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= Marketing of Halo 3 =
The first @-@ person shooter video game Halo 3 was the focus of an extensive marketing campaign which began with the game 's developer , Bungie , announcing the game via a trailer at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in May 2006 . Microsoft , the game 's publisher , planned a five @-@ pronged marketing strategy to maximize sales and to appeal to casual and hard @-@ core gamers . Bungie produced trailers and video documentaries to promote the game , partnering with firms such as Digital Domain and Weta Workshop . Licensed products including action figures , toys , and Halo 3 @-@ branded soda were released in anticipation of the game ; the franchise utilized more than forty licensees to promote the game , and the advertising campaign ultimately cost more than $ 40 million .
While Halo 2 's release had set industry records , the mainstream press was not fully involved in covering the game ; part of Microsoft 's strategy was to fully involve casual readers and the press in the story . The saturation of advertising and promotions led Wired to state : " The release of Halo 3 this week was an event that stretched far beyond our little gaming world . Everyone from The New York Times to Mother Jones wanted to cover it . "
Released on September 25 , 2007 , Halo 3 became the biggest entertainment debut in history , earning more than $ 170 million in a few days and selling a record 3 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales alone . Halo 3 's marketing won several awards , and was cited as evidence of the increasing mainstream popularity of games .
= = Development = =
Jerret West , a global group product manager from Microsoft , said at a marketing conference that Halo 3 's marketing team had a mandate from Microsoft executive Peter Moore : " Don 't screw up . " Much of the marketing organization was handled by Microsoft 's former corporate vice president of global marketing , Jeff Bell ( executive ) . A key challenge the team identified early on was that core gamers knew the game was coming out , but there was " a perception problem ... we wanted to invite people into the console and into Xbox 360 and to play Halo 3 as a mass @-@ market entertainment product , " according to product manager Chris Lee . Since Halo 3 was released as an Xbox 360 exclusive , part of the marketing push was to sell more Xbox consoles , which had encountered sluggish sales .
Microsoft planned advertising and promotions to appeal to both casual and hardcore gamers in a five @-@ pronged marketing strategy . The first stage was to kick off marketing via a television commercial . The second stage was a beta test of the game to drive preorders and press attention . The third stage was the start of an alternate reality game . The fourth phase was partner promotions , capped off with a final advertising campaign , titled " Believe " .
Though Microsoft used forms of viral marketing for promotion ( including the alternate reality game or ARG ) , the main focus of the company 's efforts was traditional media outlets . Because there already was interest in the title among the gaming community , Microsoft did not feel the need to run a social media campaign , instead banking on the gaming community to spread the word itself . The focus on traditional media would help expand the fan base beyond established gamers and convince the public that the game was a cultural milestone . To build public interest , Microsoft made public statements that Halo 3 would surpass media sales records , including the July 2007 record of $ 166 million set by the launch of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows .
Microsoft 's target was to sell 1 @.@ 5 million copies of the game . Marketing research suggested that the " Halo faithful " could only be counted on to buy 75 % of that amount , meaning that 375 @,@ 000 copies would have to be sold to non @-@ fans . Thus marketing goals were to attract an audience beyond the Halo nation , and to break sales records ; in short , to " make Halo 3 a true cultural phenomenon " . The team upped their goals to not only selling the target number of copies , but making Halo 3 the biggest entertainment launch ever .
= = Promotional videos = =
A significant form of marketing was done by the release of videos . While Bungie often partnered with other companies to create advertisements , they also produced their own video documentaries , or " ViDocs " , detailing the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes development of aspects of Halo 3 , including redesigning enemy Brutes , additions to multiplayer , and other game features . The first ViDoc was released shortly after the game 's announcement and was a " making @-@ of " style video , while the final ViDoc made its debut on September 20 , 2007 .
= = = Trailers and shorts = = =
Halo 3 was officially announced via a cinematic trailer rendered in real @-@ time , shown at Microsoft 's press conference at E3 2006 on May 9 . The trailer is set in the dry plains of Africa , with the ruins of a space elevator and other damage visible . The Master Chief is slowly revealed walking through smoke and dust , occasionally obscured by distorted images of the artificial intelligence Cortana transmitting a message composed of portions of the character 's lines in the Cortana Letters , as well as a line from the poem " The Hollow Men " . The distorted voice of Cortana was a deliberate clue to the character 's predicament in Halo 3 , with a Bungie staff member stating , " We don 't know what has happened to her ... We don 't know it 's Cortana . It could be any sort of bizarre , almost Satanic sort of voice . Something seems wrong . " The trailer featured music by Martin O 'Donnell , with the addition of a piano and brass section to the classic Halo theme .
Advertising company McCann Erickson created a second trailer that was aired only once on December 4 , 2006 . The video used a mix of computer @-@ created graphics and live action ; computer graphics were produced by Digital Domain and directed by Joseph Kosinski . The spot , dubbed " Starry Night " , was seen by 7 @.@ 9 million viewers in its broadcast and watched more than 3 @.@ 5 million times on YouTube by September 2007 . The final trailer , shown during E3 2007 on July 11 , consisted of actual campaign cinematics and gameplay .
The video teasers for Halo 3 included a series of videos directed by Neill Blomkamp , the proposed director of a possible Halo film produced by Peter Jackson . Unlike previous trailers and videos , the shorts were the first to depict the Halo universe in a live @-@ action setting . The production was a collaboration between Weta Workshop , Neill Blomkamp and Bungie . When asked about the shorts , Neill said that he hoped that it would help to interest movie studios in his currently inactive movie project , since it lost its studio support in October 2006 . GameTrailers released a compilation of the three videos edited together , titling it Landfall .
The first live action video , titled Arms Race , was originally shown at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2007 . It was followed up by another short , Combat , which featured Covenant and human vehicles and weapons . The final video in the series aired on October 4 , 2007 and was used by Discovery Channel to promote their reality show Last One Standing . The short ties the events depicted to the beginning of Halo 3 , which begins as the Master Chief plummets to Earth .
= = = " Believe " campaign = = =
The last major advertising campaign before and during Halo 3 's release was a series of videos marketed with the tagline " Believe " , beginning September 11 , 2007 . These videos , with an estimated cost of $ 10 million , were directed by Rupert Sanders ( known for video game advertisements ) and made to depict a generic representation of a single battle in Halo 3 . Live @-@ action videos featured elderly war veterans at the " Museum of Humanity " reminiscing about the Human @-@ Covenant war and the role the Master Chief played . The Believe website allowed visitors to pan the length of a massive diorama over 1 @,@ 200 square feet ( 110 m2 ) in size and over twelve feet tall , with handcrafted human and Covenant figures represented at one @-@ twelfth scale . According to Microsoft , the unusual presentation of a model rather than computer graphics was chosen to look at " the themes that lie at the heart of the Halo trilogy — war , duty , sacrifice , and most importantly the heroism of Master Chief . "
The diorama was built through a collaboration between Los Angeles , California @-@ based New Deal Studios and Stan Winston Studios . Director Rupert Sanders had actors stand in for the marines , capturing their facial expressions and using them as the basis of the miniatures . Character assets from Bungie , including alien models and armor , were recreated and rebuilt for reuse . The twisted city ruins the diorama is set in were inspired by bombed @-@ out Afghanistan suburbs . Special attention was paid to creating a photo @-@ realistic setting which was recognizably Halo .
= = Public beta testing = =
On April 10 , 2007 , Bungie announced that a beta test of the multiplayer component of Halo 3 would run from May 16 to June 6 , open to select members of the public . Players could enter the beta in several ways . Testers were selected from those who signed up on the Halo3.com website following the " Starry Night " commercial , or from the first 13 @,@ 333 players to register after playing three hours of Halo 2 on Xbox Live . Players could also buy a specially @-@ marked copy of the Xbox 360 title Crackdown , which allowed players to download the beta upon its release .
The public portion of the beta consists of matchmaking play on three multiplayer maps : Valhalla , High Ground and Snowbound . The public beta also contained a limited version of the " saved films " feature , which allows players to save and watch their played games . The day the public beta began , problems were reported from owners of Crackdown that they could not download the beta . Bungie announced that the Microsoft team found a solution and that the issue would be resolved shortly ; a patch was distributed for Crackdown that fixed the problem . Bungie also extended the beta until June 10 to compensate for the issue . According to Jerret West , global group product manager , allowing users into the beta created " a psychological investment " in the game . " The idea was basically to make the beta launch huge and let the tastemakers make the launch for you ... to really drive it beyond the gaming press . " The beta caused a spike in preorders for the retail version of the game .
= = Alternate reality game = =
A component of Halo 3 's marketing was an alternate reality game or ARG called " Iris " . Alternate reality games , which involve cross @-@ media gameplay and player participation , had been previously used for the promotion of Halo 2 in the form of the influential and award @-@ winning I Love Bees . Soon after the Halo 3 public beta ended , a user named " AdjutantReflex " appeared in the official Halo 3 forums on Bungie.net and began posting . A Circuit City advertisement was leaked onto the web days earlier , revealing the web address of an interactive comic which could be manipulated to reveal the IP addresses of another series of sites . One website was the home of the " Society of the Ancients " a group supposedly interested in evidence of Forerunner artifacts left on Earth . Another featured a Forerunner object which gradually revealed text logs and video clips .
= = Merchandise and promotions = =
The launch of Halo 3 coincided with the release of various games , action figures , and collectible toys . WizKids developed a Clix collectible miniatures game entitled Halo ActionClix which was released on September 18 , 2007 . The tabletop game features miniature figures from the Halo universe , including characters and vehicles . Halo ActionClix figures were occasionally bundled with the game in promotional packs , and Gamestation stores in the United Kingdom offered a Master Chief figurine to the first 1000 pre @-@ orders of the Halo 3 Legendary Edition .
While previous Halo action figure series were produced by Joyride Studios , Todd McFarlane produced several sets of Halo 3 @-@ related action figures . In addition to articulated figures released throughout 2008 , McFarlane also released 12 " inarticulate and more detailed figurines in November . Other companies which produced Halo 3 figures and statues include Kotobukiya , a Japanese company specializing in high @-@ end statues and replicas , and Weta Collectibles , a division spawned from the famed physical effects company Weta Workshop . Weta Collectibles auctioned four of the statues in their lineup , specially cast in solid sterling silver , for auction on eBay during August .
Microsoft collaborated with other companies to produce Halo @-@ themed merchandise and promotions at retailers and vendors . PepsiCo created a variant of Mountain Dew called Game Fuel . 7 @-@ Eleven sold a Slurpee version of the drink . Burger King announced a special promotion starting September 24 , 2007 featuring Halo designs and characters on food wrappings . Microsoft sponsored the # 40 car driven by David Stremme for Chip Ganassi Racing in the Dover 400 Nextel Cup Series . The racecar featured a Halo 3 inspired paintjob featuring the title for the game printed prominently on the hood and rear bumper , as well as large pictures of Master Chief on each of the rear fenders .
= = Launch and impact = =
More than 10 @,@ 000 retail stores in the United States held midnight launch parties for Halo 's release , in addition to other locations around the globe . Microsoft coordinated its own multiple @-@ city launch parties , and Bungie staff members travelled around the world to host parties , in addition to a launch party held at Bungie 's workplace ; Larry Hryb attended the New York City launch party . Sponsored launches featured prize giveaways and chances for fans to play Halo against celebrities and Bungie team members . The BFI IMAX Theater in London was devoted to Halo 3 , while some areas in the United Kingdom cancelled midnight launches fearing unruliness from the large crowds .
Halo 3 was phenomenally successful upon release . The game made $ 170 million in US sales on the first day of release , generating more money in 24 hours than any other American entertainment property up to that point . Halo would make an additional $ 130 million by week 's end and sell 3 @.@ 3 million units by the end of the month . By 2008 , Halo 3 had sold 4 @.@ 8 million units in the United States for a total of 8 @.@ 1 million units worldwide , making it the best @-@ selling game of 2007 in the United States .
Critics and publications pointed to the massive marketing and launch of Halo 3 as evidence that video games had " finally hit the mainstream " . Video game critic Steve West of CinemaBlend.com pointed out the Halo 3 phenomenon as evidence of the mainstreaming of video games , stating that " ... Like movies , radio , and television before , games are becoming more and more accepted in the popular culture . " To capitalize on the mainstream attention , Joystiq sister site Xbox360Fanboy noted , " Microsoft contends that such a [ marketing ] push is necessary to maintain the appearance of ' a big budget , mass media event ' . "
At the PRWeek awards Microsoft won the " Technology Campaign of the Year " along with Edelman for Halo 3 's launch . At the 2008 ANDY Awards , the " Believe " campaign won the " GRANDY " , the grand prize . Halo 3 's advertising also won five " gold cubes " , one " silver cube " and two distinctive merit certificates at the Art Directors Club Annual Awards Ceremony , most of the awards relating to the Believe campaign .
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= Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko =
Alexander Litvinenko was a former officer of the Russian Federal Security Service ( FSB ) and KGB , who fled from court prosecution in Russia and received political asylum in the United Kingdom .
On 1 November 2006 , Litvinenko suddenly fell ill and was hospitalized . He died three weeks later , becoming the first confirmed victim of lethal polonium @-@ 210 @-@ induced acute radiation syndrome . Litvinenko 's allegations about the misdeeds of the FSB and his public deathbed accusations that Russian president Vladimir Putin was behind his unusual malady resulted in worldwide media coverage .
Subsequent investigations by British authorities into the circumstances of Litvinenko 's death led to serious diplomatic difficulties between the British and Russian governments . During the 2014 – 2015 trial the Scotland Yard representative witnessed that " the evidence suggests that the only credible explanation is in one way or another the Russian state is involved in Litvinenko 's murder " . Another witness stated that Dmitry Kovtun has been speaking openly about the plan to kill Litvinenko that was intended to " set an example " as a punishment for a " traitor " . The main suspect in the case , a former officer of the Russian Federal Protective Service ( FSO ) , Andrey Lugovoy , remains in Russia . As a member of the Duma , he now enjoys immunity from prosecution . Before he was elected to the Duma , the British government tried to have him extradited without success .
At the same time , Litvinenko 's father , now residing in Italy , believes Boris Berezovsky and Alexander Goldfarb were behind the murder . Berezovsky was found dead at his home in England on 23 March 2013 .
= = Background = =
Alexander Litvinenko was a former officer of the Russian Federal Security service who escaped prosecution in Russia and received political asylum in Great Britain . In his books , Blowing up Russia : Terror from Within and Lubyanka Criminal Group , Litvinenko described Russian president Vladimir Putin 's rise to power as a coup d 'état organised by the FSB . He alleged that a key element of the FSB 's strategy was to frighten Russians by bombing apartment buildings in Moscow and other Russian cities . He accused Russian secret services of having arranged the Moscow theater hostage crisis , through their Chechen agent provocateur , and having organised the 1999 Armenian parliament shooting . He also stated that the terrorist Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri was under FSB control when he visited Russia in 1997 .
Upon his arrival in London , he continued to support the Russian oligarch in exile , Boris Berezovsky , in his media campaign against the Russian government .
In the UK , Litvinenko became a journalist for a Chechen separatist site , Chechenpress . He wrote two books , Blowing up Russia : Terror from Within and Lubyanka Criminal Group , in which he accused the Russian secret services of staging the Russian apartment bombings and other terrorist acts to bring Vladimir Putin to power .
