the season due to a suspension he received while at Maidenhead , he made his debut as a 78th @-@ minute substitute against Hayes & Yeading United , scoring York 's equaliser with a header in a 1 – 1 draw . He was sent off 56 minutes into his first start for York in the following game against Gateshead , which resulted in him serving another three @-@ match suspension . He made his return as an 82nd @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 2 victory over Tamworth in October . He later pulled a thigh muscle , meaning he was expected to be out injured for the remainder of the month , eventually returning to training in November . His return came in a 3 – 2 victory over Crewe Alexandra in the FA Cup first round , coming on as an 84th @-@ minute substitute , before scoring to equalise the game at 2 – 2 . He scored the winning goal in an FA Trophy second round replay against Newport County in stoppage time on 26 January 2010 . He scored York 's goal in a 2 – 1 defeat in the FA Trophy quarter @-@ final against Barrow on 2 March . He finished the 2009 – 10 season with 18 appearances and four goals for York and the club announced that he would be released when his contract expired .
Pacquette signed for Conference Premier team Eastbourne Borough on a one @-@ year contract on 28 June . He made his debut in the opening game of the 2010 – 11 season , a 4 – 2 defeat at Tamworth on 14 August , and he scored Eastbourne 's first goal with a header . Pacquette finished the season with 14 goals in 39 appearances as Eastbourne were relegated to the Conference South . He was not offered a new contract by the club after indicating that he wished to leave and later went on trial with former club Maidenhead .
At the start of August 2011 Pacquette joined Forest Green Rovers on trial and featured in a game against Cirencester Town but failed to land a deal . Later that month , Pacquette joined Conference Premier side Hayes & Yeading United . He was released by Hayes on 9 December , later that day re @-@ signing for Maidenhead of the Conference South . He made his second debut for the club in a goalless draw with Staines Town in the FA Trophy first round , and also appeared in the replay defeat three days later . He would go on to score three goals in the next three games , all in the Conference South . Just a month after joining Maidenhead he returned to the Conference Premier after signing for Lincoln City on a contract until the end of the 2011 – 12 season .
He joined Gainsborough Trinity on trial in August 2012 and scored in the team 's 4 – 0 pre @-@ season victory over Doncaster Rovers . He signed for Conference South side Bromley on 16 August 2012 and made his debut two days later in a 0 – 0 draw at home to Staines Town . He scored his first two goals for the club on 25 August 2012 in a 3 – 2 defeat at Chelmsford City . Pacquette was released by Bromley in December 2012 , and promptly joined fellow Conference South side Eastleigh . He scored on his debut , a 5 – 3 a defeat at Salisbury City on 1 January 2013 , but was subsequently released on 10 January 2013 , after scoring once in two matches for the club . He signed for another Conference South club , Sutton United , on 19 January 2012 . Pacquette 's debut came in a 2 – 1 home win over Eastleigh on 2 February 2013 , before scoring his first goal in a 3 – 2 victory at home to Basingstoke Town on 19 February . He was released by Sutton on 6 March 2013 , having scored once in seven games for the club .
Pacquette returned to Conference South side Maidenhead on 7 March 2013 on a contract until the end of the 2013 – 14 season , making his third debut on 9 March in a 2 – 0 home defeat to Eastleigh . In June 2014 he left Maidenhead to rejoin Eastbourne Borough of the Conference South .
During the summer of 2015 , he made preseason appearances for Hampton & Richmond Borough , scoring a goal against Tooting & Mitcham United on 12 July 2015 , and later signed for them . He went on a loan stint at Lewes in November 2015 , and after a spell with Walton & Hersham winter 2016 , he was back in the Hampton & Richmond Borough jersey on 22 March 2016 as they narrowly lost to Cockfosters in a 42 penalty shoot out thriller in the Middlesex Senior Charity Cup . In July 2016 , Metropolitan Police manager Jim Cooper announced his arrival .
= = International career = =
Pacquette earned a call @-@ up to the Dominica national team for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification CONCACAF First Round match against Barbados on 6 February 2008 . Barbados went into the match as heavy favourites but fell behind to Pacquette 's goal on his international debut , which finished as a 1 – 1 draw . After making his debut , manager Christopher Ericson said " He is great in front of goal , powerful and full of effort and work . I only hope that we can get him some more support up front in the next game – if we do I am sure we can win it " . He also played in the 1 – 0 defeat in the second leg on 26 March .
= = Style of play = =
After signing for York City in 2009 , manager Martin Foyle described him as being " strong and can hold the ball up , which we were poor at doing last season . He could be our link man because we need to retain possession better in the final third . "
= = Personal life = =
His cousin is fellow Dominica international Jefferson Louis , with whom he was paired as Dominica 's strikers in the second leg game against Barbados . During his time as a semi @-@ professional Pacquette worked as a school caretaker and a truancy officer . At his school , he participated in coaching with the sixth formers . Pacquette and his Havant & Waterlooville teammates would have received £ 10 @,@ 000 each if they had beaten Liverpool in the FA Cup , which he said he would spend on helping his local community . After joining York City in 2009 , he moved into a house with teammates Neil Barrett , Alex Lawless , James Meredith and Danny Parslow .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 5 September 2015 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 26 March 2008 .
= = = International goals = = =
As of match played 6 February 2008 . Dominica score listed first , score column indicates score after each Pacquette goal .
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= Clarence Jeffries =
Clarence Smith Jeffries , VC ( 26 October 1894 – 12 October 1917 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . He was posthumously decorated with the Victoria Cross following his actions in the First Battle of Passchendaele during the First World War , in which he led several parties of men in an attack that eventuated in the capture of six machine guns and sixty @-@ five prisoners , before being killed himself by machine gun fire .
Born in a suburb of Newcastle , New South Wales , Jeffries was employed as a surveyor at a mining company where his father served as general manager following his completion of school . Joining a militia battalion in 1912 , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant upon the outbreak of war and tasked with the instruction of volunteers for the newly raised Australian Imperial Force . Transferring into the Australian Imperial Force himself in 1916 , Jeffries embarked with his battalion for service on the Western Front . Wounded at Messines , he was promoted to captain before being killed fourteen days short of his twenty @-@ third birthday .
= = Early life = =
Jeffries was born in the Newcastle suburb of Wallsend , New South Wales , on 26 October 1894 . He was the only child of Joshua Jeffries , a colliery manager , and his wife Barbara , née Steel . Jeffries attended Dudley Primary School before moving onto Newcastle Collegiate and High schools . Apprenticed as a mining surveyor at the Abermain Collieries on the state 's northern coalfields , where his father was general manager , Jeffries was noted as a cricketer and a keen horseman who took a particular interest in breeding thoroughbreds . In July 1912 , Jeffries joined the 14th ( Hunter River ) Infantry Regiment , Citizens Military Force , as a private under the compulsory training scheme . He was promoted to sergeant a year later .
= = First World War = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War , Jeffries was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Citizens Military Force on 22 August 1914 . By this time he was in charge of the survey department at the Abermain Collieries , but was mobilised for home defence duties and the instruction of volunteers for the newly raised Australian Imperial Force at Newcastle and Liverpool camps . Promoted lieutenant in the Citizens Military Force in July 1915 , he transferred to the Australian Imperial Force on 1 February 1916 with the substantive rank of second lieutenant , and was placed in command of C Company of the 34th Battalion . In May , the battalion embarked from Sydney for the United Kingdom , with Jeffries aboard HMAT Hororata . Arriving in late June , the battalion spent the next five months training in England , during which time Jeffries was promoted to lieutenant .
In late November 1916 , the 34th Battalion was shipped to France for service on the Western Front . Initially posted to the Armentières sector in Belgium , the battalion did not participate in its first major battle until June 1917 , when it took part in the Battle of Messines after the British and Dominion operations switched to the Ypres sector of Belgium . During the engagement , Jeffries received a bullet wound to the thigh while leading a reconnaissance patrol and was evacuated to the 3rd General Hospital in London . While recuperating , he was promoted to captain on 26 June , before rejoining his battalion in September as a company commander .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
On 12 October 1917 , the 34th Battalion — as a member of the 9th Brigade — was to take part in the 3rd Australian Division 's attack on Passchendaele , Belgium . Subject to several days of heavy rain , the battlefield had been transformed into a boggy marsh on which the attack was to commence . Jeffries commanded B Company during the attack , which he halted at the entrance to Broodseinde railway cutting , as many of the direction tapes leading to the starting position had been destroyed or swallowed up by the mud . To avoid any mishaps , Jeffries and another of the battalion 's company commanders , Captain T.G. Gilder , pushed on alone as far as Keerselaarhoek cemetery to find the tapes marking the battalions starting line for the attack . Thus , by 03 : 00 the 34th Battalion was formed up on the line of attack .
At the designated time of 05 : 25 , the British opened up with an artillery barrage on the German positions just as the Australian forces entered no man 's land for the attack . Heavy machine gun fire assaulted the troops from all directions as they bunched together on the firmer ground to avoid sinking in the boggy mud . Serious resistance was encountered at Hilside Farm , a strong point to the east of Augustus Wood in the centre of the highest part of the Passchendaele ridge . The position consisted of two pillboxes , supported by fifty metres of trench that was occupied by approximately thirty men with four machine guns . The fire from these machine guns forced the men of the 34th Battalion to seek cover on the exposed crest and threatened to halt the entire advance .
Jeffries , realising his force was suffering heavy casualties , quickly organised a bombing party of fourteen men and set about outflanking the pillboxes . Accompanying Jeffries was Sergeant James Bruce , a 39 @-@ year @-@ old Scottish @-@ born miner who had worked for Jeffries ' father at the Abermain Collieries . According to popular legend , Bruce had promised to look out for his boss 's son , and remained at Jeffries ' side throughout the attack . Working around the position , the party attacked the emplacement from the rear , capturing four machine guns and thirty @-@ five prisoners ; thus reviving the advance . Jeffries then led his company forward under heavy artillery and machine gun fire to reach their first objective .
Despite the heavy losses which left gaping holes in the Allied line , it was decided that the next stage of the advance was to go ahead . At 08 : 25 , parties from the 34th and 35th Battalions headed out along the south @-@ eastern edge of the ridge towards the outskirts of Passchendaele . Almost immediately , they came under heavy fire from a pillbox close by a railway embankment , at which time Major J.B. Buchanan , the senior brigade officer with the advance party , fell dead , leaving Jeffries to assume control . Gathering a party of eleven men , he set about silencing the machine gun position . Edging across the open ground , the party attacked the position from the west just as the machine gun was firing to the north . Realising that an attack was imminent , the machine gunner switched around , mortally wounding Jeffries in the stomach and sending the rest of the party to ground . When its fire eased , the remaining members of the group worked around the position , rushed it and seized two machine guns in conjunction with thirty prisoners .
With the second objective only partially captured , the remnants of the 9th Brigade , battered by artillery and machine gun fire , were forced to relinquish their position and retreat back to their own lines . All that remained on the Passchendaele ridge of the 9th Brigade was the dead and wounded , among whom was Clarence Jeffries , who was later counted among those with no known grave .
= = Legacy = =
For his actions during the battle at Passchendaele , Jeffries was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross , the notification of which was published in the London Gazette on 18 December 1917 . His citation read :
War Office , 18th December , 1917
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers , Noncommissioned Officers and Man : —
Capt. Clarence Smith Jeffries , late Australian Imperial Force .
For most conspicuous bravery in attack , when his company was held up by enemy machine @-@ gun fire from concrete emplacements . Organising a party , he rushed one emplacement , capturing four machine guns and thirty @-@ five prisoners . He then led his company forward under extremely heavy enemy artillery barrage and enfilade machine @-@ gun fire to the objective .
Later , he again organised a successful attack on a machine @-@ gun emplacement , capturing two machine guns and thirty more prisoners .
This gallant officer was killed during the attack , but it was entirely due to his bravery and initiative that the centre of the attack was not held up for a lengthy period . His example had a most inspiring influence .
Severely affected by the unknown fate of his son 's body , Joshua Jeffries set out for Belgium in 1920 in an attempt to discover his son 's " lost grave " . He returned to Australia disappointed , only to learn in January 1921 that Clarence 's body had been exhumed from a battlefield grave on 14 September 1920 , and re @-@ buried in Tyne Cot Cemetery , Plot XL , Row E , Grave 1 . The body had been identified by a set of captain 's pips , Australian numerals and the penciled initials " C.S.J. " found on the ground sheet in which the body was wrapped . Three years later , Joshua Jeffries returned to Belgium once again ; this time to pay his last respects to his son . As a debt of gratitude to the late Lieutenant James Bruce MC , DCM , who as a sergeant had assisted Clarence at Passchendaele before being killed himself on 17 July 1918 , Joshua employed Bruce 's two eldest sons as trainee mining surveyors at the Abermain Collieries .
Following a campaign by the citizens of Abermain , the Capt. Clarence Smith Jeffries Memorial Park was established in 1947 , and upon Barbara Jeffries death in 1964 , she bequeathed her son 's medals to the Warriors Chapel at Christchurch Cathedral , Newcastle , where they are currently on display . Jeffries is also commemorated by photographic portraits in the Abermain Memorial and Citizens ' Club and by a carved chair presented to Abermain Holy Trinity Anglican Church by his uncle and aunt in 1918 . In 1976 , the Jeffries and Currey Memorial Library was opened by the Governor of New South Wales , Sir Roden Cutler , at Dudley Public School to honour two of the school 's pupils who were decorated with the Victoria Cross during the First World War : Clarence Jeffries and William Currey . The pair are also commemorated by the Capt. Clarence Smith Jeffries ( V.C. ) and Pte . William Matthew Currey ( V.C. ) Memorial Wall located in the grounds of Sandgate General Cemetery , Newcastle , which was unveiled in an official ceremony on 16 April 2000 . The Clarence Jeffries Housing Estate at Bullecourt Army Barracks in Adamstown is also named in his honour .
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= The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask =
The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask ( Japanese : ゼルダの伝説 ムジュラの仮面 , Hepburn : Zeruda no Densetsu : Mujura no Kamen ) is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 . It was released in Japan on April 27 , 2000 , in North America on October 26 , 2000 , and in Europe on November 17 , 2000 . Approximately 314 @,@ 000 copies of the game were sold during its first week in Japan , and three million copies were sold worldwide . The game was rereleased for the GameCube as part of The Legend of Zelda : Collector 's Edition in 2003 , and the Wii 's Virtual Console service in 2009 . It was released for the European Wii U Virtual Console on June 23 , 2016 . An enhanced remake for the Nintendo 3DS , titled The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask 3D , was released in February 2015 .
Majora 's Mask is the sixth main installment in The Legend of Zelda series and the second using 3D graphics , the first being the game 's predecessor , The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time . Considered by critics to be a " darker " entry in the Zelda games franchise , Majora 's Mask is set in Termina , an alternate version of the usual series setting of Hyrule , where the Skull Kid has stolen Majora 's Mask , a powerful ancient artifact . Under its influence , the Skull Kid causes the land 's moon to slowly fall towards Termina , where it crashes after three days . The protagonist Link repeatedly travels back in time to the beginning of the three days to find a way to stop the moon from destroying the world .
The gameplay is centered on the perpetually repeating three @-@ day cycle and the use of various masks , some of which allow Link to transform into different beings . Link learns to play several melodies on his ocarina , which have a variety of effects like controlling the flow of time or opening passages to four temples , which house challenges Link must overcome . Unlike Ocarina of Time , Majora 's Mask requires the Expansion Pak , which provides additional memory for enhanced graphics and more on @-@ screen characters . Majora 's Mask was acclaimed by critics , who praised the graphics and complex story .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Majora 's Mask expands on that of Ocarina of Time ; it retains the concept of dungeon puzzles and ocarina songs , and introduces character transformations and a three @-@ day cycle . As in previous installments , Link can perform basic actions such as walking , running and limited jumping , and must use items to battle enemies and solve puzzles . Link 's main weapon is the sword , which can be upgraded throughout the game . Other weapons and items are available — Link can block or reflect attacks with a shield , stun enemies by throwing Deku Nuts , attack from a distance with a bow and arrows , destroy obstacles and damage enemies with bombs . He can also latch onto objects or paralyze enemies with the Hookshot . Magic power allows attacks such as magical arrows or spin attacks , and the use of special items .
= = = Masks and transformations = = =
While the masks in Ocarina of Time are limited to an optional side @-@ quest , they play a central role in Majora 's Mask , which has twenty @-@ four masks in total .
Link can transform at will into different creatures : the Deku Mask transforms Link into a Deku Scrub , the Goron Mask into a Goron , and the Zora Mask into a Zora . Each form features unique abilities : Deku Link can perform a spin attack , shoot bubbles from his mouth , skip on water , and fly for a short time by launching from Deku Flowers ; Goron Link can roll at high speeds ( and grow spikes at higher speeds ) , punch with deadly force , stomp the ground with his massive , rock @-@ like body , walk in lava without taking damage , and weigh down heavy switches ; Zora Link can swim rapidly , throw boomerang @-@ like fins from his arms , generate a force field , and walk on the bottoms of bodies of water . Many areas can be accessed only by use of these abilities .
Link and his three transformations receive different reactions from non @-@ player characters . For instance , the Goron and Zora are allowed to exit Clock Town at will , whereas the Deku Scrub is not permitted to leave by reason of his childlike resemblance . Animals also interact differently with the four forms of Link . For example , Link 's normal form receives an indifferent response from dogs , Deku Link is attacked by them , Goron Link frightens them , and Zora Link makes them chase him happily .
The final mask to be gained in the game is the Fierce Deity 's Mask . Although the use of this mask is strictly limited to boss battles only , it is possible to wear it anywhere using a glitch . Upon donning this mask , Link grows to nearly two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half times his normal height . His clothes turn white and his face appears with a type of war paint on it . The sword that Fierce Deity Link carries is a helix shape that uses magic power to blast fire at enemies .
Other masks provide situational benefits . For example , the Great Fairy 's Mask helps retrieve stray fairies scattered throughout the four temples , the Bunny Hood allows Link to run faster , and the Stone Mask renders Link invisible to most non @-@ playable characters and enemies . Less valuable masks are usually involved only in optional side @-@ quests or specialized situations . Examples include the Postman 's Hat , which grants Link access to items in mailboxes , and Kafei 's Mask , which initiates a long side @-@ quest to receive the Couple 's Mask .
= = = Three @-@ day cycle and songs = = =
Majora 's Mask imposes a time limit of three days ( 72 hours ) game @-@ time , which is about 54 minutes in real time . An on @-@ screen clock tracks the day and time . Link can return to 6 : 00 am on the first day by playing the " Song of Time " on the Ocarina of Time . If he does not before the 72 hours expire , then the moon will destroy Clock Town , including all the surrounding regions of Termina and Link will lose everything he accomplished . A real @-@ time countdown will begin when only 6 hours remain . However , returning to the first day saves the player 's progress and major accomplishments permanently , such as the acquisition of maps , masks , songs , and weapons . Cleared puzzles , keys , and minor items will be lost , as well as any rupees not in the bank , and almost all characters will have no recollection of meeting Link . Link can slow down time or warp to the next morning or evening by playing two variations of the Song of Time . Owl statues scattered across certain major areas of the world allow the player to temporarily save their progress once they have been activated , and also provide warp points to quickly move around the world .
Other uses for songs include manipulating the weather , teleporting between owl statues spread throughout Termina , and unlocking the four temples . Each transformation mask uses a different instrument : Deku Link plays a multi @-@ horn instrument called the " Deku Pipes " , Goron Link plays a set of bongo drums tied around his waist , and Zora Link plays a guitar made from a large fish skeleton . Jackson Guitars created a limited edition 7 @-@ string replica of this guitar that was the grand prize in a contest in Nintendo Power , known as the " Jackson Zoraxe " . The game reuses three of Ocarina of Time 's ocarina songs : the " Song of Time " ; the " Song of Storms " , for aforementioned weather manipulation ; and " Epona 's Song " , which again summons Link 's horse .
During the three @-@ day cycle , many non @-@ player characters follow fixed schedules that Link can track using the Bomber 's Notebook . The notebook tracks the twenty characters in need of help , such as a soldier to whom Link delivers medicine , and an engaged couple whom Link reunites . Blue bars on the notebook 's timeline indicate when characters are available for interaction , and icons indicate that Link has received items , such as masks , from the characters .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask is set in Termina , a land parallel to Hyrule , the latter being the main setting of most games in the series . According to legend , Termina was split into four areas by four magical giants that live in four regions of the land . At the center of Termina lies Clock Town , which features a large clock tower that counts down the days before the Carnival of Time — a major festival where the people of Termina pray for good luck and harvests . Termina Field surrounds Clock Town ; beyond lie a swamp , mountain range , bay , and canyon in each of the four cardinal directions .
The Southern Swamp contains the Deku Palace and the Woodfall Temple , an ancient shrine containing monsters and a giant masked jungle warrior , Odolwa , who has been poisoning the swamp .
The Snowhead mountain range , north of Clock Town , is the site of the Goron village . Normally a lush pine forest region most of the year , the area has been experiencing an unusually long winter caused by a giant masked mechanical monster named Goht in Snowhead Temple .
Romani Ranch , southwest of Clock Town , is the site of a ranch which houses Romani , her older sister , Cremia , Grog , and Mamamu Yan . Before Link entered Termina , Skull Kid caused a huge boulder to block Romani Ranch . If you go to Milk Road on the dawn of the final day , The boulder disappears and you could go to Romani Ranch or you could use a Powder Keg after you defeated Goht .
The western area of Termina , the Great Bay , is the site of the Zora and Gerudo civilizations . A gargantuan masked fish , Gyorg , is generating storms and contaminating the water surrounding the Great Bay Temple .
The desolate Ikana Canyon , to the east of Clock Town , is the site of a former kingdom . It is inhabited mainly by the undead , except for a ghost researcher and his daughter Pamela , as well as a thief named Sakon . A pair of giant masked insectoid serpents known as Twinmold from their nest in Stone Tower Temple are casting a dark aura over the land , causing the dead bodies of former citizens and soldiers to come back to life as undead monsters .
At the end of the game , Link is transported to the moon , which is portrayed as a green field with a single , large tree in the centre with masked children playing underneath it .
= = = Plot = = =
Majora 's Mask takes place a few months after The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time and begins with Link searching for his departed fairy , Navi . While riding through a forest in Hyrule on his horse Epona , Link is ambushed by the masked Skull Kid and his fairy accomplices Tatl and Tael , who steal both Epona and his musical instrument , the Ocarina of Time . Link follows them into Termina , where he confronts the Skull Kid , who curses him by turning him into a Deku Scrub . Tatl stops Link from going after the Skull Kid as the latter escapes with Tael through a door , but is then separated from them when the door closes behind them . Realizing she needs Link 's help to find them , Tatl insists that they work together . Link follows the Skull Kid into the inside of the Clock Tower in the land of Termina . There , he meets the Happy Mask Salesman , who seemed to have been following him . The salesman offers to help Link heal his curse , in exchange for which he must retrieve both the Ocarina of Time and the Majora 's Mask from the Skull Kid . The Skull Kid , having stolen the Majora 's Mask from the salesman , became possessed by its overwhelming power and transformed into an uncontrollable fiend who inflicts certain misfortune on others , the worst of which is an impending apocalypse : the moon is now set to collide with the world in approximately three days time .
From a gate inside Clock Tower , Link and Tatl enter Clock Town while its population prepares for the town 's annual Carnival of Time also scheduled to take place in three days . Together they learn that the Skull Kid is waiting at the top of the tower , which is only accessible during the eve of the carnival . After conditions are met , Link and Tatl arrive at the top of the Clock Tower to witness Tael hurriedly speak a riddle to them : " Swamp . Mountain . Ocean . Canyon ... hurry , the four who are there ... bring them here ! " Link is unable to fight the Skull Kid , nor does he have any means to take the mask from him , but manages to get the Ocarina of Time back from his hands . After playing the " Song of Time " on the ocarina , Link and Tatl are brought backwards through time three days earlier — with the ocarina still in his possession and with both him and Tatl having complete memory of all that happened . Meeting with the Happy Mask Salesman again , he sees Link has retrieved his ocarina , and hence teaches him the " Song of Healing " , which breaks the curse , returns Link to his human form and seals his Deku Scrub form into a mask which has the power to turn him back into a Deku Scrub if needed . After he finds out Link did not bring back the mask , he panics and explains that the mask conceals an evil , apocalyptic power that was once used by an ancient tribe in hexing rituals . The troubles caused by the mask were so great , that the ancient ones " sealed the mask in shadow forever " to prevent it from being misused . Link must then travel between the four cardinal regions of Termina : Woodfall , Snowhead , the Great Bay , and Ikana Canyon , for each region conceals one of the Four Giants who will be able , once reunited , to halt the moon 's crashing . At the same time , each region has been struck with a terrible curse by the Skull Kid which plagues its inhabitants and seals away its giant . To lift the curse and free the giants , Link must enter a dungeon in each region and defeat its boss . After doing so , he obtains the power to summon the giant he has set free .
With all four curses lifted , Link climbs on top of the Clock Tower at midnight on the third day to confront the Skull Kid again . There and then , he summons the Four Giants , who halt the moon 's descent toward Termina by holding it up with their arms . Now seeing the Skull Kid as a useless puppet , Majora 's Mask drops his grip on him and flies up to possess the moon instead . With Tatl at his side , Link follows the Majora 's Mask inside the moon and defeats him once and for all , returning the moon to its proper place in the sky . The Four Giants return to their sleep . Tatl and Tael reunite with the newly liberated Skull Kid . The Happy Mask Salesman takes Majora 's Mask , stating it has been purified of its evil power . Link rides away on Epona while the people of Termina celebrate the Carnival of Time and the dawn of a new day .
The game ends with a post @-@ credits scene depicting Link and Epona back in the mysterious forest , resuming Link 's search for his friend , as they ride off towards a mysterious light breaking through the thick forest . A drawing on a tree stump of Link , Tatl , Tael , the Skull Kid , and the Four Giants is shown after .
= = Development = =
Following the release of Link 's Awakening in 1993 , fans waited five years for Ocarina of Time , the active development of which took four years . By re @-@ using the game engine and graphics from Ocarina of Time , a smaller team required only one year to finish Majora 's Mask . According to director Eiji Aonuma , they were " faced with the very difficult question of just what kind of game could follow Ocarina of Time and its worldwide sales of seven million units " , and as a solution , came up with the three @-@ day system to " make the game data more compact while still providing deep gameplay " . Shigeru Miyamoto and Yoshiaki Koizumi came up with the story that served as the basis for the script written by Mitsuhiro Takano . The idea of the " Three @-@ Day System " came from Miyamoto and Koizumi .
Majora 's Mask first appeared in the media in May 1999 , when Famitsu stated that a long @-@ planned Zelda expansion for the 64DD was underway in Japan . This project was tentatively titled " Ura Zelda " ( " ura " translates roughly to " hidden " or " behind " ) . This expansion would take Ocarina of Time and alter the level designs , similar to how the " master quest " expanded upon the original Legend of Zelda . In June , Nintendo announced that " Zelda : Gaiden " , which roughly translates to " Zelda : Side Story " , would appear as a playable demo at the Nintendo Space World exhibition on August 27 , 1999 . The media assumed that Zelda : Gaiden was the new working title for Ura Zelda .
Screenshots of Zelda : Gaiden released in August 1999 show unmistakable elements of the final version of Majora 's Mask , such as the large clock that dominates the center of Clock Town , the timer at the bottom of the screen , and the Goron Mask . Story and gameplay details revealed later that month show that the story concept as well as the use of transformation masks were already in place .
That same month , Miyamoto confirmed that Ura Zelda and Zelda : Gaiden were separate projects . It was unclear if Zelda : Gaiden was an offshoot of Ura Zelda or if the two were always separate . Ura Zelda might have become Ocarina of Time Master Quest outside Japan , and was released on a bonus disc for the GameCube given to those who pre @-@ ordered The Wind Waker in the US and bundled with the GameCube game in Europe .
In November , Nintendo announced a " Holiday 2000 " release date for Zelda : Gaiden . By March 2000 , what ultimately became the final titles were announced : Zelda no Densetsu Mujura no Kamen in Japan and The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask elsewhere .
= = = Technical differences from Ocarina of Time = = =
The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask runs on an upgraded version of the engine used in Ocarina of Time and requires the use of the 4 MB Expansion Pak . IGN theorizes this requirement is due to Majora 's Mask 's possible origin as a Nintendo 64DD game , which would necessitate an extra 4 MB of RAM . The use of the Expansion Pak allows for greater draw distances , more accurate dynamic lighting , more detailed texture mapping and animation , complex framebuffer effects such as motion blur , and more characters displayed on @-@ screen . This expanded draw distance allows the player to see much farther and eliminates the need for the fog effect and " cardboard panorama " seen in Ocarina of Time , which were used to obscure distant areas . IGN considered the texture design to be one of the best created for the Nintendo 64 , saying that although some textures have a low resolution , they are " colorful and diverse " , which gives each area " its own unique look " . Lastly , building interiors are rendered in real @-@ time , unlike the fixed 3D display featured in Ocarina of Time .
= = = Music = = =
The music was composed by Koji Kondo and Toru Minegishi , and largely consists of reworked music from Ocarina of Time , complemented with other traditional Zelda music such as the " Overworld Theme " and new material . Kondo describes the music as having " an exotic Chinese @-@ opera sound " . As the three @-@ day cycle progresses , the theme song of Clock Town changes between three variations , one for each day . IGN relates the shift in music to a shift in the game 's atmosphere , saying that the quickened tempo of the Clock Town music on the second day conveys a sense of time passing quickly . The soundtrack was released on June 23 , 2000 , featuring 112 tracks from the game over two compact discs . All music was composed by Kondo except three battles tracks , which were written by Minegishi .
= = = Nintendo 3DS version = = =
After the release of The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time 3D , a remake of Ocarina of Time for the Nintendo 3DS , director Eiji Aonuma suggested that a Majora 's Mask remake was " not an impossibility " , depending on interest and demand . Following this news , a fan campaign called " Operation Moonfall " was launched to promote the remake of Majora 's Mask on the 3DS . The campaign name is a reference to a similar fan @-@ based movement , Operation Rainfall , set up to persuade Nintendo of America to release a trio of role @-@ playing video games for the Wii . The petition reached 10 @,@ 000 signatures within five days . In response to the feedback , Nintendo of America released a statement : " At the risk of dampening the excitement you feel , I must be clear that no official announcements have been made regarding a remake of The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask for the Nintendo 3DS . However , we like hearing what our consumers find important . " In an interview with GamesRadar in November 2011 , Zelda producer Eiji Aonuma acknowledged Operation Moonfall and told fans that he hopes to respond to their request sometime in the future . At E3 2012 , Miyamoto stated that a 3D remake was still under consideration . Once again , shortly after E3 2013 , Miyamoto commented that the fans supporting a Majora 's Mask 3D remake were " still in his memory " .
On November 5 , 2014 , Nintendo announced in its Nintendo Direct presentation that The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask 3D would be released for the Nintendo 3DS in the Northern Hemisphere in spring 2015 . Like Ocarina of Time 3D , the remake features improved character models and stereoscopic 3D graphics , along with altered boss battles and an additional fishing minigame . A special edition featuring a pin badge , double @-@ sided poster , and steelbook , will be released in Europe .
= = Reception = =
Approximately 314 @,@ 000 copies of The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask were sold during its first week on sale in Japan , ultimately with 3 @.@ 36 million copies sold worldwide .
Like its predecessor , the game garnered universal acclaim . Game Informer called the three @-@ day cycle " one of the most inventive premises in all of gaming , " and also stated that " [ w ] ithout question , Majora 's Mask is the finest adventure the Nintendo 64 has to offer . " It is often regarded as the darkest and most original game in The Legend of Zelda series . Edge magazine referred to Majora 's Mask as " the oddest , darkest and saddest of all Zelda games . " Opinions were favorable regarding how the game compares with predecessor Ocarina of Time , often cited as one of greatest video games of all time . N64 Magazine ended their review by saying , " it was told that Majora 's Mask should cower in the shadow of Ocarina of Time . Instead , it shines just as brightly , " awarding the game 96 % . GameSpot said the game was much more difficult than its predecessor . IGN described Majora 's Mask as " The Empire Strikes Back of Nintendo 64 ... it 's the same franchise , but it 's more intelligent , darker , and tells a much better storyline . " GamePro characterized the story as " surreal and spooky , deep , and intriguing " and the game as " living proof that the N64 still has its magic . " It has been ranked the seventh @-@ greatest game by Electronic Gaming Monthly , whereas Ocarina of Time was ranked eighth . Majora 's Mask placed 68th on Game Informer 's " Top 100 Games of All Time " in 2001 and 63rd on their " Top 200 Games of All Time " in 2009 . Nintendo Power rated it the fifteenth @-@ best game on a Nintendo console . The game placed 45th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time . GameFAQs users ranked Majora 's Mask 47th in a list of 100 best games of all @-@ time in 2005 .
A common criticism of Majora 's Mask is that it is not as accessible as Ocarina of Time . GameSpot , which awarded Ocarina of Time a 10 / 10 , gave Majora 's Mask an 8 @.@ 3 / 10 , writing that some might " find the focus on minigames and side quests tedious and slightly out of place . " Game Revolution wrote that it " takes a little longer to get into this Zelda " , but also that " there are moments when the game really hits you with all its intricacies and mysteries , and that makes it all worthwhile . "
On December 24 , 2010 , Majora 's Mask was voted as the Game of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) by GameFAQs , beating out Super Smash Bros. Brawl , which had beaten The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess two rounds prior .
On May 19 , 2011 , in a tournament style competition hosted by IGN , Majora 's Mask was voted the second best Zelda game of all time , behind only Ocarina of Time . It beat Four Swords Adventures in Round 1 , A Link to the Past in Round 2 , and Twilight Princess in Round 3 before losing to Ocarina of Time in the final round .
= = Legacy = =
In 2003 , Nintendo rereleased Majora 's Mask on the GameCube as part of The Legend of Zelda : Collector 's Edition , a special promotional disc which also contained three other The Legend of Zelda games and a twenty @-@ minute demo of The Legend of Zelda : The Wind Waker . This disc came bundled with a GameCube console , as part of a subscription offer to Nintendo Power magazine , or through Nintendo 's official website . The offer expired in early 2004 .
Similar to other GameCube rereleases , the games are emulations of the originals by the GameCube hardware . The only differences are minor adjustments to button icons to conform to the GameCube 's controller . Majora 's Mask also boots with a disclaimer that some of the original sounds from the game may cause problems due to their emulation . Aside from these deliberate changes , GameSpot 's Ricardo Torres found that the frame rate " appears choppier " and notes inconstant audio . The GameCube version also features a slightly higher native resolution than its Nintendo 64 counterpart , as well as progressive scan .
Majora 's Mask was released on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Europe and Australia on April 3 , 2009 , and Japan on April 7 , 2009 . It was later released in North America on May 18 , 2009 , and commemorated as the 300th Virtual Console game available for purchase in the region . During January 2012 , Club Nintendo members could download Majora 's Mask onto the Wii Console for 150 coins . A similar deal was offered at the end of Club Nintendo .
The 2001 GameCube game Super Smash Bros. Melee features a Majora 's Mask @-@ themed stage , titled " Termina : Great Bay " .
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= Imperial War Museum Duxford =
Imperial War Museum Duxford is a branch of the Imperial War Museum near Duxford in Cambridgeshire , England . Britain 's largest aviation museum , Duxford houses the museum 's large exhibits , including nearly 200 aircraft , military vehicles , artillery and minor naval vessels in seven main exhibition buildings . The site also provides storage space for the museum 's other collections of material such as film , photographs , documents , books and artifacts . The site accommodates several British Army regimental museums , including those of the Parachute Regiment ( named Airborne Assault ) and the Royal Anglian Regiment .
Based on the historic Duxford Aerodrome , the site was originally operated by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) during the First World War . During the Second World War Duxford played a prominent role during the Battle of Britain and was later used by United States Army Air Forces fighter units in support of the daylight bombing of Germany . Duxford remained an active RAF airfield until 1961 . After the Ministry of Defence declared the site surplus to requirements in 1969 the Imperial War Museum received permission to use part of the site for storage . The entirety of the site was transferred to the museum in February 1976 .
In keeping with the site 's history many of Duxford 's original buildings , such as hangars used during the Battle of Britain , are still in use . Many of these buildings are of particular architectural or historic significance and over thirty have listed building status , Duxford " retain [ ing ] the best @-@ preserved technical fabric remaining from [ a historic airfield ] up to November 1918 " and being " remarkably well @-@ preserved " . The site also features several purpose @-@ built exhibition buildings , such as the Stirling Prize @-@ winning American Air Museum , designed by Sir Norman Foster . The site remains an active airfield and is used by civilian flying companies , and hosts regular air shows . The site is operated in partnership with Cambridgeshire County Council and the Duxford Aviation Society , a charity formed in 1975 to preserve civil aircraft and promote appreciation of British civil aviation history .
= = Museum history = =
The Imperial War Museum originated during the First World War in 1917 as the National War Museum committee , formed by the British government to record the war effort and sacrifice of Britain and her Empire . The museum opened in 1920 , by which point it had been renamed the Imperial War Museum . With the outbreak of the Second World War , the museum 's terms of reference were enlarged to include the conflict . The museum 's terms of reference was broadened again in 1953 to include all modern conflicts in which British or Commonwealth forces were engaged . The effect of these expansions of remit was to cause the museum 's collections to expand enormously , to the point that many parts of the collection , especially those of aircraft , vehicles and artillery , could not be effectively stored or exhibited . Although the museum 's south London home ( a nineteenth @-@ century building in Southwark which was previously the Bethlem Royal Hospital ) had been extended in 1966 , by the end of the decade the museum was seeking additional space .
RAF Duxford , a Royal Air Force fighter station had been declared surplus to requirements by the Ministry of Defence in 1969 , and the museum duly requested permission to use part of one of the airfield 's hangars as temporary storage . Duxford featured three double bay hangars of First World War vintage , which together provided over 9000 m2 of space . Within two years , ten of the museum 's aircraft had been brought to Duxford , and were being restored by volunteers of the East Anglia Aviation Society . While the museum 's own aircraft were not restored to flying condition , by cooperating with private groups the museum was able to mount its first airshow in 1973 . Further air shows followed , with a display in June 1976 attracting an audience of 45 @,@ 000 people . The runway was bought by Cambridgeshire County Council in 1977 . The success of these shows provided a valuable source of revenue , and complemented the efforts of volunteers , so that the museum applied for the permanent transfer of the entire site to its use . Permission was received in February 1976 and Duxford became the first outstation of the Imperial War Museum . Initially open from March – October , Duxford received 167 @,@ 000 visitors in the 1977 season , and 340 @,@ 000 in 1978 . Two million visitors had been received by 1982 and Duxford welcomed its ten millionth visitor in August 2005 .
= = = Duxford aerodrome = = =
Duxford has been associated with British military aviation since 1917 , when a site near the village of Duxford , in southern Cambridgeshire , was selected for a new Royal Flying Corps training aerodrome . From 1925 Duxford became a fighter airfield , a role it was to retain until the end of its operational life , and in August 1938 the Duxford @-@ based No.19 Squadron RAF became the first to operate the Supermarine Spitfire .
With the outbreak of war in September 1939 Duxford was home to three RAF squadrons engaged on coastal patrol duties . From July 1940 , Duxford saw considerable action during the Battle of Britain as a sector station of RAF Fighter Command 's No. 12 Group . In the middle years of the war Duxford was home to specialist units , such as the tacticians and engineers of the Air Fighting Development Unit . In April 1942 the first Typhoon Wing was formed at Duxford . Notable among the pilots of the Wing was Group Captain John Grandy who would later rise to be Chief of the Air Staff and also served as Chairman of the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum from 1978 to 1989 .
In March 1943 the United States Army Air Forces ' 78th Fighter Group started to arrive at Duxford with their Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts . The Group reequipped with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs in December 1944 and until the end of the war in Europe the Group remained at Duxford carrying out bomber escort and fighter sweeps , ground strafing and ground attack missions .
Duxford was officially returned to the RAF on 1 December 1945 . It remained a fighter station but by 1958 changing defence priorities saw the RAF 's fighter force move to more northerly bases . Duxford 's last operational flight was made in July 1961 . No longer operational , the site gradually became increasingly derelict and overgrown . In 1968 the American film studio United Artists obtained permission to use the site for the filming of Battle of Britain . During the shoot a single bay hangar , which had been built during the First World War , was demolished to simulate an air raid . After the Ministry of Defence announced its intention to dispose of Duxford plans were drawn up for various developments including two Young Offenders Institutes but were not implemented .
= = Duxford Aviation Society = =
Duxford is operated in partnership between the Imperial War Museum , Cambridgeshire County Council and the Duxford Aviation Society . The Society is a registered charity ( No. 285809 ) and states two objectives ; to educate the public by collecting and exhibiting historic aircraft , military vehicles and boats , and to support the Imperial War Museum .
The Society was formed in 1975 from a divergence of members of the East Anglian Aviation Society , which now operates the Bassingbourn Tower Museum at the former RAF Bassingbourn .
Duxford Aviation Society preserves and maintains the Civil Aviation Collection . Especially notable aircraft in the collection include a de Havilland Comet which made the first eastbound jet @-@ powered trans @-@ Atlantic passenger flight on 4 October 1958 , and Concorde G @-@ AXDN 101 , a pre @-@ production aircraft which achieved the highest speed of any Concorde , making a westwards trans @-@ Atlantic flight in two hours , 56 minutes .
In support of the Museum 's goals , the DAS Military Vehicle Wing provides one of the world 's leading teams of military vehicle restoration engineers The Wing ( or its volunteers ) own some of the vehicles located at Duxford , and provide restoration services for vehicles within the museum 's collection . The team also operate vehicles for demonstrations during the year . The wing 's works have been featured in the Discovery Channel 's Tank Overhaul programme , James May 's 20th Century , and wide variety of magazines and other media .
Other elements of the society provide or support a range of functions at the Duxford site , including canteen , aircraft conservation , learning and interpretative activities and administrative tasks . An affiliated group , the Duxford Radio Society , collects , preserves , exhibits , and demonstrates historic military electronic equipment . This is housed in Buildings 177 and 178 , close to the Gibraltar Gun .
Since January 1999 , the Society have operated the Friends of Duxford membership scheme with the Museum .
As of 2008 , the Duxford Aviation Society had almost 700 volunteer members .
= = Air shows and flying = =
Duxford remains an active airfield ( IATA : QFO , ICAO : EGSU ) and maintains two parallel runways ; an unpaved 880 m grass strip , and a concrete runway with a usable length of 1199 m , both oriented at 060 / 240 @-@ degrees . The runway was originally purchased from the Ministry of Defence by the Cambridgeshire County Council in 1977 . In October 2008 , an agreement was reached between the council and the Imperial War Museum , under which the runways and 146 acres ( 0 @.@ 59 km2 ; 0 @.@ 228 sq mi ) of surrounding grassland would be sold to the museum for approximately £ 1 @.@ 6 million .
Since 1973 , Duxford has held regular air shows . Duxford is the home of several private aviation companies , such as Classic Wings , The Fighter Collection , the Old Flying Machine Company and The Aircraft Restoration Company . Between them these companies provide pleasure flights , historic aircraft for film or television work , and aircraft restoration services . Perhaps the most notable privately owned and operated aircraft based at Duxford is B @-@ 17 Preservation Ltd 's Sally B , the only airworthy B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress in Europe .
Major air shows held regularly include the Duxford Air Show , the Flying Legends show ( organised by The Fighter Collection ) , and American Air Day , which is held in conjunction with units of the Third Air Force ( part of the United States Air Forces in Europe ) , based at nearby RAF Lakenheath and RAF Mildenhall . The Duxford Air Show usually exhibits a wide range of aircraft , from vintage warbirds to contemporary jet aircraft , along with aerobatic flying by groups such as the Red Arrows. while the Flying Legends show focuses on historic aircraft , especially those of the Second World War . In 2008 it was reported that these displays generate up to £ 1 @.@ 8 million , while the loss of up to £ 100 @,@ 000 due to adverse weather is also budgeted for . The policing bill , necessary to manage the resulting road traffic , was reported as some £ 8 @,@ 000 . Recent major events have included the Battle of Britain 70th Anniversary airshow , held on 4 – 5 September 2010 . The show was attended by more than 40 @,@ 000 people , and featured formation displays by four Hawker Hurricanes and sixteen Spitfires .
As an active civil airfield , operations at Duxford are regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) . In 2002 a privately operated Aero L @-@ 39 Albatros suffered a braking failure on landing , overran the runway and came to rest on the M11 motorway , a student pilot being killed after ejecting at ground level . An Air Accidents Investigation Branch inquiry recommended a review of arrangements for aircraft taking off or landing towards the M11 . As a result , the CAA and Duxford agreed to a reduction in the runway 's 1500 m declared length , from 1350 m to 1200 m , in order to provide a greater margin of error .
As a licensed airfield Duxford has its own Fire Service ( currently five vehicles , and 16 fire fighters / officers ) which operates as part of the Airfield & Security department , the fire service was originally operated by voluntary crews who were part of Duxford Aviation Society , with the training officers coming from Stansted and other local airports , for the last few years it has been a mixed voluntary / full @-@ time operation .
= = Site layout = =
When originally planned in 1917 , Duxford aerodrome was to occupy a 238 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 96 km2 ; 0 @.@ 372 sq mi ) site divided by what is now the A505 road which runs north @-@ east from Royston to Newmarket . The area north of the road would be occupied by accommodation and administrative buildings with the airfield , hangars and technical buildings on the south side . Still divided by the A505 , the museum 's site is now bounded to the east by the M11 motorway , which meets the A505 adjacent to the museum site at Junction 10 . The construction of the M11 in 1977 forced the shortening of the runway by 300 m . In its role as a museum , the north side of the site is occupied by the Imperial War Museum 's stored collections and is not generally open to the public , while the south side is occupied by various hangars and other historic buildings , purpose @-@ built structures , and by two runways .
The south side visitor entrance , which now houses a shop and visitor facilities , was previously the airfield 's armoury . The various buildings are arranged roughly parallel to the A505 ; AirSpace is furthest east , with Hangars 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 running westwards , followed by the American Air Museum and the Land Warfare Hall . The museum site is approximately 1800 m from one end to the other , and a visitor bus operates during opening hours .
Some aircraft and other exhibits are displayed externally , such as a Comet tank and replica Hawker Hurricane as gate guardians at the main entrance . Several commercial airliners belonging to the Duxford Aviation Society stand on the runway apron opposite the hangars . A Bloodhound surface @-@ to @-@ air missile stands on the site of the demolished hangar . A United States Air Force F @-@ 15 Eagle stands near the American Air Museum . A Royal Engineers ' Centurion AVRE stands outside the Land Warfare Hall and the Gibraltar Gun , a 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch artillery piece previously emplaced on the Rock of Gibraltar is nearby .
As a historic site , many of Duxford 's buildings are of particular architectural or historic significance . In 2005 , following a review of sites relating to British aviation history by English Heritage , some 255 buildings at 31 sites received listed building status . Duxford contains over thirty of these buildings , the largest number at any one site . Listed buildings include three hangars dating back to the First World War and the operations block , which received Grade II * status . This block , open to the public , houses the wartime operations room from which Duxford 's aircraft were directed . Another historic building , the 1918 Watch Office , will be converted to accommodate a new exhibition entitled Historic Duxford . The exhibition , to open in late 2012 , will depict the history of the site and the experiences of Duxford 's personnel .
= = AirSpace = =
In 2000 , Duxford announced plans for the redevelopment of Hangar 1 , previously known as the ' Superhangar ' , which was built in the 1980s . The plans would expand the building by 40 % , providing more display and conservation space , improve internal conditions , and enable the museum 's British and Commonwealth aircraft collection to be brought under cover . Planning permission was received later that year . The project cost £ 25 million and was supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund , the East of England Development Agency and BAE Systems , which contributed £ 6 million . The building , which provides 12 @,@ 000 m2 of floor space , consists of an aircraft conservation area , a large exhibition hall , and a mezzanine providing views of the aircraft and interactive educational installations exploring aeronautical engineering and the principles of flight .
AirSpace officially opened to the public on 12 July 2008 . Over 30 aircraft are on display , dating back to the First World War ; early aircraft include rare examples of an Airco DH.9 and a Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8. The former is one of only six surviving DH9s and the only example on display in the UK , and the latter is the only complete and original R.E.8 in existence . More recent notable aircraft include a Hawker Siddeley Harrier which served during the Falklands War with No. 1 Squadron RAF , and a Panavia Tornado , which flew the highest number of bomber sorties of any Tornado in the 1991 Gulf War . Also on display is a British Aircraft Corporation TSR @-@ 2 strike aircraft , one of only two survivors from the cancellation of the project in 1965 . Recent additions include Eurofighter Typhoon DA4 , one of seven Typhoon development aircraft , which was donated to the museum by the Ministry of Defence in 2008 and went on display in June 2009 . Civil aircraft include the Duxford Aviation Society 's Concorde and Comet described above .
= = = Airborne Assault = = =
AirSpace also houses Airborne Assault , the museum of the British Army 's Parachute Regiment and airborne forces . Previously located at Browning Barracks near Aldershot , the museum opened at Duxford on 8 December 2008 . The opening ceremony was led by Prince Charles , the Parachute Regiment 's Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief . The museum chronicles the history of British airborne forces from the Second World War to current operations in Afghanistan and cost £ 3 million .
= = Hangar 2 : Flying Aircraft = =
Hangar 2 is a double Type T2 hangar , erected in the 1970s . It occupies the site of a T2 hangar erected in the 1950s . It accommodates the flyable aircraft of Duxford 's private aviation companies , such as The Fighter Collection , and allows visitors to see aircraft undergoing maintenance or restoration .
= = Hangar 3 : Air and Sea = =
Hangar 3 , an original Belfast truss hangar , houses Duxford 's maritime exhibition . The collection includes notable vessels and naval aircraft . Boats on display include Coastal Motor Boat 4 , built by Thornycroft in 1916 . She saw action during the Baltic campaign of 1918 – 19 , and her commander Lieutenant Augustus Agar won the Victoria Cross for sinking the Russian cruiser Oleg on 17 June 1919 . Other vessels include the Vosper motor torpedo boat MTB @-@ 71 , acquired from the British Military Powerboat Trust in 2005 , an example of an X @-@ Craft midget submarine , and a wartime Royal National Lifeboat Institution boat , the Jesse Lumb which was stationed at Bembridge on the Isle of Wight . A variety of naval aircraft are on display , including a de Havilland Sea Vixen , Sea Venom , and Sea Vampire , and a Westland Wasp helicopter which was embarked on the frigate HMS Apollo during the Falklands War .
= = Hangar 4 : Battle of Britain Exhibition = =
Hangar 4 is one of Duxford 's historic hangars , and now houses an exhibition exploring Duxford 's history as an operational RAF airfield from the First World War to the Cold War . The early period is represented by a Bristol Fighter , a type operated by Duxford 's No.2 Flying Training School from 1920 . The latter period is represented by a Hawker Hunter which flew at Duxford with No. 65 Squadron RAF , a Gloster Javelin , the type which made the last operational flight at Duxford in 1961 , and by a Hungarian Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21 , a common Warsaw Pact jet fighter . Britain 's air defence during the Second World War is particularly emphasised , with exhibits representing the Battle of Britain , the Blitz and the V @-@ 1 flying bomb offensive from 1944 . Notable aircraft include a Messerschmitt Bf @-@ 109E which was flown during the Battle of Britain until forced down in Sussex due to engine failure . It is displayed as part of a tableau showing the crashed aircraft under guard . One unusual aircraft on display is the Cierva C.30A autogyro , which was used by 74 ( Signals ) Wing , based at Duxford , to test the calibration of coastal radar units .
= = Hangar 5 : Conservation in Action = =
Hangar 5 , the westernmost original hangar , houses Duxford 's aircraft conservation workshops . Open to the public , the hangar allows visitors to see museum staff and volunteers at work on a variety of conservation tasks . Notable projects include a Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter acquired from an American owner in ' jungle recovery ' condition , and a Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 now on display in AirSpace . Duxford is a partner with the British Aviation Preservation Council in the National Aviation Heritage Skills Initiative , which has been funded since 2005 by the Heritage Lottery Fund and aims to provide training to volunteers supporting aviation heritage projects .
= = American Air Museum = =
From the late 1970s the museum acquired several important American aircraft ; a B @-@ 17G Flying Fortress in 1978 , a B @-@ 29 Superfortress in 1980 , and a B @-@ 52 Stratofortress in 1983 . With Duxford 's association with the US Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , in the mid @-@ 1980s plans developed for a commemoration of the role of American air power in the Second World War . A group of American supporters was formed , and the architect Sir Norman Foster was commissioned to design a new building . Fundraising for the project began in 1987 , support and funds being sought in the United States ; the Founding Member was General Jimmy Doolittle in 1989 . Fundraising events were held across the US in Houston ( 1989 ) , Washington , D.C. , ( 1991 ) and Los Angeles ( 1992 ) . The project was widely supported in the United States by some 50 @,@ 000 individual subscribers . A further $ 1million of funding was secured from Saudi Arabia , and £ 6.5million from the Heritage Lottery Fund . On 8 September 1995 the groundbreaking for the new building was performed by wartime 78th Fighter Group veteran , Major James E Stokes .
= = = Architecture and construction = = =
The American Air Museum was designed by Sir Norman Foster and Chris Wise at Arup . The museum 's specification called for a landmark building that would provide a neutral backdrop for the aircraft collection and provide appropriate climatic controls while being cost efficient to operate . The building is shaped as a section of a torus , formed from a curved concrete roof 90 m ( 300 ft ) wide , 18 @.@ 5 m ( 61 ft ) high and 100 m ( 330 ft ) deep . The dimensions of the building were dictated by the need to accommodate the museum 's B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bomber with its 61 m ( 200 ft ) wingspan and a tail 16 m ( 52 ft ) high . The roof was constructed as a double @-@ layered concrete shell , built in 924 precast reinforced concrete sections . Inverted T @-@ shaped sections provided the inner layer with further flat panels forming the outer layer .
The roof weighs 6000 tonnes and is able to support suspended aircraft weighing up to 10 tonnes . A glass wall , demountable to permit aircraft to be rearranged , allows in daylight , thereby reducing lighting costs and enabling the aircraft to be seen from the outside of the building . It also allows visitors inside the museum to watch aircraft landing or taking off . From a visitor 's perspective , the pedestrian entrance leads to a mezzanine floor level with the cockpit of the museum 's B @-@ 52 , while the lack of supporting columns allows aircraft to hang from the ceiling . Heavier aircraft stand on the floor of the building , which covers 6 @,@ 500 m2 ( 70 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Construction began with the building of abutments in October 1995 and the roof was completed in September 1996 . The building won the 1998 Stirling Prize for Foster and Partners and was described by the judges as " a great big , clear span hangar of a building ... dramatic , awe @-@ inspiring , an object of beauty ... simple yet replete with imagery . "
= = = Opening and re @-@ dedication = = =
The American Air Museum was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 1 August 1997 . The total cost of the project had been £ 13 @.@ 5 million . The museum was re @-@ dedicated on 27 September 2002 , in a ceremony attended by former President George H. W. Bush and by Prince Charles . Since being opened , the museum has had its glass front removed , and then reinstalled , to allow the bringing @-@ in of an SR @-@ 71 Blackbird and Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator . The SR @-@ 71 , serial number 61 @-@ 7962 , is the only example of its type on display outside the United States , and set a flight altitude record of 85 @,@ 069 feet ( 25,929m ) in July 1976 . Besides the Blackbird , nineteen other American aircraft are on display . Notable examples include a C @-@ 47 Skytrain which flew with the 316th Troop Carrier Group and participated in three major Second World War airborne operations ; the June 1944 Normandy landings , Operation Market Garden and Operation Varsity , the airborne crossing of the River Rhine in March 1945 . The museum 's B @-@ 29 flew during the Korean War as part of the 7th Bomb Wing ; it is the only example in Europe and one of only two preserved in museums outside the United States . The B @-@ 52 flew 200 sorties during the Vietnam War as part of the 28th Bomb Wing . The General Dynamics F @-@ 111 on display flew 19 missions during the 1991 Gulf War as part of the 77th Fighter Squadron .
On 17 January 2014 the museum announced an award of £ 980 @,@ 000 from the Heritage Lottery Fund . The museum planned to use the money to build a website based on the photographic collection of aviation historian Roger Freeman , to update the museum 's interpretation , and to conserve aircraft and other exhibits . The museum launched americanairmuseum.com in October 2014 . The website seeks to crowdsource photographs and information from the public about the men and women of the US Army Air Forces who served from the UK in the Second World War , and the British people who befriended them .
= = Land Warfare Hall = =
The Land Warfare Hall was opened on 28 September 1992 by Field Marshal Lord Bramall . The building provides accommodation for the Imperial War Museum 's collection of armoured vehicles , artillery and military vehicles . Also included are vehicles belonging to the Duxford Aviation Society Military Vehicle Section . The hall comprises a viewing balcony that runs for most of the length of the hall , providing views over a range of tableaux of vehicles , tanks and artillery that run chronologically from the First World War to the present day . Notable among the First World War exhibits is a battle @-@ damaged artillery limber used by L Battery Royal Horse Artillery during an action at Néry in September 1914 where three Victoria Crosses were won . The Second World War in particular is illustrated with tableaux of the North African Campaign , the Eastern Front and the invasion of Normandy . Outside the building is a Whale floating roadway bridge span from Mulberry B harbour at Arromanches .
Significant vehicles in the collection include three command vehicles used by Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery , commander of 21st Army Group during the north @-@ west Europe campaign . Also on display are extracts from Montgomery 's personal papers , which are held by the Imperial War Museum 's Department of Documents . Other tableaux depict scenes from post @-@ 1945 conflicts such as the Korean War , the Northern Ireland Troubles , the Falklands War , British peacekeeping contributions in Bosnia and the Gulf War . As many of the vehicles in the Land Warfare Hall are maintained in running condition , the site features garages and a running area behind the building .
= = = Forgotten War = = =
The Land Warfare Hall also houses the Forgotten War exhibition , which opened on 25 March 1999 and was a joint project between the Imperial War Museum and the Burma Star Association . The Association represents veterans of the Burma campaign who often consider themselves to have fought in a " Forgotten Army " compared to those who fought in Europe . The exhibition explores aspects of the Second World War in the Far East and features artefacts , archival film and photographs , and tableaux depicting scenes such as troops moving through jungle and a Burmese village . The exhibition was supported financially by the Burma Star Association and by £ 126 @,@ 000 from the National Heritage Memorial Fund .
= = = Royal Anglian Regiment Museum and Memorial = = =
The Land Warfare Hall also accommodates the Royal Anglian Regiment Museum . The Royal Anglian Regiment was formed in 1964 by the amalgamation of the three regiments of the East Anglian Brigade and the Royal Leicestershire Regiment . The museum was opened in June 1996 by noted war correspondent Martin Bell , who had previously served as a sergeant in the Suffolk Regiment while a national serviceman . The museum covers the history of the Regiment and its predecessors , which date back to the seventeenth century , up to recent operations in Iraq , Afghanistan and Sierra Leone . Alongside the museum is the Cambridgeshire Regiment Exhibition , which displays items from the Cambridgeshire Regiment collection . Exhibits include the Singapore Drums , lost at the fall of Singapore in 1942 and recovered after the war .
On 12 September 2010 a Royal Anglian Regiment memorial was dedicated at Duxford . A fundraising campaign , which raised more than £ 340 @,@ 000 , was launched following the deaths in action of nine soldiers of 1st Battalion Royal Anglian Regiment during the unit 's 2007 operational tour in Helmand Province , Afghanistan . The memorial is inscribed with the names of 78 soldiers killed since 1958 ( when the first of the three East Anglian regiments was formed ) in conflicts including Afghanistan , Iraq , Northern Ireland and Aden . The dedication was attended by more than 5000 people .
= = North side : collections storage = =
In addition to the exhibition buildings , Duxford 's ' North Side ' , the area of the site north of the A505 road , provides storage for the Imperial War Museum 's collecting departments . The stored collections include the film collection , with potentially hazardous nitrate film kept in purpose @-@ built vaults at nearby Ickleton . Other collections stored at Duxford 's north side include books , maps , ephemera , photographs , documents and collections of uniforms and equipment .
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= No. 4 Service Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 4 Service Flying Training School ( No. 4 SFTS ) was a flying training school of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in February 1941 , and commenced flying the following month . Responsible for intermediate and advanced instruction of pilots under the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) , the school was based at Geraldton , Western Australia , and operated Avro Anson aircraft . Two reserve squadrons were formed in response to the outbreak of war in the Pacific , though they never saw action . Flying activity was reduced towards the end of 1943 , and the school was disbanded in May 1945 , having graduated over 1 @,@ 000 pilots . It re @-@ formed as No. 87 Operational Base Unit , which was renamed Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Geraldton in May 1946 . CMU Geraldton was disbanded in September 1947 .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the RAAF underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a dramatic increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided basic flying training to prospective pilots who , if successful , would go on to SFTS for further instruction that focussed on operational ( or " service " ) flying . The course at SFTS typically consisted of two streams , intermediate and advanced , and included such techniques as instrument flying , night flying , advanced aerobatics , formation flying , dive bombing , and aerial gunnery . The total duration of training varied during the war as demand for aircrew rose and fell . Initially running for sixteen weeks , the course was cut to ten weeks ( which included seventy @-@ five hours flying time ) in October 1940 . A year later it was raised to twelve weeks ( including 100 hours flying time ) , and again to sixteen weeks two months later . It continued to increase after this , peaking at twenty @-@ eight weeks in June 1944 .
No. 4 Service Flying Training School ( No. 4 SFTS ) was formed at Geraldton , Western Australia , on 10 February 1941 , and came under the control of Western Area Command . Its inaugural commanding officer was Wing Commander P.G. Heffernan . Geraldton 's civil airport already had extensive runways , taxiways , hangars and barracks , but more buildings were required to house the RAAF trainees and unit personnel . Facilities were still under construction when the first course of flying training commenced on 10 March . A further challenge the school faced related to equipment . All its Avro Anson aircraft were transferred from other units that , according to the RAAF Historical Section , " happily disposed of their oldest air frames " . Coupled with a shortage of the spare parts needed to keep such aircraft operational , the result was that flying hours remained low for some time .
No. 4 SFTS received students who had graduated from No. 9 Elementary Flying Training School at Cunderdin , Western Australia . Approximately sixty new entrants , of whom around fifty were expected to graduate , arrived at No. 4 SFTS every twenty @-@ eight days . Discipline was strict , the aim being to cut down on the accidents that were typical of service flying training establishments . In the event , the school did not suffer a fatal flying accident for over a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half after it commenced operations . In November 1941 , eight of its Ansons took part in the search for survivors from HMAS Sydney . By this time , No. 4 SFTS was operating just over a hundred aircraft , including two Fairey Battles and two de Havilland Fox Moths , the remainder being Ansons . Personnel totalled 1 @,@ 475 , including 197 students . Following the outbreak of the Pacific War in December , the school 's aircraft were classified as Second Line ( Reserve ) aircraft in the defence of Australia . Nos. 68 and 69 Reserve Squadrons were formed at Geraldton , but they were only used for maritime search @-@ and @-@ rescue , and saw no action before their disbandment in February 1943 . On 30 September 1942 , a No. 4 SFTS Anson operated by No. 68 Squadron crash @-@ landed in a marsh 140 miles ( 230 km ) north of Carnarvon ; one crewman was killed and two injured . From October 1942 to March 1944 , the school was commanded by World War I veteran and pioneer civil aviator Norman Brearley .
Two men were killed and three injured when one of No. 4 SFTS 's Ansons crashed after colliding with trees after takeoff at a satellite airfield on 21 July 1943 ; one of the injured died later without regaining consciousness . Four occupants of an Anson were killed on 1 November , when a wing disintegrated after the pilot apparently became disorientated in cloud and the plane went into a high @-@ speed dive . By the end of the year , flying at No. 4 SFTS had begun to taper off , and it was reduced still further in 1944 . Training at the school concluded in December that year , under a reorganisation of EATS establishments in Australia . No. 4 SFTS began disbanding in January 1945 , as part of a general reduction in RAAF flight instruction owing to a surplus of trained aircrew , and the task was complete by May . It had graduated over 1 @,@ 000 pilots — among them Dave Shannon , awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his part in the Dambuster raid by No. 617 Squadron RAF in May 1943 — and established , according to the RAAF Historical Section , " an enviable safety record " .
No. 87 Operational Base Unit ( No. 87 OBU ) was formed with No. 4 SFTS staff on 1 June 1945 to administer Geraldton 's facilities and maintain its aircraft following the flying school 's disbandment . On 20 May 1946 , No. 87 OBU was disbanded and re @-@ formed as Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Geraldton . CMU Geraldton was one of many such units that the RAAF raised for the storage and maintenance of surplus aircraft prior to their disposal after the war . It was disbanded on 5 September 1947 . Most of the buildings constructed for the RAAF during the war were auctioned and removed around the same time .
A commemorative sundial in the form of an Anson wing is located at Geraldton Airport .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 4 SFTS was commanded by the following officers :
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= Teemu Selänne =
Teemu Ilmari Selänne ( Finnish pronunciation : [ ˈteːmu ˈilmɑri ˈselænːe ] ) , nicknamed " The Finnish Flash " ( born July 3 , 1970 ) , is a Finnish former professional ice hockey winger . He began his professional career in 1989 – 90 with Jokerit of the SM @-@ liiga and played 21 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Winnipeg Jets , Anaheim Ducks , San Jose Sharks and Colorado Avalanche . Selänne is the highest scoring Finn in NHL history , and one of the highest overall ; he retired in 2014 11th all @-@ time with 684 goals and 15th with 1 @,@ 457 points . He holds numerous team scoring records for both the Winnipeg / Arizona franchise and the Anaheim Ducks . His jersey number 8 was retired by the Ducks in 2015 .
Selänne was a first round selection of the Jets , tenth overall , at the 1988 NHL Entry Draft , but initially remained in Finland . He led the SM @-@ liiga in scoring as part of Jokerit 's Kanada @-@ malja winning team in 1991 – 92 before moving to North America . He broke into the NHL by scoring 76 goals in 1992 – 93 . It remains the league record for most goals by a rookie and earned him the Calder Memorial Trophy as the top first @-@ year player in the NHL . He has scored 50 goals in a season three times and topped 100 points on four occasions . He played in 10 NHL All @-@ Star Games , was named to four post @-@ season All @-@ Star Teams and won the inaugural Maurice " Rocket " Richard Trophy in 1998 – 99 as the league 's leading goal scorer . He was named recipient of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy in 2005 – 06 for perseverance and dedication to the game and was a member of the Ducks ' 2007 Stanley Cup championship team .
Internationally , Selänne was a long @-@ time member of the Finnish National Team . He played in five World Championships , winning a silver and bronze medal , and in three Canada Cup / World Cup of Hockey tournaments . A six @-@ time Olympian , Selänne helped Finland win three bronze medals and , in 2006 , a silver medal . He is the all @-@ time leader in scoring at the Olympic ice hockey tournament with 43 points . A national star in his native country , Selänne is the subject of a top grossing biographical documentary in Finland .
= = Early life = =
Selänne was born on July 3 , 1970 , in Helsinki , Finland . He has a twin brother , Paavo and another brother , Panu . He was raised by his mother Liisa Viitanen and father Ilmari Selänne until they divorced in the late 1980s . The family lived for a time in Rauma before settling in Espoo around the time Teemu was 10 years old .
Selänne played three sports as a youth : hockey , bandy and association football . He played hockey and football with and against Paavo , though his brother ultimately gave up on both sports in favour of field hockey , where he was a member of numerous Finnish and European championship teams . Teemu was small as a youth , creating in him a competitive spirit and drive to improve his skills . Focusing on hockey , he eventually joined the junior squad of Jokerit in Helsinki .
As a young adult , Selänne attended business school for two years and served a mandatory one @-@ year stint with the Finnish Defence Forces . During his tenure with Jokerit , he also spent three years as a kindergarten teacher . His experiences visiting kids at Helsinki 's children 's hospital led to him co @-@ founding the Godfathers ' Foundation , an organization that raises money for ill children .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Jokerit = = =
Selänne played three years of junior hockey in Jokerit 's development program , culminating in 1987 – 88 with a 43 @-@ goal , 66 point season in 33 games and a Finnish Junior A championship . His performance prompted the National Hockey League ( NHL ) ' s Winnipeg Jets to select him with their first round pick , tenth overall , at the 1988 NHL Entry Draft . Selänne attended training camp with the Jets , but returned to Finland owing to his military service .
After graduating from junior hockey , Selänne joined Jokerit 's senior team in the 1 . Divisioona in 1988 – 89 and scored 69 points in 35 games . Jokerit moved up to the SM @-@ liiga in 1989 – 90 , and while Selänne missed the majority of the season due to a leg injury , he scored 12 points in 11 games played . Playing a full season in 1990 – 91 , Selänne scored 33 goals and 58 points in 42 games . He was named the recipient of the Raimo Kilpiö trophy as the league 's most gentlemanly player . Selänne 's best season in the SM @-@ liiga came in 1991 – 92 when he recorded 62 points in 44 games . With 39 goals , he won the Aarne Honkavaara trophy as top goal scorer . He added 17 points in ten playoff games , and scored the winning goal as Jokerit won the Kanada @-@ malja as SM @-@ liiga playoff champion .
= = = Winnipeg Jets = = =
The Jets ' organizational philosophy at the time was to allow their European draft picks to develop in their native countries , but by 1991 , the franchise was working to bring him to Winnipeg . As Selänne had not yet signed a contract when he chose to play in North America for the 1992 – 93 season , he was considered a restricted free agent . The Calgary Flames signed him to an offer sheet on a three @-@ year contract worth $ 2 @.@ 7 million , $ 1 @.@ 5 million higher than what the Jets had been offering . Though concerned about paying such a high salary , Winnipeg exercised its right to match the offer . Selänne made his NHL debut on October 6 , 1992 , and recorded two assists in a 4 – 1 Jets victory over the Detroit Red Wings . He scored his first career NHL goal two nights later against goaltender Jeff Hackett of the San Jose Sharks .
Selänne scored his first career hat @-@ trick in his fifth contest and had 11 goals in his first 12 NHL games . He finished the season with 16 multi @-@ goal games , including four hat @-@ tricks and a four @-@ goal game , en route to breaking the NHL record for goals by a rookie . He surpassed Mike Bossy 's record of 53 goals on March 2 , 1993 , against the Quebec Nordiques and on March 23 , scored his 110th point , against the Toronto Maple Leafs , to break Peter Šťastný 's rookie points record . Selänne finished the season tied for fifth in scoring with 132 points , and his 76 goals tied with Alexander Mogilny for the League lead . His offensive exploits helped pull the Jets into the 1993 Stanley Cup playoffs , where they lost a first @-@ round matchup to the Vancouver Canucks . In recognition of his season , Selänne was voted the recipient of the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year , was named to the First All @-@ Star Team and played in his first of ten career NHL All @-@ Star Games .
Unable to maintain a similar pace in 1993 – 94 — indeed , his rookie totals in goals and points would both prove his career high by more than 20 — Selänne 's offensive production declined by 30 percent midway through the season . He scored his 100th career goal on January 12 , 1994 , against the Buffalo Sabres , reaching the milestone in his 130th game , the second @-@ fastest in NHL history and only one game later than Bossy . Selänne finished the season with 54 points in 51 games , but missed the final 33 games of the season after suffering a severed Achilles tendon in a January 26 game against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim . The 1994 – 95 NHL lockout resulted in Selänne splitting the season between Jokerit and the Jets . While playing in Finland , Selänne was named to the tournament all @-@ star team as Jokerit won the 1995 European Cup .
Selänne 's career in Winnipeg came to an end midway through the 1995 – 96 season . He was leading the Jets with 72 points when , on February 6 , 1996 , he was traded to Anaheim . The Mighty Ducks sent first @-@ round draft picks Chad Kilger and Oleg Tverdovsky , along with a third @-@ round selection at the 1996 NHL Entry Draft , in exchange for Selänne , Marc Chouinard and a fourth @-@ round draft pick . Selänne was upset when notified of the deal during practice and left the Winnipeg Arena without speaking to anyone .
= = = Anaheim , San Jose , and Colorado = = =
Following a period of adjustment , Selänne gained an appreciation for his new team ; he quickly came to call the deal the best thing that ever happened to him . He was paired with Paul Kariya , whom he met at the 1996 NHL All @-@ Star Game , and the duo were counted on to lead the young franchise to a post @-@ season berth for the first time . Selänne scored 36 points in 28 games with the Ducks , and combined with his Jets totals , finished the 1995 – 96 season with 108 points . He followed it up with a third 100 @-@ point season in 1996 – 97 , finishing with 109 , including 51 goals . He was named to the First All @-@ Star Team for a second time , while he and Kariya led the Mighty Ducks into the franchise 's first playoff appearance in 1997 . Despite being criticized as being a " one @-@ line team , " Anaheim defeated the Phoenix Coyotes in the first round before being eliminated by the Detroit Red Wings .
The 1998 All @-@ Star Game was Selänne 's fifth , and after scoring a hat @-@ trick , he became the first European player to be named the MVP in the All @-@ Star Game 's 46 @-@ year history . He finished the 1997 – 98 season with his third career 50 @-@ goal season ; his total of 52 tied Peter Bondra for the NHL lead , and he scored his 500th career point on January 12 , 1998 , with an assist against the Los Angeles Kings . He was a finalist for both the Hart Memorial Trophy as the League 's MVP ( finishing third ) and the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy for gentlemanly conduct ( as the runner @-@ up ) , and was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team . The NHL created the Maurice " Rocket " Richard Trophy in 1998 – 99 to be presented to the League 's leading goal scorer ; Selänne became its inaugural winner following a 47 @-@ goal season .
An 85 @-@ point season followed in 1999 – 2000 , and he was the Mighty Ducks ' leading scorer with 59 points through 61 games in 2000 – 01 . Anaheim , however , sat in last place in the Western Conference , and on March 5 , 2001 , chose to make a trade . Selänne was sent to San Jose in exchange for Jeff Friesen , Steve Shields and a second @-@ round selection in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft . Selänne 's debut with the Sharks was delayed by two weeks as he underwent minor surgery to remove loose cartilage in his knee the following day . After finishing the season with 13 points in 12 games with San Jose , Selänne led the Sharks with 29 goals in 2001 – 02 . He also led the team in both goals ( 28 ; tied ) and points ( 64 ) in 2002 – 03 . As the Sharks fell out of the playoff race , they looked to make changes ; the New Jersey Devils sought to acquire Selänne , but he exercised a no trade clause in his contract and blocked the deal .
Selänne then declined an option in his contract that would have paid $ 6 @.@ 5 million in 2003 – 04 and instead opted to sign a one @-@ year , $ 5 @.@ 8 million contract with the Colorado Avalanche , where he was joined by former Anaheim teammate Paul Kariya . The pair chose to sign with the Avalanche together in the belief it was their best chance at winning the Stanley Cup . Their hope failed to materialize , however , as Selänne endured a disastrous season in which he scored only 16 goals and 32 points — the lowest totals of his career to that date — and was ultimately relegated to Colorado 's fourth line , but was also held out of the lineup as a healthy scratch during a playoff game . He struggled throughout the year with knee problems that ultimately required surgery , his third such procedure , and with the 2004 – 05 season canceled by a labour dispute , took the time off to recover .
= = = Return to Anaheim = = =
A free agent when the NHL resumed play in 2005 – 06 , Selänne returned to Anaheim by signing a one @-@ year , $ 1 million contract with the Mighty Ducks . During a resurgent season , he scored his 1,000th career point on January 30 , 2006 , with a goal in a 4 – 3 victory over Los Angeles . Selänne completed the season with 40 goals and 90 points , both of which led the Mighty Ducks , and he was named the recipient of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and perseverance .
After reaching the Western Conference Final in the 2006 playoffs , the newly renamed Anaheim Ducks entered the 2006 – 07 season with high expectations ; the team brought Selänne back with a one @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 75 million contract . He reached several milestones during the season : Selänne became the 36th player in NHL history , and second Finn after Jari Kurri , to score 500 goals , on November 22 , 2006 , against Colorado . On December 31 , he played his 1,000th NHL game . As part of a season in which he again led Anaheim in goals ( 48 ) and points ( 94 ) , Selänne played in his tenth All @-@ Star Game in 2007 , and scored his first hat @-@ trick in six years ( the 19th of his career ) on January 12 , 2007 . It was the same day he spoke with a friend in Finland with terminal cancer and whom asked to be sent the game puck if Selänne had a three @-@ goal game . Finally , he scored his 301st goal as a Duck on February 18 , 2007 , to break Paul Kariya 's franchise record .
Early in the 2007 playoffs , Selänne became Anaheim 's all @-@ time leading playoff scorer when he recorded his 30th point as a Duck with an assist on April 13 against the Minnesota Wild . The Ducks defeated the Wild , Vancouver Canucks and Detroit Red Wings to reach the Final ; it was the first time in Selänne 's career that he played in the NHL 's championship series . As the sentimental favourite to win the Stanley Cup , his teammates motivated themselves to win the title for his benefit ; Ducks goaltender Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère noted , " We don 't have any better teammate . He 's a guy who always has fun . He deserves this and if we can help him along the way , that would be great . I 'd just love to see Teemu win this thing . " Selänne finished the playoffs with 15 points in 21 games , and after 14 NHL seasons , the 36 @-@ year @-@ old Selänne raised the Stanley Cup with his teammates after defeating the Ottawa Senators in five games .
Following the Cup win , Selänne contemplated retirement . He remained undecided on a return — and as a free agent , out of the Ducks lineup to begin the 2007 – 08 season — until he finally chose to return and signed a one @-@ year contract with Anaheim on January 28 , 2008 . He made his return on February 5 against the New York Islanders , and the Ducks posted the League 's best record from that point to the end of the regular season by winning 20 of 26 games . In his third game back , Selänne scored his 670th point as a member of the Ducks with an assist in a 4 – 2 victory over the Calgary Flames . With it , he broke Kariya 's franchise record of 669 .
Selänne returned to the Ducks in 2008 – 09 and signed a two @-@ year contract . He missed several weeks of the season due to a quad muscle injury suffered when he was cut by his own skate following a hit by Denis Grebeshkov of the Edmonton Oilers , but appeared in 65 games and scored 54 points . He played his 1,100th game during the season , became the sixth European player to score 1 @,@ 200 career points and appeared in his 100th career playoff game . Selänne reached additional milestones in 2009 – 10 , as he became the 18th player in NHL history to score 600 goals , accomplishing the feat on March 21 , 2010 , against the Colorado Avalanche and upon scoring his 602nd goal on April 2 against the Vancouver Canucks , surpassing his childhood idol , Jari Kurri .
Selänne finished eighth in NHL scoring in 2010 – 11 with 31 goals and 49 assists in 73 games . His 80 points was the third @-@ highest in NHL history by a player over the age of 40 ( Gordie Howe , 103 and Johnny Bucyk , 83 ) . He also scored his 1,300th point , achieving the mark with a two @-@ goal performance on January 16 , 2011 , against Edmonton . Questions about whether Selänne would return for another NHL season had become an annual topic of discussion , and his decision to return for 2011 – 12 was delayed by a knee operation that left him uncertain if he would be capable of playing . Nonetheless , Selänne appeared in every game for the Ducks and became the oldest player in NHL history to play an entire 82 @-@ game season while leading the team with 66 points . Sixteen years after the original Jets relocated , a new Winnipeg Jets franchise joined the NHL , and fans in the Manitoba capital continued to view Selänne as a local hero . In his first return to Winnipeg , he was cheered by exuberant fans who booed every other Ducks player . Selänne was named to the Western Conference roster for the 2012 NHL All @-@ Star Game , but declined his invitation and asked the League to instead send his teammate Corey Perry .
Following a 24 @-@ point effort in the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season , Selänne announced that 2013 – 14 would be the 21st and final season of his NHL career . He missed several games early in the season after he was struck in the face by an errant stick that knocked out several teeth and required 40 stitches to close cuts . Selänne recorded 27 points in 64 games for the Ducks ; his final regular season game , a 3 – 2 victory over Colorado , was a celebration of his career . He wore the captain 's " C " in place of Ryan Getzlaf for the game and as it neared conclusion , received standing ovations from the Anaheim crowd each time he took a shift . Selänne was named the game 's first , second and third star following the game and took a celebratory lap with Colorado goaltender and former Anaheim teammate Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère , who was also contemplating retirement .
Selänne 's made his final post @-@ season appearance during the 2014 playoffs . He had six points in 12 games , but was also held out of the lineup for one game against the Dallas Stars , a decision that angered Ducks fans . He played his final game on May 16 , 2014 , as the Ducks were eliminated by Los Angeles . Following the contest , Selänne was saluted by fans , teammates and opponents alike , and took a final lap around the rink .
= = = International = = =
Selänne 's international debut came with the Finnish national junior team . He recorded 16 points in six games at the 1988 European Junior Championship and was named to the tournament all @-@ star team . After participating in the 1989 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships for the sixth place Finns , Selänne made his debut with the senior team at the 1991 World Championship where he finished third in tournament scoring with 11 points for the fifth @-@ place finishers . After playing in the 1991 Canada Cup , he made his Olympic debut at the 1992 Albertville Games . Selänne tied for the tournament scoring lead with seven goals , and was tied for fourth in overall scoring at 11 points .
It was four years before Selänne returned to international play ; he appeared in the 1996 World Championship and the 1996 World Cup of Hockey and averaged over one point per game in both tournaments as Finland finished fifth each time . At the 1998 Winter Olympics , Selänne finished with ten points in five games . He was the tournament 's leading scorer on a Finnish team that he described in 2003 as the best he ever played on and the best in the tournament , but lost the semifinal , 7 – 4 to Russia . He suffered an abdominal muscle injury that prevented him from playing in the third place game , which Finland won 3 – 2 over Canada ; Selänne and his teammates ended the tournament as the bronze medal winners .
The Finns finished one position higher at the 1999 World Championship ; The tournament 's medal round was conducted in a two @-@ game series format followed by a ten @-@ minute sudden victory overtime if the each team wins one game . Finland and Sweden split their semifinal , but the Finns advanced to the final in the overtime period after Selänne set up Marko Tuomainen 's winning goal . The Czech Republic defeated Finland to capture the gold medal , also in a sudden victory period . Selänne finished the tournament with 11 points , was named to the all @-@ star team and was voted the most valuable player of the World Championship .
Selänne served as the Finnish captain at the 2002 Winter Olympics and led his nation to an important preliminary round victory over Russia , however he had only three goals and no assists in four games as the Finns finished in sixth place . The World Championship was held in Finland , and the hosts were hailed as the favourite to win the title . Though Selänne led the tournament with eight goals , Finland lost their quarterfinal match against Sweden and finished fifth overall .
The 2004 World Cup of Hockey was played after Selänne 's difficult NHL season with Colorado . For Selänne , the tournament was about recovering his joy at playing hockey . The Finns went undefeated to reach the final , but Selänne and his teammates had to settle for second place after losing the championship game to Canada , 3 – 2 . Returning to the national team for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Selänne joined Jere Lehtinen and Saku Koivu on what The Hockey News called the best team Finland has ever produced . The Finns outscored their opposition 19 – 2 in the group stage , then defeated the United States and shut @-@ out Russia in the semi @-@ final . The Finns , however , were overcome in the final by Sweden , 3 – 2 , and were relegated to the silver medal . Selänne scored six goals and 11 points in the tournament , was named to the all @-@ star team and received the Directorate Award as top forward .
Selänne stated he would retire from international competition after a bronze medal @-@ winning performance followed at the 2008 IIHF World Championship . However , he returned to play in his fifth Olympic tournament at the 2010 Vancouver Olympics . Selänne became the all @-@ time leading scorer in Olympic hockey history on February 19 , 2010 , as he recorded his 37th point in competition in a game against Germany . The Finns won the bronze medal with a 5 – 3 victory over Slovakia in the third @-@ place game .
Selänne was named to the Finnish team for the 2014 Sochi Olympics , which marked his sixth appearance at the tournament . In the quarterfinals , Selänne scored a goal and an assist as the Finns ousted the host Russians from the tournament , then added two goals in the bronze medal match in a 5 – 0 victory over the United States . The 43 @-@ year @-@ old Selänne became the oldest player to win a medal in Olympic hockey . He was named most valuable player of the Olympic tournament as selected by the media , and added six points to his Olympic record career total of 43 .
= = Playing style = =
Selänne 's primary attribute is his skating speed . Nicknamed the " Finnish Flash " , he uses his speed to evade opposition defenders . According to defenceman Nicklas Lidström , " He 's one of those snipers that can put the puck on net because he finds openings and he knows where to be on the ice . Former teammate Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère added , " He 's just a very elegant player . He 's got a very nice stride to his skating , he plays with a lot of energy , a lot of enthusiasm ... with the skill he has , it just makes for a heck of a great player . "
An elite offensive player , Selänne is the highest scoring Finnish @-@ born player in NHL history . He ended his career with 684 goals , 11th all @-@ time in NHL history , and 1 @,@ 457 points , 15th best . His 110 game @-@ winning goals tied him with Brett Hull for fourth all @-@ time . Selänne is one of eight players to score 70 or more goals in one season . He holds numerous records , including most goals , 76 , and points , 132 , by a rookie . Both totals are also single @-@ season records for the Winnipeg Jets / Phoenix Coyotes franchise . The holder of most major franchise records for the Ducks , Selänne leads the team at 457 goals , 531 assists , 988 points and 966 games played . He also holds single season records with 52 goals and 109 points . Even before his playing career had ended , the Ducks announced that Selänne 's number 8 would be the first number retired by the franchise . The team formally retired his number on January 11 , 2015 , prior to a game against the Jets .
= = Personal life = =
Selänne and his wife Sirpa have four children : sons Eemil , Eetu and Leevi , and daughter Veera . They are residents of Coto de Caza , California , a gated community in southern Orange County . Selänne is the primary partner in a restaurant in nearby Laguna Beach which he started with longtime friend Jim Shumate , an Orange County restaurateur ; He had previously owned four restaurants in Finland and intends to be involved in the business at the conclusion of his hockey career .
Selänne is known for his fun @-@ loving personality and is known to make an effort to sign autographs and shake hands . He is well @-@ respected in the NHL by players , coaches , and fans , including those of opposing teams . Selänne considers Paul Kariya and Joe Sakic to be the best friends he earned in the NHL , and both attended his final regular season game against the Avalanche .
An avid car collector , Selänne has entered the World Rally Championship ( WRC ) twice , finishing the Rally Finland 33rd overall in 1997 and 24th in 1998 . He raced under the pseudonym " Teukka Salama " ( " Teddy Flash " in English ) . In 1999 Selänne was involved in a crash while practicing for a rally race in his native Finland , an incident that was national news in the country . Due to Finnish laws that set fines based on an offender 's salary , Selänne received a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine for the incident .
A popular figure in Finland , Selänne 's success in the NHL has been credited with aiding the growth of hockey in the country . He was once named the sexiest man in Finland by fashion magazine Eeva , and is the subject of the 2013 documentary film Selänne , directed by JP Siili , and which chronicles his life . The film became the highest grossing documentary in Finnish history within a month of its September 27 release , and was the third highest grossing locally produced film of the year .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
= = Records = =
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= Dermide Leclerc =
Dermide Louis Napoléon Leclerc ( 20 April 1798 – 14 August 1804 ) was the only child of Pauline Bonaparte ( later suo jure Duchess of Guastalla ) and her husband , French Army general Charles Leclerc . Through his mother , Dermide was a nephew of the future Emperor Napoleon I.
In 1802 , during the Haitian Revolution , Dermide arrived on the island @-@ colony of Saint @-@ Domingue with his parents , as part of the Saint @-@ Domingue expedition . After his father 's death of yellow fever later during the year , Dermide and Pauline were brought back to France . In 1803 , Pauline remarried , this time to Italian nobleman Camillo Borghese , and she took up residence , along with her husband and son , in Rome . Always a frail child , Dermide died of a fever at the age of six , three months after his uncle became Emperor and two years before his mother 's proclamation as Duchess of Guastalla .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Dermide was born on 20 April 1798 , in Milan , which was then part of the Cisalpine Republic , a puppet state of the First French Republic . He was the first and only child of his parents , Maria Paola di Buonaparte ( known as Pauline ) and Charles Victoire Emmanuel Leclerc , a general in the French Army . Dermide 's birth was a difficult one , and its effects would be visible in Pauline 's health for many years . He was christened Dermide Louis Napoléon , after a character in the epic Gaelic poems of Ossian , at the request of his uncle , general Napoleon Bonaparte , who greatly admired Ossian 's works .
He was the eldest surviving son born to one of the Bonaparte siblings ( Joseph , Napoleon , Lucien , Elisa , Louis , Pauline , Caroline and Jérôme , most of which would later receive ruling positions in their brother 's client states ) . Six weeks after his birth , on 29 May 1798 , Dermide was baptised " with imperial ceremony " at a Capuchin church in Milan . Charles Louis Huguet , marquis de Sémonville stood as witness and Napoleon served as godfather . The baptism was welcomed by the Milanese people with gun salutes , ringing of church bells , music and shouting , just as had been done at the births of Austrian archdukes during the Austrian Rule . Following a quarrel with officials of the Cisalpine Republic , Leclerc took his wife and son to Paris , where they established themselves at No. 1 , Rue de la Victoire . Napoleon resided on the same street , albeit at No. 6 . Meanwhile , after a coup d 'état in 1799 , the French Consulate was established and Napoleon installed himself as First Consul .