Just two weeks before his death , Litvinenko accused Putin of ordering the assassination of Anna Politkovskaya .
= = Illness and poisoning = =
On 1 November 2006 , Litvinenko suddenly fell ill . Earlier that day he had met two former KGB officers , Andrey Lugovoy and Dmitry Kovtun . Lugovoy is a former bodyguard of Russian ex @-@ Prime Minister Yegor Gaidar ( also reportedly poisoned in November 2006 ) and former chief of security for the Russian TV channel ORT . Kovtun is now a businessman . Litvinenko had also had lunch at Itsu , a sushi restaurant on Piccadilly in London , with an Italian officer and " nuclear expert " , Mario Scaramella , to whom he reportedly made allegations regarding Romano Prodi 's connections with the KGB . Scaramella , attached to the Mitrokhin Commission investigating KGB penetration of Italian politics , claimed to have information on the death of Anna Politkovskaya , 48 , a journalist who was killed at her Moscow apartment in October 2006 . He passed Litvinenko papers supposedly concerning her fate . On 20 November , it was reported that Scaramella had gone into hiding and feared for his life .
For several days after 1 November , Litvinenko experienced severe diarrhoea and vomiting . At one point , he could not walk without assistance . As the pain intensified , Litvinenko asked his wife to call an ambulance for assistance . For several weeks , Litvinenko 's condition worsened as doctors searched for the cause of the illness . Surrounded by friends , Litvinenko became physically weak , and spent periods unconscious . A photograph was taken of Litvinenko on his deathbed and released to the public . " I want the world to see what they did to me , " Litvinenko said .
= = = Poison = = =
After being moved from his local hospital in north London to University College Hospital in central London for intensive care , his blood and urine samples were sent to the UK 's Atomic Weapons Establishment ( AWE ) for testing . Scientists at AWE tested for radioactive poison using gamma spectroscopy . No gamma rays were detected , however , a small spike was noticed at an energy of 803 kilo @-@ electron volts ( keV ) . The BBC reported that by coincidence another scientist , who had worked on Britain 's early atomic bomb programme decades before , happened to overhear a discussion about the small spike and recognised it as the gamma ray signal from polonium @-@ 210 , which was a critical component of early nuclear bombs . On the evening of 22 November , shortly before his death , his doctors were informed the poison was likely to be polonium @-@ 210 . Further tests on a larger urine sample using spectroscopy designed to detect alpha radiation confirmed the result the following day .
Unlike most common radiation sources , polonium @-@ 210 emits very little gamma radiation but large amounts of alpha particles that do not penetrate even a sheet of paper or the epidermis of human skin , thus being invisible to normal radiation detectors . This explained why tests conducted by doctors and Scotland Yard at the hospital with Geiger counters were negative . Both gamma rays and alpha particles are classified as ionizing radiation which can cause radiation damage . An alpha @-@ emitting substance can cause significant damage only if ingested or inhaled , acting on living cells like a short @-@ range weapon . Hours before his death , Litvinenko was tested for alpha @-@ emitters using special equipment .
Shortly after his death , the UK 's Health Protection Agency ( HPA ) said tests had established that Litvinenko had significant amounts of the radionuclide polonium @-@ 210 ( 210Po ) in his body . British and US government officials said the use of 210Po as a poison had never been documented before , and it was probably the first time anyone had been tested for the presence of 210Po in their body . The poison was in Litvinenko 's cup of tea . Those who had contact with Litvinenko may also have been exposed to radiation .
= = = 210Po content in the body of Litvinenko = = =
The symptoms seen in Litvinenko appeared consistent with an administered activity of approximately 2 GBq ( 50 mCi ) which corresponds to about 10 micrograms of 210Po . That is 200 times the median lethal dose of around 238 μCi or 50 nanograms in the case of ingestion .
= = = Thallium – initial hypothesis = = =
Scotland Yard initially investigated claims that Litvinenko was poisoned with thallium . It was reported that early tests appeared to confirm the presence of the poison . Among the distinctive effects of thallium poisoning are hair loss and damage to peripheral nerves , and a photograph of Litvinenko in hospital , released to the media on his behalf , indeed showed his hair to have fallen out . Litvinenko attributed his initial survival to his cardiovascular fitness and swift medical treatment . It was later suggested a radioactive isotope of thallium might have been used to poison Litvinenko . Dr. Amit Nathwani , one of Litvinenko 's physicians , said " His symptoms are slightly odd for thallium poisoning , and the chemical levels of thallium we were able to detect are not the kind of levels you 'd see in toxicity . " Litvinenko 's condition deteriorated , and he was moved into intensive care on 20 November . Hours before his death , three unidentified circular @-@ shaped objects were found in his stomach via an X @-@ ray scan . It is thought these objects were almost certainly shadows caused by the presence of Prussian blue , the treatment he had been given for thallium poisoning .
= = Death and last statement = =
Late on 22 November , Litvinenko 's heart failed ; the official time of death was 9 : 21 pm at University College Hospital in London .
The autopsy took place on 1 December . Litvinenko had ingested polonium @-@ 210 , a poisonous radioactive isotope . Mario Scaramella , who had eaten with Litvinenko , reported that doctors had told him the body had five times the lethal dose of polonium @-@ 210 . Litvinenko 's funeral took place on 7 December at the Central London mosque , after which his body was buried at Highgate Cemetery in North London .
On 25 November , an article attributed to Litvinenko was published by the Mail on Sunday Online entitled Why I believe Putin wanted me dead ...
In his last statement he said about Putin :
… this may be the time to say one or two things to the person responsible for my present condition . You may succeed in silencing me but that silence comes at a price . You have shown yourself to be as barbaric and ruthless as your most hostile critics have claimed . You have shown yourself to have no respect for life , liberty or any civilised value . You have shown yourself to be unworthy of your office , to be unworthy of the trust of civilised men and women . You may succeed in silencing one man but the howl of protest from around the world will reverberate , Mr Putin , in your ears for the rest of your life . May God forgive you for what you have done , not only to me but to beloved Russia and its people .
= = Investigation = =
= = = Initial steps = = =
Greater London 's Metropolitan Police Service Terrorism Unit has been investigating the poisoning and death . The head of the Counter @-@ Terrorism Unit , Deputy Assistant Commissioner Peter Clarke , stated the police " will trace possible witnesses , examine Mr. Litvinenko 's movements at relevant times , including when he first became ill and identify people he may have met . There will also be an extensive examination of CCTV footage . " The United Kingdom Government COBRA committee met to discuss the investigation . Richard Kolko from the United States FBI stated " when requested by other nations , we provide assistance " – referring to the FBI now joining the investigation for their expertise on radioactive weapons . The Metropolitan Police announced on 6 December 2006 that it was treating Litvinenko 's death as murder . Interpol has also joined the investigation , providing " speedy exchange of information " between British , Russian and German police .
= = = Polonium trails = = =
Detectives traced three distinct polonium trails in and out of London , at three different dates , which according to the investigation suggests Andrey Lugovoy and Dmitry Kovt took two failed attempts to administer polonium to Litvinenko before the final and successful one . The first attempt took place on 16 October 2006 when radioactive traces were found in all places visited by the FSB operatives before and after their meeting with Litvinenko , where they administered the poison to his tea which he never drank . Apparently , Lugovoy and Kovtun did not fully realize they were handling a radioactive poison either and journalist Luke Harding described their behaviour as " idiotic , verging on suicidal " – while handling a leaky container , they stored it in their hotel rooms , used regular towels to clean up leaks and eventually disposed the poison in the toilet . On 17 October , perhaps realizing they contaminated their rooms , they prematurely checked out and moved to another hotel and left London the next day . Another unsuccessful assassination attempt took place on 25 October when they flew to London again . They left radioactive traces again in their hotel prior to meeting Litvinenko , but did not administer the poison , perhaps due to security cameras in the meeting room , and disposed of the poison into their room 's toilet and left London .
The third attempt of poisoning Litvinenko took place at around 5 pm of 1 November in the Millennium Hotel in Grosvenor Square . The bus he travelled in to the hotel had no signs of radioactivity – but large amounts had been detected at the hotel . Polonium was subsequently found in a fourth @-@ floor room and in a cup in the Pine Bar at the hotel . After the Millennium bar , Litvinenko stopped at the office of Boris Berezovsky . He used a fax machine , where the radioactivity was found later . At 6 pm Akhmed Zakayev picked Litvinenko up and brought him home to Muswell Hill . The amount of radioactivity left by Litvinenko in the car was so significant , the car was rendered unusable . Everything that he touched at home during the next three days was contaminated . His family was unable to return to the house even six months later . His wife was tested positive for ingesting polonium but did not leave a secondary trail behind her . This suggested that anyone who left a trail could not have picked up the polonium from Litvinenko ( possibly , including Lugovoy and Kovtun ) . The patterns and levels of radioactivity they left behind suggested that Litvinenko ingested polonium , whereas Lugovoy and Kovtun handled it directly . The human body dilutes polonium before excreting it in sweat , which results in a reduced radioactivity level.There were also traces of Po @-@ 210 found at the Hey Jo / Abracadabra bar , Dar Marrakesh restaurant , and Lambeth @-@ Mercedes taxis .
Besides Litvinenko , only two people left the polonium trails : Lugovoy and Kovtun who were school friends and worked previously for Russian intelligence in the KGB and the GRU respectively . These people handled the radioactive material directly and did not ingest it , because they left more significant traces of polonium than Litvinenko .
Lugovoy and Kovtun met Litvinenko in the Millennium hotel bar twice , on 1 November ( when the poisoning took place ) , and earlier , on 16 October . Trails left by Lugovoy and Kovtun started on 16 October , in the same sushi bar where Litvinenko was poisoned later , but at a different table . It was assumed that their first meeting with Litvinenko was either a rehearsal of the future poisoning , or an unsuccessful attempt at the poisoning .
Traces left by Lugovoy were also found in the office of Berezovsky that he visited on 31 October , a day before his second meeting with Litvinenko . Traces left by Kovtun were found in Hamburg , Germany . He left them on his way to London on 28 October . The traces were found in passenger jets BA875 and BA873 from Moscow to Heathrow on 25 and 31 October , as well as flights BA872 and BA874 from Heathrow to Moscow on 28 October and 3 November .
Andrey Lugovoy has said he flew from London to Moscow on a 3 November flight . He stated he arrived in London on 31 October to attend the football match between Arsenal and CSKA Moscow on 1 November . When the news broke that a radioactive substance had been used to murder Litvinenko , a team of scientists rushed to find out how far the contamination had spread . It led them on a trail involving hundreds of people and dozens of locations .
British Airways later published a list of 221 flights of the contaminated aircraft , involving around 33 @,@ 000 passengers , and advised those potentially affected to contact the UK Department of Health for help . On 5 December they issued an email to all of their customers , informing them that the aircraft had all been declared safe by the UK 's Health Protection Agency and would be re @-@ entering service .
= = = British extradition request = = =
British authorities investigated the death and it was reported on 1 December that scientists at the Atomic Weapons Establishment had traced the source of the polonium to a nuclear power plant in Russia . On 3 December , reports stated that Britain had demanded the right to speak to at least five Russians implicated in Litvinenko 's death , and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov asserted that Moscow was willing to answer " concrete questions . " Russian Prosecutor @-@ General Yuri Chaika said on Tuesday 5 December that any Russian citizen who may be charged in the poisoning will be tried in Russia , not Britain . Moreover , Chaika stated that UK detectives may ask questions to Russian citizens only in the presence of Russian prosecutors .
On 28 May 2007 the British Foreign Office submitted a formal request to the Russian Government for the extradition of Andrey Lugovoy to the UK to face criminal charges relating to Litvinenko 's murder .
= = = Extradition declined = = =
The Russian General Prosecutor 's Office declined to extradite Lugovoy , citing that extradition of citizens is not allowed under the Russian constitution ( Article 61 of the Constitution of Russia ) . Russian authorities later said that Britain has not handed over any evidence against Lugovoy . Professor Daniel Tarschys , former Secretary General of the Council of Europe , commented that the Russian Constitution actually " opens the door " for the extradition , and Russia ratified three international treaties on extradition ( on 10 December 1999 ) ; namely , the European Convention on Extradition and two Additional Protocols to it . Yury Fedotov , Ambassador of the Russian Federation , pointed out that when the Russian Federation ratified the European Convention on Extradition it entered a declaration concerning Article 6 in these terms : " The Russian Federation declares that in accordance with Article 61 ( part 1 ) of the Constitution of the Russian Federation , a citizen of the Russian Federation may not be extradited to another state . " The same protections are extended to the citizens of France and Germany , both of which refuse to extradite their citizens .
= = = BBC programme = = =
On 7 July 2008 , a British security source told the BBC 's Newsnight programme : " We very strongly believe the Litvinenko case to have had some state involvement . There are very strong indications . " The British government claimed that no intelligence or security officials were authorised to comment on the case .
= = = Litvinenko Inquiry = = =
In January 2016 , a UK public inquiry , headed by Sir Robert Owen , found that Andrey Lugovoy and Dmitry Kovtun were responsible for the poisoning of Litvinenko . The inquiry also found that there was a strong probability that Lugovoy and Kovtun were acting under the direction of the FSB , and that their actions were probably approved by both Nikolai Patrushev , Director of the FSB , and President Vladimir Putin .
= = Possibly related events = =
On 2 March 2007 , Paul Joyal , a former director of security for the U.S. Senate intelligence committee , who the previous weekend alleged on national television that the Kremlin was involved in the poisoning of Litvinenko , was shot near his Maryland home . An FBI spokesman said the agency was " assisting " the police investigation into the shooting . Police would not confirm details of the shooting or of the condition of Joyal . A person familiar with the case said he was in critical condition in hospital . It was reported that while there were no indications that the shooting was linked to the Litvinenko case , it is unusual for the FBI to get involved in a local shooting incident . A person familiar with the situation said NBC had hired bodyguards for some of the journalists involved in the program .
= = Polonium @-@ 210 = =
= = = Possible motivation for using polonium @-@ 210 = = =
Philip Walker , professor of physics at the University of Surrey said : " This seems to have been a substance carefully chosen for its ability to be hard to detect in a person who has ingested it . " Oleg Gordievsky , the most senior KGB agent ever to defect to Britain , made a similar comment that Litvinenko 's assassination was carefully prepared and rehearsed by Russian secret services , but the poisoners were unaware that technology existed to detect traces left by polonium @-@ 210 : " Did you know that polonium @-@ 210 leaves traces ? I didn ’ t . And no one did . ... what they didn ’ t know was that this equipment , this technology exists in the West – they didn ’ t know that , and that was where they miscalculated . "
Nick Priest , a nuclear scientist and expert on polonium who has worked at most of Russia 's nuclear research facilities , says that although the execution of the plot was a " bout of stupidity " , the choice of polonium was a " stroke of genius " . He says : " the choice of poison was genius in that polonium , carried in a vial in water , can be carried in a pocket through airport screening devices without setting off any alarms " , adding , " once administered , the polonium creates symptoms that don 't suggest poison for days , allowing time for the perpetrator to make a getaway . " Priest asserts that " whoever did it was probably not an expert in radiation protection , so they probably didn 't realize how much contamination you can get just by opening the top ( of the vial ) and closing it again . With the right equipment , you can detect just one count per second " .