In 1791 , the Haitian Revolution had begun in Saint @-@ Domingue ( present @-@ day Haiti ) , which had been a French colony since 1697 . Wanting to restore French authority on the island , Napoleon organised the Saint @-@ Domingue expedition , placing Leclerc in charge and bestowing upon him the title of Governor @-@ General of Saint @-@ Domingue . Consequently , on 14 December 1801 , Leclerc embarked on the flagship L 'Océan at Brest with his wife and son , and sailed for Saint @-@ Domingue , which they eventually reached on 28 January 1802 . While Leclerc quickly left the ship , Pauline and Dermide remained on board . Although Dermide was initially healthy and Leclerc had assured Napoleon that his son had " survived the crossing from France better than anyone " , both mother and son suffered episodes of yellow fever while they were at Le Cap , nonetheless recovering quickly . Dermide was apportioned to a grenadier at Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and spent much of his time playing . On 2 November , Leclerc , who had been ill with yellow fever , died at Tortuga . Preparations for Pauline and Dermide 's departure from Saint @-@ Domingue were completed quickly , and they left the colony aboard the HMS Swiftsure , arriving at Toulon on New Year 's Day 1803 .
= = = Later life = = =
Pauline found a temporary place to live for her and Dermide at her brother Joseph 's hotel in the Rue du Faubourg Saint @-@ Honoré . Eventually , they settled in the Château de Montgobert , her husband 's former estate , which was Dermide 's inheritance from his father . Napoleon did not wish for Pauline to remain without a husband and , as such , Roman nobleman Camillo Borghese , 6th Prince of Sulmona was selected with the help of Pope Pius VII . Thus , on 14 November 1803 , Pauline , Camillo and Dermide set out on a journey towards Rome . Dermide had his own carriage , drawn by six horses , which he shared with his governess , Madame Ducluzel , and with his mother 's lectrice ( reader ) , Jenny Saint @-@ Maur . In one of the cities through which they passed , a gendarme asked the family who they were , upon which Dermide replied , " Messieurs , it is the son of General Leclerc traveling with his suite . " Saint @-@ Maur swiftly corrected him , albeit " admiring his spirit " . The family took up residence at the Palazzo Borghese in Rome .
Pauline , being " family minded " , welcomed her brother Lucien , who had been living in exile at the Villa Rufinella in Frascati , during his visits in Rome and valued his children , Charlotte ( b . 1795 ) , Christine ( b . 1798 ) and Charles Lucien ( b . 1803 ) , as Dermide 's playmates . Dermide captivated Lucien and his wife , Alexandrine de Bleschamp , and the couple observed that Borghese was not very affectionate towards Pauline 's son . Lucien even considered Dermide as a possible future husband for his daughter Christine . In hopes of restoring her health , Pauline and Borghese agreed that they should travel to Florence in the summer of 1804 , and from there to the thermal baths of Pisa , which were hoped to have better effect than the ones at Frascati . Pauline wanted to take Dermide with them , but Borghese advised against it , instead proposing to leave Dermide with his brother Francesco in Frascati , near Lucien 's Villa Rufinella . Thus , Dermide , Madame Ducluzel and his tutor , Monsieur de la Ronde , were moved to Francesco 's Villa Mondragone .
= = = Death = = =
By August , Lucien , his children and Dermide had all suffered from bouts of fever . Doctors saw no cause for alarm and Lucien quickly recovered , as did his children . Despite the doctors ' best efforts , Dermide died on 14 August , at the age of six . Pauline later came to believe her son 's blood had been thinned by the recurrent spells of yellow fever they had suffered in Saint @-@ Domingue . Borghese decided to conceal Dermide 's death from his wife until her health improved . Thus , Francesco returned to Frascati and wrote three letters addressed to Pauline : one which announced the onset of Dermide 's illness , the second announcing that the illness worsened and the third announcing Dermide 's demise . Immediately after receiving the first letter , Pauline began making preparations for her departure from Pisa , in order to reach her son at Frascati . Before this was possible , she became aware of the truth and her suspicions were confirmed by de la Ronde .
Pauline was grief @-@ stricken and later said " My poor little boy . If only I had been with him ... I would have nursed him as I nursed his father " . She came to blame Borghese for his decision to send Dermide to Frascati and called him " the butcher of my son " , believing that , had it not been for her husband , her son " would still be alive " . Leclerc 's parents accused Pauline of having neglected Dermide , leaving him to die under the care of servants , when she could have left him in France , to live with them . Nonetheless , Pauline had her son buried at the Château de Montgobert , next to General Leclerc . Dermide 's inheritance reverted to his father 's family and , in spite of her wishes to be buried beside her son and first husband at Montgobert , Pauline was buried at the Saint Mary Major Basilica in Rome upon her death in 1825 .
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Endnotes = = =
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= Hassium =
Hassium is a chemical element with symbol Hs and atomic number 108 , named after the German state of Hesse . It is a synthetic element ( an element that can be created in a laboratory but is not found in nature ) and radioactive ; the most stable known isotope , 269Hs , has a half @-@ life of approximately 9 @.@ 7 seconds , although an unconfirmed metastable state , 277mHs , may have a longer half @-@ life of about 130 seconds . More than 100 atoms of hassium have been synthesized to date .
In the periodic table of the elements , it is a d @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 8 elements . Chemistry experiments have confirmed that hassium behaves as the heavier homologue to osmium in group 8 . The chemical properties of hassium are characterized only partly , but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 8 elements . In bulk quantities , hassium is expected to be a silvery metal that reacts readily with oxygen in the air , forming a volatile tetroxide .
= = History = =
The synthesis of element 108 was first attempted in 1978 by a Russian research team led by Yuri Oganessian and Vladimir Utyonkov at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) in Dubna , using reactions that would generate the isotopes hassium @-@ 270 and hassium @-@ 264 . The data was uncertain and they carried out new experiments on hassium five years later , where these two isotopes as well as hassium @-@ 263 were produced ; the hassium @-@ 264 experiment was repeated again and confirmed in 1984 .
Hassium was officially discovered in 1984 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research ( Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ) in Darmstadt . The team bombarded a target of lead @-@ 208 with accelerated nuclei of iron @-@ 58 to produce 3 atoms of the isotope hassium @-@ 265 .
Due to this issue , a controversy arose over who should be recognized as the official discoverer of the element . The IUPAC / IUPAP Transfermium Working Group ( TWG ) recognised the GSI collaboration as official discoverers in their 1992 report . They stated that the GSI collaboration was " more detailed and , of itself , carries conviction " , and that while the combined data from Dubna and Darmstadt confirmed that hassium had been synthesized , the major credit was awarded to the GSI . This statement came in spite of the combined data also supporting the Russian 1983 discovery claim and the TWG also acknowledging that " very probably element 108 played a role in the Dubna experiment . "
The name hassium was proposed by Peter Armbruster and his colleagues , the officially recognised German discoverers , in 1992 , derived from the Latin name ( Hassia ) for the German state of Hesse where the institute is located . Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , hassium should be known as eka @-@ osmium . In 1979 , during the Transfermium Wars ( but before the synthesis of hassium ) , IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called unniloctium ( with the corresponding symbol of Uno ) , a systematic element name as a placeholder , until the element was discovered ( and the discovery then confirmed ) and a permanent name was decided on . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who either called it " element 108 " , with the symbol of ( 108 ) or even simply 108 , or used the proposed name " hassium " .
In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 108 be named hahnium ( Hn ) after the German physicist Otto Hahn , after an older suggestion of ottohahnium ( Oh ) in spite of the long @-@ standing convention to give the discoverer the right to suggest a name , so that elements named after Hahn and Lise Meitner ( meitnerium ) would be next to each other , honoring their joint discovery of nuclear fission . This was because they felt that Hesse did not merit an element being named after it . After protests from the German discoverers and the American Chemical Society , IUPAC relented and the name hassium ( Hs ) was adopted internationally in 1997 .
= = Natural occurrence = =
Hassium is not known to occur naturally on Earth ; the half @-@ lives of all its known isotopes are short enough that no primordial hassium would have survived to the present day . This does not rule out the possibility of unknown longer @-@ lived isotopes or nuclear isomers existing , some of which could still exist in trace quantities today if they are long @-@ lived enough . In the early 1960s , it was predicted that long @-@ lived deformed isomers of hassium might occur naturally on Earth in trace quantities . This was theorized in order to explain the extreme radiation damage in some minerals that could not have been caused by any known natural radioisotopes , but could have been caused by superheavy elements .
In 1963 , Soviet scientist Victor Cherdyntsev , who had previously claimed the existence of primordial curium @-@ 247 , claimed to have discovered element 108 ( specifically , the 267Hs isotope , which supposedly had a half life of 400 to 500 million years ) in natural molybdenite and suggested the name sergenium ( symbol Sg ; at the time , this symbol had not yet been taken by seaborgium ) for it , after the ancient city of Serik along the Silk Road in Kazakhstan where his molybdenite samples came from . His rationale for claiming that sergenium was the heavier homologue to osmium was that minerals supposedly containing sergenium formed volatile oxides when boiled in nitric acid , similarly to osmium . His findings were criticized by V. M. Kulakov on the grounds that some of the properties Cherdyntsev claimed sergenium had were inconsistent with the then @-@ current nuclear physics .
The chief questions raised by Kulakov were that the claimed alpha decay energy of sergenium was many orders of magnitude lower than expected and the half @-@ life given was eight orders of magnitude shorter than what would be predicted for a nuclide alpha decaying with the claimed decay energy , but at the same time a corrected half @-@ life in the region of 1016 years would be impossible as it would imply that the samples contained about 100 milligrams of sergenium . In 2003 it was suggested that the observed alpha decay with energy 4 @.@ 5 MeV could be due to a low @-@ energy and strongly enhanced transition between different hyperdeformed states of a hassium isotope around 271Hs , thus suggesting that the existence of superheavy elements in nature was at least possible , although unlikely .
In 2004 , the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research conducted a search for natural hassium . This was done underground to avoid interference and false positives from cosmic rays , but no results have been released , strongly implying that no natural hassium was found . The possible extent of primordial hassium on Earth is uncertain ; it might now only exist in traces , or could even have completely decayed by now after having caused the radiation damage long ago .
In 2006 , it was hypothesized that an isomer of 271Hs might have a half @-@ life of around ( 2 @.@ 5 ± 0 @.@ 5 ) × 108 y , which would explain the observation of alpha particles with energies of around 4 @.@ 4 MeV in some samples of molybdenite and osmiridium . This isomer of 271Hs could be produced from the beta decay of 271Bh and 271Sg , which , being homologous to rhenium and molybdenum respectively , should occur in molybdenite along with rhenium and molybdenum if they occurred in nature . Since hassium is homologous to osmium , it should also occur along with osmium in osmiridium if it occurred in nature . The decay chains of 271Bh and 271Sg are very hypothetical and the predicted half @-@ life of this hypothetical hassium isomer is not long enough for any sufficient quantity to remain on Earth . It is possible that more 271Hs may be deposited on the Earth as the Solar System travels through the spiral arms of the Milky Way , which would also explain excesses of plutonium @-@ 239 found on the floors of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Finland , but minerals enriched with 271Hs are predicted to also have excesses of uranium @-@ 235 and lead @-@ 207 , and would have different proportions of elements that are formed during spontaneous fission , such as krypton , zirconium , and xenon . Thus , the occurrence of hassium in nature in minerals such as molybdenite and osmiride is theoretically possible , but highly unlikely .
= = Isotopes = =
Hassium has no stable or naturally @-@ occurring isotopes . Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory , either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements . Twelve different isotopes have been reported with atomic masses from 263 to 277 ( with the exceptions of 272 , 274 , and 276 ) , four of which , hassium @-@ 265 , hassium @-@ 267 , hassium @-@ 269 , and hassium @-@ 277 , have known metastable states ( although that of hassium @-@ 277 is unconfirmed ) . Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay , but some also undergo spontaneous fission .
The lightest isotopes , which usually have shorter half @-@ lives were synthesized by direct fusion between two lighter nuclei and as decay products . The heaviest isotope produced by direct fusion is 271Hs ; heavier isotopes have only been observed as decay products of elements with larger atomic numbers . In 1999 , American scientists at the University of California , Berkeley , announced that they had succeeded in synthesizing three atoms of 293118 . These parent nuclei were reported to have successively emitted three alpha particles to form hassium @-@ 273 nuclei , which were claimed to have undergone an alpha decay , emitting alpha particles with decay energies of 9 @.@ 78 and 9 @.@ 47 MeV and half @-@ life 1 @.@ 2 s , but their claim was retracted in 2001 . The isotope was successfully produced in 2010 by the same team . The new data matched the previous ( fabricated ) data .
= = = 270Hs : prospects for a deformed doubly magic nucleus = = =
According to calculations , 108 is a proton magic number for deformed nuclei ( nuclei that are far from spherical ) , and 162 is a neutron magic number for deformed nuclei . This means that such nuclei are permanently deformed in their ground state but have high , narrow fission barriers to further deformation and hence relatively long life @-@ times to spontaneous fission . The spontaneous fission half @-@ lives in this region are typically reduced by a factor of 109 in comparison with those in the vicinity of the spherical doubly magic nucleus 298Fl , caused by the narrower fission barrier for such deformed nuclei . Hence , the nucleus 270Hs has promise as a deformed doubly magic nucleus . Experimental data from the decay of the darmstadtium ( Z = 110 ) isotopes 271Ds and 273Ds provides strong evidence for the magic nature of the N = 162 sub @-@ shell . The recent synthesis of 269Hs , 270Hs , and 271Hs also fully support the assignment of N = 162 as a magic number . In particular , the low decay energy for 270Hs is in complete agreement with calculations .
Evidence for the magicity of the Z = 108 proton shell can be obtained from two sources : the variation in the partial spontaneous fission half @-@ lives for isotones and the large gap in the alpha Q value for isotonic nuclei of hassium and darmstadtium . For spontaneous fission , it is necessary to measure the half @-@ lives for the isotonic nuclei 268Sg , 270Hs and 272Ds . Since the isotopes 268Sg and 272Ds are not currently known , and fission of 270Hs has not been measured , this method cannot yet be used to confirm the stabilizing nature of the Z = 108 shell . Good evidence for the magicity of the Z = 108 shell can nevertheless be found from the large differences in the alpha decay energies measured for 270Hs , 271Ds and 273Ds . More conclusive evidence would come from the determination of the decay energy for the unknown nucleus 272Ds .
= = Predicted properties = =
Various calculations show that hassium should be the heaviest known group 8 element , consistent with the periodic law . Its properties should generally match those expected for a heavier homologue of osmium , with a few deviations arising from relativistic effects .
= = = Physical and atomic = = =
The previous members of group 8 have relatively high melting points ( Fe , 1538 ° C ; Ru , 2334 ° C ; Os , 3033 ° C ) . Much like them , hassium is predicted to be a solid at room temperature , although the melting point of hassium has not been precisely calculated . Hassium should crystallize in the hexagonal close @-@ packed structure ( c / a = 1 @.@ 59 ) , similarly to its lighter congener osmium . Pure metallic hassium is calculated to have a bulk modulus ( resistance to uniform compression ) comparable to that of diamond ( 442 GPa ) . Hassium is expected to have a bulk density of 40 @.@ 7 g / cm3 , the highest of any of the 118 known elements and nearly twice the density of osmium , the most dense measured element , at 22 @.@ 61 g / cm3 . This results from hassium 's high atomic weight , the lanthanide and actinide contractions , and relativistic effects , although production of enough hassium to measure this quantity would be impractical , and the sample would quickly decay . Osmium is the densest element of the first 6 periods , and its heavier congener hassium is expected to be the densest element of the first 7 periods .
The atomic radius of hassium is expected to be around 126 pm . Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital , the Hs + ion is predicted to have an electron configuration of [ Rn ] 5f14 6d5 7s2 , giving up a 6d electron instead of a 7s electron , which is the opposite of the behavior of its lighter homologues . On the other hand , the Hs2 + ion is expected to have an electron configuration of [ Rn ] 5f14 6d5 7s1 , analogous to that calculated for the Os2 + ion .
= = = Chemical = = =
Hassium is the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals and is expected to be much like the platinum group metals . Calculations on its ionization potentials , atomic radius , as well as radii , orbital energies , and ground levels of its ionized states are similar to that of osmium , implying that hassium 's properties would resemble those of the other group 8 elements , iron , ruthenium , and osmium . Some of these properties were confirmed by gas @-@ phase chemistry experiments . The group 8 elements portray a wide variety of oxidation states , but ruthenium and osmium readily portray their group oxidation state of + 8 ( the second @-@ highest known oxidation state for any element , which is very rare for other elements ) and this state becomes more stable as the group is descended . Thus hassium is expected to form a stable + 8 state . Analogously to its lighter congeners , hassium is expected to also show other stable lower oxidation states , such as + 6 , + 5 , + 4 , + 3 , and + 2 . Indeed , hassium ( IV ) is expected to be more stable than hassium ( VIII ) in aqueous solution .
The group 8 elements show a very distinctive oxide chemistry which allows extrapolations to be made easily for hassium . All the lighter members have known or hypothetical tetroxides , MO4 . Their oxidising power decreases as one descends the group . FeO4 is not known due to its extraordinarily large electron affinity ( the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion ) which results in the formation of the well @-@ known oxoanion ferrate ( VI ) , FeO2 −
4 . Ruthenium tetroxide , RuO4 , formed by oxidation of ruthenium ( VI ) in acid , readily undergoes reduction to ruthenate ( VI ) , RuO2 −
4 . Oxidation of ruthenium metal in air forms the dioxide , RuO2 . In contrast , osmium burns to form the stable tetroxide , OsO4 , which complexes with the hydroxide ion to form an osmium ( VIII ) -ate complex , [ OsO4 ( OH ) 2 ] 2 − . Therefore , eka @-@ osmium properties for hassium should be demonstrated by the formation of a stable , very volatile tetroxide HsO4 , which undergoes complexation with hydroxide to form a hassate ( VIII ) , [ HsO4 ( OH ) 2 ] 2 − . Ruthenium tetroxide and osmium tetroxide are both volatile , due to their symmetrical tetrahedral molecular geometry and their being charge @-@ neutral ; hassium tetroxide should similarly be a very volatile solid . The trend of the volatilities of the group 8 tetroxides is known to be RuO4 < OsO4 > HsO4 , which completely confirms the calculated results . In particular , the calculated enthalpies of adsorption ( the energy required for the adhesion of atoms , molecules , or ions from a gas , liquid , or dissolved solid to a surface ) of HsO4 , − ( 45 @.@ 4 ± 1 ) kJ · mol − 1 on quartz , agrees very well with the experimental value of − ( 46 ± 2 ) kJ · mol − 1 .
= = Experimental atomic gas phase chemistry = =
Despite the fact that the selection of a volatile hassium compound ( hassium tetroxide ) for gas @-@ phase chemical studies was clear from the beginning , the chemical characterization of hassium was considered a difficult task for a long time . Although hassium isotopes were first synthesized in 1984 , it was not until 1996 that a hassium isotope long @-@ lived enough to allow chemical studies to be performed was synthesized . Unfortunately , this hassium isotope , 269Hs , was then synthesized indirectly from the decay of 277Cn ; not only are indirect synthesis methods not favourable for chemical studies , but also the reaction that produced the isotope 277Cn had a low yield ( its cross @-@ section was only 1 pb ) , and thus did not provide enough hassium atoms for a chemical investigation . The direct synthesis of 269Hs and 270Hs in the reaction 248Cm ( 26Mg , xn ) 274 − xHs ( x = 4 or 5 ) appeared more promising , as the cross @-@ section for this reaction was somewhat larger , at 7 pb . This yield was still around ten times lower than that for the reaction used for the chemical characterization of bohrium . New techniques for irradiation , separation , and detection had to be introduced before hassium could be successfully characterized chemically as a typical member of group 8 in early 2001 .
Ruthenium and osmium have very similar chemistry due to the lanthanide contraction , but iron shows some differences from them : for example , although ruthenium and osmium form stable tetroxides in which the metal is in the + 8 oxidation state , iron does not . Consequently , in preparation for the chemical characterization of hassium , researches focused on ruthenium and osmium rather than iron , as hassium was expected to also be similar to ruthenium and osmium due to the actinide contraction . Nevertheless , in the planned experiment to study hassocene ( Hs ( C5H5 ) 2 ) , ferrocene may also be used for comparison along with ruthenocene and osmocene .
The first chemistry experiments were performed using gas thermochromatography in 2001 , using 172Os and 173Os as a reference . During the experiment , 5 hassium atoms were synthesized using the reaction 248Cm ( 26Mg , 5n ) 269Hs . They were then thermalized and oxidized in a mixture of helium and oxygen gas to form the tetroxide .
269Hs + 2 O2 → 269HsO4
The measured deposition temperature indicated that hassium ( VIII ) oxide is less volatile than osmium tetroxide , OsO4 , and places hassium firmly in group 8 . However , the enthalpy of adsorption for HsO4 measured , ( − 46 ± 2 ) kJ / mol , was significantly lower than what was predicted , ( − 36 @.@ 7 ± 1 @.@ 5 ) kJ / mol , indicating that OsO4 was more volatile than HsO4 , contradicting earlier calculations , which implied that they should have very similar volatilities . For comparison , the value for OsO4 is ( − 39 ± 1 ) kJ / mol . It is possible that hassium tetroxide interacts differently with the different chemicals ( silicon nitride and silicon dioxide ) used for the detector ; further research is required , including more accurate measurements of the nuclear properties of 269Hs and comparisons with RuO4 in addition to OsO4 .
In 2004 scientists reacted hassium tetroxide and sodium hydroxide to form sodium hassate ( VIII ) , a reaction well @-@ known with osmium . This was the first acid @-@ base reaction with a hassium compound , forming sodium hassate ( VIII ) :
HsO
4 + 2 NaOH → Na
2 [ HsO
4 ( OH )
2 ]
The team from the University of Mainz are planning to study the electrodeposition of hassium atoms using the new TASCA facility at the GSI . The current aim is to use the reaction 226Ra ( 48Ca , 4n ) 270Hs . In addition , scientists at the GSI are hoping to utilize TASCA to study the synthesis and properties of the hassium ( II ) compound hassocene , Hs ( C5H5 ) 2 , using the reaction 226Ra ( 48Ca , xn ) . This compound is analogous to the lighter ferrocene , ruthenocene , and osmocene , and is expected to have the two cyclopentadienyl rings in an eclipsed conformation like ruthenocene and osmocene and not in a staggered conformation like ferrocene . Hassocene was chosen because it has hassium in the low formal oxidation state of + 2 ( although the bonding between the metal and the rings is mostly covalent in metallocenes ) rather than the high + 8 state which had previously been investigated , and relativistic effects were expected to be stronger in the lower oxidation state . Many metals in the periodic table form metallocenes , so that trends could be more easily determined , and the highly symmetric structure of hassocene and its low number of atoms also make relativistic calculations easier . Hassocene should be a stable and highly volatile compound .
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= Isiah Leggett =
Isiah " Ike " Leggett ( born July 25 , 1944 ) is an American politician from the U.S. state of Maryland , currently serving as the executive of Montgomery County , Maryland . He is a member of the Democratic Party .
Born in Deweyville , Texas , Leggett attended Southern University in Baton Rouge , Louisiana and , after serving in the Vietnam War with the U.S. Army , earned a law degree from Howard University in Washington , D.C. In 1986 , he became the first African @-@ American elected to the county council in Montgomery County , Maryland and served on the council through 2002 . He remains the only African @-@ American ever elected to that body at @-@ large .
For two years , Leggett served as the chairman of the Maryland Democratic Party before leaving that position to run for office once again . Leggett was elected County Executive of Montgomery County in 2006 , the first African @-@ American to hold that office . Since taking office , Leggett has worked to put the County ’ s fiscal house in order while strengthening critical County services in education and public safety , and helping the most vulnerable . In the four years before Leggett took office , County spending grew by over 40 percent .
In his first five years in office , Montgomery County 's spending was held to zero percent . Responding to the worldwide recession that hit in 2008 , Leggett closed budget gaps of over $ 2 @.@ 6 billion , eliminating 10 percent of County government positions , while imposing furloughs ( including himself ) , wage freezes , and changes in retirement and health benefits to save the County money . At the same time , Leggett put tens of millions of dollars into building and preserving thousands of units of affordable housing in the County , establishing a CountyStat office to ensure “ real time ” performance of County services , and set up a multi @-@ agency Positive Youth Development Initiative to ensure positive programs for at @-@ risk youth .
Leggett worked to strengthen Montgomery County 's biotechnology and life sciences sectors and also established the " 311 " Customer Service as a single point of entry via phone and the internet for residents seeking County services . During Leggett 's first eight years , serious crime went down in the County by 24 percent and the Fire and Rescue Service 's response times to Montgomery County 's fires improved dramatically . Leggett was reelected to a second term in 2010 and to a third four @-@ year term in 2014 .
= = Early life and education = =
Leggett was born on July 25 , 1944 in Deweyville , Texas and grew up with twelve siblings in Alexandria , Louisiana . In Alexandria , he played football for Peabody Magnet High School . He attended Southern University in Baton Rouge , working through school as a groundskeeper in a work @-@ study program and graduating in 1967 . In his time as an undergraduate , he was a student leader in the civil rights movement and twice met Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr . He led the on @-@ campus civil rights movement while at the same time commanding the Southern University Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) unit . He was elected president of his class during his senior year and is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity , the first intercollegiate fraternity established for African @-@ Americans . In 1968 , Leggett served as a captain in the United States Army during the Vietnam War , first in combat with a Military Advisory Unit attached to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam and then as a public affairs officer with the 7th Support Battalion / 199th Light Infantry Brigade . He was awarded the Bronze Star for Service . In 1974 , he received Master of Arts and Juris Doctor degrees from Howard University in Washington , D.C. , graduating first in his law school class , followed soon after by a Master of Laws degree from George Washington University . He returned to Howard as a professor in their law school in 1976 , and continued teaching at the law school through his election as County Executive in 2006 , with the exception of a stint as a White House Fellow under President Jimmy Carter in 1977 . Leggett is currently married to his second wife , Catherine .
= = Career = =
Leggett 's first participation in county government was as an appointed member of the Montgomery County Human Relations Committee , on which he served from 1979 to 1986 . He was later named Chair of the Committee . In 1986 , he was elected as an at @-@ large member of the Montgomery County Council , becoming the first African @-@ American ever to serve on the council . To this day , he is the only African @-@ American ever elected to county office at large . He was re @-@ elected to the seat three more times , and served three one @-@ year terms as council president . During his time on the council , he chaired the council 's transportation and environment committee and played a role in passage of a county living wage law and a public smoking ban . In 1992 , a former county council aide of Leggett 's accused him of sexual harassment in a widely publicized case , but the accusation was dismissed by a jury . In 2002 , Leggett declined to run for re @-@ election to the county council . He was widely viewed as a potential running mate for Democratic nominee Kathleen Kennedy Townsend in that year 's gubernatorial race . However , Townsend chose Admiral Charles R. Larson instead . Townsend and Larson lost in November when Maryland elected Robert Ehrlich to be its first Republican governor in 40 years and Lieutenant Governor Michael S. Steele as its first African @-@ American statewide elected official . When his term on the council was completed in December of that year , Leggett was elected as chairman of the Maryland Democratic Party . Leggett 's chairmanship was seen by some Democratic activists as important to maintaining the African @-@ American base of the Maryland Democratic Party and rebuilding the party 's strength following the 2002 gubernatorial loss .
= = = 2006 campaign for county executive = = =
Following the election of 2004 , Maryland politicians started announcing their intentions for the 2006 elections . Among them was three @-@ term County Executive Doug Duncan , who was in the early stages of a run for governor . In December 2004 , Leggett left his position as Chair of the Maryland Democratic Party to begin a campaign to replace Duncan as Montgomery County Executive . In the Democratic primary election Leggett squared off against a former colleague from the council , Steve Silverman . Leggett and Silverman engaged in a long series of debates beginning almost a year before the election . But despite being outspent by Silverman by more than five to one , Leggett won the Democratic nomination for executive by 61 @.@ 3 percent to 35 @.@ 5 percent in the primary election on September 12 , 2006 . He then faced Republican nominee Chuck Floyd and independent anti @-@ tax advocate Robin Ficker in the general election . Leggett easily won the November election with 68 percent of the vote to Floyd 's 22 percent and 10 percent for Ficker . He carried 239 of the County 's 241 voting precincts .
= = = First term as county executive = = =
In the early days of his administration , Leggett took the lead on a number of controversial issues . To help alleviate transportation funding difficulties and move County transit projects forward , he proposed a statewide gas tax increase , a position he first articulated in his race for County Executive . This proposal , which happened in the midst of a state budget crunch and in response to high levels of traffic congestion in the county , was supported by the County Council but largely ignored by incoming Governor Martin O 'Malley . Leggett continued to advocate for the increase throughout his term .
Leggett also solved a vexing problem involving a hiring site for day laborers from the city of Gaithersburg and the surrounding upcounty area . During the term of Leggett 's predecessor Doug Duncan , Gaithersburg had struggled to find space within the city limits that the county could lease for use as a location where the day laborers could wait for employers . The owners of virtually all of the more than 30 sites considered by the city government had refused to grant a lease for this purpose , and in the one case where the property owner was willing to consider the use , the county 's efforts to lease the property fell through after the property owner backed out . The debate became caught up in a larger national debate about the role of illegal immigrants in American society . Leggett located a site for day laborer center on county @-@ owned land with his first several months in office .. Despite opposition from anti @-@ immigrant voices , the Center has served hundreds of workers and employers without incident .
During his first term Leggett reduced County spending increases to 14 percent in the year before he took office to , first , 7 percent and then 1 @.@ 6 percent in his first two years . He increased the County investment in preserving and creating affordable housing while also creating one of the nation 's most aggressive campaigns to combat and track home foreclosures . He won approval of the right of the County to have " first refusal " on properties to preserve affordable housing and established a first @-@ ever Tenants Work Group to identify and advocate for the County 's 100 @,@ 000 renters . His CountyStat project tracked County departments ' performance in real @-@ time , saving $ 7 million in overtime pay in its first year . He also opened a 311 call center to improve access to County services by providing a single number to call .
Responding the growing national economic recession , Leggett closed budget gaps of more than $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in his first term , eliminating hundreds of jobs and , in 2008 , increasing property taxes beyond the County Charter limit . His 11 @-@ point economic package sought to help County businesses hit by the recession by easing regulatory burdens . He launched his Smart Growth Initiative , a bold program to leverage and swap County @-@ owned properties to update County facilities while opening up economic development and transit @-@ oriented housing around the Shady Grove Metro and in the heart of the County 's biotech industry . Leggett also put down blueprints for the future with biotechnology and green business task forces . Other business expansion was pursued in County missions to Israel , India , Korea , and China .
Leggett also held the County 's first " Senior Summit " to focus attention on the County 's growing older population , expanded County recycling programs to the broadest in the region , and won approval of a new Fillmore music and entertainment center in Silver Spring . A broad program of code enforcement reforms sought to limit commercial incursions into the County 's residential neighborhoods and a first @-@ ever " road inventory " evaluated tens of thousands of miles of County roads . He established a County Veterans Commission to reach out to the estimated 50 @,@ 000 veterans and their families and worked closely with the State , the federal government , and surrounding neighborhoods to deal with the impact of the consolidation of Walter Reed Medical Center into the Bethesda Naval Hospital as called for under the Base Realignment & Closure Commission . Under Leggett 's leadership the County responded aggressively to the outbreak of the H1N1 virus in 2009 .
When the County 's traffic management computer went down for 36 hours in November 2009 , snarling traffic throughout the County , Leggett advanced needed funding for a new system . During his first term , he sought and won Council approval for an Emergency Medical Services transport fee that would allow the County Fire & Rescue Service to bill insurance companies for the cost of ambulance transports at no cost to County residents . Leggett argued it would earn the County up to $ 15 million more annually to devote to Fire & Rescue . County volunteer fire departments took the measure to voter referendum in November 2010 and overturned the law with 53 percent in favor of repeal in a bitter campaign that pitted Leggett and career County firefighters versus volunteers .
= = = Second term as county executive = = =
Leggett was unopposed in the 2010 Democratic Party primary for County Executive . In the general election , he was opposed by Republican Party candidate Douglas Rosenfeld . In the November balloting , Leggett won reelection with 66 percent of the vote to 34 percent for Rosenfeld , carrying 227 of the County 's 252 precincts .
Leggett began his second term with the County still deeply in the shadow of the Great Recession . He continued to hold down County spending and County government employment while his fiscal stewardship helped the County maintain its AAA bond rating , despite federal cutbacks and sequestration . He continued to give priority to education , public safety and help for the County 's most vulnerable .
Among his initiatives was the formation of a blue @-@ ribbon Pepco Work Group to critique the utility 's performance shortfalls during summer and winter storms and suggest improvements . The 400 @-@ page report supported efforts by the Maryland Public Service Commission to require greater infrastructure , emergency response , and communication capabilities . Leggett and the County also fought a series of Pepco rate requests , helping to limit increases for consumers . Responding to the upsurge in need with the recession , Leggett 's Health & Human Services department established three new Neighborhood Opportunity Centers to reach out to at @-@ risk families in County neighborhoods . Leggett boosted the number of police assigned to County schools , but failed in his 2011 effort to protect children and youth with an overnight youth curfew , with the County Council not allowing the proposal to come to a vote .
Following an increase in the State gas tax , for which Leggett was a longtime advocate , Leggett win more than $ 1 billion in State funding for County transportation projects . He also led an effort , working with Prince George 's and Baltimore counties to establish a new County / State matching fund program to boost school construction to meet rising demand . He opened five new fire stations in his first eight years , compared with only three opened in the 12 years before he took office . He won Council approval once more for an Emergency Medical Services transport fee and , after securing support from volunteer fire companies who defeated it in the 2010 referendum , the program went into effect . Leggett supported an increase in Montgomery County 's minimum wage to $ 11 @.@ 50 an hour in 2013 . Between 2010 and 2014 Montgomery County outperformed neighboring Fairfax County and the District of Columbia in job growth .
In 2011 , Montgomery County leased farmland owned by the public school system in Potomac in order to build soccer fields to meet a critical shortfall in such fields in the Down County area . This public / private partnership was challenged by residents of the Brickyard Road neighborhood , who earlier had opposed affordable housing on the site and now opposed the public / private partnership Leggett advanced to build and maintain the fields . In 2013 the County abandoned the effort and returned the land to the school system .
In 2013 Leggett was elected president of the County Executives of America . In spring of that year , he unveiled a joint County / State / Federal effort to build the Cybersecurity Center for Excellence in Gaithersburg. which he said would establish Montgomery County as a national center for civilian cybersecurity work . In 2013 , Leggett visited China to advance economic development cooperation and established a " Sister City " relationship with the city of Xi 'an . A similar business development trip in 2014 to India included visits to high @-@ tech firms , embracing Hyderabad as a Sister City , and included a visit on the way back to Taiwan .
Over Leggett 's first eight years , County taxes as a percentage of County residents ' income went down by 10 percent .
= = = Third term as county executive = = =
Leggett easily won the Democratic nomination for a third term , gaining 45 percent of the vote to 33 percent for former county executive Doug Duncan and 22 percent for councilmember Phil Andrews , and winning 80 percent of county precincts . In the fall general election Leggett defeated the Republican candidate James Shalleck by 65 @-@ 35 percent , winning 212 of 245 voting precincts .
In his inaugural address , Leggett outlined a Six @-@ Point Economic Plan designed to encourage investment and job growth in the county , touching on filling vacant office space , boosting start @-@ up tech ventures , guaranteeing a 30 @-@ day turn @-@ around time for permitting of ready new projects and development , improving work @-@ force development , and introducing a new , high @-@ speed fiber network . The proposal also included the development of an Independent Transit Authority to expand transportation options , enhance job growth from planned projects and grow the County 's tax base .
Leggett was elected as president of the Maryland Association of Counties in January 2015 .
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= Jim Raynor =
General James Eugene " Jim " Raynor is a fictional character and a major protagonist in Blizzard Entertainment 's science fiction StarCraft series . Raynor is a predominant character in the science fiction real @-@ time strategy video games StarCraft and Brood War , and is a player character in StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty . Outside video games , Raynor appears in the novels Liberty 's Crusade and Queen of Blades , while his backstory is explored in the novels Heaven 's Devils and Devil 's Due . Robert Clotworthy voices the character in all video game appearances .
Created by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , Raynor is loosely based on a character of the same name in the 1991 film Rush . Metzen conceived Raynor to represent the ordinary man in a series populated with politically motivated characters . Raynor 's physical appearance was designed by Metzen himself . A Terran in his thirties , Raynor is a former soldier and outlaw who eventually becomes a marshal on a backwater colony world . Raynor joins Arcturus Mengsk 's revolution against the oppressive Terran Confederacy but becomes disillusioned with Mengsk 's genocidal tactics , forming his own paramilitary group to challenge Mengsk 's tyranny .
The character has received a positive critical response ; Raynor 's depiction in StarCraft and Brood War was praised for its character depth and the quality of Clotworthy 's voice acting . One survey by GameSpot put Raynor as one of the top ten heroes in video gaming .
= = Character design = =
The character of Raynor was originally devised by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , with his depiction as a rough @-@ living and dangerous man developed through various pieces of concept art by Metzen . In an interview , Raynor 's voice actor Robert Clotworthy cited one piece of this concept art in how he decided to voice the character . The art , showing Raynor on a hoverbike and outfitted with futuristic weaponry , gave Clotworthy the impression that as Raynor was someone people " wouldn 't mess with " , he would not have to raise his voice as " other characters [ would ] shut up and listen " or face the consequences . Clotworthy also stated that in the event that a StarCraft film was produced , he believed Clive Owen would be the perfect choice to play Raynor due to him " being dangerous " .
Raynor 's character is based on a character of the same name in the film Rush , whom Chris Metzen describes as a " gritty , undercover cop " . Metzen also states that Raynor is a personal favorite character of his , as although he is only an ordinary man , he has personally met and worked with the most influential characters in the series . In StarCraft II , Raynor was again voiced by Robert Clotworthy .
The tactical shooter StarCraft : Ghost was to feature Raynor as Clotworthy stated he was brought in to voice the character ; however , the game has been postponed indefinitely and Raynor 's role has not been revealed . Bill Roper , Blizzard North 's former vice president , stated that the game would not center on Kerrigan or Raynor .
= = Attributes = =
= = = Personality = = =
Despite an often laid back and sarcastic demeanor , Raynor is described in the novel Liberty 's Crusade as a decent and honorable man that is well liked by those under his command . Robert Clotworthy noted that as such , Raynor is always willing to do the right thing , no matter how difficult it may be . His assertion to kill Sarah Kerrigan — the series ' main antagonist — despite his former love for her early in the story arc is one of the sacrifices that in Clotworthy 's eyes makes Raynor a " true hero in the purest sense of the word " . He is also described as being fiercely loyal to his friends and his cause , willing to put it all at risk for the protection of those who cannot defend themselves . It is this loyalty that causes deep resentment in Raynor when he is betrayed by those he had once trusted . Although often displaying an overzealous attitude , Raynor is well respected by his men as a dynamic and reliable leader who always tries to ensure his troops survive the day , even when Raynor is responsible for getting them into a bad situation . Raynor himself acknowledges that he is not the most intelligent man there is , but is shown as being extremely resourceful and persistent in the face of unfavorable odds .
= = = Depiction = = =
Raynor is only ever depicted by his unit portrait through the course of StarCraft and Brood War . He is later shown in StarCraft II as a physically strong yet casually dressed character , wearing his combat gear over his normal clothes , which are further described in the novels as well @-@ worn and rough in appearance . Raynor has a neatly trimmed moustache and beard , which by the time of StarCraft II are beginning to grey . His StarCraft II model also reveals the presence of tattoos on both his arms . In addition , a number of pieces of concept art depict Raynor smoking . Unlike other characters , Raynor isn 't seen wearing a uniform at any point during the series , with the rare exceptions of when he is encased in marine combat armour . Raynor is often depicted riding a modified vulture hovercycle , which he uses for transport and in open land combat .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
= = = = StarCraft : The Great War = = = =
Raynor 's first appearance is in the 1998 title StarCraft . Raynor is a marshall on the Confederate fringe colony of Mar Sara , where he is attempting to defend the population from an expanding Zerg infestation . As the Confederacy abandons Mar Sara to its fate , Arcturus Mengsk and his rebel Sons of Korhal arrive to evacuate the colony . Thoroughly disillusioned with the Confederacy , Raynor and his colonial militia join the Sons of Korhal . During his time with the rebels , Raynor falls in love with Mengsk 's second @-@ in @-@ command , psychic assassin Sarah Kerrigan . However , when Mengsk uses Zerg @-@ attracting Confederate technology to destroy the Confederate capital Tarsonis and abandons Kerrigan on Tarsonis to the Zerg , Raynor and his militia desert , hijacking Mengsk 's flagship Hyperion in the process . Raynor 's men , labelling themselves " Raynor 's Raiders " , take it upon themselves to strike at Mengsk , who has crowned himself emperor of the new Terran Dominion . Soon after , Raynor is lured to the planet Char by psychic dreams . He discovers the source is Kerrigan , who has been captured and infested by the Zerg . Raynor tries to save her , but to no avail ; he and his men end up stranded on Char for months . Raynor discovers a Protoss force led by high templar Tassadar and the dark templar Zeratul is also on Char , likewise attracted by Kerrigan 's psychic emanations and subsequently stranded . The two groups ally and hold out against Kerrigan and the Zerg until rescue arrives with forces from the Protoss homeworld of Aiur . Raynor and his remaining Raiders accompany Tassadar back to Aiur , which has fallen prey to Zerg invasion , and help the Protoss destroy the gargantuan Zerg Overmind .
= = = = StarCraft : Brood Wars = = = =
Raynor returns in Brood War , having earned the trust of the Protoss and befriended the templar warrior Fenix . The Raiders and Fenix 's forces remain on Aiur as a rearguard while the surviving Protoss evacuate their homeworld , now devastated and overrun by the Zerg , for the dark templar world of Shakuras . Raynor is later contacted by Kerrigan , who convinces them to join with her against the United Earth Directorate ( UED ) , which has arrived to pacify the sector by any means necessary . Raynor and Fenix reluctantly prevent Mengsk 's capture by the UED , and with Kerrigan 's Zerg rout the UED from the Dominion throne world of Korhal . However , Kerrigan turns on her allies , launching a surprise attack against both the Dominion and the Raiders . Although the Hyperion escapes the planet , Fenix is killed in the attack ; an outraged Raynor vows that Kerrigan will die by his hands .
= = = = StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty = = = =
The 2010 sequel Wings of Liberty takes place four years later , where the Raiders are still resisting the renewed Dominion , but are low on morale and resources , while their efforts are marginalised by Dominion media . Raynor , blaming himself for Kerrigan 's transformation and Fenix 's death , has started drinking . He returns to Mar Sara , where he is approached by a former associate , Tychus Findlay , with a business proposition to acquire Xel 'Naga artifacts for a research group , the Moebius Foundation . The artifacts , guarded by an extremist faction of Protoss , are also sought by Kerrigan , who launches a vast invasion of the Dominion to find them . Between Missions Zeratul appears and tells Raynor that Kerrigan must survive the coming battles " or all is lost " , as she will be pivotal to every species surviving a coming enemy worse than even the Zerg . To prove his point he leaves a protoss memory device , through which Raynor sees Zeratuls journey following an ancient prophecy and the vision of an alternate timelines future . In this Vision Kerrigan had died and the swarm ( under control of an unknown entity ) is wiping out the last remaining Protoss - with the Humans having already fallen and the Zerg being wiped out after their victory .
Eventually accumulating all the artifacts , the Raiders discover that the Moebius Foundation is a front for the heir apparent of the Dominion , Valerian Mengsk ; though the Hyperion crew is concerned about having been working for their enemy , Valerian coaxes Raynor to accompany him in invading Char as the combined artifact may reverse Kerrigan 's infestation . Although the Dominion takes heavy losses to the Zerg , the Raiders defend the artifact from Kerrigan until it can be activated ; upon detonating , it destroys all nearby Zerg and leaves Kerrigan human again . However , Findlay , acting on orders from Arcturus Mengsk , attempts to kill the weakened Kerrigan , forcing Raynor to kill Findlay before tending to Kerrigan .
= = = = StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm = = = =
Following the battle of Char , in Heart of the Swarm , Raynor and Kerrigan are taken to a secret lab by Valerian to evaluate the extension of Kerrigan 's current power to control the Zergs , until it is attacked by Dominion forces . Raynor is captured by Nova and Mengsk declares that he was executed , much to Kerrigan 's grief . However , Mengsk later contacts Kerrigan and reveals that Raynor is still alive and under his custody , using him as a leverage to have her keep the Zerg swarm , now reunited under her command , away from Dominion Territory . Kerrigan then manages to rescue Raynor with the Raiders ' help and despite his rejection of Kerrigan at first for choosing to abandon her humanity in order to save him , he and his forces join the swarm for a final battle on Korhal to overthrow Mengsk , saving Kerrigan once more when the Emperor tries to destroy her with the artifact , ultimately leading to Mengsk 's death at her hands . Reconciled with Kerrigan , Raynor bids farewell to her as she leaves with the Zerg swarm to confront Amon , the fallen Xel 'Naga which intends to return and exterminate both the Zerg and Protoss races .
= = = = StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void = = = =
During the events of Legacy of the Void , Raynor participates in the defense of Korhal from Amon 's forces alongside Artanis . He is later given a psionic call by Kerrigan to aid her and Artanis in a joint Terran Dominion / Zerg Swarm / Protoss invasion of the Void , a realm accessed from the Xel 'Naga homeworld of Ulnar , to permanently kill Amon . In the aftermath of the war , Raynor disappears from public view with Kerrigan .
= = = In novels = = =
Several StarCraft novels also feature Raynor ; he is a prominent character in Liberty 's Crusade , which reveals that Raynor had a wife and son . His son exhibited psychic potential and consequently is conscripted for the Confederate ghost program , where the intense training ultimately kills him . Afterward , Raynor 's wife Liddy dies after a period of depression and illness . As a result , Raynor immerses himself in his work and develops a penchant for operating alone . He is also the primary protagonist in Queen of Blades , a novelization of the events of StarCraft 's Episode II in which Raynor attempts to rescue Sarah Kerrigan from the Zerg on Char and eventually allies with the high templar Tassadar and renegade dark templar Zeratul , facilitating the reconciliation between the two estranged Protoss . More recently , his early military and criminal history , including his association with Tychus Findlay , were explored in the novels Heaven 's Devils and Devil 's Due . Also in Devil 's Due , Raynor 's father died by machine error . Raynor 's mother died at day when Raynor visited her .
= = Reception = =
The character of Raynor was generally well received by critics and fans alike . Gaming 's Edge described Raynor as an " almost prototypical action movie figure " with a " healthy dose of arrogance " who despite always attempting to do the morally right thing invariably ends up with " the worst end of the deal " due to circumstances beyond his control . The article also puts forward the case that " it would be difficult not to admire Raynor , if for no other reason than his persistence " in the face of abandonment , isolation and betrayal . In the review of StarCraft for the magazine GamePro , the reviewer stated that he felt that the portrayal of characters was so good that he felt they " were actually talking to me " and expressed that he began to feel an emotional attachment to the plights of Raynor , commenting " When was the last time you could say that about a character in a strategy game ? " A reader 's poll for GameSpot voted Raynor one of video gaming 's top ten heroes , complimenting Raynor 's character on his humanity , his resilience in the face of consistent loss , as well as his progression from backwater marshal to galactic hero . GameSpot also gave additional praise to the quality of Robert Clotworthy 's voice acting . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked him as the 80th " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in games , commenting : " He embodies the concept of the greater good and is willing to put it all on the line to protect others . If you ’ re ever stuck in a sticky situation , whether it ’ s against a swarm of Zerg or a Protoss fleet , he ’ s the man you want to be fighting side by side with . " In 2013 , Complex ranked Raynor as the 24th greatest soldier in video games .
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= International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights =
The International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights ( ICESCR ) is a multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 16 December 1966 , and in force from 3 January 1976 . It commits its parties to work toward the granting of economic , social , and cultural rights ( ESCR ) to the Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing and Trust Territories and individuals , including labour rights and the right to health , the right to education , and the right to an adequate standard of living . As of 2015 , the Covenant has 164 parties . A further six countries , including the United States , have signed but not ratified the Covenant .
The ICESCR is part of the International Bill of Human Rights , along with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( UDHR ) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ( ICCPR ) , including the latter 's first and second Optional Protocols .
The Covenant is monitored by the UN Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights .
= = Genesis = =
The ICESCR has its roots in the same process that led to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . A " Declaration on the Essential Rights of Man " had been proposed at the 1945 San Francisco Conference which led to the founding of the United Nations , and the Economic and Social Council was given the task of drafting it . Early on in the process , the document was split into a declaration setting forth general principles of human rights , and a convention or covenant containing binding commitments . The former evolved into the UDHR and was adopted on 10 December 1948 .
Drafting continued on the convention , but there remained significant differences between UN members on the relative importance of negative civil and political versus positive economic , social and cultural rights . These eventually caused the convention to be split into two separate covenants , " one to contain civil and political rights and the other to contain economic , social and cultural rights . " The two covenants were to contain as many similar provisions as possible , and be opened for signature simultaneously . Each would also contain an article on the right of all peoples to self @-@ determination .
The States Parties to the present Covenant , including those having responsibility for the administration of Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing and Trust Territories , shall promote the realization of the right of self @-@ determination , and shall respect that right , in conformity with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations .
The first document became the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , and the second the International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights . The drafts were presented to the UN General Assembly for discussion in 1954 , and adopted in 1966 .
= = Summary = =
The Covenant follows the structure of the UDHR and the ICCPR , with a preamble and thirty @-@ one articles , divided into five parts .
Part 1 ( Article 1 ) recognises the right of all peoples to self @-@ determination , including the right to " freely determine their political status " , pursue their economic , social and cultural goals , and manage and dispose of their own resources . It recognises a negative right of a people not to be deprived of its means of subsistence , and imposes an obligation on those parties still responsible for non @-@ self governing and trust territories ( colonies ) to encourage and respect their self @-@ determination .
Part 2 ( Articles 2 – 5 ) establishes the principle of " progressive realisation " – see below . It also requires the rights be recognised " without discrimination of any kind as to race , colour , sex , language , religion , political or other opinion , national or social origin , property , birth or other status " . The rights can only be limited by law , in a manner compatible with the nature of the rights , and only for the purpose of " promoting the general welfare in a democratic society " .
Part 3 ( Articles 6 – 15 ) lists the rights themselves . These include rights to
work , under " just and favourable conditions " , with the right to form and join trade unions ( Articles 6 , 7 , and 8 ) ;
social security , including social insurance ( Article 9 ) ;
family life , including paid parental leave and the protection of children ( Article 10 ) ;
an adequate standard of living , including adequate food , clothing and housing , and the " continuous improvement of living conditions " ( Article 11 ) ;
health , specifically " the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health " ( Article 12 ) ;
education , including free universal primary education , generally available secondary education and equally accessible higher education . This should be directed to " the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity " , and enable all persons to participate effectively in society ( Articles 13 and 14 ) ;
participation in cultural life ( Article 15 ) .
Many of these rights include specific actions which must be undertaken to realise them .
Part 4 ( Articles 16 – 25 ) governs reporting and monitoring of the Covenant and the steps taken by the parties to implement it . It also allows the monitoring body – originally the United Nations Economic and Social Council – now the Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights – see below – to make general recommendations to the UN General Assembly on appropriate measures to realise the rights ( Article 21 )
Part 5 ( Articles 26 – 31 ) governs ratification , entry into force , and amendment of the Covenant .
= = Core provisions = =
= = = Principle of progressive realisation = = =
Article 2 of the Covenant imposes a duty on all parties to
take steps ... to the maximum of its available resources , with a view to achieving progressively the full realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by all appropriate means , including particularly the adoption of legislative measures .
This is known as the principle of " progressive realisation " . It acknowledges that some of the rights ( for example , the right to health ) may be difficult in practice to achieve in a short period of time , and that states may be subject to resource constraints , but requires them to act as best they can within their means .
The principle differs from that of the ICCPR , which obliges parties to " respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction " the rights in that Convention . However , it does not render the Covenant meaningless . The requirement to " take steps " imposes a continuing obligation to work towards the realisation of the rights . It also rules out deliberately regressive measures which impede that goal . The Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights also interprets the principle as imposing minimum core obligations to provide , at the least , minimum essential levels of each of the rights . If resources are highly constrained , this should include the use of targeted programmes aimed at the vulnerable .
The Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights regards legislation as an indispensable means for realising the rights which is unlikely to be limited by resource constraints . The enacting of anti @-@ discrimination provisions and the establishment of enforceable rights with judicial remedies within national legal systems are considered to be appropriate means . Some provisions , such as anti @-@ discrimination laws , are already required under other human rights instruments , such as the ICCPR .
= = = Labor rights = = =
Article 6 of the Covenant recognises the right to work , defined as the opportunity of everyone to gain their living by freely chosen or accepted work . Parties are required to take " appropriate steps " to safeguard this right , including technical and vocational training and economic policies aimed at steady economic development and ultimately full employment . The right implies parties must guarantee equal access to employment and protect workers from being unfairly deprived of employment . They must prevent discrimination in the workplace and ensure access for the disadvantaged . The fact that work must be freely chosen or accepted means parties must prohibit forced or child labor .
The work referred to in Article 6 must be decent work . This is effectively defined by Article 7 of the Covenant , which recognises the right of everyone to " just and favourable " working conditions . These are in turn defined as fair wages with equal pay for equal work , sufficient to provide a decent living for workers and their dependants ; safe working conditions ; equal opportunity in the workplace ; and sufficient rest and leisure , including limited working hours and regular , paid holidays .
Article 8 recognises the right of workers to form or join trade unions and protects the right to strike . It allows these rights to be restricted for members of the armed forces , police , or government administrators . Several parties have placed reservations on this clause , allowing it to be interpreted in a manner consistent with their constitutions ( e.g. , China , Mexico ) , or extending the restriction of union rights to groups such as firefighters ( e.g. , Japan ) .
= = = Right to social security = = =
Article 9 of the Covenant recognizes " the right of everyone to social security , including social insurance " . It requires parties to provide some form of social insurance scheme to protect people against the risks of sickness , disability , maternity , employment injury , unemployment or old age ; to provide for survivors , orphans , and those who cannot afford health care ; and to ensure that families are adequately supported . Benefits from such a scheme must be adequate , accessible to all , and provided without discrimination . The Covenant does not restrict the form of the scheme , and both contributory and non @-@ contributory schemes are permissible ( as are community @-@ based and mutual schemes ) .
The Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights has noted persistent problems with the implementation of this right , with very low levels of access .
Several parties , including France and Monaco , have reservations allowing them to set residence requirements in order to qualify for social benefits . The Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights permits such restrictions , provided they are proportionate and reasonable .
= = = Right to family life = = =
Article 10 of the Covenant recognises the family as " the natural and fundamental group unit of society " , and requires parties to accord it " the widest possible protection and assistance " . Parties must ensure that their citizens are free to establish families and that marriages are freely contracted and not forced . Parties must also provide paid leave or adequate social security to mothers before and after childbirth , an obligation which overlaps with that of Article 9 . Finally , parties must take " special measures " to protect children from economic or social exploitation , including setting a minimum age of employment and barring children from dangerous and harmful occupations .
= = = Right to an adequate standard of living = = =
Article 11 recognises the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living . This includes , but is not limited to , the right to adequate food , clothing , housing , and " the continuous improvement of living conditions " . It also creates an obligation on parties to work together to eliminate world hunger .
The right to adequate food , also referred to as the right to food , is interpreted as requiring " the availability of food in a quantity and quality sufficient to satisfy the dietary needs of individuals , free from adverse substances , and acceptable within a given culture " . This must be accessible to all , implying an obligation to provide special programmes for the vulnerable . This must also ensure an equitable distribution of world food supplies in relation to need , taking into account the problems of food @-@ importing and food @-@ exporting countries . The right to adequate food also implies a right to water .
The right to adequate housing , also referred to as the right to housing , is " the right to live somewhere in security , peace and dignity " . It requires " adequate privacy , adequate space , adequate security , adequate lighting and ventilation , adequate basic infrastructure and adequate location with regard to work and basic facilities – all at a reasonable cost " . Parties must ensure security of tenure and that access is free of discrimination , and progressively work to eliminate homelessness . Forced evictions , defined as " the permanent or temporary removal against their will of individuals , families and / or communities from the homes and / or land which they occupy , without the provision of , and access to , appropriate forms of legal or other protection " , are a prima facie violation of the Covenant .
The right to adequate clothing , also referred to as the right to clothing , has not been authoritatively defined and has received little in the way of academic commentary or international discussion . What is considered " adequate " has only been discussed in specific contexts , such as refugees , the disabled , the elderly , or workers .
= = = Right to health = = =
Article 12 of the Covenant recognises the right of everyone to " the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health " . " Health " is understood not just as a right to be healthy , but as a right to control ones own health and body ( including reproduction ) , and be free from interference such as torture or medical experimentation . States must protect this right by ensuring that everyone within their jurisdiction has access to the underlying determinants of health , such as clean water , sanitation , food , nutrition and housing , and through a comprehensive system of healthcare , which is available to everyone without discrimination , and economically accessible to all .
Article 12 @.@ 2 requires parties to take specific steps to improve the health of their citizens , including reducing infant mortality and improving child health , improving environmental and workplace health , preventing , controlling and treating epidemic diseases , and creating conditions to ensure equal and timely access to medical services for all . These are considered to be " illustrative , non @-@ exhaustive examples " , rather than a complete statement of parties ' obligations .
The right to health is interpreted as requiring parties to respect women 's ' reproductive rights , by not limiting access to contraception or " censoring , withholding or intentionally misrepresenting " information about sexual health . They must also ensure that women are protected from harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation .
Right to health is inclusive right extending not only to timely and appropriate health care but also to the underlying determinants of health , such as access to safe and potable water and adequate sanitation , an adequate supply of safe food , nutrition and housing , healthy occupational and environmental conditions .
= = = Right to free education = = =
Article 13 of the Covenant recognises the right of everyone to free education ( free for the primary level and " the progressive introduction of free education " for the secondary and higher levels ) . This is to be directed towards " the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity " , and enable all persons to participate effectively in society . Education is seen both as a human right and as " an indispensable means of realizing other human rights " , and so this is one of the longest and most important articles of the Covenant .
Article 13 @.@ 2 lists a number of specific steps parties are required to pursue to realise the right of education . These include the provision of free , universal and compulsory primary education , " generally available and accessible " secondary education in various forms ( including technical and vocational training ) , and equally accessible higher education . All of these must be available to all without discrimination . Parties must also develop a school system ( though it may be public , private , or mixed ) , encourage or provide scholarships for disadvantaged groups . Parties are required to make education free at all levels , either immediately or progressively ; " [ p ] rimary education shall be compulsory and available free to all " ; secondary education " shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means , and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education " ; and " [ h ] igher education shall be made equally accessible to all , on the basis of capacity , by every appropriate means , and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education " .
Articles 13 @.@ 3 and 13 @.@ 4 require parties to respect the educational freedom of parents by allowing them to choose and establish private educational institutions for their children , also referred to as freedom of education . It also recognises the right of parents to " ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions " . This is interpreted as requiring public schools to respect the freedom of religion and conscience of their students , and as forbidding instruction in a particular religion or belief system unless non @-@ discriminatory exemptions and alternatives are available .
The Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights interpret the Covenant as also requiring states to respect the academic freedom of staff and students , as this is vital for the educational process . It also considers corporal punishment in schools to be inconsistent with the Covenant 's underlying principle of the dignity of the individual .
Article 14 of the Covenant requires those parties which have not yet established a system of free compulsory primary education , to rapidly adopt a detailed plan of action for its introduction " within a reasonable number of years " .
= = = Right to participation in cultural life = = =
Article 15 of the Covenant recognises the right of everyone to participate in cultural life , enjoy the benefits of scientific progress , and to benefit from the protection of the moral and material rights to any scientific discovery or artistic work they have created . The latter clause is sometimes seen as requiring the protection of intellectual property , but the Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights interprets it as primarily protecting the moral rights of authors and " proclaim [ ing ] the intrinsically personal character of every creation of the human mind and the ensuing durable link between creators and their creations " . It thus requires parties to respect the right of authors to be recognised as the creator of a work . The material rights are interpreted as being part of the right to an adequate standard of living , and " need not extend over the entire lifespan of an author . "
Parties must also work to promote the conservation , development and diffusion of science and culture , " respect the freedom indispensable for scientific research and creative activity " , and encourage international contacts and cooperation in these fields .
= = Reservations = =
A number of parties have made reservations and interpretative declarations to their application of the Covenant .
Algeria interprets parts of Article 13 , protecting the liberty of parents to freely choose or establish suitable educational institutions , so as not to " impair its right freely to organize its educational system . "
Bangladesh interprets the self @-@ determination clause in Article 1 as applying in the historical context of colonialism . It also reserves the right to interpret the labour rights in Articles 7 and 8 and the non @-@ discrimination clauses of Articles 2 and 3 within the context of its constitution and domestic law .
Belgium interprets non @-@ discrimination as to national origin as " not necessarily implying an obligation on States automatically to guarantee to foreigners the same rights as to their nationals . The term should be understood to refer to the elimination of any arbitrary behaviour but not of differences in treatment based on objective and reasonable considerations , in conformity with the principles prevailing in democratic societies . "
China restricts labour rights in Article 8 in a manner consistent with its constitution and domestic law .
Egypt accepts the Covenant only to the extent it does not conflict with Islamic Sharia law . Sharia is " a primary source of legislation " under Article 2 of both the suspended 1973 Constitution and the 2011 Provisional Constitutional Declaration .
France views the Covenant as subservient to the UN Charter . It also reserves the right to govern the access of aliens to employment , social security , and other benefits .
India interprets the right of self @-@ determination as applying " only to the peoples under foreign domination " and not to apply to peoples within sovereign nation @-@ states . It also interprets the limitation of rights clause and the rights of equal opportunity in the workplace within the context of its constitution .
Indonesia interprets the self @-@ determination clause ( Article 1 ) within the context of other international law and as not applying to peoples within a sovereign nation @-@ state .
Ireland reserves the right to promote the Irish language .
Japan reserved the right not to be bound to progressively introduce free secondary and higher education , the right to strike for public servant and the remuneration on public holidays .
Kuwait interprets the non @-@ discrimination clauses of Articles 2 and 3 within its constitution and laws , and reserves the right to social security to apply only to Kuwaitis . It also reserves the right to forbid strikes .
Mexico restricts the labour rights in Article 8 within the context of its constitution and laws .
Monaco interprets the principle of non @-@ discrimination on the grounds of national origin as " not necessarily implying an automatic obligation on the part of States to guarantee foreigners the same rights as their nationals " , and reserves the right to set residence requirements on the rights to work , health , education , and social security .
New Zealand reserved the right not to apply Article 8 ( the right to form and join trade unions ) insofar as existing measures ( which at the time included compulsory unionism and encouraged arbitration of disputes ) were incompatible with it .
Norway reserves the right to strike so as to allow for compulsory arbitration of some labour disputes .
Pakistan has a general reservation to interpret the Covenant within the framework of its constitution .
Thailand interprets the right to self @-@ determination within the framework of other international law .
Trinidad and Tobago reserves the right to restrict the right to strike of those engaged in essential occupations .
Turkey will implement the Covenant subject to the UN Charter . It also reserves the right to interpret and implement the right of parents to choose and establish educational institutions in a manner compatible with its constitution .
United Kingdom views the Covenant as subservient to the UN Charter . It made several reservations regarding its overseas territories .
United States – Amnesty International writes that " The United States signed the Covenant in 1979 under the Carter administration but is not fully bound by it until it is ratified . For political reasons , the Carter administration did not push for the necessary review of the Covenant by the Senate , which must give its ' advice and consent ' before the US can ratify a treaty . The Reagan and George H.W. Bush administrations took the view that economic , social , and cultural rights were not really rights but merely desirable social goals and therefore should not be the object of binding treaties . The Clinton Administration did not deny the nature of these rights but did not find it politically expedient to engage in a battle with Congress over the Covenant . The George W. Bush administration followed in line with the view of the previous Bush administration . " The Obama Administration stated " The Administration does not seek action at this time " on the Covenant . The Heritage Foundation , a critical conservative think tank , argues that signing it would obligate the introduction of policies that it opposes such as universal health care .
= = Optional Protocol = =
The Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights is a side @-@ agreement to the Covenant which allows its parties to recognise the competence of the Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights to consider complaints from individuals .
The Optional Protocol was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 2008 . It was opened for signature on 24 September 2009 , and as of February 2013 has been signed by 40 parties and ratified by 10 . Having passed the threshold of required ratifications it has entered into force on 5 May 2013 .
= = Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights = =
The Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights is a body of human rights experts tasked with monitoring the implementation of the Covenant . It consists of 18 independent human rights experts , elected for four @-@ year terms , with half the members elected every two years .
Unlike other human rights monitoring bodies , the Committee was not established by the treaty it oversees . Rather , it was established by the Economic and Social Council following the failure of two previous monitoring bodies .
All states parties are required to submit regular reports to the Committee outlining the legislative , judicial , policy and other measures they have taken to implement the rights affirmed in the Covenant . The first report is due within two years of ratifying the Covenant ; thereafter reports are due every five years . The Committee examines each report and addresses its concerns and recommendations to the State party in the form of “ concluding observations ” .
The Committee typically meets every May and November in Geneva .
= = Parties to the covenant = =
= = States not members of the Covenant = =
= = = Signed but not ratified = = =
Comoros ( 2008 @-@ 09 @-@ 25 )
Cuba ( 2008 @-@ 02 @-@ 28 )
Myanmar ( Burma ) ( 2015 @-@ 07 @-@ 16 )
Palau ( 2011 @-@ 09 @-@ 20 )
São Tomé and Príncipe ( 1995 @-@ 10 @-@ 31 )
United States of America ( 1977 @-@ 10 @-@ 05 )
= = = Neither signed nor ratified = = =
Andorra
Antigua and Barbuda
Botswana
Bhutan
Brunei
Fiji
Haiti
Kiribati
Malaysia
Marshall Islands
Federated States of Micronesia
Mozambique
Nauru
Oman
Qatar
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Samoa
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
St. Lucia
South Sudan
Tonga
Tuvalu
United Arab Emirates
Vanuatu
= = = Non @-@ members of the UN = = =
Taiwan ( Republic of China )
Vatican City ( through the Holy See )
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= Allocator ( C + + ) =
In C + + computer programming , allocators are an important component of the C + + Standard Library . The standard library provides several data structures , such as list and set , commonly referred to as containers . A common trait among these containers is their ability to change size during the execution of the program . To achieve this , some form of dynamic memory allocation is usually required . Allocators handle all the requests for allocation and deallocation of memory for a given container . The C + + Standard Library provides general @-@ purpose allocators that are used by default , however , custom allocators may also be supplied by the programmer .
Allocators were invented by Alexander Stepanov as part of the Standard Template Library ( STL ) . They were originally intended as a means to make the library more flexible and independent of the underlying memory model , allowing programmers to utilize custom pointer and reference types with the library . However , in the process of adopting STL into the C + + standard , the C + + standardization committee realized that a complete abstraction of the memory model would incur unacceptable performance penalties . To remedy this , the requirements of allocators were made more restrictive . As a result , the level of customization provided by allocators is more limited than was originally envisioned by Stepanov .
Nevertheless , there are many scenarios where customized allocators are desirable . Some of the most common reasons for writing custom allocators include improving performance of allocations by using memory pools , and encapsulating access to different types of memory , like shared memory or garbage @-@ collected memory . In particular , programs with many frequent allocations of small amounts of memory may benefit greatly from specialized allocators , both in terms of running time and memory footprint .
= = Background = =
Alexander Stepanov and Meng Lee presented the Standard Template Library to the C + + standards committee in March 1994 . The library received preliminary approval , although a few issues were raised . In particular , Stepanov was requested to make the library containers independent of the underlying memory model , which led to the creation of allocators . Consequently , all of the STL container interfaces had to be rewritten to accept allocators .
In adapting STL to be included in the C + + Standard Library , Stepanov worked closely with several members of the standards committee , including Andrew Koenig and Bjarne Stroustrup , who observed that custom allocators could potentially be used to implement persistent storage STL containers , which Stepanov at the time considered an " important and interesting insight " .
The original allocator proposal incorporated some language features that had not yet been accepted by the committee , namely the ability to use template arguments that are themselves templates . Since these features could not be compiled by any existing compiler , there was , according to Stepanov , " an enormous demand on Bjarne [ Stroustrup ] ' s and Andy [ Koenig ] ' s time trying to verify that we were using these non @-@ implemented features correctly . " Where the library had previously used pointer and reference types directly , it would now only refer to the types defined by the allocator . Stepanov later described allocators as follows : " A nice feature of STL is that the only place that mentions the machine @-@ related types ( ... ) is encapsulated within roughly 16 lines of code . "
While Stepanov had originally intended allocators to completely encapsulate the memory model , the standards committee realized that this approach would lead to unacceptable efficiency degradations . To remedy this , additional wording was added to the allocator requirements . In particular , container implementations may assume that the allocator 's type definitions for pointers and related integral types are equivalent to those provided by the default allocator , and that all instances of a given allocator type always compare equal , effectively contradicting the original design goals for allocators and limiting the usefulness of allocators that carry state .
Stepanov later commented that , while allocators " are not such a bad [ idea ] in theory ( ... ) [ u ] nfortunately they cannot work in practice " . He observed that to make allocators really useful , a change to the core language with regards to references was necessary .
The 2011 revision of the C + + Standard removed the weasel words requiring that allocators of a given type always compare equal and use normal pointers . These changes make stateful allocators much more useful and allow allocators to manage out @-@ of @-@ process shared memory . The current purpose of allocators is to give the programmer control over memory allocation within containers , rather than to adapt the address model of the underlying hardware . In fact , the revised standard eliminated the ability of allocators to represent extensions to the C + + address model , formally ( and deliberately ) eliminating their original purpose .
= = Requirements = =
Any class that fulfills the allocator requirements can be used as an allocator . In particular , a class A capable of allocating memory for an object of type T must provide the types A : : pointer , A : : const _ pointer , A : : reference , A : : const _ reference , and A : : value _ type for generically declaring objects and references ( or pointers ) to objects of type T. It should also provide type A : : size _ type , an unsigned type which can represent the largest size for an object in the allocation model defined by A , and similarly , a signed integral A : : difference _ type that can represent the difference between any two pointers in the allocation model .
Although a conforming standard library implementation is allowed to assume that the allocator 's A : : pointer and A : : const _ pointer are simply typedefs for T * and T const * , library implementors are encouraged to support more general allocators .
An allocator , A , for objects of type T must have a member function with the signature A : : pointer A : : allocate ( size _ type n , A < void > : : const _ pointer hint = 0 ) . This function returns a pointer to the first element of a newly allocated array large enough to contain n objects of type T ; only the memory is allocated , and the objects are not constructed . Moreover , an optional pointer argument ( that points to an object already allocated by A ) can be used as a hint to the implementation about where the new memory should be allocated in order to improve locality . However , the implementation is free to ignore the argument .
The corresponding void A : : deallocate ( A : : pointer p , A : : size _ type n ) member function accepts any pointer that was returned from a previous invocation of the A : : allocate member function and the number of elements to deallocate ( but not destruct ) .
The A : : max _ size ( ) member function returns the largest number of objects of type T that could be expected to be successfully allocated by an invocation of A : : allocate ; the value returned is typically A : : size _ type ( -1 ) / sizeof ( T ) . Also , the A : : address member function returns an A : : pointer denoting the address of an object , given an A : : reference .
Object construction and destruction is performed separately from allocation and deallocation . The allocator is required to have two member functions , A : : construct and A : : destroy , which handles object construction and destruction , respectively . The semantics of the functions should be equivalent to the following :
The above code uses the placement new syntax , and calls the destructor directly .
Allocators should be copy @-@ constructible . An allocator for objects of type T can be constructed from an allocator for objects of type U. If an allocator , A , allocates a region of memory , R , then R can only be deallocated by an allocator that compares equal to A.
Allocators are required to supply a template class member template < typename U > struct A : : rebind { typedef A < U > other ; } ; , which enables the possibility of obtaining a related allocator , parameterized in terms of a different type . For example , given an allocator type IntAllocator for objects of type int , a related allocator type for objects of type long could be obtained using IntAllocator : : rebind < long > : : other .
= = Custom allocators = =
One of the main reasons for writing a custom allocator is performance . Utilizing a specialized custom allocator may substantially improve the performance or memory usage , or both , of the program . The default allocator uses operator new to allocate memory . This is often implemented as a thin layer around the C heap allocation functions , which are usually optimized for infrequent allocation of large memory blocks . This approach may work well with containers that mostly allocate large chunks of memory , like vector and deque . However , for containers that require frequent allocations of small objects , such as map and list , using the default allocator is generally slow . Other common problems with a malloc @-@ based allocator include poor locality of reference , and excessive memory fragmentation .
A popular approach to improve performance is to create a memory pool @-@ based allocator . Instead of allocating memory every time an item is inserted or removed from a container , a large block of memory ( the memory pool ) is allocated beforehand , possibly at the startup of the program . The custom allocator will serve individual allocation requests by simply returning a pointer to memory from the pool . Actual deallocation of memory can be deferred until the lifetime of the memory pool ends . An example of memory pool @-@ based allocators can be found in the Boost C + + Libraries .
Another viable use of custom allocators is for debugging memory @-@ related errors . This could be achieved by writing an allocator that allocates extra memory in which it places debugging information . Such an allocator could be used to ensure that memory is allocated and deallocated by the same type of allocator , and also provide limited protection against overruns .
The subject of custom allocators has been treated by many C + + experts and authors , including Scott Meyers in Effective STL and Andrei Alexandrescu in Modern C + + Design . Meyers emphasises that C + + 98 requires all instances of an allocator to be equivalent , and notes that this in effect forces portable allocators to not have state . Although the C + + 98 Standard did encourage library implementors to support stateful allocators , Meyers calls the relevant paragraph " a lovely sentiment " that " offers you next to nothing " , characterizing the restriction as " draconian " .
In The C + + Programming Language , Bjarne Stroustrup , on the other hand , argues that the " apparently [ d ] raconian restriction against per @-@ object information in allocators is not particularly serious " , pointing out that most allocators do not need state , and have better performance without it . He mentions three use cases for custom allocators , namely , memory pool allocators , shared memory allocators , and garbage collected memory allocators . He presents an allocator implementation that uses an internal memory pool for fast allocation and deallocation of small chunks of memory , but notes that such an optimization may already be performed by the allocator provided by the implementation .
= = = Usage = = =
When instantiating one of the standard containers , the allocator is specified through a template argument , which defaults to std : : allocator < T > :
Like all C + + class templates , instantiations of standard library containers with different allocator arguments are distinct types . A function expecting an std : : vector < int > argument will therefore only accept a vector instantiated with the default allocator .
= = = Enhancements to allocators in C + + 11 = = =
The C + + 11 standard has enhanced the allocator interface to allow " scoped " allocators , so that containers with " nested " memory allocations , such as vector of strings or a map of lists of sets of user @-@ defined types , can ensure that all memory is sourced from the container 's allocator .
= = Example = =
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= Cottage garden =
The cottage garden is a distinct style that uses informal design , traditional materials , dense plantings , and a mixture of ornamental and edible plants . English in origin , it depends on grace and charm rather than grandeur and formal structure . Homely and functional gardens connected to working @-@ class cottages go back centuries , but their stylized reinvention occurred in 1870s England , as a reaction to the more structured , rigorously maintained estate gardens with their formal designs and mass plantings of greenhouse annuals .
The earliest cottage gardens were more practical than today 's , with emphasis on vegetables and herbs , fruit trees , perhaps a beehive , and even livestock . Flowers , used to fill spaces , gradually became more dominant . The traditional cottage garden was usually enclosed , perhaps with a rose @-@ bowered gateway . Flowers common to early cottage gardens included traditional florists ' flowers such as primroses and violets , along with flowers with household use such as calendula and various herbs . Others were the richly scented old @-@ fashioned roses that bloomed once a year , and simple flowers like daisies . In time , cottage @-@ garden sections were added to some large estate gardens as well .
Modern cottage gardens include countless regional and personal variations and embrace plant materials , such as ornamental grasses or native plants not seen in the rural gardens of cottagers . Traditional roses , with their full fragrance and lush foliage , continue to be a cottage @-@ garden mainstay — along with modern disease @-@ resistant varieties that retain traditional attributes . Informal climbing plants , whether traditional or modern hybrids , are also common , as are the self @-@ sowing annuals and freely spreading perennials favoured in traditional cottagers ' gardens .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Cottage gardens , which emerged in Elizabethan times , appear to have originated as a local source for herbs and fruits . One theory is that they arose out of the Black Death of the 1340s , when the death of so many laborers made land available for small cottages with personal gardens . According to the late 19th @-@ century legend of origin , these gardens were originally created by the workers that lived in the cottages of the villages , to provide them with food and herbs , with flowers planted in for decoration . Helen Leach analysed the historical origins of the romanticised cottage garden , subjecting the garden style to rigorous historical analysis , along with the ornamental potager and the herb garden . She concluded that their origins were less in workingmen 's gardens in the 19th century and more in the leisured classes ' discovery of simple hardy plants , in part through the writings of John Claudius Loudon . Loudon helped to design the estate at Great Tew , Oxfordshire , where farm workers were provided with cottages that had architectural quality set in a small garden — about an acre — where they could grow food and keep pigs and chickens .
Authentic gardens of the yeoman cottager would have included a beehive and livestock , and frequently a pig and sty , along with a well . The peasant cottager of medieval times was more interested in meat than flowers , with herbs grown for medicinal use and cooking , rather than for their beauty . By Elizabethan times there was more prosperity , and thus more room to grow flowers . Even the early cottage garden flowers typically had their practical use — violets were spread on the floor ( for their pleasant scent and keeping out vermin ) ; calendulas and primroses were both attractive and used in cooking . Others , such as sweet william and hollyhocks were grown entirely for their beauty .
= = = Development = = =
The " naturalness " of informal design began to be noticed and developed by the British leisured class . Alexander Pope was an early proponent of less formal gardens , calling in a 1713 article for gardens with the " amiable simplicity of unadorned nature " . Other writers in the 18th century who encouraged less formal , and more natural , gardens included Joseph Addison and Lord Shaftesbury . The evolution of cottage gardens can be followed in the issues of The Cottage Gardener ( 1848 – 61 ) , edited by George William Johnson , where the emphasis is squarely on the " florist 's flowers " , carnations and auriculas in fancy varieties that were originally cultivated as a highly competitive blue @-@ collar hobby .
William Robinson and Gertrude Jekyll helped to popularise less formal gardens in their many books and magazine articles . Robinson 's The Wild Garden , published in 1870 , contained in the first edition an essay on " The Garden of British Wild Flowers " , which was eliminated from later editions . In his The English Flower Garden , illustrated with cottage gardens from Somerset , Kent and Surrey , he remarked , " One lesson of these little gardens , that are so pretty , is that one can get good effects from simple materials . " From the 1890s his lifelong friend Jekyll applied cottage garden principles to more structured designs in even quite large country houses . Her Colour in the Flower Garden ( 1908 ) is still in print today .
Robinson and Jekyll were part of the Arts and Crafts Movement , a broader movement in art , architecture , and crafts during the late 19th century which advocated a return to the informal planting style derived as much from the Romantic tradition as from the actual English cottage garden . The Arts and Crafts Exhibition of 1888 began a movement toward an idealised natural country garden style . The garden designs of Robinson and Jekyll were often associated with Arts and Crafts style houses . Both were influenced by William Morris , one of the leaders of the Arts and Crafts Movement — Robinson quoted Morris 's views condemning carpet bedding ; Jekyll shared Morris 's mystical view of nature and drew on the floral designs in his textiles for her gardening style . When Morris built his Red House in Kent , it influenced new ideas in architecture and gardening — the " old @-@ fashioned " garden suddenly became a fashion accessory among the British artistic middle class , and the cottage garden esthetic began to emigrate to America .
In the early 20th century the term " cottage garden " might be applied even to as large and sophisticated a garden as Hidcote Manor , which Vita Sackville @-@ West described as " a cottage garden on the most glorified scale " but where the colour harmonies were carefully contrived and controlled , as in the famous " Red Borders " . Sackville @-@ West had taken similar models for her own " cottage garden " , one of many " garden rooms " at Sissinghurst Castle — her idea of a cottage garden was a place where " the plants grow in a jumble , flowering shrubs mingled with Roses , herbaceous plants with bulbous subjects , climbers scrambling over hedges , seedlings coming up wherever they have chosen to sow themselves " . The cottage garden ideal was also spread by artists such as water @-@ colourist Helen Allingham ( 1848 – 1926 ) . Another influence was Margery Fish ( 1892 – 1969 ) , whose garden survives at East Lambrook Manor .
The cottage garden in France is a development of the early 20th century . Monet 's garden at Giverny is a prominent example , a sprawling garden full of varied plantings , rich colors , and water gardens . In modern times , the term ' cottage garden ' is used to describe any number of informal garden styles , using design and plants very different from their traditional English cottage garden origins . Examples include regional variations using a grass prairie scheme ( in the American midwest ) and California chaparral cottage gardens .
= = Design = =
While the classic cottage garden is built around a cottage , many cottage @-@ style gardens are created around houses and even estates such as Hidcote Manor , with its more intimate " garden rooms " . The cottage garden design is based more on principles than formulae : it has an informal look , with a seemingly casual mixture of flowers , herbs , and vegetables often packed into a small area . In spite of their appearances , cottage gardens have a design and formality that help give them their grace and charm . Due to space limitations , they are often in small rectangular plots , with practical functioning paths and hedges or fences . The plants , layout , and materials are chosen to give the impression of casualness and a country feel . Modern cottage gardens frequently use local flowers and materials , rather than those of the traditional cottage garden . What they share with the tradition is the unstudied look , the use of every square inch , and a rich variety of flowers , herbs , and vegetables .
The cottage garden is designed to appear artless , rather than contrived or pretentious . Instead of artistic curves , or grand geometry , there is an artfully designed irregularity . Borders can go right up to the house , lawns are replaced with tufts of grass or flowers , and beds can be as wide as needed . Instead of the discipline of large scale color schemes , there is the simplicity of harmonious color combinations between neighbouring plants . The overall appearance can be of " a vegetable garden that has been taken over by flowers . " The method of planting closely packed plants was supposed to reduce the amount of weeding and watering required , but planted stone pathways or turf paths , and clipped hedges overgrown with wayward vines , are cottage garden features requiring well @-@ timed maintenance .
= = = Materials = = =
Paths , arbors , and fences use traditional or antique looking materials . Wooden fences and gates , paths covered with locally made bricks or stone , and arbors using natural materials all give a more casual — and less formal — look and feel to a cottage garden . Pots , ornaments , and furniture also use natural looking materials with traditional finishes — everything is chosen to give the impression of an old @-@ fashioned country garden .
= = Plants = =
= = = Overview = = =
Until the late 19th century , cottage gardens mainly grew vegetables for household consumption . Typically half the garden would be used for cultivating potatoes and half for a mix of other vegetables . John Claudius Loudon wrote extensively on cottage gardens in his book An Encyclopædia of Gardening ( 1822 ) and in Gardener 's Magazine from 1826 . In 1838 he wrote " I seldom observe any thing in a cottage garden but potatoes , cabbages , beans , and French beans ; in a few instances onions and parsneps , and very seldom a few peas " . An 1865 issue of The Farmer 's Magazine noted that in " Ireland and much of the Highlands of Scotland , potatoes are the only thing grown in the cottage @-@ garden " .
Modern cottage garden plants are typically flowers chosen for their old @-@ fashioned and informal appeal . Many modern day gardeners use heirloom or ' old @-@ fashioned ' plants and varieties — even though these may not have been authentic or traditional cottage garden plants . In addition , there are modern varieties of flowers that fit into the cottage garden look . For example , modern roses developed by David Austin have been chosen for cottage gardens because of their old @-@ fashioned look ( multi @-@ petaled form and rosette @-@ shaped flowers ) and fragrance — combined with modern virtues of hardiness , repeat blooming , and disease @-@ resistance . Modern cottage gardens often use native plants and those adapted to the local climate , rather than trying to force traditional English plants to grow in an incompatible environment — though many of the old favorites thrive in cottage gardens throughout the world .
= = = Roses = = =
Cottage gardens are always associated with roses : shrub roses , climbing roses , and old garden roses with lush foliage , in contrast to the gangly modern hybrid tea roses . Old cottage garden roses include cultivated forms of Rosa gallica , which form dense mounded shrubs 3 – 4 ft high and wide , with pale pink to purple flowers — with single form to full double form blooms . They are also very fragrant , and include the ancient Apothecary 's rose ( R. gallica ' Officinalis ' ) , whose magenta flowers were preserved solely for their fragrance . Another old fragrant cottage garden rose is the Damask rose , which is still grown in Europe for use in perfumes . Cultivated forms of this grow 4 to 6 ft or higher , with gently arching canes that help give an informal look to a garden . Even taller generally are the Alba roses , which are not always white , and which bloom well even in partial shade .
The Provence rose or Rosa centifolia is the full and fat " cabbage rose " made famous by Dutch masters in their 17th @-@ century paintings . These very fragrant shrub roses grow 5 ft tall and wide , with a floppy habit that is aided by training on an arch or pillar . The centifolia roses have produced many descendants that are also cottage garden favorites , including varieties of moss rose ( roses with attractive ' mossy ' growth on their flower stalks and flower buds ) . Unlike most modern hybrids , the older roses bloom on the previous year 's wood , so they aren 't pruned back severely each year . Also as they don 't bloom continuously , they can share their branches with later @-@ flowering climbers such as Clematis vines , which use the rose branches for support . A rose in the cottage garden is not segregated with other roses , with bare earth or mulch underneath ' , but is casually blended with other flowers , vines , and groundcover .
With the introduction of China roses ( derived from Rosa chinensis ) late in the 18th century , many hybrids were introduced that had the remontant ( repeat @-@ blooming ) nature of the China roses , but maintained the informal old rose shape and flower . These included the Bourbon rose and the Noisette rose , which were added to the rose repertoire of the cottage garden , and , more recently , hybrid " English " roses introduced by David Austin .
= = = Climbing plants = = =
Many of the old roses had cultivars that grew very long canes , which could be tied to trellises or against walls . These older varieties are called " ramblers " , rather than " climbers " . Climbing plants in the traditional cottage garden included European honeysuckle ( Lonicera periclymenum ) and Traveller 's Joy ( Clematis vitalba ) . The modern cottage garden includes many Clematis hybrids that have the old appeal , with sparse foliage that allows them to grow through roses and trees , and along fences and arbors . There are also many Clematis species used in the modern cottage garden , including Clematis armandii , Clematis chrysocoma , and Clematis flammula . Popular honeysuckles for cottage gardens include Japanese honeysuckle and Lonicera tragophylla .
= = = Hedging plants = = =
In the traditional cottage garden , hedges served as fences on the perimeter to keep out marauding livestock and for privacy , along with other practical uses . Hawthorn leaves made a tasty snack or tea , while the flowers were used for making wine . The fast @-@ growing Elderberry , in addition to creating a hedge , provided berries for food and wine , with the flowers being fried in batter or made into lotions and ointments . The wood had many uses , including toys , pegs , skewers , and fishing poles . Holly was another hedge plant , useful because it quickly spread and self @-@ seeded . Privet was also a convenient and fast @-@ growing hedge . Over time , more ornamental and less utilitarian plants became popular cottage garden hedges , including laurel , lilac , snowberry , japonica , and others .
= = = Flowers and herbs = = =
Popular flowers in the traditional cottage garden included florist 's flowers which were grown by enthusiasts — such as violets , pinks , and primroses — and those grown with a more practical purpose . For example , the calendula , grown today almost entirely for its bright orange flowers , was primarily valued for eating , for adding color to butter and cheese , for adding smoothness to soups and stews , and for all kinds of healing salves and preparations . Like many old cottage garden annuals and herbs , it freely self @-@ sowed , making it easier to grow and share . Other popular cottage garden annuals included violets , pansies , stocks , and mignonette .
Perennials were the largest group of traditional cottage garden flowers — those with a long cottage garden history include hollyhocks , carnations , sweet williams , marguerites , marigolds , lilies , peonies , tulips , crocus , daisies , foxglove , monkshood , lavender , campanulas , Solomon 's seal , evening primrose , lily @-@ of @-@ the @-@ valley , primrose , cowslips , and many varieties of roses .
Today herbs are typically thought of as culinary plants , but in the traditional cottage garden they were considered to be any plant with household uses . Herbs were used for medicine , toiletries , and cleaning products . Scented herbs would be spread on the floor along with rushes to cover odors . Some herbs were used for dyeing fabrics . Traditional cottage garden herbs included sage , thyme , southernwood , wormwood , catmint , feverfew , lungwort , soapwort , hyssop , sweet woodruff , and lavender .
= = = Fruits = = =
Fruit in the traditional cottage garden would have included an apple and a pear , for cider and perry , gooseberries and raspberries . The modern cottage garden includes many varieties of ornamental fruit and nut trees , such as crabapple and hazel , along with non @-@ traditional trees like dogwood .
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= Stembridge Mill , High Ham =
Stembridge Tower Mill in High Ham , Somerset , England , is the last remaining thatched windmill in England . The mill is a grade II * listed building .
The stone tower mill was built in 1822 with four floors and a thatched " cap " . A steam engine was installed in 1894 , and became the mill 's sole source of power after a storm damaged it in 1897 or 1898 . Commercial use ended in 1908 . The mill is now owned by The National Trust . In 2009 , it underwent a £ 100 @,@ 000 restoration by local craftsmen funded by the Grantscape Community Heritage Fund , and was re @-@ opened later that year .
= = History = =
Stembridge Mill was constructed for Robert Tatchell in 1822 . It incorporated parts from the earlier Ham Mill , a few hundred yards to the north east . The mill has a 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) tower situated on an old mill mound , surrounded by a low wall intended to keep people and livestock away from the sails .
Tatchell leased the mill to his son @-@ in @-@ law John Sherrin , who inherited the mill in 1824 following Tatchell 's death . When Sherrin died , the mill passed to his three sons , although only one , Robert , worked the mill . Simon Spearing became the miller in 1869 . He was later assisted by his son William , who lost an arm when he was thirteen due to an accident at a watermill in Low Ham . The mill was acquired by Adam Sherrin in 1881 and owned by his family until 1902 . By the late 1880s , the mill was being rented by George Parker . He added a portable steam engine as auxiliary power . It drove one pair of stones . The mill was damaged by storms in 1897 or 1898 and after that was only powered by the steam engine , which had been installed in 1894 , rather than the wind . The bakehouse ceased to be used around this time .
Robert Hook then acquired the mill . Unable to compete against grain imports and the building of dockside mills at Avonmouth , Stembridge Mill was last used commercially in 1908 . Hook sold the mill and 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) of land to Dr. Hugh Hale Leigh Bellot for £ 500 . Upon his death in 1928 , it was inherited by his son , Professor Hugh Hale Bellot . In 1969 Professor Bellot left the windmill , miller 's cottage and garden to the National Trust in his will . New sails were added in 1971 , along with other repairs . Further repairs were carried out in 1974 , including the removal of floors . It was designated as a grade II * listed building in 1986 .
It is the last survivor of five windmills that once existed in the area .
In 2009 the sails were replaced and the mill re @-@ thatched and restored by local craftsmen at a cost of a £ 100 @,@ 000 ; the mill was re @-@ opened later that year . The work was funded by the Grantscape Community Heritage Fund . Although the sails do not rotate with the wind , they are moved 90 degrees four times per year for maintenance . Before the restoration work was undertaken surveys revealed that the mill was used as a roost for long @-@ eared and lesser horseshoe bats . It was ensured that the bats would still have access after the restoration .
= = Description = =
Note : Italicized terms are defined in the mill machinery article .
Stembridge Mill is a tower mill , a type of windmill which consists of a brick or stone tower , on top of which sits a roof or cap which can be turned to bring the sails into the wind . The advantage of the tower mill over the earlier post mill is that it is not necessary to turn the whole mill ( " body " , " buck " ) with all its machinery into the wind ; this allows more space for the machinery and storage . In the earliest tower mills the cap was turned into the wind with a long tail @-@ pole which stretched to the ground at the back of the mill . Later , a looping chain was used which turned the cap with gears , as is used at Stembridge . It is winded by a wheel and chain . The windshaft is of wood , with a cast iron cross , which carries four common sails . The brake wheel is of clasp arm construction . No other machinery remains , since the wallower , upright shaft and great spur wheel were removed after the mill ceased to operate by wind
The mill has four floors , a thatched cap and is constructed of local limestone known in the area as Blue Lias . It has two pairs of 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 22 m ) diameter millstones . One pair is French Burr stones , which date from 1859 . The other pair has a French Burr runner stone on a conglomerate bedstone . Both pairs of millstones were originally driven overdrift by the windmill , with the mixed pair later being driven underdrift by the steam engine , which also drove a wire machine . The remains of the old bakehouse can be seen at the rear of the mill .
= = Millers = =
The following millers worked Stembridge Mill :
John Sherrin ( 1822 – ? )
Robert Sherrin ( 1861 – 69 )
Simon Spearing ( 1869 – ? )
Joseph Loader ( 1879 – 81 )
George Parker ( 1889 – 97 )
Frank Parker ( 1897 – 98 )
Robert Mead ( 1898 – ? )
F. G. Harding ( post 1898 )
Mr. Hill ( post 1898 )
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= New York State Route 427 =
New York State Route 427 ( NY 427 ) is an east – west state highway in Chemung County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) from its western terminus at an intersection with NY 14 in the town of Southport , south of the city of Elmira , to its eastern terminus at an interchange with NY 17 in the town of Chemung . Between those two towns , the highway passes through the town of Ashland and serves the village of Wellsburg . Much of NY 427 follows the Chemung River .
The route was assigned in the early 1940s , replacing New York State Route 17D , a route established as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It originally began in downtown Elmira and ended at the Pennsylvania state line in Chemung . NY 427 was realigned on its east end in 1967 to meet the newly constructed exit 59 on NY 17 and on its west end in 1978 to follow what had been New York State Route 379 through the town of Southport . Other minor realignments have occurred over the years as well .
= = Route description = =
NY 427 begins at an intersection with NY 14 ( the Clemens Center Parkway ) in Southport , a town located south of the city of Elmira . It heads east , following Cedar Street and paralleling Seeley Creek through the southern suburbs of Elmira to an intersection with Maple Avenue near Notre Dame High School . Here , NY 427 turns south to follow Maple Avenue into the adjacent town of Ashland and across Seeley Creek .
As the route heads through Ashland , it generally turns to the southeast to match the curvature of the Chemung River valley , which contains the river , NY 427 , and the Southern Tier Expressway ( NY 17 ) . NY 427 parallels both the river and the expressway into Wellsburg , a small village sandwiched between the Chemung River and the Pennsylvania state line . In the center of the village , NY 427 , named Front Street , intersects with the northern end of NY 367 , a short highway linking NY 427 to the Pennsylvania border . Just east of NY 367 , NY 427 intersects County Route 8 ( CR 8 ) , a highway that crosses the Chemung River and links Wellsburg to NY 17 at exit 58 .
Outside of Wellsburg , NY 427 becomes Wilawana Road and heads eastward , paralleling both the Chemung River and the Norfolk Southern Railway @-@ owned Southern Tier Line through the town of Chemung toward the Pennsylvania state line . Less than 300 yards ( 270 m ) from the Pennsylvania border , NY 427 departs Wilawana Road and turns northeast onto Wyncoop Creek Road . NY 427 crosses the Chemung River before coming to an end at an interchange with NY 17 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) later . Although NY 427 comes to an end at this interchange , the road continues onward through the interchange as NY 961A , an unsigned reference route .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and designation = = =
Most of what is now NY 427 was originally designated as NY 17D in the 1930 renumbering . NY 17D began at the intersection of East Water Street ( NY 17 ) and Madison Avenue ( NY 14 and NY 17 ) in downtown Elmira . NY 17D headed west , overlapping NY 14 along Water Street to Lake Street , where NY 17D turned south and followed Lake Street and Pennsylvania Avenue over the Chemung River to Maple Avenue . Here , NY 17D turned to the southeast to follow Maple Avenue through southern Elmira . At Cedar Street , NY 17D joined the modern alignment of NY 427 . From this point east , NY 17D followed what is now NY 427 to Wyncoop Creek Road in Chemung , where it continued on Wilawana Road to the Pennsylvania border .
In the months immediately following the 1930 renumbering , NY 14 was routed on Pennsylvania Avenue and South Main Street through southern Elmira . By 1935 , NY 14 was rerouted to follow Pennsylvania Avenue into downtown . As a result , all of NY 17D north of the junction of Pennsylvania and Maple avenues became concurrent with NY 14 . The overlap was eliminated in the early 1940s when NY 17D was pulled back to the intersection of Pennsylvania and Maple avenues and renumbered as NY 427 .
= = = Realignments = = =
The 1930s @-@ era realignment of NY 14 was reverted c . 1961 as the route was reconfigured to follow South Main Street into downtown Elmira . NY 427 was extended northward along Pennsylvania Avenue to a new terminus at Water Street ( NY 14 and NY 17E ; later NY 352 ) as part of the change . At the other end of the route , the easternmost part of NY 427 was realigned c . 1967 to follow Wyncoop Creek Road to a new interchange ( exit 59 ) with the Southern Tier Expressway ( NY 17 ) in Chemung . The former routing of NY 427 along Wilawana Road between Wyncoop Creek Road and the Pennsylvania state line was designated as NY 961B , an unsigned reference route .
On October 23 , 1978 , NY 427 was rerouted to bypass Elmira entirely . Instead of continuing north into downtown , NY 427 turned west at Cedar Street and followed it through Southport to a new terminus at Pennsylvania Avenue ( NY 14 ) . The realignment of NY 427 through Southport supplanted NY 379 , which had been assigned to the portion of Cedar Street between Pennsylvania and Maple avenues since c . 1931 . NY 427 's former alignment along Maple Avenue from Cedar Street north to the Elmira city line was redesignated as NY 961K . Although this part of Maple Avenue is still listed as a state highway in the New York State Highway Law , NY 961K ceased to exist at some point between 2004 and 2006 and the road is now maintained by Chemung County and designated as CR 85 .
The Clemens Center Parkway was completed c . 2002 , creating a continuous four @-@ lane arterial between Southport and the northernmost part of Elmira . South of downtown Elmira , the highway loosely paralleled Pennsylvania Avenue and South Main Street . NY 14 was realigned c . 2004 to follow all but the northernmost part of the parkway , and the west end of NY 427 was shifted 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) east to Cedar Street 's junction with the parkway as part of the change . The portion of Cedar Street between Pennsylvania Avenue and NY 14 is now CR 84 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Chemung County .
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= Cyclone Joni =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Joni was a damaging tropical cyclone that impacted the island nations of Tuvalu and Fiji . It was first noted within the South Pacific Convergence Zone at the start of December 1992 , as a shallow tropical depression in the vicinity of the island nation Tuvalu . Over the next few days the system gradually developed further as it affected Tuvalu , before it was declared to be a tropical cyclone and named Joni by the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) during December 7 . Over the next couple of days the system intensified further as it was steered south @-@ westwards and posed a threat towards the Fijian dependency of Rotuma and the French territory of Wallis and Futuna . The system subsequently peaked as a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale as it approached the Fijian Islands during December 10 . Over the next couple of days the system moved through the Fijian Islands , before it became an extratropical cyclone during December 13 . The system was last noted during the next day as it was absorbed by a mid @-@ latitude trough of low pressure to the east of New Zealand .
Joni caused gale to storm force winds on the Tuvuluan island of Niulakita and minor damage to most of the Tuvuluan islands . Total damages to crops in the island nation were estimated at AU $ 6 @.@ 9 thousand ( US $ 5 thousand ) . There were no damages reported on the islands of Wallis and Futuna or Rotuma , while 1 person was killed , 10 people went missing and total damages were estimated at FJ $ 2 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) in Fiji . The main impacts of Joni in Fiji were confined to the Western Division , with the islands of Yasawa , Mamanuca , Viti Levu , Kadavu and Vatulele being the worst affected areas . Damages in both Tuvalu and Fiji were exacerbated a month later by Severe Tropical Cyclones Nina and Kina interacting with each other . Due to the impact of this system , the name Joni was subsequently retired from the list of names for the region by the World Meteorological Organization .
= = Meteorological history = =
At the start of December 1992 , a shallow tropical depression developed along the South Pacific Convergence Zone in the vicinity of Tuvalu . Over the next few days the system persisted near Tuvalu , before it started to move south @-@ eastwards and develop further during December 5 . During December 6 , the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center designated the system as Tropical Cyclone 03P and initiated advisories , while the system was located on the 180th meridian about 180 km ( 110 mi ) southeast of Funafuti , Tuvalu . Over the next couple of days , the system slowly deepened as it organised further and caused gale to storm force winds on the island of Niulakita and strong squally winds over the rest of Tuvalu . During December 7 , the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) reported that the depression had developed into a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale and named it Joni . After it had been named the system passed near Niulakita as it was steered towards the southwest by a low to mid level flow and intensified further .
The FMS classified Joni as a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone during December 9 , after an eye had become apparent in satellite imagery . The system subsequently slowed down and started to recurve and move southwards towards Fiji , due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge of high pressure . Early on December 10 , the FMS reported that Joni had peaked as a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone , with 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . The JTWC also reported at around this time that the system had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , which made it equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . During that day Joni passed near or over the Fijian island groups of Yasawa and Mamanuca , before it passed about 55 km ( 35 mi ) to the west of the main Fijian island : Viti Levu . At around 10 : 30 UTC ( 22 : 30 FST ) on December 10 , the system was successfully located on the Nadi weather radar , while it was located about 65 km ( 40 mi ) to the west @-@ southwest of Nadi . Over the next few hours the system was located by radar , until it passed near or over the island of Vatulele . After passing near the island , the system moved south @-@ eastwards towards Kadavu and Ono @-@ i @-@ Lau , with the eye of the system passing directly over Kadavu during December 11 . The system subsequently started to weaken and transition into an extratropical cyclone , as it entered a region of strong vertical wind shear and cooler sea waters . The system was declared to be an extratropical cyclone early on December 13 , before it was absorbed by a mid @-@ latitude trough of low pressure to the east of New Zealand during December 14 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Joni impacted the island nations of Tuvalu and Fiji , while it also threatened the Fijian dependency of Rotuma and the French territory of Wallis and Futuna . The majority of the Tuvaluan islands suffered minor damage from Joni , while in Fiji the system caused a moderate to severe amount of damage . Due to the impact of this system , the name Joni was subsequently retired , from the list of names for the region by the World Meteorological Organization . This would normally mean that the name would not be used again in the region , however , the name remained on the list and was used during the 2008 – 09 season .
During its developing stages , Joni was the first of two tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1992 – 93 season . As the system started to affect the islands during December 5 , the FMS issued a gale warning for Niulakita , while strong wind warnings were issued for the rest of the island nation . Joni subsequently passed near Niulakita during December 7 , where it caused gale to storm force winds and minor damage to the islands . The system also caused some damage to crops which were valued at AU $ 6 @.@ 9 thousand ( US $ 5 thousand ) . A tropical cyclone alert was issued for Wallis and Futuna during January 6 , while a gale warning was issued for Rotuma during January 7 . There was subsequently no damage reported in either the French Territory or the Fijian dependency .
Between December 9 – 11 , 1992 , Joni became the first named tropical cyclone to directly impact the Fiji Islands since Severe Tropical Cyclone Sina of 1990 . Joni caused a moderate to severe amount of damage to Viti Levu , with an overall damage total of about FJ $ 2 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) . At various times between December 7 – 11 , the whole of the main Fijian islands were placed under either a gale , storm or hurricane @-@ force wind warning by the FMS . Ahead of the system affecting Fiji , international and domestic flights to and from the Nadi International Airport were cancelled during December 9 and 10 , while ships and small boats in Lautoka were moved to a nearby river . Hundreds of tourists on Fiji 's offshore islands were evacuated to the mainland before the cyclone hit , while around 350 elected to ride out the system at island resorts . Other preparations included the erection of hurricane shutters , while people rushed to stock up on supplies with shelves cleared of emergency supplies . On some islands , villagers were evacuated to community centres , schools and churches at the height of the storm .
Joni 's impact on Fiji was generally confined to the Western Division , with the islands of Yasawa , Mamanuca , Viti Levu , Kadavu and Vatulele being the worst affected areas . The system caused high seas and widespread flooding including in several rivers on Viti Levu , which led to a substantial loss of livestock . In the immediate aftermath of the system a total of ten people were left missing , including a group of three fishermen in the Yasawa Islands . A group of three females on a fishing trip also went missing and were later found on an offshore island . A search party of four men went missing off Vanua Levu , while looking for the women , however , one swam ashore , while the other three were picked up by a cargo ship . Parts of Fiji 's main cities of Suva , Nadi , and Lautoka were left without power , as falling trees brought down power lines . The Fijian Government reported that coconut plantations had been extensively damaged and that there was limited communications with the Western Division . Despite Joni 's eye passing directly over Kadavu during December 11 , the damage on the island was limited to wave induced coastal erosion , root crop damage and the loss of a few trees . The system passed near the wave rider station on the island , which recorded a peak wave height of about 7 @.@ 2 metres ( 24 ft ) as Joni made its closest point of approach . During December 12 , an army helicopter was deployed to conduct a damage survey of offshore islands . A total of six people were subsequently arrested in Suva and Nadi on December 14 , in relation to a series of burglaries , committed during power blackouts caused by the cyclone . Joni 's damage in both Tuvalu and Fiji was exacerbated a month later , by Severe Tropical Cyclones Nina and Kina interacting with each other .
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= Richard Gavin Reid =
Richard Gavin " Dick " Reid ( 17 January 1879 – 17 October 1980 ) was a Canadian politician who served as the sixth Premier of Alberta from 1934 to 1935 . He was the last member of the United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) to hold the office , and that party 's defeat at the hands of the upstart Social Credit League in the 1935 election made him the shortest serving premier to that point in Alberta 's history .
Born near Glasgow , Reid worked a number of jobs as a young adult — including wholesaler , army medic ( during the Second Boer War ) , farmhand , lumberjack , and dentist — and immigrated to Canada in 1903 . He involved himself in local politics and joined the recently formed UFA , which nominated him to run in the 1921 provincial election as its candidate in Vermilion . The UFA won the election , and Reid served in several capacities in the cabinets of Premiers Herbert Greenfield and John Edward Brownlee , where he established a reputation for competence and fiscal conservatism . When a sex scandal forced Brownlee from office in 1934 , Reid was the caucus ' unanimous choice to succeed him as Premier .
When Reid took office , Alberta was experiencing the Great Depression . Reid took measures to ease Albertans ' suffering , but believed that inducing a full economic recovery was beyond the capacity of the provincial government . In this climate , Alberta voters were attracted to the economic theories of evangelical preacher William Aberhart , who advocated a version of social credit . Despite Reid 's claims that Aberhart 's proposals were economically and constitutionally unfeasible , Social Credit routed the UFA in the 1935 election ; Reid 's party did not retain a single seat . Reid lived forty @-@ five years after his defeat , but these years were spent in obscurity ; he never returned to political life .
= = Early life = =
Reid was born 17 January 1879 near Glasgow , Scotland , to George ( 1843 – 1913 ) and Margaret ( Ogston ) Reid ( 1850 – 1928 ) . He attended school in Glasgow and worked for several years in the wholesale provisions business before enlisting in the Royal Army Medical Corps . He served in South Africa as a Lance @-@ Sergeant from 1900 to 1902 during the Second Boer War , doing hospital duty , before returning to Scotland . There he began to plan his future , considering returning to South Africa to live before deciding on Canada .
He arrived in Killarney , Manitoba , in 1903 , where he worked as a farmhand during the harvest . When winter came , he found work as a lumberjack in Fort William , Ontario . A voyage west followed , and he set up a homestead in east @-@ central Alberta . Once there , he began to practice dentistry , drawing on his army experience . On 9 September 1919 , he married Marion Stuart . They had three sons and two daughters .
= = Early political career = =
= = = Entry into politics = = =
Reid 's political career began with four years on the municipal council of Buffalo Coulee , around present @-@ day Vermilion . He spent two of these as Reeve . He was instrumental in founding the Vermilion municipal hospital district , on whose board he served for many years . Federally , he was active with the United Farmers of Alberta Battle River Political Association , of which he became president .
Reid was nominated as the UFA candidate in Vermilion during the 1921 provincial election , the first in which the UFA ran candidates . The Legislative Assembly of Alberta was dominated by the Liberals , who had governed Alberta since its creation in 1905 . To Reid 's great surprise , he defeated his Liberal opponent and was elected to the legislature , along with 37 of his fellow UFA candidates — enough to form a majority government . He chaired the first meeting of the new UFA caucus , at which it selected Herbert Greenfield as Premier . Reid was re @-@ elected in the 1926 and 1930 elections .
= = = Cabinet career = = =
Reid occupied high @-@ ranking cabinet positions in Greenfield 's government and that of his successor , John Edward Brownlee . Greenfield appointed him Minister of Health and Minister of Municipal Affairs in 1921 . In the former capacity , he drew on his past experience with the Vermilion board in establishing new municipal health boards . He also proposed a program of eugenics through the sterilisation of the mentally handicapped , which in 1928 led to the Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta . As an advocate of government @-@ wide economy , he laid off all school inspection nurses and many public health nurses . This inclination towards thrift was also evident in his performance as Minister of Municipal Affairs , in which he resisted a 1926 call from several municipalities to transfer a greater proportion of the responsibility for caring for indigents to the province . In 1929 , he disagreed with them again when he insisted that they be responsible for 10 % of the old age pensions paid to their residents .
In 1923 Greenfield moved Reid out of both of his portfolios and made him Provincial Treasurer , where he perpetuated his fiscal conservatism across the government . Early in his tenure , he presented a brief to cabinet recommending that ministers reduce their budgets and that the government create a purchasing department tasked with coordinating spending on supplies . In these proposals he found a close ally in Brownlee , Greenfield 's Attorney @-@ General , and when Brownlee succeeded Greenfield as Premier in 1925 he kept Reid as Provincial Treasurer and re @-@ appointed him as Minister of Municipal Affairs . Brownlee and Reid had a history of working closely not only on fiscal issues , but also on agricultural ones : in July 1923 , they had travelled together to investigate the creation of a wheat pool in Alberta . This trip included a meeting with cooperative pioneer Aaron Sapiro in San Francisco and a visit to Chicago 's commodity market . Both Reid and Brownlee concluded that a pool ought to be proceeded with cautiously , if at all , though this view was overruled when a later visit by Sapiro to Alberta generated sufficient enthusiasm that the government had little choice but to go along with the creation of the Alberta Wheat Pool .
With Brownlee as premier and Reid as Provincial Treasurer , government deficits ceased : the budget showed a surplus in every year from 1925 until 1930 , except for 1927 . In 1929 , Reid predicted that Alberta was on the cusp of a period of economic expansion ; instead , he was soon confronted with the Great Depression . He drastically cut provincial spending and raised taxes , in part by creating a new income tax . He reluctantly accepted that these measures could not prevent a return to deficit spending . His willingness to outspend revenues was due less to any Keynesian desire to stimulate the economy than to a belief that there was no further spending to be cut or further taxes that could reasonably be raised . Conversely , he rejected calls from the opposition Liberals to cut taxes as a stimulus measure .
Though Brownlee was no more enthusiastic than Reid about deficits , his continued confidence in his Provincial Treasurer was evidenced by his decision to give him yet another ministerial portfolio . In 1930 Brownlee secured Alberta 's long @-@ sought control over its natural resources from the federal government , and he appointed Reid Alberta 's first Minister of Lands and Mines on 10 October 1930 . In this capacity , Reid favoured private over public ownership . He opposed calls from his own party to promote government @-@ developed hydroelectricity projects , and viewed the provincially owned railways as a burden to the government , though they finally turned a profit in 1927 . He was a leading advocate of selling them to private interests , a course that was eventually followed in 1929 .
= = Premier = =
In 1934 , Brownlee was implicated in a sex scandal , as a young family friend and her father sued him for seduction . By Reid 's account , he had to convince his premier not to quit " hundreds of times " . When the jury found in favour of the plaintiffs , however , Brownlee had no choice , and resigned effective 10 July 1934 . Reid was the most prominent minister in the cabinet and among the most popular , and was the UFA caucus ' unanimous choice to take over . He also replaced Brownlee as Provincial Secretary and installed himself in the newly created position of Treasury Board President .
The UFA was in an uncertain position when Reid became Premier ; besides Brownlee 's resignation , longtime Minister of Public Works Oran McPherson was in the midst of a scandalous divorce and had also left cabinet , and UFA MLAs Peter Miskew and Omer St. Germain had crossed the floor to the Liberals . Additionally , the province 's economic condition remained poor . Liberal leader William R. Howson tried to take advantage of this to undermine the government and position himself as the province 's next Premier ; he attacked Reid relentlessly for what he alleged were spendthrift habits , and suggested the province 's tax rates were causing the confiscation of family homes . Reid asserted in response that Alberta 's taxes had decreased since 1921 , and criticised Howson for simultaneously attacking government spending and demanding new infrastructure projects .
In the meantime , Reid 's government took a number of policy initiatives . It passed legislation authorizing the government purchase of cattle from farmers who could no longer afford feed , and worked out a cost @-@ sharing agreement with the federal government and the railways to relocate farmers fleeing the province 's dust belt . Reid also called for the creation of a federal wheat marketing board , and proposed legislation — the Agricultural Industry Stabilisation Act — that protected from creditors any portion of a farmer 's revenue that was used on operating costs for his farm or living expenses for his family . Despite these measures , Reid found himself at odds with his party 's membership , which was reacting to the Great Depression by following an increasingly socialist path . He found UFA President Robert Gardiner to be of the " far left " , and considered the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation , in whose founding many UFA members had participated , to be an " unholy amalgamation " . Even so , his government experimented with a form of universal health insurance , to be jointly funded by government , employers , and employees , that would provide Albertans with free medical , dental , and hospital care ; the project was to be launched as a pilot project in Camrose , but was never begun because of the intervention of the 1935 election . More controversially , Reid 's government reacted to McPherson 's divorce and its attendant coverage by proposing to ban newspapers from covering divorce proceedings , a proposal that prompted Liberal MLA Joseph Miville Dechene to compare Reid to Hitler , Mussolini , and Stalin .
= = = Social credit = = =
A more dangerous opponent than Howson was William Aberhart , the Calgary preacher who was proposing a form of social credit to cure the province 's ills . Social credit , the brainchild of British engineer C. H. Douglas , purported to bridge the gap between a society 's production and its purchasing power ; Aberhart maintained that this gap was the source of Alberta 's economic hardships . Reid was leery of Aberhart though he , like most politicians of the era , pronounced himself in favour of Douglas 's philosophy . T. C. Byrne suggests that this expressed support was dishonest , that Reid considered social credit in all of its forms to be " complete nonsense " , and paid it lip service only because of its popularity among voters .
Though he was gaining adherents , Aberhart insisted that his aim was not to enter politics , but to persuade existing parties to adopt social credit in their platforms . To this end , he appeared at the UFA convention of 15 January 1935 . The night before , he organised a reception for delegates . Besides Aberhart , it featured actors portraying two characters of whom Aberhart had been making considerable use in presentations around the province : the Man from Mars , who expressed bewilderment that poverty could exist in the midst of plenty and that governments were doing nothing about it , and Kant B. Dunn , who brought up straw man arguments against social credit for Aberhart to dismantle . Another of Aberhart 's characters , the bumbling socialist C. C. Heifer , did not make an appearance ; Aberhart biographers David Elliott and Iris Miller suggest that this was to avoid alienating the many UFA members who supported socialism .
The next day , the UFA began debate on a resolution that read
Resolved that a system of social credit as outlined by William Aberhart , Calgary , be put in as a plank in the UFA provincial platform to be brought before the electorate at the next provincial election .
Debate was vigorous . One delegate said that UFA members wanted social credit , and if they could not get it through the UFA they would find other means . After three hours , UFA Vice President Norman Priestly noted in frustration that delegates were debating the merits of " a system of social credit as outlined by " Aberhart without ever having heard Aberhart outline his proposed system . It was agreed to invite Aberhart to appear . Using the analogy of blood flowing through the human body , he argued that the 4 imperial quarts ( 4 @.@ 5 l ) of blood contained in the human body were sufficient for the heart to pump much more than that per day ; so it was , he argued , with currency , whose circulation needed to be accelerated to enhance Albertans ' purchasing power . He closed by expressing pessimism that the delegates would choose to support social credit , and this pessimism proved well @-@ founded : though sources are inconsistent on the precise outcome — journalist John Barr reports that the exact vote was not recorded , while historian Bradford Rennie states there were 30 affirmative votes out of 400 delegates present — there is agreement that the resolution was handily defeated . While the vote appeared to be a decisive victory for Reid and his fellow traditionalists , Byrne suggests that many members abstained .
The threat from within apparently defeated , Reid and his government turned their attention to the threat from without : the convention 's repudiation had convinced Aberhart that his Social Credit League must run candidates in the next election . Reid 's defence took two forms . The first was an overt attack on Aberhart and his policies . He insisted that Aberhart 's proposed " monthly credit dividends " of C $ 25 could not be issued unless taxes increased tenfold . He argued that Aberhart 's proposed means of raising revenue — " unearned increments " and " production levies " — were actually disguised taxes , which would be paid primarily by farmers , and that his claims that the necessary credit could be created " at the stroke of a fountain pen " on an accounting ledger were absurd . He further pointed out that elements of Aberhart 's plan , including the provincial government 's entry into banking and the creation of a provincial tariff , were ultra vires the province under the Canadian constitution . These themes were expounded on by Priestly and Brownlee , both of whom undertook speaking tours and radio addresses , and by legal and economic experts commissioned by the government .
The second element of Reid 's approach was to call into question Aberhart 's understanding of social credit by exposing inconsistencies between his statements and the theories advanced by Douglas . Douglas and Aberhart did not like each other , and Douglas did not believe that Aberhart fully understood his theories ; though he declined to comment publicly , one of his deputies once called one of Aberhart 's pamphlets " fallacious from start to finish " . Hoping to capitalize on this rift , Reid invited Douglas to come to Alberta and serve as " Economic Reconstruction Advisor " at an annual fee of $ 2 @,@ 500 plus a $ 2 @,@ 000 expense allowance for each of his annual three @-@ week trips to the province . Douglas accepted . Angered that the government had incurred this sizable expense without consulting the legislature , Conservative leader David Duggan introduced a motion calling on Aberhart to be hired in a similar capacity . This suited Reid , who hoped that by inducing both men to submit detailed plans he would at last have something concrete from Aberhart to attack , and something equally concrete from Douglas with which to contrast it . Aberhart confounded Reid 's plan by declining his offer . Douglas , for his part , provided mixed results : on his way to Edmonton he publicly repudiated Aberhart 's impugned pamphlet and also pronounced himself against the creation of a provincial social credit political vehicle . On the other hand , shortly after his arrival he sent Aberhart a letter , gleefully released by Aberhart , asserting that there was no conflict between the " Douglas " and " Aberhart " versions of social credit . Moreover , his interim report to the government concerned itself primarily with political and legal , rather than economic , realities : he recommended setting up a provincially controlled media outlet to counter the anti @-@ social credit propaganda he anticipated from the privately owned press , organizing a provincial government credit institution , and accumulating a stockpile of currency , stocks , and bonds . He also suggested that the UFA might need to form a coalition government to implement social credit . The report was of little use to Reid 's government , so he had his Attorney @-@ General , John Lymburn , ask Douglas to critique one of Aberhart 's radio broadcasts . Douglas demurred , and made only vague comments about minor technical errors in the transcript .
Reid 's approach to combating Aberhart 's influence had failed . The first element , attacking the validity of Aberhart 's ideas directly , had failed because much of the Alberta public , in abject poverty , was not interested in hearing economic and legal arguments against social credit . This state of mind was illustrated by a voter 's comments to Brownlee on Aberhart 's proposals :
Mr. Brownlee , we have listened to you with a great deal of attention and the answers you have given seem pretty hard to meet . But I have one more question ... I 'm selling my wheat at 25 cents a bushel . If I tried to sell a steer tomorrow I 'd probably hardly get enough to pay the freight . I get three cents a dozen for eggs . I 'm lucky to get a dollar for a can of cream . Will you tell me what I 've got to lose ?
The second part of the strategy , contrasting Aberhart 's proposals with Douglas 's , failed largely because both men were too evasive in their statements to make any kind of direct comparison of their views . Lakeland College historian Franklin Foster offers an additional explanation : when Albertans were exposed to the charismatic evangelist Aberhart and the dry technocrat Douglas , they preferred the former , irrespective of credentials or economic expertise .
= = = Electoral defeat = = =
When the election came in August 1935 , Aberhart offered economic recovery while Reid offered criticisms of Aberhart . Highlighting the UFA 's record of clean government , low taxes , and fiscal responsibility , Reid committed himself and his government to bringing a sense of security . More tangibly , he promised to build a government oil refinery ( predicting that " the near future will witness the greatest explorations for oil which this province has ever known " ) . Most of the campaign was conducted around Social Credit 's promise to pull the province out of depression with its monetary theories . Reid alleged that Aberhart 's policies would destroy the province 's credit and leave it unable to borrow the money it needed to carry on , but voters — even those sceptical of Social Credit 's promises — saw no alternative hopes offered by the UFA . On 11 August , election day , every UFA MLA was defeated ; Reid himself finished third in his riding , barely ahead of the Communist candidate , and resigned as Premier effective 22 August .
Time would prove Reid correct in most of his criticisms of Aberhart : he did lack a specific economic agenda , much of his legislation was struck down by the courts , and the depression did continue for several more years in Alberta . This was of cold comfort to Reid , whose defeat was total : at 408 days , his time as Premier was the shortest in the province 's history to that point .
= = Life after politics = =
After the election , Reid orchestrated a quick transfer of power . The Social Credit victory had provoked a bank run , and he wanted to re @-@ establish stability as quickly as possible . Moreover , the province needed to borrow a large sum of money to meet even its short @-@ term obligations , and the UFA , as a lame duck government , was unable to make promises to would @-@ be creditors . Once in office , confronted with a dire financial situation , Aberhart accused the UFA government of mismanagement . Reid responded in January 1936 that there had been no such mismanagement , that the province 's financial problems were due to Social Credit 's policies , both real and promised , and that had the UFA won re @-@ election in 1935 it could have continued governing without serious difficulty . He also resisted insinuations that it had been too restrained in helping impoverished farmers : as late as 1969 he was offering the view that shrinking sources of provincial revenue made further assistance impossible .
Apart from these occasional forays defending his record , Reid withdrew from politics . He became a commission agent , and later the librarian for Canadian Utilities Limited . For this latter role , he was made an honorary member of the Edmonton Library Association . During World War II , he served on the Canadian government 's mobilisation board . Richard Reid died in Edmonton 17 October 1980 at the age of 101 . He was cremated , and his ashes buried in Edmonton .
Historians generally view Reid as a victim of circumstance : like many governments across Canada , his was defeated by the Great Depression . Rennie argues that Reid 's approach to government , frugal and non @-@ interventionist , was well @-@ suited to the prosperous 1920s but less so to the 1930s , and highlights his lack of charisma . But he also writes that virtually nobody could have won the 1935 election for the UFA . Foster agrees , assessing Reid as " a quietly competent , gentle man " who " merited the confidence of his colleagues " , but who was in 1935 " distinctly out of his element " . As Rennie closes , " In 1935 Albertans wanted a saviour . Richard Gavin Reid was a mere mortal . "
= = Electoral record = =
= = = As party leader = = =
= = = As MLA = = =
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= Flekkefjord Line =
The Flekkefjord Line ( Norwegian : Flekkefjordbanen ) is a 17 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 10 @.@ 6 mi ) abandoned branch line to the Sørland Line . It ran between Sira and Flekkefjord in Vest @-@ Agder , Norway . The only current activity on the line is tourist draisines . The station buildings along the line were designed by the architect Paul Armin Due — these have all been demolished .
The line opened in 1904 as a 64 @-@ kilometre ( 40 mi ) extension of the narrow gauge Jæren Line . It was planned as the first step of a main line along the South Coast . At Flekkefjord , there was steam ship connection , onwards to Oslo . In 1941 , the line was converted to standard gauge , and in 1944 the Sørland Line was completed . The western part of the Flekkefjord Line was integrated into it , while the remaining section became the branch line that kept the name Flekkefjord Line . During the 1940s , steam locomotive @-@ hauled trains were replaced by railcars . Following the declining traffic , in part due to the slow speeds caused by the line 's narrow profile , the line was closed , with the last trains running in 1990 .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The first committee that looked into the possibility of a railway to Flekkefjord was created in 1875 . After the completion of Jæren Line from Stavanger to Egersund , in 1878 , proposals were made to build an extension westwards along the coast , that eventually would reach Oslo . The first part of what was named the Vestland Line was passed by Parliament in 1894 , and would run from Egersund , via Sira , to Flekkefjord . The initial proposal proposed that the line would eventually continue onwards via Mandal to Kristiansand . The decision to build the line was taken by the Parliament of Norway in 1894 . Construction started in 1896 , and was originally planned to be completed by 1902 . However , delays prevented the line from being be brought into use before 1 November 1904 . The line was built by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and was 64 km ( 40 mi ) long .
The coast between Egersund and Flekkefjord would give a very difficult route to build , so it was decided to build a more inland line . Like the Jæren Line , and most railways being built at the time , the Flekkefjord Line was built in 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) narrow gauge . Both telephone and telegraph cables were laid along the line . Along the section from Sirnes to Flekkefjord , there were many vertical cliffs straight into the fjord , forcing 5 @.@ 4 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) , or 38 percent , of the line to be built in tunnels . Of the whole length from Egersund to Flekkefjord , there are 46 tunnels , totaling 8 @.@ 8 km ( 5 @.@ 5 mi ) . The most prominent was Ravnejuret Tunnel which is 1 @,@ 174 m ( 3 @,@ 852 ft ) long . Just before Flekkefjord , a 71 @-@ metre ( 233 ft ) bridge was built that crosses Selurelva ; it was a reused bridge from the Voss Line . In total , about 12 % of the line consisted of tunnels . Francis Hagerup , when delivering the line 's opening speech , remarked that no other railway had until then been more difficult to construct .
All the stations along the line were designed by Paul Armin Due , with all but the terminal station built in wood . Flekkefjord Station was built as a three @-@ story brick building in Art Nouveau . In addition , there was construction a depot and a wharf at Flekkefjord . Passengers could transfer to steam ship services that operated eastwards along the south coast towards Oslo .
= = = Pre @-@ war operations = = =
The first part of the line to open for temporary operation was between Flekkefjord and Moi on 1 October 1904 . For the official opening , the town of Flekkefjord was adorned with Norwegian flags . A train departed to Egersund on 31 October 1904 with several notable passengers : Prime Minister Francis Hagerup , State Railways director Elias Sunde and board member Sven Aarrestad , director of traffic Jens Christian Mellbye , Flekkefjord 's mayor and city council as well as other mayors of the district . Festivities continued on the next day , when the train returned from Egersund to Flekkefjord .
Initially there were four services in each direction each day , with three services on holy days . The train that connected with the steam ship would wait up to 45 minutes in case of delays , to allow connection . Until 1927 , the routes remained the same . That year , the Kragerø Line opened , and it became possible to take a night train from Oslo to Kragerø , continue by bus to Flekkefjord , and be in Stavanger the following afternoon . Travel time was further reduced when the Sørland Line was extended to Arendal in 1935 . The initial rolling stock was from the Voss Line , and some of the bridges and track was from that line too . The Voss Line was being upgraded to 25 @-@ kilogram ( 55 lb ) rail tracks , and 25 km ( 16 mi ) of 17 kg ( 37 lb ) track was used on the Flekkefjord Line .
Until 1927 , all trains were operated with steam locomotives . NSB introduced the first diesel multiple unit with the introduction of " lightning trains " that corresponded with coach services that connected with the Kragerø Line . The first were Class 14 railcars . These reduced travel time from Flekkefjord to Stavanger by 50 minutes to 3 hours 15 minutes . In addition to passengers , major cargo were herring and lumber .
= = = Connecting the coast = = =
In 1923 , it was decided by parliament that the Sørland Line , that would connect Oslo , Kristiansand and Stavanger , would follow an inner route . The section of the Flekkefjord Line from Egersund to Sira would become part of that line , while the eastern 17 @.@ 1 km ( 10 @.@ 6 mi ) from Sira to Flekkefjord would become a branch line , retaining the Flekkefjord Line name . Since the Sørland Line needed to be built from the east , construction along the Flekkefjord Line did not start until 1940 . After the German occupation of Norway during World War II , the German occupation forces were rebuilding the narrow gauge railways to standard gauge . In 1940 – 41 , the Flekkefjord and Jæren Lines were rebuilt to dual gauge . Not until 1944 was the Flekkefjord Line only standard gauge .
Due to limited funds , and unlike the rest of the Jæren Line , the profile of the Flekkefjord Line was not changed during the conversion of gauge . This gave a speed limit of 40 kilometres per hour ( 25 mph ) , and creative solutions such as lowering height of the ballast by 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The route from Egersund to Sira received a better upgrade , since it was to become part of the main line through Southern Norway . The route between Sira and Sirnes was completely rebuilt . This gave severe limits to the use of the section between Flekkefjord and Sirnes ; most classes of trains could not run on the line , as were freight trains .
= = = Post @-@ war operations = = =
After the line had been relegated to a branch line , traffic fell considerably . Another factor was car traffic , which did not exist in Flekkefjord until 1918 , but thereafter became widespread . After the war , Class 20 steam locomotives were used on the line . During the 1940 , several railcars of Class 87 were taken into use , and soon all passenger trains were operated using such units . From 1956 to 1966 , also Class 86 units were used on the line , but the narrow profile of the tunnels made operations problematic . Class 87 remained in service until 1981 , when used Class 89 units were bought from Sweden . At first , two Y7 units were brought to Norway on 23 January and taken into service on 24 February . After they proved to work well , NSB bought them for 95 @,@ 000 Swedish kronor plus freight . Two more units were bought in 1986 .
= = = Closing = = =
The line had major limitations on speed , and also served the " wrong direction " , heading westwards into less populated areas instead of the populated parts of Agder in the east . Major investments would be needed to upgrade the line to a suitable speed , and through the 1970s this became an important issue of debate . On the other hand , the line had among the highest ridership of the branch lines , with 120 @,@ 000 passengers per year , which was for instance 50 % higher than the Arendal Line , which was not closed . However , parliament decided to close the line , along with several other branch lines , in 1988 , with effect from 1990 . The last scheduled train ran on 31 December 1990 .
There were plans to establish private operations along the line . Continental Railway Systems was established by Rasmus Surdal . The company would be allowed to use the rolling stock and infrastructure , and two of the trains were painted white . However , it was not possible for the company to get the necessary bank surety demanded by NSB , and nothing came of the plans .
The line has been suggested preserved as a cultural heritage , since it represents one of very few railways with the original narrow gauge profile intact . However , all stations have been demolished ; Flekkefjord in 1970 , Sirnes in 1977 and Flikkeid in 1988 . The organization Friends of the Flekkefjord Line offer rental of draisines for tourists since the closure of the line , and a round trip from Flekkefjord to Bakkekleivi just outside Sira takes about three hours . However , the Norwegian National Rail Administration have since banned the operation of draisines until the line is fully fenced in .
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= Distant Lights ( song ) =
" Distant Lights " is a song recorded by American indie rock band Ivy . It was released as the lead single from their sixth studio album , All Hours ( 2011 ) . It was issued in the United States on June 7 , 2011 as a digital download by Nettwerk . The single was written and produced by Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase .
After its release , " Distant Lights " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complemented the track for being " completely different " when compared to Ivy 's previous material . However , one reviewer found the track to be " boring " and " outdated " . The track was made available as a free download for a short amount of time in support of the release of All Hours .
= = Background = =
After the release of In the Clear ( 2005 ) , Ivy embarked on an extended hiatus to focus their time on their children and solo careers . Member Adam Schlesinger was busy with his side project Fountains of Wayne , while Andy Chase was working on a new band named Brookville . In 2008 , they worked on a new record , even completing most of the project . However , after listening to the completed material , they found it to be " awful " ; Chase stated that " it was the first time [ they ] doubted whether [ they ] even had another Ivy album left in [ them ] . "
Afraid that Ivy would become " unrecognizable " and " boring " , Durand stated that " [ she ] really can 't stand when [ she sees ] musicians , great songwriters , and after having kids they become so boring , [ she talks ] about that all day . [ She doesn 't ] need to talk about that in [ her ] songs , " concluding that she needed " escape " . Durand was determined to create " the best album yet " and set up dates and recording sessions with Chase and Schlesinger to work on what would become All Hours . The new album explores new genres for Ivy , including EDM and electronic music , something Chase stated " seem [ ed ] natural and ma [ de ] sense . "
= = Composition and release = =
" Distant Lights " was written and produced by Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase . According to Nettwerk , the single " is a slow @-@ building , hypnotic and danceable track " , yet managing to sound like Ivy . In a review by Lauren Stern of Pop Break , she called the single " completely different " compared to Ivy 's previous material . In an interview with Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone , Durand stated that " ' Distant Lights ' is , in a sense , the most important song on All Hours . It 's the song that created and led to the direction of this record " ; in the same interview , Rosen claimed that the track had a " sleek beat " and " wistful melody " that served as the background for Durand 's vocals that come off " halfway between a coo and a sigh " .
The single was released on June 7 , 2011 through the iTunes Store , where it came with B @-@ side single " Lost in the Sun " . It became Ivy 's first single release since 2005 recording " Thinking About You " . In September of the same year , Nettwerk made the single temporarily available as a free download to promote All Hours . A remix EP was released on January 20 , 2012 in the United States and France and featured the original composition , a Douze remix , and a Douze dub version of the single .
= = Critical reception = =
" Distant Lights " received generally favorable reviews from contemporary music critics . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone praised the single for being " seductive " , while Frank Mojica of Consequence of Sound called the " essential " track the " perfect choice for a lead single , " further stating that " ' Distant Lights ' is the most danceable work from Ivy yet " . John Bergstrom , writing for PopMatters , was impressed by the single , stating that " it sounds deceptively effortless " . Kaitlyn Henaghan of Buzz Weekly found it to be " the obvious choice for a single , as it is extraordinarily catchy with a great , upbeat melody " . Dorian S. Ham , writing for The Agit Reader , had mixed feelings towards the single , calling it " slightly worrying " and panning the " clubby beat " as being foreign to Ivy 's catalog . Shawn Connelly of SecretSoundShop found the track " boring " and " outdated " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from All Hours liner notes and Ivy 's AllMusic discography .
Personnel
= = Release history = =
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= Requiem for a Species =
Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large @-@ scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen @-@ year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change .
Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it " Book of the Week " . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .
= = Themes = =
Hamilton points out that there have been many reports and books over the years explaining the climate change problem and just how ominous the future looks for humanity . He says Requiem for a Species is primarily about why those warnings have been ignored .
Hamilton considers that sometimes an inconvenient truth may be too difficult to bear :
Sometimes facing up to the truth is just too hard . When the facts are distressing it is easier to reframe or ignore them . Around the world only a few have truly faced up to the facts about global warming ... It 's the same with our own deaths ; we all " accept " that we will die , but it is only when our death is imminent that we confront the true meaning of our mortality .
The most immediate reason for the failure to act on global warming is seen to be the " sustained and often ruthless exercise of political power by the corporations who stand to lose from a shift to low- and zero @-@ carbon energy systems " . Hamilton cites numerous journalists and authors who have documented the influence of large companies such as ExxonMobil , Rio Tinto Group and General Motors . Hamilton makes his argument in three stages :
Firstly , he reviews the evidence about how serious the situation is already and how much worse it will get . Secondly , he examines the roots of denial , both in terms of resistance to the evidence and in relation to the actors and agencies motivated to deny climate change . Lastly , he looks at some future scenarios and explains what people should do .
Hamilton suggests that the foundations of climate change denial lie in the reaction of American conservatism to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 . He argues that as the " red menace " receded , conservatives who had put energy into opposing communism sought other outlets . Hamilton contends that the conservative backlash against climate science was led by three prominent physicists -- Frederick Seitz , Robert Jastrow , and William Nierenberg . In 1984 Seitz , Jastrow and Nierenberg founded the George C. Marshall Institute , and in the 1990s the Marshall Institute 's main activity was attacking climate science .
When describing climate science , Hamilton says that official numbers published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) are highly cautious , and so the real effects of climate change will likely be even more severe . His conclusion is that it will not be possible to stabilise emissions :
... even with the most optimistic set of assumptions -- the ending of deforestation , a halving of emissions associated with food production , global emissions peaking in 2020 and then falling by 3 per cent a year for a few decades -- we have no chance of preventing emissions rising well above a number of critical tipping points that will spark uncontrollable climate change . The Earth 's climate would enter a chaotic era lasting thousands of years before natural processes eventually establish some sort of equilibrium . Whether human beings would still be a force on the planet , or even survive , is a moot point . One thing seems certain : there will be far fewer of us .
In terms of Australia , Hamilton says that " Australians in 2050 will be living in a nation transformed by a changing climate , with widespread doubt over whether we will make it to the end of the century in a land that is recognisably Australian " .
= = Reception = =
Michael Lynn in The Common Review says that Requiem for a Species explores the gulf between acknowledgment and acceptance of climate change . Lynn explains that the gulf has two main origins and no easy solution :
Hamilton ... argues that the gulf has two primary origins : the enormity of its consequences and the way it challenges how we as individuals and as societies have constructed our identities over the past three centuries . In doing so , he suggests that meeting the challenge of climate change requires far more than implementing the right policies and making minor adjustments in our lifestyles . Instead , it implies remaking our psyches and societies on a scale unseen since the dawn of the modern age .
The Times Higher Education listed Requiem for a Species as " Book of the week " for 3 June 2010 . Steven Yearley 's review calls it a " provocative and sobering book " . He says the heart of the book are the many explanations that Hamilton puts forward for the everyday , regular denial of the danger of changing climate . Yearley says this is also the most frustrating aspect of Requiem for a Species , because Hamilton proposes so many different explanations but does not make their relative significance clear .
David Shearman , in a review for Doctors for the Environment Australia , says that " Clive Hamilton is one of Australia 's most notable public intellectuals , his work is careful and balanced , he presents the facts as they are and has written a book which is uncomfortable for all " . According to Shearman , Hamilton 's treatment of the topic of denial is one of the best available .
Mike Hulme , in Resurgence magazine , agrees with the " consumption fetish " and " spiritual malaise " of humanity that Hamilton describes . But , according to Hulme , Hamilton has underestimated the " innovative and creative potential of collective humanity " and he has put too much faith in the infallibility of science 's predictions about future climate risks . Hulme believes that Hamilton " is placing too much weight on the foresight of science to provide his desired revolution , rather than calling for it more honestly and directly through political , psychological or spiritual engagement " .
Kelsey Munro reviewed the book in the Sydney Morning Herald and The Age , suggesting that it is pessimistic and does not present any false hope . But he says pessimism is not the same thing as fatalism , and Hamilton believes there is still an urgent need for government intervention to avoid worst @-@ case scenarios by reducing emissions . Munro also points out that some eminent climate scientists , like Princeton University 's Michael Oppenheimer , remain optimistic that humanity will act before it is too late .
Camilla Royle reviewed Requiem for a Species in Socialist Review and recommends it for those who want to get a clearer idea of climate change science . She says that Hamilton is understandably angry at the corporate lobbyists who have encouraged climate change denial . Royle suggests that Hamilton accepts that " we should at least try to do something about climate change " , but he " doesn 't give much idea of what that something is " .
There was a book launch for Requiem for a Species on 24 March 2010 at The University of Queensland and another on 29 March 2010 at the Australian National University ( ANU ) . An extract of the book appeared in The Guardian on 16 April 2010 . Geographical magazine published another extract in August 2010 . The book won the 2010 " Queensland Premier 's Literary Award for a work Advancing Public Debate " .
= = Author = =
At the time of publication , Clive Hamilton was Professor of Public Ethics at the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics ( CAPPE ) at Australia . Before taking up his position at CAPPE , he was executive director and founder of The Australia Institute , a forward @-@ looking think tank .
= = Publishing information = =
Hamilton , Clive ( 2010 ) . Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change . Earthscan . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84971 @-@ 081 @-@ 7 .
The book is available as an eBook document as well as a paper publication .
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= Rotating locomotion in living systems =
There exist two distinct modes of locomotion using rotation : first , simple rolling ; and second , the use of wheels , which spin relative to a fixed axle or body . Several organisms are capable of rolling . However , despite their utility in human vehicles , true wheels do not appear to play a significant role in the movement of living things ( with the notable exception of certain flagella , which function like corkscrews ) . Biologists have expounded on the reasons for this apparent absence of biological wheels , and wheeled creatures have appeared often in speculative fiction .
Given the ubiquity of the wheel in human technology , and the existence of biological analogues of many other technologies ( such as wings and lenses ) , the lack of wheels in the natural world would seem to demand explanation – and the phenomenon is broadly explained by two main factors . First , there are several developmental and evolutionary obstacles to the advent of a wheel by natural selection – addressing the question " Why can 't life evolve wheels ? " . Secondly , wheels are often at a competitive disadvantage when compared with other means of propulsion ( such as walking , running , or slithering ) in natural environments – addressing the question " If wheels could evolve , why would they be rare nonetheless ? " . Incidentally , this environment @-@ specific disadvantage also explains why some historical civilizations have abandoned wheels .
= = Known instances of rotation in biology = =
= = = Rolling = = =
Some organisms use rolling as a means of locomotion . These examples do not constitute the use of a wheel , as the entire organism rotates rather than employing separate parts which rotate independently .
Several species of elongate organisms will form their bodies into a loop in order to roll , including caterpillars , tiger beetle larvae , myriapods , mantis shrimp , and salamanders , while other species adopt more spherical postures , as observed in pangolins , hedgehogs , armadillos , Armadillo girdled lizards , isopods , wheel spiders , and fossilized trilobites . These species may roll passively ( under the influence of gravity or wind ) or actively , typically by altering their shape to generate a propulsive force . Tumbleweeds are the above @-@ ground portions of certain plants , which separate from their root structure and roll in the wind to distribute their seeds .
Dung beetles form spherical balls of animal excrement , which they roll with their bodies . Although it is the dung ball that rolls rather than the beetle itself , the beetles face many of the same mechanical difficulties that rolling organisms contend with .
Keratinocytes , a type of skin cell , migrate with a rolling motion during the process of wound healing .
Rotifers , although their Latin name means " wheel @-@ bearer " , do not have any rotating structures , but rather a ring of rhythmically beating cilia used for feeding and propulsion .
= = = Wheel @-@ like rotation = = =
= = = = Macroscopic = = = =
Among animals , there exists a single known example of an apparently freely @-@ rotating structure , though it is not propulsive — the crystalline style of certain bivalves and gastropods . The style consists of a transparent glycoprotein rod which is continuously formed in a cilia @-@ lined sac and extends into the stomach . The cilia rotate the rod , so that it becomes wrapped in strands of mucus . As the rod slowly dissolves in the stomach , it releases digestive enzymes . Estimates of the speed of rotation of the style in vivo vary significantly , and it is unclear if the style is rotated continuously or intermittently .
= = = = Molecular = = = =
There are two known examples of molecular rotating structures used by living cells . ATP synthase is an enzyme used in the process of energy storage and transfer , notably in photosynthesis and oxidative phosphorylation . It bears some similarity to the flagellar motors discussed below . The evolution of ATP synthase is thought to be an example of modular evolution , in which two subunits with their own functions have become associated and gained a new functionality .
The only known example of a biological " wheel " — a system capable of providing continuous propulsive torque about a fixed body — is the flagellum , a corkscrew @-@ like tail used by single @-@ celled prokaryotes for propulsion . The bacterial flagellum is the best known example . About half of all known bacteria have at least one flagellum , indicating that rotation may in fact be the most common form of locomotion in living systems , though it is restricted to the microscopic environment .
At the base of the bacterial flagellum , where it enters the cell membrane , a motor protein acts as a rotary engine . The engine is powered by proton motive force , i.e. , by the flow of protons ( hydrogen ions ) across the bacterial cell membrane due to a concentration gradient set up by the cell 's metabolism . ( In species of the genus Vibrio , there are two kinds of flagella , lateral and polar , and some are driven by a sodium ion pump rather than a proton pump . ) Flagella are quite efficient , allowing bacteria to move at speeds up to 60 cell lengths per second . The rotary motor at the base of the flagellum is similar in structure to ATP synthase . Spirillum bacteria have helical bodies with flagella at either end , and they spin about the central axis of their bodies as they move through the water .
Archaea , a group of prokaryotes separate from bacteria , also feature flagella driven by rotary motor proteins , which are structurally and evolutionarily distinct from bacterial flagella . Whereas bacterial flagella evolved from the bacterial Type III secretion system , archaeal flagella appear to have evolved from Type IV pili .
Some eukaryotic cells , such as the protist Euglena , also have flagella , but eukaryotic flagella do not rotate at the base ; rather , they bend in such a way that the tip of the flagellum whips in a circle . The eukaryotic flagellum , also called a cilium or undulipodium , is structurally and evolutionarily distinct from prokaryotic flagella .
= = Biological barriers to wheeled organisms = =
= = = Evolutionary constraints = = =
The processes of evolution , as they are presently understood , can help explain why wheeled locomotion has not evolved in multicellular organisms ; simply put , a complex structure or system will not evolve if its incomplete form provides no benefit to the organism .
According to the modern evolutionary synthesis , adaptations are produced incrementally through natural selection , so major genetic changes will usually spread within populations only if they do not decrease the fitness of individuals . Although neutral changes ( which provide no benefit ) can spread through genetic drift , and detrimental changes can spread under some circumstances , large changes that require multiple steps will occur only if the intermediate stages increase fitness . Richard Dawkins describes the matter thus : " The wheel may be one of those cases where the engineering solution can be seen in plain view , yet be unattainable in evolution because it lies [ on ] the other side of a deep valley , cutting unbridgeably across the massif of Mount Improbable . " In such a fitness landscape , wheels might sit on a highly favorable " peak " , but the valley around that peak may be too deep or wide for the gene pool to migrate across by genetic drift or natural selection . Stephen Jay Gould notes that biological adaptation is limited to working with available components , commenting that " wheels work well , but animals are debarred from building them by structural constraints inherited as an evolutionary legacy . "
Natural selection therefore explains why wheels are an unlikely solution to the problem of locomotion – a partially evolved wheel , missing one or more of its key components , would probably not impart an advantage to an organism . The exception to this is the flagellum , the only known example of a freely rotating propulsive system in biology ; in the evolution of flagella , individual components were recruited from older structures , where they performed tasks unrelated to propulsion . The basal body that is now the rotary motor might , for instance , have evolved from a structure used by the bacterium to inject toxins into other cells . This recruitment of previously evolved structures to serve new functions is called exaptation .
Molecular biologist Robin Holliday has written that the absence of biological wheels argues against creationist or intelligent design accounts of the diversity of life , because an intelligent creator — free of the limitations imposed by evolution — would be expected to deploy wheels wherever they would be of use .
= = = Developmental and anatomical constraints = = =
Using human manufacturing processes , wheeled systems of varying complexity have proven fairly simple to construct , and issues of power transmission and friction have proven tractable . It is not clear , however , that the vastly different processes of embryonic development are suited to — or even capable of — producing a functioning wheel , for reasons described below .
The greatest anatomical impediment to wheeled multicellular organisms is the interface between the static and rotating components of the wheel . In either a passive or driven case , the wheel ( and possibly axle ) must be able to rotate freely relative to the rest of the machine or organism . Unlike animal joints , which have a limited range of motion , a wheel must be able to rotate through an arbitrary angle without ever needing to be " unwound " . As such , a wheel cannot be permanently attached to the axle or shaft about which it rotates ( or if the axle and wheel are fixed together , the axle cannot be affixed to the rest of the machine or organism ) .
= = = = Power transmission to driven wheels = = = =
In the case of a driven wheel , a torque must be applied to generate the locomotive force . In human technology , this torque is generally provided by a motor , of which there are many types , including electric , piston @-@ driven , turbine @-@ driven , pneumatic , and hydraulic . ( Torque may also be provided by human power , as in the case of a bicycle . ) In animals , motion is typically achieved by the use of skeletal muscles , which derive their energy from the metabolism of nutrients from food . Because these muscles are attached to both of the components that must move relative to each other , they are not capable of directly driving a wheel . In addition , large animals cannot produce high accelerations , as relative inertia increases rapidly with body size .
= = = = Friction = = = =
In typical mechanical systems , some type of bearing and / or lubricant must be used to reduce friction at the interface between two components . Reducing friction is vital for minimizing wear on components and preventing overheating . As the relative speed of the components rises , and as the contact force between them increases , the importance of friction mitigation increases as well . In biological joints such as the human knee , friction is reduced by means of cartilage with a very low friction coefficient , as well as lubricating synovial fluid , which has very low viscosity . Gerhard Scholtz , professor at the Institut für Biologie Vergleichende Zoologie ( " Institute for Biology and Comparative Zoology " ) at Humboldt University of Berlin , asserts that a similar secreted lubricant or dead cellular material could allow a biological wheel to rotate freely .
= = = = Nutrient and waste transfer = = = =
Another potential problem that arises at the interface between wheel and axle ( or axle and body ) is the ability of an organism to transfer materials across this interface . If the tissues that make up a wheel are living , they will need to be supplied with oxygen and nutrients and have wastes removed in order to sustain metabolism . A typical animal circulatory system , composed of blood vessels , would not be able to provide transportation across the interface . In the absence of circulation , oxygen and nutrients would need to diffuse across the interface , a process that would be greatly limited by the available partial pressure and surface area , in accordance with Fick 's law of diffusion . For large multicellular animals , diffusion would be insufficient . Alternately , a wheel could be composed of excreted , nonliving material such as keratin , of which hair and nails are composed .
= = Disadvantages of wheels = =
Wheels incur mechanical and other disadvantages in certain environments and situations that would represent a decreased fitness when compared with limbed locomotion . These disadvantages suggest that , even barring the biological constraints discussed above , the absence of wheels in multicellular life may not in fact be the " missed opportunity " of biology that it first seems . On the contrary , given the mechanical disadvantages and restricted usefulness of wheels when compared with limbs , the central question can be reversed : not " Why doesn 't nature produce wheels ? " , but rather , " Why don 't human vehicles make more use of limbs ? " The use of wheels rather than limbs in many engineered vehicles can likely be attributed to the complexity of design required to construct and control limbs , rather than to a consistent functional advantage of wheels over limbs .
= = = Efficiency = = =
= = = = Rolling resistance = = = =
Although stiff wheels are more energy efficient than other means of locomotion when traveling over hard , level terrain ( such as paved roads ) , wheels are not especially efficient on soft terrain such as soils , because they are vulnerable to rolling resistance . In rolling resistance , a vehicle loses energy to the deformation of its wheels and the surface on which they are rolling . Smaller wheels are especially susceptible to rolling resistance . Softer surfaces deform more and recover less than firm surfaces , resulting in greater resistance . Compared with rolling on concrete , resistance on medium to hard soil can be five to eight times greater , and resistance on sand can be ten to fifteen times greater . While wheels must deform the surface along their entire path , limbs induce only a small , localized deformation at the point of foot contact .
Rolling resistance is also the reason wheels are not seen in certain human civilizations . During the time of the Roman Empire , wheeled chariots were common in the Middle East and North Africa ; yet when the Empire collapsed , wheels fell out of favor with the local populations , who turned to camels to transport goods in the sandy desert climate . In his book Hen 's Teeth and Horse 's Toes , Stephen Jay Gould explains this curiosity of history , asserting that , in the absence of maintained roads , camels required less manpower and water than a cart pulled by oxen .
= = = = Efficiency of aquatic locomotion = = = =
When moving through a fluid , rotating systems carry an efficiency advantage only at extremely low Reynolds numbers ( i.e. , viscosity @-@ dominated flows ) such as those experienced by bacterial flagella , whereas oscillating systems have the advantage at higher ( inertia @-@ dominated ) Reynolds numbers . Whereas ship propellers typically have efficiencies around 60 % and aircraft propellers up to around 80 % ( achieving 88 % in the human @-@ powered Gossamer Condor ) , much higher efficiencies , in the range of 96 % – 98 % , can be achieved with an oscillating flexible foil like a fish tail or bird wing .
= = = Traction = = =
Wheels are prone to slipping — an inability to generate traction — on loose or slippery terrain . Slipping wastes energy and can potentially lead to a loss of control or becoming stuck , as with an automobile on mud or snow . This limitation of wheels can be seen in the realm of human technology : in an example of biologically inspired engineering , legged vehicles find use in the logging industry , where they allow access to terrain more challenging than what wheeled vehicles can navigate . Tracked vehicles suffer less from slipping than wheeled vehicles , owing to their larger contact area with the ground — but they tend to have larger turning radii than wheeled vehicles , and they are less efficient and more mechanically complex .
= = = Obstacle navigation = = =
Work by engineer Mieczysław G. Bekker implies that the distribution of irregularities in natural terrains is log @-@ normal ; i.e. , small obstacles are far more common than larger ones . Thus , obstacle navigation presents a challenge to wheeled locomotion in natural terrains at all size scales . The primary means of obstacle navigation are to go around obstacles and to go over them .
= = = = Going around obstacles = = = =
Anatomist Michael LaBarbera of the University of Chicago illustrates the poor maneuverability of wheels by comparing the turning radii of walking and wheelchair @-@ bound humans . As Jared Diamond points out , most biological examples of rolling are found in wide open , hard packed terrain , including the use of rolling by dung beetles and tumbleweeds .
= = = = Going over obstacles = = = =
Wheels are poor at dealing with vertical obstacles , especially obstacles on the same scale as the wheel itself . Assuming a vehicle or animal can shift its center of mass , the limiting height of vertical obstacles for a passive wheel is equal to the radius of the wheel . If the center of mass cannot be shifted , the highest obstacle a vehicle can surmount is one quarter to one half the radius of the wheel . Because of these limitations , wheels intended for rough terrain require a larger diameter .
In addition , without articulation , a wheeled vehicle can become stuck on top of an obstacle , with the obstacle between the wheels , preventing them from contacting the ground . Limbs , in contrast , are useful for climbing and are equipped to deal with uneven terrain .
With unarticulated wheels , climbing obstacles will cause the body of a vehicle to tilt . If the vehicle 's center of mass moves outside of the wheelbase or axle track , the vehicle will become statically unstable and tip over . At high speeds , a vehicle can become dynamically unstable , meaning that it can be tipped over by an obstacle smaller than its static stability limit , or by excessive acceleration or tight turning . Without articulation , this can be an impossible position from which to recover .
= = = Versatility = = =
Limbs used by animals for locomotion over terrain are frequently also used for other purposes , such as grasping , manipulating , climbing , branch @-@ swinging , swimming , digging , jumping , throwing , kicking , and grooming . With a lack of articulation , wheels would not be as useful as limbs in these roles .
= = Rolling and wheeled creatures in fiction and legend = =
= = = Rolling creatures = = =
The hoop snake is a creature of legend in the United States and Australia . The snake is said to grasp its tail in its mouth and roll like a wheel towards its prey . The Japanese Tsuchinoko is a similar mythical creature .
The 1944 science fiction short story " Arena " , by Fredric Brown , features a telepathic alien called an Outsider , which is roughly spherical and moves by rolling . The story was the basis for a 1967 Star Trek episode of the same name and possibly also a 1964 episode of The Outer Limits entitled " Fun and Games " , though neither television treatment included a spherical creature .
The Dutch graphic artist M. C. Escher invented a creature that he named Pedalternorotandomovens centroculatus articulosus , which was capable of rolling itself forward . He illustrated this creature in his 1951 lithograph Wentelteefje ( also known by the English title Curl @-@ up ) .
A 1956 Scrooge McDuck comic by Carl Barks , Land Beneath the Ground ! , introduced Terries and Fermies ( a play on the phrase terra firma ) , creatures who move from place to place by rolling . The Terries and Fermies have made a sport of their rolling abilities , causing earthquakes in the process .
Tuf Voyaging , a 1986 science fiction novel by George R. R. Martin , features an alien called a Rolleram , described as a " berserk living cannonball of enormous size " , which kills its prey by rolling over it and crushing it , before digesting it externally . Adults of the species weigh approximately six metric tons and can roll faster than 50 kilometers per hour .
In the Sonic the Hedgehog video game series , which first appeared in 1991 , the eponymous Sonic and his sidekick Tails move by rolling .
The 1995 short story " Microbe " , by Kenyon College biologist and feminist science fiction writer Joan Slonczewski , describes an exploratory expedition to an alien world whose plant and animal life consists entirely of doughnut @-@ shaped organisms .
= = = Wheeled creatures = = =
L. Frank Baum 's 1907 children 's book Ozma of Oz features humanoid creatures with wheels instead of hands and feet , called Wheelers .
The 1968 novel The Goblin Reservation by Clifford D. Simak features an intelligent alien race that uses biological wheels .
Piers Anthony 's 1977 book Cluster and its sequels feature aliens called Polarians , which locomote by gripping and balancing atop a large ball . The ball is a living , though temporarily separable , portion of the Polarian 's body .
David Brin 's Uplift Universe includes a wheeled species called the g 'Kek , which are described in some detail in the 1995 novel Brightness Reef . In 1996 's Infinity 's Shore , a g 'Kek is described as looking like " a squid in a wheelchair . " They suffer from arthritic axles in their old age , particularly when living in a high gravity environment .
A 1997 novel in the Animorphs series , The Andalite Chronicles , includes an alien called a Mortron , composed of two separate entities : a yellow and black bottom half with four wheels , and a red , elongated head with razor @-@ sharp teeth and concealed wings .
The 2000 novel The Amber Spyglass , by English author Philip Pullman , features an alien race known as the Mulefa , which have diamond @-@ shaped bodies with one leg at the front and back and one on each side . The Mulefa use large , disk @-@ shaped seed pods as wheels . They mount the pods on bone axles on their front and back legs , while propelling themselves with their side legs . The Mulefa have a symbiotic relationship with the seed pod trees , which depend on the rolling action to crack open the pods and allow the seeds to disperse .
In the 2000 novel Wheelers , by English mathematician Ian Stewart and reproductive biologist Jack Cohen , a Jovian species called " blimps " has developed the ability to biologically produce machines called " wheelers " , which use wheels for locomotion .
The children 's television series Jungle Junction , which premiered in 2009 , features hybrid jungle animals with wheels rather than legs ; one such animal , Ellyvan , is a hybrid of an elephant and a van . These animals traverse their habitat on elevated highways .
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= Muhammad al @-@ Durrah incident =
The Muhammad al @-@ Durrah incident took place in the Gaza Strip on 30 September 2000 , on the second day of the Second Intifada , during widespread rioting throughout the Palestinian territories . Jamal al @-@ Durrah and his 12 @-@ year @-@ old son , Muhammad , were filmed by Talal Abu Rahma , a Palestinian cameraman freelancing for France 2 , as they were caught in crossfire between Israeli and Palestinian security forces . The footage shows the pair crouching behind a concrete cylinder , the boy crying and the father waving , then a burst of gunfire and dust , after which the boy is seen slumped across his father 's legs .
Fifty @-@ nine seconds of the footage were broadcast in France with a voiceover from Charles Enderlin , the station 's bureau chief in Israel , who was not present during the shooting . Based on information from the cameraman , Enderlin told viewers that the al @-@ Durrahs had been the " target of fire from the Israeli positions " and that the boy had died . After an emotional public funeral , Muhammad was hailed throughout the Muslim world as a martyr .
Over the months and years that followed , commentators questioned the accuracy of France 2 's report . The Israel Defense Forces accepted responsibility for the shooting at first but later retracted . French journalists who saw the raw footage confirmed that France 2 had cut a final few seconds in which Muhammad appeared to lift his hand from his face ; they acknowledged that he had died , but said the footage alone did not show it . France 2 's news editor said in 2005 that no one could be sure who fired the shots . Other commentators , particularly Philippe Karsenty , a French media commentator , went further , alleging that the scene had been staged by Palestinian protesters ; France 2 sued him for libel and in 2013 he was fined € 7 @,@ 000 by the Court of Appeal of Paris . In May that year an Israeli government report supported Karsenty 's view . Jamal al @-@ Durrah and Charles Enderlin rejected its conclusion and called for an independent international investigation .
The footage of the father and son acquired what one writer called the power of a battle flag . Postage stamps in the Middle East carried the images ; one of the images was visible in the background when Daniel Pearl , a Jewish @-@ American journalist , was beheaded by al @-@ Qaeda in 2002 . James Fallows wrote of the controversy that " no version of truth that is considered believable by all sides will ever emerge . "
= = Background = =
On 28 September 2000 , two days before the shooting , the Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem , a holy site in both Judaism and Islam with contested rules of access . The violence that followed had its roots in several events , but the visit was provocative and triggered protests that escalated into rioting across the West Bank and Gaza Strip . The uprising became known as the Second Intifada ; it lasted over four years and cost around 4 @,@ 000 lives , over 3 @,@ 000 of them Palestinian .
The Netzarim junction , where the shooting took place , is known locally as the al @-@ Shohada ( martyrs ' ) junction . It lies on Saladin Road , a few kilometres south of Gaza City . The source of conflict at the junction was the nearby Netzarim settlement , where 60 Israeli families lived until Israel 's withdrawal from Gaza in 2005 . A military escort accompanied the settlers whenever they left or arrived at the settlement , and an Israeli military outpost , Magen @-@ 3 , guarded the approach . The area had been the scene of violent incidents in the days before the shooting .
= = People = =
= = = Jamal and Muhammad al @-@ Durrah = = =
Jamal al @-@ Durrah ( born c . 1963 ) was a carpenter and house painter before the shooting . Since then , because of his injuries , he has worked as a truck driver . He and his wife , Amal , live in the UNRWA @-@ run Bureij refugee camp in the Gaza Strip . As of 2013 they had four daughters and six sons , including a boy , Muhammad , born two years after the shooting .
Until the shooting , Jamal had worked for Moshe Tamam , an Israeli contractor , for 20 years , since he was 14 . Writer Helen Schary Motro came to know Jamal when she employed him to help build her house in Tel Aviv . She described his years of rising at 3 : 30 am to catch the bus to the border crossing at four , then a second bus out of Gaza so he could be at work by six . Tamam called him a " terrific man , " someone he trusted to work alone in his customers ' homes .
Muhammad Jamal Al @-@ Durrah ( born 1988 ) was in fifth grade , but his school was closed on 30 September 2000 ; the Palestinian Authority had called for a general strike and day of mourning following violence in Jerusalem the day before . His mother said he had been watching the rioting on television and asked if he could join in . Father and son decided instead to go to a car auction . Jamal had just sold his 1974 Fiat , Motro wrote , and Muhammad loved cars , so they went to the auction together .
= = = Charles Enderlin = = =
Charles Enderlin was born in 1945 in Paris ; his grandparents were Austrian Jews who had left the country in 1938 when Germany invaded . After briefly studying medicine , he moved to Jerusalem in 1968 where he became an Israeli national . He began working for France 2 in 1981 , serving as their bureau chief in Israel from 1990 until his retirement in 2015 . Enderlin is the author of several books about the Middle East , including one about Muhammad al @-@ Durrah , Un Enfant est Mort : Netzarim , 30 Septembre 2000 ( 2010 ) . Highly regarded among his peers and within the French establishment , he submitted a letter from Jacques Chirac , during the Philippe Karsenty libel action , who wrote in flattering terms of Enderlin 's integrity . In 2009 he was awarded France 's highest decoration , the Légion d 'honneur .
According to journalist Anne @-@ Élisabeth Moutet , Enderlin 's coverage of the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict was respected by other journalists but was regularly criticized by pro @-@ Israel groups . As a result of the al @-@ Durrah case , he received death threats , his wife was assaulted in the street , his children were threatened , the family had to move home , and at one point they considered emigrating to the United States .
= = = Talal Abu Rahma = = =
Talal Hassan Abu Rahma studied business administration in the United States , and began working as a freelance cameraman for France 2 in Gaza in 1988 . At the time of the shooting , he ran his own press office , the National News Center , contributed to CNN through the Al @-@ Wataneya Press Office , and was a board member of the Palestinian Journalists ' Association . His coverage of the al @-@ Durrah shooting brought him several journalism awards , including the Rory Peck Award in 2001 . According to France 2 correspondent Gérard Grizbec , Abu Rahma had never been a member of a Palestinian political group , had twice been arrested by Palestinian police for filming images that did not meet the approval of Yasser Arafat , and had never been accused of security breaches by Israel .
= = Initial reports = =
= = = Scene on the day = = =
On the day of the shooting — Rosh Hashanah , the Jewish New Year — the two @-@ story Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) outpost at the Netzarim junction was manned by Israeli soldiers from the Givati Brigade Engineering Platoon and the Herev Battalion . According to Enderlin , the soldiers were Druze .
The two @-@ story IDF outpost sat northwest of the junction . Two six @-@ story Palestinian blocks ( known as the twins or twin towers and described variously as offices or apartments ) lay directly behind it . South of the junction , diagonally across from the IDF , there was a Palestinian National Security Forces outpost under the command of Brigadier @-@ General Osama al @-@ Ali , a member of the Palestine National Council . The concrete wall that Jamal and Muhammad crouched against was in front of this building ; the spot was less than 120 metres from the most northerly point of the Israeli outpost .
In addition to France 2 , the Associated Press and Reuters also had camera crews at the junction . They captured brief footage of the al @-@ Durrahs and Abu Rahma . Abu Rahma was the only journalist to film the moment the al @-@ Durrahs were shot .
= = = Arrival at the junction , shooting starts = = =
Jamal and Muhammad arrived at the junction in a cab around midday , on their way back from the car auction . There had been a protest , demonstrators had thrown stones , and the IDF had responded with tear gas . Abu Rahma was filming events and interviewing protesters , including Abdel Hakim Awad , head of the Fatah youth movement in Gaza . Because of the protest , a police officer stopped Jamal and Muhammad 's cab from going any further , so father and son proceeded on foot across the junction . It was at that point , according to Jamal , that the live fire started . Enderlin said the first shots were fired from the Palestinian positions and returned by the Israeli soldiers .
Jamal , Muhammad , the Associated Press cameraman , and Shams Oudeh , the Reuters cameraman , took cover against the concrete wall in the south @-@ east quadrant of the crossroads , diagonally across from the Israeli outpost . Jamal , Muhammad and Shams Oudeh crouched behind a three @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) concrete drum , apparently part of a culvert , that was sitting against the wall . A thick paving stone sat on top of the drum , which offered further protection . Abu Rahma hid behind a white minibus parked across the road about 15 metres away from the wall . The Reuters and Associated Press cameramen briefly filmed over Jamal and Muhammad 's shoulders — the cameras pointing toward the Israeli outpost — before the men moved away . Jamal and Muhammad did not move away , but stayed behind the drum for 45 minutes . In Enderlin 's view , they were frozen in fear .
= = = France 2 report = = =
In an affidavit three days after the shooting , Abu Rahma said shots had been fired for about 45 minutes and that he had filmed around 27 minutes of it . ( How much film was shot became a bone of contention in 2007 when France 2 told a court that only 18 minutes of film existed . ) He began filming Jamal and Muhammad when he heard Muhammad cry and saw that the boy had been shot in the right leg . He said he filmed the scene containing the father and son for about six minutes . He sent those six minutes to Enderlin in Jerusalem via satellite . Enderlin edited the footage down to 59 seconds and added a voiceover :
1500 hours . Everything has just erupted near the settlement of Netzarim in the Gaza Strip . The Palestinians have shot live bullets , the Israelis are responding . Paramedics , journalists , passersby are caught in the crossfire . Here , Jamal and his son Mohammed are the target of fire from the Israeli positions . Mohammed is twelve , his father is trying to protect him . He is motioning . Another burst of fire . Mohammed is dead and his father seriously wounded .
The footage shows Jamal and Muhammad crouching behind the cylinder , the child screaming and the father shielding him . Jamal appears to shout something in the direction of the cameraman , then waves and shouts in the direction of the Israeli outpost . There is a burst of gunfire and the camera goes out of focus . When the gunfire subsides , Jamal is sitting upright and injured and Muhammad is lying over his legs . Enderlin cut a final few seconds from the footage that shows Muhammad lift his hand from his face . This cut became the basis of much of the controversy over the film .
The raw footage stops suddenly at this point and begins again with unidentified people being loaded into an ambulance . ( At that point in his report , Enderlin said : " A Palestinian policeman and an ambulance driver have also lost their lives in the course of this battle . " ) Bassam al @-@ Bilbeisi , an ambulance driver on his way to the scene , was reported to have been shot and killed , leaving a widow and 11 children . Abu Rahma said Muhammad lay bleeding for at least 17 minutes before an ambulance picked up father and son together . He said he did not film them being picked up because he was worried about having only one battery . Abu Rahma remained at the junction for 30 – 40 minutes until he felt it was safe to leave , then drove to his studio in Gaza City to send the footage to Enderlin . The 59 seconds of footage were first broadcast on France 2 's nightly news at 8 : 00 pm local time ( GMT + 2 ) , after which France 2 distributed several minutes of raw footage around the world without charge .
= = = Injuries , funeral = = =
Jamal and Muhammad were taken by ambulance to the Al @-@ Shifa Hospital in Gaza City . Abu Rhama telephoned the hospital and was told that three bodies had arrived there : that of a jeep driver , an ambulance driver , and a boy , initially named by mistake as Rami Al @-@ Durrah .
According to Dr. Abed El @-@ Razeq El Masry , the pathologist who examined Muhammed , the boy had received a fatal injury to the abdomen . In 2002 he showed Esther Schapira , a German journalist , post @-@ mortem images of Muhammad next to cards identifying him by name . Schapira also obtained , from a Palestinian journalist , what appeared to be footage of him arriving at the hospital on a stretcher . During an emotional public funeral in the Bureij refugee camp , Muhammad was wrapped in a Palestinian flag and buried before sundown on the day of his death , in accordance with Muslim tradition .
Jamal was taken at first to the Al @-@ Shifa Hospital in Gaza . Dr. Ahmed Ghadeel said Jamal had received multiple wounds from high @-@ velocity bullets striking his right elbow , right thigh and the lower part of both legs ; his femoral artery was also cut . Talal Abu Rahma interviewed Jamal and the doctor there on camera the day after the shooting ; Dr. Ghadeel displayed x @-@ rays of Jamal 's right elbow and right pelvis . Moshe Tamam , Jamal 's Israeli employer , offered to have him taken to hospital in Tel Aviv , but the Palestinian Authority declined the offer . He was transferred instead to the King Hussein Medical Center in Amman , Jordan , where he was visited by King Abdullah . Jamal reportedly told Tamam that he had been hit by nine bullets ; he said five were removed from his body in hospital in Gaza and four in Amman .
= = = Cameraman 's account = = =
Enderlin based his allegation that the IDF had shot the boy on the report of the cameraman , Talal Abu Rahma . Abu Rahma was clear in interviews that the Israelis had fired the shots . For example , he told The Guardian : " They were cleaning the area . Of course they saw the father . They were aiming at the boy , and that is what surprised me , yes , because they were shooting at him , not only one time , but many times . " Abu Rahma said shooting was also coming from the Palestinian National Security Forces outpost , but that they were not shooting when Muhammad was hit . The Israeli fire was being directed at this Palestinian outpost , he said . He told National Public Radio :
I saw the boy getting injured in his leg , and the father asking for help . Then I saw him getting injured in his arm , the father . The father was asking the ambulances to help him , because he could see the ambulances . I cannot see the ambulance ... I wasn 't far away , maybe from them [ Jamal and Muhammad ] face to face about 15 meters , 17 meters . But the father didn 't succeed to get the ambulance by waving to them . He looked at me and he said , " Help me . " I said , " I cannot , I can 't help you . " The shooting till then was really heavy ... It was really raining bullets , for more than for 45 minutes .
Then ... I hear something , " boom ! " Really is coming with a lot of dust . I looked at the boy , I filmed the boy lying down in the father 's lap , and the father really , getting really injured , and he was really dizzy . I said , " Oh my god , the boy 's got killed , the boy 's got killed , " I was screaming , I was losing my mind . While I was filming , the boy got killed ... I was very afraid , I was very upset , I was crying , and I was remembering my children .... This was the most terrible thing that has happened to me as a journalist .
Abu Rahma alleged in an affidavit that " the child was intentionally and in cold blood shot dead and his father injured by the Israeli army . " The affidavit was given to the Palestinian Centre for Human Rights in Gaza and signed by the cameraman in the presence of Raji Sourani , a human rights lawyer . France 2 's communications director , Christine Delavennat , said in 2008 that Abu Rahma denied having accused the Israeli army of firing at the boy in cold blood , and that this had been falsely attributed to him .
= = = Israel 's early response = = =
The position of the IDF changed over time , from accepting responsibility in 2000 to retracting the admission in 2005 . The IDF 's first response , when Enderlin contacted them before his broadcast , was that the Palestinians " make cynical use of women and children , " which he decided not to air .
On 3 October 2000 , the IDF 's chief of operations , Major @-@ General Giora Eiland , said an internal investigation indicated the shots had apparently been fired by Israeli soldiers . The soldiers , under fire , had been shooting from small slits in the wall of their outpost ; General Yom @-@ Tov Samia , then head of the IDF 's Southern Command said they may not have had a clear field of vision , and had fired in the direction from which they believed the fire was coming . Eiland issued an apology : " This was a grave incident , an event we are all sorry about . "
The Israelis had been trying for hours to speak to Palestinian commanders , according to Israel 's Cabinet Secretary , Isaac Herzog ; he added that Palestinian security forces could have intervened to stop the fire .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Overview = = =
Three mainstream narratives emerged after the shooting . The early view that Israeli gunfire had killed the boy developed into the position that , because of the trajectory of the shots , Palestinian gunfire was more likely to have been responsible . This view was expressed in 2005 by Denis Jeambar , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of L 'Express , and Daniel Leconte , a former France 2 correspondent , who viewed the raw footage . A third perspective , held by Arlette Chabot , France 2 's news editor , is that no one can know who fired the shots .
A fourth , minority , position held that the scene was staged by Palestinian protesters to produce a child martyr or at least the appearance of one . This is known by those who follow the case as the " maximalist " view , as opposed to the " minimalist " view that the shots were probably not fired by the IDF . The maximalist view takes the form either that the al @-@ Durrahs were not shot and Muhammad did not die , or that he was killed intentionally by Palestinians .
The view that the scene was a media hoax of some kind emerged from an Israeli government enquiry in November 2000 . It was most persistently pursued by Stéphane Juffa , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Metula News Agency ( Mena ) , a French @-@ Israeli company ; Luc Rosenzweig , former editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Le Monde and a Mena contributor ; Richard Landes , an American historian who became involved after Enderlin showed him the raw footage during a visit to Jerusalem in 2003 ; and Philippe Karsenty , founder of a French media @-@ watchdog site , Media @-@ Ratings . It was also supported by Gérard Huber , a French psychoanalyst , and Pierre @-@ André Taguieff , a French philosopher who specializes in antisemitism , both of whom wrote books about the affair . The hoax view gained further support in 2013 from a second Israeli government report , the Kuperwasser report . Several commentators regard it as a right @-@ wing conspiracy theory and smear campaign .
= = = Key issues = = =
Key issues include how much footage was shot ; that it was blurred at the moment Jamal and Muhammad were hit ; that France 2 cut a few seconds in which the boy moves ; and that the cameraman stopped filming at that point . Despite the presence of camera crews from ( at least ) France 2 , Associated Press and Reuters , there is no footage of the c . 17 minutes Jamal and Muhammad waited for an ambulance or of them being loaded into one . There is no film of the death of the first ambulance driver , Bassam al @-@ Bilbeisi , who was reportedly shot on his way to pick them up .
Several commentators questioned what time the shooting occurred ; what time Muhammad arrived at the hospital ; why there seemed to be little blood on the ground where they were shot ; and whether any bullets were collected . Several alleged that , in other scenes in the raw footage , it is clear that protesters are play acting . One physician maintained that Jamal 's scars were not from bullet wounds , but dated back to an injury he sustained in the early 1990s .
There was no criminal inquiry . Palestinian police allowed journalists to photograph the scene the following day , but they gathered no forensic evidence . According to a Palestinian general , there was no Palestinian investigation because there was no doubt that the Israelis had killed the boy . General Yom Tov Samia of the IDF said the presence of protesters meant the Israelis were unable to examine and take photographs of the scene . The increase in violence at the junction cut off the Nezarim settlers , so the IDF evacuated them and , a week after the shooting , blew up everything within 500 metres of the IDF outpost , thereby destroying the crime scene .
A pathologist examined the boy 's body , but there was no full autopsy . It is unclear whether bullets were recovered from the scene or from Jamal and Muhammad . In 2002 Abu Rahma implied to Esther Schapira that he had collected bullets at the scene , adding : " We have some secrets for ourselves . We cannot give anything ... everything . " According to Jamal al @-@ Durrah , five bullets were recovered from his body by physicians in Gaza and four in Amman . In 2013 he said , without elaborating : " The bullets the Israelis fired are in the possession of the Palestinian Authority . "
= = = Footage = = =
= = = = How long , what it showed = = = =
Questions arose about how much footage existed and whether it showed the boy had died . Abu Rahma said in an affidavit that the gunfight had lasted 45 minutes and that he had filmed about 27 minutes of it . Doreen Carvajal of the International Herald Tribune said in 2005 that France 2 had shown the newspaper " the original 27 @-@ minute tape of the incident . " When the Court of Appeal of Paris asked , in 2007 , to see all the footage , during France 2 's libel case against Philippe Karsenty , France 2 presented the court with 18 minutes of film , saying the rest had been destroyed because it had not been about the shooting . Enderlin then said only 18 minutes of footage had been shot .
According to Abu Rahma , six minutes of his footage focused on the al @-@ Durrahs . France 2 broadcast 59 seconds of that scene and released another few seconds of it . No part of the footage shows the boy dead . Enderlin cut a final few seconds from the end , during which Muhammad appears to lift his hand away from his face . Enderlin said he had cut this scene in accordance with the France 2 ethical charter , because it showed the boy in his death throes ( " agonie " ) , which he said was " unbearable " ( " J 'ai coupé l 'agonie de l 'enfant . C 'était insupportable ... Cela n 'aurait rien apporté de plus ) . In 2007 he said he had meant to use the word agony , not agonie . If he were editing the footage again , he said in 2005 , he would include that scene .
= = = = Why the footage stopped when it did = = = =
Another issue is why France 2 , the Associated Press and Reuters did not film the scene directly after the shooting , including the shooting death of the ambulance driver who arrived to pick up Jamal and Muhammad . Abu Rahma 's footage stops suddenly after the shooting of the father and son , then begins again — from the same position , with the white minibus behind which Abu Rhama was standing visible in the shot — with other people being loaded into an ambulance .