Filmmaker and friend of Litvinenko Andrei Nekrasov has suggested that the poison was " sadistically designed to trigger a slow , tortuous and spectacular demise " . Expert on Russia Paul Joyal suggested that " A message has been communicated to anyone who wants to speak out against the Kremlin .... If you do , no matter who you are , where you are , we will find you , and we will silence you , in the most horrible way possible " .
= = Theories = =
Many theories regarding the Litvinenko poisoning circulated after his death . Circumstances led to the suspicion that he was killed by the Russian secret service . Viktor Ilyukhin , a deputy chairman of the Russian Parliament 's security committee for the Communist Party of the Russian Federation , said that he " can ’ t exclude that possibility . " He apparently referred to a recent Russian counter @-@ terrorism law that gives the President the right to order such actions . An investigator of the Russian apartment bombings , Mikhail Trepashkin , wrote in a letter from prison that an FSB team had organised in 2002 to kill Litvinenko . He also reported FSB plans to kill relatives of Litvinenko in Moscow in 2002 , although these have not been carried out . State Duma member Sergei Abeltsev commented on 24 November 2006 : " The deserved punishment reached the traitor . I am confident that this terrible death will be a serious warning to traitors of all colors , wherever they are located : In Russia , they do not pardon treachery . I would recommend citizen Berezovsky to avoid any food at the commemoration for his accomplice Litvinenko . "
Many publications in Russian media suggested that the death of Litvinenko was connected to Boris Berezovsky . Former FSB chief Nikolay Kovalyov , for whom Litvinenko worked , said that the incident " looks like [ the ] hand of Berezovsky . I am sure that no kind of intelligence services participated . " This involvement of Berezovsky was alleged by numerous Russian television shows .
Shortly after the incident Russian government dismissed theories of FSB involvement in the assassination using the argument that Litvinenko was " not important " and " mentally unstable " , implying that the government had no interest in killing such an insignificant figure . Eduard Limonov observed that the same argument was raised after assassination of Anna Politkovskaya , and described Litvinenko death as " very public execution " .
An explanation put forward by the Russian Government appeared to be that the deaths of Litvinenko and Politkovskaya were intended to embarrass President Putin . Other theories included involvement of rogue FSB members or suggestions that Litvinenko was killed because of his research of certain Russian corporations or state officials , or as a political intrigue to undermine president Putin .
= = Suspects = =
Andrey Lugovoy
A former Federal Protective Service of Russia officer and millionaire who met with Litvinenko on the day he fell ill ( 1 November ) . He had visited London at least three times in the month before Litvinenko 's death and met with the victim four times . Traces of polonium @-@ 210 have been discovered in all three hotels where Lugovoy stayed after flying to London on 16 October , and in the Pescatori restaurant in Dover Street , Mayfair , where Lugovoy is understood to have dined before 1 November ; and aboard two aircraft on which he had travelled . He has declined to say whether he had been contaminated with polonium @-@ 210 . The Crown Prosecution Service has charged him with murder and has sent an extradition request to Russia that includes a summary of the evidence , but the only third party to have seen the extradition request , American journalist Edward Epstein , has described the substantiation as " embarrassingly thin " .
Dmitry Kovtun
A Russian businessman and ex @-@ KGB agent who met Litvinenko in London first in mid @-@ October and then on 1 November , the day Litvinenko fell ill . On 7 December Kovtun was hospitalized , with some sources initially reporting him to be in a coma . On 9 December , German police found traces of radiation at a Hamburg flat used by Kovtun . The following day , 10 December , German investigators identified the detected material as polonium @-@ 210 and clarified that the substance was found where Kovtun had slept the night before departing for London . British police also report having detected polonium on the plane in which Kovtun travelled from Moscow . Three other points in Hamburg were identified as contaminated with the same substance . On 12 December Kovtun told Russia 's Channel One TV that his " health was improving " .
Kovtun was under investigation by German detectives for suspected plutonium smuggling into Germany in October . Germany dropped the case against Kovtun on November 2009 ;
Vyacheslav Sokolenko : A business partner of Andrey Lugovoy .
Vladislav
The Times stated that the police have identified the man they believe may have poisoned Litvinenko with a fatal polonium dose in a cup of tea on the fourth @-@ floor room at the Millennium Hotel to discuss a business deal with Dmitry Kovtun and Andrey Lugovoy before going to the bar . These three men were joined in the room later by the mystery figure who was introduced as Vladislav , a man who could help Litvinenko win a lucrative contract with a Moscow @-@ based private security firm .
Vladislav is said to have arrived in London from Hamburg on 1 November on the same flight as Dmitry Kovtun . His image is recorded by security cameras at Heathrow airport on arrival . He is described as being in his early 30s , tall , strong , with short black hair and Central Asian features . Oleg Gordievsky , an ex @-@ KGB agent , has said that this man was believed to have used a Lithuanian or Slovak passport , and that he left the country using another EU passport . He has also said Vladislav started his preparations in early 2006 , " some time between February and April " , that he " travelled to London , walked everywhere , and studied everything . "
Businessman and politician Boris Berezovsky said in a police interview that " Sasha mentioned some person who he met at Millennium Hotel " , but would not " remember whether [ his name ] was Vladimir or Vyacheslav . " Litvinenko 's friend Alex Goldfarb writes that according to Litvinenko , " Lugovoy brought along a man whom [ Litvinenko ] had never seen before and who had ' the eyes of a killer . ' "
Igor the Assassin
The code name for a former KGB assassin . He is said to be a former Spetznaz officer born in 1960 who is a judo master and walks with a slight limp . He allegedly speaks perfect English and Portuguese and may be the same person who served Litvinenko tea in the London hotel room .
= = Other persons related to the case = =
Yegor Gaidar
The sudden illness of Yegor Gaidar in Ireland on 24 November 2006 , the day of Litvinenko 's death , has been linked to his visit to the restaurant where polonium was present and is being investigated as part of the overall investigation in the UK and Ireland . , Other observers noted he was probably poisoned after drinking a strange @-@ tasting cup of tea . Gaidar was taken to hospital ; doctors said his condition was not life @-@ threatening and that he would recover . This incident was similar to the poisoning of Anna Politkovskaya on a flight to Beslan . Afterwards , Gaidar claimed that it was enemies of the Kremlin who had tried to poison him .
Mario Scaramella
The United Kingdom 's Health Protection Agency ( HPA ) announced that significant quantities of polonium @-@ 210 had been found in Mario Scaramella although his health was found to be normal . He was admitted to hospital for tests and monitoring . Doctors say that Scaramella was exposed to a much lower level of polonium @-@ 210 than Litvinenko , and that preliminary tests found " no evidence of radiation toxicity " . According to the 6 pm Channel 4 news ( 9 December 2006 ) the intake of polonium he suffered would only result in a dose of 1 mSv . This would lead to a 1 in 20 @,@ 000 chance of cancer . According to The Independent , Scaramella alleged that Litvinenko was involved in smuggling radioactive material to Zürich in 2000 .
Boris Volodarsky , a KGB defector residing in London , stated that Evgeni Limarev , another former KGB officer residing in France , continued collaboration with the FSB , infiltrated Litvinenko 's and Scaramella 's circles of trust and misinformed the latter .
Igor Ponomarev
Igor Ponomarev was a Russian diplomat whose death was called a possible murder by Paolo Guzzanti .
Marina Litvinenko
UK reports state Litvinenko 's widow tested positive for polonium , though she is not seriously ill . The Ashdown Park hotel in Sussex has been evacuated as a precaution , possibly to do with Scaramella 's previous visit there . According to the 6 pm Channel 4 ( 9 December 2006 ) news the intake of polonium she suffered would only result in a dose of 100 mSv , leading to a 1 in 200 chance of cancer .
Akhmed Zakayev
The forensic investigation also includes the silver Mercedes outside Litvinenko 's home believed to be owned by his close friend and neighbour Akhmed Zakayev , then foreign minister of the separatist government in exile of Ichkeria . Reports now state that traces of radioactive material were found in the vehicle .
British police
Two London Metropolitan Police officers tested positive for 210Po poisoning .
Bar staff
Some of the bar staff at the hotel where the polonium @-@ contaminated teacup was found were discovered to have suffered an intake of polonium ( dose in the range of 10s of mSv ) . These people include Norberto Andrade , the head barman and a long @-@ time ( 27 years ) worker at the hotel . He has described the situation thus :
" When I was delivering gin and tonic to the table , I was obstructed . I couldn 't see what was happening , but it seemed very deliberate to create a distraction . It made it difficult to put the drink down .
" It was the only moment when the situation seemed unfriendly and something went on at that point . I think the polonium was sprayed into the teapot . There was contamination found on the picture above where Mr Litvinenko had been sitting and all over the table , chair and floor , so it must have been a spray .
" When I poured the remains of the teapot into the sink , the tea looked more yellow than usual and was thicker – it looked gooey .
" I scooped it out of the sink and threw it into the bin . I was so lucky I didn 't put my fingers into my mouth , or scratch my eye as I could have got this poison inside me . "
= = Chronology = =
= = = Background history = = =
7 June 1994 : A remote @-@ controlled bomb detonated aiming at chauffeured Mercedes 600 with oligarch Boris Berezovsky and his bodyguard in the rear seat . The driver died but Berezovsky left the car unscathed . Litvinenko , then with the organized @-@ crime unit of the FSB , was an investigating officer of the assassination attempt . The case was never solved , but it was at this point that Litvinenko befriended Berezovsky .
17 November 1998 : At a time that Vladimir Putin was the head of the FSB , five officers including Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Litvinenko accuse the Director of the Directorate for the Analysis of Criminal Organizations Major @-@ General Eugeny Hoholkhov and his deputy , 1st Rank Captain Alexander Kamishnikov , of ordering them to assassinate Boris Berezovsky in November 1997 .
= = = 2006 = = =
= = = = October 2006 = = = =
7 October : The Russian journalist and Kremlin critic Anna Politkovskaya is shot in Moscow .
16 October : Andrey Lugovoy flies to London .
16 – 18 October : Former KGB agent Dmitry Kovtun visits London , during which time he eats two meals with Litvinenko , one of them at the Itsu sushi bar ( see 1 November 2006 ) .
17 October : Litvinenko visits " Risc Management " , a security firm in Cavendish Place , with Lugovoy and Kovtun .
19 October : Litvinenko accuses President Putin of the Politkovskaya murder .
28 October : Dmitry Kovtun arrived in Hamburg , Germany from Moscow on an Aeroflot flight . Later German police discovered that the passenger seat of the car that picked him up at an airport was contaminated with polonium @-@ 210 .
31 October : Dmitry Kovtun comes to London from Hamburg , Germany . German police found that his ex @-@ wife 's apartment in Hamburg was contaminated with polonium @-@ 210 .
= = = = November 2006 = = = =
1 November : Just after 3 pm , at the Itsu sushi restaurant on Picadilly , Litvinenko meets the Italian security expert Mario Scaramella , who hands alleged evidence to him concerning the murder of Politkovskaya . Around 4 : 15 pm , he comes to the office of Boris Berezovsky to copy the papers Scaramella had given him and hand them to Berezovsky . Around 5 pm he meets with the former KGB agents Andrey Lugovoy , Dmitry Kovtun and Vyacheslav Sokolenko in the Millennium Hotel in London . He later becomes ill .
3 November : Litvinenko is brought into Barnet General Hospital .
11 November : Litvinenko tells the BBC he was poisoned and is in very bad condition .
17 November : Litvinenko is moved to University College Hospital and placed under armed guard .
19 November : Reports emerge that Litvinenko has been poisoned with thallium , a chemical element used in the past as a rat poison .
20 November : Litvinenko is moved to the Intensive Care Unit . The police take statements from people with close relation to Litvinenko . A Kremlin speaker denies the Russian government is involved in the poisoning .
22 November : The hospital announces that Litvinenko 's condition has worsened substantially .
23 November : 9 : 21 pm : Litvinenko dies .
24 November : Litvinenko 's dictated deathbed statement is published . He accuses President Vladimir Putin of being responsible for his death . The Kremlin rejects the accusation . The HPA announces that significant amounts of polonium @-@ 210 have been found in Litvinenko 's body . Traces of the same substance are also found at Litvinenko 's house in North London , at Itsu and at the Millennium Hotel .
24 November : Sergei Abeltsev , State Duma member from the LDPR , in his Duma address he commented on the death of Litvinenko with the following words : The deserved punishment reached the traitor . I am sure his terrible death will be a warning to all the traitors that in Russia the treason is not to be forgiven . I would recommend to citizen Berezovsky to avoid any food at the commemoration for his crime accomplice Litvinenko
24 November : The British police state they are investigating the death as a possible poisoning .
28 November : Scotland Yard announces that traces of polonium @-@ 210 have been found in seven different places in London . Among them , an office of the Russian billionaire Boris Berezovsky , an avowed opponent of Putin .
29 November : The HPA announces screening of the nurses and physicians who treated Litvinenko . The authorities find traces of a radioactive substance on board British Airways planes .
30 November : Polonium @-@ 210 traces are found on a number of other planes , most of them going to Moscow .
= = = = December 2006 = = = =
1 December : An autopsy is performed on the body of Litvinenko . Toxicology results from Mr Litvinenko 's post @-@ mortem examination revealed two " spikes " of radiation poisoning , suggesting he received two separate doses . Scaramella tests positive for polonium @-@ 210 and is admitted into a hospital . Litvinenko 's widow also tests positive for polonium @-@ 210 , but was not sent to the hospital for treatment .
2 December : Scotland Yard 's counter @-@ terrorist unit have questioned Yuri Shvets , a former KGB spy who emigrated to the United States in 1993 . He was questioned as a witness in Washington in the presence of FBI officers . Shvets claimed that he has a " lead that can explain what happened " .
6 December : Scotland Yard announced that it is treating his death as a murder .
7 December : Confused reports state that Dmitry Kovtun was hospitalized , the reason has not yet been made clear .
7 December : Russian Office of the Prosecutor General has opened a criminal case over poisoning of Litvinenko and Kovtun by the articles " Murder committed in a way endangering the general public " ( убийство , совершенное общеопасным способом ) and " Attempted murder of two or more persons committed in a way endangering the general public " .
8 December : Kovtun is reported to be in coma .
9 December : German police find traces of radiation at Hamburg flat used by Kovtun .
9 December : UK police identify a single cup at the Pines Bar in the Millennium Hotel in Mayfair which was almost certainly the one used to administer the poison .
11 December : Andrey Lugovoy is interrogated in Moscow by UK Scotland Yard and General Procurator 's office of the Russian Federation . He refuses to reveal any information concerning the interrogation .
12 December : Dmitry Kovtun tells a Russian TV station that his " health [ is ] improving " .
24 December : Mario Scaramella was arrested in Naples on his return from London , on apparently unrelated charges .
27 December : Prosecutor General of Russia Yury Chaika accused Leonid Nevzlin , a former Vice President of Yukos , exiled in Israel and wanted by Russian authorities for a long time , of involvement in the poisoning , a charge dismissed by the latter as a nonsense .
= = = 2007 = = =
= = = = February 2007 = = = =
5 February : Boris Berezovsky told the BBC that on his deathbed , Litvinenko said that Lugovoy was responsible for his poisoning .
6 February : The text of a letter written by Litvinenko 's widow on 31 January to Putin , demanding that Putin work with British authorities on solving the case , was released .
8 February 2007 : Update to HPA ( Health Protection Agency ) investigation of polonium 210 incident .
= = = = May 2007 = = = =
21 May : Sir Ken Macdonald QC ( Director of Public Prosecutions of England and Wales ) say that Lugovoy , should face trial for the " grave crime " of murdering Litvinenko .
22 May : Macdonald announces that Britain will seek extradition of Lugovoy and attempt to charge him with murdering Litvinenko . The Russian government states that they will not allow the extradition of any Russian citizens .
28 May : The British Foreign Office formally submits a request to the Russian Government for the extradition of Lugovoy to the UK to face criminal charges.The Constitution of Russia forbids extradition of Russian citizens to foreign countries ( Article 61 ) , so the request can not be fulfilled .
Extradition requests had been granted in the past ( For example , in 2002 Murad Garabayev has been handed to Turkmenistan . , Garabayev 's extradition was later found unlawful by the Russian courts and he was awarded 20 @,@ 000 Euros in damages to be paid by the Russian government by the European Court of Human Rights . ) Article 63 does not explicitly mention Russian citizens , and therefore does not apply to them , but only to foreign nationals living in Russia . Article 61 supersedes it for the people holding the Russian citizenship .
31 May : Lugovoy held a news conference at which he accused MI6 of attempting to recruit him and blamed either MI6 , the Russian mafia , or fugitive Kremlin opponent Boris Berezovsky for the killing .
= = = = July 2007 = = = =
16 July : The British Foreign Office confirms that , as a result of Russia 's refusal to extradite Lugovoy , four Russian diplomats are to be expelled from the Russian Embassy in London .
17 July : Russia 's deputy foreign minister , Alexander Grushko , threatens to expel 80 UK diplomats .
19 July : The Russian Foreign ministry spokesman , Mikhail Kamynin , announced the expulsion of four UK diplomats from the British Embassy in Moscow .
= = = = October 2007 = = = =
27 October : Stephen Wright and David Williams of the British Daily Mail newspaper reported that Alexander Litvinenko was an MI6 agent and was receiving a retainer of £ 2000 per month when he was murdered and that the current head of MI6 Sir John Scarlett was involved in his recruitment , quoting unnamed " diplomatic and intelligence " sources . Such claims have been denied by Marina Litvinenko and Oleg Gordievsky .
= = = = December 2008 = = = =
In a 16 December 2008 interview , when asked by the Spanish newspaper El País if Litvinenko could have been killed in the interests of the Russian state , Lugovoy – wanted by British police on suspicion of the murder of Litvinenko – replied that he would order the assassination of anyone , for example , President Saakashvili of Georgia and the KGB defector Gordievsky , in the interests of the Russian state .
= = Comparisons to other deaths = =
= = = Deaths from ingesting radioactive materials = = =
According to the IAEA in 1960 a person ingested 74 MBq of radium ( assumed to be 226Ra ) and this person died four years later . Harold McCluskey survived 11 years ( eventually dying from cardio respiratory failure ) after an intake of at least 37 MBq of 241Am ( He was exposed in 1976 ) . It is estimated that he suffered doses of 18 Gy to his bone mass , 520 Gy to the bone surface , 8 Gy to the liver and 1 @.@ 6 Gy to the lungs ; it is also claimed that a post mortem examination revealed no signs of cancer in his body . The October 1983 issue of the journal Health Physics was dedicated to McCluskey , and subsequent papers about him appeared in the September 1995 issue .
= = = Similar suspicious deaths and poisonings = = =
Comparisons have been made to the alleged 2004 poisoning of Viktor Yushchenko , the alleged 2003 poisoning of Yuri Shchekochikhin and the fatal 1978 poisoning of the journalist Georgi Markov by the Bulgarian Committee for State Security . The incident with Litvinenko has also attracted comparisons to the poisoning by radioactive ( unconfirmed ) thallium of KGB defector Nikolay Khokhlov and journalist Shchekochikhin of Novaya Gazeta ( the Novaya Gazeta interview with the former , coincidentally , prepared by Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya , who was later found shot to death in her apartment building ) . Like Litvinenko , Shchekochikhin had investigated the Russian apartment bombings ( he was a member of the Kovalev Commission that hired Litvinenko 's friend Mikhail Trepashkin as a legal counsel ) .
KGB defector and British agent Oleg Gordievsky believes the murders of Zelimkhan Yandarbiev , Shchekochikhin , and Politkovskaya and the incident with Litvinenko show that the FSB has returned to the practice of political assassinations , which were conducted in the past by Thirteenth Department of the KGB . A comparison was also made with Roman Tsepov who was responsible for personal protection of Anatoly Sobchak and Putin , and who died in Russia in 2004 from poisoning by an unknown radioactive substance .
Officers of FSB " special forces " liked to use Litvinenko photos for target practice in shooting galleries , according to Russian journalist Yulia Latynina .
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= Upper Brook Street Chapel , Manchester =
The Upper Brook Street Chapel , also known as the Islamic Academy , the Unitarian Chapel and the Welsh Baptist Chapel , is a former chapel with an attached Sunday School on the east side of Upper Brook Street , Chorlton @-@ on @-@ Medlock , Manchester , England . It is said to be the first neogothic Nonconformist chapel , having been constructed between 1837 and 1839 . It was designed by Sir Charles Barry , who later went on to design the Palace of Westminster .
A listed building since 3 October 1974 ( currently Grade II * ) , it is owned by Manchester City Council and is on the Buildings at Risk Register , rated as " very bad " . It was partially demolished in 2006 . The Victorian Society recently placed the building on a list of ten most threatened buildings in England and Wales .
= = History = =
The chapel was designed by Sir Charles Barry , shortly before he designed the Palace of Westminster . It was constructed between 1837 and 1839 out of sandstone , with a slate roof . It is in English neogothic style . The building has seven narrow bays , with buttresses and a lancet in each bay . The west end has a giant moulded archway , with an arched doorway at the ground floor with a window above . On the east end there is a rose window . The corners are square , with pinnacles . The inside of the chapel had galleries on three sides , and a ribbed , vaulted ceiling . The attached two @-@ storey Sunday School is in the same style as the chapel , and has a triple @-@ gabled north side , with large arched windows on the first floor . It also has a canted apse on the west end , and a lean @-@ to porch . The building was listed on 3 October 1974 , and is currently classed as Grade II * .
The building marked a charge in the style of Nonconformist worship locations . Previously these were mostly built with brick , and were plain , with the grander tending towards Greek architecture . Said to be the first neogothic Nonconformist chapel , Manchester 's Unitarian Chapel was preceded by the Congregationalists ' Congregational Chapel in March , Cambridgeshire , which was constructed in 1836 and is also in the neogothic style . Chapels built following the construction of these two resembled parish churches more than the former style .
= = Occupancy = =
The chapel replaced the Mosley Street Chapel ( built 1789 , demolished 1836 ) upon its completion for baptisms , burials and marriages . It was originally constructed for the Unitarians . The chapel was used for burial rites until 1882 , the chapel had a graveyard from the outset , to both the north and south sides of the chapel . Restrictions were placed on this in 1856 and prohibited in 1882 except for the removal of remains from graves on the north side to brick vaults on the south side of the chapel . Baptisms were performed until at least 1912 , and marriages until at least 1916 . Ministers at the chapel include John James Tayler ( until 1853 ) , William Henry Herford ( 1866 – 70 ) , Philip Wicksteed ( circa 1890 ) , John Trevor ( 1890 – 91 , left to start The Labour Church ) and Edward Walker Sealy ( 1910- ? ? ? ) .
The chapel was sold in 1928 due to changes in the district , and was subsequently used as a Welsh Baptist Chapel . The chapel was then used as a Jehovah 's Witnesses Kingdom Hall in the early 1970s . The most recent use of both the chapel and former Sunday School was for the Islamic Academy of Manchester between 1974 and 2006 , when it was used as a mosque , teaching centre and for outreach work in the Asian community . The chapel is currently vacant , with the Islamic Academy occupying the Sunday School . The building has been owned by Manchester City Council since the 1970s , who purchased land alongside Upper Brook Street with the aim of constructing a large motorway into Manchester , which was never realised .
= = Current status and future = =
Parts of the chapel were demolished at the start of 2006 on safety grounds , with scaffolding holding up some other sections . As of March 2008 the building has very little roof , with the walls , floors and ceilings in poor condition . The annex was also declared unsafe , but has since been reoccupied .
A spokesperson for Manchester City Council said : " The Welsh Baptist Chapel is in poor condition due to the low standard of its original construction . It has been empty for some years while attempts have been made to achieve a sympathetic redevelopment of the site and secure the building 's long @-@ term future . " An unsuccessful bid to the Heritage Lottery Fund for funding to repair the building was made by the Islamic Academy in 2003 . In 2001 and 2005 the City Council commissioned structural advice regarding the building , prior to removing most of the roof , with the agreement of English Heritage . The building is in need of £ 500 @,@ 000 for emergency repairs , as well as an extra £ 700 @,@ 000 to make it fully functional .
The chapel is currently on the Buildings at Risk Register , rated as " very bad " . The Victorian Society recently placed the building on a list of ten most threatened buildings in England and Wales .
In October 2010 Manchester City Council revealed that it was in discussion with a developer to renovate the building and bring it back into use . In August 2013 the council received a planning application from the Church Converts ( Manchester ) to repair the building and convert it into apartments ; the application was granted in February 2014 . The redevelopment by CZero Developments will consist of 73 private apartments in both the chapel and the sunday school , with the redevlopment due to be completed by Summer 2017 .
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= Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway =
The Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) , also known as the Piccadilly tube , was a railway company established in 1902 that constructed a deep @-@ level underground " tube " railway in London . The GNP & BR was formed through a merger of two older companies , the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway ( B & PCR ) and the Great Northern and Strand Railway ( GN & SR ) . It also incorporated part of a tube route planned by a third company , the District Railway ( DR ) . The combined company was a subsidiary of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) .
The B & PCR and the GN & SR were established in 1896 and 1898 respectively , but construction of both railways was delayed while funding was sought . In 1902 the UERL , which already controlled the DR , took control of both companies and quickly raised the funds , mainly from foreign investors . A number of different routes were planned , but most were rejected by Parliament .
When it opened in 1906 , the GNP & BR 's line served 22 stations and ran for 14 @.@ 17 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 80 mi ) between its western terminus at Hammersmith and its northern terminus at Finsbury Park . A short 720 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 362 ft ) branch connected Holborn to the Strand . Most of the route was in a pair of tunnels , with 1 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) at the western end constructed above ground . Within the first year of opening it became apparent to the management and investors that the estimated passenger numbers for the GNP & BR and the other UERL lines were over @-@ optimistic . Despite improved integration and cooperation with the other tube railways , the GNP & BR struggled financially . In 1933 it and the rest of the UERL were taken into public ownership . Today , the GNP & BR 's tunnels and stations form the core central section of the London Underground 's Piccadilly line .
= = Establishment = =
= = = Origins = = =
= = = = Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway , 1896 = = = =
In November 1896 notice was published that a private bill was to be presented to Parliament for the construction of the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway ( B & PCR ) . The line was planned to run entirely underground between Air Street near Piccadilly Circus and the south end of Exhibition Road , South Kensington . The route was to run beneath Piccadilly , Knightsbridge , Brompton Road and Thurloe Place , with intermediate stations at Dover Street , Down Street , Hyde Park Corner , Knightsbridge and Brompton Road . A short branch to the east of the South Kensington terminus was planned to a depot south of Brompton Road at the end of Yeoman Row . Electricity to operate the trains was to be provided from a generating station to be built about a mile south of the South Kensington terminus on the north bank of the River Thames at Lots Road , West Brompton . Following parliamentary approval , the bill received royal assent as the Brompton & Piccadilly Circus Railway Act , 1897 on 6 August 1897 .
= = = = District Railway deep @-@ level tube , 1896 = = = =
Also announced in November 1896 was a bill to be presented by the District Railway ( DR ) for a tube railway to be constructed beneath its existing sub @-@ surface line between Gloucester Road and Mansion House stations . The DR operated a steam railway , running in cut and cover tunnels , and planned to ease congestion along its heavily used route by constructing an express line with just a single intermediate station at Charing Cross ( now Embankment ) . The express line was to surface west of Gloucester Road and connect to the DR 's existing line at Earl 's Court . Since , like the B & PCR , the DR 's deep tube line would be operated with electric trains , the DR planned to build a generating station adjacent to its Walham Green station ( now Fulham Broadway ) . The bill received assent on 6 August 1897 as the Metropolitan District Railway Act , 1897 .
= = = = Great Northern and Strand Railway , 1898 = = = =
In November 1898 the Great Northern and Strand Railway ( GN & SR ) was announced as a tube railway , to run from Wood Green to Stanhope Street , north of the Strand . The GN & SR was backed by the Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) , the main line railway operating from King 's Cross station . The GNR saw the new company as a means of relieving congestion on its route . The GN & SR was to run beneath the GNR 's main line from Wood Green station ( now Alexandra Palace ) to Finsbury Park station . It was then planned to run south @-@ west through Holloway to King 's Cross , and then south to Bloomsbury and Holborn . Intermediate stations were planned at the GNR 's Hornsey , Harringay and Finsbury Park stations , and at Holloway , York Road , King 's Cross , Russell Square and Holborn . A power station was planned next to the GNR 's tracks at Gillespie Road . When the London County Council planned the construction of Kingsway and Aldwych , Stanhope Street was scheduled for demolition so the southern terminus was relocated to the junction of the two new roads . The bill was enacted on 1 August 1899 as the Great Northern and Strand Railway Act , 1899 .
= = = Search for finance , 1896 – 1903 = = =
Although the three companies had permission to construct their railways , they still had to raise the capital for the construction works in a competitive market .
By 1899 , there were five other tube railway companies with permission to construct railways that were raising funds – the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) , the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) , the Great Northern and City Railway ( GN & CR ) , the Central London Railway ( CLR ) and the City and Brixton Railway . The already operating City & South London Railway ( C & SLR ) was also looking for money for extensions to its existing route and numerous other proposed , but unapproved underground railway companies were also seeking investors .
Foreign investors came to the rescue of the DR , B & PCR and GN & SR : American financier Charles Yerkes , who had been lucratively involved in the development of Chicago 's tramway system in the 1880s and 1890s , saw the opportunity to make similar investments in London . In March 1901 he and his backers purchased a majority of the shares of the DR and , in September 1901 , took over the B & PCR and the GN & SR . With the companies under his control , Yerkes established the UERL to raise funds to build the tube railways and to electrify the DR. The UERL was capitalised at £ 5 million with the majority of shares sold to overseas investors . Further share issues followed , which raised a total of £ 18 million by 1903 ( equivalent to approximately £ 1 @.@ 74 billion today ) for use across all of the UERL 's projects .