Abu Rahma said Muhammad lay bleeding for at least 17 minutes before an ambulance picked up Jamal and Muhammad together , but he did not film any of it . When Esther Schapira asked why not , he replied : " Because when the ambulance came it closed on them , you know ? " When asked why he had not filmed the ambulance arriving and leaving , he replied that he had only one battery . Enderlin reportedly told the Paris Court of Appeal that Abu Rahma changed batteries at that point . Enderlin wrote in 2008 that " footage filmed by a cameraman under fire is not the equivalent of a surveillance camera in a supermarket . " Abu Rahma " filmed what circumstances permitted . "
= = = = French journalists view the footage = = = =
In October 2004 France 2 allowed three French journalists to view the raw footage — Denis Jeambar , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of L 'Express ; Daniel Leconte , former France 2 correspondent and head of news documentaries at Arte , a state @-@ run television network ; and Luc Rosenzweig , former editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Le Monde . They also asked to speak to the cameraman , who was in Paris at the time , but France 2 apparently told them he did not speak French and that his English was not good enough .
Jeambar and Leconte wrote a report about the viewing for Le Figaro in January 2005 . None of the scenes showed that the boy had died , they wrote . They rejected the position that the scene had been staged , but when Enderlin 's voiceover said Muhammad was dead , Enderlin " had no possibility of determining that he was in fact dead , and even less so , that he had been shot by IDF soldiers . " They said the footage did not show the boy 's death throes : " This famous ' agonie ' that Enderlin insisted was cut from the montage does not exist . "
Several minutes of the film showed Palestinians playing at war for the cameras , they wrote , falling down as if wounded , then getting up and walking away . A France 2 official told them , " You know it 's always like that , " a comment that Leconte said he found disturbing given the controversy . Christine Delavennat , France 2 's communications director , said that none of the scenes in the footage had been staged . Jeambar and Leconte concluded that the shots had come from the Palestinian positions , given the trajectory of the bullets . Leconte said in an interview : " If they had been Israeli bullets , they would be very strange bullets because they would have needed to go around the corner . " He dismissed France 2 's explanation — that perhaps the bullets that hit the boy had ricocheted off the ground . " It could happen once , but that there should be eight or nine of them , which go around a corner ? They 're just saying anything . "
The idea of writing about the raw footage had been Luc Rosenzweig 's ; he had initially offered a story about it to L 'Express , which is how Jeambar ( editor of L 'Express ) had become involved . But Jeambar and Leconte ended up distancing themselves from Rosenzweig . He was involved with the Israeli @-@ French Metula News Agency ( known as Mena ) , which was pushing the view that the scene was a fake . Rosenzweig later called it " an almost perfect media crime . " When Jeambar and Leconte wrote up their report about the raw footage , they initially offered it Le Monde , not Le Figaro , but Le Monde refused to publish it because Mena had been involved at an earlier stage . Jeambar and Leconte made clear in Le Figaro that they gave no credence to the staging hypothesis :
To those who , like Mena , tried to use us to support the theory that the child 's death was staged by the Palestinians , we say they are misleading us and their readers . Not only do we not share that point of view , but we attest that , given our present knowledge of the case , nothing supports that conclusion . In fact , the reverse is true . "
= = = = Enderlin 's response = = = =
Enderlin responded to Leconte and Jeambar in January 2005 in Le Figaro . He thanked them for rejecting that the scene had been staged . He had reported that the shots were fired by the Israelis because , he wrote , he trusted the cameraman , who had worked for France 2 since 1988 . In the days following the shooting , other witnesses , including other journalists , offered some confirmation , he said . He added that the Israeli army had not responded to France 2 's offers to cooperate with their investigation .
Another reason he had attributed the shooting to Israel , he wrote , was that " the image corresponded to the reality of the situation not only in Gaza but also in the West Bank . " Citing Ben Kaspi in the Israeli newspaper Maariv , he wrote that , during the first months of the Second Intifada , the IDF had fired one million rounds of ammunition — 700 @,@ 000 in the West Bank and 300 @,@ 000 in Gaza ; from 29 September to late October 2000 , 118 Palestinians had been killed , including 33 under the age of 18 , compared to 11 adult Israelis killed during the same period .
= = = Confusion about timeline = = =
Confusion arose about the timeline . The cameraman said the shooting began at noon and continued for 45 minutes . Jamal 's account matched his : he and Muhammad arrived at the junction around noon , and were under fire for 45 minutes .
Enderlin 's France 2 report placed the shooting later in the day . His voiceover said that Jamal and Muhammad were shot around 3 : 00 pm local time ( GMT + 3 ) . James Fallows agreed that Jamal and Muhammad first made an appearance in the footage around 3 : 00 pm , judging by comments from Jamal and some journalists on the scene . Abu Rahma said he remained at the junction for 30 – 40 minutes after the shooting . According to Schapira , he left for his studio in Gaza at around 4 pm , where he sent the footage to Enderlin in Jerusalem at around 6 pm . The news first arrived in London from the Associated Press at 6 : 00 pm BST ( GMT + 1 ) , followed minutes later by a similar report from Reuters .
Contradicting the noon and 3 pm timelines , Mohammed Tawil , the doctor who admitted Muhammad to the Al @-@ Shifa Hospital in Gaza City , told Esther Schapira that the boy had been admitted around 10 : 00 am local time , along with the ambulance driver , who had been shot through the heart . Tawil later said that he could not recall what he had told reporters about this . Records from the Al @-@ Shifa Hospital reportedly show that a young boy was examined in the pathology department at midday . The pathologist , Dr. Abed El @-@ Razeq El Masry , examined him for half an hour . He told Schapira that the boy 's abdominal organs were lying outside his body , and he showed Schapira images of the body , with a card identifying the boy as Muhammad . A watch on a pathologist 's wrist in one of the images appeared to say 3 : 50 .
= = = Interview with soldiers = = =
In 2002 Schapira interviewed three anonymous Israeli soldiers , " Ariel , Alexej and Idan , " who said they had been on duty at the IDF post that day . They knew something was about to happen , one said , because of the camera crews that had gathered . One soldier said the live fire started from the high @-@ rise Palestinian blocks known as " the twins " ; the shooter was firing at the IDF post , he said . The soldier added that he had not seen the al @-@ Durrahs . The Israelis returned fire on a Palestinian station 30 metres to the left of the al @-@ Durrahs . Their weapons were equipped with optics that allowed them to fire accurately , according to the soldier , and none of them had switched to automatic fire . In the view of the soldier , the shooting of Jamal and Muhammad was no accident . The shots did not come from the Israeli position , he said .
= = = Father 's injuries = = =
In 2007 Yehuda David , a physician at Tel Hashomer hospital near Tel Aviv , told Israel 's Channel 10 that he had treated Jamal Al @-@ Durrah in 1994 for knife and axe wounds to his arms and legs , injuries sustained during a gang attack . David maintained that the scars Jamal had presented as bullet wounds were in fact scars from a tendon @-@ repair operation David had performed in the early 90s . When David repeated his allegations in an interview with a " Daniel Vavinsky , " published in 2008 in Actualité Juive in Paris , Jamal filed a complaint with the Tribunal de grande instance de Paris for defamation and breach of doctor @-@ patient confidentiality .
The court established that " Daniel Vavinsky " was a pseudonym for Clément Weill @-@ Raynal , a deputy editor at France 3 . In 2011 it ruled that David and Actualité Juive had defamed Jamal . David , Weill @-@ Raynal and Serge Benattar , the managing editor of Actualité Juive , were fined € 5 @,@ 000 each , and Actualité Juive was ordered to print a retraction . The Israeli government said it would fund David 's appeal . The appeal was upheld in 2012 ; David was acquitted of defamation and breach of confidentiality . Benjamin Netanyahu , Israeli 's prime minister , telephoned David to congratulate him . Jamal Al @-@ Durrah said he would appeal the court 's decision .
In 2012 Rafi Walden , deputy director of the Tel Hashomer hospital and board member of Physicians for Human Rights , wrote in Haaretz that he had examined Jamal 's 50 @-@ page medical file , and that the injuries from the 2000 shooting were " completely different wounds " from the 1994 injuries . Walden listed " a gunshot wound in the right wrist , a shattered forearm bone , multiple fragment wounds in a palm , gunshot wounds in the right thigh , a fractured pelvis , an exit wound in the buttocks , a tear in the main nerve of the right thigh , tears in the main groin arteries and veins , and two gunshot wounds in the left lower leg . "
= = = Israel 's inquiries = = =
= = = = 2000 : Shahaf report = = = =
Major General Yom Tov Samia , the IDF 's southern commander , set up an inquiry soon after the shooting . According to James Fallows , Israeli commentators questioned its legitimacy as soon as it started ; Haaretz called it " almost a pirate endeavour . " The team was led by Nahum Shahaf , a physicist , and Joseph Doriel , an engineer , both of whom had been involved in the Yitzhak Rabin assassination conspiracy theories . Other investigators included Meir Danino , chief scientist at Elisra Systems ; Bernie Schechter , a ballistics expert , formerly with the Israeli police 's criminal identification laboratory ; and Chief Superintendent Elliot Springer , also from the criminal identification lab . A full list of names was never released .
Shahaf and Doriel built models of the wall , concrete drum and IDF post , and tried to reenact the shooting . A mark on the drum from the Israeli Bureau of Standards allowed them to determine its size and composition . They concluded that the shots may have come from a position behind the France 2 cameraman , where Palestinian police were alleged to have been standing .
On 23 October 2000 , Shahaf and Doriel invited CBS 60 Minutes to film the reenactment . Doriel told the correspondent , Bob Simon , that he believed the boy 's death was real , but that it had been set up to damage Israel . Those in the know , he said , included the cameraman and the boy 's father , though the latter had not realized the boy would be killed . When General Samia heard about the interview , he removed Doriel from the investigation . The investigators ' report was shown to the head of Israeli military intelligence ; the key points were published in November 2000 as not ruling out that the IDF had shot the boy , though describing it as " quite plausible " that he had been hit by Palestinian bullets aimed at the IDF post . The inquiry provoked widespread criticism . A Haaretz editorial said , " it is hard to describe in mild terms the stupidity of this bizarre investigation . "
= = = = 2005 : Retraction of earlier position = = = =
In 2005 Major @-@ General Giora Eiland publicly retracted the IDF 's admission of responsibility , and a statement to that effect was approved by the prime minister 's office in September 2007 . The following year an IDF spokesman , Col. Shlomi Am @-@ Shalom , said that the Shahaf report had shown the IDF could not have shot Muhammad . He asked France 2 to send the IDF the unedited 27 minutes of raw footage , as well as footage the France 2 cameraman shot the following day .
= = = = 2013 : Kuperwasser report = = = =
In September 2012 the Israeli government set up another inquiry at the request of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu . The team was led by Yossi Kuperwasser , director @-@ general of the Strategic Affairs Ministry . In May 2013 it published a 44 @-@ page report concluding that the al @-@ Durrahs had not been hit by IDF fire and may not have been shot at all .
The Kuperwasser report said that France 2 's central claims were not substantiated by the material the station had in its possession at the time ; that the boy was alive at the end of the video ; that there was no evidence that Jamal or Muhammad were injured in the manner reported by France 2 or that Jamal was seriously injured ; and that they may not have been shot at all . It included a medical opinion from Yehuda David , the doctor who treated Jamal in 1994 . The report said it is " highly doubtful that bullet holes in the vicinity of the two could have had their source in fire from the Israeli position , " and that the France 2 report was " edited and narrated in such a way as to create the misleading impression that it substantiated the claims made therein . " The France 2 narrative relied entirely on the cameraman 's opinion , the report said . Yuval Steinitz , Minister of International Affairs , Strategy and Intelligence , called the affair a " modern @-@ day blood libel against the State of Israel . "
France 2 , Charles Enderlin and Jamal al @-@ Durrah rejected the report 's conclusions and said they would cooperate with an independent international investigation . France 2 and Enderlin asked the Israeli government to supply the commission 's letter of appointment , membership and evidence , including photographs and the names of witnesses . Enderlin said the commission had failed to speak to him , France 2 , al @-@ Durrah or other eyewitnesses , and had consulted no independent experts . According to Enderlin , France 2 stood ready to help al @-@ Durrah have his son 's body exhumed ; he and al @-@ Durrah said they were willing to take polygraph tests .
= = Philippe Karsenty litigation = =
= = = 2006 : Enderlin @-@ France 2 v. Karsenty = = =
In response to claims that it had broadcast a staged scene , Enderlin and France 2 filed three defamation suits in 2004 and 2005 , seeking symbolic damages of € 1 . The most notable lawsuit was against Philippe Karsenty , who ran a media watchdog , Media @-@ Ratings . He published an analysis of the footage on his website in November 2004 , based on work from the French @-@ Israeli Metula News Agency , that alleged the shooting scene had been faked , as had several scenes leading up to it where protesters were shown being injured . France 2 and Enderlin issued a writ two days later .
The case began in September 2006 . Enderlin submitted as evidence a February 2004 letter from Jacques Chirac , then president of France , which spoke of Enderlin 's integrity . The court upheld the complaint on 19 October 2006 , fining Karsenty € 1 @,@ 000 and ordering him to pay € 3 @,@ 000 in costs . He lodged an appeal that day .
= = = 2007 : Karsenty v. Enderlin @-@ France 2 = = =
The first appeal opened in September 2007 in the Court of Appeal of Paris , before a three @-@ judge panel led by Judge Laurence Trébucq . The court asked France 2 to turn over the 27 minutes of raw footage the cameraman said he had shot , to be shown during a public hearing . France 2 produced 18 minutes ; Enderlin said that only 18 minutes had been shot .
During the screening , the court heard that Muhammad had raised his hand to his forehead and moved his leg after the cameraman had said he was dead , and that there was no blood on his shirt . Enderlin argued that the cameraman had not said the boy was dead , but that he was dying . A report prepared for the court by Jean @-@ Claude Schlinger , a ballistics expert commissioned by Karsenty , said that had the shots come from the Israeli position , Muhammad would have been hit in the lower limbs only .
France 2 's lawyer , Francis Szpiner , counsel to former President of France Jacques Chirac , called Karsenty " the Jew who pays a second Jew to pay a third Jew to fight to the last drop of Israeli blood , " comparing him to 9 / 11 conspiracy theorist Thierry Meyssan and Holocaust denier Robert Faurisson . Karsenty had it in for Enderlin , Szpiner argued , because of Enderlin 's even @-@ handed coverage of the Middle East .
The judges overturned the ruling against Karsenty in May 2008 in a 13 @-@ page decision . They ruled that he had exercised in good faith his right to criticize and had shown the court a " coherent body of evidence . " The court noted inconsistencies in Enderlin 's statements and said that the cameraman 's statements were not " perfectly credible either in form or content . " There were calls for a public inquiry from historian Élie Barnavi , a former Israeli ambassador to France , and Richard Prasquier , president of the Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France . The left @-@ leaning Le Nouvel Observateur began a petition in support of Enderlin that was signed by 300 French writers , accusing Karsenty of a seven @-@ year smear campaign .
= = = 2013 : Defamation ruling = = =
France 2 appealed to the Court of Cassation ( supreme court ) . In February 2012 it quashed the decision of the appeal court to overturn the conviction , ruling that the court should not have asked France 2 to provide the raw footage . The case was sent back to the appeal court , which convicted Karsenty of defamation in 2013 and fined him € 7 @,@ 000 .
= = Impact of the footage = =
The footage of Muhammad was compared to other iconic images of children under attack : the boy in the Warsaw ghetto ( 1943 ) , the Vietnamese girl doused with napalm ( 1972 ) , and the firefighter carrying the dying baby in Oklahoma ( 1995 ) . Catherine Nay , a French journalist , argued that Muhammad 's death " cancels , erases that of the Jewish child , his hands in the air before the SS in the Warsaw Ghetto . "
Palestinian children were distressed by the repeated broadcasting of the footage , according to a therapist in Gaza , and were re @-@ enacting the scene in playgrounds . Arab countries issued postage stamps bearing the images . Parks and streets were named in Muhammad 's honour , and Osama bin Laden mentioned him in a " warning " to President George Bush after 9 / 11 . The images were blamed for the 2000 Ramallah lynching and a rise in antisemitism in France . One image could be seen in the background when journalist Daniel Pearl , an American Jew , was beheaded by al @-@ Qaeda in February 2002 .
Sections of the Jewish and Israeli communities , including the Israeli government in 2013 , described the statements that IDF soldiers had killed the boy as a " blood libel , " a reference to the centuries @-@ old allegation that Jews sacrifice Christian children for their blood . Comparisons were made with the Dreyfus affair of 1894 , when a French @-@ Jewish army captain was found guilty of treason based on a forgery . In the view of Charles Enderlin , the controversy is a smear campaign intended to undermine footage coming out of the occupied Palestinian territories . Doreen Carvjal wrote in The New York Times that the footage is " a cultural prism , with viewers seeing what they want to see . "
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= Russian battleship Borodino =
Borodino ( Russian : Бородино ) was the lead ship of her class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy although she was the second ship of her class to be completed . Named after the 1812 Battle of Borodino , the ship was completed after the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 . Borodino was assigned to the Second Pacific Squadron sent to the Far East a few months after her completion to break the Japanese blockade of Port Arthur . The Japanese captured the port while the squadron was in transit and their destination was changed to Vladivostok . The ship was sunk during the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905 due to explosions set off by a Japanese shell hitting a 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) magazine . There was only one survivor from her crew of 855 officers and enlisted men .
= = Description = =
Borodino was 389 feet 5 inches ( 118 @.@ 7 m ) long at the waterline and 397 feet ( 121 @.@ 0 m ) long overall , with a beam of 76 feet 1 inch ( 23 @.@ 2 m ) and a draft of 29 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) , 38 inches ( 965 mm ) more than designed . Her normal displacement was 14 @,@ 091 long tons ( 14 @,@ 317 t ) , over 500 long tons ( 508 t ) more than her designed displacement of 13 @,@ 516 long tons ( 13 @,@ 733 t ) . Her intended crew consisted of 28 officers and 754 enlisted men , although she usually carried 826 – 46 crewmen in service .
The ship was powered by two four @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one three @-@ bladed propeller , using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers . Unlike her sisters , the engines and boilers were both built by the Franco @-@ Russian Works and the boilers provided steam to the engines at a pressure of 19 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 925 kPa ; 279 psi ) . The engines were rated at 16 @,@ 300 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 200 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . They produced , however , only 15 @,@ 012 ihp ( 11 @,@ 194 kW ) on her builder 's sea trials on 23 August 1904 and gave an average speed of 16 @.@ 2 knots ( 30 @.@ 0 km / h ; 18 @.@ 6 mph ) . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 372 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 590 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 2 @,@ 980 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Borodino 's 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch guns were mounted in two twin @-@ turrets , one each fore and aft . They had a rate of fire of about one round per 90 seconds . Sixty rounds per gun were carried . The twelve 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns were mounted in six electrically powered twin @-@ gun turrets carried on the upper deck . They had a practical rate of fire of approximately three rounds per minute and were provided with 180 rounds per gun . Four of the twenty 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns used against torpedo boats were mounted in casemates just below the forward main gun turret , two on each side . These guns were placed well above the waterline for use in any weather , unlike the remaining sixteen guns , which were mounted in casemates one deck lower and distributed over the length of the ship , close to the water . The unsuitability of the lower deck guns was graphically demonstrated when Borodino 's sister ship Imperator Aleksander III made a high @-@ speed turn during her trials , heeling 15 ° , and began taking water through the lower casemates . Each gun had 300 rounds available . The ship also mounted twenty 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns for anti @-@ torpedo boat defense . Borodino carried four 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one each above water in the bow and in the stern , and a submerged tube on each side forward .
The ship 's waterline armor belt consisted of Krupp armor and was 5 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 145 – 194 mm ) thick . The armor of her gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 10 in ( 254 mm ) and her deck ranged from 1 to 2 inches ( 25 to 51 mm ) in thickness . The 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) armored lower deck curved downwards to her double bottom and formed an anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead .
= = Service = =
Construction began on Borodino , named after the Battle of Borodino in 1812 , on 26 May 1899 at the New Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . The ship was laid down on 23 May 1900 in the presence of Tsar Nicholas II , and launched on 8 September 1901 . She was completed in August 1904 at the cost of 14 @,@ 573 @,@ 000 rubles .
On 15 October 1904 , Borodino set sail for Port Arthur from Libau along with the other vessels of the Second Pacific Squadron , under the overall command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky . Rozhestvensky led his squadron , including Borodino , down the Atlantic coast of Africa , rounding Cape Horn , and reached the island of Nosy Be off the north @-@ west coast of Madagascar on 9 January 1905 where they remained for two months while Rozhestvensky finalized his coaling arrangements . During this time , Rozhestvensky learned of the capture of Port Arthur and changed his destination to Vladivostok , the only other port controlled by the Russians in the Far East . The squadron sailed for Camranh Bay , French Indochina , on 16 March and reached it almost a month later to await the obsolete ships of the 3rd Pacific Squadron , commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov . The latter ships reached Camranh Bay on 9 May and the combined force sailed for Vladivostok on 14 May . While exact figures are not available for Borodino , it is probable that the ship was approximately 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 1 @,@ 700 t ) overweight as she and her sisters were overloaded with coal and other supplies ; all of which was stored high in the ships and reduced their stability . The extra weight also submerged the waterline armor belt and left only about 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) of the upper armor belt above the waterline .
Rozhestvensky decided to take the most direct route to Vladivostok using the Tsushima Strait and was intercepted by the Japanese battlefleet under the command of Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō on 27 May 1905 . At the beginning of the battle , Borodino was third in line behind Rozhestvensky 's flagship , Knyaz Suvorov . Very little is known of the ship 's actions during the battle as there was only a single survivor from the ship and visibility was poor for most of the battle , but Captain W. C. Pakenham , the Royal Navy 's official military observer aboard the Japanese battleship Asahi under the Anglo @-@ Japanese Alliance , noted that she was hit badly around 14 : 30 , some 25 minutes after Russian ships opened fire . Borodino briefly fell out of her position after that hit , but apparently regained it by 14 : 50 . By this time , she had a serious fire on the central portion of her superstructure .
Knyaz Suvorov suffered multiple hits early in the battle , some of which wounded Rozhestvensky and jammed the ship 's steering so that she fell out of formation . Around 16 : 00 , Borodino 's captain , Petr Serebrennikov , now de facto commander of the fleet , turned Borodino south and led the Russian fleet out of sight . As Japanese cruisers closed in at around 17 : 05 , he turned the fleet north to avoid them , but encountered the Japanese battleships an hour later . They concentrated their fire on Borodino and her sister , Imperator Aleksander III , both of which had lists from earlier damage . Captain Pakenham noted a conspicuous hit on Borodino at 18 : 57 and she was observed to be on fire at 19 : 04 by observers aboard Tōgō 's flagship Mikasa . Pakenham observed two 12 @-@ inch hits by the battleship Shikishima at 19 : 18 that started a massive fire . Ten minutes later , after Tōgō ordered his ships to cease fire and disengage , the battleship Fuji fired her already @-@ loaded 12 @-@ inch guns before turning away . One of these hit Borodino beneath her starboard forward six @-@ inch turret and ignited the ready @-@ use ammunition in the turret . The fire spread and caused a catastrophic detonation in a nearby 6 @-@ inch magazine . Subsequent detonations of other magazines blew open her hull and the ship quickly capsized and sank . Only one crewman , Seaman First Class Semyon Yushin , survived the explosion from her crew of 855 , being rescued after surviving for twelve hours in the water .
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= Monte Testaccio =
Monte Testaccio ( alternatively spelled Monte Testaceo ; also known as Monte dei cocci ) is an artificial mound in Rome composed almost entirely of testae ( Italian : cocci ) , fragments of broken amphorae dating from the time of the Roman Empire , some of which were labelled with tituli picti . It is one of the largest spoil heaps found anywhere in the ancient world , covering an area of 20 @,@ 000 square metres ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) at its base and with a volume of approximately 580 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 760 @,@ 000 cu yd ) , containing the remains of an estimated 53 million amphorae . It has a circumference of nearly a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) and stands 35 metres ( 115 ft ) high , though it was probably considerably higher in ancient times . It stands a short distance away from the east bank of the River Tiber , near the Horrea Galbae where the state @-@ controlled reserve of olive oil was stored in the late 2nd century AD . The mound later had both religious and military significance .
= = Structure and purpose = =
The huge numbers of broken amphorae at Monte Testaccio illustrate the enormous demand for oil of imperial Rome , which was at the time the world 's largest city with a population of at least one million people . It has been estimated that the hill contains the remains of as many as 53 million olive oil amphorae , in which some 6 billion litres ( 1 @.@ 3 billion imperial gallons / 1 @.@ 6 billion U.S. gallons ) of oil were imported . Studies of the hill 's composition suggest that Rome 's imports of olive oil reached a peak towards the end of the 2nd century AD , when as many as 130 @,@ 000 amphorae were being deposited on the site each year . The vast majority of those vessels had a capacity of some 70 liters ( 15 imp gal ; 18 U.S. gal ) ; from this it has been estimated that Rome was importing at least 7 @.@ 5 million liters ( 1 @.@ 6 million imperial gal / 2 million U.S. gal ) of olive oil annually . As the vessels found at Monte Testaccio appear to represent mainly state @-@ sponsored olive oil imports , it is very likely that considerable additional quantities of olive oil were imported privately .
Monte Testaccio was not simply a haphazard waste dump ; it was a highly organised and carefully engineered creation , presumably managed by a state administrative authority . Excavations carried out in 1991 showed that the mound had been raised as a series of level terraces with retaining walls made of nearly intact amphorae filled with shards to anchor them in place . Empty amphorae were probably carried up the mound intact on the backs of donkeys or mules and then broken up on the spot , with the shards laid out in a stable pattern . Lime appears to have been sprinkled over the broken pots to neutralise the smell of rancid oil .
As the oldest parts of Monte Testaccio are at the bottom of the mound , it is difficult to say with any certainty when it was first created . Deposits found by excavators have been dated to a period between approximately AD 140 to 250 , but it is possible that dumping could have begun on the site as early as the 1st century BC . The mound has a roughly triangular shape comprising two distinct platforms , the eastern side being the oldest . At least four distinct series of terraces were built in a stepped arrangement . Layers of small sherds were laid down in some places , possibly to serve as paths for those carrying out the waste disposal operations .
= = Re @-@ use and disposal of amphorae = =
The hill was constructed using mostly the fragments of large globular 70 @-@ liter ( 15 imp gal ; 18 U.S. gal ) vessels from Baetica ( the Guadalquivir region of modern Spain ) , of a type now known as Dressel 20 . It also included smaller numbers of two types of amphorae from Tripolitania ( Libya ) and Byzacena ( Tunisia ) . All three types of vessel were used to transport olive oil . However , it is not clear why Monte Testaccio was built using only olive oil vessels . The oil itself was probably decanted into bulk containers when the amphorae were unloaded at the port , in much the same way as other staples such as grain . There is no equivalent mound of broken grain or wine amphorae and the overwhelming majority of the amphorae found at Monte Testaccio are of one single type , which raises the question of why the Romans found it necessary to dispose of the amphorae in this way .
One possibility is that the Dressel 20 amphora , the principal type found at Monte Testaccio , may have been unusually difficult to recycle . Many types of amphora could be re @-@ used to carry the same type of product or modified to serve a different purpose — for instance , as drain pipes or flower pots . Fragmentary amphorae could be pounded into chips to use in opus signinum , a type of concrete widely used as a building material , or could simply be used as landfill . The Dressel 20 amphora , however , broke into large curved fragments that could not readily be reduced to small shards . It is likely that the difficulty of reusing or repurposing the Dressel 20s meant that it was more economical to discard them .
Another reason for not re @-@ cycling olive oil amphorae into concrete of the opus signinum type may have been that the fragments were too fatty due to residual oil . Also , oil happens to react chemically with lime ( a major component of concrete ) and the product of this chemical reaction is soap ; the resulting concrete would have had unsatisfactory quality . Wheat amphorae and wine amphorae on the other hand were certainly " clean " enough to be re @-@ cycled into concrete .
= = Tituli picti = =
Monte Testaccio has provided archaeologists with a rare insight into the ancient Roman economy . The amphorae deposited in the mound were often labelled with tituli picti , painted or stamped inscriptions which record information such as the weight of the oil contained in the vessel , the names of the people who weighed and documented the oil and the name of the district where the oil was originally bottled . This has allowed archaeologists to determine that the oil in the vessels was imported under state authority and was designated for the annona urbis ( distribution to the people of Rome ) or the annona militaris ( distribution to the army ) . Indeed , some of the inscriptions found on mid @-@ 2nd century vessels at Monte Testaccio specifically record that the oil they once contained was delivered to the praefectus annonae , the official in charge of the state @-@ run food distribution service . It is possible that Monte Testaccio was also managed by the praefectus annonae .
The tituli picti on the Monte Testaccio amphorae tend to follow a standard pattern and indicate a rigorous system of inspection to control trade and deter fraud . An amphora was first weighed while empty , and its weight was marked on the outside of the vessel . The name of the export merchant was then noted , followed by a line giving the weight of the oil contained in the amphora ( subtracting the previously determined weight of the vessel itself ) . Those responsible for carrying out and monitoring the weighing then signed their names on the amphora and the location of the farm from which the oil originated was also noted . The maker of the amphora was often identified by a stamp on the vessel 's handle .
The inscriptions also provide evidence of the structure of the oil export business . Apart from single names , many inscriptions list combinations such as " the two Aurelii Heraclae , father and son " , " the Fadii " , " Cutius Celsianus and Fabius Galaticus " , " the two Junii , Melissus and Melissa " , " the partners Hyacinthus , Isidore and Pollio " , " L. Marius Phoebus and the Vibii , Viator and Retitutus . " This suggests that many of those involved were members of joint enterprises , perhaps small workshops involving business partners , father @-@ son teams and skilled freedmen .
= = Later history = =
Monte Testaccio 's use as an amphora dump seems to have ceased after about the 260s , perhaps due to the city 's quays being moved elsewhere . A new type of amphora was also introduced around this time to transport olive oil .
The area around the hill was largely abandoned after the fall of Rome . A print of 1625 depicts Monte Testaccio standing in isolation in an area of wasteland within the ancient city walls , and even as late as the mid @-@ 19th century the surrounding area was little more than a " romantic desert " on which was situated only " a few shabby houses " . It was the scene of jousts and tournaments during the Middle Ages , when Monte Testaccio was the scene of pre @-@ Lenten celebrations . As part of the festivities , two carts filled with pigs were hauled to the top of the hill , then allowed to run back down the steep slope to be smashed to pieces along with their porcine passengers . The watching revellers would then dismember the pigs on the spot and carry the parts off to be roasted and eaten .
Monte Testaccio was still used as a place of recreation when Stendhal visited in 1827 . A 19th century traveller , visiting a few years earlier , described the annual festival that was held on the summit of the hill :
" Each Sunday and Thursday during the month of October , almost the whole population of Rome , rich and poor , throng to this spot , where innumerable tables are covered with refreshments , and the wine is drawn cool from the vaults . It is impossible to conceive a more animating scene than the summit of the hill presents . Gay groups dancing the saltarella , intermingled with the jovial circles which surround the tables ; the immense crowd of walkers who , leaving their carriages below , stroll about to enjoy the festive scene ... "
The hill gained a brief military significance in 1849 when it was used as the site of an Italian gun battery , under the command of Giuseppe Garibaldi , in the successful defence of Rome against an attacking French army . Its economic significance was somewhat greater , as the hill 's interior was discovered to have unusual cooling properties which investigators attributed to the ventilation produced by its porous structure . This made it ideal for wine storage and caves were excavated to keep wine cool in the heat of the Roman summer .
Monte Testaccio also had a religious significance ; it was formerly used on Good Friday to represent the hill of Golgotha in Jerusalem , when the Pope would lead a procession to the summit and placed crosses to represent those of Jesus and the two thieves crucified alongside him . Monte Testaccio is still crowned with a cross in commemoration of the event . It was not until after World War II that the area around the hill was redeveloped as a working class neighbourhood .
The first archaeological investigation of Monte Testaccio began in January 1872 under the German archaeologist Heinrich Dressel , who published his results in a pioneering study in 1878 . Further important work was carried out in the 1980s by the Spanish archaeologists Emilio Rodríguez Almeida and José Remesal Almeida .
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= Tabley House =
Tabley House is a former stately home in Tabley Inferior ( Nether Tabley ) , some 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the east of the town of Knutsford , Cheshire , England . The house is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building . It was built between 1761 and 1769 for Sir Peter Byrne Leicester , to replace an older hall nearby ( Tabley Old Hall ) , and was designed by John Carr .
In the early part of the 19th century three of Carr 's rooms on the west side of the house were converted to form a single room , the gallery . After Sir Peter 's death the house was re @-@ orientated and the main entrance moved from the south to the north front . The house and estate continued to be held by the Leicester family until the death of Lt. Col. John Leicester Warren in 1975 .
Under the terms of his will the house , contents and estate were offered to the National Trust who declined the offer . The house was then acquired under the terms of the will by the Victoria University of Manchester , and the house was used as a school . Since 1988 its lease has been held by a healthcare company . The 3600 @-@ acre estate surrounding the house was sold in 2007 to the Crown Estate .
The house is symmetrical and designed in Palladian style . It is constructed in brick with stone dressings , with a large sandstone portico on the south front . On the east and west sides of the main house are pavilion wings connected to the house by curved corridors . To the west of the house is St Peter 's Church , also listed Grade I , which was moved from a position adjacent to Tabley Old Hall to its present site in 1927 . In the grounds are other listed buildings , including the ruins of the Old Hall .
As of 2012 the ground and top floors of the main house , together with the adjacent wings , are used as accommodation for the elderly . The reception rooms of the first floor are open to the public at advertised times , and are entered by the original stairway on the south front ; they contain paintings and furniture collected by the Leicester family . Some items in the collection had formerly been displayed on this floor , whilst others were moved from elsewhere in the house . The first floor may also be hired for weddings , meetings , and conferences . It is managed by a trust , which is supported by a group of Friends and by volunteers .
= = History = =
= = = Old Hall = = =
The original house was built on an island in Nether Tabley Mere , known as the Moat , in about 1380 by John de Leycester . The house contained a Great Hall with a large central arch formed by two massive cruck beams , which were carved to imitate Gothic stonework . During the 16th century Adam de Leycester made alterations to the hall , and built a half @-@ timbered gatehouse to the bridge crossing the mere . Peter Leycester ( 1588 – 1647 ) installed an ornate chimneypiece dated 1619 in the Great Hall .
In 1671 his son , the historian Sir Peter Leycester , 1st Baronet ( 1614 – 78 ) , enlarged the house , adding a staircase and an upper storey . He arranged for the exterior to be encased in brick in Jacobean style , with a mixture of mullioned and round windows , and a porch with statues of lions . In 1674 Sir Peter replaced the chapel adjacent to the hall , designed in a mixture of Gothic and Jacobean styles , and a tower was added to the chapel in 1724 .
After the new house was built in the 1760s , the Old Hall continued to be furnished , and the chapel was used for family worship . But in 1927 part of the hall collapsed because of subsidence resulting from the extraction of brine nearby . The building was abandoned , and is now a ruin . The chapel ( now known as St Peter 's Church ) was demolished and rebuilt near to the west front of the new house . The ornate chimneypiece was moved and reinstalled in the Old Hall Room on the west side of the house .
= = = Present house = = =
The present house was built by Sir Peter Byrne Leicester . He inherited the estate through his mother 's line on the death of his grandfather in 1742 , at which time he was aged 10 . At this time his name was Peter Byrne , and the name of Leicester was added by an Act of Parliament in 1744 . One of the requirements of his inheritance was to keep the Old Hall in good condition , but Sir Peter considered it to be " old and not commodious " . When he came of age in 1753 he decided to build a new house to replace the Old Hall . The provisions of his grandfather 's will made it difficult for him to build a new house outside the parish of Nether Tabley , therefore Sir Peter decided to build it nearby in the estate , higher on the ground sloping down to the Moat . He appointed John Carr of York as architect ; building began in 1761 and was completed in about 1769 .
Carr designed the house in Palladian style , even though by the 1760s this style was becoming less fashionable . His design consisted of a rectangular building in three storeys , with a projecting portico on the south front , and two pavilions on each side , which were set back and approached by curved corridors . On each side of the portico was a curved stairway leading to the main middle floor , the piano nobile . As the house was originally planned , it had a central staircase , with three rooms on the south front . The middle of these rooms was the entrance hall , to the west of it was the drawing room , and to the east was the dining room . Behind the drawing room was the library , and behind the dining room was a room known as the common parlour . Across the back of the house , on this floor , there were two bedrooms and three dressing rooms . The western pavilion contained the servants ' bedrooms , and in the eastern pavilion was the kitchen . The interior of the house contained craftsmanship of a high quality . The plasterwork was created by Thomas Oliver of Warrington , the woodcarving of the doorcases and staircase was by Mathew Bertram , assisted by Daniel Shillito . Much of the furniture was made by Gillow of Lancaster . Sir Peter also commissioned a number of paintings , which included full @-@ length portraits of himself and his wife by Francis Cotes , and landscapes of the grounds and the halls by J. M. W. Turner and Richard Wilson amongst others .
An interest in paintings continued in the family 's next generation . Sir John Fleming Leicester , later the 1st Lord de Tabley , built a collection of modern British art that was hung in a gallery in his London house at Hill Street , Berkeley Square . In 1823 Sir John offered his collection to Lord Liverpool to form the basis of the planned National Gallery , but the offer was declined . After Sir John 's death in 1827 the best works were sold by auction and the remainder moved to Tabley , where most of them are today . Between 1808 and 1810 the three original rooms on the west side of the first floor of the house had been converted into a single tripartite room to form a picture gallery by Thomas Harrison . Further work was carried out in the room following this ; Peter Cannon Brookes , the author of the 1991 guide to the house , concludes that the final appearance of the room " dates almost entirely from 1840 – 45 " .
After Sir John 's death the house was structurally reorganised for George Warren , 2nd Baron de Tabley by Robert Curzon , a family friend and an " amateur architect " . The house was re @-@ orientated to move the front entrance to the north side of the house . The architecture of the north front had previously been " simple and dignified " , but it was enhanced to make its appearance more impressive . The alterations included adding rustication to the bottom storey and around the central window , and quoins to the three projecting central bays . The arms of the 2nd baron were added to the previously blank pediment , and in 1915 a small porch was built over the new entrance . The south portico had become redundant , other than serving as an entrance to the garden . The new entrance led by way of a small lobby to a new staircase up to a new entrance hall on the first floor . A new dining room was created in the northeast corner .
The house and estate continued to be owned by the Leicester family until the death of Lt. Col. John Leicester Warren in 1975 . The first request in his will was that the estate should if possible be taken into the care of the National Trust , but this was declined by the Trust . The executors then acted on Warren 's second request , to pass the estate to a charitable institution , and thus it came into the care of the Victoria University of Manchester . By the time of Warren 's death the manor of Nether Tabley , comprising the estate and the halls , had been owned by the Leicester family for almost exactly 700 years . Col. Leicester @-@ Warren used the house as a school from the late 1940s until the mid 1970s , after his death . In 1988 a 125 year lease of the house , the stables , and the associated buildings was sold by the university to Cygnet Health Care , on condition that the suite of rooms on the first floor of the house , and their contents , should be preserved . Between 1988 and 1990 the health care company carried out structural repairs to deal with damage caused by dry rot and the death watch beetle . The ground and top floors of the house , and the wings , have been converted into nursing accommodation , leaving the appearance of the exterior virtually unchanged . In 1990 the first floor was opened to the public under the care of the Tabley House Collection Trust . The original entrance by the stairway on the south front was re @-@ instated for this purpose .
In 2007 the university sold the estate - but not the house - to the Crown Estate in a deal worth " over £ 35m " . Its 3600 acres included 18 tenanted farms , 18 farmland lettings , 52 residential properties and 13 commercial leases generating a total rent roll of £ 0.5m.
= = Architecture = =
Tabley House was designated as a Grade I listed building on 5 March 1959 . Its architectural style is Palladian , the only 18th @-@ century Palladian country house in Cheshire . The house has three storeys ; the bottom storey is constructed in rusticated stone , with the upper storeys in Flemish bond brick with stone dressings . A Doric frieze runs around the whole building below the eaves . The roofs are in green slate with lead flashings . The south front has nine bays , the central three bays projecting forward . On each side of the central projection is a semi @-@ circular stairway leading to the middle floor . The stairway is built in rusticated stone and it has a moulded balustrade . From the top of the stairway a portico rises through the top two storeys . It consists of four columns in Doric style constructed from red Runcorn sandstone . Its tympanum contains the arms of Sir Peter Byrne Leicester and his wife , Catherine . All the windows in the ground floor are sashes with 3x2 panes and over each window there are splayed voussoirs . The central bay of the middle storey contains a doorway with an architrave and a segmental pediment carried on brackets . On each side of the door is a window with similar architraves and segmental pediments , but not carried on brackets . In the lateral three bays on each side are sash windows with 3x5 panes over which are architraves and triangular pediments . The top floor windows are also sashes , these having 3x3 panes , and architraves with scrolls at the top and bottom .
The north front is also symmetrical and is in seven bays , with the central three projecting slightly forwards . Over the bays is a pediment containing the arms of the 2nd Baron de Tabley and his wife Catherina . In the centre of the ground floor is a porch , on either side of which are two 3x2 sash windows , plus a narrow two @-@ pane window . The middle floor has a central Venetian window surrounded by a rusticated stone arch . All the other windows on this floor are 3x5 sashes ; those on each side of the central window have triangular pediments , while those in the lateral bays have horizontal architraves . The top storey has seven 3x3 sash windows ; the central three have scrolls similar to those on the south front , while the surrounds to the lateral two windows on each side are plainer .
On each side elevation there are central canted bay windows . The middle floor has arched windows on the west front , while the corresponding windows on the east front are blind . On each side of the house are two @-@ storey pavilion wings joined to the main block by quadrant ( curved ) , single @-@ storey corridors . Each pavilion is symmetrical and identical , built in brick with stone dressings . Each is in three bays , the central bay forming a canted bay window . Again , the windows are sashes .
To the east of the house , and linked to it by the Old Hall Room , is St Peter 's Chapel . Incorporated in the Old Hall Room is the painted and gilded wooden chimney @-@ piece from the Old Hall , which had been installed in the Old Hall by Sir Peter Leycester in 1619 . It includes carvings of caryatids , statues of Lucretia and Cleopatra in niches , and a female nude lying on a skull and holding an hourglass . The windows in the Old Hall Room contain stained glass panels with various designs , including depictions of English monarchs from William II to George II .
= = Interior = =
The entrance to the first floor on the south front leads to a room now known as the Portico Room . This was the original entrance hall to the house , but as a result of the 19th @-@ century alterations it was converted into a billiard room . It was later used as a drawing room , and during the time the house was used as a school , it was the school library . From 1990 it has been restored as the entrance hall . It contains a white chimney @-@ piece and a cast iron grate . The mahogany woodwork was carved by Daniel Shillito and Mathew Bertram and the plasterwork was by Thomas Oliver . In the side walls are plaster figures of Isis and the Capitoline Flora in niches , and on the walls are plaster relief medallions representing the four seasons . Much of the furniture in the room has been moved from elsewhere in the house . The breakfast table carries the mark of the Lancaster firm of Gillow . The lantern suspended from the middle of the ceiling was made by Ince and Mayhew in about 1770 , and was restored by Plowden and Smith in 1998 .
To the east of the Portico Room is the Drawing Room . This was designed by Carr as the dining room , and contains a white marble chimneypiece designed by Carr . The plasterwork is again by Oliver . The furniture and paintings are original to the house . The paintings include one of John , 1st Baron Byron by William Dobson , one of his wife as Saint Catherine by Peter Lely , and two paintings by John Opie . The most important painting in the room is Tabley , the Seat of Sir J. F. Leicester , Bart : Windy Day , by J. M. W. Turner . Also in the room are two still life paintings by Thomas Lister , 4th Baron Ribblesdale , a cousin of the Leicesters .
The room to the north of the Drawing Room was originally the common parlour , and is now known as the Octagon Room . It provided a link between the public rooms on the south of the house and the more private rooms on the north side . Again designed by Carr , its canted corners contain china cabinets . It also contains a set of five paintings of Tabley by Anthony Devis . The ceiling has Rococo plasterwork by Oliver . This room leads to the Dining Room on the north side of the house , which contains paintings of the Leicester family . These include 3rd Lord Tabley by Frank Holl , Colonel Sir John Leicester , Bart. , and the King 's Cheshire Yeomanry Cavalry exercising on the Sands at Liverpool by George Jones , Portrait of 2nd Lord de Tabley by Margaret Carpenter , a full @-@ length Portrait of 2nd Lord de Tabley as Colonel Commandant of the Earl of Chester 's Yeomanry Cavalry by Francis Grant , Hilda , Mrs Cuthbert Leicester Warren by Simon Elwes , Lt. Colonel John Leicester Warren by Graham Rust , and Margaret Leicester Warren by Philip de László . Also in the room is Extensive Picturesque Landscape , with Gypsies by Francis Bourgeois and , over the sideboard , is the Portrait of the Prince Regent , later George IV by Thomas Lawrence and his studio . The fireplace in the Dining Room is made from Anglesey marble and was designed by George Bullock .
In the centre of the first floor is the Oak Hall , so @-@ called because of the oaks formerly growing on the site of the new hall . It contains a mahogany four @-@ flight staircase . The staircase has triple ballusters , and was carved by Shillito . Afain the plasterwork is by Oliver . More family portraits hang on its walls and the hall 's contents include a hobby horse , a man trap , and an 18th @-@ century sedan chair . Also in the hall is a memorial display for Tabley House School . The other room on the north side of the house is known as the Marble Hall . This was created from Carr 's original rooms in the 19th @-@ century alterations . It contains five reliefs on its wall , one of which depicts the nine muses .
The west side of the first floor is occupied by the gallery , which has been described as " one of the great rooms of Cheshire " . It contains most of the finest furniture from the house . The items include mirrors and marble tops attributed to the London workshops of Thomas Chippendale , and sofas attributed to George Bullock . There is more furniture by Gillow , a " very rare " 17th @-@ century English virginal signed " Phillip Jones " , and an Italian spinet dating from about 1598 . Paintings in the gallery include the Portrait of Sir John Fleming Leicester , 1st Lord de Tabley , in Peer 's Robes , started by Joshua Reynolds and completed by James Northcote , and Portrait of Georgiana Maria Lady Leicester by Lawrence . There are more paintings by Northcote and Lawrence , and others by James Ward , Julius Caesar Ibbetson , William Hilton , Charles Robert Leslie , Francis Cotes , Henry Fuseli , Augustus Wall Callcott , and George Henry Harlow .
= = Grounds = =
The grounds cover an area of about 240 hectares ( 590 acres ) and are listed Grade II in the English Heritage Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England . What remains of Tabley Old Hall consists of its shell in three storeys , constructed in red English garden wall bond brick with stone dressings . The ruin is listed at Grade II * , and its moated site and gatehouse are a scheduled monument . To the north of the Old Hall is Moat Farm . One of the farm buildings , dating from the mid @-@ 17th century , is listed at Grade II . By Tabley Mere is a boathouse in brick with stone dressings , but lacking a roof , in Gothic style ; it is listed at Grade II . On an island in the mere is a folly tower , dating from about 1780 , constructed in red brick . It is a circular structure in three storeys , with machicolations and battlements at its summit . The folly is also listed at Grade II .
To the north of Tabley House , off Chester Road , are two entrance lodges , each of which is listed at Grade II . The White Lodge dates from about 1770 and was probably designed by John Carr . It is constructed in whitewashed English garden wall bond brick with a slate roof . The Red Lodge dates from the late 19th century ; it is constructed in English garden wall bond brick with timber framing , and has a tiled roof . St Peter 's Church to the west of the house is a Grade I listed building . It is joined to the house by a linking building , constructed in 1927 – 29 in red Flemish bond brick with stone dressings and a stone slate roof . The linking building is listed at Grade II . To the south of the house is a sundial dating from the early 19th century constructed in stone with a copper dial and gnomon ; it is listed at Grade II . To the south of this is a parterre wall , about 1 metre ( 3 ft ) high , constructed in red Flemish bond brick , with piers carrying stone balls . It is also listed at Grade II .
To the north of the house is the former stable block dating from about 1760 , designed by John Carr . It was converted and extended in 1995 – 96 . The block is constructed in red brick with stone dressings and green slate roofs . Although it has been altered since it was originally built , it has maintained its Grade II listing for its " group value " , recognising " the importance of its massing and exterior character to the setting of Tabley House " . To the north of the stable block is a dovecote dating from about 1760 . It is an octagonal structure in two storeys built in red brick with a slate roof , and is listed at Grade II . The grounds are promoted by the Campaign to Protect Rural England .
= = Present day = =
The ground and top floors of the main house , and the wings , are run as Tabley House Nursing Home by Cygnet Health Care . The rooms on the first floor , with their collection of paintings and furniture , have been open to the public since 1990 . These rooms are open at advertised times during the summer months , as is the Tea Room in the Old Hall Room . The hall is licensed for civil weddings and is available to hire for conferences and meetings . Occasional events are organised at the house . Tabley House is managed by the Tabley House Collection Trust . It is supported by a group known as The Friends of Tabley , and by volunteers .
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= Gettysburg Cyclorama =
The Battle of Gettysburg , also known as the Gettysburg Cyclorama , is a cyclorama painting by the French artist Paul Philippoteaux depicting Pickett 's Charge , the climactic Confederate attack on the Union forces during the Battle of Gettysburg on July 3 , 1863 . Four versions were painted , two of which are among the last surviving cycloramas in the United States .
The first version of the painting , completed in 1883 and originally exhibited in Chicago , was lost for some time . It was rediscovered in 1965 and purchased by a group of North Carolina investors in 2007 for an undisclosed amount . Until November 2005 , the second painting , originally exhibited in the Cyclorama Building in Boston , was on display at the Gettysburg National Military Park . It was removed for restoration work and the exhibition was reopened September 2008 in the new Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center . The third version , exhibited in Philadelphia , is known to have been destroyed . The location of the fourth version , originally exhibited in Brooklyn , is unknown .
= = Description = =
The painting is the work of French artist Paul Dominique Philippoteaux . It depicts Pickett 's Charge , the failed infantry assault that was the climax of the Battle of Gettysburg . The painting is a cyclorama , a type of 360 ° cylindrical painting . The intended effect is to immerse the viewer in the scene being depicted , often with the addition of foreground models and life @-@ sized replicas to enhance the illusion . Among the sites documented in the painting are Cemetery Ridge , the Angle , and the " High @-@ water mark of the Confederacy " . The completed original painting was 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) high and 279 feet ( 85 m ) in circumference . The version that hangs in Gettysburg , a recent ( 2005 ) restoration of the version created for Boston , is 42 feet ( 13 m ) high and 377 feet ( 115 m ) in circumference .
Details of the painting :
= = Development = =
Philippoteaux became interested in cycloramas and , in collaboration with his father , created The Defence of the Fort d 'Issy in 1871 . Other successful works included Taking of Plevna ( Turko @-@ Russian War ) , the Passage of the Balkans , The Belgian Revolution of 1830 , Attack in the Park , The Battle of Kars , The Battle of Tel @-@ el @-@ Kebir , and the Derniere Sortie . He was commissioned by a group of Chicago investors in 1879 to create the Gettysburg Cyclorama . He spent several weeks in April 1882 at the site of the Gettysburg Battlefield to sketch and photograph the scene , and extensively researched the battle and its events over several months . He erected a wooden platform along present @-@ day Hancock Avenue and drew a circle around it , eighty feet in diameter , driving stakes into the ground to divide it into ten sections . Local photographer William H. Tipton took three photographs of each section , focusing in turn on the foreground , the land behind it , and the horizon . The photos , pasted together , formed the basis of the composition . Philippoteaux also interviewed several survivors of the battle , including Union generals Winfield S. Hancock , Abner Doubleday , Oliver O. Howard , and Alexander S. Webb , and based his work partly on their recollections .
Philippoteaux enlisted a team of five assistants , including his father until his death , to create the final work . It took over a year and a half to complete . The finished painting was nearly 100 yards long and weighed six tons . When completed for display , the full work included not just the painting , but numerous artifacts and sculptures , including stone walls , trees , and fences . The effect of the painting has been likened to the nineteenth century equivalent of an IMAX theater .
= = Exhibition and reception = =
The work opened to the public in Chicago on October 22 , 1883 , to critical acclaim . General John Gibbon , one of the commanders of the Union forces who repelled Pickett 's Charge , was among the veterans of the battle who gave it favorable reviews . So realistic was the painting that many veterans of the war were reported to have wept upon seeing it .
The Chicago exhibition was sufficiently successful to prompt businessman Charles L. Willoughby to commission a second version , which opened in Boston , Massachusetts , on December 22 , 1884 . From its opening until 1892 , approximately 200 @,@ 000 people viewed the painting . The Boston version was housed in a specially designed building , the Cyclorama Building , on Tremont Street , and was the site of popular public lectures on the battle . Two additional copies of the cyclorama were made : the third was first exhibited in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , beginning in February 1886 and a fourth debuted in Brooklyn , New York , in October 1886 .
Many reviewers and visitors agreed with the Boston Daily Advertiser that " it is impossible to tell where reality ends and the painting begins . " One veteran , pointing at the painting , said to his friend : " You see that puff of smoke ? Just wait a moment till that clears away , and I 'll show you just where I stood . " In New York , police responding to a report of a nighttime burglary and disoriented by the illusion twice seized dummies representing dead soldiers , convinced that they were live burglars .
In 1894 , Chase & Everhart displayed their " Cyclorama of the Battle of Gettysburg " during a National Guard encampment at Gettysburg .
= = Boston version = =
In 1891 , the Boston cyclorama , housed in the Cyclorama Building , was exchanged temporarily with the cyclorama Crucifixion of Christ in Philadelphia . When it returned in 1892 , it was stored in a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) crate behind the exhibition hall , where it was subjected to damage from weather , vandals removing boards from the crate , and two fires . It was eventually purchased in its deteriorated state by Albert J. Hahne of Newark , New Jersey , in 1910 . Hahne displayed sections of the cyclorama in his department store in Newark beginning in 1911 , and sections were also shown in government buildings in New York City , Baltimore , Maryland , and Washington , D.C. In the Baltimore exhibition , George E. Pickett 's widow , " Sallie " Pickett , lectured on her husband 's experiences and found herself very moved by the experience .
On September 3 , 1912 , ground was broken for a new cyclorama building on Baltimore Street in Gettysburg , on Cemetery Hill ( on the site of the present day Holiday Inn ) , near the entrance to the Soldiers ' National Cemetery . It opened to the public in 1913 , in time for the 50th anniversary of the battle , once again displayed as a full circular painting , rather than in sections . The unheated , leaky brick building took a further toll on the condition of the painting . The Boston cyclorama was purchased by the National Park Service in 1942 , and moved to a site on Ziegler 's Grove near the new Visitor 's Center in 1961 , after a second round of restoration .
The exhibition remained open to the public until 2005 , when it was closed for a third restoration . The $ 12 @-@ million restoration , by Olin Conservation , Inc . , of Great Falls , Virginia , started with the 26 sections of the painting and recreated its original shape of 14 panels hung from a circular railing , slightly flared out at the bottom . In the process , some original pieces were found of the 12 circumferential feet that had been cut away . Fourteen vertical feet of sky was also restored .
The painting restoration was accompanied by the construction of a facility to house the painting , the new Gettysburg Museum and Visitor Center on Hunt Avenue , located away from any areas in which fighting occurred in 1863 . The restored Cyclorama exhibition was reopened to the public in September 2008 . The proposed demolition of the old Cyclorama building in Ziegler 's Grove has been a source of some controversy among history and architecture buffs , with some opposing the destruction of the modernist structure designed by architect Richard Neutra .
= = Chicago version = =
The original Chicago work went on a tour of eight cities before returning to Chicago in 1933 where it was displayed at the World 's Fair . It was in a warehouse until it was purchased by Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina , artist and collector Joseph Wallace King in 1965 . King had first seen the painting in 1933 at the Chicago World 's Fair . Years later he described the painting and how magnificent it was seeing it displayed in Chicago to his friend Ed Grout of Maryland . Mr. Grout arranged a meeting with the nephew of George McConnel and the painting was purchased by Mr. King . King appeared on the panel game show I 've Got A Secret on May 30 , 1966 , displaying a 22 ' by 25 ' section of the painting ( his secret was that this was only part of the painting ) . It was revealed that King had been searching for it for some time , and now that he 'd found it , he hoped to construct a new cyclorama building .
When King bought the painting it consisted of 13 panels sewn together and rolled into one piece . To more easily store and transport the painting King unstitched the 13 panels and stored them individually together with two separate panels of scenery used to make the painting a bit longer depending on the exhibition space . The 13 panels along with the two extra scenery panels bring the painting to 410 feet long according to King . The painting has , for the most part , remained rolled up since 1933 , though it was donated by King to Wake Forest University upon his death in 1996 . The university sold the painting in 2007 to an anonymous group of Raleigh , North Carolina , investors . The painting has been appraised at a value of US $ 5 @.@ 5 million , but the value of the sale remains unknown . The group intends to resell the painting to a new buyer who will commit to restoring the work and building a suitable structure to house it .
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= GateKeeper ( roller coaster ) =
GateKeeper is a steel roller coaster located at Cedar Point in Sandusky , Ohio . Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard ( B & M ) , it was the fifth Wing Coaster installation in the world . The ride opened on May 11 , 2013 , on the most successful opening weekend to date in the park 's history . GateKeeper features the highest inversion in the world , with its 170 @-@ foot ( 52 m ) Wing Over drop . It has broken several Wing Coaster records , including those for height , speed , track length , drop height and number of inversions . The coaster has a 170 ft ( 52 m ) , 40 @-@ degree inclined lift hill with a 164 ft ( 50 m ) drop and features two support towers with keyhole elements that the trains travel through . Its top speed is approximately 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) .
Construction began in September 2012 and took roughly eight months to complete . The park built a new entrance plaza featuring the keyhole towers as the centerpiece . The roller coaster replaced Disaster Transport and Space Spiral , both demolished during the summer of 2012 , bringing Cedar Point back to its former total of 16 roller coasters . It was Cedar Point 's first new roller coaster since Maverick debuted in 2007 , and the third B & M coaster in the park following Raptor ( 1994 ) and Mantis ( 1996 ) . In 2013 , GateKeeper was the most frequently @-@ ridden roller coaster at Cedar Point , and it ranked 28th among steel roller coasters in the annual Golden Ticket Awards poll from Amusement Today .
= = History = =
Discussions about a new roller coaster began under former Cedar Fair CEO Dick Kinzel in 2011 , who credits his successor Matt Ouimet with the project . The first concept of GateKeeper was created at the 2011 International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions ( IAAPA ) Expo . On April 24 , 2012 , Ouimet said at an Erie County Chamber of Commerce meeting that there would be $ 25 million in capital expenditures for Cedar Point in 2013 . On May 30 , 2012 , the Sandusky Register reported that a memo written by Ouimet to Cedar Fair 's board of directors on February 15 , 2012 , stated that a new Wing Coaster code @-@ named " CP Alt . Winged " would be introduced in 2013 . It also mentioned that the new coaster would set Wing Coaster records for drop , speed , and length , and that it would have a " Front Gate Statement " explained as a strong presence at the entrance to the park . In addition to traveling over the front entrance , part of the track would also cross over portions of the parking lot . Details claimed the ride would be 170 feet ( 52 m ) high , and that both Disaster Transport and Space Spiral would need to be removed to accommodate the new attraction .
As part of Gatekeeper 's marketing campaign , Cedar Point released several teasers on their " OnPoint " blog . Posters scattered throughout the park and on Cedar Point 's website included taglines such as , " How do you recover from a Disaster ? " , " WildCat is no match for this creature " and " Not even a Jumbo Jet soars like this ! " Each poster had a black background with five blue wings , hinting at the ride 's logo . Annie Zelm , a marketing representative for the park , stated that some of the clues on the website were intended to mislead readers . On August 3 , 2012 , Cedar Point launched a countdown clock on their Facebook page , letting the public know when the next major announcement was scheduled . The page said , " We can 't keep it locked away much longer ... Join us outside the Main Gate at 3 : 30 pm on August 13 , where all we 've kept hidden will be set free ! "
On August 13 , 2012 , Cedar Point officially announced GateKeeper with specifications that confirmed the report leaked earlier by Sandusky Register — a 170 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 52 m ) Wing Coaster that would be manufactured by B & M. The announcement included a Halloween Haunt @-@ like creature speaking to guests atop the main gate at the park 's main entrance . A trademark application was filed for the name GateKeeper the same day . Rob Decker said , " GateKeeper is truly an innovation in thrills . Every twist , turn and near @-@ miss element was created exclusively for Cedar Point . "
In its first complete test , the roller coaster completed its first full @-@ circuit ride on April 4 , 2013 . Hundreds of tests were conducted prior to inspections and approval for operation . On April 10 , Cedar Point launched an online auction in which bidders could bid to become one of the first 64 people to ride GateKeeper after it opened to the public . The Cleveland Clinic Children ’ s Hospital and United Way of Erie County each had 32 seats available in separate auctions , and proceeds were shared between the organizations . Media day for GateKeeper was held on May 9 , and the ride debuted to the public on opening day , May 11 .
= = = Construction = = =
On July 13 , 2012 , Cedar Point announced the closure of Disaster Transport and Space Spiral . Disaster Transport closed on July 29 , 2012 and dismantling began on August 6 , starting in the back of the building . Space Spiral was demolished on September 12 , 2012 by imploding the base and letting the tower fall towards the beach . Construction of GateKeeper started in mid @-@ September and the first footers were poured on October 2 . Approximately 200 footers were dug , each about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep . The first pieces of track were delivered on October 23 and the installation of the track and supports , starting with the station , began on November 5 . The lift hill was topped off on November 30 . A construction update on January 7 , 2013 , said that approximately 40 % of the ride 's structure , including the Wing Over Drop , Immelmann and Camelback elements , had been completed . The first pieces of the two keyhole towers arrived on January 23 , and the first keyhole tower was erected on January 29 . On February 27 , 2013 , at approximately 2 pm , the final piece of GateKeeper was put in place about two weeks ahead of schedule .
Building the coaster took about eight months , and nearly 100 workers from four engineering companies worked on the project . Sherrod Brown , a United States Senator from Ohio , praised Cedar Point for using local companies for the job . A.A. Boos & Sons did the groundwork , including the footers and cement pouring . Tony Ravagnani Architects designed , engineered and installed the two keyhole towers . The electrical work , including the lighting , was done by Firelands Electric . The station and gift shop were built by Bert Witte Contractors , S.A. Comunal installed the plumbing and air systems and Lew ’ s Construction built the park 's new entrance plaza . About 12 million pounds ( 5 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 kilograms ) of concrete was used for the ride .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Entrance and queue = = =
GateKeeper 's entrance plaza is located along the beach next to one of Wicked Twister 's towers . A sculpture with the GateKeeper logo is in the center of the plaza . The queue runs parallel to the beach , under the lift hill and station . Once under the station , riders can choose which side of the train they would like to ride . GateKeeper uses the Fast Lane queuing system ; visitors can buy a wristband that allows them to wait in a short line .
= = = Layout = = =
After leaving the station , the train turns 180 degrees to the right , then begins to climb the chain lift hill at 40 degrees . Once the train reaches the top of the 170 @-@ foot ( 52 m ) lift , it enters the first element called the " Wing Over Drop " . The train rotates 180 degrees before descending 164 feet ( 50 m ) in a half loop . During this drop , the train reaches 67 miles per hour ( 108 km / h ) — its maximum speed — and riders experience about 4 Gs . After leaving the first drop , the train immediately enters an Immelmann loop almost directly under the lift hill . After the loop , the train turns right into the only camelback hill , which is 105 feet ( 32 m ) high . Riders experience about two seconds of weightlessness on the hill . Next , the train goes through a giant flat spin , followed by a zero @-@ g roll which features two keyhole points as it passes through two 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) -tall towers . The train then returns to the ground and goes through an inclined dive loop , which is the turn @-@ around point of the roller coaster . Next , the train rotates 360 degrees in an inline twist , which passes the two towers . The train then turns slightly left before entering the mid @-@ course brake run . The train drops to the ground before ascending again and enters a 360 @-@ degree downward helix . The train then traverses a small hill before turning left into the final brake run which leads back to the station .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Location = = =
GateKeeper 's entrance and station are located near Wicked Twister , Troika and maXair . The ride covers 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) ; it initially runs parallel to Lake Erie then travels through the parking lot , over the main entrance then turns around in front of Blue Streak . As it passes through the main entrance plaza , it passes through two 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) -tall towers that form Cedar Point 's entrance gates .
= = = Manufacturer = = =
GateKeeper is a Wing Coaster model manufactured by Swiss roller coaster firm Bolliger & Mabillard . It is Cedar Point 's third B & M roller coaster ; the park also has Raptor , an inverted roller coaster , and Rougarou , a floorless roller coaster . GateKeeper was the fifth Wing Coaster in the world and the third one built in the United States following X @-@ Flight at Six Flags Great America and Wild Eagle at Dollywood .
= = = Trains = = =
GateKeeper operates with three open @-@ air steel and fiberglass trains , each with eight cars of four seats each , with two on each side of the track . Each train holds 32 riders and the ride has a capacity of about 1 @,@ 710 riders per hour . Riders are restrained by flexible over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints and interlocking seat belts and riders are required to be between 52 inches ( 130 cm ) and 78 inches ( 200 cm ) to ride . Because the seats are on the side of the track , a cantilevered steel arm is used to support the wings . The trains are painted Sunset Gold with Zenith , Meteor , and Orion Gold accents . The fourth row of each train has extendable harnesses enabling large passengers to ride . The front of each train is shaped to resemble the head of a griffin . The griffin 's eyes and the outside seats of each row incorporate LED lighting , a first for a roller coaster at Cedar Point . The LED lights on the trains recharge while the trains are in the station .
= = = Track = = =
GateKeeper 's tubular steel track is 4 @,@ 164 feet ( 1 @,@ 269 m ) long and the lift is approximately 170 feet ( 52 m ) high . The track is Azure Blue ( dark blue ) and Strata Blue ( light blue ) , and the supports are white . There are 102 track pieces , each weighing approximately 7 @,@ 500 pounds ( 3 @,@ 400 kg ) . Unlike Raptor and Rougarou , the track and supports are filled with sand to reduce the noise as the ride traverses the main entrance . The track and supports were manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia in southwest Ohio .
Clermont also manufactured the two keyhole towers . Each tower is 100 feet ( 30 m ) tall ; 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) is the concrete foundation and 75 feet ( 23 m ) is steel . At the Great Ohio Coaster Club holiday tour , Ed Dangler — Cedar Point ’ s Director of Maintenance and New Construction — stated the original plan was to have the towers ' supports encased by an outer shell ; however , Cedar Point went back to B & M , and decided to build a steel structure to serve as the keyhole element and the supports . Each half of the tower weighs about 65 @,@ 000 pounds ( 29 @,@ 000 kg ) .
= = Records = =
GateKeeper broke several world records . Among Wing Coasters , it became the longest and fastest , featured the longest drop , and contained the most inversions . It also set a new record for highest inversion of any roller coaster in the world , surpassing Volcano , The Blast Coaster at Cedar Point 's sister park , Kings Dominion .
= = Reception = =
GateKeeper has received mostly positive reviews from the media and public . Some riders complained about the shoulder restraints becoming too tight while sitting in the brake run at the end of the ride . Others praised the near @-@ miss elements ; one woman said , " It feels like you 're going to get your knees chopped off and your head chopped off . " Many guests also praised the smoothness of the ride and how the renovated main entrance is very appealing . On GateKeeper 's opening weekend , Cedar Point achieved its most successful opening weekend in the history of the park , due to the popularity of GateKeeper .
On July 17 , 2013 , GateKeeper 's millionth rider received $ 500 to spend at the park , a VIP tour of the park and exclusive access to GateKeeper for the rest of the 2013 season . The park 's spokesman Bryan Edwards said , " We are giving approximately 1 @,@ 600 rides per hour . It has definitely been a huge success for the park . Our guests love GateKeeper . " It finished the season with just over 2 @.@ 1 million riders , the most of any ride in 2013 . GateKeeper also helped Cedar Fair to achieve record revenue , record attendance , record distribution and record stock pricing in 2013 .
= = = Awards = = =
In 2013 , GateKeeper ranked third in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride behind Outlaw Run at Silver Dollar City and Iron Rattler at Six Flags Fiesta Texas . It also debuted 28th on the list for Top Steel Roller Coasters , making it the first time ever that Cedar Point had six steel roller coasters in the top 50 .
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= A Contract with God =
A Contract with God and Other Tenement Stories is a graphic novel by American cartoonist Will Eisner published in 1978 . The book 's short story cycle revolves around poor Jewish characters who live in a tenement in New York City . Eisner produced two sequels set in the same tenement : A Life Force in 1988 , and Dropsie Avenue in 1995 . Though the term " graphic novel " did not originate with Eisner , the book is credited with popularizing its use .
Four stand @-@ alone stories make up the book : in " A Contract with God " a religious man gives up his faith after the death of his young adopted daughter ; in " The Street Singer " a has @-@ been diva tries to seduce a poor , young street singer , who tries to take advantage of her in turn ; a bullying racist is led to suicide after false accusations of pedophilia in " The Super " ; and " Cookalein " intertwines the stories of several characters vacationing in the Catskill Mountains . The stories are thematically linked with motifs of frustration , disillusionment , violence , and issues of ethnic identity . Eisner uses large , monochromatic images in dramatic perspective , and emphasizes the caricatured characters ' facial expressions ; few panels or captions have traditional borders around them .
Eisner began his comic book career in 1936 and had long held artistic ambitions for what was perceived as a lowbrow medium . He found no support for his ideas , and left the world of commercial comics after ending his signature work The Spirit in 1952 . The growth of comics fandom convinced him to return in the 1970s , and he worked to realize his aspirations of creating comics with literary content . He wanted a mainstream publisher for the book and to have it sold in traditional bookstores , rather than in comic book shops ; the small press Baronet Books released A Contract with God in 1978 and marketed it as a " graphic novel " , which thereafter became the common term for book @-@ length comics . It sold slowly at first , but gained respect from Eisner 's peers , and since has been reprinted by larger publishers . A Contract with God cemented Eisner 's reputation as an elder statesman of comics , and he continued to produce graphic novels and theoretical works on comics until his death in 2005 .
= = Content and plot summaries = =
A Contract with God mixes melodrama with social realism . Following an author 's introduction , " A Tenement in the Bronx " , the book contains four stories set in a tenement building ; they derive in part from Eisner 's personal memories growing up in a tenement in the Bronx . With A Contract with God he aimed to explore an area of Jewish @-@ American history that he felt was underdocumented , while showing that comics was capable of mature literary expression , at a time when it received little such regard as an artistic medium . In the preface he stated his aim to keep the exaggeration in his cartooning within realistic limits .
The story " A Contract with God " drew from Eisner 's feelings over the death at sixteen of his daughter Alice . In his introduction to the 2006 edition of the book , Eisner first wrote about it and the feelings he felt toward God that were reflected in the story . " The Street Singer " and " The Super " are fiction , but sprang from Eisner 's memories of people he had met in the tenements of his youth . " Cookalein " was the most autobiographical — the main character " Willie " even carries Eisner 's own boyhood nickname . Eisner remarked that " it took a lot of determination , a kind of courage , to write that story " .
The stories ' sexual content is prominent , though not in the gratuitous manner of underground comix ' celebration of hedonism , which contrasted with the conservative lifestyle of Eisner the middle @-@ aged businessman . Eisner used no profanity in the book , and according to critic Josh Lambert the sex in Contract is not so much erotic as disturbing , the characters frustrated or filled with guilt .
= = = " A Contract with God " = = =
In Russia , the young , deeply religious Hasidic Jew Frimme Hersh carves a contract with God on a stone tablet to live a life of good deeds ; he attributes to it his later success in life . He moves to New York , into a tenement building at 55 Dropsie Avenue , and lives a simple life devoted to God . He adopts an infant girl , Rachele , who is abandoned on his doorstep . When she dies of a sudden illness , Hersh is infuriated , and accuses God of violating their contract . He abandons his faith , shaves his beard , and lives a life as a miserly businessman in a penthouse with a gentile mistress . He illicitly uses a synagogue 's bonds that were entrusted to him to buy the tenement building in which he had lived when poor . He becomes dissatisfied with his new way of life , and decides that he needs a new contract with God to fill the emptiness he feels . He has a group of rabbis draw up a new contract , but when he returns home with it , his heart fails and he dies . A boy , Shloime , finds Hersh 's old contract , and signs his own name to it . Eisner appended a page to the 2006 edition , depicting Shloime ascending the stairs to the tenement .
Eisner called the story 's creation " an exercise in personal anguish " as he was still grieved and angered over his daughter Alice 's death from leukemia at 16 . In early sketches of the story , Eisner used her name for Hersh 's adopted daughter , and expressed his own anguish through Hersh . He stated , " [ Hersh 's ] argument with God was mine . I exorcised my rage at a deity that I believed violated my faith and deprived my lovely 16 @-@ year @-@ old child of her life at the very flowering of it . "
= = = " The Street Singer " = = =
Marta Maria , an aging opera singer , tries to seduce a young man , Eddie , whom she finds singing in the alleys between tenement buildings . She had given up her own singing career for an alcoholic husband ; she hopes to get back into show business as mentor to Eddie , and gives him money for clothes . He buys whiskey instead and returns to his pregnant wife , who herself had given up on show business for him and whom he abuses . He hopes to take advantage of Maria and build an actual singing career , but is unable to find the aging diva again — he does not know her address , and the tenement buildings appear all the same to him .
Eisner based the story on memories of an unemployed man who made the rounds of tenements singing " popular songs or off @-@ key operatic operas " for spare change . Eisner remembered throwing the street singer coins on occasion , and considered he " was able to immortalize his story " in " The Street Singer " .
= = = " The Super " = = =
Those who live in the tenement at 55 Dropsie Avenue fear and mistrust their antisemitic superintendent , Mr. Scuggs . The tenant Mrs. Farfell 's young niece Rosie goes down to the his apartment and offers him a peek at her panties for a nickel . After receiving the nickel she poisons Scuggs ' dog and only companion , Hugo , and steals Scuggs 's money . He corners her in an alley , where the tenants spot him and call the police , accusing him of trying to molest a minor . Before the police can break into his apartment to arrest him , he shoots himself , embracing Hugo 's body .
Eisner wrote that he based the superintendent on the " mysterious but threatening custodian " of his boyhood tenement . Eisner added a page to the 2006 edition in which a " Super Wanted " sign is posted on the tenement building , following the original conclusion of Rosie counting her stolen money .
= = = " Cookalein " = = =
" Cookalein " is a story of tenants of 55 Dropsie Avenue vacationing in the country . To be alone with his mistress , a man named Sam sends his wife and children away to the Catskill Mountains , where they stay at a " cookalein " ( Yiddish : kochalayn , " cook alone " , a place for boarders with access to a kitchen ) .
A clothing cutter named Benny and a secretary named Goldie are staying at an expensive hotel near the cookalein , both hoping to find someone rich to marry ; they mistake each other for a wealthy target , and when they discover this , Benny rapes Goldie . Herbie , an intern Goldie had earlier turned down , takes her into his care , and Benny goes on to court an heiress . An older woman seduces Sam 's fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son Willie at the cookalein ; they are discovered by her husband who , after beating her , makes love to her in front of the boy .
At the end of the summer , the vacationers return to Dropsie Avenue . Goldie and Herbie are engaged , and Benny believes he will be marrying into the diamond business . Willie is affected by his experiences , but does not express them , and his family plan to leave the tenement . For the 2006 edition Eisner added an extra page of Willie from a rear @-@ view perspective , looking out from his balcony .
" Cookalein " was the most overtly autobiographical of the stories — Eisner used the real names of his family members : his parents Sam and Fannie , his brother Petey , and himself , " Willie " . Eisner called " Cookalein " " an honest account of [ his ] coming of age " that was " a combination of invention and recall " .
= = Background = =
Will Eisner was born in New York in 1917 to poor Jewish immigrants . He has said he wanted a career in the arts , but that poor Jews at the time were restricted from upper @-@ class universities where he could study it . Like others of his generation , he turned to comics as an artistic outlet , a career he began in 1936 . In the late 1930s he co @-@ owned a studio which produced content for comic books ; he left the studio in 1940 to produce his best @-@ known creation , the formally inventive The Spirit , which ran as a newspaper insert from 1940 to 1952 . After its end , Eisner withdrew from the comic book world and focused on the American Visuals Corporation , which he had founded in 1948 to produce educational and commercial comics and related media . With the rise of comics fandom in the 1970s , Eisner found there was still interest in his decades @-@ old Spirit comics , and that the fans wanted more work from him . After American Visuals went out of business in 1972 , Eisner entered a deal with underground comix publisher Denis Kitchen to reprint old Spirit stories . Other reprints followed , but Eisner was unwilling to do new Spirit stories — instead , he wanted to do something more serious , inspired in part by the wordless novels of Lynd Ward he first read in 1938 , and similar work by the Flemish Frans Masereel and the German Otto Nückel .
Eisner had had greater artistic ambitions for comics since his time doing The Spirit . Since the 1950s , he had been developing ideas for a book , but was unable to gain support for them , as comics was seen by both the public and its practitioners as low @-@ status entertainment ; at a meeting of the National Cartoonists Society in 1960 , Rube Goldberg rebuked Eisner 's ambitions , saying , " You are a vaudevillian like the rest of us ... don 't ever forget that ! "
With the critical acceptance of underground comix in the 1970s , Eisner saw a potential market for his ideas . In 1978 , he produced his first book @-@ length , adult @-@ oriented work , A Contract with God . He marketed it as a " graphic novel " — a term which had been in use since the 1960s , but was little known until Eisner popularized it with Contract . Though it was a modest commercial success , Eisner was financially independent , and soon set to work on another graphic novel Life on Another Planet , and completed eighteen further graphic novels before his 2005 death ; two featured the autobiographical Willie from the story " Cookalein " : The Dreamer ( 1986 ) and To the Heart of the Storm ( 1991 ) .
Eisner was brought up in a religious household , but himself was a reluctant disbeliever . In 1970 , his sixteen @-@ year @-@ old daughter Alice died after an eighteen @-@ month battle with leukemia . Eisner was enraged , and questioned how a God could let such a thing happen ; he dealt with his grief by immersing himself in his work . When working on " A Contract with God " , he tried to capture these emotions by acting out Frimme Hersh 's character in his head .
= = Style = =
The narration is lettered as part of the artwork , rather than being set apart in caption boxes , and Eisner makes little use of conventional box @-@ style panels , often avoiding panel borders entirely , delimiting spaces with buildings or window frames instead . Pages are uncrowded and have large drawings which focus on facial expression . He allowed the length of the stories to develop based on their content , rather than a set page count as was traditional in comics before that time . Eisner emphasizes the urban setting with dramatic , vertical perspective , and dark artwork with much chiaroscuro , and uses visual motifs to tie the stories together . The dark , vertical rain surrounding Hersh when he buries his daughter in the first story is echoed by the revised final image of the last story , in which Willie stares out into a city sky in a similar hatched rainy " Eisenshpritz " style . The monochromatic artwork was printed in sepia tones , rather than conventional black @-@ and @-@ white .
In contrast to comics in the superhero genre , in which Eisner did prominent work early in his career , the characters in A Contract with God are not heroic ; they often feel frustrated and powerless , even when performing seemingly heroic deeds to help their neighbors . The characters are rendered in a caricatured manner that contrasts with the realistic backgrounds , though the backgrounds are rendered in less detail than in Eisner 's work in The Spirit ; according to writer Dennis O 'Neil , this style mimics the impressionistic sense of memory . Eisner explored these sorts of characters and situations further in his other Dropsie Avenue books , such as A Life Force .
= = Analysis = =
The stories share themes of disillusionment and frustration over thwarted desires . Frimme Hersh grieves over the death of his daughter , which he perceives as a breach of his contract with God ; street singer Eddie returns to insignificance when he finds himself unable to find his would @-@ be benefactor ; Goldie 's and Willie 's romantic ideals are disillusioned after her near @-@ rape and his seduction . Violence also ties the stories together ; Eddie 's wife @-@ beating is mirrored by the beating Willie 's seductress receives from her husband .
The characters are depicted neither as purely good or evil : for example , Rosie in " The Super " triumphs over the racist , abusive superintendent by stealing his money , having him framed for pedophilia , and driving him to suicide . Confinement is a prominent theme ; Eisner chooses perspectives through which the reader views the characters framed by doorways , window frames , or sheets of rain . Frimme Hersh seeks freedom from oppressive Eastern European antisemitism ; there is a feeling of elation for characters in the final story as they find their way out of the tenement 's , and the city 's , confinement .
According to academic Derek Royal , Jewish ethnicity is prominent throughout the stories ; in " A Contract with God " and " Cookalein " , religious and cultural Jewish symbolry are prominent , though in the middle two stories , there is little outward evidence of the characters ' Jewishness . The two outer stories further emphasize Jewish identity with the extra @-@ urban portions of their settings — the rural Russian origin of the religious Hersh in " Contract " , and the Catskill mountains in " Cookalein " , a retreat commonly associated with Jews in the 20th century . Eisner deals with representing Jewish identity through community . He juxtaposes individual stories and individual characters , who have different experiences which may be incompatible with one another ; this confounds any single definition of " Jewishness " , though there is a communal sense that binds these characters and their Jewishness together . Royal argues that Eisner shows the unresolved nature of American identity , in which ethnicities are conflicted between cultural assimilation and their ethnic associations . As the book progresses , the characters move from overt Jewishness to greater levels of assimilation , presented as an ambivalent change that has costs of its own .
Royal argued that the book was not only important to comics studies , but also to the study of Jewish and ethnic American literature . Much like short story cycles common to contemporary Jewish prose , in which stories can stand alone , but complement each other when read as a loosely integrated package , Royal wrote that Contract could be better described as a " graphic cycle " rather than a " graphic novel " . He wrote that such cycles , as well as Eisner 's , emphasized a heterogeneous multiplicity of perspectives , as " [ n ] o American ethnic literature can ever be defined monolithically " .
Art critic Peter Schjeldahl saw the " over @-@ the @-@ topness " endemic to American comics , and Eisner 's work , as " ill suited to serious subjects , especially those that incorporate authentic social history " . The work has been criticized for its use of stereotypical imagery ; writer Jeremy Dauber countered that these images reflect Eisner 's own memories of his youth and the strictures that Jewish people felt in the tenements . Others said caricaturized character designs conflicted with the otherwise realism of the stories ; the appropriateness of the style was defended by others , such as Dennis O 'Neil , who said that they better reflect the impressionistic way a child remembers the past .
The concept of a contract or covenant with God is fundamental to the Jewish religion . The idea that God must uphold his end of the first commandment has been a subject of works such as Elie Wiesel 's play The Trial of God ( 1979 ) , made in response to the atrocities Wiesel witnessed at Auschwitz . To art historian Matthew Baigell , Hershe 's angst regarding his relationship with God is a modern response to the questions of Hillel the Elder 's quoted in the Pirkei Avot : " If I am not for myself , who will be for me ? But if I am only for myself , what am I ? And if not now , when ? " Literary scholar Susanne Klingenstein found Hersh 's character unrealistic from the view of Jewish scholarship . She wrote that " the suffering of the righteous " is " one of the greatest problems in Jewish thought " , and that a character as devoutly religious as Hersh would not have struggled with what she saw as elementary Jewish teaching .
= = Publication history = =
The book took two years to finish . Eisner worked through a variety of approaches and styles , and toyed with using color , overlays , or washes , before settling on a hard @-@ lined style printed in sepia . As he had no deadline , he reworked and resequenced the stories until he was satisfied .
Eisner intended A Contract with God to have an adult audience , and wanted it to be sold in bookstores rather than comic shops ; as such , he turned down an offer from Denis Kitchen to publish it . Though he had contacts at Bantam Books , he knew they would be uninterested in publishing comics . To secure a meeting with editor Oscar Dystel there , he called the book a " graphic novel " . When Dystel discovered that the book was actually comics , he told Eisner Bantam would not publish it , but a smaller publisher might .
Baronet Press , a small New York publishing house , agreed to publish A Contract with God , which bears the credit " Produced by Poorhouse Press " of " White Plains , N.Y. " on its indicia page . Eisner had originally intended to call the book Tenement Stories , Tales from the Bronx , or A Tenement in the Bronx but Baronet titled it A Contract with God , after the lead story , as the term " tenement " was not widely known outside the eastern US . The trade paperback carried the term " graphic novel " , though it is a collection of stories rather than a novel . As Baronet was not financially sound , Eisner loaned it money to ensure the book was published .
Sales were poor , but demand increased over the years . Kitchen Sink Press reissued the book in 1985 , as did DC Comics in 2001 as part of its Will Eisner Library ; and W. W. Norton collected it in 2005 as The Contract with God Trilogy in a single volume with its sequels , A Life Force ( 1988 ) and Dropsie Avenue ( 1995 ) . The Norton edition , and subsequent stand @-@ alone editions of Contract , included extra final pages to the stories . As of 2010 , at least eleven translations have been published , including in Yiddish , a language which would have been common with many of the characters in the book .
= = = Editions = = =
1978 Baronet Books , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89437 @-@ 045 @-@ 8 ( hardcover ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89437 @-@ 035 @-@ 9 ( trade paperback )
1985 Kitchen Sink Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87816 @-@ 018 @-@ 1 ( softcover ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87816 @-@ 017 @-@ 4 ( hardcover limited to 600 copies with a tipped @-@ in plate by Eisner )
2001 DC Comics , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56389 @-@ 674 @-@ 3 ( Will Eisner Library )
2005 W. W. Norton , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 06105 @-@ 5 ( The Contract with God Trilogy )
2006 W. W. Norton , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 32804 @-@ 2
= = Reception and legacy = =
A Contract with God has frequently , though erroneously , been cited as the first graphic novel ; comic book reviewer Richard Kyle had used the term in 1964 in a fan newsletter , and it had appeared on the cover of The First Kingdom ( 1974 ) by Jack Katz , with whom Eisner had corresponded . A number of book @-@ length comics preceded Contract , at least as far back as Milt Gross 's He Done Her Wrong ( 1930 ) . A Contract with God attracted greater attention than these previous efforts partly due to Eisner 's greater status in the comics community . It is considered a milestone in American comics history not only for its format , but also for its literary aspirations and for having dispensed with typical comic @-@ book genre tropes .
Eisner continued to produce graphic novels in a third phase to his cartooning career that ultimately lasted longer than either his periods in comic books or in educational comics . According to comics historian R. Fiore , Eisner 's work as a graphic novelist also maintained his reputation as " a contemporary figure rather than a relic of the dim past " .
Editor N. C. Christopher Couch considered the book 's physical format to be Eisner 's major contribution to the graphic novel form — few in comic book publishing had experience in bookmaking , whereas Eisner gained intimate familiarity with the process during his time at American Visuals . The book succeeded in getting into bookstores , though initial sales amounted to a few thousand copies in its first year ; stores had difficulty finding an appropriate section in which to shelve it . It was put on display at the Brentano 's bookstore in Manhattan , and reportedly sold well . Eisner visited the store to find out how the book was faring after being taking down from display . The manager told him it had been placed in the religious section , and then in humor , but customers had raised concerns that the book did not belong in those sections . The manager gave up and put the book in storage in the cellar .
Early reviews were positive . The book 's marketing consisted initially of word @-@ of @-@ mouth and in fanzines and trade periodicals , as mainstream newspapers and magazines did not normally review comics at the time . Comic book writer Dennis O 'Neil called Contract " a masterpiece " that exceeded his expectations . O 'Neil wrote that the combination of words and images mimicked the experience of remembering more accurately than was possible with pure prose . O 'Neil 's review originally appeared in The Comics Journal , and was used to preface later editions of Eisner 's book . Critic Dale Luciano called the book a " perfectly and exquisitely balanced ... masterpiece " , and praised Kitchen Sink Press for reprinting such a " risky project " in 1985 .
Eisner 's status as a cartoonist grew after A Contract with God appeared , and his influence was augmented by his time as a teacher at the School of Visual Arts in New York , where he expounded his theories of the medium . He later turned his lectures into the books Comics and Sequential Art ( 1985 ) — the first book in English on the formalities and of the comics medium — and Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative ( 1995 ) . As Eisner 's social esteem grew , a distinction developed among publishers between Eisner 's pre – and post @-@ graphic novel work ; highbrow publishers such as W. W. Norton have reissued his graphic novel work , while his superhero Spirit work has been reprinted by publishers with less social esteem such as DC Comics . The Comics Journal placed the book in 57th place on its " Top 100 English @-@ Language Comics of the Century " list , which called it " the masterpiece of one of the medium 's first true artists " .
Cartoonist Dave Sim praised the book and wrote that he reread it frequently , but called it " a bit illegitimate " to use the term " graphic novel " for works of such brevity ; he stated he could read the book in " twenty to thirty minutes " , which he argued amounted to " the equivalent of a twenty @-@ page short story " .
= = Adaptations = =
On July 24 , 2010 , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , producers Darren Dean , Tommy Oliver , Bob Schreck , Mike Ruggerio , and Mark Rabinowitz announced plans for a film adaptation of A Contract with God . Darren Dean was hired to script it , with plans to have a different director for each of the four stories .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Other media = = = =
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= Artabanes ( general ) =
Artabanes ( Greek : Ἀρταβάνης , from Old Armenian Artawan , fl . 538 – 554 ) was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) general of Armenian origin who served under Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) . Initially a rebel against Byzantine authority , he fled to the Sassanid Persians but soon returned to Byzantine allegiance . He served in Africa , where he won great fame by killing the rebel general Guntharic and restoring the province to imperial allegiance . He became engaged to Justinian 's niece Praejecta , but did not eventually marry her due to the opposition of the Empress Theodora . Recalled to Constantinople , he became involved in a failed conspiracy against Justinian in 548 / 549 , but was not severely punished after its revelation . He was soon pardoned and sent to Italy to fight in the Gothic War , where he participated in the decisive Byzantine victory at Casilinum .