= = = Planning the route , 1898 – 1905 = = =
= = = = B & PCR bill , 1899 = = = =
During the progress of their 1896 bills through parliament , the DR and the B & PCR established a relationship through a successful joint campaign of opposition to a competing proposal from the City & West End Railway . This was for a tube railway running from Hammersmith to Cannon Street , which would have duplicated parts of the DR 's and the B & PCR 's approved routes . In late 1898 , this common interest led to the purchase of the B & PCR by the DR. In November 1898 a bill for the B & PCR was announced , which sought permission for short extensions at each end of its route : at its eastern end , from Piccadilly Circus to Cranbourn Street and , at the western end , connections between the B & PCR 's tunnels and those of the DR 's deep tube line . Parliament rejected the eastern extension , but permitted the connection between the two lines and approved a capital injection from the DR into the B & PCR . The bill received royal assent on 9 August 1899 as the Brompton & Piccadilly Circus Railway ( Extensions ) Act , 1899 .
= = = = DR and B & PCR bills , 1900 = = = =
In November 1899 the DR published a notice of a bill for the 1900 parliamentary session . The company was still unable to proceed with the construction of its proposed deep line , and the new bill included provisions for extensions of time for this line and for those of the B & PCR . The bill included construction and operation of the power station at the Lots Road site previously chosen by the B & PCR . The B & PCR also published notice for a bill requesting an extension of time , but this was later withdrawn and the extension request in the DR bill was used . The time extensions were granted in the Metropolitan District Railway Act , 1900 , which received assent on 6 August 1900 .
= = = = B & PCR bill , 1901 = = = =
In November 1900 the B & PCR published a notice of a bill for the 1901 session , in which it sought permission for two extensions . The first , eastward , took a more northerly route than the rejected 1899 extension to Cranbourn Street : it was to run via Shaftesbury Avenue , Hart Street ( now Bloomsbury Way ) , Bloomsbury Square , Theobalds Road and Rosebery Avenue , to Angel , Islington where it terminated under Islington High Street . Where the line crossed other tube routes , stations were planned : at Cambridge Circus to interchange with the planned CCE & HR , and at Museum Street near to the CLR 's recently opened British Museum station . The second extension took the line south @-@ west from South Kensington , via Fulham Road , to connect to the DR 's line south of Walham Green station ( now Fulham Broadway ) . The bill also included provisions for the B & PCR to take over responsibility for construction of the section of the DR 's deep @-@ level line from South Kensington to Earl 's Court , and for a further extension of time .
The opening of the CLR on 30 July 1900 had stimulated interest in underground railways , and the B & PCR 's bill was submitted to Parliament at the same time as a large number of other bills for tube lines in the capital . To review these bills , Parliament established a joint committee under Lord Windsor . Only the part of B & PCR 's first extension as far as Museum Street was considered by the committee . The section to The Angel was held back , pending the findings of a separate committee which was investigating problems of vibration experienced on the CLR . The extension to Fulham was not discussed . By the time the committee had produced its report , the parliamentary session was almost over so the promoters of the bills were asked to resubmit them for the following 1902 session .
= = = = B & PCR , GN & SR and DR bills , 1902 = = = =
In November 1901 the B & PCR published details of its bill for the 1902 session . The extension to The Angel was dropped , and a different route eastwards from Piccadilly Circus was planned . Once again this ran to Cranbourn Street , but it continued under Long Acre and Great Queen Street to meet and connect to the GN & SR 's tunnels at Little Queen Street ( now the northern part of Kingsway ) just south of the GN & SR 's planned Holborn station . The B & PCR planned stations at Wardour Street , Cranbourn Street and Covent Garden .
At Wardour Street station a branch was to leave the main route and head south @-@ east , to connect to the DR 's deep @-@ level line east of its station at Charing Cross . Wardour Street station was planned to have platforms on both branches . The south @-@ west extension to Walham Green was retained with minor alterations . The new route was to branch from the original route east of Brompton Road station , which was to have platforms on both routes . Stations were planned along Fulham Road at its junctions with College Street ( now Elystan Street ) , Neville Street , Drayton Gardens , Redcliffe Gardens , Stamford Bridge and Maxwell Road . The route would interchange with the DR at Walham Green before coming to the surface and running parallel with the DR as far as Parsons Green , beyond which the line was to connect to the DR. The requests for an extension of time and for the powers to build the DR deep @-@ level line from South Kensington to Earl 's Court were re @-@ presented . As the B & PCR and the GN & SR were now in common ownership , the bill also sought powers to enable the companies to merge and for the B & PCR to change its name .
At the same time , the GN & SR published details of its bill for the 1902 session . The GN & SR sought powers for a short extension of about 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 148 ft ) from its southern terminus , to Temple station on the DR 's existing sub @-@ surface line where an interchange was planned . The GN & SR also sought permission to abandon the section of its route north of Finsbury Park , and to transfer its powers and obligations to the B & PCR as part of the merger . The DR also announced a bill for 1902 which included provisions to transfer responsibility for part or all of its deep @-@ level line to the B & PCR .
The B & PCR bill was again examined by a joint committee under Lord Windsor . The GN & SR bill was examined by a separate committee under Lord Ribblesdale . The B & PCR 's eastward extension to Holborn to connect to the GN & SR was permitted , but the extension to Parsons Green was rejected following objections from hospitals in the Fulham Road , which were concerned that vibrations from trains might affect their patients . The B & PCR link from Piccadilly Circus to Charing Cross was rejected on the grounds that it involved sharp turns and steep gradients to avoid public buildings in the area . The merger with the GN & SR and name change were permitted . The GN & SR 's extension to Temple was rejected following objections from the Duke of Norfolk who owned the land under which it would have run . The abandonment of the route north of Finsbury Park was permitted .
The bills received royal assent as the Great Northern and Strand Railway Act , 1902 and the Metropolitan District Railway Act , 1902 on 8 August 1902 , and as the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway Act , 1902 on 18 November 1902 .
= = = = GNP & BR and DR bills , 1903 = = = =
In November 1902 the newly merged company announced two bills for the 1903 parliamentary session under the GNP & BR name . The first bill requested minor powers which included the purchase of additional land for stations , and sought minor amendments to previous Acts .
The second bill sought permission for extensions east and west from the approved route . The eastern extension was to diverge from the main route immediately west of Piccadilly Circus station , which was to be expanded to have east and westbound platforms on both lines . The extension was then to pass under Leicester Square to a station at Charing Cross . Continuing eastwards under Strand , the tunnels were to cross under the branch from Holborn , with an interchange at Strand station . The line was then to continue under Fleet Street to Ludgate Circus , where a station was to be constructed to interchange with the London , Chatham and Dover Railway 's Ludgate Hill station ( since demolished ) . It would then proceed south under New Bridge Street , and east under Queen Victoria Street , to connect to the DR 's proposed deep @-@ level line west of Mansion House station . The western extension was to diverge from the approved route at Albert Gate , east of Knightsbridge station . This station was to have additional platforms on the new branch line which would head west under Knightsbridge , Kensington Road and Kensington High Street , with stations at the Royal Albert Hall , the DR 's High Street Kensington station and Addison Road . The tunnels were then to follow Hammersmith Road to the DR 's Hammersmith station . There they would turn north under Hammersmith Grove and east under Goldhawk Road , to terminate on the south side of Shepherd 's Bush Green near to the CLR 's Shepherd 's Bush terminus .
The DR also publicised two further bills for the 1903 session . The first included provisions to formalise the agreement for the GNP & BR to build the section of the deep @-@ level line between South Kensington and West Kensington , including the deep @-@ level platforms at Earl 's Court . The second bill sought permission to extend the deep @-@ level line from its eastern end at Mansion House by following beneath the existing sub @-@ surface tracks to Whitechapel , where the line would connect to the existing sub @-@ surface lines to Mile End .
Neither extension bill was debated . In February 1903 , Parliament had established a Royal Commission on London Traffic to assess the manner in which transport in London should be developed . While the Commission deliberated , any review of bills for new lines and extensions was postponed . Both bills were later withdrawn by their promoters . The powers bills were approved as the Metropolitan District Railway Act , 1903 on 21 July 1903 and the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( Various Powers ) Act , 1903 on 11 August 1903 .
= = = = GNP & BR bills , 1905 = = = =
The Royal Commission investigations continued from 1903 to early 1905 , concluding with the issue of a report in June 1905 . No bills were submitted for the 1904 parliamentary session , but in November 1904 the GNP & BR announced two bills for the 1905 session .
The first dealt with the Strand branch : it confirmed the layout of the junction between the branch and the main route at Holborn , and sought powers to extend the branch south under the River Thames to the London and South Western Railway 's ( L & SWR 's ) terminus at Waterloo station . The extension included moving Strand station to the corner of Surrey Street , and constructing a single tunnel from there to the BS & WR 's Waterloo station which would be provided with additional lifts to serve the GNP & BR 's platforms . The branch was to be operated as a shuttle with trains passing at Strand station . The junction layout and short extension to re @-@ site Strand station were permitted , but not the extension to Waterloo . The bill received royal assent on 4 August 1905 as the Great Northern Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( Various Powers ) Act , 1905 .
The second bill again proposed extensions to the east and west , modifying the 1903 plans . In the east , the route was the same as the previous proposal as far as Ludgate Circus . Then , instead of heading south under New Bridge Street and east into Queen Victoria Street to connect to the DR deep level route , the 1905 proposal followed under Carter Lane and Cannon Street to a station at the junction of Queen Street and Watling Street , a short distance north @-@ east of the DR 's Mansion House station . The route then followed Queen Victoria Street to Lombard Street where an interchange was to be provided with the C & SLR and the CLR at Bank station . The route continued under Cornhill and Leadenhall Street to end at Aldgate High Street , adjacent to the DR 's Aldgate station .
To the west , the 1903 proposed extension from Knightsbridge to Hammersmith via Kensington High Street remained , but it was to continue beyond Hammersmith under King Street , the final station being at the junction of King Street , Goldhawk Road and Chiswick High Road . The tunnels were to continue beyond the final station for a further 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 148 ft ) under Chiswick High Road , to end at the junction with Homefield Road . The loop north from Hammersmith to Shepherd 's Bush was dropped ; instead a more direct route to Shepherd 's Bush was proposed as a branch from the Hammersmith extension at Addison Road . It was to run under Holland Road to Shepherd 's Bush Green , with a station being constructed opposite the CLR station there . It would then continue west under Uxbridge Road to Acton Vale , where a depot was to be built on the surface between Agnes Road and Davis Road . To cover the cost of the proposed extensions , powers to raise further capital of £ 4 @.@ 2 million were sought . The review of the bill in Parliament was delayed as the Royal Commission was still sitting during the first half of 1905 ; the bill was withdrawn by the GNP & BR in July 1905 , as insufficient time then remained for completion the parliamentary process before the end of the session .
= = = Construction , 1902 – 1906 = = =
With the funds available from the UERL , construction began in July 1902 at Knightsbridge , before the formal approval of the merger of the B & PCR and GN & SR . Work proceeded quickly , enabling the UERL to record in its annual report in October 1904 that 80 per cent of the tunnels had been completed and that track laying was about to begin . Stations were provided with surface buildings designed by architect Leslie Green in the UERL house @-@ style . This consisted of two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed buildings faced with red glazed terracotta blocks , with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . Except for Finsbury Park , where the platforms were close enough to the surface to be accessed by stairs , and Gillespie Road where a long ramp was used , each of the stations with platforms in tube tunnels was provided with between two and four lifts and an emergency spiral staircase in a separate shaft .
Works on the main route were largely complete by the Autumn of 1906 , and after a period of test running the railway was ready to open in December 1906 . As a result of the electrification and resignalling of the DR 's surface and sub @-@ surface tracks in 1905 , the capacity of the existing route was sufficiently increased that the construction of deep @-@ level tunnels east of South Kensington was unnecessary , and the powers were allowed to lapse .
= = Opening = =
The official opening of the GNP & BR by David Lloyd George , President of the Board of Trade , took place on 15 December 1906 . Progress on the Strand branch was delayed , and it opened in November 1907 . From its opening , the GNP & BR was generally known by the abbreviated names Piccadilly Tube or Piccadilly Railway , and the names appeared on the station buildings and on contemporary maps of the tube lines .
The railway had stations at :
Finsbury Park
Gillespie Road ( now Arsenal )
Holloway Road
Caledonian Road
York Road ( closed 17 September 1932 )
King 's Cross ( now King 's Cross St. Pancras )
Russell Square
Holborn
Strand ( later Aldwych , opened 30 November 1907 , closed 30 September 1994 )
Covent Garden ( opened 11 April 1907 )
Leicester Square
Piccadilly Circus
Dover Street ( now Green Park )
Down Street ( opened 15 March 1907 , closed 25 May 1932 )
Hyde Park Corner
Knightsbridge
Brompton Road ( closed 29 July 1934 )
South Kensington ( opened 8 January 1907 )
Gloucester Road
Earl 's Court
Barons Court
Hammersmith
The service was provided by a fleet of carriages manufactured for the UERL in France and Hungary . These carriages were built to the same design used for the BS & WR and the CCE & HR , and operated as electric multiple unit trains without the need for separate locomotives . Passengers boarded and left the trains through folding lattice gates at each end of cars ; these gates were operated by Gate @-@ men who rode on an outside platform and announced station names as trains arrived . The design became known on the Underground as the 1906 stock or Gate stock . Trains for the line were stabled at the Lillie Bridge depot in West Kensington .
= = Co @-@ operation and consolidation , 1906 – 1913 = =
Despite the UERL 's success in financing and constructing the railway in only seven years , its opening did not bring the financial success that had been expected . In the Piccadilly Tube 's first twelve months of operation it carried 26 million passengers , less than half of the 60 million that had been predicted during the planning of the line . The UERL 's pre @-@ opening predictions of passenger numbers for its other new lines proved to be similarly over @-@ optimistic , as did the projected figures for the newly electrified DR – in each case , numbers achieved only around fifty per cent of their targets .
The lower than expected passenger numbers were partly due to competition between the tube and sub @-@ surface railway companies , but the introduction of electric trams and motor buses , replacing slower , horse @-@ drawn road transport , took a large number of passengers away from the trains . The problem was not limited to the UERL ; all of London 's seven tube lines and the sub @-@ surface DR and Metropolitan Railway were affected to some degree . The reduced revenues generated from the lower passenger numbers made it difficult for the UERL and the other railways to pay back the capital borrowed , or to pay dividends to shareholders .
From 1907 , in an effort to improve their finances , the UERL , the C & SLR , the CLR and the GN & CR began to introduce fare agreements . From 1908 , they began to present themselves through common branding as the Underground . The W & CR was the only tube railway that did not participate in the arrangement as it was owned by the mainline L & SWR .
The UERL 's three tube railway companies were still legally separate entities , with their own management , shareholder and dividend structures . There was duplicated administration between the three companies and , to streamline the management and reduce expenditure , the UERL announced a bill in November 1909 that would merge the Piccadilly , the Hampstead and the Bakerloo Tubes into a single entity , the London Electric Railway ( LER ) , although the lines retained their own individual branding . The bill received royal assent on 26 July 1910 as the London Electric Railway Amalgamation Act , 1910 . This took effect on 1 July that year .
In October 1911 , the Piccadilly tube platforms at Earl 's Court station became the first on the Underground network to be served by escalators when a link between the District and Piccadilly platforms was created .