= = Early life = =
Artabanes was a descendant of the royal Armenian Arsacid line , a branch of which at the time was recognized as autonomous local princes in the eastern fringes of the Eastern Roman Empire . His father was named John , and he had a brother also named John .
= = = Revolt against Byzantium = = =
In 538 / 539 , Artabanes , at the time apparently still a young man , took part in the Armenian conspiracy against Acacius , the proconsul of First Armenia , whose heavy taxes and cruel behaviour was greatly resented . Artabanes himself killed Acacius . Shortly after , in a skirmish between the rebels and the Byzantine army at Oenochalacon , Artabanes may have killed the Byzantine general Sittas , sent by Justinian to quell the rebellion ( Procopius supplies two accounts , one attributing Sittas 's death to Artabanes and another to an otherwise unknown Armenian named Solomon ) . Artabanes 's father tried to negotiate a settlement with Sittas ' successor , Bouzes , but was murdered by the latter . This act forced Artabanes and his followers to seek the aid of the Sassanid Persian ruler , Khosrau I ( r . 531 – 579 ) . Crossing over to Persian territory , over the next few years Artabanes and those who followed him took part in Khosrau 's campaigns against the Byzantines .
= = Service in Africa = =
At some time around 544 , perhaps as early as 542 , Artabanes , his brother John and several other Armenians deserted back to the Byzantines .
Along with his brother , Artabanes was placed in command of a small Armenian contingent and sent to Africa in spring 545 under the senator Areobindus . There , the Byzantines were engaged in a protracted war with the rebellious Moorish tribes . Shortly after their arrival , John died in battle at Sicca Veneria with the rebel forces of the renegade Stotzas . Artabanes and his men remained loyal to Areobindus during the rebellion of the dux Numidiae Guntharic in late 545 . Guntharic , allied with the Moorish chieftain Antalas , marched on Carthage and seized the city gates . At the urging of Artabanes and others , Areobindus decided to confront the rebel . The two armies appeared evenly matched , until Areobindus took fright and fled to a monastery seeking sanctuary . Thereupon the troops loyal to him also fled , and the city fell to Guntharic .
Areobindus was murdered by Guntharic , but Artabanes secured guarantees of his safety and pledged himself to Guntharic 's service . In secret , however , he began planning to overthrow him . Soon after , Artabanes was entrusted , alongside John and Ulitheus , with an expedition against Antalas 's Moors . He marched south , along with an allied Moorish contingent under Cutzinas . Antalas 's men fled before him , but Artabanes did not pursue them and turned back . According to Procopius , he considered leading his men to join the loyalist imperial garrison that held out at Hadrumetum under Marcentius , but decided to return to Carthage and go on with his plan to assassinate Guntharic . Artabanes kept his plan in absolute secrecy for a long time , confiding only with his two closest Armenian friends : even his Armenian unit of hand @-@ picked and completely loyal veteran soldiers was not aware of it until the very last moment . Such a perfect concealment was achieved , not least thanks to the fact that during both planning and implementation stages of this assassination the communication between the exclusively Armenian conspirators was in their mother tongue , an incomprehensible language for other ethnic elements of the imperial army in Africa .
Upon his return to Carthage , he justified his decision to turn back by insisting that the entire army was needed to quell the insurgents , and urged Guntharic to set forth himself . At the same time , he conspired with his nephew , Gregory , and a few other of his Armenian bodyguards to murder the usurper ( although Corippus suggests that it was the praetorian prefect Athanasius who was the real mastermind of the plot ) . On the eve of the army 's departure in early May , Guntharic hosted a great banquet , and invited Artabanes and Athanasius to share the same couch , a mark of honour . Suddenly , during the banquet , Artabanes ' Armenians fell upon Guntharic 's bodyguards , while Artabanes himself allegedly landed the killing blow on Guntharic .
This deed won him great honour and fame : Praejecta , the widow of Areobindus and niece of Justinian , whom Guntharic was planning to marry , gave him a rich reward , while the emperor confirmed him as magister militum of Africa . Despite being already married to a relative of his , Artabanes eventually became engaged with Praejecta . He sent her back to Constantinople and himself asked from Justinian to be recalled from Africa , so that they could marry .
= = Artabanes at Constantinople and the conspiracy against Justinian = =
Soon afterwards , Artabanes was indeed recalled to Constantinople , replaced in Africa by John Troglita . He received numerous honours from Justinian , and was named magister militum praesentalis , comes foederatorum and honorary consul . Despite these and his great popularity however , he was unable to achieve his ambition of marrying Praejecta : his wife came to the imperial capital and presented her case to the Empress Theodora . The Empress compelled Artabanes to retain his wife , and not until after Theodora 's death in 548 was the Armenian general able to divorce himself . By then , however , Praejecta had already been remarried .
Irritated over this affair , shortly after Theodora 's death ( late 548 / early 549 ) he became involved in the so @-@ called " Armenian Plot " or " Conspiracy of Artabanes " . The real instigator , however , was a relative of his , named Arsaces , who proposed to assassinate Justinian , and elevate Justinian 's cousin Germanus on the throne instead . The conspirators thought Germanus amenable to their plans , since he had been dissatisfied with Justinian 's meddling in the settling of the will of his recently deceased brother Boraides , which had initially named Germanus as the major beneficiary as opposed to the former 's sole daughter . The conspirators approached Germanus 's son Justin first , and revealed to him the plot . Immediately , he informed his father , and he in turn informed the comes excubitorum Marcellus . In order to find out more of their intentions , Germanus met the conspirators in person , while a trusted aide of Marcellus was concealed nearby and listened in . Although Marcellus hesitated to inform Justinian without further proof , eventually he revealed the conspiracy to the emperor . Justinian ordered the conspirators imprisoned and questioned , but they were otherwise treated remarkably leniently . Artabanes was stripped of his offices and confined to the palace under guard , but was soon pardoned .
= = Service in Italy = =
In 550 , Artabanes was appointed magister militum per Thracias and sent to replace the aged senator Liberius in command of an expedition under way against Sicily , which had recently been overrun by the Ostrogoth king Totila . Artabanes failed to catch up with the expedition before it sailed for Sicily , and his own fleet was driven back and scattered by severe storms in the Ionian Sea . Eventually he arrived in Sicily and took command of the Byzantine forces there . He besieged the Gothic garrisons left behind by Totila after he left the island and soon forced them to surrender . Over the next two years , he remained in Sicily . According to Procopius , the inhabitants of the mainland city of Croton , which was being besieged by the Goths , repeatedly sent to him for help , but he did nothing .
In 553 , he crossed over into mainland Italy , where he joined the army of Narses as one of its generals . Facing the Frankish invasion in the summer of 553 , Narses ordered Artabanes and other generals to occupy the passes of the Apennines and harass the enemy advance ; after a Byzantine contingent was defeated at Parma , however , the other Byzantine generals withdrew to Faventia , until an envoy from Narses persuaded them to move up to the area of Parma again . In 554 , Artabanes was stationed at Pisaurum with Byzantine and Hunnic troops . At Fanum , he ambushed and defeated the advance guard of the Frankish army of Leutharis , which was returning from a plundering expedition into southern Italy and heading back to Gaul . Most of the Franks fell , and in the confusion , the many captives escaped , taking much of the Franks ' booty with them . Artabanes did not engage the main body of Leutharis ' army however , since it far outnumbered his own force . He then marched south and joined Narses 's main force , accompanying him in his campaign against the remaining Frankish army under Butilinus . At the decisive Byzantine victory in the Battle of Casilinum , along with Valerian , he commanded the cavalry in the Byzantine left flank . They were concealed in the woods , as part of Narses 's stratagem to attack the Franks in the rear and encircle them . Nothing further is known of him after that .
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= As I was going by Charing Cross =
" As I was going by Charing Cross " ( sometimes referred to as " As I was going to Charing Cross " ) , is an English language nursery rhyme . The rhyme was first recorded in the 1840s , but it may have older origins in street cries and verse of the seventeenth century . It refers to the equestrian statue of King Charles I in Charing Cross , London , and may allude to his death or be a puritan satire on royalist reactions to his execution . It was not recorded in its modern form until the mid @-@ nineteenth century . It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 20564 .
= = Lyrics = =
Modern versions include :
The Roud Folk Song Index , which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , classifies the song as 20564 .
= = Origin = =
The rhyme is thought to refer to the equestrian statue of Charles I ( r . 1625 – 49 ) , which was erected after the Restoration in 1660 and was moved in 1675 to the site of the old Charing Cross in central London . The tarnished bronze statue is largely dark in colour , but the " black " may refer to the king 's hair colour .
The last line may refer to the reaction of the crowd when he was beheaded , or it may be a puritan satire on royalist reactions to the event . The rhyme may also have been produced out of a combination of existing couplets . A traditional London street cry was :
or
A note of a ballad in a seventeenth @-@ century manuscript at Oxford contains the lines :
The first part was printed as a children 's rhyme in a variation of the more famous " Ride a Cock Horse " in Pretty Tales , published in 1808 , with the lyrics :
The modern version , which may combine elements of this rhyme with a reference to the execution of Charles I , was first collected and printed by James Orchard Halliwell in the 1840s .
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= Grill ( jewelry ) =
In hip hop culture , a grill ( most commonly spelled as grillz also fronts or golds ) is a type of jewelry worn over the teeth . Grills are made of metal and are generally removable . They began to be worn by hip hop artists in the early 1980s , and upgraded during the 90s in Oakland , but they became more widely popular during the mid @-@ 2000s due to the rise of Southern hip hop rap and the more mainstream pop culture status hip hop attained . Though grills are fitted to the tooth impression of the wearer , whether they are safe for long @-@ term wear is unknown .
= = Characteristics and wearer demographics = =
Grills are made of several types of metal ( often silver , gold or platinum ) that are sometimes inlaid with precious stones ; they are generally removable , though some may be permanently attached to the teeth . Gold grills can be made from 10 karat , up to 24 karat gold . The gold can be tinted yellow , white and rose color .
Grills can cost anywhere from one hundred dollars to thousands of dollars , depending on the materials used and the number of teeth covered .
As of 2006 , grills were most often worn by 18- to 35 @-@ year @-@ old African American male hip @-@ hop listeners , and one commentator argued that grills will never become mainstream . However , grills received mainstream attention , including on network television , when , during the 2012 Summer Olympics , Olympic swimmer Ryan Lochte posed with a grill that sported stones in the design of an American flag ; he had previously worn diamond grills after earlier competitions .
= = History = =
The insertion of gems into teeth has long predated hip hop culture , with rich Mayans drilling pieces of jade into their teeth . Hip hop artists began wearing grills in the early 1980s ; New Yorker Eddie Plein , owner of Eddie 's Gold Teeth , is often credited with starting the trend . Plein made gold caps for Flavor Flav , and then outfitted New York rappers including Big Daddy Kane and Kool G. Rap . He later moved to Atlanta , where he designed ever @-@ more @-@ elaborate grills for rappers like OutKast , Goodie Mob , Ludacris , and Lil Jon . Other writers have cited Slick Rick and Afrika Bambaataa as an important early contributor to the popularity of grills .
Grills remained popular in the Southern U.S. , especially in Houston or Memphis , even as they rose and fell from popularity elsewhere , and the rise of Dirty South rappers in the 2000s spurred a nationwide grill trend . During this time , grills frequently appeared in hip hop music , most notably in the 2005 number one single " Grillz , " by Nelly , Paul Wall , Big Gipp , and Ali , and in other Paul Wall songs . Wall is known for his grill business as well as his rapping ; his clients include Kanye West and Cam 'ron .
Grills maintained their popularity into the 2010s , with French grillmaker Dolly Cohen creating custom oral jewelry for Rihanna , Cara Delevingne , and Rita Ora . In 2015 , DJ Khaled created a song based around grills , " Gold Slugs " ( feat . Chris Brown , August Alsina & Fetty Wap " Gold Slugs also is used as a term similar to grills with the same meaning .
= = Manufacture = =
While early grills could not be removed easily and involved reshaping the tooth itself to fit the grill , grills are today made from custom dental molds . For more expensive grills , a dentist takes a mold of the wearer 's front teeth with a quick set alginate . A tooth mold is obtained by filling the alginate negative with buff stone , then the buff stone is used to fit the grill to the unique set of teeth . However , for inexpensive novelty grills , a jeweler may make an impression by having the wearer bite into dental putty or wax softened in water , or the wearer may do this himself . Such grills may be less comfortable or dependable than grills that are professionally fitted , and in several instances jewelers manufacturing grills in this manner have been charged with practicing dentistry without a license .
= = Criticism and health hazards = =
According to the American Dental Association in June 2006 , no studies have shown whether the long @-@ term wearing of grills is safe . If the grills fit properly and are worn only intermittently , wearers are at a low risk for dental problems , according to the ADA . The ADA has warned , however , that grills made from base metals could cause irritation or allergic reactions , and that bacteria trapped under a grill worn on a long @-@ term basis could result in gum disease , cavities , or even bone loss . School districts in Alabama , Georgia , and Texas have banned grills for reasons both disciplinary and health @-@ related .
Just as other hip hop fashions have been criticized , grills have been denounced by some commentators as expensive , ostentatious , and superficial displays that strain the finances of poor youth .
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= White dwarf =
A white dwarf , also called a degenerate dwarf , is a stellar remnant composed mostly of electron @-@ degenerate matter . A white dwarf is very dense : its mass is comparable to that of the Sun , while its volume is comparable to that of Earth . A white dwarf 's faint luminosity comes from the emission of stored thermal energy ; no fusion takes place in a white dwarf wherein mass is converted to energy . The nearest known white dwarf is Sirius B , at 8 @.@ 6 light years , the smaller component of the Sirius binary star . There are currently thought to be eight white dwarfs among the hundred star systems nearest the Sun . The unusual faintness of white dwarfs was first recognized in 1910 . The name white dwarf was coined by Willem Luyten in 1922 . The universe has not existed long enough to experience a white dwarf releasing all of its energy as it will take close to a trillion years .
White dwarfs are thought to be the final evolutionary state of stars whose mass is not high enough to become a neutron star , including the Earth 's Sun and over 97 % of the other stars in the Milky Way . , § 1 . After the hydrogen @-@ fusing period of a main @-@ sequence star of low or medium mass ends , such a star will expand to a red giant during which it fuses helium to carbon and oxygen in its core by the triple @-@ alpha process . If a red giant has insufficient mass to generate the core temperatures required to fuse carbon , around 1 billion K , an inert mass of carbon and oxygen will build up at its center . After a star sheds its outer layers and forms a planetary nebula , it will leave behind this core , which is the remnant white dwarf . Usually , therefore , white dwarfs are composed of carbon and oxygen . If the mass of the progenitor is between 8 and 10 @.@ 5 solar masses ( M ☉ ) , the core temperature is sufficient to fuse carbon but not neon , in which case an oxygen – neon – magnesium white dwarf may form . Stars of very low mass will not be able to fuse helium , hence , a helium white dwarf may form by mass loss in binary systems .
The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions , so the star has no source of energy . As a result , it cannot support itself by the heat generated by fusion against gravitational collapse , but is supported only by electron degeneracy pressure , causing it to be extremely dense . The physics of degeneracy yields a maximum mass for a non @-@ rotating white dwarf , the Chandrasekhar limit — approximately 1 @.@ 46 M ☉ — beyond which it cannot be supported by electron degeneracy pressure . A carbon @-@ oxygen white dwarf that approaches this mass limit , typically by mass transfer from a companion star , may explode as a type Ia supernova via a process known as carbon detonation . ( SN 1006 is thought to be a famous example . )
A white dwarf is very hot when it forms , but because it has no source of energy , it will gradually radiate its energy and cool . This means that its radiation , which initially has a high color temperature , will lessen and redden with time . Over a very long time , a white dwarf will cool and its material will begin to crystallize ( starting with the core ) . The star 's low temperature means it will no longer emit significant heat or light , and it will become a cold black dwarf . The length of time it takes for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe ( approximately 13 @.@ 8 billion years ) , and it is thought that no black dwarfs yet exist . The oldest white dwarfs still radiate at temperatures of a few thousand kelvin .
= = Discovery = =
The first white dwarf discovered was in the triple star system of 40 Eridani , which contains the relatively bright main sequence star 40 Eridani A , orbited at a distance by the closer binary system of the white dwarf 40 Eridani B and the main sequence red dwarf 40 Eridani C. The pair 40 Eridani B / C was discovered by William Herschel on 31 January 1783 ; , p . 73 it was again observed by Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve in 1825 and by Otto Wilhelm von Struve in 1851 . In 1910 , Henry Norris Russell , Edward Charles Pickering and Williamina Fleming discovered that , despite being a dim star , 40 Eridani B was of spectral type A , or white . In 1939 , Russell looked back on the discovery : , p . 1
I was visiting my friend and generous benefactor , Prof. Edward C. Pickering . With characteristic kindness , he had volunteered to have the spectra observed for all the stars — including comparison stars — which had been observed in the observations for stellar parallax which Hinks and I made at Cambridge , and I discussed . This piece of apparently routine work proved very fruitful — it led to the discovery that all the stars of very faint absolute magnitude were of spectral class M. In conversation on this subject ( as I recall it ) , I asked Pickering about certain other faint stars , not on my list , mentioning in particular 40 Eridani B. Characteristically , he sent a note to the Observatory office and before long the answer came ( I think from Mrs Fleming ) that the spectrum of this star was A. I knew enough about it , even in these paleozoic days , to realize at once that there was an extreme inconsistency between what we would then have called " possible " values of the surface brightness and density . I must have shown that I was not only puzzled but crestfallen , at this exception to what looked like a very pretty rule of stellar characteristics ; but Pickering smiled upon me , and said : " It is just these exceptions that lead to an advance in our knowledge " , and so the white dwarfs entered the realm of study !
The spectral type of 40 Eridani B was officially described in 1914 by Walter Adams .
The white dwarf companion of Sirius , Sirius B , was next to be discovered . During the nineteenth century , positional measurements of some stars became precise enough to measure small changes in their location . Friedrich Bessel used position measurements to determine that the stars Sirius ( α Canis Majoris ) and Procyon ( α Canis Minoris ) were changing their positions periodically . In 1844 he predicted that both stars had unseen companions :
If we were to regard Sirius and Procyon as double stars , the change of their motions would not surprise us ; we should acknowledge them as necessary , and have only to investigate their amount by observation . But light is no real property of mass . The existence of numberless visible stars can prove nothing against the existence of numberless invisible ones .
Bessel roughly estimated the period of the companion of Sirius to be about half a century ; C. A. F. Peters computed an orbit for it in 1851 . It was not until 31 January 1862 that Alvan Graham Clark observed a previously unseen star close to Sirius , later identified as the predicted companion . Walter Adams announced in 1915 that he had found the spectrum of Sirius B to be similar to that of Sirius .
In 1917 , Adriaan van Maanen discovered Van Maanen 's Star , an isolated white dwarf . These three white dwarfs , the first discovered , are the so @-@ called classical white dwarfs . , p . 2 Eventually , many faint white stars were found which had high proper motion , indicating that they could be suspected to be low @-@ luminosity stars close to the Earth , and hence white dwarfs . Willem Luyten appears to have been the first to use the term white dwarf when he examined this class of stars in 1922 ; the term was later popularized by Arthur Stanley Eddington . Despite these suspicions , the first non @-@ classical white dwarf was not definitely identified until the 1930s . 18 white dwarfs had been discovered by 1939 . , p . 3 Luyten and others continued to search for white dwarfs in the 1940s . By 1950 , over a hundred were known , and by 1999 , over 2 @,@ 000 were known . Since then the Sloan Digital Sky Survey has found over 9 @,@ 000 white dwarfs , mostly new .
= = Composition and structure = =
Although white dwarfs are known with estimated masses as low as 0 @.@ 17 M ☉ and as high as 1 @.@ 33 M ☉ , the mass distribution is strongly peaked at 0 @.@ 6 M ☉ , and the majority lie between 0 @.@ 5 and 0 @.@ 7 M ☉ . The estimated radii of observed white dwarfs are typically 0 @.@ 8 – 2 % the radius of the Sun ; this is comparable to the Earth 's radius of approximately 0 @.@ 9 % solar radius . A white dwarf , then , packs mass comparable to the Sun 's into a volume that is typically a million times smaller than the Sun 's ; the average density of matter in a white dwarf must therefore be , very roughly , 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 times greater than the average density of the Sun , or approximately 106 g / cm3 , or 1 tonne per cubic centimetre . A typical white dwarf has a density of between 10 7 and 1011 kg per cubic meter . White dwarfs are composed of one of the densest forms of matter known , surpassed only by other compact stars such as neutron stars , black holes and , hypothetically , quark stars .
White dwarfs were found to be extremely dense soon after their discovery . If a star is in a binary system , as is the case for Sirius B or 40 Eridani B , it is possible to estimate its mass from observations of the binary orbit . This was done for Sirius B by 1910 , yielding a mass estimate of 0 @.@ 94 M ☉ . ( A more modern estimate is 1 @.@ 00 M ☉ . ) Since hotter bodies radiate more energy than colder ones , a star 's surface brightness can be estimated from its effective surface temperature , and that from its spectrum . If the star 's distance is known , its absolute ( overall ) luminosity can also be estimated . From the absolute luminosity and distance , the star 's surface area and its radius can be calculated . Reasoning of this sort led to the realization , puzzling to astronomers at the time , that Sirius B and 40 Eridani B must be very dense . When Ernst Öpik estimated the density of a number of visual binary stars in 1916 , he found that 40 Eridani B had a density of over 25 @,@ 000 times the Sun 's , which was so high that he called it " impossible " . As Arthur Stanley Eddington put it later in 1927 : , p . 50
We learn about the stars by receiving and interpreting the messages which their light brings to us . The message of the Companion of Sirius when it was decoded ran : " I am composed of material 3 @,@ 000 times denser than anything you have ever come across ; a ton of my material would be a little nugget that you could put in a matchbox . " What reply can one make to such a message ? The reply which most of us made in 1914 was — " Shut up . Don 't talk nonsense . "
As Eddington pointed out in 1924 , densities of this order implied that , according to the theory of general relativity , the light from Sirius B should be gravitationally redshifted . This was confirmed when Adams measured this redshift in 1925 .
Such densities are possible because white dwarf material is not composed of atoms joined by chemical bonds , but rather consists of a plasma of unbound nuclei and electrons . There is therefore no obstacle to placing nuclei closer than normally allowed by electron orbitals limited by normal matter . Eddington wondered what would happen when this plasma cooled and the energy to keep the atoms ionized was no longer sufficient . This paradox was resolved by R. H. Fowler in 1926 by an application of the newly devised quantum mechanics . Since electrons obey the Pauli exclusion principle , no two electrons can occupy the same state , and they must obey Fermi – Dirac statistics , also introduced in 1926 to determine the statistical distribution of particles which satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle . At zero temperature , therefore , electrons can not all occupy the lowest @-@ energy , or ground , state ; some of them would have to occupy higher @-@ energy states , forming a band of lowest @-@ available energy states , the Fermi sea . This state of the electrons , called degenerate , meant that a white dwarf could cool to zero temperature and still possess high energy .
Compression of a white dwarf will increase the number of electrons in a given volume . Applying the Pauli exclusion principle , this will increase the kinetic energy of the electrons , thereby increasing the pressure . This electron degeneracy pressure supports a white dwarf against gravitational collapse . The pressure depends only on density and not on temperature . Degenerate matter is relatively compressible ; this means that the density of a high @-@ mass white dwarf is much greater than that of a low @-@ mass white dwarf and that the radius of a white dwarf decreases as its mass increases .
The existence of a limiting mass that no white dwarf can exceed ( beyond which it becomes a neutron star ) is another consequence of being supported by electron degeneracy pressure . These masses were first published in 1929 by Wilhelm Anderson and in 1930 by Edmund C. Stoner . The modern value of the limit was first published in 1931 by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar in his paper " The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs " . For a non @-@ rotating white dwarf , it is equal to approximately 5.7M ☉ / μe2 , where μe is the average molecular weight per electron of the star . , eq . ( 63 ) As the carbon @-@ 12 and oxygen @-@ 16 which predominantly compose a carbon @-@ oxygen white dwarf both have atomic number equal to half their atomic weight , one should take μe equal to 2 for such a star , leading to the commonly quoted value of 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ . ( Near the beginning of the 20th century , there was reason to believe that stars were composed chiefly of heavy elements , , p . 955 so , in his 1931 paper , Chandrasekhar set the average molecular weight per electron , μe , equal to 2 @.@ 5 , giving a limit of 0 @.@ 91 M ☉ . ) Together with William Alfred Fowler , Chandrasekhar received the Nobel prize for this and other work in 1983 . The limiting mass is now called the Chandrasekhar limit .
If a white dwarf were to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit , and nuclear reactions did not take place , the pressure exerted by electrons would no longer be able to balance the force of gravity , and it would collapse into a denser object called a neutron star . Carbon @-@ oxygen white dwarfs accreting mass from a neighboring star undergo a runaway nuclear fusion reaction , which leads to a Type Ia supernova explosion in which the white dwarf may be destroyed , before it reaches the limiting mass .
New research indicates that many white dwarfs — at least in certain types of galaxies — may not approach that limit by way of accretion . It has been postulated that at least some of the white dwarfs that become supernovae attain the necessary mass by colliding with one another . It may be that in elliptical galaxies such collisions are the major source of supernovae . This hypothesis is based on the fact that the X @-@ rays produced by those galaxies are 30 to 50 times less than what is expected to be produced by type Ia supernovas of that galaxy as matter accretes on the white dwarf from its encircling companion . It has been concluded that no more than 5 percent of the supernovae in such galaxies could be created by the process of accretion onto white dwarfs . The significance of this finding is that there could be two types of supernovae , which could mean that the Chandrasekhar limit might not always apply in determining when a white dwarf goes supernova , given that two colliding white dwarfs could have a range of masses . This in turn would confuse efforts to use exploding white dwarfs as standard candles in determining distances .
White dwarfs have low luminosity and therefore occupy a strip at the bottom of the Hertzsprung – Russell diagram , a graph of stellar luminosity versus color ( or temperature ) . They should not be confused with low @-@ luminosity objects at the low @-@ mass end of the main sequence , such as the hydrogen @-@ fusing red dwarfs , whose cores are supported in part by thermal pressure , or the even lower @-@ temperature brown dwarfs .
= = = Mass – radius relationship and mass limit = = =
The relationship between the mass and radii of white dwarfs can be derived using an energy minimization argument . The energy of the white dwarf can be approximated by taking it to be the sum of its gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy . The gravitational potential energy of a unit mass piece of white dwarf , Eg , will be on the order of − G M ∕ R , where G is the gravitational constant , M is the mass of the white dwarf , and R is its radius .
<formula>
The kinetic energy of the unit mass , Ek , will primarily come from the motion of electrons , so it will be approximately N p2 ∕ 2m , where p is the average electron momentum , m is the electron mass , and N is the number of electrons per unit mass . Since the electrons are degenerate , we can estimate p to be on the order of the uncertainty in momentum , Δp , given by the uncertainty principle , which says that Δp Δx is on the order of the reduced Planck constant , ħ . Δx will be on the order of the average distance between electrons , which will be approximately n − 1 / 3 , i.e. , the reciprocal of the cube root of the number density , n , of electrons per unit volume . Since there are N · M electrons in the white dwarf , where M is the star 's mass and its volume is on the order of R3 , n will be on the order of N M ∕ R3 .
Solving for the kinetic energy per unit mass , Ek , we find that
<formula>
The white dwarf will be at equilibrium when its total energy , Eg + Ek , is minimized . At this point , the kinetic and gravitational potential energies should be comparable , so we may derive a rough mass @-@ radius relationship by equating their magnitudes :
<formula>
Solving this for the radius , R , gives
<formula>
Dropping N , which depends only on the composition of the white dwarf , and the universal constants leaves us with a relationship between mass and radius :
<formula>
i.e. , the radius of a white dwarf is inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass .
Since this analysis uses the non @-@ relativistic formula p2 ∕ 2m for the kinetic energy , it is non @-@ relativistic . If we wish to analyze the situation where the electron velocity in a white dwarf is close to the speed of light , c , we should replace p2 ∕ 2m by the extreme relativistic approximation p c for the kinetic energy . With this substitution , we find
<formula>
If we equate this to the magnitude of Eg , we find that R drops out and the mass , M , is forced to be
<formula>
To interpret this result , observe that as we add mass to a white dwarf , its radius will decrease , so , by the uncertainty principle , the momentum , and hence the velocity , of its electrons will increase . As this velocity approaches c , the extreme relativistic analysis becomes more exact , meaning that the mass M of the white dwarf must approach a limiting mass of Mlimit . Therefore , no white dwarf can be heavier than the limiting mass Mlimit , or 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ .
For a more accurate computation of the mass @-@ radius relationship and limiting mass of a white dwarf , one must compute the equation of state which describes the relationship between density and pressure in the white dwarf material . If the density and pressure are both set equal to functions of the radius from the center of the star , the system of equations consisting of the hydrostatic equation together with the equation of state can then be solved to find the structure of the white dwarf at equilibrium . In the non @-@ relativistic case , we will still find that the radius is inversely proportional to the cube root of the mass . , eq . ( 80 ) Relativistic corrections will alter the result so that the radius becomes zero at a finite value of the mass . This is the limiting value of the mass — called the Chandrasekhar limit — at which the white dwarf can no longer be supported by electron degeneracy pressure . The graph on the right shows the result of such a computation . It shows how radius varies with mass for non @-@ relativistic ( blue curve ) and relativistic ( green curve ) models of a white dwarf . Both models treat the white dwarf as a cold Fermi gas in hydrostatic equilibrium . The average molecular weight per electron , μe , has been set equal to 2 . Radius is measured in standard solar radii and mass in standard solar masses .
These computations all assume that the white dwarf is non @-@ rotating . If the white dwarf is rotating , the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium must be modified to take into account the centrifugal pseudo @-@ force arising from working in a rotating frame . For a uniformly rotating white dwarf , the limiting mass increases only slightly . If the star is allowed to rotate nonuniformly , and viscosity is neglected , then , as was pointed out by Fred Hoyle in 1947 , there is no limit to the mass for which it is possible for a model white dwarf to be in static equilibrium . Not all of these model stars will be dynamically stable .
= = = Radiation and cooling = = =
The degenerate matter that makes up the bulk of a white dwarf has a very low opacity , because any absorption of a photon requires that an electron must transition to a higher empty state , which may not be possible as the energy of the photon may not be a match for the possible quantum states available to that electron , hence radiative heat transfer within a white dwarf is low ; it does , however , have a high thermal conductivity . As a result , the interior of the white dwarf maintains a uniform temperature , approximately 107 K. An outer shell of non @-@ degenerate matter cools from approximately 107 K to 104 K. This matter radiates roughly as a black body . A white dwarf remains visible for a long time , as its tenuous outer atmosphere of normal matter begins to radiate at about 107 K , upon formation , while its greater interior mass is at 107 K but cannot radiate through its normal matter shell .
The visible radiation emitted by white dwarfs varies over a wide color range , from the blue @-@ white color of an O @-@ type main sequence star to the red of an M @-@ type red dwarf . White dwarf effective surface temperatures extend from over 150 @,@ 000 K to barely under 4 @,@ 000 K. In accordance with the Stefan – Boltzmann law , luminosity increases with increasing surface temperature ; this surface temperature range corresponds to a luminosity from over 100 times the Sun 's to under 1 / 10 @,@ 000 that of the Sun 's . Hot white dwarfs , with surface temperatures in excess of 30 @,@ 000 K , have been observed to be sources of soft ( i.e. , lower @-@ energy ) X @-@ rays . This enables the composition and structure of their atmospheres to be studied by soft X @-@ ray and extreme ultraviolet observations .
As was explained by Leon Mestel in 1952 , unless the white dwarf accretes matter from a companion star or other source , its radiation comes from its stored heat , which is not replenished . , § 2 @.@ 1 . White dwarfs have an extremely small surface area to radiate this heat from , so they cool gradually , remaining hot for a long time . As a white dwarf cools , its surface temperature decreases , the radiation which it emits reddens , and its luminosity decreases . Since the white dwarf has no energy sink other than radiation , it follows that its cooling slows with time . The rate of cooling has been estimated for a carbon white dwarf of 0 @.@ 59 M ☉ with a hydrogen atmosphere . After initially taking approximately 1 @.@ 5 billion years to cool to a surface temperature of 7 @,@ 140 K , cooling approximately 500 more kelvins to 6 @,@ 590 K takes around 0 @.@ 3 billion years , but the next two steps of around 500 kelvins ( to 6 @,@ 030 K and 5 @,@ 550 K ) take first 0 @.@ 4 and then 1 @.@ 1 billion years . , Table 2 .
Most observed white dwarfs have relatively high surface temperatures , between 8 @,@ 000 K and 40 @,@ 000 K. A white dwarf , though , spends more of its lifetime at cooler temperatures than at hotter temperatures , so we should expect that there are more cool white dwarfs than hot white dwarfs . Once we adjust for the selection effect that hotter , more luminous white dwarfs are easier to observe , we do find that decreasing the temperature range examined results in finding more white dwarfs . This trend stops when we reach extremely cool white dwarfs ; few white dwarfs are observed with surface temperatures below 4 @,@ 000 K , and one of the coolest so far observed , WD 0346 + 246 , has a surface temperature of approximately 3 @,@ 900 K. The reason for this is that the Universe 's age is finite , there has not been enough time for white dwarfs to cool below this temperature . The white dwarf luminosity function can therefore be used to find the time when stars started to form in a region ; an estimate for the age of our Galactic disk found in this way is 8 billion years . A white dwarf will eventually , in many trillion years , cool and become a non @-@ radiating black dwarf in approximate thermal equilibrium with its surroundings and with the cosmic background radiation . No black dwarfs are thought to exist yet .
Although white dwarf material is initially plasma — a fluid composed of nuclei and electrons — it was theoretically predicted in the 1960s that at a late stage of cooling , it should crystallize , starting at its center . The crystal structure is thought to be a body @-@ centered cubic lattice . In 1995 it was suggested that asteroseismological observations of pulsating white dwarfs yielded a potential test of the crystallization theory , and in 2004 , observations were made that suggested approximately 90 % of the mass of BPM 37093 had crystallized . Other work gives a crystallized mass fraction of between 32 % and 82 % . As a white dwarf core undergoes crystallization into a solid phase , latent heat is released which provides a source of thermal energy that delays its cooling .
Low @-@ mass helium white dwarfs ( with a mass < 0 @.@ 20 M ☉ , often referred to as " extremely low @-@ mass white dwarfs , ELM WDs " ) are formed in binary systems . As a result of their hydrogen @-@ rich envelopes , residual hydrogen burning via the CNO cycle may keep these white dwarfs hot on a long timescale . In addition , they remain in a bloated proto @-@ white dwarf stage for up to 2 Gyr before they reach the cooling track .
= = = Atmosphere and spectra = = =
Although most white dwarfs are thought to be composed of carbon and oxygen , spectroscopy typically shows that their emitted light comes from an atmosphere which is observed to be either hydrogen or helium dominated . The dominant element is usually at least 1 @,@ 000 times more abundant than all other elements . As explained by Schatzman in the 1940s , the high surface gravity is thought to cause this purity by gravitationally separating the atmosphere so that heavy elements are below and the lighter above . , § 5 – 6 This atmosphere , the only part of the white dwarf visible to us , is thought to be the top of an envelope which is a residue of the star 's envelope in the AGB phase and may also contain material accreted from the interstellar medium . The envelope is believed to consist of a helium @-@ rich layer with mass no more than 1 / 100 of the star 's total mass , which , if the atmosphere is hydrogen @-@ dominated , is overlain by a hydrogen @-@ rich layer with mass approximately 1 / 10 @,@ 000 of the stars total mass . , § 4 – 5 .
Although thin , these outer layers determine the thermal evolution of the white dwarf . The degenerate electrons in the bulk of a white dwarf conduct heat well . Most of a white dwarf 's mass is therefore at almost the same temperature ( isothermal ) , and it is also hot : a white dwarf with surface temperature between 8 @,@ 000 K and 16 @,@ 000 K will have a core temperature between approximately 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K and 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K. The white dwarf is kept from cooling very quickly only by its outer layers ' opacity to radiation .
The first attempt to classify white dwarf spectra appears to have been by G. P. Kuiper in 1941 , and various classification schemes have been proposed and used since then . The system currently in use was introduced by Edward M. Sion , Jesse L. Greenstein and their coauthors in 1983 and has been subsequently revised several times . It classifies a spectrum by a symbol which consists of an initial D , a letter describing the primary feature of the spectrum followed by an optional sequence of letters describing secondary features of the spectrum ( as shown in the table to the right ) , and a temperature index number , computed by dividing 50 @,@ 400 K by the effective temperature . For example :
A white dwarf with only He I lines in its spectrum and an effective temperature of 15 @,@ 000 K could be given the classification of DB3 , or , if warranted by the precision of the temperature measurement , DB3.5.
A white dwarf with a polarized magnetic field , an effective temperature of 17 @,@ 000 K , and a spectrum dominated by He I lines which also had hydrogen features could be given the classification of DBAP3 .
The symbols ? and : may also be used if the correct classification is uncertain .
White dwarfs whose primary spectral classification is DA have hydrogen @-@ dominated atmospheres . They make up the majority ( approximately 80 % ) of all observed white dwarfs . The next class in number is of DBs ( approximately 16 % ) . The hot ( above 15 @,@ 000 K ) DQ class ( roughly 0 @.@ 1 % ) have carbon @-@ dominated atmospheres . Those classified as DB , DC , DO , DZ , and cool DQ have helium @-@ dominated atmospheres . Assuming that carbon and metals are not present , which spectral classification is seen depends on the effective temperature . Between approximately 100 @,@ 000 K to 45 @,@ 000 K , the spectrum will be classified DO , dominated by singly ionized helium . From 30 @,@ 000 K to 12 @,@ 000 K , the spectrum will be DB , showing neutral helium lines , and below about 12 @,@ 000 K , the spectrum will be featureless and classified DC . , § 2 @.@ 4 .
Molecular hydrogen ( H2 ) has been detected in spectra of the atmospheres of some white dwarfs .
= = = = Metal @-@ Rich White Dwarfs = = = =
Around 25 @-@ 33 % of white dwarfs have metal lines in their spectra , which is unusual because any heavy elements in a white dwarf should sink into the star 's interior in just a small fraction of the star 's lifetime . The prevailing explanation for metal @-@ rich white dwarfs is that they have recently accreted rocky planetesimals . The bulk composition of the accreted object can be measured from the strengths of the metal lines . For example , a 2015 study of the white dwarf Ton 345 concluded that its metal abundances were consistent with those of a differentiated , rocky planet whose mantle had been eroded by the host star 's wind during its asymptotic giant branch phase .
= = = Magnetic field = = =
Magnetic fields in white dwarfs with a strength at the surface of ~ 1 million gauss ( 100 teslas ) were predicted by P. M. S. Blackett in 1947 as a consequence of a physical law he had proposed which stated that an uncharged , rotating body should generate a magnetic field proportional to its angular momentum . This putative law , sometimes called the Blackett effect , was never generally accepted , and by the 1950s even Blackett felt it had been refuted . , pp. 39 – 43 In the 1960s , it was proposed that white dwarfs might have magnetic fields due to conservation of total surface magnetic flux that existed in its progenitor star phase . A surface magnetic field of ~ 100 gauss ( 0 @.@ 01 T ) in the progenitor star would thus become a surface magnetic field of ~ 100 · 1002 = 1 million gauss ( 100 T ) once the star 's radius had shrunk by a factor of 100 . , § 8 ; , p . 484 The first magnetic white dwarf to be observed was GJ 742 , which was detected to have a magnetic field in 1970 by its emission of circularly polarized light . It is thought to have a surface field of approximately 300 million gauss ( 30 kT ) . , § 8 Since then magnetic fields have been discovered in well over 100 white dwarfs , ranging from 2 × 103 to 109 gauss ( 0 @.@ 2 T to 100 kT ) . Only a small number of white dwarfs have been examined for fields , and it has been estimated that at least 10 % of white dwarfs have fields in excess of 1 million gauss ( 100 T ) .
= = = = Chemical bonds = = = =
The magnetic fields in a white dwarf may allow for the existence of a new type of chemical bond , perpendicular paramagnetic bonding , in addition to ionic and covalent bonds , resulting in what has been initially described as " magnetized matter " in research published in 2012 .
= = Variability = =
Early calculations suggested that there might be white dwarfs whose luminosity varied with a period of around 10 seconds , but searches in the 1960s failed to observe this . , § 7 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 ; The first variable white dwarf found was HL Tau 76 ; in 1965 and 1966 , and was observed to vary with a period of approximately 12 @.@ 5 minutes . The reason for this period being longer than predicted is that the variability of HL Tau 76 , like that of the other pulsating variable white dwarfs known , arises from non @-@ radial gravity wave pulsations . , § 7 . Known types of pulsating white dwarf include the DAV , or ZZ Ceti , stars , including HL Tau 76 , with hydrogen @-@ dominated atmospheres and the spectral type DA ; , pp. 891 , 895 DBV , or V777 Her , stars , with helium @-@ dominated atmospheres and the spectral type DB ; , p . 3525 and GW Vir stars ( sometimes subdivided into DOV and PNNV stars ) , with atmospheres dominated by helium , carbon , and oxygen . GW Vir stars are not , strictly speaking , white dwarfs , but are stars which are in a position on the Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram between the asymptotic giant branch and the white dwarf region . They may be called pre @-@ white dwarfs . These variables all exhibit small ( 1 % – 30 % ) variations in light output , arising from a superposition of vibrational modes with periods of hundreds to thousands of seconds . Observation of these variations gives asteroseismological evidence about the interiors of white dwarfs .
= = Formation = =
White dwarfs are thought to represent the end point of stellar evolution for main @-@ sequence stars with masses from about 0 @.@ 07 to 10 M ☉ . The composition of the white dwarf produced will depend on the initial mass of the star .
= = = Stars with very low mass = = =
If the mass of a main @-@ sequence star is lower than approximately half a solar mass , it will never become hot enough to fuse helium in its core . It is thought that , over a lifespan that considerably exceeds the age of the Universe ( ~ 13 @.@ 8 billion years ) , such a star will eventually burn all its hydrogen and end its evolution as a helium white dwarf composed chiefly of helium @-@ 4 nuclei . Due to the very long time this process takes , it is not thought to be the origin of the observed helium white dwarfs . Rather , they are thought to be the product of mass loss in binary systems or mass loss due to a large planetary companion .
= = = Stars with low to medium mass = = =
If the mass of a main @-@ sequence star is between 0 @.@ 5 and 8 M ☉ , its core will become sufficiently hot to fuse helium into carbon and oxygen via the triple @-@ alpha process , but it will never become sufficiently hot to fuse carbon into neon . Near the end of the period in which it undergoes fusion reactions , such a star will have a carbon @-@ oxygen core which does not undergo fusion reactions , surrounded by an inner helium @-@ burning shell and an outer hydrogen @-@ burning shell . On the Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram , it will be found on the asymptotic giant branch . It will then expel most of its outer material , creating a planetary nebula , until only the carbon @-@ oxygen core is left . This process is responsible for the carbon @-@ oxygen white dwarfs which form the vast majority of observed white dwarfs .
= = = Stars with medium to high mass = = =
If a star is massive enough , its core will eventually become sufficiently hot to fuse carbon to neon , and then to fuse neon to iron . Such a star will not become a white dwarf , because the mass of its central , non @-@ fusing core , initially supported by electron degeneracy pressure , will eventually exceed the largest possible mass supportable by degeneracy pressure . At this point the core of the star will collapse and it will explode in a core @-@ collapse supernova which will leave behind a remnant neutron star , black hole , or possibly a more exotic form of compact star . Some main @-@ sequence stars , of perhaps 8 to 10 M ☉ , although sufficiently massive to fuse carbon to neon and magnesium , may be insufficiently massive to fuse neon . Such a star may leave a remnant white dwarf composed chiefly of oxygen , neon , and magnesium , provided that its core does not collapse , and provided that fusion does not proceed so violently as to blow apart the star in a supernova Although a few white dwarfs have been identified which may be of this type , most evidence for the existence of such comes from the novae called ONeMg or neon novae . The spectra of these novae exhibit abundances of neon , magnesium , and other intermediate @-@ mass elements which appear to be only explicable by the accretion of material onto an oxygen @-@ neon @-@ magnesium white dwarf .
= = = Type Ia supernovae = = =
Type Ia supernovae , that involve one or two previous white dwarfs , have been proposed to be a channel for transformation of this type of stellar remnant . In this scenario , the carbon detonation produced in a Type Ia supernova is too weak to destroy the white dwarf , expelling just a small part of its mass as ejecta , but produces an asymmetric explosion that kicks the star to high speeds of a Hypervelocity star . The matter processed in the failed detonation is re @-@ accreted by the white dwarf with the heaviest elements such as iron falling to its core where it accumulates .
These iron @-@ core white dwarfs would be smaller than their carbon @-@ oxygen kind of similar mass and would cool and crystallize faster than those .
= = Fate = =
A white dwarf is stable once formed and will continue to cool almost indefinitely , eventually to become a black dwarf . Assuming that the Universe continues to expand , it is thought that in 1019 to 1020 years , the galaxies will evaporate as their stars escape into intergalactic space . , § IIIA . White dwarfs should generally survive galactic dispersion , although an occasional collision between white dwarfs may produce a new fusing star or a super @-@ Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf which will explode in a Type Ia supernova . , § IIIC , IV . The subsequent lifetime of white dwarfs is thought to be on the order of the lifetime of the proton , known to be at least 1034 @-@ 1035 years . Some grand unified theories predict a proton lifetime between 1030 and 1036 years . If these theories are not valid , the proton may decay by complicated nuclear reactions or through quantum gravitational processes involving a virtual black hole ; in these cases , the lifetime is estimated to be no more than 10200 years . If protons do decay , the mass of a white dwarf will decrease very slowly with time as its nuclei decay , until it loses enough mass to become a nondegenerate lump of matter , and finally disappears completely . , § IV .
A white dwarf can also be cannibalized or evaporated by a companion star , causing the white dwarf to lose so much mass that it becomes a planetary mass object . The resultant object , orbiting the former companion , now host star , could be a helium planet or diamond planet .
= = Debris disks and planets = =
A white dwarf 's stellar and planetary system is inherited from its progenitor star and may interact with the white dwarf in various ways . Infrared spectroscopic observations made by NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope of the central star of the Helix Nebula suggest the presence of a dust cloud , which may be caused by cometary collisions . It is possible that infalling material from this may cause X @-@ ray emission from the central star . Similarly , observations made in 2004 indicated the presence of a dust cloud around the young white dwarf G29 @-@ 38 ( estimated to have formed from its AGB progenitor about 500 million years ago ) , which may have been created by tidal disruption of a comet passing close to the white dwarf . Some estimations based on the metal content of the atmospheres of the white dwarfs consider that at least a 15 % of them may be orbited by planets and / or asteroids , or at least their debris . Another suggested idea is that white dwarfs could be orbited by the stripped cores of rocky planets , that would have survived the red giant phase of their star but losing their outer layers and , given those planetary remnants would likely be made of metals , to attempt to detect them looking for the signatures of their interaction with the white dwarf 's magnetic field .
There is a planet in the white dwarf – pulsar binary system PSR B1620 @-@ 26 .
There are two circumbinary planets around the white dwarf – red dwarf binary NN Serpentis .
The metal @-@ rich white dwarf WD 1145 + 017 is the first white dwarf observed with a disintegrating minor planet which transits the star . The disintegration of the planetesimal generates a debris cloud which passes in front of the star every 4 @.@ 5 hours , causing a 5 @-@ minute @-@ long fade in the star 's optical brightness . The depth of the transit is highly variable .
= = Habitability = =
It has been proposed that white dwarfs with surface temperatures of less than 10 @,@ 000 Kelvin could harbor a habitable zone at a distance between ~ 0 @.@ 005 to 0 @.@ 02 AU that would last upwards of 3 billion years . The goal is to search for transits of hypothetical Earth @-@ like planets that could have migrated inward and / or formed there . As a white dwarf has a size similar to that of a planet , these kinds of transits would produce strong eclipses . Newer research casts some doubts on this idea , given that the close orbits of those hypothetical planets around their parent stars would subject them to strong tidal forces that could render them unhabitable by triggering a greenhouse effect . Another suggested constraint to this idea is the origin of those planets . Leaving aside in @-@ situ formation on an accretion disk surrounding the white dwarf , there are two ways a planet could end in a close orbit around stars of this kind : by surviving being engulfed by the star during its red giant phase , and then spiraling towards its core , or inward migration after the white dwarf has formed . The former case is implausible for low @-@ mass bodies , as they are unlikely to survive being absorbed by their stars . In the latter case , the planets would have to expel so much orbital energy as heat , through tidal interactions with the white dwarf , that they would likely end as uninhabitable embers .
= = Binary stars and novae = =
If a white dwarf is in a binary star system and is accreting matter from its companion , a variety of phenomena may occur , including novae and Type Ia supernovae . It may also be a super @-@ soft x @-@ ray source if it is able to take material from its companion fast enough to sustain fusion on its surface . A close binary system of two white dwarfs can radiate energy in the form of gravitational waves , causing their mutual orbit to steadily shrink until the stars merge .
= = = Type Ia supernovae = = =
The mass of an isolated , nonrotating white dwarf cannot exceed the Chandrasekhar limit of ~ 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ . ( This limit may increase if the white dwarf is rotating rapidly and nonuniformly . ) White dwarfs in binary systems can accrete material from a companion star , increasing both their mass and their density . As their mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit , this could theoretically lead to either the explosive ignition of fusion in the white dwarf or its collapse into a neutron star .
Accretion provides the currently favored mechanism called the single @-@ degenerate model for Type Ia supernovae . In this model , a carbon – oxygen white dwarf accretes mass and compresses its core by pulling mass from a companion star . , p . 14 . It is believed that compressional heating of the core leads to ignition of carbon fusion as the mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit . Because the white dwarf is supported against gravity by quantum degeneracy pressure instead of by thermal pressure , adding heat to the star 's interior increases its temperature but not its pressure , so the white dwarf does not expand and cool in response . Rather , the increased temperature accelerates the rate of the fusion reaction , in a runaway process that feeds on itself . The thermonuclear flame consumes much of the white dwarf in a few seconds , causing a Type Ia supernova explosion that obliterates the star . In another possible mechanism for Type Ia supernovae , the double @-@ degenerate model , two carbon @-@ oxygen white dwarfs in a binary system merge , creating an object with mass greater than the Chandrasekhar limit in which carbon fusion is then ignited . , p . 14 .
Observations have failed to note signs of accretion leading up to Type Ia supernovae , and this is now thought to be because the star is first loaded up to above the Chandrasekhar limit while also being spun up to a very high rate by the same process . Once the accretion stops the star gradually slows until the spin is no longer enough to prevent the explosion .
= = = Cataclysmic variables = = =
Before accretion of material pushes a white dwarf close to the Chandrasekhar limit , accreted hydrogen @-@ rich material on the surface may ignite in a less destructive type of thermonuclear explosion powered by hydrogen fusion . These surface explosions can be repeated as long as the white dwarf 's core remains intact . This weaker kind of repetitive cataclysmic phenomenon is called a ( classical ) nova . Astronomers have also observed dwarf novae , which have smaller , more frequent luminosity peaks than the classical novae . These are thought to be caused by the release of gravitational potential energy when part of the accretion disc collapses onto the star , rather than through a release of energy due to fusion . In general , binary systems with a white dwarf accreting matter from a stellar companion are called cataclysmic variables . As well as novae and dwarf novae , several other classes of these variables are known , including polars and intermediate polars , both of which feature highly magnetic white dwarfs . Both fusion- and accretion @-@ powered cataclysmic variables have been observed to be X @-@ ray sources .
= = Nearest = =
= = = General = = =
Kawaler , S. D. ( 1997 ) . " White Dwarf Stars " . In Kawaler , S. D. ; Novikov , I. ; Srinivasan , G. Stellar remnants . 1997 . ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 61520 @-@ 2 .
= = = Physics = = =
Black holes , white dwarfs , and neutron stars : the physics of compact objects , Stuart L. Shapiro and Saul A. Teukolsky , New York : Wiley , 1983 . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 87317 @-@ 9 .
Koester , D ; Chanmugam , G ( 1990 ) . " Physics of white dwarf stars " . Reports on Progress in Physics 53 ( 7 ) : 837 – 915 . Bibcode : 1990RPPh ... 53 .. 837K. doi : 10 @.@ 1088 / 0034 @-@ 4885 / 53 / 7 / 001 .
White dwarf stars and the Chandrasekhar limit , Dave Gentile , Master 's thesis , DePaul University , 1995 .
Estimating Stellar Parameters from Energy Equipartition , sciencebits.com. Discusses how to find mass @-@ radius relations and mass limits for white dwarfs using simple energy arguments .
= = = Variability = = =
Winget , D E ( 1998 ) . " Asteroseismology of white dwarf stars " . Journal of Physics : Condensed Matter 10 ( 49 ) : 11247 – 11261 . Bibcode : 1998JPCM ... 1011247W. doi : 10 @.@ 1088 / 0953 @-@ 8984 / 10 / 49 / 014 .
= = = Magnetic field = = =
Wickramasinghe , D. T. ; Ferrario , Lilia ( 2000 ) . " Magnetism in Isolated and Binary White Dwarfs " . Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 112 ( 773 ) : 873 – 924 . Bibcode : 2000PASP .. 112 .. 873W. doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 316593 .
= = = Frequency = = =
Gibson , B. K. ; Flynn , C ( 2001 ) . " White Dwarfs and Dark Matter " . Science 292 ( 5525 ) : 2211a. doi : 10 @.@ 1126 / science.292.5525.2211a. PMID 11423620 .
= = = Observational = = =
Provencal , J. L. ; Shipman , H. L. ; Hog , Erik ; Thejll , P. ( 1998 ) . " Testing the White Dwarf Mass ‐ Radius Relation withHipparcos " . The Astrophysical Journal 494 ( 2 ) : 759 – 767 . Bibcode : 1998ApJ ... 494 .. 759P. doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 305238 .
Gates , Evalyn ; Gyuk , Geza ; Harris , Hugh C. ; Subbarao , Mark ; Anderson , Scott ; Kleinman , S. J. ; Liebert , James ; Brewington , Howard ; et al . ( 2004 ) . " Discovery of New Ultracool White Dwarfs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey " . The Astrophysical Journal 612 ( 2 ) : L129. arXiv : astro @-@ ph / 0405566 . Bibcode : 2004ApJ ... 612L.129G. doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 424568 .
Villanova University White Dwarf Catalogue WD , G. P. McCook and E. M. Sion .
Dufour , P. ; Liebert , J. ; Fontaine , G. ; Behara , N. ( 2007 ) . " White dwarf stars with carbon atmospheres " . Nature 450 ( 7169 ) : 522 – 4 @.@ arXiv : 0711 @.@ 3227 . Bibcode : 2007Natur.450 .. 522D. doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / nature06318 . PMID 18033290 .
= = = Images = = =
Astronomy Picture of the Day
NGC 2440 : Cocoon of a New White Dwarf 2010 February 21
Dust and the Helix Nebula 2009 December 31
The Helix Nebula from La Silla Observatory 2009 March 3
IC 4406 : A Seemingly Square Nebula 2008 July 27
A Nearby Supernova in Spiral Galaxy M100 2006 March 7
Astronomy Picture of the Day : White Dwarf Star Spiral 2005 June 1
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= Hurricane Irene – Olivia =
Hurricane Irene – Olivia was the first actively tracked tropical cyclone to move into the eastern Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic basin . It originated as a tropical depression on September 11 , 1971 , in the tropical Atlantic . The cyclone tracked nearly due westward at a low latitude , passing through the southern Windward Islands and later over northern South America . In the southwest Caribbean Sea , it intensified to a tropical storm and later a hurricane . Irene made landfall on southeastern Nicaragua on September 19 , and maintained its circulation as it crossed the low @-@ lying terrain of the country . Restrengthening after reaching the Pacific , Irene was renamed Hurricane Olivia , which ultimately attained peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Olivia weakened significantly before moving ashore on the Baja California Peninsula on September 30 ; the next day it dissipated .
In the Atlantic , Irene produced moderate rainfall and winds along its path , although impact was greatest in Nicaragua where it moved ashore as a hurricane . A total of 96 homes were destroyed , and 1 @,@ 200 people were left homeless . The rainfall resulted in widespread flooding , killing three people in Rivas . In neighboring Costa Rica , Hurricane Irene caused more than $ 1 million ( USD ) in damage to the banana crop . Later , the remnants of Hurricane Olivia produced rainfall in the southwest United States . Flooding was reported near Yuma , Arizona , which closed a major highway , and the moisture produced snowfall in higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the hurricane were from a tropical wave that exited the west African coast on September 7 . It moved rapidly westward , developing into a tropical depression on September 11 about 800 miles ( 1300 km ) east of the Windward Islands . It was one of seven active tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin that day , one of the most active single days on record . It existed at a fairly low latitude and failed to intensify due to the unfavorable combination of Hurricane Ginger and a long trough to its northwest . On September 13 , the depression passed just south of Barbados and subsequently entered the Caribbean Sea . Interacting with the terrain of South America , the center became broad and ill @-@ defined , although Curaçao reported winds of near tropical storm force as it crossed the island on September 16 . It later moved near or over northern Venezuela and Colombia . As it approached the western Caribbean , the depression was able to organize more , with less influence from landmass or the trough to its north . At 0000 UTC on September 17 , it is estimated the depression attained tropical storm status ; that day , it was named Irene about 350 miles ( 560 km ) east of San Andrés . Initially , the storm was expected to track west @-@ northwestward toward the northwest Caribbean , similar to the track taken by the destructive Hurricane Edith two weeks prior .
Tropical Storm Irene gradually intensified as it continued across the southwestern Caribbean Sea . Late on September 18 , the storm attained hurricane status a short distance off the coast of Central America , with 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) winds , its peak intensity in the Atlantic Ocean . As it strengthened , it developed an eye and spiral rainbands that extended across Panama into the Pacific Ocean . Hurricane Irene weakened slightly as it approached the coast , although its pressure dropped to 989 mbar . On September 19 , the hurricane made landfall in the Nicaraguan South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region ; it was the first tropical cyclone of hurricane intensity since 1911 to strike Nicaragua south of Bluefields . Irene quickly weakened , deteriorating to tropical depression status within 18 hours of moving ashore . The circulation remained organized over the low @-@ lying terrain of southern Nicaragua , possibly due to it crossing Lake Nicaragua . After reaching the Pacific Ocean on September 20 , the depression restrengthened to attain tropical storm status ; upon doing so , it was re @-@ designated by a new name , Olivia . It was the first time an Atlantic hurricane was tracked as a tropical cyclone while crossing Central America into the Pacific Ocean ; subsequent research indicated there were earlier storms that accomplished the feat , although they were not known at the time .
As an Eastern Pacific tropical cyclone , Olivia maintained well @-@ defined outflow and inflow . It gradually intensified as it paralleled the southern Central America coastline . Late on September 21 , a Hurricane Hunters flight reported winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and an eye 23 miles ( 37 km ) in diameter ; based on the readings , Olivia was upgraded to hurricane status . For several days , Olivia moved west to west @-@ northwestward off the coast of Mexico , although its exact intensity fluctuations were unknown , due to lack of significant observations . On September 25 , the eye became very pronounced on satellite imagery , and based on a report from the Hurricane Hunters , it is estimated Olivia reached peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , about 245 miles ( 395 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Colima . The Hurricane Hunters also reported a pressure of 948 mbar , which was the lowest reported pressure during the 1971 Pacific hurricane season .
The intensity of Hurricane Olivia fluctuated for two days as it turned westward away from land , due to a blocking ridge over northwestern Mexico . Early on September 26 it weakened to winds of about 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , before it quickly restrengthened to its previous peak intensity . Subsequently , dry air became entrained in the circulation , and Olivia began to weaken as it moved over cooler waters . The eye became disorganized and eventually dissipated . Late on September 28 it weakened to tropical storm status , after beginning a turn to the northwest and later to the north . About 24 hours later , Olivia weakened to tropical depression status as it approached the coastline of the Baja California Peninsula . Most of the thunderstorm activity dissipated by the time the depression moved ashore on September 30 ; the next day , Olivia dissipated near the border of Baja California and Baja California Sur .
= = Impact and records = =
As a tropical depression , the cyclone produced a wind gust of 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) in Barbados . The system also dropped 3 @.@ 35 inches ( 85 @.@ 1 mm ) of rainfall in Trinidad . Prior to its arrival , officials noted the potential for the depression to bring flash flooding to northern Venezuela , as well as heavy rainfall to the ABC islands . Later as a tropical storm , Irene brushed San Andrés island in the western Caribbean with gale force winds ; no major damage was reported there .
Prior to the hurricane 's landfall in Nicaragua , the country 's army evacuated about 500 people from a settlement near Bluefields , and along the coastline , boats were advised to remain at port . When it moved ashore , the hurricane produced sustained winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) in Bluefields . The winds destroyed 27 houses in the region . Observations were not available in the sparsely populated region near where Irene moved ashore , although winds were believed to have reached hurricane force there . Reconnaissance planes reported heavy structural and tree damage in southeastern Nicaragua . Satellite imagery suggested that heavy rainfall occurred from Panama through Honduras , and one location in Nicaragua reported more than 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 160 mm ) of precipitation . The rainfall caused flooding in many communities , killing three people in Rivas . At least five rivers reported flooding ; along one of the rivers , 35 houses were inundated , and along another , the floodwaters swept away all of the crops and personal belongings of three villages . Across the country , the hurricane destroyed 96 homes , and 1 @,@ 200 people were left homeless . In Costa Rica , Irene 's passage resulted in more than $ 1 million ( USD ) in damage to the banana crop .
Late in its duration , Hurricane Olivia brought increased moisture into the southwest United States . More than 2 inches ( 50 mm ) of rainfall were reported across Arizona and New Mexico . Light precipitation was also reported in western Texas and southeastern California . The National Weather Service issued flash flood warnings throughout the region . Near Yuma , Arizona , thunderstorms caused three major power outages and produced flooding that resulted in the closure of a portion of U.S. Route 95 . In Navajo and Pinal counties , the rainfall damaged roads , bridges , sewers , and homes , which amounted to about $ 250 @,@ 000 in repair work for the state of Arizona . The storm 's moisture also produced locally heavy snowfall in higher elevations in the Rocky Mountains .
Irene – Olivia is unusual in that it survived passage from the Atlantic to Pacific Ocean . Only seven other storms are known to have done so . Irene was the first of three Atlantic @-@ to @-@ Pacific crossover tropical cyclones in the 1970s , all three of which took eastern Pacific names starting with the letter O.
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= Two Black Cadillacs =
" Two Black Cadillacs " is a song by American recording artist Carrie Underwood , taken from her fourth studio album , Blown Away . The song served as the album 's third single on November 18 , 2012 through Arista Nashville . Written by Underwood , Hillary Lindsey and Josh Kear , " Two Black Cadillacs " is a country pop song with lyrics addressing the story of two women ( one being his wife , the other unaware he was married ) who , when they realize they are both involved with the same guy , set aside their differences and decide to kill him . It was produced by Mark Bright , and the instrumentation was compared to songs by Dixie Chicks and Miranda Lambert .
Upon its release , " Two Black Cadillacs " was met with positive reviews from music critics , who praised its story and Underwood 's versatility as an artist . Commercially , the song was successful . In the United States , it reached number two on the Billboard Country Airplay chart , and also reached number 41 on the Hot 100 . " Two Black Cadillacs " was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales of over one million units in the country . The song also charted in Canada at number three on the Country chart and at number 52 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
The accompanying music video was directed by P.R. Brown , and filmed in Nashville , Tennessee . The video draws inspiration from Stephen King 's novel Christine , and shows how the wife and mistress kill the cheating husband with a black Cadillac . It was nominated for Video of the Year at the 2013 Academy of Country Music Awards . Underwood has performed " Two Black Cadillacs " in a number of live appearances , including at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards , where various images were projected onto the singer 's gown , and at the 2013 Country Music Association Awards , in a medley with " Good Girl " , " See You Again " and " Blown Away " . It was also performed during the Blown Away Tour .
= = Writing and composition = =
After Underwood 's Play On Tour ended in December 2010 , she started to work on her then @-@ untitled fourth studio album . Sony Music Nashville chairman / CEO Gary Overton said that the singer " took nearly a year to compile and record the songs . " Songwriters Chris Tompkins and Josh Kear , who previously wrote " Before He Cheats " for Underwood 's debut album , Some Hearts , worked on a track titled " Blown Away " and sent it to the singer . Underwood loved the song and recorded it , also naming her album Blown Away as it was the song that defined the album 's darker direction . She then started writing material with several songwriters , including Hillary Lindsey and Kear . Together , the trio wrote " Two Black Cadillacs " , which is about two women finding out that they both are involved in a relationship the same man and set their differences aside to kill him . Underwood said that " it was so much fun to write and just be in that room " with Lindsey and Kear , as they " didn 't really know what to expect or where we were headed or what we would end up with . " Kear described the writing session :
Carrie had told me in an earlier writing appointment that she was expecting this album to have darker tones than any of her earlier records . So I remember sitting at the piano while writing the song thinking that if Carrie really wanted something dark , this was what she was after . Carrie really got into the story and making sure we didn 't give away how the two women got rid of the man the song is about . This kind of song is really tricky because you need enough detail to tell the story and keep it interesting without it becoming so graphic that it 's unpleasant to listen to more than once . I think we managed to pull that off . Either way , it was certainly fun choosing which elements of the story to put in and which ones to leave out .
Melodically , " Two Black Cadillacs " is written in the key of F minor , and is set in the common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . Underwood 's voice spans from the low note of A ♭ 3 to the high note of C5 . Billy Dukes of Taste of Country noted that the lyrics of the song push " the normally plucky country superstar to the edge of evil . It 's as far as she can go without falling off the cliff of believability . " Dukes also described the song as a " mini @-@ movie " , in which Underwood sings : " And the preacher said he was a good man / And his brother said he was a good friend / But the women in the two black veils didn 't bother to cry / Bye , bye / Yeah they took turns laying a rose down / Threw a handful of dirt into the deep ground / He 's not the only one who had a secret to hide / Bye bye , bye bye , bye bye . " The country pop instrumentation includes piano , brooding strings and a guitar , and has been compared to " Goodbye Earl " by the Dixie Chicks and " Gunpowder and Lead " by Miranda Lambert .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Two Black Cadillacs " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Billy Dukes of Taste of Country stated that " vocally , Underwood is brilliant as always , and lyrically , she , Hillary Lindsey and Josh Kear have penned a tight story " , but went on to say that " compared to Underwood 's other hits , this song doesn 't stand out after one digests the macabre storyline . So , maybe it 'll only sell a million singles and reach No. 2 " , giving the song three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars . Daryl Addison of Great American Country praised the song , saying that " even with heavy thematic elements , the songs impressively maintain a pop / crossover shine and accessible sound , courtesy of Carrie 's pristine voice and modern delivery . " Writing for Country Universe , Kevin Coyne gave the song an A , complimenting the singer 's versatility , saying that " it 's a credit to her ambition as an artist . For someone so frequently accused of getting to the top without having to earn it , she continues to work harder than the rest of her peers just to stay there . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
Following the release of the album , " Two Black Cadillacs " sold 8 @,@ 000 units . After being released as a single , the song debuted at number 55 on the US Country Airplay chart on the dated week of November 24 , 2012 , and eventually reached its peak of number 2 , spending a total of 21 weeks on the chart . " Two Black Cadillacs " became Underwood 's 17th number one on Mediabase 's Country Airplay charts . On the dated week of December 29 , 2012 , the song debuted at number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 , reaching its peak of number 41 following the release of the video . By May 15 , 2013 , it had sold 762 @,@ 000 in the United States . On September 30 , 2013 , " Two Black Cadillacs " was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and as of November 2015 , it has sold 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 copies In Canada , the song achieved moderate success , reaching number three on the Country component chart and 52 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
= = = Television series = = =
In September 2014 , it was confirmed that Jerry Bruckheimer would be producing a six @-@ hour event series based on the song , written by Ildy Modrovich , for Fox Broadcasting Company .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Two Black Cadillacs " was directed P.R. Brown and produced by Steve Lamar for Lamar Brothers . Filmed in Nashville , Tennessee , the video draws inspiration from Stephen King 's novel Christine , which tells the story of vintage automobile apparently possessed by supernatural forces . A trailer was released on November 26 , 2012 , showing Underwood as a widow done wrong , bringing the lyrics of the song to life . It premiered on January 23 , 2013 on Entertainment Tonight and Vevo . The video shows Underwood driving her black 1964 Cadillac through the countryside , heading towards her destination . Elsewhere , two women are shown attending a funeral devoid of any emotion complete with matching black veils . Intercut are scenes of Underwood 's car in a dark alleyway and the cheating husband in its headlights . The video ends with the car running over the man and repairing itself afterwards .
= = Live performances = =
Underwood performed " Two Black Cadillacs " at the 40th American Music Awards on November 18 , 2012 . Amy Sciaretto of Taste of Country summarized the performance , writing :
Underwood performed in a lacy , frilly black dress with a full skirt and black leather fingerless gloves , which she paired with smoky black eye makeup and black hoop earrings . The singer was the centerpiece of the performance , and her look was jaw @-@ droppingly gorgeous . [ ... ] There were bright lights above the stage and images of two black Cadillacs on the screens behind her , but that was about the extent of her production . And the simplicity worked for her .
She performed an acoustic version of the song during the 55th Annual Grammy Awards . During the performance , the singer 's gown became a screen on which images varying from roses to butterflies and fireworks were projected . Underwood also performed " Two Black Cadillacs " at the 2013 Country Music Association Awards , in a medley with " Good Girl " , " See You Again " and " Blown Away " . " Two Black Cadillacs " was the third song in the medley , and Coti Howell of Taste of Country noted that , in that part , " lighting ripped across the screen and everything went black , except Underwood and her sparkly microphone . " The song was also performed at the 2013 Academy of Country Music Awards and during the Blown Away Tour .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Procellariiformes =
Procellariiformes is an order of seabirds that comprises four families : the albatrosses , petrels and shearwaters , storm petrels , and diving petrels . Formerly called Tubinares and still called tubenoses in English , they are often referred to collectively as the petrels , a term that has been applied to all Procellariiformes , or more commonly all the families except the albatrosses . They are almost exclusively pelagic ( feeding in the open ocean ) , and have a cosmopolitan distribution across the world 's oceans , with the highest diversity being around New Zealand .
Procellariiformes are colonial , mostly nesting on remote , predator @-@ free islands . The larger species nest on the surface , while most smaller species nest in natural cavities and burrows . They exhibit strong philopatry , returning to their natal colony to breed and returning to the same nesting site over many years . Procellariiformes are monogamous and form long @-@ term pair bonds that are formed over several years and may last for the life of the pair . Only a single egg is laid per nesting attempt , and usually only a single nesting attempt is made per year , although the larger albatrosses may only nest once every two years . Both parents participate in incubation and chick rearing . Incubation times are long compared to other birds , as are fledging periods . Once a chick has fledged there is no further parental care .
Procellariiformes have had a long relationship with humans . They have been important food sources for many people , and continue to be hunted as such in some parts of the world . The albatrosses in particular have been the subject of numerous cultural depictions . Procellariiformes are one of the most endangered bird taxa , with many species threatened with extinction due to introduced predators in their breeding colonies , marine pollution and the danger of fisheries by @-@ catch . Scientists , conservationists , fishermen , and governments around the world are working to reduce the threats posed to them , and these efforts have led to the signing of the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels , a legally binding international treaty signed in 2001 .
= = Biology = =
= = = Distribution and movements = = =
The Procellariiformes have a cosmopolitan distribution across the world 's oceans and seas , although at the levels of family and genus there are some clear patterns . Antarctic petrels , Thalassoica antarctica , have to fly over 100 mi ( 160 km ) to get to the ocean from their breeding colonies in Antarctica , and northern fulmars breed on the northeastern tip of Greenland , the furthest north piece of land . The most cosmopolitan family is the Procellariidae , which are found in tropical , temperate and polar zones of both the Northern and the Southern Hemispheres , though the majority do not breed in the tropics , and half the species are restricted to southern temperate and polar regions . The gadfly petrels , Pterodroma , have a generally tropical and temperate distribution , whereas the fulmarine petrels are mostly polar with some temperate species . The majority of the fulmarine petrels , along with the prions , are confined to the Southern Hemisphere .
The storm petrels are almost as widespread as the procellariids , and fall into two distinct subfamilies ; the Oceanitinae have a mostly Southern Hemisphere distribution and the Hydrobatinae are found mostly in the Northern Hemisphere . Amongst the albatrosses the majority of the family is restricted to the Southern Hemisphere , feeding and nesting in cool temperate areas , although one genus , Phoebastria , ranges across the north Pacific . The family is absent from the north Atlantic , although fossil records indicate they bred there once . Finally the diving @-@ petrels are restricted to the Southern Hemisphere .
= = = = Migration = = = =
The various species within the order have a variety of migration strategies . Some species undertake regular trans @-@ equatorial migrations , such as the sooty shearwater which annually migrates from its breeding grounds in New Zealand and Chile to the North Pacific off Japan , Alaska and California , an annual round trip of 64 @,@ 000 km ( 40 @,@ 000 mi ) , the longest measured annual migration of any bird . A number of other petrel species undertake trans @-@ equatorial migrations , including the Wilson 's storm petrel and the Providence petrel , but no albatrosses cross the equator , as they rely on wind assisted flight . There are other long @-@ distant migrants within the order ; Swinhoe 's storm petrels breed in the western Pacific and migrates to the western Indian Ocean , and Bonin petrels nesting in Hawaii migrate to the coast of Japan during the non @-@ breeding season .
= = = = Navigation = = = =
Many species in the order travel long distances over open water but return to the same nest site each year , raising the question of how they navigate so accurately . The Welsh naturalist Ronald Lockley carried out early research into animal navigation with the Manx shearwaters that nested on the island of Skokholm . In release experiments , a Manx shearwater flew from Boston to Skokholm , a distance of 3 @,@ 000 miles ( 4 @,@ 800 kilometres ) in 12 ½ days . Lockley showed that when released " under a clear sky " with sun or stars visible , the shearwaters oriented themselves and then " flew off in a direct line for Skokholm " , making the journey so rapidly that they must have flown almost in a straight line . But if the sky was overcast at the time of release , the shearwaters flew around in circles " as if lost " and returned slowly or not at all , implying that they navigated using astronomical cues .
= = = Morphology and flight = = =
Procellariiformes range in size from the very large wandering albatross , at 11 kg ( 24 lb ) and a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 12 @-@ foot ) wingspan , to tiny birds like the least storm petrel , at 20 g ( 0 @.@ 71 oz ) with a 32 @-@ centimetre ( 13 @-@ inch ) wingspan , and the smallest of the prions , the fairy prion , with a wingspan of 23 to 28 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 to 11 @.@ 0 in ) . They have their nostrils enclosed in one or two tubes on their straight , deeply grooved bills with hooked tips . The beaks are made up of several plates . Their wings are long and narrow ; the feet are webbed , and the hind toe is undeveloped or non @-@ existent ; their adult plumage is predominantly black , white , and grey .
The order has a few unifying characteristics , starting with their tubular nasal passage which is used for olfaction . This ability to smell helps to locate patchily distributed prey at sea and may also help locate their nests within nesting colonies . The structure of the bill , which contains seven to nine distinct horny plates , is another unifying feature , although there are differences within the order . Petrels have a plate called the maxillary unguis that forms a hook on the maxilla . The smaller members of the order have a comb @-@ like mandible , made by the tomial plate , for plankton feeding . Most members of the order are unable to walk well on land , and many species visit their remote breeding islands only at night . The exceptions are the huge albatrosses , several of the gadfly petrels and shearwaters and the fulmar @-@ petrels . The latter can disable even large predatory birds with their obnoxious stomach oil , which they can project some distance . This stomach oil , stored in the proventriculus , is a digestive residue created in the foregut of all tubenoses except the diving petrels , and is used mainly for storage of energy @-@ rich food during their long flights . The oil is also fed to their young , as well as being used for defence .
Procellariiformes drink seawater , so they have to excrete excess salt . All birds have an enlarged nasal gland at the base of the bill , above the eyes , and in the Procellariiformes the gland is active . In general terms , the salt gland removes salt from the system and forms a 5 percent saline solution that drips out of the nostrils , or is forcibly ejected in some petrels . The processes behind this involve high levels of sodium ion reabsorption into the blood plasma within the kidneys , and secretion of sodium chloride via the salt glands using less water than was absorbed , which essentially generates salt @-@ free water for other physiological uses . This high efficiency of sodium ion absorption is attributed to mammalian @-@ type nephrons .
Most albatrosses and procellariids use two techniques to minimise exertion while flying , namely , dynamic soaring and slope soaring . The albatrosses and giant petrels share a morphological adaptation to aid in flight , a sheet of tendon which locks the wing when fully extended , allowing the wing to be kept up and out without any muscle effort . Amongst the Oceanitinae storm @-@ petrels there are two unique flight patterns , one being surface pattering . In this they move across the water surface holding and moving their feet on the water 's surface while holding steady above the water , and remaining stationary by hovering with rapid fluttering or by using the wind to anchor themselves in place . A similar flight method is thought to have been used by the extinct petrel family Diomedeoididae . The white @-@ faced storm petrel possesses a unique variation on pattering : holding its wings motionless and at an angle into the wind , it pushes itself off the water 's surface in a succession of bounding jumps .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
The Procellariiformes are for the most part exclusively marine foragers ; the only exception to this rule are the two species of giant petrel , which regularly feed on carrion or other seabirds while on land . While some other species of fulmarine and Procellaria petrels also take carrion , the diet of most species of albatrosses and petrels is dominated by fish , squid , krill and other marine zooplankton . The importance of these food sources varies from species to species and family to family . For example , of the two albatross species found in Hawaii , the black @-@ footed albatross takes mostly fish , while the Laysan feeds mainly on squid . The albatrosses in general feed on fish , squid and krill . Among the procellariids , the prions concentrate on small crustacea , the fulmarine petrels take fish and krill but little squid , while the Procellaria petrels consume mainly squid . The storm petrels take small droplets of oil from the surface of the water , as well as small crustaceans and fish .
Petrels obtain food by snatching prey while swimming on the surface , snatching prey from the wing or diving down under the water to pursue prey . Dipping down from flight is most commonly used by the gadfly petrels and the storm petrels . There have been records of wedge @-@ tailed shearwaters snatching flying fish from the air , but as a rule this technique is rare . Some diving birds may aid diving by beginning with a plunge from the air , but for the most part petrels are active divers and use their wings to move around under the water . The depths achieved by various species were determined in the 1990s and came as a surprise to scientists ; short @-@ tailed shearwaters have been recorded diving to 70 m ( 230 ft ) and the Light @-@ mantled sooty albatross to 12 m ( 39 ft ) .
= = = Breeding behaviour = = =
See also Unusual Seabird Breeding Behaviour
= = = = Breeding colonies = = = =
All Procellariiformes are colonial , predominantly breeding on offshore or oceanic islands . The few species that nest on continents do so in inhospitable environments such as dry deserts or on Antarctica . These colonies can vary from the widely spaced colonies of the giant petrels to the dense 3 @.@ 6 million @-@ strong colonies of Leach 's storm petrels . For almost all species the need to breed is the only reason that Procellariiformes return to land at all . Some of the larger petrels have to nest on windswept locations as they require wind to take off and forage for food . Within the colonies , pairs defend usually small territories ( the giant petrels and some albatrosses can have very large territories ) which is the small area around either the nest or a burrow . Competition between pairs can be intense , as is competition between species , particularly for burrows . Larger species of petrels will even kill the chicks and even adults of smaller species in disputes over burrows . Burrows and natural crevices are most commonly used by the smaller species ; all the storm petrels and diving petrels are cavity nesters , as are many of the procellariids . The fulmarine petrels and some tropical gadfly petrels and shearwaters are surface nesters , as are all the albatrosses .
Procellariiformes show high levels of philopatry , both site fidelity and natal philopatry . Natal philopatry is the tendency of an individual bird to return to its natal colony to breed , often many years after leaving the colony as a chick . This tendency has been shown through ringing studies and mitochondrial DNA studies . Birds ringed as chicks have been recaptured close to their original nests , sometimes extremely close ; in the Laysan albatross the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22 m ( 72 ft ) , and a study of Cory 's shearwaters nesting near Corsica found that nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony actually bred in the burrow they were raised in . Mitochondrial DNA provides evidence of restricted gene flow between different colonies , strongly suggesting philopatry .
The other type of philopatry exhibited is site fidelity , where pairs of birds return to the same nesting site for a number of years . Among the most extreme examples known of this tendency was the fidelity of a ringed northern fulmar that returned to the same nest site for 25 years . The average number of birds returning to the same nest sites is high in all species studied , with around 91 percent for Bulwer 's petrels , and 85 percent of males and 76 percent of females for Cory 's shearwaters ( after a successful breeding attempt ) .
= = = = Pair bonds and life history = = = =
Procellariiformes are monogamous breeders and form long @-@ term pair bonds . These pair bonds take several years to develop in some species , particularly with the albatrosses . Once formed , they last for many breeding seasons , in some cases for the life of the pair . Petrel courtship can be elaborate . It reaches its extreme with the albatrosses , where pairs spend many years perfecting and elaborate mating dances . These dances are composed of synchronised performances of various actions such as preening , pointing , calling , bill clacking , staring , and combinations of such behaviours ( like the sky @-@ call ) . Each particular pair will develop their own individual version of the dance . The breeding behaviour of other Procellariiformes is less elaborate , although similar bonding behaviours are involved , particularly for surface @-@ nesting species . These can involve synchronised flights , mutual preening and calling . Calls are important for helping birds locate potential mates and distinguishing between species , and may also help individuals assess the quality of potential mates . After pairs have been formed , calls serve to help them reunite ; the ability of individuals to recognise their own mate has been demonstrated in several species .
Procellariiformes are K @-@ selected , being long @-@ lived and caring extensively for their few offspring . Breeding is delayed for several years after fledging , sometimes for as long as ten years in the largest species . Once they begin breeding , they make only a single breeding attempt per nesting season ; even if the egg is lost early in the season , they seldom re @-@ lay . Much effort is placed into laying a single ( proportionally ) large egg and raising a single chick . Procellariiformes are long @-@ lived : the longest living albatross known survived for 51 years , but was probably older , and even the tiny storm @-@ petrels are known to have survived for 30 years .
= = = = Nesting and chick rearing = = = =
The majority of Procellariiformes nest once a year and do so seasonally . Some tropical shearwaters , like the Christmas shearwater , are able to nest on cycles slightly shorter than a year , and the large great albatrosses ( genus Diomedea ) nest in alternate years ( if successful ) . Most temperate and polar species nest over the spring @-@ summer , although some albatrosses and procellariids nest over the winter . In the tropics , some species can be found breeding throughout the year , but most nest in discreet periods . Procellariiformes return to nesting colonies as much as several months before laying , and attend their nest sites regularly before copulation . Prior to laying , females embark on a lengthy pre @-@ laying exodus to build up energy reserves in order to lay the exceptionally large egg . In the stormy petrel , a very small procellariiform , the egg can be 29 percent of the body weight of the female , while in the grey @-@ faced petrel , the female may spend as much as 80 days feeding out at sea after courtship before laying the egg .
When the female returns and lays , incubation is shared between the sexes , with the male taking the first incubation stint and the female returning to sea . The duration of individual stints varies from just a few days to as much as several weeks , during which the incubating bird can lose a considerable amount of weight . The incubation period varies from species to species , around 40 days for the smallest storm @-@ petrels but longer for the largest species ; for albatrosses it can span 70 to 80 days , which is the longest incubation period of any bird .
Upon hatching , the chicks are semi @-@ precocial , having open eyes , a dense covering of white or grey down feathers , and the ability to move around the nesting site . After hatching , the incubating adult remains with the chick for a number of days , a period known as the guard phase . In the case of most burrow @-@ nesting species , this is only until the chick is able to thermoregulate , usually two or three days . Diving @-@ petrel chicks take longer to thermoregulate and have a longer guard phase than other burrow nesters . However , surface @-@ nesting species , which have to deal with a greater range of weather and to contend with predators like skuas and frigatebirds , consequently have a longer guard phase ( as long as two weeks in procellariids and three weeks in albatrosses ) .
The chick is fed by both parents . Chicks are fed on fish , squid , krill , and stomach oil . Stomach oil is oil composed of neutral dietary lipids that are the residue created by digestion of the prey items . As an energy source for chicks it has several advantages over undigested prey , its calorific value is around 9 @.@ 6 kcal per gram , which is only slightly lower than the value for diesel oil . This can be a real advantage for species that range over huge distances to provide food for hungry chicks . The oil is also used in defence . All Procellariiformes create stomach oil except the diving @-@ petrels .
The chick fledges between two and nine months after hatching , almost twice as long as a gull of the same body mass . The reasons behind the length of time are associated with the distance from the breeding site to food . First , there are few predators at the nesting colonies , therefore there is no pressure to fledge quickly . Second , the time between feedings is long due to the distance from the nest site that adults forage , thus a chick that had a higher growth rate would stand a better chance of starving to death . The duration between feedings vary among species and during the stages of development . Small feeds are frequent during the guard phase , but afterward become less frequent . However , each feed can deliver a large amount of energy ; both sooty shearwater and mottled petrel chicks have been recorded to double their weight in a single night , probably when fed by both parents .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Role in culture = = =
The most important family culturally is the albatrosses , which have been described by one author as " the most legendary of birds " . Albatrosses have featured in poetry in the form of Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's famous 1798 poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner , which in turn gave rise to the usage of albatross as metaphor for a burden . More generally , albatrosses were believed to be good omens , and to kill one would bring bad luck . There are few instances of petrels in culture , although there are sailors ' legends regarding the storm petrels , which are considered to warn of oncoming storms . In general , petrels were considered to be " soul birds " , representing the souls of drowned sailors , and it was considered unlucky to touch them .
In the Russian language , many petrel species from the Hydrobatidae and Pelecanoididae families of the order Procellariiformes are known as burevestnik , which literally means ' the announcer of the storm ' . When in 1901 , the Russian writer Maxim Gorky turned to the imagery of subantarctic avifauna to describe Russian society 's attitudes to the coming revolution , he used a storm @-@ announcing petrel as the lead character of a poem that soon became popular in the revolutionary circles as " the battle anthem of the revolution " . Although the species called " stormy petrel " in English is not one of those to which the burevestnik name is applied in Russian ( it , in fact , is known in Russian as an entirely un @-@ romantic kachurka ) , the English translators uniformly used the " stormy petrel " image in their translations of the poem , usually known in English as The Song of the Stormy Petrel .
= = = Exploitation = = =
Albatrosses and petrels have been important food sources for humans for as long as people have been able to reach their remote breeding colonies . Amongst the earliest @-@ known examples of this is the remains of shearwaters and albatrosses along with those of other seabirds in 5 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old middens in Chile , although it is likely that they were exploited prior to this . Since then , many other marine cultures , both subsistence and industrial , have exploited Procellariiformes , in some cases almost to extinction . Some cultures continue to harvest shearwaters ( a practice known as muttonbirding ) ; for example , the Māori of New Zealand use a sustainable traditional method known as kaitiakitanga . In Alaska , residents of Kodiak Island harpoon short @-@ tailed albatrosses , Diomedea albatrus , and until the late 1980s residents of Tristan Island in the Indian Ocean harvested the eggs of the Yellow @-@ nosed Mollymawks , Diomedea chlororhynchos , and sooty albatrosses , Phoebetria fusca . Albatrosses and petrels are also now tourist draws in some locations , such as Taiaroa Head . While such exploitation is non @-@ consumptive , it can have deleterious effects that need careful management to protect both the birds and the tourism .
The English naturalist William Yarrell wrote in 1843 that " ten or twelve years ago , Mr. Gould exhibited twenty @-@ four [ storm petrels ] , in a large dish , at one of the evening meetings of the Zoological Society " .
The engraver Thomas Bewick wrote in 1804 that " Pennant , speaking of those [ birds ] which breed on , or inhabit , the Isle of St Kilda , says — ' No bird is of so much use to the islanders as this : the Fulmar supplies them with oil for their lamps , down for their beds , a delicacy for their tables , a balm for their wounds , and a medicine for their distempers . ' " A photograph by George Washington Wilson taken about 1886 shows a " view of the men and women of St Kilda on the beach dividing up the catch of Fulmar " . James Fisher , author of The Fulmar ( 1952 ) calculated that every person on St Kilda consumed over 100 fulmars each year ; the meat was their staple food , and they caught around 12 @,@ 000 birds annually . However , when the human population left St Kilda in 1930 , the population did not suddenly grow .
= = = Threats and conservation = = =
The albatrosses and petrels are " amongst the most severely threatened taxa worldwide " . They face a variety of threats , the severity of which varies greatly from species to species . Several species are among the most common of seabirds , including Wilson 's storm petrel ( an estimated 12 to 30 million individuals ) and the short @-@ tailed shearwater ( 23 million individuals ) ; while the total population of some other species is a few hundred . There are less than 200 Magenta petrels breeding on the Chatham Islands , only 130 to 160 Zino 's petrels and only 170 Amsterdam albatrosses . Only one species is thought to have become extinct since 1600 , the Guadalupe storm petrel of Mexico , although a number of species had died out before this . Numerous species are very poorly known ; for example , the Fiji petrel has rarely been seen since its discovery . The breeding colony of the New Zealand storm petrel was not located until February 2013 ; it had been thought extinct for 150 years until its rediscovery in 2003 , while the Bermuda petrel had been considered extinct for nearly 300 years .