In November 1912 , a bill was publicised under the LER name that included a plan to extend the Piccadilly tube tracks westwards from Hammersmith to connect to the L & SWR 's Richmond branch tracks . The District line already ran trains over this route , and the Piccadilly tube service would provide additional connections . The bill received assent as the London Electric Railway Act , 1913 on 15 August 1913 . The advent of World War I prevented work on the extension starting . Post @-@ war , a shortage of funds and other priorities meant that the extension was postponed until the early 1930s .
= = Move to public ownership , 1923 – 1933 = =
Despite improvements made to other parts of the network , the Underground railways continued to struggle financially . The UERL 's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) since 1912 had enabled the UERL group , through the pooling of revenues , to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways . However , competition from numerous small bus companies during the early 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole UERL group .
In an effort to protect the UERL group 's income , its chairman Lord Ashfield lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP and Minister of Transport ) Herbert Morrison , at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the Metropolitan Railway and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . On this date , the LER and the other Underground companies were liquidated .
= = Legacy = =
For a history of the line after 1933 see Piccadilly line
The original GNP & BR route was extended at both ends in the early 1930s . In the north , a new route was constructed to Wood Green , Southgate and Cockfosters . In the west , the extension from Hammersmith approved in 1913 was finally carried out . The extension paralleled the District line 's route to Acton and Hounslow , and took over the District line 's route to Uxbridge . In 1977 , the Hounslow branch was extended to Heathrow Airport . The Strand branch was closed in 1994 . Today , the GNP & BR 's tunnels form the core of the Piccadilly line 's 73 @.@ 97 @-@ kilometre ( 45 @.@ 96 mi ) route .
York Road , Down Street and Brompton Road stations were closed in the early 1930s due to low usage , but in the lead @-@ up to World War II the underground passageways at Down Street and Brompton Road were considered useful as protected deep shelters for critical government and military operations . Down Street was fitted out for use by the Railway Executive Committee and the War Cabinet . Brompton Road was used as a control centre for anti @-@ aircraft operations , and after the war was used by the Territorial Army . Between September 1940 and July 1946 , the Strand branch was temporarily closed , its tunnels used to store exhibits from the British Museum as well as serving as an air @-@ raid shelter .
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= New York State Route 228 =
New York State Route 228 ( NY 228 ) is a state highway in Schuyler County , New York , in the United States . It runs for 12 @.@ 47 miles ( 20 @.@ 07 km ) in a northeast to southwest direction from an intersection with NY 224 in the village of Odessa to a junction with NY 227 in the hamlet of Perry City within the town of Hector . NY 228 has a short overlap with NY 79 in the Hector community of Mecklenburg . The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it initially ended at NY 79 in Mecklenburg , from where NY 79 went north to Perry City . NY 79 was realigned to head west from Mecklenburg in the early 1960s , at which time the NY 228 designation was extended northward over NY 79 's former routing .
= = Route description = =
NY 228 begins at an intersection with NY 224 in Odessa . It progresses northward from NY 224 as the two @-@ lane Mecklenburg Road , crossing nearby railroad tracks and entering a more pronounced rural area north of town . The road gradually curves to the northeast , passing by brief wooded areas on its way into the hamlet of Catharine , where NY 228 intersects with County Route 10 ( CR 10 ) . At this point , NY 228 turns northward to follow CR 10 's right @-@ of @-@ way out of the hamlet . Just outside Catharine , NY 228 begins to parallel the western shoreline of nearby Cayuta Lake , which ends about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of the community . After Cayuta Lake , the road winds its way northward along the base of a largely undeveloped valley to reach the town of Hector and its hamlet of Smith Valley . Here , the valley and NY 228 curve northeastward , following Taughannock Creek through eastern Schuyler County .
The route remains on a northeast – southwest alignment to the hamlet of Mecklenburg , where the highway passes some residences ahead of intersections with CR 6 and NY 79 . NY 79 and NY 228 overlap for one block before NY 228 splits to the northeast at the northern edge of the community . The overlap with NY 79 is the busiest section of NY 228 , serving an average of 2 @,@ 556 vehicles per day as of 2009 . Outside of Mecklenburg , the road crosses more rural areas in the town of Hector as it heads generally northeastward along Taughannock Creek and approaches the Tompkins County line . The route pulls to within a tenth @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 2 km ) of the line at the hamlet of Perry City , where NY 228 ends at an intersection with NY 227 . Also present at the junction is CR 3 , a short route leading east to CR 142 at the Tompkins County line . NY 227 enters the intersection from the west ; however , it leaves to the north on NY 228 's right @-@ of @-@ way .
= = History = =
In 1911 , the New York State Legislature created Route 46 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Coopers Plains in Steuben County to Trumansburg in Tompkins County via Watkins Glen . East of Watkins Glen , Route 46 proceeded generally northeastward through Burdett , Reynoldsville and Mecklenburg on its way to Trumansburg . On March 1 , 1921 , the Route 46 designation was reassigned to another highway in Allegany and Steuben counties as part of a partial renumbering of the legislative route system . The section of pre @-@ 1921 Route 46 between Mecklenburg and Perry City went unnumbered until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , when it became part of NY 79 .
At Mecklenburg , NY 79 connected to NY 228 , another route assigned in the renumbering that ran southwest from Mecklenburg to NY 224 in Odessa . The road that became NY 228 was state @-@ maintained south of Cayuta Lake by 1926 , while the remainder of the highway was rebuilt as a state road c . 1930 . NY 228 went unchanged until the early 1960s when NY 79 was rerouted to follow a previously unnumbered highway west of Mecklenburg instead . The former routing of NY 79 from Mecklenburg to Perry City became an extension of NY 228 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Schuyler County .
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= Eidsvoll Verk Station =
Eidsvoll Verk Station ( Norwegian : Eidsvoll Verk stasjon ) is a railway station located on the Gardermoen Line at Råholt near Eidsvoll Verk in Eidsvoll , Norway . The station was taken into use in 1999 when the commuter trains to Eidsvoll started using the Gardermoen Line . It was designed by Arkitektskap and built in concrete , with details in metal and wood , and is sunk into the ground .
= = Service = =
The Oslo Commuter Rail , operated by the Norwegian State Railways , serves Eidsvoll Verk twice per hour with lines L12 Eidsvoll - Oslo S - Drammen - Kongsberg , and R11 Eidsvoll - Oslo S - Larvik / Skien . The service has only one northbound station , Eidsvoll , 5 minutes away . Travel time to Oslo Airport is 5 minutes , and to Oslo Central Station , 30 minutes . The public transport authority Ruter operates bus services to the station , including a correspondence from Eidsvoll Verk via the station to Dal . There is also a taxi stand at the station .
= = Facilities = =
The station is designed in the same style as the rest of the Gardermoen Line and the Airport Express Train . The station consists of two side platforms lowered 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) in the terrain . The walls are covered in ramps and stairs to liven up the concrete walls with metal detailing . Above the station is a walkway built in wood ; its curved shape was designed to fit in with the hilly landscape . On the west side is a bus stop , on the east side is a park and ride facility .
The station is unmanned and without a station building , but the platforms have sheds and ticket machines . It is located south of Eidsvoll Station and north of Oslo Airport Station on the Gardermoen Line , 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) from Oslo Central Station .
= = History = =
Eidsvoll Verk was built along with the rest of the Gardermoen Line for the opening of Oslo Airport , Gardermoen in 1998 . The station was designed by Arkitektskap , with construction starting in 1997 . The station opened on 27 September 1998 , but the commuter train service along the line did not start until 1999 , when the Romerike Tunnel opened . In 2008 , the parking lot was expanded with an additional 36 parking spaces .
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= Ithan Creek =
Ithan Creek ( also known as Ithan Run ) is a tributary of Darby Creek in Delaware County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) long and flows through Radnor Township and Haverford Township . The creek 's watershed has an area of 7 @.@ 39 square miles ( 19 @.@ 1 km2 ) and is highly developed . It has three named tributaries : Browns Run , Kirks Run , and Meadowbrook Run .
Ithan Creek is within the Piedmont Uplands physiographic province . The creek was historically the site of several mills and has been subjected to numerous floods over the years . In 1902 , a sewage company began dumping raw sewage into the creek , but this practice was stopped in 1905 . The creek is in approved trout waters . It is the site of Ithan Valley Park , a small park with hiking and fishing opportunities and the Radnor Valley Country Club .
= = Course = =
Ithan Creek rises in a small valley just south of U.S. Route 30 in the community of Wayne , Pennsylvania . It flows west for several tenths of a mile before receiving its first tributary , Browns Run , from the right and turning south . The creek passes under Pennsylvania Route 320 and receives two small unnamed tributaries from the left . It flows alongside Interstate 476 and crosses it once . After a short while , it receives Kirks Run from the right near the community of Rosemont , Pennsylvania . It flows alongside the interstate for several tenths of a mile before passing under it again . Shortly thereafter , Ithan Creek enters Haverford Township , Pennsylvania and receives its largest tributary , Meadowbrook Run . It passes under Darby Road and meets its confluence with Darby Creek .
Ithan Creek joins Darby Creek 17 @.@ 9 miles ( 28 @.@ 8 km ) upriver of its mouth .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation near the mouth of Ithan Creek is 184 feet ( 56 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is 399 feet ( 122 m ) above sea level .
Ithan Creek is within the Piedmont Uplands physiographic province . The Piedmont Uplands section has generally old , hard upland rocks that eroded from the Appalachian Mountains . The rocks in the watershed date to the Precambrian Era and Lower Paleozoic Era . The surficial geology mainly consist of felsic gneiss and mafic gneiss formations , with small amounts of serpentinite near the mouth of the creek . Silvery mica schist is exposed along the creek . According to a report by the Geological Society of Pennsylvania , the exposures are rare in the vicinity of Ithan Creek .
Two soil associations exist in the Ithan Creek watershed . The Neshaminy @-@ Lehigh @-@ Glenlg soil association is present in a small part of the watershed . It consists of silty , well drained , gravelly , and deep soil that rests on gabbro and granodiorite bedrock . The Chester @-@ Glenlg @-@ Manor soil association is prevalent through the middle of the watershed . It consists of silty , channery , and shallow to deep soil that rests on brown schist and gneiss bedrock . Most of the watershed is considered to have slightly erodible soil .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Ithan Creek has an area of 7 @.@ 39 square miles ( 19 @.@ 1 km2 ) . Its source is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Valley Forge , but its mouth is in the quadrangle of Lansdowne . Ithan Creek 's watershed has a diversity of land uses , including residential ( high density and low density ) , transportation facilities , offices , college campuses , and historic sites . Its culverts from Sproul Road to Iven Avenue are not sized correctly to manage moderate floods . There are brick structures located alongside the creek that are in poor condition . Major roads in the watershed include Interstate 476 , U.S. Route 30 , and Pennsylvania Route 320 . Ithan Creek is not considered to be impaired .
= = History = =
Ithan Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1177888 .
The village of Ithan along the creek was the first European settlement in modern @-@ day Radnor Township in the seventeenth century . In 1826 , an official report stated the following about mills on the creek :
On Ithan creek in Radnor , a mill seat , on land of the heirs of Andrew Steel , deceased . On Ithan creek , in Radnor , a grist @-@ mill and saw @-@ mill , head and fall about twenty @-@ three feet , owned and occupied by John and David Evans . Near the head of Ithan creek , in Radnor , a grist mill and saw @-@ mill , head and fall about sixteen feet , grinds from eight to ten thousand bushels of grain per annum , and about fifty tons gypsum per annum , saw @-@ mill employed occasionally , owned and occupied by Jesse Brooke .
On August 5 , 1843 , heavy rains caused massive flooding on Ithan Creek . About a quarter million dollars of damage in property was assessed , and several lives were lost . Bridges on Ithan Creek sustained a damage of about $ 475 .
The Wayne Sewerage Company was incorporated on December 1 , 1902 and constructed and maintained sewers in Radnor township . It purchased an eleven @-@ acre tract along the creek to build a sewer system and built an engine house with boilers to purify sewage . After it was purified , the water would be released into Ithan Creek where , the company claimed , it posed no threat to human health . Despite this , on December 4 , 1905 , the State Board of Health filed a lawsuit against the company alleging raw sewage was being illegally dumped into the creek . As a result , a judge sided with the Board of Health and a new plant was constructed .
Several bridges have been built across Ithan Creek . A concrete tee beam bridge with a length of 27 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) carries Sproul Road over the creek and was built in 1922 . A 25 @.@ 9 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) bridge of the same type was built in 1930 and carries Conestoga Road over the creek . In 1932 , a 40 feet ( 12 m ) concrete arch bridge was constructed that carries Darby Road across Ithan Creek . A concrete slab bridge with a length of 27 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) carries Clyde Road across the creek and was built that same year . Built in 1964 , a 27 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) prestressed box beam carries Bryn Mawr Avenue over Ithan Creek . Three years later , two concrete slab bridges were constructed to allow the Mid @-@ County Expressway to cross the creek , both being 29 @.@ 9 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) across .
The creek flooded substantially after Tropical Storm Nicole on September 30 , 2010 . A majority of households surveyed after the storm reported flooding in their basements . As a result , several watershed drainage recommendations were proposed .
= = Biology = =
The creek is approved trout waters . Brown trout have been recorded to naturally reproduce in the creek . On the banks of the stream , populations of white @-@ tailed deer are overabundant .
The Ithan @-@ Darby Creek Wetlands is listed on the Delaware County Natural Areas Inventory . It is a " notable significance " site . At the floodplain at the confluence of Ithan Creek and Darby Creek , the main trees species include silver maple , black willow , boxelder , and red maple . In the wetlands at this site , the main tree species include scattered black willow and silver maple . There are also patches of silky dogwood and wild rose , which are surrounded by assorted wetland plants such as herbs , grasses , sedges , and rushes . Monkeyflower , ironweed , joe @-@ pye weed , and mountain mint can sometimes be seen in the wetland , and a variety of invasive species are a concern . Most of the original forest cover has been removed to allow for farming and residential development .
= = Recreation = =
Ithan Valley Park is a 19 @-@ acre park that is adjacent to the creek . It contains a hiking trail and has fishing opportunities . Radnor Valley Country Club is a golf course that borders the creek . Formerly crossing the creek , it was redesigned in 1968 to run north @-@ south along the creek due to construction of Interstate 476 .
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= Daredevil ( film ) =
Daredevil is a 2003 American superhero film written and directed by Mark Steven Johnson . Based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name , the film stars Ben Affleck as Matt Murdock , a blind lawyer who fights for justice in the courtroom and out of the courtroom as the masked vigilante Daredevil . Jennifer Garner plays his love interest Elektra Natchios ; Colin Farrell plays the merciless assassin Bullseye ; David Keith plays Jack " The Devil " Murdock , a washed up fighter and Matt 's father ; and Michael Clarke Duncan plays Wilson Fisk , also known as the crime lord Kingpin .
The film began development in 1997 at 20th Century Fox and Columbia Pictures , before New Regency acquired the rights in 2000 . Johnson shot the film primarily in Downtown Los Angeles despite the Hell 's Kitchen , Manhattan setting of the film and comics . Rhythm and Hues Studios were hired to handle the film 's CGI . Graeme Revell composed the Daredevil score which was released on CD in March 2003 , whereas the various artists soundtrack album , Daredevil : The Album , was released in February .
Though reviews of the film were mixed , the movie became the second @-@ biggest February release to that time . A spin @-@ off film , Elektra , was released in 2005 to critical and commercial failure .