The principal threat to the albatrosses and larger species of procellariids is long @-@ line fishing . Bait set on hooks is attractive to foraging birds and many are hooked by the lines as they are set . As many as 100 @,@ 000 albatrosses are hooked and drown each year on tuna lines set out by long @-@ line fisheries . Before 1991 and the ban on drift @-@ net fisheries , it was estimated that 500 @,@ 000 seabirds a year died as a result . This has caused steep declines in some species , as Procellariiformes are extremely slow breeders and cannot replace their numbers fast enough . Losses of albatrosses and petrels in the Southern Ocean were estimated at between 1 percent and 16 percent per year , which these species cannot sustain for long .
Exotic species introduced to the remote breeding colonies threaten all types of Procellariiformes . These principally take the form of predators ; most albatross and petrel species are clumsy on land and unable to defend themselves from mammals such as rats , feral cats and pigs . This phenomenon , ecological naivete , has resulted in declines in many species and was implicated in the extinction of the Guadalupe storm petrel . Already in 1910 Godman wrote :
Owing to the introduction of the mongoose and other small carnivorous mammals into their breeding haunts , some species , such as Œstrelata jamaicensis and newelli , have already been completely exterminated , and others appear to be in danger of extinction .
Introduced herbivores may unbalance the ecology of islands ; introduced rabbits destroyed the forest understory on Cabbage Tree Island off New South Wales , which increased the vulnerability of the Gould 's petrels nesting on the island to natural predators , and left them vulnerable to the sticky fruits of the native birdlime tree ( Pisonia umbellifera ) . In the natural state these fruits lodge in the understory of the forest , but with the understory removed the fruits fall to the ground where the petrels move about , sticking to their feathers and making flight impossible .
Exploitation has decreased in importance as a threat . Other threats include the ingestion of plastic flotsam . Once swallowed , plastic can cause a general decline in the fitness of the bird , or in some cases lodge in the gut and cause a blockage , leading to death by starvation . It can also be picked up by foraging adults and fed to chicks , stunting their development and reducing the chances of successfully fledging . Procellariids are also vulnerable to marine pollution , as well as oil spills . Some species , such as Barau 's petrel , Newell 's shearwater and Cory 's shearwater , which nest high up on large developed islands , are victims of light pollution . Fledging chicks are attracted to streetlights and may then be unable to reach the sea . An estimated 20 to 40 percent of fledging Barau 's petrels and 45 to 60 percent of fledging Cory 's shearwater are attracted to the streetlights on Réunion and Tenerife , respectively .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
Procellariiformes comes from the Latin word procella , which means a violent wind or a storm , and -iformes for order . The order was named Procellariiformes by German anatomist Max Fürbringer in 1888 .
Until the beginning of the 20th century , the family Hydrobatidae was named Procellariidae , and the family now called Procellariidae was rendered " Puffinidae . " The order itself was called Tubinares . A major early work on this group is Frederick DuCane Godman 's Monograph of the Petrels , five fascicles , 1907 – 1910 , with figures by John Gerrard Keulemans .
In the Sibley @-@ Ahlquist taxonomy , the tubenoses were included in a greatly enlarged order " Ciconiiformes " . This taxonomic treatment was almost certainly erroneous , but its assumption of a close evolutionary relationship with other " higher waterbirds " – such as loons ( Gaviiformes ) and penguins ( Sphenisciformes ) – appears to be correct . The Procellariiformes are ( 2014 ) considered to be most closely related to penguins , having diverged from them about 60 million years ago .
There are around 125 living species of Procellariiformes worldwide , and the order is traditionally divided into four extant families , with one prehistorically extinct :
Family † Diomedeoididae ( Early Oligocene – Early Miocene ) is an extinct group that had narrow beaks and feet with wide , flat phalanges , especially on the fourth toe .
Family Procellariidae ( shearwaters , fulmarine petrels , gadfly petrels , and prions ) are a varied group of small or medium @-@ sized seabirds , the largest being the giant petrels . They are heavy for their size , with a high wing loading , so they need to fly fast . Most , except the giant petrels , have weak legs and are nearly helpless on land .
Family Diomedeidae ( albatrosses ) are very large seabirds with a large strong hooked bill . They have strong legs , enabling them to walk well on land .
Family Hydrobatidae ( storm petrels ) are among the smallest seabirds , with fluttering flight and long but weak legs . Most have dark upperparts and a white underside .
Family Pelecanoididae ( diving petrels ) are small with short bills and wings , and a whirring flight low over the water and through wave @-@ crests .
The Hydrobatidae 's two subfamilies , Oceanitinae and Hydrobatinae , are probably better treated as distinct families . However , the traditional view may not correctly represent the procellariiformes ' phylogeny . The storm petrels are two separate clades . All other tubenoses are part of the albatross clade . The diving petrels are a clade , but within a larger clade of true petrels that also contains the gadfly petrels . Most fossil species broadly resemble living tubenoses , including the oldest confirmed record , Tydea septentrionalis from the Oligocene in Belgium .
DNA evidence has confirmed common ancestry for all Procellariiformes , though the taxonomy within the order is complex and fluctuating . Fossils of a bird similar to a petrel from the Eocene have been found in the London Clay and in Louisiana . Diving petrels occurred in the Miocene , with a species from that family ( Pelecanoides miokuaka ) being described in 2007 . The most numerous fossils from the Paleogene are those from the extinct family Diomedeoididae , fossils of which have been found in Central Europe and Iran .
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= Serbian State Guard =
The Serbian State Guard ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Srpska državna straža or SDS , Српска државна стража ; German : Serbische Staatsgarde ) was an auxiliary paramilitary force used to impose law and order within the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia during the German military occupation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in World War II . It was formed from two former Yugoslav gendarmerie regiments , was created with the approval of the German military authorities , and for a long period was controlled by the Higher SS and Police Leader in the Territory . It was also known as the Nedićevci after the leader of the Serbian pro @-@ Axis puppet government , General Milan Nedić , who eventually gained control of its operations . It assisted the Germans in imposing one of the most brutal occupation regimes in occupied Europe and helped guard and execute prisoners at the Banjica concentration camp in Belgrade . Its leaders and much of the rank and file were sympathetic to the Chetnik movement of Draža Mihailović , and it was purged by the Germans on several occasions for that reason . In October 1944 , as the Red Army closed on Belgrade , the SDS was transferred to Mihailović 's control by a member of the fleeing Nedić administration , but it quickly disintegrated during its withdrawal west , with only a small number of former SDS members being captured by the British near the Italian @-@ Yugoslav border in May 1945 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the Axis invasion , occupation and dismantling of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , the Wehrmacht established the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia under a military government of occupation . The territory included most of Serbia proper , with the addition of the northern part of Kosovo ( around Kosovska Mitrovica ) , and the Banat . It was the only area of the partitioned Kingdom of Yugoslavia in which the German occupants established a military government , to exploit the key rail and riverine transport routes that passed through it , and its valuable resources , particularly non @-@ ferrous metals . The Military Commander in Serbia appointed Serbian puppet governments to " carry on administrative chores under German direction and supervision " . On 29 August 1941 , the Germans appointed the Government of National Salvation ( Vlada Nacionalnog Spasa , Влада Националног Спаса ) under General Milan Nedić , to replace the short @-@ lived Commissioner Administration .
= = = Formation = = =
The Serbian State Guard ( or SDS ) was established by Nedić on the basis of an understanding he reached with the German Military Commander in Serbia , General der Artillerie ( Lieutenant General ) Paul Bader , and the Higher SS and Police Leader in Serbia , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Polizei ( SS @-@ General of Police ) August Meyszner , regarding the maintenance of law and order in the occupied territory . It was formed on 10 February 1942 from two former Yugoslav gendarmerie regiments , Drinski and Dunavski , but the law formally creating the force was not issued by Nedić until 2 March 1942 . The SDS took over the role and functions of the gendarmerie , and was initially commanded by Stevan Radovanović . Sources vary on the strength of the SDS . The Germans initially set a maximum strength of 17 @,@ 000 , but the SDS quickly reached a strength of 18 @,@ 500 . Initially the SDS included four groups , the Rural Police ( poljska straža ) , the Municipal Police ( gradska straža ) , the Frontier ( or Border ) Guard ( granična straža ) , and the Village Guard ( seljačka straža ) . The SDS was equipped using arms and ammunition captured by the Germans from throughout Europe , and was organised as a largely static force split across five regions ( oblasts ) : Belgrade , Kraljevo , Niš , Valjevo and Zaječar , with one battalion per region . Each region was further divided into three districts ( okrugs ) , each of which included one or more SDS companies . A branch of the SDS was created specifically for service in the Banat , and was known as the Banat State Guard . It was formed from the region 's German minority ( or Volksdeutsche ) , and in March 1942 numbered less than one thousand .
Nedić intended that the SDS would not only maintain law and order and guard the borders , but also monitor the people 's requirements and offer assistance and protection in areas such as " health care , cultural , educational and economic life " . The SDS was royalist and was rapidly infiltrated by Chetniks loyal to Draža Mihailović . It also lacked sufficient officers , and although it had some initial successes , it never developed into an effective military force . Meyszner took overall control of the SDS three days after its formation , a decision which was strongly opposed by Nedić .
= = = Operations = = =
Along with other collaborationist military and paramilitary units , the SDS was used against the Partisans operating within the Territory . In late 1941 , prior to the formation of the SDS , the Serbian gendarmerie had participated in the German @-@ led Operation Uzice , which drove the Partisans and Chetniks from the Užice area . The SDS routinely executed captured Partisans , and frequently took and murdered hostages in towns and villages . The SDS also included former members of the gendarmerie that had assisted German troops to round up hostages to be shot at both Kraljevo and Kragujevac in October 1941 . In July 1941 , the Banjica concentration camp had been established in the suburbs of Belgrade . It was initially guarded by both the Gestapo and the SDS , but sole responsibility was eventually transferred to the SDS , who behaved sadistically and violently towards the inmates . Survivors of the camp stated that executions at the camp were carried out by both the Belgrade Special Police and the SDS , and that those executed included children . A total of 3 @,@ 849 people were killed at the camp before it was closed on 3 October 1944 . The SDS became increasingly unpopular with the population as time went on . Despite their limited independence , the SDS actively engaged in dehumanising Jews , Roma and communist Serbs , and in killing people from those groups or delivering them to the Germans for execution . They engaged in the execution of hostages both under Gestapo or Wehrmacht control and at their own initiative . The SDS clashed with other collaborationist formations at times , specifically Dimitrije Ljotić 's Serbian Volunteer Corps ( Srpski dobrovoljački korpus or SDK ) , and the Pećanac Chetniks loyal to vojvoda Kosta Pećanac .
In March 1942 , Nedić suggested to the Germans that the SDK and Pećanac Chetniks be incorporated into the SDS and that he take control of the force , but this idea was firmly rejected . In mid @-@ 1942 , Meyszner appointed Dragomir Jovanović , the German @-@ approved mayor and chief of police of Belgrade , as chief of Serbian State Security , which included responsibility for the SDS . The Germans considered that Radovanović was a Mihailović sympathiser , so in June 1942 he was replaced by Colonel Borivoje Jonić , the brother of Nedić 's minister of education , Velibor Jonić . In July 1942 the SDS consisted of 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 men . In August and September 1942 , Nedić again tried to have the SDS placed under his command , and the German refusal to do so contributed to him tendering his resignation . Nedić had threatened to resign several times previously for similar reasons , but on this occasion the Germans took it more seriously and offered him an audience with Adolf Hitler . On that basis , Nedić remained at his post . In October 1942 , the Border Guard was transferred to the Ministry of Finance . Also in 1942 , the Gestapo arrested some SDS officers suspected of having links with Mihailović , and by the end of 1942 the Germans had purged the SDS in an attempt to eliminate those who sympathised with Mihailović . One of the senior SDS officers arrested by the Gestapo during the purge was Lieutenant Colonel Milan Kalabić , the prefect of Požarevac , and father of one of Mihailović 's unit commanders , Nikola Kalabić . The elder Kalabić had been passing information , arms and ammunition to Mihailović 's Chetniks . In October 1943 , Milan Kalabić was executed by the Germans along with other Chetnik commanders and men .
By 1943 , most of the rank and file of the SDS was sympathetic to Mihailović 's Chetniks , and SDS units were regularly being " disarmed " by them , sometimes even staging mock battles to disguise transfers of much needed weapons and ammunition to Mihailović 's forces . Jovanović himself provided financial assistance to Mihailović from his own discretionary funds . In April 1943 , units of the SDS were praised by German commanders for their fighting against the Partisans near Bijeljina in eastern Bosnia . In June 1943 , the Germans rounded up and executed 1 @,@ 139 Serb civilians under suspicion that they had been collaborating with the resurgent Partisans . The SDS were involved in these crimes , and throughout 1943 were actively involved in committing atrocities against Serbian civilians . After many delays , on 18 September 1943 Nedić met with Hitler in Berlin and was promised that he would be given command of the SDS and the SDK . Upon his return to Belgrade , Nedić called upon the Military Commander in Serbia , General der Infanterie Hans Felber , to make arrangements for the transfer of command , but Felber advised him that he had received no orders to do so . It was not until 2 November 1943 that Nedić was finally given command of both the SDS and SDK . In late 1943 the SDS reached its maximum strength of 36 @,@ 716 men . By February 1944 , the SDS leadership were avoiding any direct confrontations with Mihailović 's Chetniks .
In the spring and summer of 1944 , the SDS had declined to a strength of around 24 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 men . With the return of the Partisans to Serbia proper , the SDS began to incur serious casualties . For example , between 15 March and 15 August 1944 , the SDS lost 157 men killed , 107 wounded and 26 missing . By August 1944 , SDS units were responding to Mihailović 's call for a general mobilisation by defecting openly to his Chetniks .
= = = Withdrawal and capture = = =
Three days after the fall of the Nedić regime on 6 October 1944 , Felber transferred the command of the SDS to General Miodrag Damjanovič , the head of Nedić 's secretariat and a principal confidant of Mihailović within Nedić 's administration . Damjanovič immediately placed himself and the remaining 6 @,@ 500 troops of the SDS under Mihailović 's command . The SDS was then renamed the " Serbian Shock Corps ( Srpski udarni korpus or SUK ) of the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland " once again under the command of Radovanović and it joined the withdrawal of other Chetnik formations towards the Sandžak region then into northeastern Bosnia . This arrangement resulted in a difficult and uneasy alliance which began to disintegrate under the pressures of the withdrawal .
In the last days of December 1944 , the SUK participated , along with other Chetnik formations , in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the Partisan @-@ held city of Tuzla in northeastern Bosnia . This failure and mutual recriminations between Mihailović 's Chetniks and the SUK resulted in the effective disintegration of the SUK . By mid @-@ January 1945 , 5 @,@ 000 former SDS members had rejoined the Germans , with some returning to Serbia to take advantage of Josip Broz Tito 's amnesty . Most were transported to Austria where they were used in labour battalions under the direction of Organisation Todt , but about 1 @,@ 500 were allowed to move to the Ljubljana Gap area , where they could join other collaborationist forces , such as the SDK or the Chetnik formations of Momčilo Đujić or Dobroslav Jevđević . Mihailović was not concerned about their departure , describing the former SDS troops as the " worst troops in the world " .
The remnants of the SDS / SUK and Mihailović 's Chetniks remained under the overall command of Damjanovič as part of the Chetnik Šumadija Division . These Chetniks had been under the command of the SS since 12 December 1944 . They crossed the river Soča and surrendered to the British near the Italian @-@ Yugoslav border on 5 May 1945 . Fortunately for them , they were interned as prisoners of war and other than a few senior officers , were not repatriated to Yugoslavia to face trial .
= = Uniform and journal = =
The SDS wore either the 1940 pattern olive green uniform of the Royal Yugoslav Army , or the earlier Kingdom of Serbia pattern which was a green @-@ grey in the case of officers , and a greyish @-@ ochre colour for enlisted ranks . These were obtained from stores secured during the invasion . The Review of the Serbian State Guard ( Glasnik Srpske Državne Straže ) was the official gazette of the SDS , published from 1942 to the end of 1943 . The journal was edited by Jonić , and contributors included Nedić and Milan Aćimović .
= = = Books = = =
Antić , Ana ( 2012 ) . " Police Force Under Occupation : Serbian State Guard and Volunteers ' Corps in the Holocaust " . In Horowitz , Sara R. Back to the Sources : Re @-@ examining Perpetrators , Victims and Bystanders . Evanston : Northwestern University Press. pp. 13 – 36 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8101 @-@ 2862 @-@ 0 .
Cohen , Philip J. ( 1996 ) . Serbia 's Secret War : Propaganda and the Deceit of History . College Station : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89096 @-@ 760 @-@ 7 .
Haskin , Jeanne M. ( 2006 ) . Bosnia and Beyond : The " Quiet " Revolution That Wouldn 't Go Quietly . New York : Algora Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87586 @-@ 428 @-@ 0 .
Pavlowitch , Stevan K. ( 2002 ) . Serbia : The History Behind the Name . London : C. Hurst & Co . Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85065 @-@ 476 @-@ 6 .
Pavlowitch , Stevan K. ( 2008 ) . Hitler 's New Disorder : The Second World War in Yugoslavia . New York : Columbia University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85065 @-@ 895 @-@ 5 .
Ramet , Sabrina P. ( 2006 ) . The Three Yugoslavias : State @-@ Building and Legitimation , 1918 – 2005 . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 34656 @-@ 8 .
Ramet , Sabrina P. ; Lazić , Sladjana ( 2011 ) . " The Collaborationist Regime of Milan Nedić " . In Ramet , Sabrina P. ; Listhaug , Ola . Serbia and the Serbs in World War Two . London : Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 17 – 43 . ISBN 0230278302 .
Thomas , Nigel ; Mikulan , Krunoslav ( 1995 ) . Axis Forces in Yugoslavia 1941 – 45 . New York : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85532 @-@ 473 @-@ 2 .
Thomas , Nigel ; Abbott , Peter ( 2010 ) . Partisan Warfare 1941 – 45 . Wellingborough : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85045 @-@ 513 @-@ 7 .
Tomasevich , Jozo ( 1975 ) . War and Revolution in Yugoslavia , 1941 – 1945 : The Chetniks . Stanford : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8047 @-@ 0857 @-@ 9 .
Tomasevich , Jozo ( 2001 ) . War and Revolution in Yugoslavia , 1941 – 1945 : Occupation and Collaboration . Stanford : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8047 @-@ 3615 @-@ 2 .
= = = Journals = = =
Hehn , Paul N. ( 1971 ) . " Serbia , Croatia and Germany 1941 – 1945 : Civil War and Revolution in the Balkans " . Canadian Slavonic Papers ( University of Alberta ) 13 ( 4 ) : 344 – 373 . JSTOR 40866373 .
Stambolija , Nebojša ( 2011 ) . " ' Glasnik srpske državne straže ' - opšte informacije i tematska analiza sadržaja " . Istorija 20 @.@ veka ( in Serbo @-@ Croatian ) 29 ( 1 ) : 141 – 150 .
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= Battle of Uhud =
The Battle of Uhud ( Arabic : غزوة أحد Ġazwat ‘ Uḥud ) was fought on Saturday , March 23 , 625 ( 7 Shawwal 3 AH in the Islamic calendar ) at the valley located in front of Mount Uhud , in what is now northwestern Arabia . It occurred between a force from the Muslim community of Medina led by the Islamic prophet Muhammad , and a force led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb from Mecca , the town from which many of the Muslims had previously emigrated . The Battle of Uhud was the second military encounter between the Meccans and the Muslims , preceded by the Battle of Badr in 624 , where a small Muslim army had defeated a larger Meccan army .
Marching out from Mecca towards Medina on March 11 , 625 AD , the Meccans desired to avenge their losses at Badr and strike back at Muhammad and his followers . The Muslims readied for war soon afterwards and the two armies fought on the slopes and plains of Mount Uhud .
Whilst outnumbered , the Muslims gained the early initiative and forced the Meccan lines back , thus leaving much of the Meccan camp unprotected . When the battle looked to be only one step away from a decisive Muslim victory , a serious mistake was committed by a part of the Muslim army , which altered the outcome of the battle . A breach of Muhammad 's orders by the Muslim archers , who left their assigned posts to despoil the Meccan camp , allowed a surprise attack from the Meccan cavalry , led by Meccan war veteran Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , which brought chaos to the Muslim ranks . Many Muslims were killed , and even Muhammad himself was badly injured . The Muslims had to withdraw up the slopes of Uhud . The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims further , but marched back to Mecca declaring victory .
For the Muslims , the battle was a significant setback : although they had been close to routing the Meccans a second time , their breach of Muhammad 's orders in favor of collecting Meccan spoils reaped severe consequences . The two armies would meet again in 627 AD at the Battle of the Trench .
= = Background = =
Muhammad had preached the religion of Islam in Mecca from 613 to 622 . He had attracted a small community of followers , but also drew staunch opposition from the rest of the Quraysh , the tribe that ruled Mecca and to which he belonged . The Muslims fled Mecca in 622 after years of persecution and established themselves at Medina ( formerly known as Yathrib ; Medina means City ) . The Quraysh had seized the properties and families of Muslims in Mecca and dispatched caravans to Damascus which the Muslims intercepted and raided . The Meccans sent out a small army to punish the Muslims and stop their raiding . At the Battle of Badr in 624 , a small Muslim force defeated the much larger Meccan army .
Many Muslims considered this unexpected victory a proof that they had been favored by God and believed they were assured such victories in the future . A number of the leading tribesmen of Quraysh had been killed at Badr and so leadership passed to Abu Sufyan . He forbade the mourning of the losses at Badr , for he was eager to exact revenge upon Muhammad , vowing to conduct a retaliatory raid on the city of Medina . Several months later , Abu Sufyan accompanied a party of 200 men to the city , obtaining temporary residence with the chief of the Jewish tribe Banu Nadir and learning more of the current situation in Medina . He and his party then left Medina , burning down two houses and laying waste to some fields in fulfillment of his vow . Further skirmishes between the Meccans and the Muslims would occur thereafter .
= = = Reason for battle = = =
The reason for the battle was to get back at the Muslims for the battle of Badr
= = Meccan force sets out = =
The following year on March 11 , 625 , with Abu Sufyan at the helm , the Meccans — anxious to avenge their defeat at Badr — raised another force numbering 3 @,@ 000 and set out for the Muslim base in Medina . Rather than attacking Medina itself , which was populated by numerous strongholds that would have required long sieges to overcome , they camped on the pastures north of the city , hoping that the Muslims would come out to meet them . According to the early Muslim historian Ibn Ishaq , a number of Meccan women are said to have accompanied Abu Sufyan 's army to provide vocal support , including Hind bint Utbah , his wife .
A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army 's presence and numbers late on Thursday March 21 . The next morning , a Muslim conference of war convened , and there was dispute over how to best repel the Meccans . Muhammad and many of the senior figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds . Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying their crops , and that huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige . Muhammad eventually conceded to the wishes of the latter , and readied the Muslim force for battle .
= = Encounter at Uhud = =
A group of approximately 1 @,@ 000 Muslim men set out on late Friday from Medina and managed to circle around the Meccan forces . Early the next morning , they took a position on the lower slopes of the hill of Uhud . Shortly before the battle commenced , ' Abd @-@ Allah ibn Ubayy ( the chief of the Khazraj tribe ) and his followers withdrew their support for Muhammad and returned to Medina , with reports suggesting Ibn Ubayy 's discontent with the plan to march out from Medina to meet the Meccans . Ibn Ubayy and his followers would later receive censure in the Qur 'an for this act .
What ye suffered on the day the two armies Met , was with the leave of Allah , in order that He might test the believers , -
And the Hypocrites also . These were told : " Come , fight in the way of Allah , or ( at least ) drive ( The foe from your city ) . " They said : " Had we known how to fight , we should certainly have followed you . " They were that day nearer to Unbelief than to Faith , saying with their lips what was not in their hearts but Allah hath full knowledge of all they conceal .
( They are ) the ones that say , ( of their brethren slain ) , while they themselves sit ( at ease ) : " If only they had listened to us they would not have been slain . " Say : " Avert death from your own selves , if ye speak the truth . "
The Muslim force , now numbering around 700 , was stationed on the slopes of Uhud , facing Medina with the rear being protected by the towering mount itself . Before the battle , Muhammad had assigned 50 archers on a nearby rocky hill at the West side of the Muslim camp . This was a strategic decision in order to shield the vulnerable flanks of the outnumbered Muslim army ; the archers on the hill were to protect the left flank , while the right flank was to be protected by the Mount of Uhud situated on the east side of the Muslim camp . Protecting the flanks of the Muslim army meant that the Meccan army would not be able to turn around the Muslim camp , and thus the Muslim army wouldn 't be surrounded or encircled by the Meccan cavalry , keeping in mind that the Meccan cavalry outnumbered the Muslim cavalry with a 50 : 1 ratio .
Muhammad ordered the Muslim archers to never under any circumstances leave their positions on the hill unless ordered to do so by him only , he made this order very clear by uttering these words to the archers , " If you saw us prevail and start to take spoils , do not come to assist us . And if you saw us get vanquished and birds eat from our heads , do not come to assist us . "
The Meccan army positioned itself facing the Muslim lines , with the main body led by Abu Sufyan , and the left and right flanks commanded by Ikrimah ibn Abi @-@ Jahl and Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid respectively . ' Amr ibn al- ' As was named the commander of cavalry and his task was to coordinate attack between the cavalry wings .
The Meccans attacked with their initial charge led by the Medinan exile Abu ‘ Amir . Thwarted by a shower of stones from the Muslims , Abu ‘ Amir and his men were forced to retire and tend to the camps behind the Meccan lines . The Meccan standard @-@ bearer , Talhah ibn Abi Talhah al- ‘ Abdari , advanced and challenged the enemy to a duel . Ali ( Ali ibn Abi Talib ) , the young cousin of Muhammad , rushed forth and struck Talhah down in a single blow . Talhah 's brother , `Uthman , ran forward to pick up the fallen banner — the Meccan women willing him on with songs and the loud beating of timbrels . Hamza ibn ‘ Abd al @-@ Muttalib emerged from the Muslim ranks , bringing him to a similar fate as Talhah . It was their family that was responsible for the Meccan army 's standard @-@ bearing , and thus one by one , Talhah 's brothers and sons went to retrieve the Meccan banner and fight unsuccessfully , until they all eventually perished .
Following the duels , general engagement between the two armies commenced . Meccan confidence quickly began to dissolve as the Muslims swept through their ranks . The Meccan army was pushed back , and repeated attempts by its cavalry to overrun the left Muslim flank were negated by the Muslim archers . Enjoying the best of these early encounters , the Muslims pierced through the Meccan lines , with victory appearing certain . However , it was the detachment of the Muslim archers , disobeying Muhammad 's strict orders to remain stationary , that would shift the outcome of the battle , as they ran downhill to join in the advance and despoil the Meccan camp , leaving the flank vulnerable .
At this critical juncture , the Meccan cavalry led by Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid exploited this move and attacked the remaining minority of Muslim archers who refused to disobey Muhammad 's orders and were still positioned on the hill . From there , the Meccans were then able to target and overrun the Muslim flank and rear . Confusion ensued , and numerous Muslims were killed . Most notably was Hamza , who had been thrown down in a surprise attack by the javelin of the Ethiopian slave of Hind , Wahshi ibn Harb . While the Meccan riposte strengthened , rumors circulated that Muhammad too had perished . It emerged , however , that Muhammad had only been wounded — due to missiles of stone which resulted in a gash on his forehead and lip . It is recorded that Ali ibn Abi Talib alone remained , fending off the assaults of Khalid 's cavalrymen . According to Ibn Atheer , " The Prophet became the object of the attack of various units of the army of Quraish from all sides . Ali attacked , in compliance with Muhammad 's orders , every unit that made an attack upon him and dispersed them or killed some of them , and this thing took place a number of times in Uhud . "
After fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , most of the Muslims managed to withdraw and regroup higher up on the slopes of Uhud . A small faction was cut off and tried to make its way back to Medina , though many of these were killed . The Meccans ' chief offensive arm , its cavalry , was unable to ascend the slopes of Uhud in pursuit of the Muslims , and so the fighting ceased . Hind and her companions are said to have mutilated the Muslim corpses , cutting off their ears and noses and making the relics into anklets . Hind is reported to have cut open the corpse of Hamza , taking out his liver which she then attempted to eat . Abu Sufyan , after some brief verbal exchanges with Muhammad 's companion , Umar ( Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab ) , decided to return to Mecca without pressing his advantage .
The battle is generally believed by scholars to be a defeat for the Muslims , as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans . Chase F. Robinson , writing in the Encyclopaedia of Islam , states the notion that " the Muslims suffered a disheartening defeat is clear enough . " Other scholars such as William Montgomery Watt disagree , noting that while the Muslims did not win , the Meccans had failed to achieve their strategic aim of destroying Muhammad and his followers ; and that the Meccans ' untimely withdrawal indicated weakness on their part . The battle is also noted for the emergence of the military leadership and tactical military genius of Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , who would later become the most famous of all Arab generals during the Islamic expansion era , in conquering the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine held Syria .
= = Aftermath = =
Muhammad and the Muslims buried the dead on the battlefield , returning home that evening . The Meccans retired for the evening at a place called Hamra al @-@ Asad , a few miles away from Medina . The next morning , Muhammad sent out a small force to harry the Meccan army on their way home . According to Watt , this was because Muhammad realized that a show of force was required to speed the Meccans away from Medinan territory . The Meccans , not wanting to be perceived as being chased away , remained nearby for a few days before leaving .
= = = Muslim reaction = = =
For the Muslims , the battle held a religious dimension as well as a military one . They had expected another victory like at Badr , which was considered a sign of God 's favor upon them . At Uhud , however , they had barely held off the invaders and had lost a great many men . A verse of the Qur 'an revealed soon after the battle cited the Muslims ' disobedience and desire for loot as the cause for this setback :
Allah did indeed fulfil His promise to you when ye with His permission Were about to annihilate your enemy , -until ye flinched and fell to disputing about the order , and disobeyed it after He brought you in sight ( of the booty ) which ye covet . Among you are some that hanker after this world and some that desire the Hereafter . Then did He divert you from your foes in order to test you but He forgave you : For Allah is full of grace to those who believe .
According to the Qur 'an , then , the misfortunes at Uhud — largely the result of the rear guard abandoning their position in order to seek booty — were partly a punishment and partly a test for steadfastness . Firestone observes that such verses provided inspiration and hope to the Muslims , sacralizing future battles that they would experience . He adds that rather than demoralizing the Muslims , the battle seemed to reinforce the solidarity between them .
= = = Further conflict = = =
Abu Sufyan , whose position as leader was no longer undisputed , set about forging alliances with surrounding nomadic tribes in order to build up strength for another advance on Medina . The success of the Meccans ' rousing of tribes against Muhammad reaped disastrous consequences for him and the Muslims with two main losses : one was where a Muslim party had been invited by a chieftain of the Ma 'unah tribe , who were then killed as they approached by the tribe of Sulaym ; while the other was when the Muslims had sent out instructors to a tribe which stated it wanted to convert to Islam — the instructors had been led into an ambush by the guides of the would @-@ be Muslim tribe , and were subsequently killed . Soon thereafter , Muhammad became convinced that the Jewish tribe Banu Nadir harbored enmity towards him and were plotting to kill him . The Banu Nadir were expelled from Medina after a fifteen @-@ day siege , with some relocating to the oasis of Khaybar and others to Syria . Abu Sufyan , along with the allied confederate tribes , would attack Medina in the Battle of the Trench , two years after the events at Uhud ( in 627 ) .
= = Islamic primary sources = =
= = = Quran = = =
The event is mentioned in the Quran verse [ Quran 8 : 36 ] according to the Muslim scholar Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri , as well as [ Quran 3 : 122 ] , [ Quran 3 : 167 ] .
The Muslim Mufassir Ibn Kathir 's commentary on this verse in his book Tafsir ibn Kathir is as follows :
= = = Hadith = = =
Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri mentions that this incident is also mentioned in the Sunni Hadith collection Sahih al @-@ Bukhari . Sahih al @-@ Bukhari , 4 : 52 : 276 mentions :
It is also mentioned in Sahih al @-@ Bukhari , 3 : 30 : 108 that Quran verse [ Quran 4 : 88 ] was revealed about this event :
The event is also mention in Sahih Muslim , 4 : 2050
= = = Biographical literature = = =
This event is mentioned in Ibn Ishaq 's biography of Muhammad . Most of the information available about the events is derived from the sira — maghazi traditions ( biographical narratives and documentation of military campaigns ) of the early centuries of Islam . The general sequence of the events gained consensus early on , as demonstrated in the text of Ibn Ishaq , an early biographer of Muhammad . Accounts of the battle are derived mainly from descendants of the participants . Much of the basic narrative and chronology , according to Robinson , is reasonably authentic , although some of the more elaborate details — such as the exact scale of the Muslim defeat — may be doubtful or difficult to ascertain .
= = Battle of Uhud in warfare = =
Though strategically indecisive , the conduct of the battle was sufficient proof of the military awareness of the Arabs even before their campaigns in Persia and Syria . The basic assumption that Arabs were generally raiders and learned warfare from the Persians and Syrians is proved wrong here . Abu Sufyan made full use of his cavalry by deploying them as two mobile wings . The infantry based centre provided the base upon which the cavalry would operate . He intended to pull the celebrated " Double Envelopment " maneuver . He deployed his forces in the same manner as a Persian or Byzantine general would have done .
Muhammad on the other hand showed his ability as a general by choosing the battlefield of Uhud . He decided according to the will of Muslims to fight in open country but he was aware of the superior mobility of the Meccans . He knew an encounter in open country would expose the infantry wings to envelopment , so to neutralize the Meccan mobility factor , he decided to hold high ground with Mount Uhud in their rear , which provided security from any attack from the rear . Moreover , as the front was of approximately of 800 to 900 yd ( 730 to 820 m ) and on one flank he rested Mount Einein and on other flank were the defiles of Mount Uhud so in military language he refused both wings to the Meccan cavalry . The only approach from which they could be taken from the rear was protected by the deployment of archers . This battle is a specimen of how an infantry based entity should fight against a cavalry dominated arm . The comparison of this battle with the Battle of Guadalete fought by Tariq ibn Ziyad against the Visigothic Kingdom is indeed striking .
= = Modern references = =
The battle of Uhud is the second of the two main battles featured in Moustapha Akkad 's 1976 film centering on the life of Muhammad , Mohammad , Messenger of God . The other battle featured is the battle of Badr . The battle of Uhud is also depicted in the 2004 animated film , Muhammad : The Last Prophet , directed by Richard Rich , and in the 2012 TV series Farouk Omar . The cave in Mount Uhud where Muhammad rested temporarily during the battle has also received recent media attention in the light of proposals by some Islamic scholars for it to be destroyed .
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= Idiopathic intracranial hypertension =
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension ( IIH ) , sometimes called by the older names benign intracranial hypertension ( BIH ) or pseudotumor cerebri ( PTC ) , is a neurological disorder that is characterized by increased intracranial pressure ( pressure around the brain ) in the absence of a tumor or other diseases . The main symptoms are stroke @-@ like headache , nausea , and vomiting , as well as pulsatile tinnitus ( sounds perceived in the ears , with the sound occurring in the same rhythm as the pulse ) , double vision and other visual symptoms . If untreated , it may lead to swelling of the optic disc in the eye , which can progress to vision loss .
IIH is diagnosed with a brain scan ( to rule out other causes ) and a lumbar puncture ; lumbar puncture may also provide temporary and sometimes permanent relief from the symptoms . Some respond to medication ( with the drug acetazolamide , Topiramate , Furosemide , others or a combination ) , but others require surgery to relieve the pressure . The condition may occur in all age groups , but is most common in women aged 20 – 40 .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The most common symptom of IIH is headache , which occurs in almost all ( 92 – 94 % ) cases . It is characteristically worse in the morning , generalized in character and throbbing in nature . It may be associated with nausea and vomiting . The headache can be made worse by any activity that further increases the intracranial pressure , such as coughing and sneezing . The pain may also be experienced in the neck and shoulders . Many have pulsatile tinnitus , a whooshing sensation in one or both ears ( 64 – 87 % ) ; this sound is synchronous with the pulse . Various other symptoms , such as numbness of the extremities , generalized weakness , loss of smell , and loss of coordination , are reported more rarely ; none are specific for IIH . In children , numerous nonspecific signs and symptoms may be present .
The increased pressure leads to compression and traction of the cranial nerves , a group of nerves that arise from the brain stem and supply the face and neck . Most commonly , the abducens nerve ( sixth nerve ) is involved . This nerve supplies the muscle that pulls the eye outward . Those with sixth nerve palsy therefore experience horizontal double vision which is worse when looking towards the affected side . More rarely , the oculomotor nerve and trochlear nerve ( third and fourth nerve palsy , respectively ) are affected ; both play a role in eye movements . The facial nerve ( seventh cranial nerve ) is affected occasionally – - the result is total or partial weakness of the muscles of facial expression on one or both sides of the face .
The increased pressure leads to papilledema , which is swelling of the optic disc , the spot where the optic nerve enters the eyeball . This occurs in practically all cases of IIH , but not everyone experiences symptoms from this . Those who do experience symptoms typically report " transient visual obscurations " , episodes of difficulty seeing that occur in both eyes but not necessarily at the same time . Long @-@ term untreated papilledema leads to visual loss , initially in the periphery but progressively towards the center of vision .
Physical examination of the nervous system is typically normal apart from the presence of papilledema , which is seen on examination of the eye with a small device called an ophthalmoscope or in more detail with a fundus camera . If there are cranial nerve abnormalities , these may be noticed on eye examination in the form of a squint ( third , fourth , or sixth nerve palsy ) or as facial nerve palsy . If the papilledema has been longstanding , visual fields may be constricted and visual acuity may be decreased . Visual field testing by automated ( Humphrey ) perimetry is recommended as other methods of testing may be less accurate . Longstanding papilledema leads to optic atrophy , in which the disc looks pale and visual loss tends to be advanced .
= = Causes = =
" Idiopathic " means " of unknown etiology " . Therefore , IIH can only be diagnosed if there is no alternative explanation for the symptoms . Intracranial pressure may be increased due to medications such as high @-@ dose vitamin A derivatives ( e.g. isotretinoin for acne ) , long @-@ term tetracycline antibiotics ( for a variety of skin conditions ) and hormonal contraceptives . There are numerous other diseases , mostly rare conditions , that may lead to intracranial hypertension . If there is an underlying cause , the condition is termed " secondary intracranial hypertension " . Common causes of secondary intracranial hypertension include obstructive sleep apnea ( a sleep @-@ related breathing disorder ) , systemic lupus erythematosus ( SLE ) , chronic kidney disease , and Behçet 's disease .
= = Mechanism = =
The cause of IIH is not known . The Monro @-@ Kellie rule states that the intracranial pressure is determined by the amount of brain tissue , cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) and blood inside the bony cranial vault . Three theories therefore exist as to why the pressure might be raised in IIH : an excess of CSF production , increased volume of blood or brain tissue , or obstruction of the veins that drain blood from the brain .
The first theory , that of increased production of cerebrospinal fluid , was proposed in early descriptions of the disease . However , there is no experimental data that supports a role for this process in IIH .
The second theory posits that either increased blood flow to the brain or increase in the brain tissue itself may result in the raised pressure . Little evidence has accumulated to support the suggestion that increased blood flow plays a role , but recently Bateman et al. in phase contrast MRA studies have quantified cerebral blood flow ( CBF ) in vivo and suggests that CBF is abnormally elevated in many patients with IIH . Both biopsy samples and various types of brain scans have shown an increased water content of the brain tissue . It remains unclear why this might be the case .
The third theory suggests that restricted venous drainage from the brain may be impaired resulting in congestion . Many patients with IIH have narrowing of the transverse sinuses . It is not clear whether this narrowing is the pathogenesis of the disease or a secondary phenomenon . It has been proposed that a positive biofeedback loop may exist , where raised ICP ( intracranial pressure ) causes venous narrowing in the transverse sinuses , resulting in venous hypertension ( raised venous pressure ) , decreased CSF resorption via arachnoid granulation and further rise in ICP .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis may be suspected on the basis of the history and examination . To confirm the diagnosis , as well as excluding alternative causes , several investigations are required ; more investigations may be performed if the history is not typical or the patient is more likely to have an alternative problem : children , men , the elderly , or women who are not overweight .
= = = Investigations = = =
Neuroimaging , usually with computed tomography ( CT / CAT ) or magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , is used to exclude any mass lesions . In IIH these scans typically appear to be normal , although small or slit @-@ like ventricles , dilatation and buckling of the optic nerve sheaths and " empty sella sign " ( flattening of the pituitary gland due to increased pressure ) and enlargement of Meckel 's caves may be seen .
An MR venogram is also performed in most cases to exclude the possibility of venous sinus stenosis / obstruction or cerebral venous sinus thrombosis . A contrast @-@ enhanced MRV ( ATECO ) scan has a high detection rate for abnormal transverse sinus stenoses . These stenoses can be more adequately identified and assessed with catheter cerebral venography and manometry . Buckling of the bilateral optic nerves with increased perineural fluid is also often noted on MRI imaging .
Lumbar puncture is performed to measure the opening pressure , as well as to obtain cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) to exclude alternative diagnoses . If the opening pressure is increased , CSF may be removed for transient relief ( see below ) . The CSF is examined for abnormal cells , infections , antibody levels , the glucose level , and protein levels . In IIH , by definition all of these are within their normal limits . Occasionally , the CSF pressure measurement may be normal despite very suggestive symptoms . This may be attributable to the fact that CSF pressure may fluctuate over the course of the normal day . If the suspicion of problems remains high , it may be necessary to perform more long @-@ term monitoring of the ICP by a pressure catheter .
= = = Classification = = =
The original criteria for IIH were described by Dandy in 1937 .
They were modified by Smith in 1985 to become the " modified Dandy criteria " . Smith included the use of more advanced imaging : Dandy had required ventriculography , but Smith replaced this with computed tomography . In a 2001 paper , Digre and Corbett amended Dandy 's criteria further . They added the requirement that the patient is awake and alert , as coma precludes adequate neurological assessment , and require exclusion of venous sinus thrombosis as an underlying cause . Furthermore , they added the requirement that no other cause for the raised ICP is found .
In a 2002 review , Friedman and Jacobson propose an alternative set of criteria , derived from Smith 's . These require the absence of symptoms that could not be explained by a diagnosis of IIH , but do not require the actual presence of any symptoms ( such as headache ) attributable to IIH . These criteria also require that the lumbar puncture is performed with patient lying sideways , as a lumbar puncture performed in the upright sitting position can lead to artificially high pressure measurements . Friedman and Jacobson also do not insist on MR venography for every patient ; rather , this is only required in atypical cases ( see " diagnosis " above ) .
= = Treatment = =
The primary goal in treatment of IIH is the prevention of visual loss and blindness , as well as symptom control . IIH is treated mainly through the reduction of CSF pressure and , where applicable , weight loss . IIH may resolve after initial treatment , may go into spontaneous remission ( although it can still relapse at a later stage ) , or may continue chronically .
= = = Lumbar puncture = = =
The first step in symptom control is drainage of cerebrospinal fluid by lumbar puncture . If necessary , this may be performed at the same time as a diagnostic LP ( such as done in search of a CSF infection ) . In some cases , this is sufficient to control the symptoms , and no further treatment is needed .
The procedure can be repeated if necessary , but this is generally taken as a clue that additional treatments may be required to control the symptoms and preserve vision . Repeated lumbar punctures are regarded as unpleasant by patients , and they present a danger of introducing spinal infections if done too often . Repeated lumbar punctures are sometimes needed to control the ICP urgently if the patient 's vision deteriorates rapidly .
= = = Medication = = =
The best @-@ studied medical treatment for intracranial hypertension is acetazolamide ( Diamox ) , which acts by inhibiting the enzyme carbonic anhydrase , and it reduces CSF production by six to 57 percent . It can cause the symptoms of hypokalemia ( low blood potassium levels ) , which include muscle weakness and tingling in the fingers . Acetazolamide cannot be used in pregnancy , since it has been shown to cause embryonic abnormalities in animal studies . Also , in human beings it has been shown to cause metabolic acidosis as well as disruptions in the blood electrolyte levels of newborn babies . The diuretic furosemide is sometimes used for a treatment if acetazolamide is not tolerated , but this drug sometimes has little effect on the ICP .
Various analgesics ( painkillers ) may be used in controlling the headaches of intracranial hypertension . In addition to conventional agents such as paracetamol , a low dose of the antidepressant amitriptyline or the anticonvulsant topiramate have shown some additional benefit for pain relief .
The use of steroids in the attempt to reduce the ICP is controversial . These may be used in severe papilledema , but otherwise their use is discouraged .
= = = Venous sinus stenting = = =
Venous sinus stenoses leading to venous hypertension appear to play a significant part in relation to raised ICP , and stenting of a transverse sinus may resolve venous hypertension , leading to improved CSF resorption , decreased ICP , cure of papilloedema and other symptoms of IIH .
A self @-@ expanding metal stent is permanently deployed within the dominant transverse sinus across the stenosis under general anaesthesia . In general patients are discharged the next day . Patients require double antiplatelet therapy for a period of up to 3 months after the procedure and aspirin therapy for up to 1 year .
In a systematic analysis of 19 studies with 207 cases , there was an 87 % improvement in overall symptom rate and 90 % cure rate for treatment of papilloedema . Major complications only occurred in 3 / 207 patients ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) . In the largest single series of transverse sinus stenting there was an 11 % rate of recurrence after one stent , requiring further stenting .
Due to the permanence of the stent and small but definite risk of complications , most experts will recommend that patients with IIH must have papilloedema and have failed medical therapy or are intolerant to medication before stenting is undertaken .
Consultation with a neurologist , neurophthalmologist and / or ophthalmologist in combination with a neurointerventionalist who performs the procedure is generally recommended .
= = = Surgery = = =
Two main surgical procedures exist in the treatment of IIH : optic nerve sheath decompression and fenestration and shunting . Surgery would normally only be offered if medical therapy is either unsuccessful or not tolerated . The choice between these two procedures depends on the predominant problem in IIH . Neither procedure is perfect : both may cause significant complications , and both may eventually fail in controlling the symptoms . There are no randomized controlled trials to guide the decision as to which procedure is best .
Optic nerve sheath fenestration is an ophthalmological operation that involves the making of an incision in the connective tissue lining of the optic nerve in its portion behind the eye . It is not entirely clear how it protects the eye from the raised pressure , but it may be the result of either diversion of the CSF into the orbit or the creation of an area of scar tissue that lowers the pressure . The effects on the intracranial pressure itself are more modest . Moreover , the procedure may lead to significant complications , including blindness in 1 – 2 % . The procedure is therefore recommended mainly in those who have limited headache symptoms but significant papilledema or threatened vision , or in those who have undergone unsuccessful treatment with a shunt or have a contraindication for shunt surgery .
Shunt surgery , usually performed by neurosurgeons , involves the creation of a conduit by which CSF can be drained into another body cavity . The initial procedure is usually a lumboperitoneal ( LP ) shunt , which connects the subarachnoid space in the lumbar spine with the peritoneal cavity . Generally , a pressure valve is included in the circuit to avoid excessive drainage when the patient is erect . LP shunting provides long @-@ term relief in about half the cases ; others require revision of the shunt , often on more than one occasion — usually due to shunt obstruction . If the lumboperitoneal shunt needs repeated revisions , a ventriculoatrial or ventriculoperitoneal shunt may be considered . These shunts are inserted in one of the lateral ventricles of the brain , usually by stereotactic surgery , and then connected either to the right atrium of the heart or the peritoneal cavity , respectively . Given the reduced need for revisions in ventricular shunts , it is possible that this procedure will become the first @-@ line type of shunt treatment .
It has been shown that in obese people , bariatric surgery ( and especially gastric bypass surgery ) can lead to resolution of the condition in over 95 % .
= = Prognosis = =
It is not known what percentage of people with IIH will remit spontaneously , and what percentage will develop chronic disease .
IIH does not normally affect life expectancy . The major complications from IIH arise from untreated or treatment @-@ resistant papilledema . In various case series , the long @-@ term risk of ones vision being significantly affected by IIH is reported to lie anywhere between 10 and 25 % .
= = Epidemiology = =
On average , IIH occurs in about one per 100 @,@ 000 people , and can occur in children and adults . The median age at diagnosis is 30 . IIH occurs predominantly in women , especially in the ages 20 to 45 , who are four to eight times more likely than men to be affected . Overweight and obesity strongly predispose a person to IIH : women who are more than ten percent over their ideal body weight are thirteen times more likely to develop IIH , and this figure goes up to nineteen times in women who are more than twenty percent over their ideal body weight . In men this relationship also exists , but the increase is only five @-@ fold in those over 20 percent above their ideal body weight .
Despite several reports of IIH in families , there is no known genetic cause for IIH . People from all ethnicities may develop IIH . In children , there is no difference in incidence between males and females .
From national hospital admission databases it appears that the need for neurosurgical intervention for IIH has increased markedly over the period between 1988 and 2002 . This has been attributed at least in part to the rising prevalence of obesity , although some of this increase may be explained by the increased popularity of shunting over optic nerve sheath fenestration .
= = History = =
The first report of IIH was by the German physician Heinrich Quincke , who described it in 1893 under the name serous meningitis . The term " pseudotumor cerebri " was introduced in 1904 by his compatriot Max Nonne . Numerous other cases appeared in the literature subsequently ; in many cases , the raised intracranial pressure may actually have resulted from underlying conditions . For instance , the otitic hydrocephalus reported by London neurologist Sir Charles Symonds may have resulted from venous sinus thrombosis caused by middle ear infection . Diagnostic criteria for IIH were developed in 1937 by the Baltimore neurosurgeon Walter Dandy ; Dandy also introduced subtemporal decompressive surgery in the treatment of the condition .
The terms " benign " and " pseudotumor " derive from the fact that increased intracranial pressure may be associated with brain tumors . Those patients in whom no tumour was found were therefore diagnosed with " pseudotumor cerebri " ( a disease mimicking a brain tumor ) . The disease was renamed " benign intracranial hypertension " in 1955 to distinguish it from intracranial hypertension due to life @-@ threatening diseases ( such as cancer ) ; however , this was also felt to be misleading because any disease that can blind someone should not be thought of as benign , and the name was therefore revised in 1989 to " idiopathic ( of no identifiable cause ) intracranial hypertension " .
Shunt surgery was introduced in 1949 ; initially , ventriculoperitoneal shunts were used . In 1971 , good results were reported with lumboperitoneal shunting . Negative reports on shunting in the 1980s led to a brief period ( 1988 – 1993 ) during which optic nerve fenestration ( which had initially been described in an unrelated condition in 1871 ) was more popular . Since then , shunting is recommended predominantly , with occasional exceptions .
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= Groton Monument =
The Groton Monument , sometimes called the Fort Griswold Monument , is a granite monument in Groton , Connecticut . It is dedicated to the defenders who fell during the Battle of Groton Heights on September 6 , 1781 . The monument was originally 127 feet ( 39 m ) high , but it was later changed in 1881 to commemorate the centennial of the Battle of Groton Heights ; the cupola was removed and replaced by an iron @-@ capped pyramid in emulation of the Bunker Hill Monument . The monument bears a plaque describing the events of the Battle of Groton Heights and another plaque with the names of the Americans who died in the battle . In 1918 , lightning destroyed the capstone and damaged the adjacent Monument House Museum which features exhibits about the Revolutionary War . Visitors can climb the monument and visit the museum from Memorial Day through Labor Day . The Groton Monument is located in Fort Griswold Battlefield State Park , which includes Fort Griswold , in Groton , Connecticut , United States .
= = Design = =
The Groton Monument association was incorporated in 1820 and had the monument designed by the partnership of Ithiel Town and Alexander Jackson Davis . The cornerstone was laid on September 6 , 1825 and the monument was completed in 1830 . Originally , the monument was 127 feet ( 39 m ) high , but this was later changed in 1881 to commemorate the centennial of the Battle of Groton Heights , the cupola was removed and replaced by an iron @-@ capped pyramid in emulation of the Bunker Hill Monument . As a result of these renovations , the height was extended to 135 feet ( 41 m ) high .
A plaque affixed to the monument above the entrance reads : " THIS MONUMENT WAS ERECTED UNDER THE PATRONAGE OF THE STATE OF CONNECTICUT , A.D. 1830 , AND IN THE 55TH YEAR OF THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE U.S.A. IN MEMORY OF THE BRAVE PATRIOTS , WHO FELL IN THE MASSACRE AT FORT GRISWOLD , NEAR THIS SPOT , ON THE 6TH OF SEPT . A.D. 1781 , WHEN THE BRITISH , UNDER THE COMMAND OF THE TRAITOR , BENEDICT ARNOLD , BURNT THE TOWNS OF NEW LONDON AND GROTON , AND SPREAD DESOLATION AND WOE THROUGHOUT THIS REGION . "
Another plaque details the eighty @-@ eight names of the American defenders who were killed during the battle . The plaque has seven minor errors in naming , with six being minor spellings of the names of the deceased . One significant error is name for Thomas Minard , which should read Thomas Miner .
= = Repairs = =
The monument was repaired and the grounds renovated with an appropriation of $ 5000 from the State of Connecticut in 1893 and completed by early 1894 . In 1901 , lightning struck the Groton Monument and any damage caused was noted as trivial because The Day says the event was a " dim memory " and its exact date un @-@ discoverable . In 1918 , lightning again struck the monument with great effect . The bolt of lightning shattered the capstone and sent the pieces to the ground before traveling through the brass railings and scattered the cards in one of the wire @-@ racks . The lightning also jumped 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) to the monument house and damaged the veranda , upraising the brick tilling floor and even sticking some to the ceiling and doing minor damage inside the museum . Frederic Bill , attempted to find a fitting match for the original capstone , but could not .
In 1985 , Hurricane Gloria blew out a window of the monument . In 1986 , the State of Connecticut spent $ 6250 to re @-@ mortar the monument . The monument was closed until 1989 for the repair work . In 2007 , Carol Kimball of The Day wrote that the State of Connecticut has not funding repairs to the historic site , but it would be required if the monument were to continue to survive . Kimball also referenced a New York Times article on the neglected monument and that the bond commission has yet to issue the approved $ 350 @,@ 000 for its preservation . Other costs including sidewalks surrounding the entrance , and Memorial Gate itself , would require another $ 150 @,@ 000 to repair .
= = Operation = =
The Groton Monument is formally located in Fort Griswold Battlefield State Park , which includes Fort Griswold , in Groton , Connecticut , United States . The State of Connecticut came to control the site in 1902 and as of 2007 , Connecticut 's Department of Environmental Protection was the specific branch in charge . On July 1 , 2011 , the department was reorganized as the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection . In 1981 , the bicentennial of the battle , the monument was originally scheduled to be closed due to budget cuts , but instead would remain open throughout the season . The monument was expected to be visited by thousands of people during the celebration . There is an adjacent museum operated by the Daughters of the American Revolution , which features exhibits about the Revolutionary War and the battle at Fort Griswold .
Visitors can climb the monument and visit the museum from Memorial Day through Labor Day .
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= Saskatchewan Highway 641 =
Saskatchewan Highway 641 is a highway in the province of Saskatchewan , Canada , beginning at Highway 39 near Rouleau , and traveling north ending at Highway 15 at Semans . The highway intersects the Trans Canada Highway , Saskatchewan Highway 1 south of Pense and east of Belle Plaine , Highway 20 at Lumsden , and Highway 22 at Earl Grey . Local Improvement Districts were the precursors of rural municipalities which initially established and maintained roads in their area . Early settlers helped to construct and maintain the route and would get paid road improvement wages from the local rural municipality . The 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) concurrency between Highway 20 and Highway 641 was constructed in 1927 following the removal of the Canadian National Railway line between Lumsden and Craven . The remainder of the road followed Dominion land survey township and range lines .
= = Route description = =
Highway 641 begins near Rouleau and extends north 22 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) to the Trans Canada Highway Highway 1 intersection . The rural municipality ( RM ) of Reburn number 130 office is located in Rouleau and administers to a population of 245 . This area is part of the Regina Plain landscape area of the Moist Mixed Grassland ecoregion featuring mainly cereal crops in the dark brown soils . The RM of Pense is located between the city of Moose Jaw and the provincial capital city of Regina . At km 24 @.@ 6 Highway 641 enters the village Pense . At km 25 @.@ 4 , it intersects Saskatchewan Highway 730 . Highway 730 connects to Regina , Saskatchewan east of this intersection . Lumsden is located at the km 55 @.@ 9 intersection with Highway 11 in the Qu 'Appelle Valley created by the Qu 'Appelle River .
The town of Lumsden features the Lumsden Museum which is home to several restored heritage buildings . The Lumsden Trans Canada Trail Committee helped establish 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) of the Trans Canada trail . The trail has been groomed for walking , hiking , cycling , skiing , horseback riding , canoeing and snowmobiling . Craven , the home of the Craven Country Jamboree , is located at the Highway 99 and Highway 20 junctions . Highway 641 continues north for 11 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) and then turns east 6 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) before again continuing northerly . This final stretch of the highway is part of the Strasbourg Plain landscape area of the Moist Mixed Grassland ecoregion featuring small trembling aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) bluffs around the occasional slough . Earl Grey is located at the intersection with Highway 22 . There are no localities located at the intersection with the secondary Highway 731 . Last Mountain House Provincial Park protects the heritage site of the Hudson 's Bay Company post Last Mountain House established in 1869 . The terminus of Highway 641 is at the Saskatchewan Highway 15 intersection at Semans .
= = History = =
Between 1897 and 1909 , municipal administration affairs were handled by Local Improvement District ( LID ) Number 165 . The LID changed its boundaries on December 13 , 1909 , and on January 1 , 1913 , the LID was renamed Pense No. 160 . During the 1940s work was undertaken on paving roadways , a man could earn 35 cents an hour or $ 5 @.@ 07 today a man and two horses could be employed at a rate of 65 cents an hour $ 9 @.@ 41 today , a horse drawn drag would earn 37 @.@ 5 cents an hour $ 5 @.@ 43 today , and if a farmer owned a tractor , a tractor drawn drag could earn as much as 50 cents per hour $ 7 @.@ 24 today .
The Saskatchewan Highway Act was established in 1922 , in compliance with the 1919 Canadian highway act . At the initial stages of the Saskatchewan Highway Act , 10 miles ( 16 km ) of provincial highways were gravel and the rest were earth roads . The road allowances were laid out as a part of the Dominion Land survey system for homesteading . Travel along the Provincial Highway 641 before the 1940s would have been traveling on the square following the township road allowances , barbed wire fencing and the Canadian Northern rail line . As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel , the first highway was designed on 90 @-@ degree , right @-@ angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads .
There is a historical monument erected along the highway which states that the early railway was established along the east side of the Last Mountain Lake ( Long Lake ) in 1907 , and constructed on the west side in 1911 . The monument documents as well the " Lady of the Lake " sternwheeler which was used on Long Lake . Local historians clarify that the rail came to the east of the Lake in 1911 , and to the west in 1912 . The " Lady of the Lake " began as a sternwheeler , but was modified to a screw propeller . Also on the Lake the " S.S. Qu 'Appelle " , a luxurious steamer , towed a barge across the lake .
Lumsden was initially served by the Canadian National Railway CNR , however the Canadian Pacific Railway CPR was built through Craven in 1910 . The new line brought freight to Lumsden infrequently and the elevator was torn down in 1927 , and the CNR track removed the next year . The highway went through where the CNR bridge had been built . Highway 20 is marked on an early 1926 and 1955 maps , but highway 641 is unmarked - showing up as surveyed township and range roads only .
= = Intersections = =
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= Paratheria ( mammals ) =
Paratheria is an obsolete term for a taxonomic group including the xenarthran mammals ( sloths , anteaters , and armadillos ) and various groups thought to be related to them . It was proposed by Oldfield Thomas in 1887 to set apart the sloths , anteaters , armadillos , and pangolins , usually classified as placentals , from both marsupial and placental mammals , an arrangement that received little support from other workers . When teeth of the extinct gondwanathere mammals were first discovered in Argentina in the 1980s , they were thought to be related to xenarthrans , leading to renewed attention for the hypothesis that xenarthrans are not placentals . However , by the early 1990s , gondwanatheres were shown to be unrelated to xenarthrans , and xenarthrans are still considered to be placentals .
= = History = =
The term " Paratheria " was coined by British mammalogist Oldfield Thomas in 1887 in a review of tooth development in mammals . He found that the " Edentata " were especially distinctive . In this group , he included the sloths , anteaters , and armadillos , which are still placed together as Xenarthra , as well as the pangolins and the aardvark . According to Thomas , edentate teeth would be derived from the very earliest stage of mammalian dental evolution . Consequently , he suggested that they should be given a grouping separate from the other major groupings of mammals , for which terms had been introduced by Thomas Huxley : Eutheria ( placentals ) and Metatheria ( marsupials ) . For this new grouping , he suggested the name Paratheria " to indicate their position by the side of , but separate from , the other Mammals " ( the Greek παρά para means " beside " ) . Thomas had included one other mammal among the edentates , the aardvark ; however , he was unable to provide a satisfactory scenario for the origin of its wholly unique dentition , which he could only compare with that of some fish . Thomas 's arrangement was foreshadowed by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville 's 1839 classification ; he placed edentates ( except the sloth Bradypus , which he considered to be a primate ) as a major division , the Maldentés ( " poorly toothed " ) . This group was considered to be distinct from the other monodelphes ( placentals ) , the Bien dentés ( " well @-@ toothed " ) . Similarly , Paul Gervais proposed in 1855 that edentates should be placed in a separate subclass of mammals .
Thomas 's hypothesis received little support , or even attention , in subsequent years . In 1893 , Henry Fairfield Osborn remarked that new studies of edentate teeth indicated that they were not as distinct as Thomas thought . William Berryman Scott did , however , place Paratheria as a separate subclass in 1904 , although he apparently did not follow Thomas 's theories about the origins of edentate teeth . In 1910 , William King Gregory reviewed the interrelationships of mammals and placed edentates among other placentals , though he gave " Paratheria " as an alternative name for his superorder Edentata , which included Xenarthra and tentatively Pholidota ( pangolins ) , Tubulidentata ( aardvarks ) , and the fossil Taeniodonta . In 1976 , Eli Minkoff also used " Paratheria " for a placental superorder that included Edentata ( for the sloths , armadillos , and anteaters ) and Pholidota .
The Paratheria hypothesis enjoyed a brief renaissance when unusual , high @-@ crowned teeth began turning up in the Cretaceous and Paleocene fossil record of Argentina . In 1984 , Sudamerica ameghinoi , from the Paleocene of Argentina , was assigned to Xenarthra within Paratheria , ranked as a cohort ( a taxonomic rank between infraclass and superorder ) . Two years later , José Bonaparte named Gondwanatherium patagonicum from the Late Cretaceous of Argentina , which he thought to be related to Sudamerica , and tentatively assigned it to Paratheria , now ranked as an infraclass . Bonaparte described an additional related animal , Vucetichia gracilis , from the Argentinean Late Cretaceous in 1990 ; by then he classified it in the order Gondwanatheria , which was tentatively assigned to the infraclass Paratheria . Bonaparte argued against George Gaylord Simpson 's 1931 view that xenarthrans derive from the Tertiary Palaeanodonta of North America , and instead suggested that xenarthrans , and perhaps pangolins , split from eutherians ( placentals and their extinct relatives ) as early as the Early Cretaceous and derived from some early " pantothere " ( a now @-@ abandoned grouping of early mammals , including dryolestoids among others ) .
However , Bonaparte himself had abandoned the proposed relationship between xenarthrans and gondwanatherians by 1993 . Instead , gondwanatherians were shown to be related to another Late Cretaceous Argentinean animal , Ferugliotherium ( which turned out to be undistinguishable from Vucetichia ) , and through it to multituberculates . The relation between multituberculates and gondwanatheres later became controversial , but they are no longer thought to be related to xenarthrans . By 1996 , " few if any systematists would ... doubt the eutherian affinities of xenarthrans " and molecular data have also supported the placement of Xenarthra within placentals as one of four major clades . The name " Paratheria " is no longer in use .
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= New Jersey Route 183 =
Route 183 is a 2 @.@ 12 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 41 km ) long state highway in the northern regions of New Jersey . The southern end of NJ 183 is at an interchange with Interstate 80 and U.S. Route 206 near Netcong , while the northern end is at an interchange with US 206 in Stanhope . The route heads northward through downtown Netcong and along the shores of Lake Musconetcong and enters Sussex County , New Jersey . The route is a former alignment of US 206 bypassed in 1973 .
The highway dates back to the designations of State Highway Route 31 , which was main north – south highway in New Jersey . The Netcong Circle , a traffic circle in Netcong between NJ 183 and U.S. Route 46 was present for the entire lifetime of NJ 183 until it was replaced by a signalized intersection in 2013 . A nearby bridge over a New Jersey Transit line was also replaced .
= = Route description = =
Route 183 begins at a partial cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 206 and Interstate 80 in the community of Roxbury , New Jersey . The route heads northward , intersecting with local dead @-@ end streets deep in the forests of rural Morris County . Route 183 passes a nearby factory and intersects U.S. Route 46 . The route continues northward , crossing over a creek and entering downtown Netcong . Downtown Netcong is highly developed , and Route 183 serves as the main street through the community . The highway intersects with Allen Street ( Morris County Route 631 ) before running along the shores of Lake Musconetcong and into Sussex County .
Upon entering Sussex County , Route 183 enters the community of Stanhope . At the intersection with Musconetcong Avenue , the highway turns to the northwest , leaving the shores of the lake . Route 183 continues through the residential developments in Stanhope , working its way into the mountains above the lake . At the intersection with Dell Road , Route 183 becomes intertwined with the interchange on U.S. Route 206 northbound , and the highways merge a short distance later in Stanhope .
= = History = =
The original designation in the area of Netcong along Route 183 's alignment is State Highway Route 31 , which consisted much of the alignment of current @-@ day U.S. Route 206 . The route was first assigned in the 1927 state highway renumbering as a co @-@ designation to US 206 . This alignment remained in place for about two and half decades , when in the 1953 state highway renumbering , the State Highway Route 31 designation was dropped in favor of using U.S. Route 206 . The route in Netcong stayed the same for several years after the decommissioning until the Regional Plan Association proposed a freeway realignment of US 206 in 1962 . The highway was to serve local recreation areas and relieve traffic on Interstate 287 to the east . The route was advocated through 1972 , and after the fiscal year budgets went sour , the proposal was dropped .
In 2007 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation proposed the elimination of the Netcong Traffic Circle , located at the intersections of U.S. Route 46 and Route 183 just north of the interchange with Interstate 80 . The project was to produce two outcomes : replacement of the New Jersey Transit bridge that Route 183 crosses , and the elimination of the Netcong Circle with a signalized intersection . The project had issues dealing with the vertical clearance of the overpass for U.S. Route 46 westbound . The removal of the circle would eliminate this bridge , and the land would go to use as the new signalized intersection , with pedestrian and bicycle fittings . The entire project cost about $ 13 @.@ 3 million ( 2009 USD ) of state and local funds to construct . The Netcong Circle was replaced with a temporary junction in January 2013 ; the permanent intersection configuration opened in August of that year . The new bridge over the New Jersey Transit line opened in March 2013 .
The circle itself dated back to construction in 1938 . The circle itself could not handle the 17 @,@ 000 vehicles a year that use the large roadway daily , and was the site of several accidents , including 45 in 2007 alone . The entire traffic circle conversion will eliminate two businesses in the area and is still slated for construction .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Malaria =
Malaria is a mosquito @-@ borne infectious disease affecting humans and other animals caused by parasitic protozoans ( a group of single @-@ celled microorganisms ) belonging to the Plasmodium type . Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever , fatigue , vomiting , and headaches . In severe cases it can cause yellow skin , seizures , coma , or death . Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten . If not properly treated , people may have recurrences of the disease months later . In those who have recently survived an infection , reinfection usually causes milder symptoms . This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria .
The disease is most commonly transmitted by an infected female Anopheles mosquito . The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito 's saliva into a person 's blood . The parasites travel to the liver where they mature and reproduce . Five species of Plasmodium can infect and be spread by humans . Most deaths are caused by P. falciparum because P. vivax , P. ovale , and P. malariae generally cause a milder form of malaria . The species P. knowlesi rarely causes disease in humans . Malaria is typically diagnosed by the microscopic examination of blood using blood films , or with antigen @-@ based rapid diagnostic tests . Methods that use the polymerase chain reaction to detect the parasite 's DNA have been developed , but are not widely used in areas where malaria is common due to their cost and complexity .
The risk of disease can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites through the use of mosquito nets and insect repellents , or with mosquito @-@ control measures such as spraying insecticides and draining standing water . Several medications are available to prevent malaria in travellers to areas where the disease is common . Occasional doses of the medication sulfadoxine / pyrimethamine are recommended in infants and after the first trimester of pregnancy in areas with high rates of malaria . Despite a need , no effective vaccine exists , although efforts to develop one are ongoing . The recommended treatment for malaria is a combination of antimalarial medications that includes an artemisinin . The second medication may be either mefloquine , lumefantrine , or sulfadoxine / pyrimethamine . Quinine along with doxycycline may be used if an artemisinin is not available . It is recommended that in areas where the disease is common , malaria is confirmed if possible before treatment is started due to concerns of increasing drug resistance . Resistance among the parasites has developed to several antimalarial medications ; for example , chloroquine @-@ resistant P. falciparum has spread to most malarial areas , and resistance to artemisinin has become a problem in some parts of Southeast Asia .
The disease is widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions that exist in a broad band around the equator . This includes much of Sub @-@ Saharan Africa , Asia , and Latin America . In 2015 , there were 214 million cases of malaria worldwide resulting in an estimated 438 @,@ 000 deaths , 90 % of which occurred in Africa . Rates of disease have decreased from 2000 to 2015 by 37 % , but increased from 2014 during which there were 198 million cases . Malaria is commonly associated with poverty and has a major negative effect on economic development . In Africa , it is estimated to result in losses of US $ 12 billion a year due to increased healthcare costs , lost ability to work , and negative effects on tourism .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The signs and symptoms of malaria typically begin 8 – 25 days following infection ; however , symptoms may occur later in those who have taken antimalarial medications as prevention . Initial manifestations of the disease — common to all malaria species — are similar to flu @-@ like symptoms , and can resemble other conditions such as sepsis , gastroenteritis , and viral diseases . The presentation may include headache , fever , shivering , joint pain , vomiting , hemolytic anemia , jaundice , hemoglobin in the urine , retinal damage , and convulsions .
The classic symptom of malaria is paroxysm — a cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by shivering and then fever and sweating , occurring every two days ( tertian fever ) in P. vivax and P. ovale infections , and every three days ( quartan fever ) for P. malariae . P. falciparum infection can cause recurrent fever every 36 – 48 hours , or a less pronounced and almost continuous fever .
Severe malaria is usually caused by P. falciparum ( often referred to as falciparum malaria ) . Symptoms of falciparum malaria arise 9 – 30 days after infection . Individuals with cerebral malaria frequently exhibit neurological symptoms , including abnormal posturing , nystagmus , conjugate gaze palsy ( failure of the eyes to turn together in the same direction ) , opisthotonus , seizures , or coma .
= = = Complications = = =
Malaria has several serious complications . Among these is the development of respiratory distress , which occurs in up to 25 % of adults and 40 % of children with severe P. falciparum malaria . Possible causes include respiratory compensation of metabolic acidosis , noncardiogenic pulmonary oedema , concomitant pneumonia , and severe anaemia . Although rare in young children with severe malaria , acute respiratory distress syndrome occurs in 5 – 25 % of adults and up to 29 % of pregnant women . Coinfection of HIV with malaria increases mortality . Renal failure is a feature of blackwater fever , where hemoglobin from lysed red blood cells leaks into the urine .
Infection with P. falciparum may result in cerebral malaria , a form of severe malaria that involves encephalopathy . It is associated with retinal whitening , which may be a useful clinical sign in distinguishing malaria from other causes of fever . Enlarged spleen , enlarged liver or both of these , severe headache , low blood sugar , and hemoglobin in the urine with renal failure may occur . Complications may include spontaneous bleeding , coagulopathy , and shock .
Malaria in pregnant women is an important cause of stillbirths , infant mortality , abortion and low birth weight , particularly in P. falciparum infection , but also with P. vivax .
= = Cause = =
Malaria parasites belong to the genus Plasmodium ( phylum Apicomplexa ) . In humans , malaria is caused by P. falciparum , P. malariae , P. ovale , P. vivax and P. knowlesi . Among those infected , P. falciparum is the most common species identified ( ~ 75 % ) followed by P. vivax ( ~ 20 % ) . Although P. falciparum traditionally accounts for the majority of deaths , recent evidence suggests that P. vivax malaria is associated with potentially life @-@ threatening conditions about as often as with a diagnosis of P. falciparum infection . P. vivax proportionally is more common outside Africa . There have been documented human infections with several species of Plasmodium from higher apes ; however , except for P. knowlesi — a zoonotic species that causes malaria in macaques — these are mostly of limited public health importance .
Global warming is likely to affect malaria transmission , but the severity and geographic distribution of such effects is uncertain .
= = = Life cycle = = =
In the life cycle of Plasmodium , a female Anopheles mosquito ( the definitive host ) transmits a motile infective form ( called the sporozoite ) to a vertebrate host such as a human ( the secondary host ) , thus acting as a transmission vector . A sporozoite travels through the blood vessels to liver cells ( hepatocytes ) , where it reproduces asexually ( tissue schizogony ) , producing thousands of merozoites . These infect new red blood cells and initiate a series of asexual multiplication cycles ( blood schizogony ) that produce 8 to 24 new infective merozoites , at which point the cells burst and the infective cycle begins anew .
Other merozoites develop into immature gametocytes , which are the precursors of male and female gametes . When a fertilised mosquito bites an infected person , gametocytes are taken up with the blood and mature in the mosquito gut . The male and female gametocytes fuse and form an ookinete — a fertilized , motile zygote . Ookinetes develop into new sporozoites that migrate to the insect 's salivary glands , ready to infect a new vertebrate host . The sporozoites are injected into the skin , in the saliva , when the mosquito takes a subsequent blood meal .
Only female mosquitoes feed on blood ; male mosquitoes feed on plant nectar , and do not transmit the disease . The females of the Anopheles genus of mosquito prefer to feed at night . They usually start searching for a meal at dusk , and will continue throughout the night until taking a meal . Malaria parasites can also be transmitted by blood transfusions , although this is rare .
= = = Recurrent malaria = = =
Symptoms of malaria can recur after varying symptom @-@ free periods . Depending upon the cause , recurrence can be classified as either recrudescence , relapse , or reinfection . Recrudescence is when symptoms return after a symptom @-@ free period . It is caused by parasites surviving in the blood as a result of inadequate or ineffective treatment . Relapse is when symptoms reappear after the parasites have been eliminated from blood but persist as dormant hypnozoites in liver cells . Relapse commonly occurs between 8 – 24 weeks and is commonly seen with P. vivax and P. ovale infections . P. vivax malaria cases in temperate areas often involve overwintering by hypnozoites , with relapses beginning the year after the mosquito bite . Reinfection means the parasite that caused the past infection was eliminated from the body but a new parasite was introduced . Reinfection cannot readily be distinguished from recrudescence , although recurrence of infection within two weeks of treatment for the initial infection is typically attributed to treatment failure . People may develop some immunity when exposed to frequent infections .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Malaria infection develops via two phases : one that involves the liver ( exoerythrocytic phase ) , and one that involves red blood cells , or erythrocytes ( erythrocytic phase ) . When an infected mosquito pierces a person 's skin to take a blood meal , sporozoites in the mosquito 's saliva enter the bloodstream and migrate to the liver where they infect hepatocytes , multiplying asexually and asymptomatically for a period of 8 – 30 days .
After a potential dormant period in the liver , these organisms differentiate to yield thousands of merozoites , which , following rupture of their host cells , escape into the blood and infect red blood cells to begin the erythrocytic stage of the life cycle . The parasite escapes from the liver undetected by wrapping itself in the cell membrane of the infected host liver cell .
Within the red blood cells , the parasites multiply further , again asexually , periodically breaking out of their host cells to invade fresh red blood cells . Several such amplification cycles occur . Thus , classical descriptions of waves of fever arise from simultaneous waves of merozoites escaping and infecting red blood cells .
Some P. vivax sporozoites do not immediately develop into exoerythrocytic @-@ phase merozoites , but instead produce hypnozoites that remain dormant for periods ranging from several months ( 7 – 10 months is typical ) to several years . After a period of dormancy , they reactivate and produce merozoites . Hypnozoites are responsible for long incubation and late relapses in P. vivax infections , although their existence in P. ovale is uncertain .
The parasite is relatively protected from attack by the body 's immune system because for most of its human life cycle it resides within the liver and blood cells and is relatively invisible to immune surveillance . However , circulating infected blood cells are destroyed in the spleen . To avoid this fate , the P. falciparum parasite displays adhesive proteins on the surface of the infected blood cells , causing the blood cells to stick to the walls of small blood vessels , thereby sequestering the parasite from passage through the general circulation and the spleen . The blockage of the microvasculature causes symptoms such as in placental malaria . Sequestered red blood cells can breach the blood – brain barrier and cause cerebral malaria .
= = = Genetic resistance = = =
According to a 2005 review , due to the high levels of mortality and morbidity caused by malaria — especially the P. falciparum species — it has placed the greatest selective pressure on the human genome in recent history . Several genetic factors provide some resistance to it including sickle cell trait , thalassaemia traits , glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency , and the absence of Duffy antigens on red blood cells .
The impact of sickle cell trait on malaria immunity illustrates some evolutionary trade @-@ offs that have occurred because of endemic malaria . Sickle cell trait causes a change in the hemoglobin molecule in the blood . Normally , red blood cells have a very flexible , biconcave shape that allows them to move through narrow capillaries ; however , when the modified hemoglobin S molecules are exposed to low amounts of oxygen , or crowd together due to dehydration , they can stick together forming strands that cause the cell to sickle or distort into a curved shape . In these strands the molecule is not as effective in taking or releasing oxygen , and the cell is not flexible enough to circulate freely . In the early stages of malaria , the parasite can cause infected red cells to sickle , and so they are removed from circulation sooner . This reduces the frequency with which malaria parasites complete their life cycle in the cell . Individuals who are homozygous ( with two copies of the abnormal hemoglobin beta allele ) have sickle @-@ cell anaemia , while those who are heterozygous ( with one abnormal allele and one normal allele ) experience resistance to malaria without severe anemia . Although the shorter life expectancy for those with the homozygous condition would tend to disfavor the trait 's survival , the trait is preserved in malaria @-@ prone regions because of the benefits provided by the heterozygous form .
= = = Liver dysfunction = = =
Liver dysfunction as a result of malaria is uncommon and usually only occurs in those with another liver condition such as viral hepatitis or chronic liver disease . The syndrome is sometimes called malarial hepatitis . While it has been considered a rare occurrence , malarial hepatopathy has seen an increase , particularly in Southeast Asia and India . Liver compromise in people with malaria correlates with a greater likelihood of complications and death .
= = Diagnosis = =
Owing to the non @-@ specific nature of the presentation of symptoms , diagnosis of malaria in non @-@ endemic areas requires a high degree of suspicion , which might be elicited by any of the following : recent travel history , enlarged spleen , fever , low number of platelets in the blood , and higher @-@ than @-@ normal levels of bilirubin in the blood combined with a normal level of white blood cells .
Malaria is usually confirmed by the microscopic examination of blood films or by antigen @-@ based rapid diagnostic tests ( RDT ) . In some areas , RDTs need to be able to distinguish whether the malaria symptoms are caused by Plasmodium falciparum or by other species of parasites since treatment strategies could differ for non @-@ falciparum infections . Microscopy is the most commonly used method to detect the malarial parasite — about 165 million blood films were examined for malaria in 2010 . Despite its widespread usage , diagnosis by microscopy suffers from two main drawbacks : many settings ( especially rural ) are not equipped to perform the test , and the accuracy of the results depends on both the skill of the person examining the blood film and the levels of the parasite in the blood . The sensitivity of blood films ranges from 75 – 90 % in optimum conditions , to as low as 50 % . Commercially available RDTs are often more accurate than blood films at predicting the presence of malaria parasites , but they are widely variable in diagnostic sensitivity and specificity depending on manufacturer , and are unable to tell how many parasites are present .
In regions where laboratory tests are readily available , malaria should be suspected , and tested for , in any unwell person who has been in an area where malaria is endemic . In areas that cannot afford laboratory diagnostic tests , it has become common to use only a history of fever as the indication to treat for malaria — thus the common teaching " fever equals malaria unless proven otherwise " . A drawback of this practice is overdiagnosis of malaria and mismanagement of non @-@ malarial fever , which wastes limited resources , erodes confidence in the health care system , and contributes to drug resistance . Although polymerase chain reaction @-@ based tests have been developed , they are not widely used in areas where malaria is common as of 2012 , due to their complexity .
= = = Classification = = =
Malaria is classified into either " severe " or " uncomplicated " by the World Health Organization ( WHO ) . It is deemed severe when any of the following criteria are present , otherwise it is considered uncomplicated .
Decreased consciousness
Significant weakness such that the person is unable to walk
Inability to feed
Two or more convulsions
Low blood pressure ( less than 70 mmHg in adults and 50 mmHg in children )
Breathing problems
Circulatory shock
Kidney failure or hemoglobin in the urine
Bleeding problems , or hemoglobin less than 50 g / L ( 5 g / dL )
Pulmonary oedema
Blood glucose less than 2 @.@ 2 mmol / L ( 40 mg / dL )
Acidosis or lactate levels of greater than 5 mmol / L
A parasite level in the blood of greater than 100 @,@ 000 per microlitre ( µL ) in low @-@ intensity transmission areas , or 250 @,@ 000 per µL in high @-@ intensity transmission areas
Cerebral malaria is defined as a severe P. falciparum @-@ malaria presenting with neurological symptoms , including coma ( with a Glasgow coma scale less than 11 , or a Blantyre coma scale greater than 3 ) , or with a coma that lasts longer than 30 minutes after a seizure .
Various types of malaria have been called by the names below :
= = Prevention = =
Methods used to prevent malaria include medications , mosquito elimination and the prevention of bites . There is no vaccine for malaria . The presence of malaria in an area requires a combination of high human population density , high anopheles mosquito population density and high rates of transmission from humans to mosquitoes and from mosquitoes to humans . If any of these is lowered sufficiently , the parasite will eventually disappear from that area , as happened in North America , Europe and parts of the Middle East . However , unless the parasite is eliminated from the whole world , it could become re @-@ established if conditions revert to a combination that favours the parasite 's reproduction . Furthermore , the cost per person of eliminating anopheles mosquitoes rises with decreasing population density , making it economically unfeasible in some areas .
Prevention of malaria may be more cost @-@ effective than treatment of the disease in the long run , but the initial costs required are out of reach of many of the world 's poorest people . There is a wide difference in the costs of control ( i.e. maintenance of low endemicity ) and elimination programs between countries . For example , in China — whose government in 2010 announced a strategy to pursue malaria elimination in the Chinese provinces — the required investment is a small proportion of public expenditure on health . In contrast , a similar program in Tanzania would cost an estimated one @-@ fifth of the public health budget .
In areas where malaria is common , children under five years old often have anemia which is sometimes due to malaria . Giving children with anemia in these areas preventive antimalarial medication improves red blood cell levels slightly but did not affect the risk of death or need for hospitalization .
= = = Mosquito control = = =
Vector control refers to methods used to decrease malaria by reducing the levels of transmission by mosquitoes . For individual protection , the most effective insect repellents are based on DEET or picaridin . Insecticide @-@ treated mosquito nets ( ITNs ) and indoor residual spraying ( IRS ) have been shown to be highly effective in preventing malaria among children in areas where malaria is common . Prompt treatment of confirmed cases with artemisinin @-@ based combination therapies ( ACTs ) may also reduce transmission .
Mosquito nets help keep mosquitoes away from people and reduce infection rates and transmission of malaria . Nets are not a perfect barrier and are often treated with an insecticide designed to kill the mosquito before it has time to find a way past the net . Insecticide @-@ treated nets are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets and offer greater than 70 % protection compared with no net . Between 2000 and 2008 , the use of ITNs saved the lives of an estimated 250 @,@ 000 infants in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . About 13 % of households in Sub @-@ Saharan countries owned ITNs in 2007 and 31 % of African households were estimated to own at least one ITN in 2008 . In 2000 , 1 @.@ 7 million ( 1 @.@ 8 % ) African children living in areas of the world where malaria is common were protected by an ITN . That number increased to 20 @.@ 3 million ( 18 @.@ 5 % ) African children using ITNs in 2007 , leaving 89 @.@ 6 million children unprotected and to 68 % African children using mosquito nets in 2015 . Most nets are impregnated with pyrethroids , a class of insecticides with low toxicity . They are most effective when used from dusk to dawn . It is recommended to hang a large " bed net " above the center of a bed and either tuck the edges under the mattress or make sure it is large enough such that it touches the ground .
Indoor residual spraying is the spraying of insecticides on the walls inside a home . After feeding , many mosquitoes rest on a nearby surface while digesting the bloodmeal , so if the walls of houses have been coated with insecticides , the resting mosquitoes can be killed before they can bite another person and transfer the malaria parasite . As of 2006 , the World Health Organization recommends 12 insecticides in IRS operations , including DDT and the pyrethroids cyfluthrin and deltamethrin . This public health use of small amounts of DDT is permitted under the Stockholm Convention , which prohibits its agricultural use . One problem with all forms of IRS is insecticide resistance . Mosquitoes affected by IRS tend to rest and live indoors , and due to the irritation caused by spraying , their descendants tend to rest and live outdoors , meaning that they are less affected by the IRS .
There are a number of other methods to reduce mosquito bites and slow the spread of malaria . Efforts to decrease mosquito larva by decreasing the availability of open water in which they develop or by adding substances to decrease their development is effective in some locations . Electronic mosquito repellent devices which make very high frequency sounds that are supposed to keep female mosquitoes away , do not have supporting evidence .
= = = Other methods = = =
Community participation and health education strategies promoting awareness of malaria and the importance of control measures have been successfully used to reduce the incidence of malaria in some areas of the developing world . Recognizing the disease in the early stages can stop the disease from becoming fatal . Education can also inform people to cover over areas of stagnant , still water , such as water tanks that are ideal breeding grounds for the parasite and mosquito , thus cutting down the risk of the transmission between people . This is generally used in urban areas where there are large centers of population in a confined space and transmission would be most likely in these areas . Intermittent preventive therapy is another intervention that has been used successfully to control malaria in pregnant women and infants , and in preschool children where transmission is seasonal .
= = = Medications = = =
There are a number of drugs that can help prevent or interrupt malaria in travelers to places where infection is common . Many of these drugs are also used in treatment . Chloroquine may be used where chloroquine @-@ resistant parasites are not common . In places where Plasmodium is resistant to one or more medications , three medications — mefloquine ( Lariam ) , doxycycline ( available generically ) , or the combination of atovaquone and proguanil hydrochloride ( Malarone ) — are frequently used when prophylaxis is needed . Doxycycline and the atovaquone plus proguanil combination are the best tolerated ; mefloquine is associated with death , suicide , and neurological and psychiatric symptoms .
The protective effect does not begin immediately , and people visiting areas where malaria exists usually start taking the drugs one to two weeks before arriving and continue taking them for four weeks after leaving ( except for atovaquone / proguanil , which only needs to be started two days before and continued for seven days afterward ) . The use of preventative drugs is often not practical for those who live in areas where malaria exists , and their use is usually only in pregnant women and short @-@ term visitors . This is due to the cost of the drugs , side effects from long @-@ term use , and the difficulty in obtaining anti @-@ malarial drugs outside of wealthy nations . During pregnancy , medication to prevent malaria has been found to improve the weight of the baby at birth and decrease the risk of anemia in the mother . The use of preventative drugs where malaria @-@ bearing mosquitoes are present may encourage the development of partial resistance .
= = Treatment = =
Malaria is treated with antimalarial medications ; the ones used depends on the type and severity of the disease . While medications against fever are commonly used , their effects on outcomes are not clear .
Simple or uncomplicated malaria may be treated with oral medications . The most effective treatment for P. falciparum infection is the use of artemisinins in combination with other antimalarials ( known as artemisinin @-@ combination therapy , or ACT ) , which decreases resistance to any single drug component . These additional antimalarials include : amodiaquine , lumefantrine , mefloquine or sulfadoxine / pyrimethamine . Another recommended combination is dihydroartemisinin and piperaquine . ACT is about 90 % effective when used to treat uncomplicated malaria . To treat malaria during pregnancy , the WHO recommends the use of quinine plus clindamycin early in the pregnancy ( 1st trimester ) , and ACT in later stages ( 2nd and 3rd trimesters ) . In the 2000s ( decade ) , malaria with partial resistance to artemisins emerged in Southeast Asia . Infection with P. vivax , P. ovale or P. malariae usually do not require hospitalization . Treatment of P. vivax requires both treatment of blood stages ( with chloroquine or ACT ) and clearance of liver forms with primaquine . Treatment with tafenoquine prevents relapses after confirmed P. vivax malaria .