In 2004 , an R @-@ rated director 's cut of Daredevil was released , reincorporating approximately 30 minutes of the film , including an entire subplot involving a character played by Coolio .
= = Plot = =
Matt Murdock is a blind lawyer in New York City 's Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood , where he runs a firm with best friend Franklin " Foggy " Nelson . As a child , Matt was blinded by a toxic waste spill . The accident enhanced Matt 's other senses and gave him sonar to " see " via sonic vibrations . Matt 's father , boxer Jack " The Devil " , was killed after refusing to turn in a fixed fight for the mobster who had employed him earlier . After his father 's death , Matt promised to stop all crime that controlled Hell 's Kitchen , New York as the vigilante crime @-@ fighter " Daredevil " .
Matt meets Elektra Natchios , daughter of Nikolas Natchios , a businessman who has dealings with Wilson Fisk , a rich executive who is also the criminal leader known as the Kingpin . When Nikolas tries to end his relationship with Fisk , the mobster hires the Irish hitman Bullseye , who has preternatural aim , to kill him . Matt tries to stop Bullseye , but Bullseye ultimately succeeds in killing Nikolas and framing Matt in the process . Elektra vows to exact revenge , while reporter Ben Urich discovers his secret identity . Believing Matt to have done good things for Hell 's Kitchen , Urich tells Matt that Bullseye is going after Elektra next .
Matt tracks Bullseye , but is attacked by Elektra , who plans to use her own training in martial arts to avenge her father 's death . She defeats and injures Matt ; when she manages to remove his mask , she discovers Matt 's secret identity and innocence . Forced to fight Bullseye alone , Elektra is overpowered and killed by the hitman . A wounded Matt makes his way to a church , where he is looked after by his confidante , Father Everett , who knows his secret identity . After recovering slightly , Matt fights Bullseye , who had followed him to the church . Bullseye discovers that loud noise is Matt 's weakness and prepares to kill him with a spiked piece of wood after incapacitating him . Matt blocks the attack and hears an FBI sniper stationed on the neighboring building preparing to fire . As the bullet is fired , Matt moves out of the bullet 's path and pulls Bullseye 's hands into it . When Bullseye pleads for mercy , Matt throws him from the church 's steeple . Bullseye lands on the hood of Urich 's car , severely injured but alive .
Upon discovering Fisk is the Kingpin and Bullseye 's employer , Matt makes his way to Fisk 's office . There , Matt and Fisk begin a fierce fight ; however , Fisk proves to be a surprisingly powerful combatant due to his size and brute strength , and he dominates Matt for most of the fight . Lying on the floor , Matt questions Fisk as to why he killed the people Murdock loved , including Jack Murdock years before : Fisk replies it was just business , for he had worked under Fallon at the time he killed Jack , and Elektra was " at the wrong place at the wrong time . " Angered , Matt regains his strength and breaks Fisk 's legs , but refrains from killing him , instead allowing him to be arrested by the police , who have discovered his criminal connections . Before being taken away , Fisk — who had also discovered Matt 's secret identity after overpowering him — swears revenge on Matt , who points out that Fisk cannot reveal Matt 's secret identity because the humiliation of having been beaten by a blind man will cause him to be perceived as weak by other prison inmates . Having gained closure over his father 's murder , Matt returns to his day @-@ to @-@ day routine , and meets Urich one last time , in which Urich assures him he will not publish his article about Matt 's true identity .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Bullseye , having been moved to a prison hospital and severely bandaged after his confrontation with Matt , is shown to still have his perfect aim after he impales a fly with a syringe needle and says " Bullseye . "
= = Cast = =
Ben Affleck as Matt Murdock / Daredevil
An attorney @-@ at @-@ law with a disability who was blinded as a youth in an accident with bio @-@ waste that drastically heightened his remaining senses and gave him a " sonar @-@ sense " , which allowed him to perceive his surroundings , and makes a silent promise with his father to " stick up for the long shots " . His father is killed not long after and at that moment , he vows to seek justice . At night , he becomes a devil @-@ modeled vigilante who takes justice into his hands . Affleck was cast in October 2001 . Vin Diesel was considered to portray Daredevil before him , but he opted to take a role in another film . In a February 2011 interview , Guy Pearce said that he was offered the role but turned it down , stating that " comic @-@ strip stuff isn ’ t really my cup of tea , really . " Matt Damon also revealed that he was offered the role . He claimed that he and Ben " loved that comic book but I just didn 't quite believe in the script or the director at the time . " Colin Farrell was also considered until Affleck signed . As a fan , Affleck made sure he had read every single issue of Daredevil , commenting that it was about taking what he knew as a fan and faithfully getting it on the screen . Joe Quesada considered it " serendipity in action " that Affleck is the lead role , as when he and Kevin Smith did the Guardian Devil series , they had modeled it on Affleck . Affleck said Daredevil was his favorite comic book as a kid , and explained why he took the role by saying " Everybody has that one thing from childhood that they remember and that sticks with them . This story was that for me . " Additionally , he said , " I didn 't want someone else to do it , because I was afraid that they would go out and do it different from the comic and screw it up . " Scott Terra as Young Matt Murdock
As a youth , he has trouble with local bullies and a close bond with his father . This changes in different ways after the accident . Terra was officially announced as a part of the cast in March 2002 .
Jennifer Garner as Elektra Natchios
The daughter of billionaire Nikolas Natchios and the love interest of Matt Murdock . At a very young age , she witnessed the murder of her mother , and since then her father has had her become highly trained in martial arts . For the role of Elektra , many actresses were looked into with considerations including Penélope Cruz , Salma Hayek , Natalie Portman , Lucy Liu , Jessica Alba , and Katie Holmes . A short @-@ list was eventually made , giving the choices of Jennifer Garner , Jolene Blalock , Mía Maestro and Rhona Mitra , with Garner finally becoming the actress to land the role . Garner said of the character , " I think she 's strong and cool and beautiful and smart . She 'd be a good role model . " Garner noted the costume would be different , as Elektra in comics often wears red satin but in the film wears black leather . Garner explained , " [ T ] he red would never have worked for hiding a harness , and I know this sounds ridiculous , but you have to protect your skin a little bit . They throw me around so much on the rooftop [ that ] I got cut through the leather , so imagine if I hadn 't had anything . "
Michael Clarke Duncan as Wilson Fisk / Kingpin
By appearance , he is an overweight corporate head that takes the name Wilson Fisk , but in fact he is the sole person running organized crime , under the moniker of Kingpin . Kingpin is the murderer of Matt 's father , and the man responsible for the hiring of Bullseye , with intention of having the Natchios family murdered . Michael Clarke Duncan signed on for the role in January 2002 , though he had been attached far earlier . When Duncan was cast , he weighed 290 pounds . He was asked to gain 40 pounds for the role in order to fit the physique of Kingpin . In order to do this , he would lift weights for 30 minutes a day , and power @-@ lifted with one or two reps a day , as well as eating whatever he wanted . Despite this , Duncan 's biggest concern was that he is black , while Kingpin has always been portrayed as white . Also , Duncan provided the voice for Kingpin in Spider @-@ Man : The New Animated Series . He spoke on the fan 's loyalty to the source material by saying " they watch movies to say , ' Hey , that 's not like the comic book . ' But I want them to get past that and just see the movie for what it is and see me for what I am — an actor . "
Colin Farrell as Bullseye
An assassin with perfect accuracy and deep @-@ rooted pride of it who is hired by Kingpin to kill Nikolas and Elektra Natchios , but when Daredevil gets involved and causes him to miss his target , he makes it his own personal vendetta to take Daredevil down . Farrell was attached to the role in December 2001 . Mark Steven Johnson credits Joe Quesada with talking him out of using the traditional Bullseye costume for the film , and Farrell was encouraged to keep his Irish accent as this version of Bullseye is from Ireland . Farrell had to read Frank Miller 's Daredevil comics to understand Bullseye " because the expression on the character 's faces in the comic books , and just the way they move sometimes , and the exaggerations of the character I 'm playing [ … ] he 's so over @-@ the @-@ top that you do draw from that . But it 's not exactly a character you can do method acting for ... you know , running around New York killing people with paper clips . "
Jon Favreau as Franklin " Foggy " Nelson
Matt Murdock 's legal partner and best friend , he is also used as a form of comic relief . Favreau joined the cast in February 2002 . Favreau would later go on to direct the Marvel @-@ produced Iron Man and its sequel , Iron Man 2 while also appearing as Happy Hogan .
Joe Pantoliano as Ben Urich
An investigative journalist whose articles notably relate to Daredevil , and the Kingpin . During the film , he goes on to uncover a lot of information about the two . Pantoliano was cast in March 2002 .
David Keith as Jack Murdock
Father of Matt Murdock and a boxer , he is murdered by the Kingpin when he does not take a fall for a fight . Keith was officially announced as a part of the cast in March 2002 .
Leland Orser as Wesley Owen Welch
The number two of Wilson Fisk , but he does not like to be involved in the activities of the Kingpin . Orser previously co @-@ starred with Jon Favreau in 1998 in Very Bad Things .
Lennie Loftin as Detective Nick Manolis
A NYPD cop who considers Daredevil an urban legend .
Erick Avari as Nikolas Natchios
The father of Elektra , who is murdered by Bullseye on behalf of the Kingpin .
Ellen Pompeo as Karen Page
The secretary at Matt Murdock and Franklin Nelson 's law firm .
Derrick O 'Connor as Father Everett
A priest of Matt Murdock 's local church , where he sometimes goes to find solace .
Stan Lee , Frank Miller , and Kevin Smith , each notable for their work on the Daredevil comics , also have cameo roles throughout the film . Mark Margolis has an uncredited role as Fallon , a mobster who once employed Fisk as a hitman . The director 's cut version also features Jude Ciccolella and Coolio in a sub @-@ plot removed from the theatrical version . Tanoai Reed appears uncredited as a thug in Josie 's Bar .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1997 , 20th Century Fox optioned the rights from Marvel Enterprises , and Chris Columbus was chosen to direct the film . In 1998 , Marvel was facing bankruptcy . During this time 20th Century Fox allowed the option to expire , so Disney began negotiations in order to acquire the rights . In 1999 , the negotiations failed to work out so Marvel set the project up with Sony 's Columbia Pictures . During this time , Chris Columbus and Carlo Carlei co @-@ wrote a script together , before Mark Steven Johnson got signed to write the screenplay . By 2000 , Sony decided to cancel the project , as the two companies reportedly could not come to an agreement over Internet rights .
New Regency entered negotiations with a more satisfying offer , attaining the character rights from Marvel in 2000 to produce the film , with 20th Century Fox handling the distribution . Mark Steven Johnson was rehired and his script was turned in during 2001 , which was praised by Ain 't It Cool News ' Harry Knowles . Prior to shooting , producer Gary Foster said that in comparison to other comic book @-@ based films before it , this film would be " more character @-@ driven ... darker ... edgier , " while Marvel Studios executive Kevin Feige felt the script was one of the strongest comic scripts Marvel had received .
= = = Filming = = =
Fox wanted to start filming in Canada in order to save money . This plan was contended by Johnson , and the film 's cinematographer , Ericson Core , after they found a preferred area for shooting around downtown Los Angeles ' Arcade Building . Core noted that the appeal came from the " beautiful , old brick buildings and great rooftops , " which they felt was perfect for a depiction of Hell 's Kitchen , Manhattan , in comparison to the studio 's choice where the filming would be done in Montreal or Vancouver . Due to their insistence , coupled with Ben Affleck 's disinterest in filming in Canada ( after having filmed there for his previous film , The Sum of All Fears ) they were able to change the studio 's mind .
When the look of the film was being decided , Mark Steven Johnson opted to use direct scenes from the Daredevil comics . Joe Quesada 's artistic take in Guardian Devil ( Daredevil vol . 2 , # 1- # 8 ) was an influence on the film , with Johnson noting that they would " literally take out a scene from the comic book that Joe did [ … ] Here 's Daredevil on the cross , you know , it 's that scene from ' Guardian Devil ' . You just shoot that . " Throughout the film , Ben Affleck had to wear " cataract milky @-@ blue " contacts , which would effectively make him blind . This was considered great by Johnson , as it would aid his performance .
The sound plays an integral part in the film , as the superhero relies on it in order to form his ' sonar sense ' . Post @-@ production sound was done by supervising sound editor John Larsen and sound designer Steve Boeddeker and is heard taking place immediately after Matt 's optic nerve is seen mutating . The mutating of the nerve was done by Rhythm and Hues Studios , who also worked on the sonar @-@ sense which became referred to as the " shadow world " . Shadow world was made using just CGI except in a scene where Elektra and Matt Murdock are in the rain , which was done using CGI over film .
= = = Music = = =
The score to Daredevil was written by Graeme Revell , and released on March 4 , 2003 . He was attracted to the focus of " human @-@ ness " on Daredevil , torn emotionally and physically by his superhero status . Avi Arad asked Revell to concentrate more on the emotions of Daredevil and Elektra , while Mark Steven Johnson wanted to stay clear from any gothic and action movie clichés . Revell tried to avoid too much individual motifs but some characters would have an identifiable sound , like Bullseye would have guitar undertones , while Kingpin would have bass beats . Guitarist Mike Einziger of Incubus collaborated with Revell for any additional rock elements . Revell thoroughly enjoyed working with Johnson , describing the director as " positive " and " responsive " when it came to experimenting ( as opposed to feeling " locked in a box of preconceptions " ) which he felt lead to " cool stuff " . Varèse Sarabande put together the score record .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Aside from expected TV commercials during such TV hits as Friends and Law & Order , as well as one in the second quarter of the Super Bowl , there was also a tie @-@ in with Kraft , an in @-@ store promotion at Wal @-@ Mart , a marketing campaign with Hamilton Watch Company , who designed the watch Matt wears in the film , and a weeklong Daredevil segment on Entertainment Tonight . As part of an online form of marketing , a viral e @-@ mail drive was started , where participants would be entered in a contest where they could win prizes such as Daredevil T @-@ shirts , Game Boy Advance games , and cufflinks . To enter the drawing , the user had to book tickets for the film online , then pass an e @-@ mail on to someone else . The idea was to encourage online ticket booking , which at the time was seen as a growing trend . The Game Boy Advance Daredevil game was released on February 14 , 2003 , and was created by Encore , a subsidiary of Navarre Corporation . The soundtrack to the film , Daredevil : The Album , was released in February 2003 .