Severe and complicated malaria are almost always caused by infection with P. falciparum . The other species usually cause only febrile disease . Severe and complicated malaria are medical emergencies since mortality rates are high ( 10 % to 50 % ) . Cerebral malaria is the form of severe and complicated malaria with the worst neurological symptoms . Recommended treatment for severe malaria is the intravenous use of antimalarial drugs . For severe malaria , parenteral artesunate was superior to quinine in both children and adults . In another systematic review , artemisinin derivatives ( artemether and arteether ) were as efficacious as quinine in the treatment of cerebral malaria in children . Treatment of severe malaria involves supportive measures that are best done in a critical care unit . This includes the management of high fevers and the seizures that may result from it . It also includes monitoring for poor breathing effort , low blood sugar , and low blood potassium .
= = = Resistance = = =
Drug resistance poses a growing problem in 21st @-@ century malaria treatment . Resistance is now common against all classes of antimalarial drugs apart from artemisinins . Treatment of resistant strains became increasingly dependent on this class of drugs . The cost of artemisinins limits their use in the developing world . Malaria strains found on the Cambodia – Thailand border are resistant to combination therapies that include artemisinins , and may therefore be untreatable . Exposure of the parasite population to artemisinin monotherapies in subtherapeutic doses for over 30 years and the availability of substandard artemisinins likely drove the selection of the resistant phenotype . Resistance to artemisinin has been detected in Cambodia , Myanmar , Thailand , and Vietnam , and there has been emerging resistance in Laos .
= = Prognosis = =
When properly treated , people with malaria can usually expect a complete recovery . However , severe malaria can progress extremely rapidly and cause death within hours or days . In the most severe cases of the disease , fatality rates can reach 20 % , even with intensive care and treatment . Over the longer term , developmental impairments have been documented in children who have suffered episodes of severe malaria . Chronic infection without severe disease can occur in an immune @-@ deficiency syndrome associated with a decreased responsiveness to Salmonella bacteria and the Epstein – Barr virus .
During childhood , malaria causes anemia during a period of rapid brain development , and also direct brain damage resulting from cerebral malaria . Some survivors of cerebral malaria have an increased risk of neurological and cognitive deficits , behavioural disorders , and epilepsy . Malaria prophylaxis was shown to improve cognitive function and school performance in clinical trials when compared to placebo groups .
= = Epidemiology = =
The WHO estimates that in 2010 there were 219 million cases of malaria resulting in 660 @,@ 000 deaths . Others have estimated the number of cases at between 350 and 550 million for falciparum malaria and deaths in 2010 at 1 @.@ 24 million up from 1 @.@ 0 million deaths in 1990 . The majority of cases ( 65 % ) occur in children under 15 years old . About 125 million pregnant women are at risk of infection each year ; in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa , maternal malaria is associated with up to 200 @,@ 000 estimated infant deaths yearly . There are about 10 @,@ 000 malaria cases per year in Western Europe , and 1300 – 1500 in the United States . About 900 people died from the disease in Europe between 1993 and 2003 . Both the global incidence of disease and resulting mortality have declined in recent years . According to the WHO and UNICEF , deaths attributable to malaria in 2015 were reduced by 60 % from a 2000 estimate of 985 @,@ 000 , largely due to the widespread use of insecticide @-@ treated nets and artemisinin @-@ based combination therapies . In 2012 , there were 207 million cases of malaria . That year , the disease is estimated to have killed between 473 @,@ 000 and 789 @,@ 000 people , many of whom were children in Africa . Efforts at decreasing the disease in Africa since the turn of millennium have been partially effective , with rates of the disease dropping by an estimated forty percent on the continent .
Malaria is presently endemic in a broad band around the equator , in areas of the Americas , many parts of Asia , and much of Africa ; in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa , 85 – 90 % of malaria fatalities occur . An estimate for 2009 reported that countries with the highest death rate per 100 @,@ 000 of population were Ivory Coast ( 86 @.@ 15 ) , Angola ( 56 @.@ 93 ) and Burkina Faso ( 50 @.@ 66 ) . A 2010 estimate indicated the deadliest countries per population were Burkina Faso , Mozambique and Mali . The Malaria Atlas Project aims to map global endemic levels of malaria , providing a means with which to determine the global spatial limits of the disease and to assess disease burden . This effort led to the publication of a map of P. falciparum endemicity in 2010 . As of 2010 , about 100 countries have endemic malaria . Every year , 125 million international travellers visit these countries , and more than 30 @,@ 000 contract the disease .
The geographic distribution of malaria within large regions is complex , and malaria @-@ afflicted and malaria @-@ free areas are often found close to each other . Malaria is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions because of rainfall , consistent high temperatures and high humidity , along with stagnant waters in which mosquito larvae readily mature , providing them with the environment they need for continuous breeding . In drier areas , outbreaks of malaria have been predicted with reasonable accuracy by mapping rainfall . Malaria is more common in rural areas than in cities . For example , several cities in the Greater Mekong Subregion of Southeast Asia are essentially malaria @-@ free , but the disease is prevalent in many rural regions , including along international borders and forest fringes . In contrast , malaria in Africa is present in both rural and urban areas , though the risk is lower in the larger cities .
= = History = =
Although the parasite responsible for P. falciparum malaria has been in existence for 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 years , the population size of the parasite did not increase until about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , concurrently with advances in agriculture and the development of human settlements . Close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees . Some evidence suggests that the P. falciparum malaria may have originated in gorillas .
References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout recorded history . Hippocrates described periodic fevers , labelling them tertian , quartan , subtertian and quotidian . The Roman Columella associated the disease with insects from swamps . Malaria may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire , and was so pervasive in Rome that it was known as the " Roman fever " . Several regions in ancient Rome were considered at @-@ risk for the disease because of the favourable conditions present for malaria vectors . This included areas such as southern Italy , the island of Sardinia , the Pontine Marshes , the lower regions of coastal Etruria and the city of Rome along the Tiber River . The presence of stagnant water in these places was preferred by mosquitoes for breeding grounds . Irrigated gardens , swamp @-@ like grounds , runoff from agriculture , and drainage problems from road construction led to the increase of standing water .
The term malaria originates from Medieval Italian : mala aria — " bad air " ; the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marshland . The term first appeared in the English literature about 1829 . Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America , where it is no longer endemic , though imported cases do occur .
Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880 , when Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran — a French army doctor working in the military hospital of Constantine in Algeria — observed parasites inside the red blood cells of infected people for the first time . He therefore proposed that malaria is caused by this organism , the first time a protist was identified as causing disease . For this and later discoveries , he was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine . A year later , Carlos Finlay , a Cuban doctor treating people with yellow fever in Havana , provided strong evidence that mosquitoes were transmitting disease to and from humans . This work followed earlier suggestions by Josiah C. Nott , and work by Sir Patrick Manson , the " father of tropical medicine " , on the transmission of filariasis .
In April 1894 , a Scottish physician Sir Ronald Ross visited Sir Patrick Manson at his house on Queen Anne Street , London . This visit was the start of four years of collaboration and fervent research that culminated in 1898 when Ross , who was working in the Presidency General Hospital in Calcutta , proved the complete life @-@ cycle of the malaria parasite in mosquitoes . He thus proved that the mosquito was the vector for malaria in humans by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds . He isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds . For this work , Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine . After resigning from the Indian Medical Service , Ross worked at the newly established Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and directed malaria @-@ control efforts in Egypt , Panama , Greece and Mauritius . The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900 . Its recommendations were implemented by William C. Gorgas in the health measures undertaken during construction of the Panama Canal . This public @-@ health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public @-@ health campaigns against the disease .
The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of cinchona tree , which contains quinine . This tree grows on the slopes of the Andes , mainly in Peru . The indigenous peoples of Peru made a tincture of cinchona to control fever . Its effectiveness against malaria was found and the Jesuits introduced the treatment to Europe around 1640 ; by 1677 , it was included in the London Pharmacopoeia as an antimalarial treatment . It was not until 1820 that the active ingredient , quinine , was extracted from the bark , isolated and named by the French chemists Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou .
Quinine became the predominant malarial medication until the 1920s , when other medications began to be developed . In the 1940s , chloroquine replaced quinine as the treatment of both uncomplicated and severe malaria until resistance supervened , first in Southeast Asia and South America in the 1950s and then globally in the 1980s .
The medicinal value of Artemisia annua has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2 @,@ 000 years . In 1596 , Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat malaria symptoms in his " Compendium of Materia Medica " . Artemisinins , discovered by Chinese scientist Tu Youyou and colleagues in the 1970s from the plant Artemisia annua , became the recommended treatment for P. falciparum malaria , administered in combination with other antimalarials as well as in severe disease . Tu says she was influenced by a traditional Chinese herbal medicine source , The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments , written in 340 by Ge Hong For her work on malaria , Tu Youyou received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Plasmodium vivax was used between 1917 and the 1940s for malariotherapy — deliberate injection of malaria parasites to induce fever to combat certain diseases such as tertiary syphilis . In 1927 , the inventor of this technique , Julius Wagner @-@ Jauregg , received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries . The technique was dangerous , killing about 15 % of patients , so it is no longer in use .
The first pesticide used for indoor residual spraying was DDT . Although it was initially used exclusively to combat malaria , its use quickly spread to agriculture . In time , pest control , rather than disease control , came to dominate DDT use , and this large @-@ scale agricultural use led to the evolution of resistant mosquitoes in many regions . The DDT resistance shown by Anopheles mosquitoes can be compared to antibiotic resistance shown by bacteria . During the 1960s , awareness of the negative consequences of its indiscriminate use increased , ultimately leading to bans on agricultural applications of DDT in many countries in the 1970s . Before DDT , malaria was successfully eliminated or controlled in tropical areas like Brazil and Egypt by removing or poisoning the breeding grounds of the mosquitoes or the aquatic habitats of the larva stages , for example by applying the highly toxic arsenic compound Paris Green to places with standing water .
Malaria vaccines have been an elusive goal of research . The first promising studies demonstrating the potential for a malaria vaccine were performed in 1967 by immunizing mice with live , radiation @-@ attenuated sporozoites , which provided significant protection to the mice upon subsequent injection with normal , viable sporozoites . Since the 1970s , there has been a considerable effort to develop similar vaccination strategies for humans .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Economic impact = = =
Malaria is not just a disease commonly associated with poverty : some evidence suggests that it is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development . Although tropical regions are most affected , malaria 's furthest influence reaches into some temperate zones that have extreme seasonal changes . The disease has been associated with major negative economic effects on regions where it is widespread . During the late 19th and early 20th centuries , it was a major factor in the slow economic development of the American southern states .
A comparison of average per capita GDP in 1995 , adjusted for parity of purchasing power , between countries with malaria and countries without malaria gives a fivefold difference ( $ 1 @,@ 526 USD versus $ 8 @,@ 268 USD ) . In the period 1965 to 1990 , countries where malaria was common had an average per capita GDP that increased only 0 @.@ 4 % per year , compared to 2 @.@ 4 % per year in other countries .
Poverty can increase the risk of malaria , since those in poverty do not have the financial capacities to prevent or treat the disease . In its entirety , the economic impact of malaria has been estimated to cost Africa US $ 12 billion every year . The economic impact includes costs of health care , working days lost due to sickness , days lost in education , decreased productivity due to brain damage from cerebral malaria , and loss of investment and tourism . The disease has a heavy burden in some countries , where it may be responsible for 30 – 50 % of hospital admissions , up to 50 % of outpatient visits , and up to 40 % of public health spending .
Cerebral malaria is one of the leading causes of neurological disabilities in African children . Studies comparing cognitive functions before and after treatment for severe malarial illness continued to show significantly impaired school performance and cognitive abilities even after recovery . Consequently , severe and cerebral malaria have far @-@ reaching socioeconomic consequences that extend beyond the immediate effects of the disease .
= = = Counterfeit and substandard drugs = = =
Sophisticated counterfeits have been found in several Asian countries such as Cambodia , China , Indonesia , Laos , Thailand , and Vietnam , and are an important cause of avoidable death in those countries . The WHO said that studies indicate that up to 40 % of artesunate @-@ based malaria medications are counterfeit , especially in the Greater Mekong region and have established a rapid alert system to enable information about counterfeit drugs to be rapidly reported to the relevant authorities in participating countries . There is no reliable way for doctors or lay people to detect counterfeit drugs without help from a laboratory . Companies are attempting to combat the persistence of counterfeit drugs by using new technology to provide security from source to distribution .
Another clinical and public health concern is the proliferation of substandard antimalarial medicines resulting from inappropriate concentration of ingredients , contamination with other drugs or toxic impurities , poor quality ingredients , poor stability and inadequate packaging . A 2012 study demonstrated that roughly one @-@ third of antimalarial medications in Southeast Asia and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa failed chemical analysis , packaging analysis , or were falsified .
= = = War = = =
Throughout history , the contraction of malaria has played a prominent role in the fates of government rulers , nation @-@ states , military personnel , and military actions . In 1910 , Nobel Prize in Medicine @-@ winner Ronald Ross ( himself a malaria survivor ) , published a book titled The Prevention of Malaria that included a chapter titled " The Prevention of Malaria in War . " The chapter 's author , Colonel C. H. Melville , Professor of Hygiene at Royal Army Medical College in London , addressed the prominent role that malaria has historically played during wars : " The history of malaria in war might almost be taken to be the history of war itself , certainly the history of war in the Christian era . ... It is probably the case that many of the so @-@ called camp fevers , and probably also a considerable proportion of the camp dysentery , of the wars of the sixteenth , seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were malarial in origin . "
Malaria was the most important health hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War II , where about 500 @,@ 000 men were infected . According to Joseph Patrick Byrne , " Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the African and South Pacific campaigns . "
Significant financial investments have been made to procure existing and create new anti @-@ malarial agents . During World War I and World War II , inconsistent supplies of the natural anti @-@ malaria drugs cinchona bark and quinine prompted substantial funding into research and development of other drugs and vaccines . American military organizations conducting such research initiatives include the Navy Medical Research Center , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , and the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases of the US Armed Forces .
Additionally , initiatives have been founded such as Malaria Control in War Areas ( MCWA ) , established in 1942 , and its successor , the Communicable Disease Center ( now known as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , or CDC ) established in 1946 . According to the CDC , MCWA " was established to control malaria around military training bases in the southern United States and its territories , where malaria was still problematic " .
= = = Eradication efforts = = =
Several notable attempts are being made to eliminate the parasite from sections of the world , or to eradicate it worldwide . In 2006 , the organization Malaria No More set a public goal of eliminating malaria from Africa by 2015 , and the organization plans to dissolve if that goal is accomplished . Several malaria vaccines are in clinical trials , which are intended to provide protection for children in endemic areas and reduce the speed of transmission of the disease . As of 2012 , The Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria has distributed 230 million insecticide @-@ treated nets intended to stop mosquito @-@ borne transmission of malaria . The U.S.-based Clinton Foundation has worked to manage demand and stabilize prices in the artemisinin market . Other efforts , such as the Malaria Atlas Project , focus on analysing climate and weather information required to accurately predict the spread of malaria based on the availability of habitat of malaria @-@ carrying parasites . The Malaria Policy Advisory Committee ( MPAC ) of the World Health Organization ( WHO ) was formed in 2012 , " to provide strategic advice and technical input to WHO on all aspects of malaria control and elimination " . In November 2013 , WHO and the malaria vaccine funders group set a goal to develop vaccines designed to interrupt malaria transmission with the long @-@ term goal of malaria eradication .
Malaria has been successfully eliminated or greatly reduced in certain areas . Malaria was once common in the United States and southern Europe , but vector control programs , in conjunction with the monitoring and treatment of infected humans , eliminated it from those regions . Several factors contributed , such as the draining of wetland breeding grounds for agriculture and other changes in water management practices , and advances in sanitation , including greater use of glass windows and screens in dwellings . Malaria was eliminated from most parts of the USA in the early 20th century by such methods , and the use of the pesticide DDT and other means eliminated it from the remaining pockets in the South in the 1950s . ( see National Malaria Eradication Program ) In Suriname , the disease has been cleared from its capital city and coastal areas through a three @-@ pronged approach initiated by the Global Malaria Eradication program in 1955 , involving : vector control through the use of DDT and IRS ; regular collection of blood smears from the population to identify existing malaria cases ; and providing chemotherapy to all affected individuals . Bhutan is pursuing an aggressive malaria elimination strategy , and has achieved a 98 @.@ 7 % decline in microscopy @-@ confirmed cases from 1994 to 2010 . In addition to vector control techniques such as IRS in high @-@ risk areas and thorough distribution of long @-@ lasting ITNs , factors such as economic development and increasing access to health services have contributed to Bhutan 's successes in reducing malaria incidence . The UK 's Department for International Development and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation will spend $ 4.5bn over five years from 2016 in an effort to end deaths caused by the disease .
= = Research = =
The Malaria Eradication Research Agenda ( malERA ) initiative was a consultative process to identify which areas of research and development ( R & D ) needed to be addressed for the worldwide eradication of malaria .
= = = Vaccine = = =
Immunity ( or , more accurately , tolerance ) to P. falciparum malaria does occur naturally , but only in response to years of repeated infection . An individual can be protected from a P. falciparum infection if they receive about a thousand bites from mosquitoes that carry a version of the parasite rendered non @-@ infective by a dose of X @-@ ray irradiation . An effective vaccine is not yet available for malaria , although several are under development . The highly polymorphic nature of many P. falciparum proteins results in significant challenges to vaccine design . Vaccine candidates that target antigens on gametes , zygotes , or ookinetes in the mosquito midgut aim to block the transmission of malaria . These transmission @-@ blocking vaccines induce antibodies in the human blood ; when a mosquito takes a blood meal from a protected individual , these antibodies prevent the parasite from completing its development in the mosquito . Other vaccine candidates , targeting the blood @-@ stage of the parasite 's life cycle , have been inadequate on their own . For example , SPf66 was tested extensively in areas where the disease is common in the 1990s , but trials showed it to be insufficiently effective . Several potential vaccines targeting the pre @-@ erythrocytic stage of the parasite 's life cycle are being developed , with RTS , S as a leading candidate ; it is expected to be licensed in 2015 . A US biotech company , Sanaria , is developing a pre @-@ erythrocytic attenuated vaccine called PfSPZ that uses whole sporozoites to induce an immune response . In 2006 , the Malaria Vaccine Advisory Committee to the WHO outlined a " Malaria Vaccine Technology Roadmap " that has as one of its landmark objectives to " develop and license a first @-@ generation malaria vaccine that has a protective efficacy of more than 50 % against severe disease and death and lasts longer than one year " by 2015 .
= = = Medications = = =
Malaria parasites contain apicoplasts , organelles usually found in plants , complete with their own genomes . These apicoplasts are thought to have originated through the endosymbiosis of algae and play a crucial role in various aspects of parasite metabolism , such as fatty acid biosynthesis . Over 400 proteins have been found to be produced by apicoplasts and these are now being investigated as possible targets for novel anti @-@ malarial drugs .
With the onset of drug @-@ resistant Plasmodium parasites , new strategies are being developed to combat the widespread disease . One such approach lies in the introduction of synthetic pyridoxal @-@ amino acid adducts , which are taken up by the parasite and ultimately interfere with its ability to create several essential B vitamins . Antimalarial drugs using synthetic metal @-@ based complexes are attracting research interest .
( + ) -SJ733 : Part of a wider class of experimental drugs called spiroindolone . It inhibits the ATP4 protein of infected red blood cells that cause the cells to shrink and become rigid like the aging cells . This triggers the immune system to eliminate the infected cells from the system as demonstrated in a mouse model . As of 2014 , a Phase 1 clinical trial to assess the safety profile in human is planned by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute .
NITD246 and NITD609 : Also belonged to the class of spiroindolone and target the ATP4 protein .
= = = Other = = =
A non @-@ chemical vector control strategy involves genetic manipulation of malaria mosquitoes . Advances in genetic engineering technologies make it possible to introduce foreign DNA into the mosquito genome and either decrease the lifespan of the mosquito , or make it more resistant to the malaria parasite . Sterile insect technique is a genetic control method whereby large numbers of sterile male mosquitoes are reared and released . Mating with wild females reduces the wild population in the subsequent generation ; repeated releases eventually eliminate the target population .
Genomics is central to malaria research . With the sequencing of P. falciparum , one of its vectors Anopheles gambiae , and the human genome , the genetics of all three organisms in the malaria lifecycle can be studied . Another new application of genetic technology is the ability to produce genetically modified mosquitoes that do not transmit malaria , potentially allowing biological control of malaria transmission .
In one study , a genetically @-@ modified strain of Anopheles stephensi was created that no longer supported malaria transmission , and this resistance was passed down to mosquito offspring .
Gene drive is a technique for changing wild populations , for instance to combat insects so they cannot transmit diseases ( in particular mosquitoes in the cases of malaria and zika ) .
= = Other animals = =
Nearly 200 parasitic Plasmodium species have been identified that infect birds , reptiles , and other mammals , and about 30 species naturally infect non @-@ human primates . Some malaria parasites that affect non @-@ human primates ( NHP ) serve as model organisms for human malarial parasites , such as P. coatneyi ( a model for P. falciparum ) and P. cynomolgi ( P. vivax ) . Diagnostic techniques used to detect parasites in NHP are similar to those employed for humans . Malaria parasites that infect rodents are widely used as models in research , such as P. berghei . Avian malaria primarily affects species of the order Passeriformes , and poses a substantial threat to birds of Hawaii , the Galapagos , and other archipelagoes . The parasite P. relictum is known to play a role in limiting the distribution and abundance of endemic Hawaiian birds . Global warming is expected to increase the prevalence and global distribution of avian malaria , as elevated temperatures provide optimal conditions for parasite reproduction .
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= Old Blockhouse =
The Old Blockhouse , also known as the Dover Fort , is a 16th @-@ century fortification on the island of Tresco in the Isles of Scilly . It was built between 1548 and 1551 by the government of Edward VI to protect the islands against French attack .
Overlooking Old Grimsby harbour and the anchorage of St Helen 's Pool , the blockhouse would have housed a battery of two or three artillery pieces , positioned on a square gun platform on top of a rocky outcrop . An earthwork bank and a stone wall were built to protect it from attack from the beach and the landward sides respectively . A small room to provide living quarters for the garrison was later constructed on the side of the gun platform .
During the interregnum following the English Civil War , the Old Blockhouse was occupied by the Royalists and it was attacked by the Parliamentary forces of Sir Robert Blake in 1651 . Blake 's naval guns out @-@ ranged those of the fort , and , after fierce fighting , the blockhouse was taken . A battery of guns was maintained at the blockhouse until at least the 1750s , but by the end of the 18th century the fortification was disused and in ruins .
After 1922 the blockhouse was placed into the guardianship of the state by the lessee of the island , Arthur Dorrien @-@ Smith , and in the 21st century it is controlled by English Heritage and open to tourists . It is protected as a scheduled monument under UK law .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
The Old Blockhouse was built between 1548 and 1551 to protect the Scilly Isles against French attack . Tensions with France had grown during the reign of Henry VIII and spilled over into war in 1538 . Henry initially responded by fortifying the coasts of England , constructing new artillery forts designed to defend against the longer @-@ range cannons that were becoming common in the 16th century . Henry 's son , the nine @-@ year @-@ old Edward VI , inherited the throne in 1547 , facing renewed war with France . Edward Seymour was made the Lord Protector to the King , and he appointed his brother , Thomas , as England 's Lord Admiral . Thomas inspected the Scilly Isles personally and concluded that they were vulnerable to a French invasion .
As a result of the inspection , Sir Francis Flemming , the Lieutenant @-@ General of the Ordnance , was tasked in February 1558 to improve the defences on the islands , supported by a shipment of lead to help with construction , and money raised from the dissolution of the monasteries in England . The building work initially focused on the island of Tresco and was carried out under the direction of John Killigrew , the captain of Pendennis Castle in Falmouth . Tresco was in need of modern defences , but Killigrew also wanted to use the work programme to increase his political influence on the island .
The Old Blockhouse was built as part of this programme of work . The blockhouse was positioned on high ground to protect the Old Grimsby harbour , overlooking both the harbour and the nearby anchorage of St Helen 's Pool . When complete , it would have held a battery of two to three guns , which could have fired on targets attempting to enter the harbour , or engaged ships approaching the Scilly Isles from the north @-@ east .
Edward Seymour fell from power in 1549 , and after his removal a new survey was carried out by Captain William Tyrell , in part to confirm that the new fortifications were suitably located across the islands . Building work across the Scilly Isles continued , expanding to include the neighbouring island of St Mary 's , and at least 540 oak trees from South Wales were dispatched to the islands in early 1550 , since the islands lacked suitable sources of timber of their own . Orders were given in 1551 to send bows , arrows and the ingredients required to make gunpowder to the islands , where construction teams were kept at work through to the end of 1552 .
The Old Blockhouse appears to have been completed , but the Crown 's resources had become badly stretched and the decision was taken at the end of 1552 to curtail further expenditure on the Scilly Isles . Between 1548 and 1552 , a total of £ 3 @,@ 123 had been spent on improving the fortifications on the islands ; a 1579 survey suggested that , with the cost of the garrisons , the project had come to a total of £ 6 @,@ 000 . Edward 's successor , Queen Mary I , intended to establish a garrison of 150 soldiers on the islands , but it is uncertain if these numbers were ever achieved .
= = = 17th century = = =
The Old Blockhouse saw military action in 1651 during the interregnum after the end of the English Civil War , making it one of the very few of England 's coastal defences to have ever seen actual fighting . The Scilly Isles were supporters of Charles I during the civil war , and after a short period in Parliamentary control rebelled in favour of Charles in 1648 . Tresco formed a base for Royalists privateers and Parliament became concerned that the Dutch , then hostile to England , might counter the piracy by occupying the islands , gaining a foothold they could then use against England . In 1651 Parliament sent Sir Robert Blake in charge of a naval task force to retake the islands .
Blake arrived at St Helen 's Pool in April 1651 and set about taking the island of Tresco , attacking the harbour of Old Grimsby and the blockhouse . Blake deployed a force of men in small boats , but they landed on the wrong island and had to be recalled to the ships . The next day the men landed on the beaches below the blockhouse ; fighting ensued and the attackers were driven back . Blake 's men made another landing which also saw fierce resistance , and the guns of the blockhouse were probably turned on the landing parties . Around 15 of the assault force were killed , but the guns of Blake 's ships guns had a longer range than those of the blockhouse and Old Grimsby fell . Blake went on to use Tresco as a basis for taking St Mary 's .
The blockhouse remained an important fortification after the invasion . Parliament invested £ 1 @,@ 050 in the islands ' defences and carried out a survey in 1652 , calling the blockhouse the " Dover Fort . In 1660 , Charles II was restored to the throne and Edward Sherburne was sent to the Scilly Isles to inspect the defences ; he recommended that repairs be carried out to the Old Blockhouse .
= = = 18th @-@ 21st centuries = = =
The Crown , in the form of the Duchy of Cornwall , leased the islands in 1687 to the Godolphin family , followed by August Smith in 1831 . The blockhouse was inspected by Christian Lilly in 1715 , on the orders of the Duke of Marlborough ; he reported that it was " very much decayed " , with only the walls standing , but recommended that it be repaired at a cost of £ 28 . The antiquary William Borlase noted during his 1752 visit that there was a battery of guns at the Old Blockhouse , guarding the harbour , but by the time that the writer John Troutbeck saw the site at the end of the century , the guns had been removed . The blockhouse walls remained in good condition , however , and Troutbeck considered that it would still have military utility if brought back into service .
In 1922 , the lease passed to Arthur Dorrien @-@ Smith , who agreed to pass several properties on Tresco , including the blockhouse , into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works . In the 21st century , the blockhouse is controlled by English Heritage , the successor to the ministry , and open to tourists . It is protected as a scheduled monument under UK law .
= = Architecture = =
The Old Blockhouse comprises a paved , square gun platform , approximately 7 metres ( 23 ft ) by 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 21 ft ) , with 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) thick , low granite walls , which were probably somewhat taller when they were first built . It is built on top of a rocky outcrop , which forms part of the lower courses of the walls , and is reached by a flight of stairs . The platform originally had embrasures on the north @-@ west and north @-@ east corners , with the walls probably forming a parapet , although it is possible there may also have been a roof to the platform .
In the south @-@ west corner of the platform is a lean @-@ to , which may have been either a powder locker or a shelter for the blockhouse watch ; a compartment in the south wall might have also been used to store ammunition . A small room , 2 @.@ 8 metres ( 9 ft 2 in ) by 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) , was added on to the west , after the construction of the main building , possibly during the English Civil War . This was equipped with windows and a fireplace , and would have formed living quarters for the troops .
An earthwork bank defends the landward side of the blockhouse , described variously as between around 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 ft 8 in ) and 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) high , similar to those found around forts of this period along the Thames River in England . There are also the remains of a defensive stone wall on the seaward side of the blockhouse , although much of the wall has been destroyed by coastal erosion .
The design of the blockhouse is conservative for the period , and echoes that of the forts built during the reign of Henry VIII . This is in contrast to the nearby fortification of Harry 's Walls , built at the same time as the blockhouse , but which adopted a more contemporary design that employed bastions .
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= Puerto Rican amazon =
The Puerto Rican amazon ( Amazona vittata ) , also known as the Puerto Rican parrot or iguaca , is the only bird endemic to the archipelago of Puerto Rico belonging to the Neotropical genus Amazona . Measuring 28 – 30 cm ( 11 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) , the bird is a predominantly green parrot with a red forehead and white rings around the eyes . Two subspecies have been described , although there are doubts regarding the distinctiveness of the form gracilipes from Culebra Island , extinct since 1912 . Its closest relatives are believed to be the Cuban amazon ( Amazona leucocephala ) and the Hispaniolan amazon ( Amazona ventralis ) .
The Puerto Rican amazon reaches sexual maturity at between three and four years of age . It reproduces once a year and is a cavity nester . Once the female lays eggs she will remain in the nest and continuously incubate them until hatching . The chicks are fed by both parents and will fledge 60 to 65 days after hatching . This parrot 's diet is varied and consists of flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar obtained from the forest canopy .
The species is the only remaining native parrot in Puerto Rico and has been listed as critically endangered by the World Conservation Union since 1994 . Once widespread and abundant , the population declined drastically in the 19th and early 20th centuries with the removal of most of its native habitat ; the species completely vanished from Vieques and Mona Island , nearby to the main island of Puerto Rico . Conservation efforts commenced in 1968 to save the bird from extinction . In 2012 , the total estimated population was 58 – 80 individuals in the wild and over 300 individuals in captivity .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The Puerto Rican amazon was described by Dutch ornithologist Pieter Boddaert in 1783 . It belongs to the large Neotropical genus Amazona , commonly known as amazons ; these birds have also been given the generic epithet of " parrot " by the American Ornithologists ' Union , hence " Puerto Rican parrot " is an alternative common name in North America . The indigenous Taíno people called it the iguaca , an onomatopoeic name that resembled the parrots ' flight call .
There are two recognized subspecies :
A. v. vittata is the nominate and only extant subspecies , inhabiting Puerto Rico and formerly nearby Vieques Island and Mona Island .
A. v. gracilipes inhabited Culebra Island and is now extinct . It is unclear whether it was substantially different from the nominate subspecies .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
There is no evidence that the West Indies were connected to a continent in the past , and thus the various native bird species are assumed to be descended from those that immigrated to the Caribbean at some point . Some small species would have encountered problems traversing large bodies of water , but parrots have flight strength and various behavioral characteristics that would facilitate " over @-@ water " dispersion . Most Caribbean bird species originate from Central , North and South America . The Amazona species found in the Caribbean are divided in two groups : five mid @-@ sized species found in the Greater Antilles and seven large species in the Lesser Antilles . All the Greater Antillean amazons display characteristics leading to suppositions of relatedness , including predominantly green @-@ toned color patterns and white rings around the eyes . Russello and Amato conclude that all Greater Antillean Amazona descend from Amazona albifrons with Amazona vittata , Amazona leucocephala , and Amazona ventralis constituting a complex , a cluster of species so closely related that they intergrade .
British ornithologist David Lack considered that the Puerto Rican amazon had evolved from the Hispaniolan amazon ( A. ventralis ) found in Hispaniola , but it has since been argued that he omitted some elements in his analysis , including the similarities found between the black @-@ billed amazon ( A. agilis ) of Jamaica and the Puerto Rican amazon . Subsequent studies showed that size and color patterns were not sufficient to assess evolutionary relationships , and that patterns changed with relative ease even within members of the same species . The research concluded that the Puerto Rican amazon may share a common ancestor with the Jamaican A. agilis . Recent phylogenetic studies show that the Puerto Rican amazon is more closely related to the Hispaniolan amazon and the Cuban amazon than to the black @-@ billed amazon .
= = Description = =
The Puerto Rican amazon measures 28 – 30 cm ( 11 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) and weighs 250 – 300 g ( 8 @.@ 8 – 10 @.@ 6 oz ) , or 275 g ( 9 @.@ 7 oz ) on average . Although small compared to amazons in general , it is similar in size to other Greater Antilles Amazona species . Sexual dimorphism is not present . Both males and females have predominantly green plumage , though their feathers have blue edges . The primary flight feathers of the wings and the main covert feathers are dark blue . The color of the feathers on the underside varies depending on the body part : the feathers on the underside of the wings , which can be seen during flight , are bright blue ; those in the tail have yellow @-@ green tone . Their underparts are paler and yellow @-@ tinged , their foreheads are red , and they have white ovals around the eyes . The iris is brown , the bill a horn color , and the legs yellow @-@ tan . Aside from DNA tests , males and females can only be distinguished by behavioral differences during the breeding season . Immature birds have plumage similar to adults .
= = Population and distribution = =
The precise distribution of the Puerto Rican amazon before the arrival of Spanish colonialists is uncertain , because of a lack of contemporary records and then the extermination of the indigenous Taíno people , but the species was apparently widespread and abundant . There is also evidence the species may have inhabited other nearby islands , such as Antigua , Barbuda and the Virgin Islands . Estimates of the parrot 's early numbers vary greatly . Some authorities claim that there were once more than a million individuals , while others suggest a more modest population of 100 @,@ 000 . During the first 150 years of Spanish rule the human population was small , and in 1650 , when the population of the island was 880 people , the species was still abundant throughout the archipelago . After 1650 , human habitation increased exponentially , and by the 18th century the Puerto Rican amazon population started to be affected . Heinrich Moritz Gaede , a German naturalist , declared that by 1836 the parrot population had noticeably declined . Even so , as late as 1864 , British ornithologist Edward Cavendish Taylor noted that the parrots were still common near the island 's capital , San Juan .
At first , human activity had not posed a significant threat to the Puerto Rican amazon . The Taíno hunted the parrot but without much effect on its population . In the past two hundred years , however , many factors have led to a drastic decrease in the birds ' numbers : agricultural development , the construction of roads , hydroelectric development , and the adoption of young chicks as pets . Especially during the latter half of the 19th century , most of Puerto Rico 's virgin forests , a historical habitat of the species , were cleared for agricultural development , primarily for the production of sugar , cotton , corn and rice . The amazon quickly came to rely on these crops as its main food source and so became seen as a pest ; local farmers repelled or hunted the bird if possible . As agriculture expanded , the amazon 's habitat disappeared further and its population declined .
The species was historically found in mature or old @-@ growth forests in Puerto Rico at all elevations , and in holes , cliffs , and other diverse habitats at lower elevations . The species could be found at medium elevations in the Guajataca State Forest ( until 1910 ) and the Rio Abajo State Forest ( until the 1920s ) , and at high elevations in the Carite State Forest ( until the 1930s ) . Accounts from the early 1900s describe the parrots traveling away from the Luquillo forest and the Sierra de Cayey towards the main island 's coast to find food . At the same time , the species was extirpated from Puerto Rico 's smaller islands — Culebra , Vieques and Mona — and became restricted to five locations : two in karst @-@ limestone areas , two in high montane rainforests and one in mangrove forest at the foot of the El Yunque National Forest . One of these karst regions , located in the northwestern part of Puerto Rico , was identified as a haven for the species . In particular , a region named Valle de las Cotorras ( Valley of the Parrots ) , located between San Sebastián and Morovis , was home to a sizable population . Some amazons survived in small pockets of degraded forest but these proved insufficient to support large colonies . Eventually their natural habitat was reduced to the Cordillera Central and undisturbed forest areas , and by 1940 they were only to be found in primary forest at the Luquillo Mountains in El Yunque National Forest . The species is currently found at elevations between 396 and 823 m ( 1 @,@ 299 and 2 @,@ 700 ft ) . Since the species requires mature forests with open @-@ cavity trees for reproduction , it does not occur in dwarf and secondary forests .
By the 1950s , there were only 200 parrots in the wild , and in 1975 the population reached an absolute low of 13 individuals . Numbers then recovered , and in August 1989 there were an estimated minimum of 47 individuals . But on September 18 , 1989 , Hurricane Hugo struck the northeast coast of Puerto Rico inflicting heavy casualties on the remaining birds . In the aftermath of the hurricane the population was estimated at 23 individuals . In 2004 , the wild population was 30 – 35 individuals , and the long @-@ term trend appears to be stable albeit with some fluctuations . The current range of the species is 16 km2 ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) , 0 @.@ 2 % of what it once was .
= = Behavior = =
The Puerto Rican amazon is diurnal , typically beginning its day half an hour after sunrise . It is generally secretive when inside its nest , using its green plumage as camouflage . In contrast , it may be vocal and noisy when outside the nest . Upon taking flight , its color pattern provides some contrast to the forest . The flight mechanism of this species is similar to the one found in other amazons , and involves strokes below the body axis , unlike most birds whose wings flow above their bodies in flight . Amazons can fly moderately fast , reaching a top speed of approximately 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) , and are fairly agile when evading predators in mid @-@ air . When in search of food , the parrots group in pairs . Couples and their fledged young display a tendency to stay together . The amazon makes two flight calls , a take @-@ off squawk which consist of a pattern of long squawks , and a loud " bugle " , commonly used in flight and which may have several meanings depending on the circumstances when it is used .
= = = Diet = = =
Like almost all amazons , the Puerto Rican amazon is a herbivore . Its diet consists of flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar obtained from the forest 's canopy . The species has been recorded to consume more than 60 different materials , although its diet was historically more varied due to its larger range . Among the items it consumes are the pericarp of the seeds of sierra palm ( Prestoea montana ) , tabonuco ( Dacryodes excelsa ) , and negra lora ( Matayba domingensis ) ; the fruits of bejuco de rana ( Marcgravia sintenisii ) , camasey ( Miconia sintenisii ) , cupey de altura ( Clusia gundlachii ) , and palo de cruz ( Rheedia portoricensis ) ; the flowers of bejuco de rana , achiotillo ( Alchornea latifolia ) , and Piptocarpha tetrantha ; the leaves and twigs of cupeillo ( Clusia grisebachiana ) , laurel sabino ( Magnolia splendens ) , caimitillo verde ( Micropholis garciniaefolia ) , and Piptocarpha tetrantha ; the bark of bejuco de rana , cupeillo , and cachimbo cumun ( Psychotria berteriana ) ; and the buds of cuaba ( Inga vera ) . It normally selects the fruits positioned directly in front of its eyes , picking them one at a time with some rare exceptions . When feeding , it uses a foot to pick up the food . The amazon feeds in a slow , paused manner taking 8 – 60 seconds to consume separate items .
= = = Breeding = = =
The Puerto Rican amazon usually mates for life , with pairs only changing mates if one bird perishes or abandons the nest . A male may abandon the female if the latter is injured , re @-@ mating with a more " physically perfect " subject . The pairing process is unknown ; however , new pairs tend to participate in mutual mating dances characterised by coordinated bows , partial extension of the wings and full tail expansion .
The Puerto Rican amazon is a secondary cavity nester , nesting in tree trunk cavities , both naturally occurring and excavated by other species . It prefers to nest in Palo colorado trees ( Cyrilla racemiflora ) , but uses other trees , including the laurel sabino ( Magnolia splendens ) and tabonuco ( Dacryodes excelsa ) , to a lesser extent . These trees are mature cavity @-@ forming trees which provide protection against predators and the entry of water . Recently , the species has also nested in artificial wooden boxes designed as part of the recovery plan for the species . Nest height varies from 7 – 15 m ( 23 – 49 ft ) above ground . The male usually leads the search for nest sites , although the final decision seems to be taken by the female . Once a site is selected , the pair will spend some time inspecting and cleaning it . No lining material is added to the nest .
The Puerto Rican amazon reaches sexual maturity at 4 years of age in the wild and at 3 years in captivity . The species usually reproduces once a year between the months of January and July ( the dry season ) . Copulation between pairs seems to be closely related to food transfers , with this possibly serving as a trigger for intercourse . Amazons have a copulation pattern similar to that found in other parrots throughout the Americas , with the male gripping a perch with one leg while passively placing the other in the female 's back . As the time for egg @-@ laying approaches the pair spends more time in the nest , with the male providing food to the female via regurgitation . The female lays 2 – 4 eggs that she exclusively incubates for a period of 24 to 28 days , while the male will be present in the vicinity of the nest when providing food . Females only leave the nest on rare occasions involving repelling predators or if the male has not brought food in an extended time frame . The chicks are fed by both parents until they leave the nest , usually 60 to 65 days after they hatch . Nonetheless , they remain dependent on their parents and travel with them until the next breeding season .
Like other amazons , the Puerto Rican amazon is gregarious while performing daily activities , but territorial around its nest . The size of the territory around the nest is usually around 50 meters ( 164 feet ) . Pairs are extremely cautious near their nest , usually moving in a slow manner when leaving the nest to avoid the attention of predators . Although territorial defense is mostly composed of loud vocalizations there are instances of actual physical combat . Pairs will defend their nest sites against invading couples , sometimes focusing on the location 's defense instead of egg @-@ laying . Pairs nesting in areas uninhabited by other parrots will remain mostly silent unless other parrots enter the zone . Some pairs may display moderate territoriality even when not apparently intending to nest , with these tendencies beginning in the latter half of the breeding season . One hypothesis is that this would occur in young pairs that had still not reached full maturity , serving as " practice territoriality " .
= = Threats and conservation = =
On March 11 , 1967 , the Puerto Rican amazon entered the United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species . At the time of inclusion the population was estimated at 70 individuals . In 1968 , recovery efforts began to increase the population in the wild . In 1972 , when the estimated population was 16 individuals , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) at the Luquillo Aviary began efforts to breed parrots in captivity and yielded good results . In June 2006 , it was reported by the USFWS that its birds in captivity had successfully hatched 39 chicks ( the yearly average is around 16 ) . In 2006 , 22 birds were released in the Rio Abajo State Forest to initiate a second wild population , and a further 19 were released at the same site on 27 December 2008 .
The World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) lists the Puerto Rican amazon as a critically endangered species since 1994 . The species is regulated under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts .
= = = Threats = = =
Human activity is arguably the main reason for the population decline of the Puerto Rican amazon . Early settlers of Puerto Rico , such as the Taíno , hunted it for food consumption but managed to maintain a healthy ecological balance . Later , habitat destruction , capture of immature individuals for the pet industry , hunting and predation contributed to the sharp population decline . The clearing of mature forests for agricultural development is the main reason for the decline of population .
Natural predators of the Puerto Rican amazon include the red @-@ tailed hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis ) , the broad @-@ winged hawk ( Buteo platypterus ) , the peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) and the pearly @-@ eyed thrasher ( Margarops fuscatus ) . The thrasher invaded Puerto Rico in the mid @-@ 20th century and has been a problem for the parrot population since 1973 ; to combat this , specially designed deep nests were prepared for the parrots in subsequent years to prevent competition from the invaders . Introduced honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) , the related Hispaniolan amazon ( Amazona ventralis ) , black rats ( Rattus rattus ) and Indian mongooses ( Herpestes javanicus ) may compete for nesting cavities , and the latter two may eat eggs and chicks .
Natural disasters , such as hurricanes , were not a threat to the Puerto Rican parrot population when it was more readily self @-@ maintaining , but as a result of the fragmentation and reduction of the population these disasters are now a threat as well . Hurricane Hugo passed through the species ' range in September 1989 , and reduced the population from 47 to 23 individuals .
= = = Recovery plan = = =
In response to the Puerto Rican amazon 's low population and endangered status , a recovery plan was drafted and implemented in 1968 . Its main objective was to downlist the species to threatened status by the year 2020 . Other objectives included establishing two separate viable wild populations ( each of which would consist of 500 or more individuals for a period of at least five years ) , protecting habitat for those populations , and controlling predators , parasites and competitors . A third site was planned in 2011 by the Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex . As part of the conservation efforts , a captive population was established in the Luquillo Aviary in 1973 . Another was established in 1993 when some individuals were transferred from the Luquillo Aviary to the Rio Abajo State Forest under the administration of the Puerto Rican Department of Natural Resources ( Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales ) . In 2007 , expanded facilities at the Iguaca Aviary at the El Yunque National Forest were inaugurated and dedicated to the late Priscilla Stubbe , who was a major fundraiser for the new facility .
Human activity once again threatened the amazon during the following years . In 2012 , it was reported that the unsactioned flight of light aircraft from adjacent islands was disrupting the reproductive and social behaviors of the species . Via Verde , a gas pipeline grid proposed by the Luis Fortuño administration , raised concerns among conservationists due to further deforestation of the regions where the birds feed . New conservation efforts have also begun during this timeframe . In 2011 , a research team of the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez sequenced the amazon 's genome . On August 15 , 2013 , the discovery of non @-@ assisted nests in the Río Abajo State Forest was announced . Experts considered this a sign of expansion , impliying that the reintroduced amazon population was fully adapting to wild life and was dispersing throughout the region . This was noted as a significant advance , since El Yunque is not an ideal habitat for the bird due to its humidity , which precipitates sickness in some of the individuals . This was accompanied by a second announcement , which noted that added to the known number of amazons in the wild ( fluctuating between 64 and 112 specimens ) there is an unmonitored population of approximately 50 birds dispersed throughout Puerto Rico .
The creation of another aviary and captive reproduction center was considered throughout 2013 , with the municipalities of Maricao and Isabela being analyzed . In November 2013 , plans for the establishment of a third population in the Maricao State Forest were formally announced . The following month , ten amazons were released at Río Abajo . 2013 set a new record for the reproduction program , which produced 51 fledglings and shattered the previous record of 34 that was established in 2011 . The wild population grew by 15 chicks , an improvement from the 12 born during the previous year . During this time frame , the known number of amazon specimens rounded 500 individuals . A severe drought caused by the emergence of El Niño began during the spring of 2015 and extended throughout the summer , benefitting the breeding of the amazons in El Yunque by extending their reproductive season . However , this weather pattern also increased the number of mongooses present in the forest , representing a risk for the population . On August 13 , 2015 , a group of 25 amazons was moved from the other aviaries to a repurposed installation in Maricao . Each member was brought individually in order to ensure their safety while being transported and later placed in an acclimation program that is expected to last a year , before they are released to create a new population in the region .
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= Frenchy Bordagaray =
Stanley George " Frenchy " Bordagaray ( January 3 , 1910 – April 13 , 2000 ) was an American professional baseball player . He played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) as an outfielder and third baseman for the Chicago White Sox , Brooklyn Dodgers , St. Louis Cardinals , Cincinnati Reds , and New York Yankees between 1934 and 1945 . He had a .283 batting average for his career .
Bordagaray gained publicity through the press through his colorful personality and various gimmicks . He appeared in bit parts in movies and grew a mustache in a time when baseball players were expected to be clean shaven . He has been inducted into the Brooklyn Dodgers Hall of Fame , and the Fresno and Ventura County Sports Halls of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Bordagaray was born in Coalinga , California on January 3 , 1910 to Dominique and Louise Bordagaray , who were original settlers of the San Joaquin Valley . Bordagaray was the middle of seven children .
Of Basque and French descent , Bordagaray got his nickname from his mother . His father wanted him to become a violinist . He lettered in baseball , football , and track and field at Fresno State College .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Early career ( 1931 – 1933 ) = = =
Bordagaray made his professional baseball debut in minor league baseball with the Sacramento Senators of the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) during the 1931 season . They originally gave him a three @-@ week tryout without pay , so that he could retain his amateur status ; at the end of the tryout , the Senators offered Bordagaray his first professional contract . At only 20 years of age , Bordagaray 's father needed to provide his consent . Though his father initially refused and threatened to take the Senators to court , he changed his mind after visiting his son . Fresno State 's football coach , Stan Borleske , attempted to negotiate Bordagaray 's release , but Senators owner Lewis Moreing refused .
Bordagaray led the PCL in batting average ( .373 ) during the 1931 season . He publicly held out from the Senators for more money during the offseason , which became an annual tradition for Bordagaray . In the 1932 season , he batted .322 in games played . He followed this up by batting .351 in 117 games during the 1933 season .
While with the Senators , Bordagaray raced a horse in a 100 yard dash , losing by a few feet . During a game , Bordagaray reportedly went to use the toilet during the ninth inning . While he was off the field , the pitcher threw the ball , unaware he had no right fielder . The batter hit the pitch to right field , leading to a double . Manager Earl McNeely did not criticize Bordagaray , rather telling the pitcher to make sure his fielders were in place before throwing .
= = = Major League Baseball = = =
= = = = Chicago White Sox and Brooklyn Dodgers ( 1934 – 1936 ) = = = =
The Chicago White Sox bought Bordagaray 's contract from Sacramento for $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 265 @,@ 336 in current dollar terms ) in the spring of 1934 . He batted .322 with a .344 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) and .379 slugging percentage ( SLG ) , with no home runs , two runs batted in in 29 games for the 1934 Chicago White Sox . Evar Swanson reclaimed the role he held in 1933 as starting right fielder for Chicago , and Bordagaray was returned to Sacramento in June , reclaiming their money . He spent the rest of 1934 with the Senators , batting .321 with 34 doubles and a .433 slugging percentage . After the 1934 season , the Senators traded Bordagaray to the Brooklyn Dodgers for Johnny Frederick , Art Herring and cash . He hit .282 with a .319 OBP and .363 SLG with 18 steals and 69 runs scored for the 1935 Dodgers . He was third in the National League ( NL ) in steals , four behind leader Augie Galan and two behind Pepper Martin .
Bordagaray showed up at spring training in 1936 with a mustache , which he grew for a bit role in The Prisoner of Shark Island , filmed during the offseason . This was scandalous , as baseball players were expected to be clean shaven at the time ; the last player believed to have worn a mustache was Wally Schang during the 1914 season . Looking for stories to write about , sportswriters for the Dodgers encouraged Bordagaray to grow out his mustache and goatee . The Brooklyn Eagle hosted a contest to determine what sort of beard Bordagaray should grow . After a few months , Dodgers manager Casey Stengel made him shave . Mustaches would not be seen in MLB again until Oakland Athletics owner Charlie O. Finley paid his players to grow facial hair in the 1970s . Finley hosted a " mustache day " , and invited Bordagaray to serve as master of ceremonies .
Heading into the 1936 season , Stengel decided to use Bordagaray as his starting third baseman . For the year , Bordagaray batted .315 with a .346 OBP and .419 SLG for the Dodgers , finishing ninth in the NL with 12 steals . He was third among the team 's regulars in average , behind Babe Phelps and Joe Stripp . His .991 fielding percentage was second among outfielders in the NL , trailing only teammate Johnny Cooney . That season , however , he received a $ 500 fine and 60 @-@ day suspension for spitting at an umpire . When asked about it , Bordagaray replied , " The penalty is a bit more than I expectorated . "
= = = = St. Louis Cardinals and Cincinnati Reds ( 1937 – 1939 ) = = = =
With Burleigh Grimes succeeding Stengel as the Dodgers ' manager after the 1936 season , the Dodgers sold Bordagaray , Jimmy Jordan and Dutch Leonard to the St. Louis Cardinals as part of an off @-@ season shakeup ; it was seen as the completion of an August 1 trade in which the Dodgers acquired Tom Winsett from the Cardinals . With the Cardinals , Bordagaray batted .293 with a .331 OBP and .367 SLG during the 1937 season . His 11 stolen bases were eighth best in the NL . With the 1938 Cardinals , Bordagaray was used mostly as a bench player , as Enos Slaughter joined the team , playing in the outfield with Joe Medwick , Terry Moore , and Martin , and Art Garibaldi was set to play third base . Bordagaray batted .282 with a .325 OBP and .327 SLG with only two steals in 1938 . While a member of the Cardinals , Bordagaray played the washboard in Martin 's " Mudcat Band " .
Upon the conclusion of the 1938 season , the Cardinals assigned Bordagaray to their farm team in Rochester . They traded Bordagaray to the Cincinnati Reds for Dusty Cooke and cash later in the offseason . In 63 games with the Reds in 1939 , his batting average declined to .197 , as did his OBP ( .252 ) and SLG ( .254 ) . In the 1939 World Series , he pinch ran twice for Ernie Lombardi , but did not play in the field or have a plate appearance .
= = = = New York Yankees and return to the Dodgers ( 1940 – 1945 ) = = = =
Bordagaray was sent with Nino Bongiovanni to the New York Yankees after the 1939 season , completing an earlier trade made on August 5 in which the Reds sent players to be named later and $ 40 @,@ 000 ( $ 680 @,@ 478 in current dollar terms ) to the New York Yankees for Vince DiMaggio . Bordagaray spent the 1940 season in the minor leagues , with the Kansas City Blues of the American Association . The Yankees promoted Bordagaray in 1941 . He hit .260 with a .325 OBP and .274 SLG in 36 games during the regular season , and appeared in one game during the 1941 World Series as a pinch runner for Bill Dickey .
Before the 1942 season , the Dodgers purchased Bordagaray from the Yankees . He hit .241 with a .279 OBP and .276 SLG in 48 games with the 1942 Dodgers , and .302 with a .379 OBP and .384 SLG in 89 games during the 1943 season . As Brooklyn 's primary third baseman and leadoff hitter in 1944 , Bordagaray hit .281 with a .331 OBP and .385 SLG with 85 runs in 501 at @-@ bats , topping 100 games played for the first time since 1936 . During the 1945 season , he batted .256 with a .328 OBP and .355 SLG , fielding only .886 at third base , and coming in third in the league in errors , despite playing in only 57 games .
= = = Later career ( 1946 – 1948 ) = = =
The Dodgers released Bordagaray before the 1946 season . Returning to minor league baseball , he spent 1946 with the Trois @-@ Rivières Royals of the Class @-@ C Canadian – American League as a player – manager , winning both the league 's Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) and Manager of the Year awards . In 1947 , he was player @-@ manager of the Greenville Spinners of the Class @-@ A South Atlantic League . Bordagaray was suspended 60 games for fighting an umpire , leading the Spinners to hire Martin to replace him . He attempted to return to MLB with the Dodgers in 1948 , but retired before the season .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
After his baseball career , Bordagaray owned restaurants and clubs in St. Louis and Kansas City and developed land as cemeteries in the Midwestern United States . He sold graveyard plots in Coalinga , California . He moved to Ventura , California in 1961 , where he was supervisor of youth sports and recreation programs in the Ventura Recreation Department .
Bordagaray was named to the Fresno County and Ventura County Sports Halls of Fame , as well as the Brooklyn Dodgers Hall of Fame . Proud of his publicity , he kept newspaper clippings in a scrapbook that weighs 15 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 kg ) .
Bordagaray died in a nursing home in Ventura at the age of 90 . He was survived by his wife of 52 years , Victoria , two sons , two daughters , seven grandchildren , and six great @-@ grandchildren . He is interred at Pleasant Valley Cemetery in Coalinga .
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= Kanō Jigorō =
Kanō Jigorō ( 嘉納 治五郎 , 28 October 1860 – 4 May 1938 ) was a Japanese educator and athlete , the founder of Judo . Judo was the first Japanese martial art to gain widespread international recognition , and the first to become an official Olympic sport . Pedagogical innovations attributed to Kanō include the use of black and white belts , and the introduction of dan ranking to show the relative ranking among members of a martial art style . Well @-@ known mottoes attributed to Kanō include " Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort " （ 精力善用 Sei @-@ ryoku Zen @-@ you ） and " Mutual Welfare and Benefit " （ 自他共栄 Ji @-@ ta Kyou @-@ ei ） .
In his professional life , Kanō was an educator . Important postings included serving as director of primary education for the Ministry of Education ( 文部省 , Monbushō ) from 1898 to 1901 , and as president of Tokyo Higher Normal School from 1901 until 1920 . He played a key role in making judo and kendo part of the Japanese public school programs of the 1910s .
Kanō was also a pioneer of international sports . Accomplishments included being the first Asian member of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) ( he served from 1909 until 1938 ) ; officially representing Japan at most Olympic Games held between 1912 and 1936 ; and serving as a leading spokesman for Japan 's bid for the 1940 Olympic Games .
His official honors and decorations included the First Order of Merit and Grand Order of the Rising Sun and the Third Imperial Degree . Kanō was inducted as the first member of the International Judo Federation ( IJF ) Hall of Fame on 14 May 1999 .
= = Early years = =
Kanō Jigorō was born to a sake @-@ brewing family in the town of Mikage , Japan ( now within Higashinada @-@ ku , Kobe ) . The family sake brands included " Hakushika " , " Hakutsuru " , and " Kiku @-@ Masamune " . But Kanō 's father Kanō Jirōsaku ( né Mareshiba Jirōsaku ) was an adopted son and he did not go into the family business . Instead he worked as a lay priest and as a senior clerk for a shipping line . Kanō 's father was a great believer in the power of education , and he provided Jigorō , his third son , with an excellent education . The boy 's early teachers included the neo @-@ Confucian scholars Yamamoto Chikuun and Akita Shusetsu . Kanō 's mother died when the boy was nine years old , and his father moved the family to Tokyo . The young Kanō was enrolled in private schools , and had his own English language tutor . In 1874 he was sent to a private school run by Europeans to improve his English and German language skills .
At the time Kanō stood 1 @.@ 57 m ( 5 feet 2 inches ) but weighed only 41 kg ( 90 pounds ) . He wished he were stronger . One day , Nakai Baisei ( a friend of the family who was a member of the shogun 's guard ) , mentioned that jūjutsu was an excellent form of physical training . He showed Kanō a few techniques by which a smaller man might overcome a larger and stronger opponent . Kanō decided he wanted to learn the art despite Nakai 's insistence that such training was out of date and somewhat dangerous . Kanō 's father also discouraged him from jūjutsu , telling him to pursue a modern sport instead .
= = Jūjutsu = =
When Kanō attended the Tokyo Imperial University in 1877 , he started looking for jūjutsu teachers . He first looked for bonesetters , called seifukushi . His assumption was that doctors knew who the better martial art teachers were . His search brought him to Yagi Teinosuke , who had been a student of Emon Isomata in the Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū school of jūjutsu . Yagi , in turn , referred Kanō to Fukuda Hachinosuke , a bonesetter who taught Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū in a 10 @-@ mat room adjacent to his practice . Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū was itself a combination of two older schools : the Yōshin @-@ ryū and Shin no Shindō @-@ ryū .
Fukuda 's training method consisted mostly of the student taking fall after fall for the teacher or senior student until he began to understand the mechanics of the technique . Fukuda stressed applied technique over ritual form . He gave beginners a short description of the technique and had them engage in free practice ( randori ) in order to teach through experience . It was only after the student had attained some proficiency that he taught them traditional forms ( kata ) . This method was difficult , as there were no special mats for falling , only the standard straw mats ( tatami ) laid over wooden floors .
Kanō had trouble defeating Fukushima Kanekichi , who was one of his seniors at the school . Therefore , Kanō started trying unfamiliar techniques on his rival . He first tried techniques from sumo . When these did not help , he studied more , and tried a technique ( " fireman 's carry " ) that he learned from a book on western wrestling . This worked , and kataguruma , or " shoulder wheel " , remains part of the judo repertoire , although at this moment the judo organizations of some countries prohibit this throw in competition judo .
On 5 August 1879 , Kanō participated in a jūjutsu demonstration given for former United States president Ulysses S. Grant . This demonstration took place at the home of the prominent businessman Shibusawa Eiichi . Other people involved in this demonstration included the jūjutsu teachers Fukuda Hachinosuke and Iso Masatomo , and Kanō 's training partner Godai Ryusaku . Fukuda died soon after this demonstration , at the age of 52 . Kanō began studying with Iso , who had been a friend of Fukuda . Despite being 62 years old and standing only 5 ft 0 in ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) tall , Iso had gained a powerful build from jiujitsu training . He was known for excellence in kata , and was also a specialist in atemi , or the striking of vital areas . In Iso 's method , one began with kata and then progressed to free fighting ( randori ) . Due to Kanō 's intense practice and his solid grounding in the jiujitsu taught by Fukuda , he was soon an assistant at Iso 's school . After Fukuda 's death in 1881 , Fukuda 's widow gave the scrolls of the school to Kanō , then 21 years old . Some popular works suggest that Kanō obtained a teaching license in this school , but this has not been documented : no Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū certificate ( s ) with Kanō 's name visible is depicted anywhere in the Kōdōkan museum or in any published source . Neither is such rank specified in any authentic Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū archival documents .
While under Iso 's tutelage , Kanō witnessed a demonstration by the Yōshin @-@ ryū jūjutsu teacher Totsuka Hikosuke and later took part in randori with members of Totsuka 's school . Kanō was impressed by the Yōshin @-@ ryū practitioners and realized that he might never be able to beat someone as talented as Totsuka simply by training harder : he also needed to train smarter . It was this experience that first led Kanō to believe that to be truly superior , one needed to combine the best elements of several ryū , or schools , of jūjutsu including Yagyu Shingan @-@ ryū Taijutsu . Toward this end , he began to seek teachers who could provide him with superior elements of jūjutsu that he could adopt .
After Iso died in 1881 , Kanō began training in Kitō @-@ ryū with Iikubo Tsunetoshi ( Kōnen ) . Iikubo was expert in kata and throwing , and fond of randori . Kanō applied himself thoroughly to learning Kitō @-@ ryū , believing Iikubo 's throwing techniques in particular to be better than in the schools he had previously studied . It is Iikubo who issued Kanō 's only verified jūjutsu rank and teaching credential , namely a certificate of Menkyo ( not Menkyo kaiden ) in Nihonden Kitō Jūdō , dated October 1883 .
= = Kodokan judo = =
= = = Establishment = = =
During the early 1880s , there was no clear separation between the jūjutsu that Kanō was teaching and the jūjutsu that his teachers had taught in the past . Kanō 's Kitō @-@ ryū teacher , Iikubo Tsunetoshi , came to Kanō 's classes two or three times a week to support Kanō 's teaching . Eventually student and master began to exchange places , and Kanō began to defeat Iikubo during randori :
To name his system , Kanō revived a term that Terada Kan 'emon , the fifth headmaster of the Kitō @-@ ryū , had adopted when he founded his own style , the Jikishin @-@ ryū : " jūdō " . The name combined the characters jū ( 柔 ) , meaning " pliancy " , and dō , which is literally " The Way " , but figuratively meaning ' method.'
From a technical standpoint , Kanō combined the throwing techniques of the Kitō @-@ ryū and the choking and pinning techniques of the Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū . As such , judo 's Koshiki no Kata preserves the traditional forms of the Kitō @-@ ryū with only minor differences from the mainline tradition . Similarly , many of the techniques ( but not the forms ) of the Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū are preserved in the Kime no Kata .
Initially , Kanō borrowed ideas from everywhere . As he wrote in 1898 , " By taking together all the good points I had learned of the various schools and adding thereto my own inventions and discoveries , I devised a new system for physical culture and moral training as well as for winning contests . " However , after judo was introduced into the Japanese public schools , a process that took place between 1906 and 1917 , there was increasing standardization of kata and tournament technique .
= = = Development = = =
Kanō also oversaw the development and growth of his judo organization , the Kodokan . This was a remarkable effort in itself , as the Kodokan 's enrollment grew from fewer than a dozen students in 1882 to more than a thousand dan @-@ graded members by 1911 .
In May or June 1882 , Kanō started the Kodokan dojo with twelve mats , in space belonging to the Eishō @-@ ji ( 永昌寺 ) , a Buddhist temple in what was then the Shitaya ward of Tokyo ( now the Higashi Ueno district of Taitō ward ) , with Iikubo attending the dōjō three days a week to help teach . Kanō had only a handful of students at this time , but they improved their technique through regular contests with local police jūjutsu teams .
The Kodokan moved to a 60 @-@ mat space in April 1890 . In December 1893 , the Kodokan started moving to a larger space located in Tomizaka @-@ cho , Koishikawa @-@ cho , and the move was completed by February 1894 .
The Kodokan 's first kangeiko , or winter training , took place at the Tomizaka @-@ cho dojo during the winter of 1894 – 1895 . Midsummer training , or shochugeiko , started in 1896 . " In order to inure the pupil to the two extremes of heat and cold and to cultivate the virtue of perseverance " , Britain 's E.J. Harrison wrote :
During the late 1890s , the Kodokan moved two more times ; first to a 207 @-@ mat space in November 1897 , and then to a 314 @-@ mat space in January 1898 . In 1909 , Kanō incorporated the Kodokan , and endowed it with ¥ 10 @,@ 000 ( then about U.S. $ 4 @,@ 700 ) . The reason , said Japan Times on 30 March 1913 , was " so that this wonderful institution might be able to reconstruct , for that is what it really does , the moral and physical nature of the Japanese youth , without its founder 's personal attention . "
The Kodokan moved once again during Kanō 's lifetime , and on 21 March 1934 , the Kodokan dedicated this 510 @-@ mat facility . Guests at the opening included the Belgian , Italian , and Afghan ambassadors to Japan . In 1958 , when the Kodokan moved to its current eight story facility , that now has more than 1200 mats , the old building was sold to the Japan Karate Association .
= = = Ideals = = =
On 18 April 1888 , Kanō and Reverend Thomas Lindsay presented a lecture called " Jiujitsu : The Old Samurai Art of Fighting without Weapons " to the Asiatic Society of Japan . This lecture took place at the British Embassy in Tokyo . Its theme was that the main principle of judo involved gaining victory by yielding to strength .
Being an idealist , Kanō had broad aims for judo , which he saw as something that simultaneously encompassed self @-@ defense , physical culture , and moral behavior .
In 1915 , Kanō gave this definition to judo :
In 1918 , Kanō added :
During March 1922 , Kanō brought all this to fruition through the introduction of the Kodokan Bunkakai , or Kodokan Cultural Association . This organization held its first meeting at Tokyo 's Seiyoken Hotel on 5 April 1922 , and held its first public lecture three days later at the YMCA hall in Kanda . The mottoes of the Kodokan Cultural Association were " Good Use of Spiritual and Physical Strength " and " Prospering in Common for Oneself and Others . " Although those are literal translations , the phrases were usually translated into English as " Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort " and " Mutual Welfare and Benefit . " The theories of this organization were described in some detail in an article published in an American magazine Living Age in September 1922 .
= = Professional life = =
= = = Educator = = =
Although Kanō promoted judo whenever he could , he earned his living as an educator .
Kanō entered Tokyo Imperial University during June 1877 . He majored in political science and economics , which at that time were taught by the Department of Aesthetics and Morals . He graduated in July 1882 , and the following month he began work as a professor , fourth class , at the Gakushuin , or Peers School , in Tokyo . In 1883 , Kanō was appointed professor of economics at Komaba Agricultural College ( now the Faculty of Agriculture at University of Tokyo ) , but during April 1885 , he returned to Gakushuin , with the position of principal .
In January 1891 , Kanō was appointed to a position at the Ministry of Education . In August 1891 , he gave up this position to become a dean at the Fifth Higher Normal School ( present @-@ day Kumamoto University ) . One of the teachers at Fifth Higher between 1891 and 1893 was Lafcadio Hearn . Around this same time , Kanō married . His wife , Sumako Takezoe , was the daughter of a former Japanese ambassador to Korea . Eventually , the couple had six daughters and three sons .
During the summer of 1892 , Kanō went to Shanghai to help establish a program that would allow Chinese students to study in Japan . Kanō revisited Shanghai during 1905 , 1915 , and 1921 .
In January 1898 , Kanō was appointed director of primary education at the Ministry of Education , and in August 1899 , he received a grant that allowed him to study in Europe . His ship left Yokohama on 13 September 1899 , and he arrived in Marseilles on 15 October . He spent about a year in Europe , and during this trip , he visited Paris , Berlin , Brussels , Amsterdam , and London . He returned to Japan in 1901 . Soon after returning to Japan , he resumed his post as president of Tokyo Higher Normal School , and he remained in this position until his retirement on 16 January 1920 . He also helped establish Nada Middle High School in 1928 at Kobe , which later became one of highest @-@ ranked private high schools in Japan .
Considering that he majored in political science and economics , Kanō 's family thought that after graduating from university , he would pursue a career in some government ministry . Indeed , through influential friends of his father 's , he was initially offered a position with the Ministry of Finance . However , his love for teaching led him instead to accept a position teaching at Gakushuin . The students of Japan 's elite attended Gakushuin and were of higher social positions than their teachers . The students were allowed to ride in rickshaws ( jinrikisha ) right to the doors of the classes , whereas teachers were forbidden . The teachers often felt compelled to visit the homes of these students whenever summoned to give instruction or advice . In effect , the teachers were treated as servants .
Kanō believed this to be unacceptable . He refused to play such a subservient role when teaching his students . To Kanō , a teacher must command respect . At the same time , he employed the latest European and American pedagogical methods . The theories of the American educator John Dewey especially influenced him . Kanō 's manner had the desired effect upon the students , but the administration was slower to warm to his methods and it was not until the arrival of a new principal that Kanō 's ideas found acceptance .
All this is to say that Kanō 's educational philosophy was a combination of both traditional Japanese neo @-@ Confucianism and contemporary European and American philosophies , to include Instrumentalism , Utilitarianism , and " evolutionary progressivism " , as Social Darwinism was then known .
The goals of Kanō 's educational philosophies and methods ( indeed , the goals of most Japanese educational programs of the early 20th century ) were to 1 ) develop minds , bodies , and spirits in equal proportion , 2 ) increase patriotism and loyalty , especially to the Emperor , 3 ) teach public morality , and 4 ) increase physical strength and stamina , especially for the purpose of making young men more fit for military service .
Calisthenics , especially as done in the huge formations favored at the time , could be boring , and at the high school and college levels , games such as baseball and rugby were more often spectator sports than a practical source of physical exercise for the masses . Moreover , at elite levels , baseball , football , and even judo did not put much emphasis on moral or intellectual development . Instead , elite coaches and athletes tended to emphasize winning , at almost any cost .
For Kanō , the answer to this conundrum was one word : judo . Not judo in the sense of simply throwing other people around , and definitely not judo in the sense of winning at any cost . Instead , it was judo in the sense of " Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort " and " Mutual Welfare and Benefit . " Or , as Kanō himself put it to a reporter in 1938 : " When yielding is the highest efficient use of energy , then yielding is judo . "
= = = International Olympic Committee = = =
Kanō became active in the work of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) in 1909 . This came about after Kristian Hellström of the Swedish Olympic Committee wrote to the governments of Japan and China to ask if they were going to send teams to the 1912 Olympics . The Japanese government did not want to embarrass itself on an international stage by saying no , so the Ministry of Education was told to look into this . The Ministry logically turned to Kanō , who was a physical educator with recent experience in Europe . Kanō agreed to represent Japan at the International Olympics Committee , and , after talking to the French ambassador to Japan and reading pamphlets sent by the Swedes , developed , in his words , " a fairly good idea of what the Olympic Games were . "
Toward fulfilling his duties as a member , in 1912 , Kanō helped establish the Japan Amateur Athletic Association ( Dai Nippon Tai @-@ iku Kyokai ) , which had the mission of overseeing amateur sport in Japan . Kanō was the official representative of Japan to the Olympics in Stockholm in 1912 , and he was involved in organizing the Far Eastern Championship Games held in Osaka during May 1917 . In 1920 , Kanō represented Japan at the Antwerp Olympics , and during the early 1920s , he served on the Japanese Council of Physical Education . He did not play much part in organizing the Far Eastern Championship Games held in Osaka in May 1923 , nor did he attend the 1924 Olympics in Paris , but he did represent Japan at the Olympics in Amsterdam ( 1928 ) , Los Angeles ( 1932 ) , and Berlin ( 1936 ) . From 1931 to 1938 , he was also one of the leading international spokesmen in Japan 's bid for the 1940 Olympics .
Kanō 's chief goal in all this was , in his words , to gather people together for a common cause , with friendly feeling . His goals did not , however , particularly involve getting judo into the Olympics . As he put it in a letter to Britain 's Gunji Koizumi in 1936 :
= = Legacy = =
In 1934 , Kanō stopped giving public exhibitions . The reason was his failing health , probably compounded by kidney stones . The British judoka Sarah Mayer wrote " People don ’ t seem to think he will live much longer " to her friends in London . Nevertheless , Kanō continued attending important Kodokan events such as kagami @-@ biraki ( New Years ' ceremonies ) whenever he could , and he continued participating in Olympics business .
In May 1938 , Kanō died at sea , while on board the NYK Line motor ship Hikawa Maru . Because the Japanese merchant fleet of the 1930s used Tokyo time wherever it was in the world , the Japanese date of death was 4 May 1938 at about 5 : 33 am JST , whereas the international date of death was 3 May 1938 at 20 : 33 UTC . The cause of death was officially listed as pneumonia. but other sources list food poisoning as the cause of death . During the 1990s , there appeared allegations that Kanō was murdered by poisoning rather than dying of pneumonia . Although there is no known contemporary documentation to support this claim , Kanō 's opposition to Japanese militarism was well @-@ known , and many others who also opposed it were allegedly assassinated .
Judo did not die with Kanō . Instead , during the 1950s , judo clubs sprang up throughout the world , and in 1964 , judo was introduced as an Olympic sport in the Tokyo Olympics , and was reintroduced at the Munich Olympics in 1972 . Kanō 's posthumous reputation was therefore assured . Nonetheless , his true legacy was his idealism . As Kanō said in a speech given in 1934 , " Nothing under the sun is greater than education . By educating one person and sending him into the society of his generation , we make a contribution extending a hundred generations to come . "
Kanō has also been compared to the Marquis of Queensberry in the way his legacy left a whole new set of rules :
= = = Honors = = =
Order of the Rising Sun , Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon , 1938 ( Japan ) .
= = Published works = =
Kanō , Jigorō . ( October 1898 – December 1903 ) . Kokushi .
Lindsay , Thomas and Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1889 , 1915 reprint ) . " The Old Samurai Art of Fighting without Weapons " , Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan , XVI , Pt II , pp. 202 – 217 .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( Jan. 1915 – December 1918 ) . Jūdō .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1922 ) . " Jiudo : The Japanese Art of Self Defence " , Living Age , 314 , pp. 724 – 731 .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1932 ) . " The Contribution of Jiudo to Education " , Journal of Health and Physical Education , 3 , pp. 37 – 40 , 58 ( originally a lecture given at the University of Southern California on the occasion of the Xth Olympiad ) .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1934 ) . " Principles of Judo and Their Applications to All Phases of Human Activity " , unpublished lecture given at the Parnassus Society , Athens , Greece , on 5 June 1934 , reprinted as " Principles of Judo " in Budokwai Quarterly Bulletin , April 1948 , pp. 37 – 42 .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1936 ) . " Olympic Games and Japan " , Dai Nippon , pp. 197 – 199 . In Thomas A. Green and Joseph R. Svinth , eds . , Martial Arts in the Modern World . Westport , Connecticut : Greenwood , 2003 , pp. 167 – 172 .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1937 ) . Judo ( jujutsu ) by Prof. Jigorō Kanō . Tokyo : Board of Tourist Industry , Japanese Government Railways .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1937 ) . " Jujutsu and Judo ; What Are They ? " Tokyo : Kodokwan .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( Undated . ) Jujutsu Becomes Judo .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1972 ) . Kanō Jigorō , watakushi no shōgai to jūdō . Tokyo : Shin Jinbutsu Oraisha .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1983 ) . Kanō Jigorō chosakushū . Tokyo : Gogatsu Shobo .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1986 ) . Kodokan judo / Jigorō Kanō ; edited under the supervision of the Kodokan Editorial Committee . Tokyo and New York : Kodansha International .
Kanō , Jigorō . ( 1995 ) . Kanō Jigorō taikei / kanshū Kōdōkan . Tokyo : Hon no Tomosha .
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= Kongō @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Kongō @-@ class battlecruiser ( 金剛型巡洋戦艦 , Kongō @-@ gata jun 'yōsenkan ) was a class of four battlecruisers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) immediately before World War I. Designed by British naval architect George Thurston , the lead ship of the class was the last Japanese capital ship constructed outside Japan , by Vickers .
During the late 1920s , all but Hiei were reconstructed and reclassified as battleships . After the signing of the London Naval Treaty in 1930 , Hiei was reconfigured as a training ship to avoid being scrapped . Following Japan 's withdrawal from the London Naval Treaty , all four underwent a massive second reconstruction in the late 1930s . Following the completion of these modifications , which increased top speeds to over 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , all four were reclassified as fast battleships .
The Kongō @-@ class battleships were the most active capital ships of the Japanese Navy during World War II , participating in most major engagements of the war . Hiei and Kirishima acted as escorts during the attack on Pearl Harbor , while Kongō and Haruna supported the invasion of Singapore . All four participated in the battles of Midway and Guadalcanal . Hiei and Kirishima were both lost during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in November 1942 , while Haruna and Kongō jointly bombarded Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . The two remaining Kongō @-@ class battleships spent most of 1943 shuttling between Japanese naval bases before participating in the major naval campaigns of 1944 . Haruna and Kongō engaged American surface vessels during the Battle of Leyte Gulf . Kongō was torpedoed by USS Sealion in November 1944 , while Haruna was sunk at her moorings by air attack in Kure Naval Base in late July 1945 and subsequently scrapped .
= = Design = =
The design of the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers came about as a result of the IJN 's modernization programs , as well as the perceived need to compete with the British Royal Navy .
In March 1908 , the Royal Navy launched HMS Invincible at Newcastle upon Tyne . Armed with eight 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) main guns , Invincible rendered all current — and designed — Japanese capital ships obsolete by comparison . In 1911 , the Japanese Diet passed the Emergency Naval Expansion Bill , authorizing the construction of one battleship ( Fusō ) and four armoured cruisers , to be designed by British naval architect George Thurston . In his design of the class , Thurston relied on many techniques that would eventually be used by the British on the Tiger class .
Under the terms of the contract signed with Vickers in November 1910 , one member of the Kongō class — the lead ship Kongō — was to be built in Britain and Vickers were to maximize technology transfer to Japan . The design of the ships was from Vickers Design 472C ( corresponding to the Japanese design designation B @-@ 46 ) . The original design featured eight or ten 12 @-@ inch ( 304 @.@ 8 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber guns , sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , and eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . Cdr Katô Hirohasu pushed for the adoption of a new 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) / 45 calibre gun that was currently under development . After trials of the new gun , which were witnessed by both the Japanese Navy and Royal Navy , the Japanese made the decision on 29 Nov 1911 to use the new gun despite the keel having already been laid down on the 17 January 1911 , and the resulting need to quickly make a large number of alternations to the design , so as to not prolong the construction .
The final design of the battlecruisers resulted in an improved version of the Lion class , displacing an estimated 27 @,@ 940 tonnes ( 27 @,@ 500 long tons ) . It also called for eight 14 @-@ inch guns mounted in four twin gun turrets ( two forward and two aft ) with a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
To ensure transfer of the latest design knowledge to Japan more than 100 technical specialists were sent on 18 months secondments from Japan to Vickers during the construction phase of Kongō . If superintendents , supervisors and trial witnesses are also included then approximately 200 Japanese spent time in Britain .
= = Description = =
The ships had a length of 214 @.@ 58 meters ( 704 ft 0 in ) overall and a beam of 28 @.@ 04 meters ( 92 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft of 8 @.@ 22 meters ( 27 ft 0 in ) and displaced 27 @,@ 384 metric tons ( 26 @,@ 952 long tons ) at normal load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Kongō @-@ class ships had two sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , except for Haruna 's Brown @-@ Curtis turbines , each of which drove two propeller shafts . The high @-@ pressure turbines drove the wing shafts while the low @-@ pressure turbines drove the inner shafts . The turbines were arranged in two compartments , separated by a centerline longitudinal Bulkhead ; both compartments were situated between turrets No. 3 and 4 . They were designed to produce a total of 65 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 48 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 36 Yarrow or Kampon water @-@ tube boilers , with working pressures ranging from 17 @.@ 1 to 19 @.@ 2 atm ( 1 @,@ 733 to 1 @,@ 945 kPa ; 251 to 282 psi ) . The boilers , arranged in eight compartments , were mixed @-@ firing with fuel oil sprayed onto the coal for extra power . The ships had a stowage capacity of 4 @,@ 200 long tons ( 4 @,@ 300 t ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of oil , giving them a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The battlecruisers were designed to reach a speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and all of them exceeded that speed on their sea trials . Kongō and Hiei attained 27 @.@ 54 knots ( 51 @.@ 00 km / h ; 31 @.@ 69 mph ) and 27 @.@ 72 knots ( 51 @.@ 34 km / h ; 31 @.@ 90 mph ) with 78 @,@ 275 shp ( 58 @,@ 370 kW ) and 76 @,@ 127 shp ( 56 @,@ 768 kW ) , respectively .
In their first reconstruction during the late 1920s , the ships were reboilered with 10 , 11 ( Hiei ) or 16 ( Haruna ) Kampon boilers and their fuel stowage was rearranged to accommodate 2 @,@ 661 long tons ( 2 @,@ 704 t ) of coal and 3 @,@ 292 long tons ( 3 @,@ 345 t ) of oil . This increased their range to 8 @,@ 930 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 540 km ; 10 @,@ 280 mi ) at 14 knots and allowed the fore funnel to be removed , which greatly decreased smoke interference with the bridge and fire @-@ control systems . Coupled with the addition of external torpedo bulges , this reduced their speed to 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) and caused the IJN to reclassify them as battleships . During their 1930s reconstructions into fast battleships , the existing boilers were removed and replaced with eleven oil @-@ fired Kampon boilers . These upgraded boilers gave the Kongō and her sister ships much greater power , with the class capable of speeds exceeding 30 @.@ 5 knots ( 56 @.@ 5 km / h ; 35 @.@ 1 mph ) . This made them the only Japanese battleships fully suited to operations alongside fast carriers .
= = = Armament = = =
The primary armament of the Kongō class consisted of eight 45 @-@ calibre 14 @-@ inch guns , mounted in four superfiring twin @-@ gun turrets . The turrets had an elevation capability of − 5 / + 20 degrees except in Kongō whose turrets had a maximum elevation capability of + 25 degrees . The shells could be loaded at any angle and the guns had a firing cycle of 30 – 40 seconds . These guns and their turrets underwent multiple modernizations throughout the ships ' careers . During the first reconstruction of the class during the 1920s , the elevation of the main guns was increased to a maximum of + 33 degrees . The recoil mechanism of the guns was also changed from a hydraulic to pneumatic system , which allowed for a faster firing cycle of the main guns .
By World War II , the guns used Type 91 armor @-@ piercing , capped shells . Each of these shells weighed 673 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 485 lb ) and had a muzzle velocity of 775 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 540 ft / s ) . They had a maximum range of 25 @,@ 000 meters ( 27 @,@ 000 yd ) at + 20 degrees of elevation and 35 @,@ 450 meters ( 38 @,@ 770 yd ) at + 43 degrees after modernisation . Also available was a 625 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 378 lb ) high @-@ explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 640 ft / s ) . A special Type 3 Sanshikidan incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti @-@ aircraft use .
As built , the Kongō class was fitted with a secondary armament of sixteen 50 @-@ caliber six @-@ inch guns mounted in single casemates along the sides of the hull at the level of the upper deck . Eight guns were mounted per side , and each had an arc of fire of 130 degrees and a maximum elevation of + 15 degrees . Each gun could fire a 45 @.@ 36 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) high explosive projectile a maximum distance of 22 @,@ 970 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) at a rate of between four and six shots per minute . During their reconstruction in the 1930s , the maximum elevation of the guns was increased to + 30 degrees , which increased their maximum range by approximately 900 metres ( 980 yd ) . During their second reconstruction , two of these guns were removed from each ship , bringing the total to fourteen six @-@ inch guns .
The ships also mounted four 40 @-@ caliber 76 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns . The 76 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) high @-@ angle guns were in single mounts . Each of these guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and could fire a 6 kg ( 13 lb ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 680 m / s ( 2 @,@ 200 ft / s ) to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 500 metres ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) . Both ships were equipped with eight submerged 533 @-@ millimetre ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , four on each broadside .
The Kongō class 's secondary armament changed significantly over time . During the modernizations of the 1930s , all of the 76 mm guns were replaced with eight 40 @-@ caliber 127 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) dual @-@ purpose guns . These guns were fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 metres ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 metres ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . During reconstruction , the two foremost 152 mm guns were also removed .
The light AA armament of the Kongō class changed dramatically from 1933 to 1944 . During the second reconstruction , the ships were fitted with four to eight twin 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) machine @-@ guns , later replaced by 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) gun mounts . Both weapons were license @-@ built French Hotchkiss designs . The 25 mm guns were mounted on the Kongō class in single , double and triple mounts . This model was the standard Japanese light anti @-@ aircraft gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . The twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . Haruna ultimately carried 118 guns in 30 triple , two twin and 24 single mounts .
= = = Armour = = =
The Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers were designed with the intention of maximizing speed and maneuverability , and as such were not as heavily armoured as later Japanese capital ships . Nevertheless , the Kongō class possessed significant quantities of armour , and were heavily upgraded during their modernizations . In their initial configuration , the Kongō class possessed an upper belt that was 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick , and a lower belt with a thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) . Vickers Cemented was used in the construction of the Kongō , while the original armour of the other three was constructed of a variation of Krupp Cemented Armour , designed by the German Krupp Arms Works . Subsequent developments of Japanese armour technology relied upon a hybrid design of the two variations until drastic changes were made during the design of the Yamato class in 1938 . The armoured belt near the bow and stern of the vessels was strengthened with an additional 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of cemented armour . The conning tower of the Kongō class was very heavily armoured , with variations of Krupp Cemented Armour up to 14 inches ( 360 mm ) thick . The turrets were lightly armoured compared to later designs , with a maximum plate thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) . The deck armour ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 75 inches ( 38 to 70 mm ) .
During the reconstructions that each ship underwent during the interwar period , most of the armour of the Kongō class was heavily upgraded . The main lower belt was strengthened to be a uniform thickness of 8 inches , while diagonal bulkheads of a depth ranging from 5 to 8 inches ( 127 to 203 mm ) reinforced the main armoured belt . The upper belt remained unchanged , but was closed by 9 @-@ inch bulkheads at the bow and stern of the ships . The turret armour was strengthened to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) , while 4 inches ( 102 mm ) were added to portions of the deck armour . The armour upgrades increased the displacement by close to 4 @,@ 000 tons on each ship , violating the terms of the Washington Treaty . Even after these modifications , the armour capacity of the Kongō class remained much less than that of newer capital ships , a factor which played a major role in the sinking of Hiei and Kirishima at the hands of U.S. Navy cruisers and battleships in 1942 .
= = Ships = =
Due to a lack of available slipways , the latter two were the first Japanese warships to be built by Japanese private shipyards . Completed by 1915 , they were considered the first modern battlecruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy . According to naval historian Robert Jackson , they " outclassed all other contemporary [ capital ] ships " . The design was so successful that the construction of the fourth battlecruiser of the Lion @-@ class — HMS Tiger — was halted so that design features of the Kongō class could be added .
= = = Kongō = = =
Kongō was laid down 17 January 1911 at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , launched 18 May 1912 , and commissioned 16 August 1913 . She arrived in Yokosuka via Singapore in November 1913 to undergo armaments sighting checks in Kure Naval Arsenal , being placed in reserve upon her arrival . On 23 August 1914 , Japan formally declared war on the German Empire as part of her contribution to the Anglo @-@ Japanese Alliance , and Kongō was deployed near Midway Island to patrol the communications lines of the Pacific Ocean , attached to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet . Following the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , Kongō and her contemporaries ( including the ships in the Nagato , Ise and Fusō classes ) were the only Japanese capital ships to avoid the scrapyard . On 1 November 1924 , Kongō docked at Yokosuka for modifications which improved fire control and main @-@ gun elevation , and increased her antiaircraft armament . In September 1929 , she began her first major reconstruction . Her horizontal armour , boilers , and machinery space were all improved , and she was equipped to carry Type 90 Model 0 floatplanes . When her reconstruction was completed on 31 March 1931 , she was reclassified as a battleship . From October 1933 to November 1934 , Kongō was the flagship of the Japanese Combined Fleet , before being placed in reserve when the flag was transferred to Yamashiro .
On 1 June 1935 , Kongō 's second reconstruction began . Japan 's withdrawal from the London Naval Treaty led to reconstruction of her forward tower to fit the Pagoda @-@ Style of design , improvements to the boilers and turbines , and reconfiguration of the aircraft catapults aft of Turret 3 . Her new top speed of 30 knots ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) qualified her as a fast battleship . The modifications were completed on 8 January 1937 . In either August or November 1941 , she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division with her three sister ships , and sailed on 29 November as part of the main body — four fast battleships , three heavy cruisers , eight destroyers — for the Japanese invasion of Malaya and Singapore . Following the destruction of the British Force Z , the Main Body departed for French Indochina , before escorting a fast carrier task force in February during the invasion of the Dutch East Indies . Kongō provided cover for Japanese carriers during attacks on the Dutch East Indies in February and Ceylon in March and April . Kongō and Hiei were part of the Second Fleet Main Body during the Battle of Midway , but were diverted north on 9 June to assist in the invasion of the Aleutian Islands . Kongō and her sisters engaged American naval forces in the Battle of Guadalcanal . During this engagement Kongō and Haruna bombarded Henderson Field with 430 14 @-@ inch and 33 6 @-@ inch shells on 13 October 1942 . Following armament and armour upgrades in late 1943 and early 1944 , Kongō sailed as part of Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet during the Battle of the Philippine Sea . During the Battle of Leyte Gulf , Kongō sortied as part of Admiral Kurita 's Center Force , scoring hits on an American escort carrier and sinking or damaging two destroyers during the Battle off Samar . Kongō and an escort , Urakaze , were sunk northwest of Taiwan on 21 November 1944 by the submarine USS Sealion , after being hit on the port bow by two or three torpedoes . Approximately 1 @,@ 200 of her crew — including her Captain and the commander of the Third Battleship Division , Vice Admiral Yoshio Suzuki — were lost . She was removed from the Navy List on 20 January 1945 .
= = = Hiei = = =
Hiei was laid down at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 4 November 1911 , launched 21 November 1912 , and commissioned at Sasebo 4 August 1914 , attached to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet . After conducting patrols off China and in the East China Sea during World War I , Hiei was placed in reserve in 1920 . After undergoing minor reconstructions in 1924 and 1927 , Hiei was demilitarized in 1929 to avoid being scrapped under the terms of the Washington Treaty ; she was converted to a training ship in Kure from 1929 to 1932 . All of her armour and most of her armament were removed under the restrictions of the treaty and carefully preserved . In 1933 , she was refitted as an Imperial Service Ship and — following further reconstruction in 1934 — became the Emperor 's ship in late 1935 . In 1937 , following Japan 's withdrawal from the London Treaty , Hiei underwent a massive reconstruction along lines similar to those of her sister ships . When the reconstruction was completed on 31 January 1940 , Hiei was reclassified as a battleship . Hiei sailed in November 1941 as an escort of Vice @-@ Admiral Chuichi Nagumo 's carrier force which attacked Pearl Harbor . Hiei provided escort cover during carrier raids on Darwin in February 1942 , before a joint engagement with Kirishima that sank an American destroyer in March . She participated in carrier actions against Ceylon and Midway Island , and was subsequently drydocked in July . Following carrier escort duty during the Battles of the Eastern Solomons and Santa @-@ Cruz , Hiei departed as the flagship of Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe 's Combat Division 11 to bombard Henderson Field on the night of 12 – 13 November 1942 . When the fleet encountered Rear Admiral Daniel Callaghan 's Task Group in Ironbottom Sound , the First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal ensued . In an extremely confusing melee , Hiei disabled two American heavy cruisers — killing two rear admirals in the process — but was hit by about 85 shells from the guns of cruisers and destroyers , rendering her virtually unmaneuverable . Abe transferred his flag to Kirishima , and the battleship was taken under tow by the same ship , but one of her rudders froze in the full starboard position . Over the next day , Hiei was attacked by American aircraft many different times . While trying to evade an attack at 14 : 00 , Hiei lost her emergency rudder and began to show a list to stern and starboard . Hiei was scuttled northwest of Savo Island on the evening of 13 November by Japanese destroyers .
= = = Kirishima = = =
Kirishima 's keel was laid in Mitsubishi 's Nagasaki yard on 17 March 1912 . She was launched about a year and a half later ( 1 December 1913 ) and transferred to Sasebo Naval Arsenal for fitting out . After her completion on 19 April 1915 , she served off Japan , China and Korea 's coasts during the First World War . After the war , she alternated between being based in Japan and patrolling off Japanese ports . On 14 September 1922 , she collided with the destroyer ( Fuji ) , causing minor damage to both ships . Kirishima also assisted rescue efforts in the aftermath of the devastating 1923 Great Kantō earthquake , which destroyed most of Tokyo . After being sent to the reserve fleet in December 1923 , she received a refit during 1924 . Returning to the main fleet , the battlecruiser operated off China for periods of time in 1925 – 1926 , until she returned to reserve from 1927 to 1931 in preparation for a major reconstruction . Her superstructure was rebuilt , and she received extensive upgrades to armour , propulsion , and waterline bulges . After a period of fleet duty in the early 1930s , she underwent a two @-@ year reconstruction ( 1934 – 1936 ) to rebuild her as a Fast Battleship . This upgrade improved her engine plant , redesigned the superstructure , lengthened the stern , and enabled her to equip floatplanes . After serving as a transport and support @-@ ship during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Kirishima escorted the aircraft carrier strikeforce bound for the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 . Following the start of World War II , Kirishima served as an escort during carrier attacks on Port Darwin and the Dutch East Indies . Kirishima joined her sister ships in escorting naval sorties against Ceylon . She once again served escort duty during the disastrous Battle of Midway , before transferring to Truk Lagoon in preparation for operations against American landings on Guadalcanal . After participating in the Battles of the Eastern Solomons and Santa Cruz , Kirishima joined Hiei in a night attack on 13 November 1942 . Following the loss of the latter on the evening of 13 November , Kirishima subsequently engaged American battleships on the night of 14 / 15 November . She managed to inflict superficial damage on USS South Dakota , but she was in turn caught off guard while attacking South Dakota and was crippled by USS Washington . With her engines largely disabled and listing heavily to starboard , Kirishima was abandoned in the early morning of 15 November 1942 . She capsized and sank at 03 : 25 with the loss of 212 of her crew .
= = = Haruna = = =
Haruna was laid down at Kobe by Kawasaki on 16 March 1912 , launched 14 December 1913 , and formally commissioned 19 April 1915 . After a short patrolling duty off Sasebo , Haruna suffered a breech explosion during gunnery drills on 12 September 1920 ; seven crewmen were killed and the No. 1 turret badly damaged . After a long period of time in reserve , Haruna underwent her first modernization from 1926 to 1928 . The process upgraded her propulsion capabilities , enabled her to carry and launch floatplanes , increasing her armour capacity by over 4 @,@ 000 tons , and was shortly thereafter reclassified as a Battleship . She was overhauled a second time from 1933 to 1935 , which additionally strengthened her armour and reclassified her as a fast battleship . During the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Haruna primarily served as a large @-@ scale troop transport for Japanese troops to the Chinese mainland . On the eve of the commencement of World War II , Haruna sailed as part of Vice @-@ Admiral Nobutake Kondō 's Southern Force . On 8 December 1941 , Haruna provided heavy support for the invasion of Malaya and Singapore . She participated in the major Japanese offensives in the southern and southwestern Pacific in early 1942 , before sailing as part of the carrier @-@ strike force during the Battle of Midway . Haruna bombarded American positions at Henderson Field at Guadalcanal , and provided escort to carriers during the Solomon Islands campaign . In 1943 , she deployed as part of a larger force on multiple occasions to counter the threat of American carrier strikes , but did not actively participate in a single battle . In 1944 , Haruna was an escort during the Battle of the Philippine Sea and fought American surface vessels off Samar during the Battle of Leyte Gulf . She was the only one of the four battleships in her class to survive 1944 . Haruna remained at Kure throughout 1945 , where she was sunk by aircraft of Task Force 38 on 28 July 1945 , after taking nine bomb hits at her moorings . She was subsequently raised and broken up for scrap in 1946 .
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= Sleepy Hollow ( film ) =
Sleepy Hollow is a 1999 supernatural horror film directed by Tim Burton . It is a film adaptation loosely inspired by the 1820 short story " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " by Washington Irving and stars Johnny Depp and Christina Ricci , with Miranda Richardson , Michael Gambon , Casper Van Dien , Ray Park and Jeffrey Jones in supporting roles . The plot follows police constable Ichabod Crane ( Depp ) sent from New York City to investigate a series of murders in the village of Sleepy Hollow by a mysterious Headless Horseman .
Development began in 1993 at Paramount Pictures with Kevin Yagher originally set to direct Andrew Kevin Walker 's script as a low @-@ budget slasher film . Disagreements with Paramount resulted in Yagher being demoted to prosthetic makeup designer , and Burton was hired to direct in June 1998 . Filming took place from November 1998 to May 1999 , and Sleepy Hollow was released to generally favorable reviews from critics , and grossed approximately $ 206 million worldwide . The film won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction .
= = Plot = =
In 1799 , New York City police constable Ichabod Crane ( Johnny Depp ) is facing imprisonment for going against traditional methods . Ichabod submits to deployment to the Westchester County hamlet of Sleepy Hollow , New York , which has been plagued by a series of brutal slayings in which the victims are found decapitated : Peter Van Garrett ( Martin Landau ) , a wealthy farmer ; his son Dirk ; and the widow Emily Winship . Crane is informed that the killer is an undead headless Hessian mercenary from the American Revolutionary War who rides on a black steed in search of his missing head .
Crane begins his investigation , remaining skeptical about the supernatural elements until he actually encounters the Headless Horseman , who kills the town magistrate , Samuel Phillipse ( Richard Griffiths ) . Boarding at the home of the town 's richest family , the Van Tassels , Crane is taken with their daughter Katrina ( Christina Ricci ) . Crane and Young Masbath , the son of one of the Horseman 's victims , go to the cave dwelling of a reclusive sorceress . She reveals the location of the Tree of the Dead , which marks the Horseman 's grave , as well as his portal into the natural world .
Crane discovers that the ground is freshly disturbed and the Horseman 's skeleton has the skull missing . He realizes that whoever dug up and stole the skull is the person controlling the Horseman . The Killian family are taken by the Horseman and Katrina 's suitor Brom van Brunt ( Casper Van Dien ) is killed trying to stop the Horseman .
Crane starts to believe that a conspiracy links all the deaths together , so he looks into Van Garrett 's Last Will . Van Garrett had made a new will just before he died , leaving all his possessions to his new bride , Emily Winship . Crane deduces that all who knew about the new will were the victims of Horseman and that Katrina 's father Baltus Van Tassel ( Michael Gambon ) , who would have inherited the fortune , is the person holding the skull . Katrina , finding out that Crane suspects her father , burns the evidence that Crane has accumulated .
A council is held in the church . The Horseman seemingly kills Katrina 's stepmother , Lady Van Tassel , and heads off to the church to get Baltus . Crane realizes the Horseman can 't enter the church due to it being holy . A fight breaks out in the church and the chaos ends only when the Horseman harpoons Baltus through a window , dragging him out and acquiring his head . The next day , Crane believes Katrina to be the one who controls the Headless Horsemen .
Crane becomes suspicious when the corpse of Lady Van Tassel has a wound that seems to have been caused post @-@ mortem . The real Lady Van Tassel ( Miranda Richardson ) then emerges , alive . Lady Van Tassel tells Katrina that her family was driven from their ancestral home by the Van Garretts , and that she became a witch and summoned the Horseman to kill them off and make herself sole heir to the family fortune . She then sends the killer after Katrina to solidify her hold on what she considers her rightful property .
Following a fight and a stagecoach chase , Crane eventually thwarts Lady Van Tassel by throwing the skull to the Horseman , which causes his head to become reattached to his body and the curse broken . The Horseman , no longer under Lady Van Tassel 's control , simultaneously kisses and bites her , and hoists her up on his horse . He then rides to Hell , taking her with him , fulfilling her end of the deal with the Devil . Crane returns home to New York with Katrina and Young Masbath , just in time for the new century .
= = Cast = =
Johnny Depp as Ichabod Crane
Christina Ricci as Katrina Van Tassel
Christopher Walken and Ray Park as The Count Hessian / Headless Horseman
Marc Pickering as Young Masbath
Casper Van Dien as Brom Van Brunt
Michael Gambon as Baltus Van Tassel
Miranda Richardson as Lady Van Tassel / Crone Sister
Jeffrey Jones as Reverend Steenwyck
Richard Griffiths as Magistrate Samuel Philipse
Ian McDiarmid as Dr. Thomas Lancaster
Michael Gough as Notary James Hardenbrook
Christopher Lee as the Burgomaster
Claire Skinner as Beth Killian , the Midwife
Steven Waddington as Killian , Beth 's husband
Alun Armstrong as the High Constable
Martin Landau as Peter Van Garrett
Peter Guinness as Lord Crane , Ichabod 's father
Lisa Marie Smith as Lady Crane , Ichabod 's mother
Jessica Oyelowo as Sarah
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1993 , Kevin Yagher , a make @-@ up effects designer who had turned to directing with Tales from the Crypt , had the notion to adapt Washington Irving 's short story " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " into a feature film . Through his agent , Yagher was introduced to Andrew Kevin Walker ; they spent a few months working on a film treatment that transformed Ichabod Crane as a schoolmaster from Connecticut to a banished New York City detective . Yagher and Walker subsequently pitched Sleepy Hollow to various studios and production companies , eventually securing a deal with producer Scott Rudin , who had been impressed with Walker 's unproduced spec script for Seven . Rudin optioned the project to Paramount Pictures in a deal that had Yagher set to direct , with Walker scripting ; the pair would share story credit . Following the completion of Hellraiser : Bloodline , Yahger had planned Sleepy Hollow as a low @-@ budget production — " a pretentious slasher film with a spectacular murder every five minutes or so . " Paramount disagreed on the concept and demoted Yagher 's involvement to prosthetic makeup designer . " They never really saw it as a commercial movie , " producer Adam Schroeder noted . " The studio thinks ' old literary classic ' and they think The Crucible . We started developing it before horror movies came back . "
Paramount CEO Sherry Lansing revived studio interest in 1998 . Schroeder , who shepherded Tim Burton 's Edward Scissorhands as a studio executive at 20th Century Fox in 1990 , suggested that Burton direct the film . Francis Ford Coppola 's minimal production duties came from American Zoetrope ; Burton only became aware of Coppola 's involvement during the editing process when he was sent a copy of Sleepy Hollow 's trailer and saw Coppola 's name on it . Burton , coming off the troubled production of Superman Lives , was hired to direct in June 1998 . " I had never really done something that was more of a horror film , " he explained , " and it 's funny , because those are the kind of movies that I like probably more than any other genre . " His interest in directing a horror film influenced by his love for Hammer Film Productions and Black Sunday — particularly the supernatural feel they evoked as a result of being filmed primarily on sound stages . As a result , Sleepy Hollow is a homage to various Hammer Film Productions , including Dr. Jekyll and Sister Hyde , and other films such as Frankenstein , Bride of Frankenstein , various Roger Corman horror films , Jason and the Argonauts , and Scream Blacula Scream . The image of the Headless Horseman had fascinated Burton during his apprenticeship as a Disney animator at CalArts in the early 1980s . " One of my teachers had worked on the Disney version as one of the layout artists on the chase , and he brought in some layouts from it , so that was exciting . It was one of the things that maybe shaped what I like to do . " Burton worked with Walker on rewrites , but Rudin suggested that Tom Stoppard rewrite the script to add to the comical aspects of Ichabod 's bumbling mannerisms , and emphasize the character 's romance with Katrina . His work went uncredited through the WGA screenwriting credit system .
While Johnny Depp was Burton 's first choice for the role of Ichabod Crane , Paramount required him to consider Brad Pitt , Liam Neeson and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . Depp was cast in July 1998 for his third collaboration with Burton . The actor wanted Ichabod to parallel Irving 's description of the character in the short story . This included a long prosthetic snipe nose , huge ears , and elongated fingers . Paramount turned down his suggestions , and after Depp read Tom Stoppard 's rewrite of the script , he was inspired to take the character even further . " I always thought of Ichabod as a very delicate , fragile person who was maybe a little too in touch with his feminine side , like a frightened little girl , " Depp explained . He did not wish to portray the character as a typical action star would have , and instead took inspiration by Angela Lansbury 's performance in Death on the Nile . " It 's good , " Burton reasoned , " because I 'm not the greatest action director in the world , and he 's not the greatest action star . " Depp modeled Ichabod 's detective personality from Basil Rathbone in the 1939 Sherlock Holmes film series . He also studied Roddy McDowall 's acting for additional influence . Burton added that " the idea was to try to find an elegance in action of the kind that Christopher Lee or Peter Cushing or Vincent Price had . " Christina Ricci , who worked with producer Scott Rudin on The Addams Family , was cast as Katrina Van Tassel . Sleepy Hollow also reunited Burton with Jeffrey Jones ( from Beetlejuice and Ed Wood ) as Reverent Steenwyck , Christopher Walken ( Max Schreck in Batman Returns ) as the Hessian Horseman , Martin Landau ( Ed Wood ) in a cameo role , and Hammer veteran Michael Gough ( Alfred in Burton 's Batman films ) , whom Burton tempted out of retirement . The Hammer influence was further confirmed by the casting of Christopher Lee in a small role as the Burgomaster who sends Crane to Sleepy Hollow .
= = = Filming = = =
The original intention had been to shoot Sleepy Hollow predominantly on location with a $ 30 million budget . Towns were scouted throughout Upstate New York along the Hudson Valley , and the filmmakers decided on Tarrytown for an October 1998 start date . The Historic Hudson Valley organization assisted in scouting locations , which included the Philipsburg Manor House and forests in the Rockefeller State Park Preserve . " They had a wonderful quality to them , " production designer Rick Heinrichs reflected on the locations , " but it wasn 't quite lending itself to the sort of expressionism that we were going for , which wanted to express the feeling of foreboding . " Disappointed , the filmmakers scouted locations in Sturbridge , Massachusetts , and considered using Dutch colonial villages and period town recreations in the Northeastern United States . When no suitable existing location could be found , coupled with a lack of readily available studio space in the New York area needed to house the production 's large number of sets , producer Scott Rudin suggested the UK .
Rudin believed England offered the level of craftsmanship in period detail , painting and costuming that was suitable for the film 's design . Having directed Batman entirely in Britain , Burton agreed , and designers from Batman 's art department were employed by Paramount for Sleepy Hollow . As a result , principal photography was pushed back to November 20 , 1998 at Leavesden Film Studios , which had been recently vacated by Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace . The majority of filming took place at Leavesden , with studio other work at Shepperton Studios , where the massive Tree of the Dead set was built using Stage H. Production then moved to the Hambleden estate at Lime Tree Valley for a month @-@ long shoot in March , where the town of Sleepy Hollow was constructed . " We came to England figuring we would find a perfect little town , " producer Adam Schroeder recalled , " and then we had to build it anyway . " Filming in Britain continued through April , and a few last minute scenes were shot using a sound stage in Yonkers , New York the following May .
= = = Design = = =
Responsible for the film 's production design was Rick Heinrichs , who Burton intended to use on Superman Lives . While the production crew was always going to build a substantial number of sets , the decision was taken early on that to fulfill Burton 's vision best would necessitate shooting Sleepy Hollow in a totally controlled environment at Leavesden Film Studios . The production design was influenced by Burton 's love for Hammer Film Productions and Black Sunday — particularly the supernatural feel they evoked as a result of being filmed primarily on sound stages . Heinrichs was also influenced by American colonial architecture , German Expressionism , Dr. Seuss illustrations , and Hammer 's Dracula Has Risen from the Grave . One sound stage at Leavesden was dedicated to the " Forest to Field " set , for the scene in which the Headless Horseman races out of the woods and into a field . This stage was then transformed into , variously , a graveyard , a corn field , a field of harvested wheat , a churchyard , and a snowy battlefield . In addition , a small backlot area was devoted to a New York City street and waterfront tank .
= = = = Cinematography = = = =
Burton was impressed by the cinematography in Great Expectations , and hired Emmanuel Lubezki as Sleepy Hollow 's director of photography . Initially , Lubezki and Burton contemplated shooting the film in black and white and in old square Academy ratio . When that proved unfeasible , they opted for an almost monochromatic effect which would enhance the fantasy aspect . Burton and Lubezki intentionally planned the over @-@ dependency of smoke and soft lighting to accompany the film 's sole wide @-@ angle lens strategy . Lubezki also used Hammer horror and Mexican lucha films from the 1960s , such as Santo Contra los Zombis and Santo vs. las Mujeres Vampiro . Lighting effects increased the dynamic energy of the Headless Horseman , while the contrast of the film stock was increased in post @-@ production to add to the monochromatic feel .
Leavesden Studios , a converted airplane factory , presented problems because of its relatively low ceilings . This was less of an issue for The Phantom Menace , in which set height was generally achieved by digital means . " Our visual choices get channeled and violent , " Heinrichs elaborated , " so you end up with liabilities that you tend to exploit as virtues . When you 've got a certain ceiling height , and you 're dealing with painted backings , you need to push atmosphere and diffusion . " This was particularly the case in several exteriors that were built on sound stages . " We would mitigate the disadvantages by hiding lights with teasers and smoke . "
= = = = Visual effects = = = =
The majority of Sleepy Hollow 's 150 visual effects shots were handled by Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , while Kevin Yagher supervised the human and creature effects . Framestore also assisted on digital effects , and The Mill handled motion control photography . In part a reaction to the computer @-@ generated effects in Mars Attacks ! , Burton opted to use as limited an amount of digital effects as possible . Ray Park , who served as the Headless Horseman stunt double , wore a blue ski mask for the chroma key effect , digitally removed by ILM . Burton and Heinrichs applied to Sleepy Hollow many of the techniques they had used in stop motion animation on Vincent — such as forced perspective sets .
The windmill was a 60 @-@ foot @-@ tall forced @-@ perspective exterior ( visible to highway travellers miles away ) , a base and rooftop set and a quarter @-@ scale miniature . The interior of the mill , which was about 30 @-@ feet high and 25 @-@ feet wide , featured wooden gears equipped with mechanisms for grinding flour . A wider view of the windmill was rendered on a Leavesden soundstage set with a quarter @-@ scale windmill , complete with rotating vanes , painted sky backdrop and special @-@ effects fire . " It was scary for the actors who were having burning wood explode at them , " Heinrichs recalled . " There were controls in place and people standing by with hoses , of course , but there 's always a chance of something going wrong . " For the final shot of the burning mill exploding , the quarter @-@ scale windmill and painted backdrop were erected against the outside wall of the " flight shed " , a spacious hangar on the far side of Leavesden Studios . The hangar 's interior walls were knocked down to create a 450 @-@ foot run , with a 40 @-@ foot width still allowing for coach and cameras . Heinrichs tailored the sets so cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki could shoot from above without seeing the end of the stage .
Actor Ian McDiarmid , who portrayed Dr. Lancaster , had just finished another Leavesden production with Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace . He compared the aesthetics of the two films , stating that physical sets helped the actors get into a natural frame of mind . " Having come from the blue @-@ screen world of Star Wars it was wonderful to see gigantic , beautifully made perspective sets and wonderful clothes , and also people recreating a world . It 's like the way movies used to be done . "
= = = Musical score = = =
The film score was written and produced by Danny Elfman . It won the Golden Satellite Award and was also nominated by the Las Vegas Film Critics .
= = = = Track listing = = = =
Tracks marked with ♦ are only available as a bonus track on disc 8 of the Danny Elfman / Tim Burton 25th Anniversary Music Box .
The track numbers listed here do not therefore correspond to the original 1999 album .
Introduction
Main Titles
Young Ichabod
The Story ...
Masbath 's Terrible Death
Young Masbath ♦
Phony Chase ♦
Sweet Dreams
A Gift
Phillipse 's Death ♦
Into the Woods / The Witch
Mysterious Figure ♦
More Dreams
The Tree of Death
Bad Dreams / Tender Moment
Evil Eye
The Church Battle
Love Lost
The Windmill
The Chase
The Final Confrontation
A New Day !
End Credits
= = Release = =
To promote Sleepy Hollow , Paramount Pictures featured the film 's trailer at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in August 1999 . The following October , the studio launched a website , which Variety described as being the " most ambitious online launch of a motion picture to date . " The site ( sleepyhollowmovie.com ) offered visitors live video chats with several of the filmmakers hosted by Yahoo ! Movies and enabled them to send postcards , view photos , trailers and a six @-@ minute behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette edited from a broadcast that aired on Entertainment Tonight . Extensive tours of 10 sets where offered , where visitors were able to roam around photographs , including the sets for the entire town of Sleepy Hollow , forest , church , graveyard and covered bridge . Arthur Cohen , president of worldwide marketing for Paramount , explained that the " Web @-@ friendly " pre @-@ release reports from websites such as Ain 't It Cool News and Dark Horizons encouraged the studio to create the site . In the weeks pre @-@ dating the release of Sleepy Hollow , a toy line was marketed by McFarlane Toys . Simon & Schuster also published The Art of Sleepy Hollow ( ISBN 0671036572 ) , which included the film 's screenplay and an introduction by Tim Burton . A novelization , also published by Simon & Schuster , was written by Peter Lerangis .
Sleepy Hollow was released in the United States on November 19 , 1999 in 3 @,@ 069 theaters , grossing $ 30 @,@ 060 @,@ 467 in its opening weekend at the # 2 spot behind The World Is Not Enough . Sleepy Hollow eventually earned $ 101 @,@ 071 @,@ 502 in domestic gross , and $ 105 million in foreign sales , coming to a worldwide total of $ 206 @,@ 071 @,@ 502 . David Walsh of the National Institute on Media and the Family criticized the film 's financial success from the exaggeration of gore . " The real impact is not so much that violent images create violent behavior , " Walsh explained , " but that they create an atmosphere of disrespect . " Burton addressed the concerns as a matter of opinion . " Everyone has a different perception of things . When I was a kid , " Burton continued , " I was probably more scared by seeing John Wayne or Barbra Streisand on the big screen than by seeing violence . "
Paramount Home Video first released Sleepy Hollow on DVD in the United States on May 23 , 2000 . The HD DVD release came in July 2006 , while the film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc two years later , in June 2008 .
= = = Reception = = =
Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 67 % of critics gave the film a " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 126 reviews with an average score of 6 @.@ 2 / 10 , with the site 's consensus stating , " Sleepy Hollow entertains with its stunning visuals and creepy atmosphere . " Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a weighted average score of 65 ( out of 100 ) based on 35 reviews from mainstream critics , considered to be " generally favorable " .
Roger Ebert praised Johnny Depp 's performance and Tim Burton 's methods of visual design . " Johnny Depp is an actor able to disappear into characters , " Ebert continued , " never more readily than in one of Burton 's films . " Richard Corliss wrote , in his review for TIME Magazine , " Burton 's richest , prettiest , weirdest [ film ] since Batman Returns . The simple story bends to his twists , freeing him for an exercise in high style . "
David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor highly praised Burton 's filmmaking and the high @-@ spirited acting of cast , but believed Andrew Kevin Walker 's writing was too repetitious and formulaic for the third act . " You go into a Tim Burton film wanting to be transported , but Sleepy Hollow is little more than a lavish , art @-@ directed slasher movie . "
Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly wrote Sleepy Hollow is " a choppily plotted crowd @-@ pleaser that lacks the seductive , freakazoid alchemy of Burton 's best work . " Gleiberman compared the film to The Mummy , and said " it feels like every high @-@ powered action climax of the last 10 years . Personally , I 'd rather see Burton so intoxicated by a movie that he lost his head . "
Andrew Johnston of Time Out New York wrote : " Like the best of Burton 's films , Sleepy Hollow takes place in a world so richly imagined that , despite its abundant terrors , you can 't help wanting to step through the screen . "
Mick LaSalle , writing in the San Francisco Chronicle , criticized Burton 's perceived image as a creative artist . " All Sleepy Hollow has going for it is art direction , and even in that it falls back on cliché . " Doug Walker linked the film to the Hammer Films style of horror cinematography , considering it an homage to those movies , comparing the usage of dignified British actors , choices in color and movie sets and character relations . Walker gave it the merit of recreating the " very specific genre " of Hammer Films , citing the skill and " clever casting " Burton used to manage this .
Jonathan Rosenbaum from the Chicago Reader called Sleepy Hollow " a ravishing visual experience , a pretty good vehicle for some talented American and English actors , " but concluded that the film was a missed opportunity to depict an actual representation of the short story . " Burton 's fidelity is exclusively to the period feeling he gets from disreputable Hammer horror films and a few images culled from Ichabod and Mr. Toad . When it comes to one of America 's great stories , Burton obviously couldn 't care less . "
= = Accolades = =
American Film Institute recognition :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
The Headless Horseman – Nominated Villain
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= To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World =
To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World is an open letter written on February 24 , 1836 , by William B. Travis , commander of the Texian forces at the Battle of the Alamo , to settlers in Mexican Texas . The letter is renowned as a " declaration of defiance " and a " masterpiece of American patriotism " , and forms part of the history education of Texas schoolchildren .
On February 23 , the Alamo Mission in San Antonio , Texas had been besieged by Mexican forces led by General Antonio López de Santa Anna . Fearing that his small group of men could not withstand an assault , Travis wrote this letter seeking reinforcements and supplies from supporters . The letter closes with Travis 's vow of " Victory or Death ! " , an emotion which has been both praised and derided by historians .
The letter was initially entrusted to courier Albert Martin , who carried it to the town of Gonzales some seventy miles away . Martin added several postscripts to encourage men to reinforce the Alamo , and then handed the letter to Launcelot Smithers . Smithers added his own postscript and delivered the letter to its intended destination , San Felipe de Austin . Local publishers printed over 700 copies of the letter . It also appeared in the two main Texas newspapers and was eventually printed throughout the United States and Europe . Partially in response to the letter , men from throughout Texas and the United States began to gather in Gonzales . Between 32 and 90 of them reached the Alamo before it fell ; the remainder formed the nucleus of the army which eventually defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto .
Following the end of the Texas Revolution , the original letter was delivered to Travis 's family in Alabama , and in 1893 , one of his descendants sold it to the State of Texas for $ 85 ( $ 2 @,@ 239 today ) . For many decades it was displayed at the Texas State Library ; the original letter is now protected and a copy is on display under a portrait of Travis .
= = Background = =
The Mexican Constitution of 1824 liberalized the country 's immigration policies , allowing foreigners to settle in border regions such as Mexican Texas . People flocked to the area ; an 1834 census estimated the Texas population at 7 @,@ 800 Mexicans and 30 @,@ 000 English @-@ speaking people primarily from the United States . Among the immigrants was William Barret Travis , an Alabama native who had variously worked as a teacher , a newspaper publisher , and a lawyer . An avid reader , Travis often devoured a novel in a single day . His taste ran primarily to romantic adventure and history , especially the novels of Sir Walter Scott and Benjamin Disraeli and the historical works of Herodotus . Historians have speculated that Travis 's choice of reading material may have affected his behavior — Travis was known for his melodramatic ways .
In May 1831 , Travis opened a law office in Anahuac , Texas . Almost immediately , he and his law partner , Patrick Jack , clashed with the local military commander , Juan Davis Bradburn . Their subsequent actions were instrumental in causing the May 1832 Anahuac Disturbances . According to historian William C. Davis , Bradburn " overreacted and made heroes of two local malcontents whose actions their own people otherwise had not been much inclined to sanction " . Bradburn was forced to resign his post and flee Texas .
The Anahuac Disturbances coincided with a Mexican civil war . Texians aligned themselves with proponents of federalism advocating a stronger role for state governments , in opposition to a centralized government that set most policies at the national level . The federalists prevailed , and their favored general , Antonio López de Santa Anna , was elected president . In 1835 , Santa Anna began consolidating power ; in response federalists launched armed rebellion in several Mexican states . Travis , an ardent foe of centralism , led an attack on Anahuac in June 1835 and forced the Mexican garrison to surrender . Many Texas settlers thought Travis 's action was imprudent , and he was forced to apologize . Although the Mexican government issued a warrant for his arrest , local authorities did not enforce it .
Texians became increasingly discontented with the government as Santa Anna positioned himself as a dictator . In October , the Texas Revolution began and delegates appointed a provisional government . Travis was commissioned lieutenant colonel in the new regular army and asked to raise a cavalry company . He participated in the Siege of Béxar , where he proved to be " an impulsive , occasionally insubordinate , officer " .
By the end of 1835 , Texians had expelled all Mexican troops from Texas . Believing the war ended , many Texians resigned from the army and returned home . In January , the provisional government essentially collapsed ; despite a lack of authority for any branch of government to interfere with other branches , the legislature impeached Governor Henry Smith , who in turn disbanded the legislature . No one in Texas was entirely sure who was in charge .
Even as Texian governmental authority declined , rumors flew that Santa Anna would personally lead an invasion of Texas to quell the rebellion . Despite this news , Texian army strength continued to dwindle . Texas settlers were divided on whether they were fighting for independence or a return to a federalist government in Mexico . The confusion caused many settlers to remain at home or to return home . Fewer than 100 Texian soldiers remained garrisoned at the Alamo Mission in San Antonio de Béxar ( now San Antonio , Texas ) . Their commander , James C. Neill , feared that his small force would be unable to withstand an assault by the Mexican troops . In response to Neill 's repeated requests for reinforcements , Governor Smith assigned Travis and 30 men to the Alamo ; they arrived on February 3 . Most of the Texians , including Travis , believed that any Mexican invasion was months away .
= = Composition of the letter = =
Travis assumed command of the Alamo garrison on February 11 , when Neill was granted a furlough . On February 23 , Santa Anna arrived in Béxar at the head of approximately 1500 Mexican troops . The 150 Texian soldiers were unprepared for this development . As they rushed to the Alamo , Texians quickly herded cattle into the complex and scrounged for food in nearby houses . The Mexican army initiated a siege of the Alamo and raised a blood @-@ red flag signalling no quarter . Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo 's largest cannon .
The first night of the siege was largely quiet . The following afternoon , Mexican artillery began firing on the Alamo . Mexican Colonel Juan Almonte wrote in his diary that the bombardment dismounted two of the Alamo 's guns , including the massive 18 @-@ pounder cannon . The Texians quickly returned both weapons to service . Shortly after , Travis wrote an open letter pleading for reinforcements from " the people of Texas & All Americans in the World " .
To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World :
Fellow citizens & compatriots — I am besieged , by a thousand or more of the Mexicans under Santa Anna — I have sustained a continual Bombardment & cannonade for 24 hours & have not lost a man . The enemy has demanded a surrender at discretion , otherwise , the garrison are to be put to the sword , if the fort is taken — I have answered the demand with a cannon shot , & our flag still waves proudly from the walls . I shall never surrender or retreat . Then , I call on you in the name of Liberty , of patriotism & everything dear to the American character , to come to our aid , with all dispatch — The enemy is receiving reinforcements daily & will no doubt increase to three or four thousand in four or five days . If this call is neglected , I am determined to sustain myself as long as possible & die like a soldier who never forgets what is due to his own honor & that of his country — Victory or Death .
William Barret Travis
Lt. Col. comdt
P.S. The Lord is on our side — When the enemy appeared in sight we had not three bushels of corn — We have since found in deserted houses 80 or 90 bushels & got into the walls 20 or 30 head of Beeves .
Travis
= = Distribution = =
Travis entrusted the letter to courier Albert Martin , who rode through the night to cover the 70 miles ( 110 km ) to the closest town , Gonzales , as quickly as possible . During his journey , Martin added two postscripts . The first relayed Martin 's fear that the Mexican army had already attacked the Alamo and ended " Hurry on all the men you can in haste " . The second postscript is more difficult to read , as the letter was later folded along one line of text . The paper has since partially frayed along the fold , obliterating several words . The gist of the message , however , is that the men at the Alamo were " determined to do or die " , and Martin intended to gather reinforcements and return as quickly as possible .
In Gonzales , Martin turned the letter over to Launcelot Smithers . When the Mexican army arrived in Béxar , Smithers had immediately set out for Gonzales . Travis may have sent him as an official courier , or he may have journeyed there on his own to warn the townspeople . Smithers added his own message under Martin 's , encouraging men to gather in Gonzales to go to the relief of the Texians at the Alamo .
Before departing Gonzales , Smithers gave a letter to Andrew Ponton , the alcalde ( or mayor ) of the town . This second letter may have actually been the reason Smithers travelled to Gonzales , or it might have been a paraphrased version of the letter Martin had delivered . The copy read :
To All the Inhabitants of Texas :
In a few words there is 2000 Mexican soldiers in Bexar , and 150 Americans in the Alamo . Sesma is at the head of them , and from best accounts that can be obtained , they intend to show no quarter . If every man cannot turn out to a man every man in the Alamo will be murdered .
They have not more than 8 or 10 days provisions . They say they will defend it or die on the ground . Provisions , ammunition and Men , or suffer your men to be murdered in the Fort . If you do not turn out Texas is gone . I left Bexar on the 23rd at 4 P.M. By order of
W.V. [ sic ] Travis
L. Smithers
Ponton sent the Smithers copy of the letter to Colonel Henry Raguet , the commander of the Committee of Vigilance and Safety in Nacogdoches . Raguet kept the letter he received and sent a copy , with his additional comments , to Dr. John Sibley , the chairman of the Committee of Vigilance and Safety for Texas Affairs in Natchitoches , Louisiana .
Smithers rode hard and delivered Travis 's letter to San Felipe de Austin in fewer than 40 hours . In a hurriedly organized meeting , town leaders passed a series of resolutions pledging assistance to the Alamo defenders . The results of the meeting were printed in a broadsheet alongside a reproduction of Travis 's letter . After distributing all 200 copies of their initial print run , newspaper publishers Joseph Baker and Thomas Borden made at least four other reproductions of the letter , resulting in more than 500 additional copies . Their final printing included a message from Governor Henry Smith urging the colonists " to fly to the aid of your besieged countrymen and not permit them to be massacred by a mercenary foe . ... The call is upon ALL who are able to bear arms , to rally without one moment 's delay , or in fifteen days the heart of Texas will be the seat of war . " On March 2 , the letter was printed in the Texas Republican . It appeared in the other major Texas newspaper , the Telegraph and Texas Register , three days later . The letter was eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe .
= = Texian response = =
This letter was one of several that Travis sent during the siege of the Alamo . Each carried a similar message — the Mexican army had invaded Texas , the Alamo was surrounded , and the Texians needed more men and ammunition to wage a successful defense . No assistance was forthcoming from the Texas government . By this point infighting had rendered the provisional government completely ineffective , and delegates convened on March 1 at the Convention of 1836 to create a new government . Most of the delegates believed that Travis exaggerated the difficulties he faced .
Many Texas residents disagreed with the convention 's perception . As the message spread across Texas , settlers left their homes and assembled in Gonzales , where Colonel James Fannin was due to arrive with the remaining Texian Army troops . On February 27 one group of reinforcements impatiently set out on their own ; as a result 32 additional Texians entered the Alamo . Research by historian Thomas Ricks Lindley indicates that an additional 50 or 60 men reinforced the Alamo on March 4 .
Almost all of the Texians were killed at the Battle of the Alamo when the Mexican army attacked on March 6 ; Travis was likely the first to die . Unaware that the Alamo had fallen , reinforcements continued to assemble ; over 400 Texians were waiting in Gonzales when news of the Texian defeat reached the town on March 11 . Earlier that day , General Sam Houston , newly reappointed commander of the Texian Army , had arrived in Gonzales . On hearing of the Alamo 's fall , Houston took command of the assembled volunteers . The following month , this hastily organized army defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto , ending the Texas Revolution .
This letter may have influenced the election of David G. Burnet as interim president of the new Republic of Texas . After reading one of the broadsheet versions of the letter , Burnet rushed to join Travis at the Alamo . After stopping at Washington @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Brazos to recruit reinforcements from the men assembled at the Convention of 1836 , Burnet became so " inspired by their deliberations " that he remained as a visitor . The convention declared independence from Mexico on March 2 , but delegates feared for the safety of the new country 's officers . Speaking privately with many of the delegates , Burnet professed his willingness to serve as president of a new republic , even if that made him a target of Santa Anna . The most popular delegates were absent from the convention on other business for the war effort . In the absence of interest in the position from most of those remaining , Burnet was nominated for president and defeated the only other candidate , Samuel Carson , by a 29 – 23 margin .
= = Preservation = =
After the Texas Revolution ended , the original draft of the letter was given to Travis 's family in Alabama . Several prominent Texians are known to have visited Travis 's estranged wife shortly after the hostilities ended , but historians are unsure which of these men might have delivered the letter . Travis 's daughter Susan ( aged five at the time of his death ) passed the letter down to her descendants ; it eventually reached her great @-@ grandson , John G. Davidson . In February 1891 , Davidson lent the letter to the Texas Department of Agriculture , Insurance , Statistics , and History . Two years later , Davidson offered to sell the letter to the state of Texas for $ 250 ( $ 6 @,@ 584 today ) . This represented half of the annual sum allocated for collecting historical manuscripts , and the state was hesitant to agree . After negotiations , Davidson agreed to accept $ 85 ( $ 2 @,@ 239 today ) for the letter , and on May 29 it officially passed into state ownership .
For many decades , the letter was publicly displayed , usually in a locked glass case with other manuscripts and artifacts from the Texas Revolution . At times , it was arranged alongside the Travis family Bible and a copy of Travis 's will . In 1909 , the letter was moved to the Texas State Library and has since left that building only twice ; it was among 143 documents loaned to the Committee on Historical Exhibits for the Texas Centennial Exposition in 1936 , and it returned briefly to the site of the exposition in 1986 . The original letter is no longer on permanent display . In its place is , in the words of Michael Green , former reference archivist for the Texas State Library Archives Division , " an exacting , one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind facsimile " . Directly over its display case is a portrait of Travis .
Four copies of the original broadsides are known to survive . One was placed for auction in 2004 , where it was predicted to reach a price of over $ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = Return to the Alamo = =
In October 2012 , the Texas General Land Office announced plans to display the famous Travis Letter in the Alamo from February 23 to March 7 , 2013 . This will mark the first time the iconic letter has returned to the Alamo since it was written by Travis . The display was free and open to the general public .
= = Reception = =
Travis ' letter is regarded as " the most famous document in Texas history " , but its widespread distribution allowed an impact outside the relatively isolated settlements in Texas . Historians place the letter in a broader context , " as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism " or even " one of the greatest declarations of defiance in the English language " . It is rare to see a book about the Alamo or the Texas Revolution which does not quote the letter , either in full or part . The letter also appears in full in most Texas history textbooks geared towards elementary and middle school children . The postscripts , however , have rarely been printed . Despite its asserted impact , minimal scholarship exists on the letter itself .
Almost from the moment of his arrival in Texas , Travis had attempted to influence the war agenda in Texas . As he realized the magnitude of the opposition he faced at the Alamo , the tone of Travis 's writings shifted from perfunctory reports to the provisional government to more eloquent messages aimed at a wider audience . With limited time and opportunity to sway people to his way of thinking , Travis 's success , and perhaps his very survival , would depend on his ability to " emotionally move the people " . His previous work as a journalist likely gave him a good understanding of the type of language that would most resonate with his intended audience . Travis used this particular letter not only as a means to publicize his immediate need for reinforcements and supplies , but also to shape the debate within Texas by offering " a well @-@ crafted provocation " that might incite others to take up arms . He chose " unambiguous and defiant " language , resulting in a " very powerful " message . The letter represented an unofficial declaration of independence for Texas . Its word usage evoked the American Revolution and Patrick Henry 's famed cry of " Liberty or Death ! "
Critics have derided the letter for its emotionalism , noting that it appears to show " a preoccupation with romance and chivalry " not uncommon to fans of Sir Walter Scott . In particular , they point to Travis 's asserted determination to sacrifice his own life for a lost cause .
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= It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) =
" It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the final track of his 1974 album Dark Horse . Harrison was inspired to write the song while in the Hindu holy city of Vrindavan , in northern India , with his friend Ravi Shankar . The composition originated on a day that Harrison describes in his autobiography as " my most fantastic experience " , during which his party and their ascetic guide toured the city 's temples . The song 's choruses were adapted from the Sanskrit chant they sang before visiting Seva Kunj , a park dedicated to Krishna 's childhood . The same pilgrimage to India led to Harrison staging Shankar 's Music Festival from India in September 1974 and undertaking a joint North American tour with Shankar at the end of that year .
Despite the devotional nature of the song , Harrison wrote it part @-@ way through a period of divergence from the spiritual goals he had espoused in his previous works , particularly Living in the Material World ( 1973 ) . " It Is ' He ' " serves as a rare example of an overtly religious song on Dark Horse . Recorded between August and October 1974 , the track features an unusual mix of musical styles and instrumentation – including gospel @-@ style keyboards , folk @-@ rock acoustic guitar , Indian string and percussion instruments , and Moog synthesizer . Besides Harrison , the musicians on the recording include Billy Preston , Tom Scott and Emil Richards , all of whom played in his 1974 tour band and contributed to Shankar 's concurrent release , Shankar Family & Friends .
" It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " continued Harrison 's fusion of the Hindu bhajan tradition with Western pop and rock . The song failed to gain the favourable reception afforded his earlier productions in that style , however , such as " My Sweet Lord " , " Hare Krishna Mantra " and " Give Me Love " . With his spiritual pronouncements during the tour proving similarly unwelcome to many music critics , Harrison subsequently withdrew from making such public statements of Hindu religiosity until producing Shankar 's Chants of India album in 1996 . " It Is ' He ' " was the last overtly devotional song released under Harrison 's name until the posthumously issued " Brainwashed " in 2002 .
= = Background and inspiration = =
In a 1994 interview held at Ravi Shankar 's home in California , George Harrison referred to the reluctance he used to feel before visiting Shankar in India or meeting with A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , founder of the Hare Krishna movement , or more formally the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) . This was due to the " craziness " taking place in his life , Harrison continued , which sat at odds with the spiritual goals represented by these friends . In January and February 1974 , he visited India part @-@ way through a period that he describes in his autobiography , I , Me , Mine ( 1980 ) , as " the naughty years " , coinciding with the end of his marriage to Pattie Boyd . The visit led to Harrison writing two songs that would appear on his Dark Horse album later that year : " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " and " Simply Shady " . While the latter track reflected the singer 's recent indulgences with drugs and alcohol , " It Is ' He ' " documented what author Simon Leng terms " a spiritual epiphany for Harrison " in the Hindu holy city of Vrindavan .
Harrison went to India in 1974 to attend a ceremony in honour of Shankar 's new home , in Benares , on the banks of the River Ganges . At this time , the two musicians came up with the idea for Ravi Shankar 's Music Festival from India – a revue of Indian folk music presented by an orchestra of eighteen pioneers of the genre – and a subsequent joint tour of North America . From Benares , Harrison and Shankar then travelled across the state of Uttar Pradesh to Vrindavan , where the Hindu deity Krishna is said to have spent his childhood , thousands of years before . Discussing " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " in I , Me , Mine , Harrison recalls that they arrived there at dusk , and adds : " the whole town is Krishna conscious – everyone , everywhere was chanting ' Hare Krishna ' and various permutations on that . "
= = = Touring Vrindavan 's temples = = =
Shankar had arranged for an English @-@ speaking ascetic named Sripad Maharaj to serve as their guide on a tour of the local temples . Despite the bedraggled appearance of Maharaj , Harrison noticed that throughout the tour , swamis and other passers @-@ by would greet the guide by kissing his feet – a sign of the utmost reverence .
The party slept for a few hours in rooms provided by one of the temples , during which Harrison heard " huge heavenly choirs " in his dreams and experienced " the deepest sleep I had ever had in my life " . After they had attended morning puja at this temple , at 4 am , Maharaj began singing a bhajan , a Hindu musical prayer . In the tradition of communal chanting , or kirtana , Harrison and the others there sang in response , repeating Maharaj 's lines , for a period lasting up to five hours .
Late that morning , Harrison and Shankar accompanied Maharaj to Seva Kunj , a park that commemorates Krishna 's love for all @-@ night dancing with his gopis ( cow @-@ herd girls ) . Harrison later marvelled of Seva Kunj : " All the trees , which are so ancient , bow down and the branches touch the ground . Just to walk in that place is incredible . " In I , Me , Mine , he describes the Vrinadavan tour as " my most fantastic experience " and says that , at Maharaj 's suggestion , he turned the bhajan into a song , titled " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " .
= = = Other activities in Vrindavan = = =
Harrison and Shankar spent a few days in the city , at the Sri Chaitanya Prema Samastbana ashram , on the banks of the Yamuna River ; there , they meditated , wrote music and discussed " the art of devotion " . Harrison also met with Prabhupada at this time and reunited with ISKCON disciples Gurudas and Yamuna . The latter couple were among the founding devotees of the London Radha Krishna Temple , whose recordings of chants , including a hit version of the Hare Krishna mantra , Harrison had produced for Apple Records in 1969 – 70 . Theologian Dale Allison writes that " It Is ' He ' " resulted from Harrison having " rediscovered his enthusiasm for chanting " while in India .
= = Composition = =
Leng describes the mood of the song as " upbeat pseudo @-@ calypso " . He views it as a further example of the musical approach that Harrison employed in songs such as " My Sweet Lord " and " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " , whereby the Hindu bhajan tradition is fused with Western gospel music . The inclusion of Sanskrit verse in " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " recalls both " My Sweet Lord " , which incorporates part of the Hare Krishna mantra as well as other Hindu prayers , and " Gopala Krishna " , an unreleased track that Harrison also recorded for his All Things Must Pass triple album in 1970 .
Over a three @-@ chord pattern in the key of G major , Harrison adapted the words sung at the Vrinadavan kirtana , in a repetitive form typical of a mantra :
Jai Krishna , jai Krishna Krishna
Jai Krishna , jai Sri Krishna
Jai radhé , jai radhé radhé
Jai radhé , jai sri radhé .
Aside from offering praise to Krishna , these lines address Radha , his consort and lover , whom ISKCON devotees recognise as the female form of God . The words serve as the song 's chorus and translate to mean , " All glories and praise to Lord Krishna ; all glories and praise to Goddess Radha . "
Similar to Harrison 's 1973 song " Living in the Material World " – where he contrasts the Western or " material " parts of the composition with its meditative , " spiritual sky " sections – " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " employs a change in tempo and rhythm , to differentiate between the Sanskrit choruses and the English @-@ language verses . Lyrically , the latter sections outline the " It Is ' He ' " element of the song title . In the first of the three verses , Harrison sings of his deity as " He whose eyes have seen / What our lives have been / And who we really are " ; in the final verse , the description is : " He who is complete / Three worlds at His feet / Cause of every star ...
= = Recording = =
Throughout 1974 , progress on Dark Horse was compromised by Harrison 's commitment to setting up a new record label , also called Dark Horse , and his dedication to projects by the label 's first signings , Shankar and the English duo Splinter . With expectations high for his North American tour , the first by a former member of the Beatles , Harrison later referred to the pressure he had imposed on himself that year as " ridiculous " . As a further distraction , his return to less ascetic ways post @-@ Vrinadavan was marked by what he termed " a bit of a bender to make up for all the years I 'd been married " , as Boyd left him in July .
Harrison taped an early version of " It Is ' He ' " at his Friar Park studio , FPSHOT , in Oxfordshire , with Bobby Purvis and Bill Elliott of Splinter on backing vocals . On the officially released recording , he was backed by members of his 1974 tour band , including Tom Scott ( flute ) , Billy Preston ( piano , organ ) , Willie Weeks ( bass ) and Andy Newmark ( drums ) . These four American musicians attended the main sessions for Dark Horse , which took place at FPSHOT over August – September , in between rehearsals there for the Music Festival of India 's tour of Europe and the recording of a studio album by Shankar 's ensemble , which Harrison also produced . Harrison 's own contributions to the track included 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar and Moog synthesizer .
In October , with his album still unfinished , Harrison flew to Los Angeles , California , where he rehearsed with his musicians and Shankar 's orchestra for the upcoming tour , while carrying out further recording at A & M Studios . As additional members of the tour band , Jim Horn and Chuck Findley played flutes on " It Is ' He ' " and Emil Richards overdubbed percussion .
The completed recording features a mix of musical styles , with the R & B @-@ funk rhythm section of Weeks and Newmark , gospel keyboards from Preston , and Richards ' wobbleboard recalling pre @-@ rock ' n ' roll skiffle . Aside from the Western instrumentation he supplied on " It Is ' He ' " , Harrison provided Indian music textures through his use of the gut @-@ stringed gubgubbi – described by Leng as a " banjo @-@ meets @-@ vocal sound " – as well as small hand @-@ cymbals ( or kartal ) , commonly played by Hare Krishna devotees during kirtana . In addition , according to Leng , the flute parts serve as a musical reference to Krishna , who is often shown playing a flute in scenes depicting his Lila ( pastimes ) in Vrindavan .
Already suffering from laryngitis , Harrison overtaxed his voice during the weeks of combined recording and rehearsals in Los Angeles , and his hoarse singing would doom his subsequent concerts in the eyes of many observers . Alone among the tracks on Dark Horse , however , " It Is ' He ' " contains a lead vocal that is relatively clean and free of the effects of laryngitis .
= = Release = =
Dark Horse was issued on 9 December 1974 , towards the end of Harrison and Shankar 's North American tour , with a UK release following on 20 December . The concerts had attracted scorn from many music critics , partly because of Harrison 's decision to feature Indian music so heavily in the program and his frequent statements regarding his Hindu faith . " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " appeared as the final track on Dark Horse , sequenced after " Far East Man " , a song that Harrison biographers interpret variously as a tribute to Shankar and India , and a reaffirmation of the humanitarian goals represented by Harrison and Shankar 's Bangladesh aid project .
In contrast with Living in the Material World in 1973 , " It Is ' He ' " was the sole example of a devotional song on the album . Leng considers that Dark Horse coincided with " a crisis of faith " on Harrison 's part and that , amid confessionals dealing with the singer 's troubled personal life and rock @-@ star excess , the track was " almost a reminder to himself of golden days in India , when he felt comforted by belief " .
While he identifies a level of religiosity in other songs on Dark Horse , Allison pairs the album with Material World as works that " literally wear their Hinduism on their record sleeves " . The front cover of Dark Horse includes a Himalayan landscape , above which floats the Nath Tradition yogi Shiv @-@ Goraksha Babaji , while the phrase " All glories to Sri Krsna " appears on the back cover . Among his handwritten notes on the LP 's inner sleeve , Harrison included Sripad Maharaj 's name in a list headed " Thanks to " . The song was published by Oops Publishing ( or Ganga in the United States ) , the new company that Harrison founded in March 1974 .
= = Critical reception = =
Like the North American tour , Dark Horse was much maligned on release . According to Simon Leng , Harrison 's rejection of rock ' n ' roll tradition and the Beatles ' legacy during the tour was the cause for the album 's unfavourable critical reception ; in the case of " It Is ' He ' " , Leng continues , this manifested as " outright hostility " from some reviewers , who saw it as " one Krishna paen too many " . Bob Woffinden of the NME wrote : " You keep looking for saving graces [ on the album ] , for words of enthusiasm to pass on ... Tracks like ' It Is HE ( Jai Sri Krishna ) ' are more typical . There , the endless repetition of ' Jai Sri Krishana , Jai Sri Radhe ' over an enfeebled tune is hardly compelling listening . " Writing for Rolling Stone , Jim Miller opined : " [ Harrison 's ] religiosity , once a spacey bauble in the Beatles ' panoply , has come to resemble the obsessiveness of a zealot . " In a more favourable review , Brian Harrigan of Melody Maker called the song " a bit of a groover " and credited Harrison with the creation of " a new category in music – Country and Eastern " .
The song has invited varied opinions among Harrison and Beatles biographers . In their book Eight Arms to Hold You , Chip Madinger and Mark Easter dismiss the track as " an inauspicious ending to a half @-@ baked LP " . Ian Inglis describes the deceleration into half @-@ time during the verses as " awkward " and notes the failure of " It Is ' He ' " next to Harrison 's earlier successes with " My Sweet Lord " and " Hare Krishna Mantra " . Inglis concludes : " The gently floating Indian [ choruses ] are somewhat undermined by the ponderous nature of the rock @-@ oriented interludes , and the evangelical nature of the English words – ' he who is complete ' – finally discourage any attempt at participation . " Author Elliot Huntley describes the song as " Krishna @-@ consciousness psychobabble " , with a refrain that is " repeated ad nauseam " . Writing in The Rough Guide to the Beatles , Chris Ingham views the track as " George at his happy @-@ clappy nadir " and pairs it with " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , which Harrison released as a hoped @-@ for Christmas – New Year hit in the UK , as " two of the worst songs he ever allowed out " .
While also commenting on the underachieving " Ding Dong " single , Alan Clayson writes : " Despite its non @-@ Christian slant , George might have fared better with the wonderful ' It Is " He " ( Jai Sri Krishna ) ' ... [ The ] repeated chorus was so uplifting that it scarcely mattered that it was sung ( without laryngitis ) entirely in Hindi – no more , anyway , than McCartney breaking into French on ' Michelle ' off Rubber Soul . " Robert Rodriguez rates " It Is ' He ' " among Harrison 's most overlooked tracks from the 1970s and describes it as " a joyful delight " and " unrelentingly calming yet catchy " . Leng notes the song as a continuation of Harrison 's successful bhajan – gospel " formula " , now rendered as " Krishna skiffle " and set in a " Kashmiri party atmosphere " . Leng views " It Is ' He ' " as " charming " and credits Harrison with anticipating the late 1980s world music genre , through his ethnomusicologist 's adoption of the Bengali gubgubbi , or khomok .
In a review of the 2014 reissue of Dark Horse , for Paste magazine , Robert Ham cited the song as a highlight of the album , writing : " The giddy ' Is It " He " ( Jai Sri Krishna ) ' ... is a joyous affirmation of [ Harrison 's ] spiritual beliefs that mashes up many of his musical interests , with Indian instruments finding consort with rambling English folk and R & B horn stabs . " Blogcritics ' Chaz Lipp identified " a lot of rewarding listening [ on Dark Horse ] for those willing to listen with an open mind " , among which , he continues : " ' Far East Man ' is a smooth soul collaboration with Ron Wood that , once heard , lodges itself in the brain . Even catchier is the closing track , ' It Is " He " ( Jai Sri Krishna ) . ' "
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
First published in August 1980 , I , Me , Mine contains two pages of description from Harrison on Vrindavan and the story behind " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " . This coverage contrasts with little discussion of his years as a member of the Beatles , and typically brief commentary on each of his songs . In the book , Harrison dedicates " It Is ' He ' " to Sripad Maharaj , whom he describes as " a wonderful , humble , Holy man " .
After 1974 , Harrison no longer wrote songs as obviously Krishna @-@ devotional as " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " , although he returned to recording bhajans intermittently , with songs such as " Dear One " in 1976 and " Life Itself , released in 1981 . In his book The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , Peter Lavezzoli writes that following Dark Horse and the " ill @-@ fated 1974 tour " , Harrison " continued to infuse his work with an implicit spirituality that rarely manifested on the surface " . Speaking to ISKCON devotee Mukunda Goswami in 1982 , Harrison said :
Back in the sixties , whatever we were all getting into , we tended to broadcast it as loud as we could . I had had certain realizations and went through a period where I was so thrilled about my discoveries and realizations that I wanted to shout and tell it to everybody . But there 's a time to shout it out and a time not to shout it out .
Having distanced himself from the Hare Krishna movement after Prabhupada 's death in 1977 and through the 1980s , Harrison returned to Vrindavan with Mukunda and other devotees in 1996 , while in India working on Shankar 's album Chants of India . Leng views the latter project as Harrison returning to the musical statements of his Radha Krishna Temple recordings and " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " . During the Friar Park sessions for Chants of India , Harrison taped the Indian music portions of his song " Brainwashed " , which ends with the Sanskrit prayer " Namah Parvati " . Dale Allison comments that it was not until the release of this chanted mantra , issued posthumously in 2002 , that Harrison again made such an " explicit statement " of Hindu religiosity as he had on " It Is ' He ' " .
= = Personnel = =
According to Bruce Spizer :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitars , gubgubbi , Moog synthesizer , percussion , backing vocals
Billy Preston – piano , organ
Tom Scott – flute
Jim Horn – flute
Chuck Findley – flute
Willie Weeks – bass
Andy Newmark – drums
Emil Richards – wobbleboard
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= Live 'r Than You 'll Ever Be =
Live 'r Than You 'll Ever Be is a bootleg recording of the Rolling Stones ' concert in Oakland , California , from 9 November 1969 . It was one of the first live rock music bootlegs and was made notorious as a document of their 1969 tour of the United States . The popularity of the bootleg forced the Stones ' label Decca Records to release the live album Get Yer Ya @-@ Yas Out ! The Rolling Stones in Concert in 1970 . Live 'r is also one of the earliest commercial bootleg recordings in rock history , released in December 1969 , just two months after the Beatles ' Kum Back and five months after Bob Dylan 's Great White Wonder . Like the two earlier records , Live 'r's outer sleeve is plain white , with its name stamped on in black ink .
= = Recording and release = =
Live 'r Than You 'll Ever Be was recorded by " Dub " Taylor from Trademark of Quality using a Sennheiser shotgun microphone and a Uher " Report 4000 " reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape recorder . It was the first audience @-@ recorded rock bootleg to be mastered and distributed ; some sources consider it the first live bootleg . Though the sound is not nearly as clear as the official release of Get Yer Ya @-@ Ya 's Out ! , the recording is considered to be very strong for an audience recording , especially one of that era . The Rolling Stones performed two sets that night and it is the second concert that was more heavily bootlegged and has sharper sound . Bootleggers had collaborated to record Stones shows across the United States , recording them on two @-@ track Sony recorders for months prior to the release of the album . At least one source claims that the recordings initially came from rock promoter Bill Graham 's staff , who used the tapes for broadcast on KSAN and released their edit on Lurch Records in early 1970 .
The recording was made available about one month after the concert , and it became popular enough to spur speculation that the Stones released Ya @-@ Ya 's as a response to the bootleg and the quality was high enough that it was rumoured that the band had even released the bootleg themselves . The recording has been released through several bootleg labels , including the original release by Trademark of Quality ( catalogue number 71002 ) , Swingin ' Pig , and Sister Morphine , usually documenting only the second set . The Swingin ' Pig release even replace performances of " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " and " Under My Thumb " with different recordings from the band 's 10 November performance in San Diego and their two @-@ night stint in New York City and attempted to enhance the sound quality by using de @-@ clicking technology — both changes have drawn criticism in comparison to the original TMOQ release .
= = Reception and influence = =
Live 'r Than You 'll Ever Be was reviewed by Greil Marcus in the 7 February 1970 , issue of Rolling Stone . In his review , Marcus praises the sound of the album and speculates that it may have been recorded from the stage ; footage from this concert was recorded by ABKCO Records for the film Gimme Shelter . The album also received praise as a more authentic example of the Stones on stage because Get Yer Ya @-@ Ya 's Out ! was heavily overdubbed in many places . Richie Unterberger has noted that the recording is inferior to the sound quality of Ya @-@ Ya 's , but displays a spontaneity that the official recording lacks and this helps to explain its long @-@ lasting appeal to fans . Reviewing the album in 1970 , Wim Wenders called it " the best Rolling Stones record . " The album would eventually sell enough copies to qualify for a gold record RIAA certification , with TMOQ sources claiming that it had sold 250 @,@ 000 copies by November 1970 — 150 @,@ 000 of which were produced by other bootleggers . Although the album did not chart on the Billboard 200 , the magazine did include it in a list of best @-@ selling bootlegs in 1971 , noting that hard sales figures were impossible to confirm , but six @-@ figure sales had been routinely discussed . The sleeve 's generic design was later copied by The Who 's 1970 album Live at Leeds .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Jagger / Richards , except where noted
Side one
" Carol " ( Chuck Berry ) – 3 : 44
" Gimme Shelter " – 4 : 18
" Sympathy for the Devil " – 6 : 23
" I 'm Free " – 5 : 07
" Live with Me " – 3 : 33
Side two
" Love in Vain " ( Robert Johnson ) – 5 : 24
" Midnight Rambler " – 7 : 40
" Little Queenie " ( Berry ) – 4 : 13
" Honky Tonk Women " – 4 : 04
" Street Fighting Man " – 4 : 10
Different versions of the bootleg include different track listings . The Tarantura Records release includes both concerts performed on this date in their entirety and is represented here :
Disc 1 – Early Show
Band introduction – 1 : 36
" Jumpin ' Jack Flash " – 4 : 51
" Prodigal Son " ( Robert Wilkins ) – 4 : 03
" You Gotta Move " ( Fred McDowell and Reverend Gary Davis ) – 3 : 18
" Carol " ( Berry ) – 3 : 33
" Sympathy for the Devil " – 6 : 55
" Stray Cat Blues " – 4 : 18
" Love in Vain " ( Johnson ) – 5 : 13
" I 'm Free " – 5 : 08
" Under My Thumb " – 3 : 15
" Midnight Rambler " – 8 : 17
" Live with Me " – 4 : 00
" Little Queenie " ( Berry ) – 3 : 56
" ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " – 6 : 56
" Honky Tonk Women " – 4 : 17
" Street Fighting Man " – 4 : 03
Disc 2 – Late Show
" Jumpin ' Jack Flash " – 4 : 05
" Carol " ( Berry ) – 3 : 44
" Sympathy for the Devil " – 6 : 23
" Stray Cat Blues " – 4 : 13
" Prodigal Son " ( Wilkins ) – 3 : 59
" You Gotta Move " ( McDowell and Davis ) – 3 : 12
" Love in Vain " ( Johnson ) – 5 : 24
" I 'm Free " – 5 : 07
" Under My Thumb " – 3 : 23
" Midnight Rambler " – 7 : 40
" Live with Me " – 3 : 33
" Gimme Shelter " – 4 : 18
" Little Queenie " ( Berry ) – 4 : 13
" ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " – 6 : 04
" Honky Tonk Women " – 4 : 04
" Street Fighting Man " – 4 : 10
= = Personnel = =
The Rolling Stones
Mick Jagger – lead vocals , harmonica
Keith Richards – lead guitar and rhythm guitar , backing vocals
Mick Taylor – lead and rhythm guitar , slide guitar
Bill Wyman – bass guitar
Charlie Watts – drums and percussion
Additional musicians
Ian Stewart – piano
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= Brand New ( band ) =
Brand New is a rock band from Long Island , New York . Formed in 2000 , the band consists of Jesse Lacey ( lead vocals , guitars ) , Vincent Accardi ( guitars , backing vocals ) , Garrett Tierney ( bass guitar ) , and Brian Lane ( drums , percussion ) . From 2005 until 2013 the band also included Derrick Sherman ( guitar , backing vocals , keyboards ) .
In the late 1990s , Jesse Lacey , Garrett Tierney and Brian Lane were all members of the band The Rookie Lot . They eventually split off from the other members of the group , and in 2000 formed Brand New in Merrick , New York . The band signed to Triple Crown Records and in 2001 released their debut studio album , Your Favorite Weapon . Their second album , Déjà Entendu , was released in 2003 and marked a stylistic change for the band . The album 's first two singles , " The Quiet Things That No One Ever Knows " and " Sic Transit Gloria ... Glory Fades " , both received airplay on MTV2 and Fuse TV , entering the top 40 on the United Kingdom Singles Chart . Deja Entendu was eventually certified gold in the United States .
Brand New moved to Interscope Records and released The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me in 2006 . " Jesus " , also known as " Jesus Christ " , became their highest charting single in the US , peaking at number 30 on the Alternative Songs chart . In March 2008 , the band started their own record label , named Procrastinate ! Music Traitors . Their fourth album , Daisy , was released in 2009 and became their highest charting album in the US , reaching number six on the Billboard 200 . The band have been working on new material for some time , releasing new single " Mene " in April 2015 followed by " I Am a Nightmare " a year later in May 2016 . A new album is scheduled for release in 2016 . Recent t @-@ shirt designs and lyric book inserts hint at the band possibly breaking up in 2018 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early releases ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = =
Prior to Brand New 's official formation , in the late 1990s , Jesse Lacey , Garrett Tierney and Brian Lane were all members of the post @-@ hardcore band The Rookie Lot , along with Brandon Reilly and Alex Dunne of Crime in Stereo . After the band 's split and not playing together for a while , Lacey , Lane and Tierney started to rehearse again . They then recruited guitarist Vincent Accardi , who had been playing in a band called One Last Goodbye , since Reilly had joined The Movielife .
All four members had backgrounds linking into their local Long Island independent and hardcore music scenes , but with influences from an array of artists ranging from Buddy Rich to the Archers of Loaf . They eventually formed Brand New in 2000 , in a basement in Merrick , New York . Their initial intention was always to " move outside of whatever notions they felt inclined to when they were making music as younger people . " The band gained exposure in the local scene through playing shows with alternative rock contemporaries Midtown and post @-@ hardcore bands like Glassjaw , while also self @-@ releasing a four @-@ song demo . They signed to Triple Crown Records just after their second @-@ ever show .
= = = Debut album : Your Favorite Weapon ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
Brand New 's debut studio album Your Favorite Weapon was produced by friend of the band Mike Sapone . The album has been described as being " bitter about ex @-@ girlfriends " , with an excessive concentration on " post @-@ breakup angst " , receiving relatively positive reviews , with Allmusic awarding it three out of five and Popmatters also being favorable . It became a moderate success , selling over 50 @,@ 000 copies . The record deal gave Brand New the opportunity to tour , playing alongside the likes of Taking Back Sunday and touring the UK in support of Finch , to a " great response " from the crowds .
The only single released from Your Favorite Weapon was " Jude Law and a Semester Abroad " . The song has been described by Allmusic as a " semi @-@ hit " , after it received airplay on both MTV2 and Fuse .
= = = Déjà Entendu and acclaim ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = =
Brand New 's second studio album was written in " the year and @-@ a @-@ half or two years " that they were touring the material off Your Favorite Weapon . According to drummer Brian Lane , " Jesse [ Lacey ] wrote a lot of the lyrics about different things than ' I just broke up with my girlfriend ' for the new record , " as Lacey had written the songs on an acoustic guitar in his bedroom . Lane also explained that the band was now influenced by a range of different artists , " All of us got exposed to a lot of different music that all of us were listening to . For the first [ album ] we weren 't in such close quarters for 24 hours a day . I think that has a lot to do with it . " Unlike their first album , it was said that a lot of time and concentration went into making the album .
The band released Déjà Entendu through Razor & Tie / Triple Crown Records in June 2003 , with it being issued in Europe and Australia in October 2003 . The album 's title , Deja Entendu , is French for " already heard . " It was explained as " very tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , " by singer Lacey . Elaborating on the title 's meaning , he told MTV , " No matter who you are or what your band is about , you can 't put a record out without people saying it 's derivative of something else . So by saying the record 's already been heard , it 's kind of like saying , ' Yeah , you 're right . We 're doing something that 's already been done before . ' " Also reinforcing , " We 're not trying to break new ground in music . We 're just trying to make good music . " The album was described as a " stylistic leap " from Your Favorite Weapon , with a " decidedly matured " sound . In an interview with Billboard , Lacey said that although Déjà Entendu does offer a different sound , the album " doesn 't seem like we 're departing from anything , really . I think we always knew that we had a lot of potential and there 's a lot of different stuff we were able to do , and a lot of different sounds we wanted to make . Not too long after we recorded the first record , we were already wondering where we were going to go from there . "
Déjà Entendu debuted at number 63 on the Billboard 200 . After just seven weeks , the album 's sales were at more than 51 @,@ 000 copies , already closing in on the total figure of its predecessor , Your Favorite Weapon . In May 2007 , four years after its release , it was certified gold for surpassing 500 @,@ 000 sales in the United States , by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Déjà Entendu 's first single , " The Quiet Things That No One Ever Knows " , impacted radio airplay in July 2003 , a month after the album 's release . The song was said to be about regret , or " How there can be problems in a relationship and they get ignored . And how that often ends up as a broken home or some kind of bad situation down the road . It 's kind of something that if it wasn 't overlooked in the first place , you can kind of get through it . " The song 's music video chronicles the moments after a severe car accident , where a mortally wounded Lacey cannot depart for the next world until he knows that his girlfriend , also injured in the crash , is safe in this one . He says it " is about death or losing someone and it 's those moments that you kind of look back on your life and realize all the regrets that you had , and all the things you wish you could change " . They also made a music video for the second single , " Sic Transit Gloria ... Glory Fades , " where Lacey acts like a human voodoo doll ; discovering that when he moves a particular body part , it is mimicked by the target of his action . " Since the song is about taking advantage of someone else , " he said , " there 's a pretty strong correlation between the video and the song . " Both music videos gave the band exposure in the mainstream where Your Favorite Weapon went " virtually unnoticed " , with the videos finding " constant " airplay on MTV and the band making its live television debut on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . Furthermore , both singles entered the top 40 on the UK Singles Chart , whilst " The Quiet Things That No One Ever Knows " peaked at number 37 on the Alternative Songs chart .
Three shows of the band 's 24 @-@ date headlining US tour with Moneen , Senses Fail , and The Beautiful Mistake had sold out prior to even having released a single , with much of the buzz surrounding the band being produced by just word of mouth , touring and Internet message boards . Deja Entendu 's success also earned them tours alongside New Found Glory , Good Charlotte , Dashboard Confessional , and Blink @-@ 182 . The band went on to headline The Bamboozle festival with My Chemical Romance , Alkaline Trio , Thrice , The Starting Line , Fall Out Boy , The Bouncing Souls , Straylight Run and Flogging Molly . They also made their second trip to the UK in 2004 , their first as the headline act , the tour completely sold out .
In the wake of Déjà Entendu , Brand New was pegged as an act to watch in Rolling Stone 's annual " Hot Issue . " The band topped punk critics ' year @-@ end lists with the " genre @-@ defying " Déjà Entendu , and the album was described as a " landmark album of so @-@ called ' emo @-@ punk ' . " As a result of both the album 's success and the band 's notable underground following , Brand New found itself in the middle of a bidding war from record labels . At the time , Lane protested the label of " bidding war " , but conceded , " There 's a few labels that are definitely interested . We 've been talking to a lot of people for a while and we 're narrowing it down . " The band eventually signed with DreamWorks Records , which was then taken over by Interscope Records .
= = = The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me ( 2005 – 2008 ) = = =
Following their signing to Interscope , Brand New stopped touring to work on their third album and major label debut . In this time , little to no interviews or updates came from the band . In 2004 , Jesse Lacey told Chart magazine that he had written a " few songs " for the next album , commenting that " the other guys love it already " . He made mention of the pressure he felt with the " loads of anticipation building up on my shoulders , " saying that he even felt depressed because of this ; " I 'm getting depressed with all of the anxiety about the album and they say I write my best stuff when I 'm in that state . Great , I 'll spend the next six months all depressed and the rest of band will be excited , so that some good ( material ) might come out . And then I have to contend with how it 's received . " Lacey also said that the album would " move into new territory for Brand New " .
In late 2005 , Brand New started recording their highly anticipated third album in Oxford , Mississippi with producer Dennis Herring , but later dropped him in favor of Mike Sapone with whom they had worked on their first album .
In January 2006 , nine tracks recorded for the album were leaked to the Internet . In response to the leak , Garrett Tierney stated " I would say it did it in a good way ' cause so many people were curious to hear what we have been doing — and for the most part , the record tracks don 't sound anything like the leaked demos . " However , Lacey was not so upbeat when asked , saying , " For me it was different . It had me pretty down for a while . No one likes to show their creation in mid @-@ process , and those songs weren 't done . They were like blueprints . Just the plan , right ? It put me in a state where I was under the impression that those songs had been wasted or something — that we had to go and write new things because those had been heard . Now , in retrospect , I want those songs to be on the album and many of them aren 't , and I 'm probably more to blame for that than anyone . This record already feels incomplete to me without those tracks and probably will forever . "
In the following months , with Brand New doing their first tour dates in over 18 months , a few songs from the demos were performed with a full band , some were fleshed out and had new lyrics . New songs had their debut as well during the summer tour dates . Brand New began their first tour in years on June 20 , 2006 , where Lacey stated that the album had been completed the previous day .
Alternative Press published a preliminary date of October 10 , 2006 , as the album 's release date , this was later corrected on the band 's official website , when it was announced that the new album would be released on November 21 , 2006 in North America , and the day before in Europe . Soon after , a track listing and cover art were revealed , as well as new information regarding the release of the first single – " Sowing Season " . Having previously been leaked as a demo , the completed song began airing on radio on October 19 , 2006 , and appeared on their MySpace page a day later . According to Lacey in a radio interview from the UK ( BBC Radio 1 with Zane Lowe ) , the title The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me is taken from a conversation he had with his friend about the musician Daniel Johnston , who has bipolar disorder .
In late December 2006 , an unusual video was released for the instrumental track " Untitled " , also known as " - " , which mainly consists of a man spray painting a wall with " evil and good are raging Inside me " and correcting it to give the album title . On January 16 , 2007 , " Jesus " was announced as being the next official single from the album . On January 19 , the band performed the song on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . They performed it again on February 26 on the Late Show with David Letterman .
From January to June 2007 , the band toured the United States , Europe , Canada , and Australia , including a headline slot on the UK 's Give It A Name festival and playing the main stage at The Bamboozle festival . Despite the band 's reluctance towards the press around the time of the release of the album , they were featured in Alternative Press , a cover story for Rock Sound , Kerrang ! , and NME . The band went on tour for the fall of 2007 , with openers Thrice and MewithoutYou . In early 2008 , Brand New toured Australia and New Zealand on the Big Day Out festival .
In October 2007 , the band announced via their official website that a new song , entitled " ( Fork and Knife ) " , would be released online on October 23 , 2007 . " ( Fork and Knife ) " , a rerecorded version of the track formerly known as " Untitled 7 " from the leaked demos , was released as a non @-@ album digital download .
In March 2008 , Brand New started their own record label , named Procrastinate ! Music Traitors . The first act signed to the new label was longtime friend Kevin Devine . The first release from the label was a reissue of the 2006 Kevin Devine album , Put Your Ghost to Rest , in April 2008 .
= = = Daisy ( 2008 – 2011 ) = = =
In October 2008 , it was stated that Brand New was in the studio winding down their new record and were currently recording vocals . Then in December , an update on Brand New 's website announced that they had been in and out of the studio since about March , with roughly fifteen tracks to choose from . The album was recorded over a 12 @-@ month period from March 2008 , with the band announcing in April 2009 that they had commenced mixing with Dave Sardy and that they hoped to release their fourth studio album in the summer of 2009 , with potentially , a summer tour to follow . The release date was then delayed to October 2009 . Which was announced during a live performance at the 2009 Glastonbury Festival , where Brand New played two new songs , tentatively titled " Bride " and " Gasoline " . The band played on the main stage at Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2009 , both performances at Reading Festival and Glastonbury Festival were filmed by the BBC however Brand New declined the BBC rights to broadcast either performance on television , or on the BBC website .
In June 2009 , UK music magazine Rock Sound , claimed on their website that they had received a copy of the upcoming album , though it was , according to an image later posted by the editor , " incomplete " . The site published a " tentative " track listing and reported the incomplete version that they had received to be roughly 30 minutes long .
In an interview with Kerrang ! , Jesse Lacey commented on the upcoming album 's content , " It 's a pretty exhausting record . It 's quite dense and I think some of the decisions we made don 't always go in the most obvious direction . We were thinking a lot more about what we 'd want to play when we were up onstage rather than actually what you 'd want to hear on a record . " He then questioned the future of the band , saying , " I think a lot of the record is about us trying to make decisions about how long the band should go on . When I listened back to it , I realized how many songs are about something coming to a close , or knowing when it 's time to put something away and move on . "
On July 7 , it was announced that the album would be titled And One Head Can Never Die ( to be typeset and one head can never die ) and would be released through Interscope Records on September 22 , 2009 . However , on July 9 it was announced on the band 's website that the album title had been changed to Daisy , still being released on the same day . The album 's first single , " At the Bottom " , was released through digital outlets on August 11 , 2009 . Daisy saw vocalist Jesse Lacey step back from songwriting and giving the role to guitarist Vincent Accardi along with the other members of the band .
Daisy debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 in the US , selling 46 @,@ 000 records in what was their first top 20 entrance on the chart after The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me had reached number 31 .
Brand New announced they would be bringing along Manchester Orchestra , Thrice , Glassjaw , Sybris , The Builders and the Butchers , and Crime in Stereo on selected / rotating dates of their headlining Fall North American tour .
On January 23 , 2010 , Brand New played their largest UK headline performance to date at London 's Wembley Arena in front of 12 @,@ 500 people . Support came from Glassjaw and Thrice .
When asked if rumours were true that Daisy would be the band 's final release , Lacey replied " I don 't think that will be true . It might be our last full @-@ length record for a little while , but we 've got a lot of things lined up that we want to record , so I think that will happen pretty soon . " In early 2010 , drummer Brian Lane stated that Brand New were unsure about how they plan to release music in the future with technology being a factor ; " I don ’ t know if there ’ s a point to releasing records if they ’ re not physical releases , if we 're going to release a lot of things digitally then I don ’ t see why we couldn ’ t release a song a week or a song a month or just put out what we like from whenever we record . " Lane also discussed the way the band may release their records in the future , " We ’ re talking about recording another album but we don ’ t know whether it ’ s going to come out on a label or whether we just release songs in batches . "
On April 28 , 2010 , at their show in Clifton Park , NY , it was announced that the band fulfilled their contract with Interscope Records , and were now unsigned .
On 21 November 2011 the band reissued their debut album Your Favourite Weapon with new artwork and bonus tracks .
= = = Fifth studio album ( 2011 – present ) = = =
Writing sessions for the bands fifth studio album first began in 2009 , shortly after the band released Daisy , Lacey stated that the band had new material that they were looking to record , dismissing rumours that Daisy would be their last full @-@ length album . Discussing the musical direction of the fifth album , Lacey stated that he believed Daisy " was like the end of a road " and that they would likely backtrack and explore an alternative direction to take their new music . The band were booked to enter a recording studio in April 2012 , however the band ultimately used this time for personal musical projects as opposed to recording Brand New .
It was officially announced through the bands website on 19 June 2014 that the band had been writing and recording new material , as well as building their own studio .
In April 2015 it was reported that the band had sent out lyric booklets for their album The Devil and God are Raging Inside Me as part of an unfulfilled offer made nine years previously , whereby if fans sent $ 1 they would receive the lyrics . The booklet , titled Pogolith 000 was first teased in late 2014 on the bands website and by The Up Studio . The booklet also contained a poster alluding to the release of the bands previously unreleased Fight Off Your Demons 2005 demos on cassette tape , as well as a postcard with the words " rip 2018 " , sparking rumors of a possible breakup of the band . As part of Record Store Day 2015 , the band rereleased their second album Deja Entendu as a limited vinyl , accompanied by Pogolith 00 a booklet containing the lyrics to the album . A standard edition , non @-@ limited vinyl was made available on 5 May 2015 . Both Pogolith 000 and Pogolith 00 were later made available at shows and through the band 's online store .
At their show in Denver , Colorado on 8 April 2015 the band performed a new song listed on the bands setlist as " Don 't Feel Anything " , which was later titled " Mene " . On 13 April , the track was made available as a free download through the band 's website . A second new song " Sealed to Me " was premiered in Los Angeles , California on 15 April . The band allowed their performances at Lollapalooza in Berlin on 13 September 2015 and Austin City Limits in Austin , Texas on 3 October 2015 to be broadcast . This marked the first time the band have allowed their performance to be broadcast , with Lacey previously stating that the band were not comfortable recording their live sets . On October 11 , 2015 while playing their last show of the 2015 tour at the Ryman Auditorium , Lacey told the audience that " this isn 't going to last much longer " . He spoke about his friendships with the band , the possibility of a new album , and that he would soon be a father .
On December 2 , 2015 , the band made their Leaked Demos 2006 available for the first time , releasing it on a limited edition red cassette tape with a digital download card included . The cassette was later released in black . On May 17 , 2016 , the band released a new single entitled " I Am a Nightmare " with a new album scheduled for release in 2016 . On June 1 , new shirt designs were announced via Twitter , two of which state " 2000 @-@ 2018 " . One of the designs was also projected onto the stage after the band 's show on the same day at the Vogue Theatre in Vancouver , increasing the amount of speculation regarding that the band may be implying a planned breakup in the year 2018 .
On July 13 , 2016 , the band released an EP called 3 Demos , Reworked . The EP contains re @-@ recorded versions of 3 songs that appear on Leaked Demos 2006 . On July 22 , 2016 , the band released a physical 7 " single of Mene with the b @-@ side " Out of Range , " a previously unreleased song that had been leaked in 2010 .
= = Style and influences = =
Brand New is most often described as alternative rock , indie , and emo . The band shares a strong interest in a wide variety of bands , from pop and rock such as The Beach Boys , Squeeze and The Cars , to more contemporary acts such as Weezer , Lifetime , Foo Fighters , Sunny Day Real Estate , Neutral Milk Hotel , Kevin Devine and Radiohead . Frontman Jesse Lacey is also known for his fondness for Built to Spill , Modest Mouse , The Smiths and Morrissey .
= = Band members = =
Current members
Jesse Lacey – lead vocals , rhythm guitar ( 2000 – present )
Vincent Accardi – lead guitar , backing vocals , unclean vocals ( 2000 – present )
Brian Lane – drums , percussion ( 2000 – present )
Garrett Tierney – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 2000 – present )
Past members
Derrick Sherman – keyboards , guitars , backing vocals ( 2005 – 2013 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Your Favorite Weapon ( 2001 )
Deja Entendu ( 2003 )
The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me ( 2006 )
Daisy ( 2009 )
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= Hurricane Fico =
Hurricane Fico was the longest @-@ lived hurricane of the 1978 Pacific hurricane season and became the longest @-@ lasting Pacific hurricane on record , a record broken by Hurricane Tina fourteen years later . The sixth tropical storm , fourth hurricane , and third major hurricane , Fico developed from a tropical disturbance off the coast of Mexico on July 9 . It moved northwestward and then westward , quickly reaching peak winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) on July 12 . Moving nearly due westward , the intensity of Fico fluctuated from Category 1 to Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale for the following days , and it passed about 170 miles ( 275 km ) south of Hawaii on July 20 with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Fico slowly weakened as it turned to the northwest over cooler waters , and became an extratropical cyclone on July 28 to the northeast of Midway Island .
Swells from Fico , combined with swells from a storm in the Southern Hemisphere , produced rough surf throughout the Hawaiian islands . The surf destroyed one house and resulted in considerable damage along the southern coast of the island of Hawaii . No deaths were reported , and damage totaled $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1978 USD , $ 619 @,@ 000 2006 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical disturbance persisted 520 miles ( 835 km ) south of Acapulco on July 3 . It moved steadily westward and organized over warm water temperatures of 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . A circulation developed within the system , and on July 9 it organized into Tropical Depression Seven while located about 580 miles ( 930 km ) southwest of Acapulco . The depression turned to the west @-@ northwest , and after briefly weakening it organized more to attain tropical storm status on July 10 while located about 745 miles ( 1 @,@ 200 km ) south of the southern tip of Peninsula .
Tropical Storm Fico turned to the northwest after reaching tropical storm status , and entered an area of increasingly warm water temperatures . It quickly strengthened , and 18 hours after becoming a tropical storm Fico strengthened into a hurricane . As the hurricane turned to the west @-@ northwest , a well @-@ defined eye developed in the center of the hurricane , and Fico continued to quickly intensify . Fico attained Category 4 strength about 24 hours after it first became a hurricane , and on July 12 it reached peak winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) while located 640 miles ( 1 @,@ 030 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Throughout its duration , the eye of the hurricane was around 35 miles ( 56 km ) in diameter .
While moving nearly due westward , Fico maintained peak winds for about 12 hours before weakening over cooler water temperatures . On July 14 , passing over an area of 79 ° F ( 26 ° C ) waters , the hurricane became disorganized while its winds dropped to 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , it again moved into an area of 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) waters , and again reached winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) on July 15 . For 48 hours , Fico 's winds fluctuated slightly , briefly dropping to 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) before strengthening again to 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . On July 17 the hurricane again began to weaken , and its winds dropped to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) as Fico entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center area of responsibility . Fico slowly retrengthened and reached Category 3 status late on July 20 while passing about 170 miles ( 275 km ) south of the island of Hawaii . The hurricane turned to the northwest toward an upper @-@ level trough of low pressure , and after maintaining 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) winds for about 36 hours it slowly weakened . On July 27 after entering an area of progressively cooler waters , Fico weakened to a tropical storm while located about 35 miles ( 60 km ) east @-@ northeast of Midway Island . It weakened to a tropical depression the next day , and late on July 28 after turning to the north Fico became an extratropical depression . An approaching cold front absorbed the remnants of Fico and passed near southern Alaska on July 31 . Ships to the southeast of Cold Bay reported heavy rainfall and strong winds in association with the remnants of Fico .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Fico never made landfall , though a strong east @-@ northeasterly swell from the hurricane along with a strong southerly swell from a southern hemisphere storm produced high surf along the coastline of Hawaii . Civil Defense officials reported 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) waves well offshore . The island of Hawaii received breaking waves of 20 feet ( 6 m ) in height , and eastern Maui reported up to 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) waves . Southern Oahu and Kauai also reported slightly above normal waves . Several ships in and around the periphery of the hurricane received moderate winds and rough surf , one of which reported swell waves of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . The high seas washed a 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) tugboat ashore on a reef at Kukuiula . Six people aboard a sloop off Hanalei were rescued by a Navy torpedo boat after it lost its auxiliary power and was unable to progress in the strong winds of Fico . A strong trade wind gradient , increased due to the presence of the hurricane , produced winds of over 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) throughout the island chain . Hurricane Fico also dropped 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rainfall in Oahu .
Days before the hurricane passed to the south of the state , high surf from Fico caused some beach flooding in the eastern portion of the island of Hawaii . High surf later resulted in considerable damage to roads and beachfront houses along the Big Island shores . The waves destroyed a home in Puna and wrecked a beach pavilion in Kau . The mayors of three Hawaiian cities issued a disaster declaration for their cities following the damage from Fico . In Maui , moderate waves led to road flooding near the water , though no damage occurred on the island . 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds throughout Hawaii downed trees , resulting in some power outages . Damage from the hurricane totaled $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1978 USD , $ 619 @,@ 000 2006 USD ) .
= = Records and Naming = =
Fico was a northeast Pacific tropical cyclone for 20 days or 468 hours , breaking the previous record since the beginning of reliable satellite monitoring set by Hurricane Celeste of 1972 with 16 days . Fico was also a hurricane for 17 days , which also broke the record set by Celeste of 1972 with 10 days . Both records were later broken by Hurricane Tina . Fico also tracked about 6 @,@ 000 miles ( 9 @,@ 700 km ) , among the longest tracks on record for a Pacific hurricane .
This hurricane was the only usage of the name Fico . The name Fico was removed after this storm and replaced with Fabio in the 1982 season . It is unknown whether it was retired due to its damage or for another reason . Other possible reasons listed for the removal of a name are pronunciation ambiguity , a socially unacceptable meaning in another language , or because the storm name represented a significant human disaster .
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