= = = Censorship = = =
Due to the film 's violent scenes , the Film Censorship Board of Malaysia banned Daredevil in that country . 20th Century Fox unsuccessfully appealed to Malaysia 's censorship board to change its decision , hoping to release the film in Malaysia on February 27 , 2003 . The deputy prime minister told the press films were banned if containing what the board felt was " excessive violence and sexual material or elements which can create chaos in the community " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film opened theatrically on February 14 , 2003 , on 3 @,@ 471 screens in North America and took first place in its opening weekend , grossing $ 45 @,@ 033 @,@ 454 . At the time , it became the second biggest February release , behind Hannibal . By the second weekend the film saw a 55 @.@ 1 % decline in takings but managed to maintain the number one spot , beating new release Old School by $ 639 @,@ 093 . By the third weekend release , Daredevil saw a further 38 @.@ 5 % drop in sales , and so fell to third place at the box office . The film grossed over $ 102 million in North America , and over $ 76 million in the rest of the world , totalling the film 's worldwide takings at just over $ 179 million , grossing over double its budget of $ 78 million . Avi Arad addressed the top spot success by saying " we are five for five with record @-@ breaking box office successes [ with Blade , X @-@ Men , Blade II then Spider @-@ Man ] and have two more Marvel releases slated for this summer [ which are X2 : X @-@ Men United and Hulk ] . It 's a testament to the broad appeal of these characters before mainstream audiences outside of the core comic fans . These super heroes have been successful within the Marvel pantheon for decades ; it only makes sense that their translations to the big screen are just as fruitful . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Daredevil received mixed reviews from critics . The review @-@ aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 44 % of critics gave the film positive feedback , based on 221 reviews , with the critical consensus reading , " While Ben Affleck fits the role and the story is sporadically interesting , Daredevil is ultimately a dull , brooding origin story that fails to bring anything new to the genre . " On the website Metacritic the film has an average score of 42 out of 100 , based on 35 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 out of a possible 4 stars and called the film good , despite noting the almost typical superhero background . Of the actors , he stated that Ben Affleck and Jennifer Garner were suitable for their roles , while Michael Clarke Duncan 's presence alone was menacing . He said , " I am getting a little worn out describing the origin stories and powers of superheroes [ … ] Some of their movies , like this one , are better than others . " The Houston Chronicle 's Bruce Westbrook considered it " the best Marvel movie to date , it 's as well @-@ written and character @-@ driven as some of today 's Oscar contenders , and its story doesn 't stall with hollow flamboyance . " The Austin Chronicle 's Kimberly Jones praised the film , the actors , and felt that though an unproven director , " Johnson has just signed his meal ticket with this marriage of big brains , big brawn , and – most happily – big heart . "
Empire 's Kim Newman gave the film 3 out of 5 stars , and felt people " will like the characters more than the film , " before adding that there are enough strong moments to guarantee a good viewing . The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw stated that the film held " unconvincing touches " but was more enjoyable than Spider @-@ Man and as dark as Tim Burton 's Batman . BBC film critic Nev Pierce believed the film had spectacular set @-@ pieces , but felt there was no strong narrative arc to keep the viewer interested . The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern considered the film to be neither original nor great but felt it maintained " many grace notes and interesting oddities . " The Globe and Mail 's Rick Groen said the film was " not woeful , not wonderful , merely watchable . " The Philadelphia Inquirer 's Steven Rea thought the film brought a variance of humor and violence , but felt it didn 't work as well as it could have . James Berardinelli felt it was merely a satisfactory superhero film . TV Guide 's Frank Lovece said Daredevil " makes clear that superhero films are the next evolutionary generation of action movies : Now that Schwarzenegger @-@ styled heroes have upped the action ante as far as the human body can go and remain even marginally believable , it 's up to superheroes ... to take it further . " He also felt it was " a movie for grown @-@ ups , not kids . "
Particularly negative reviews included that of The New York Times ' Elvis Mitchell , who said the film was " second @-@ rate and ordinary , " while Variety 's Todd McCarthy considered it " a pretender in the realm of bona fide superheroes . " Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman gave the film a " C- " , criticizing the story as " sloppy " and " slipshod " , saying , " Daredevil is the sort of half @-@ assed , visually lackadaisical potboiler that makes you rue the day that comic @-@ book franchises ever took over Hollywood . " Time Out 's Trevor Johnston praised Ben Affleck , feeling he " persuades us of the pain of sightlessness and supersensitive hearing , " but also felt writer / director Johnson 's construction fails all involved in the film . Slate 's David Edelstein believed Johnson copied a lot of Batman , and concluded by saying " that 's not so bad : The movie looks best when it looks like other , better movies . " The Chicago Tribune 's Michael Wilmington thought the film grabs the attention , but felt it does not reward it . The New York Post 's Lou Lumenick panned the film , describing it as a " mind @-@ numbing , would @-@ be comic @-@ book franchise , which often seems as blind as its hero -- not to mention deaf and dumb . " Character co @-@ creator Stan Lee himself felt , " [ T ] hey just wrote the whole thing wrong . They made him too tragic . " Ben Affleck won the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor for his work in the movie , as well as for Gigli and Paycheck .
= = = Director 's cut = = =
A director 's cut of the film was announced for a spring 2004 DVD release . This version contained new additions like previously unseen footage and a removed subplot , and was to be a bit darker with an R rating . The film , released in 2 @.@ 35 : 1 widescreen format , was released with DTS and Dolby Digital sound . The new version of the film has newly recorded commentary to accompany it , featuring Mark Steven Johnson and Avi Arad . A " Making of Director 's Cut " featurette also accompanied the film . The release date of the DVD was later pushed back to November 30 , 2004 . On September 30 , 2008 the director 's cut was released on Blu @-@ ray . The DVD release of the director 's cut removed the bonus material included on the theatrical cut 's DVD release , but that content was restored for the Blu @-@ ray release ( although the Blu @-@ ray release only contains the director 's cut ) .
One of the biggest changes to the film was the addition of a subplot involving a drug addict played by Coolio . While this subplot was missing from the theatrical version of the film , it is present in the novelization by Greg Cox , published in 2003 .
Producer Kevin Feige commented on this version of the film , believing " the people who had other opinions [ of Daredevil ] will be won over by this new version . " Reviewers like Empire 's Danny Graydon seemed to reaffirm this opinion by considering this version a " considerable improvement on the original version , " notably preferring the more violent undertones , a lesser focus on the romance , and the equal focus of Daredevil and his lawyer alias Matt Murdock and the subplot involving Coolio . Some critics continued to feel Affleck was unsuitable as Daredevil and that Duncan portrayed the Kingpin in an over @-@ the @-@ top manner . IGN 's Jeff Otto and Andy Patrizio also deemed this version an improvement over the original . They felt this version was more loyal to the Frank Miller feel of the Daredevil world , with more focus on themes such as Murdock 's struggle with his Catholic upbringing . On the whole they felt the film would be far more pleasing to the fans , and overall better than the theatrical release .
= = Reboot = =
Feige had stated on potential future Daredevil films , " there are many more stories to be told with old Hornhead and we 'd love to tell them someday . " Avi Arad has also said that a sequel will begin development once the rights go from 20th Century Fox to Marvel Studios . Director Mark Steven Johnson showed interest in returning to direct with the Born Again storyline , as well as suggesting Mr. Fear as a possible villain .
During 2004 , Ben Affleck shot a cameo role for the spin @-@ off film , Elektra , at the request of Daredevil co @-@ star Jennifer Garner . In October 2004 , Affleck stated he would only return in the lead role if Fox would renegotiate to tell the darker stories of Daredevil , and showed interest in a Kevin Smith graphic novel which included Mysterio , as well as the Born Again storyline . However , in November 2006 , Affleck stated that he would never reprise the role , having felt " by playing a superhero in Daredevil , I have inoculated myself from ever playing another superhero ... Wearing a costume was a source of humiliation for me and something I wouldn 't want to do again soon . " Despite this , Affleck would later sign on to portray another superhero , Bruce Wayne / Batman , in Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice .
In July 2006 , Michael Clarke Duncan showed interest in returning for the role of the Kingpin , but stated that he would not be willing to gain weight as he felt " comfortable " being down to 270 pounds . However , he jokingly showed willingness to change his mind if he was offered $ 20 million . Duncan suggested that the character is portrayed to have been training a lot in jail in order to become faster in combat against Daredevil , also working as a way to fit his weight loss into the story . Duncan would later go on to reprise his role as the Kingpin in an episode of the animated series : Spider @-@ Man : The New Animated Series .
In July 2008 , Jason Statham expressed interest in appearing as Daredevil in the future . Statham requested " just give me the chance , I would love to be Daredevil . " Frank Miller commented in agreement " I think he should be Daredevil too . " In October 2008 , 20th Century Fox executive Tom Rothman said " a Daredevil reboot is something we are thinking very seriously about . " Rothman added that " what it really needs is , it needs a visionary at the level that Chris Nolan was . It needs someone , it needs a director , honestly , who has a genuine vision . " By February 2010 , 20th Century Fox and New Regency were looking to develop the reboot with News Corp. , with Peter Chernin producing and David Scarpa writing the script . On March 15 , 2011 , it was announced that filmmaker David Slade would be directing the reboot , but he later had to drop out due to other obligations . Fringe writer and producer Brad Caleb Kane was hired to pen the Slade @-@ directed film . On September 3 , 2012 , Duncan died , precluding him from reprising his role as Kingpin .
Later , it was announced that should a sequel or reboot not start filming by October 10 , 2012 , the rights to the Daredevil franchise would revert from Fox back to Marvel . In early August 2012 , Fox scrambled to find a replacement for David Slade , who dropped out of the director 's chair due to scheduling conflicts . The studio briefly met with Joe Carnahan , for the job — however , Carnahan said on Twitter that his pitch , described as a hard @-@ boiled ' 70s thriller , had gone up in smoke . Several sources commented that Fox had given up on the reboot , and were prepared to let the rights revert to Marvel and their parent company , The Walt Disney Company . On April 23 , 2013 , Kevin Feige confirmed that the rights for Daredevil returned to Marvel Studios and Disney , opening the possibility of including the character into the Marvel Cinematic Universe . That speculation was confirmed with the announcement of an original Netflix Daredevil television series , which premiered on the streaming service in April 2015 , with English actor Charlie Cox in the title role .
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= Interstate 695 ( Maryland ) =
Interstate 695 ( I @-@ 695 ) is a 51 @.@ 46 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 82 @.@ 82 km ) full beltway Interstate Highway extending around Baltimore , Maryland , USA . I @-@ 695 is officially designated the McKeldin Beltway , but is colloquially referred to as either the Baltimore Beltway or 695 . The route is an auxiliary route of I @-@ 95 , intersecting that route southwest of Baltimore near Arbutus and northeast of the city near White Marsh . It also intersects other major roads radiating from the Baltimore area , including I @-@ 97 near Glen Burnie , the Baltimore – Washington Parkway ( Maryland Route 295 , MD 295 ) near Linthicum , I @-@ 70 near Woodlawn , I @-@ 795 near Pikesville , and I @-@ 83 in the Timonium area . The 19 @.@ 37 @-@ mile ( 31 @.@ 17 km ) portion of the Baltimore Beltway between I @-@ 95 northeast of Baltimore and I @-@ 97 south of Baltimore is officially MD 695 , and is not part of the Interstate Highway System , but is signed as I @-@ 695 . This section of the route includes the Francis Scott Key Bridge that crosses over the Patapsco River . The bridge and its approaches are maintained by the Maryland Transportation Authority ( MdTA ) while the remainder of the Baltimore Beltway is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) .
The Baltimore Beltway was first planned in 1949 by Baltimore County ; the state eventually took over the project and it became part of the Interstate Highway System planned in 1956 . The length of the route from MD 2 south of Baltimore clockwise to U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) northeast of the city opened in stages from 1955 to 1962 , providing an Interstate bypass of Baltimore . It was the first beltway in the United States to be built as part of the Interstate Highway System . Plans were made to finish the remainder of the route , with a diversion to the Windlass Freeway and the Patapsco Freeway , opened in 1973 , following the cancellation of a more outer route that was to partly follow what is today MD 702 ( Southeast Boulevard ) . The Outer Harbor Crossing over the Patapsco River , which was dedicated to Francis Scott Key , who wrote The Star @-@ Spangled Banner , and its approaches were finished in 1977 , completing the route around Baltimore . The approaches to the bridge were originally two lanes to accommodate a tunnel that was originally proposed to run under the river ; in subsequent years , they were upgraded to a four @-@ lane configuration compliant with Interstate Highway standards , allowing for this portion of route to be signed as I @-@ 695 rather than MD 695 . There are future plans for I @-@ 695 that include high @-@ occupancy toll lanes to ease traffic . In addition , the northeastern interchange with I @-@ 95 has been reconstructed to accommodate express toll lanes that were added to I @-@ 95 ( completed in 2014 ) .
= = Route description = =
= = = Curtis Creek to I @-@ 95 = = =
Starting at the zero milepost in Baltimore , I @-@ 695 , which at this point is officially called MD 695 and is maintained by the Maryland Transportation Authority , is four lanes wide . The route passes over Curtis Creek on a pair of drawbridges here , which have 58 feet ( 18 m ) of vertical navigational clearance and provide access for tall ships to a U.S. Coast Guard base further upstream . Continuing west through industrial areas into Anne Arundel County , the route encounters the northern terminus of MD 10 ( Arundel Expressway ) at a directional interchange , where maintenance switches to the Maryland State Highway Administration . The interchange includes access to the next interchange , with MD 2 ( Ritchie Highway ) , a major north – south route between Baltimore and the southern suburbs , in Glen Burnie . This interchange has access to northbound MD 2 in both directions and from northbound MD 2 to the westbound direction . Beyond MD 2 , I @-@ 695 encounters I @-@ 895 Spur , a short connector to I @-@ 895 ( Harbor Tunnel Thruway ) ; this interchange provides access to southbound MD 2 from both directions and to the eastbound direction from southbound MD 2 . Immediately past this interchange , I @-@ 695 comes to an interchange with the northern terminus of I @-@ 97 , which terminates on the Beltway . At this point , the route officially becomes I @-@ 695 .
The route continues west as a six @-@ lane freeway , heading west into residential areas of Linthicum . It interchanges with MD 648 ( Baltimore Annapolis Boulevard ) , where 132 @,@ 330 vehicles travel I @-@ 695 every day , before turning northwest and intersecting MD 170 ( Camp Meade Road ) . The route encounters the Baltimore – Washington Parkway ( MD 295 ) at a cloverleaf interchange where the route ’ s signage changes from east – west to north – south at this interchange . It turns more to the north from here and heads into commercial areas , interchanging with MD 168 ( Nursery Road ) and Hammonds Ferry Road . Past this interchange , the route crosses the Patapsco River into Baltimore County and soon encounters a partial interchange with I @-@ 895 ( Harbor Tunnel Thruway ) with access only from the southbound direction of I @-@ 695 to I @-@ 895 northbound and from I @-@ 895 southbound to the northbound direction of I @-@ 695 . Past this interchange , I @-@ 695 heads north , interchanging with Hollins Ferry Road in Lansdowne before passing under CSX ’ s Baltimore Terminal Subdivision and coming to an interchange with US 1 Alt . ( Washington Boulevard ) in Arbutus . A short distance later , I @-@ 695 comes to a semidirectional interchange with I @-@ 95 .
= = = I @-@ 95 to I @-@ 70 = = =
I @-@ 695 widens to nine lanes past interchange with I @-@ 95 , with five lanes in the southbound direction and four lanes in the northbound direction . Running northwest , it crosses over Amtrak ’ s Northeast Corridor and comes to a partial interchange with US 1 ( Southwestern Boulevard ) , with a southbound exit and northbound entrance . From here , it continues northwest through residential areas of Catonsville to an interchange with MD 372 ( Wilkens Avenue ) . Narrowing to eight lanes total , with four lanes in each direction , beyond MD 372 , the route continues through suburban neighborhoods before coming to an interchange with MD 144 ( Frederick Road ) . At this point , I @-@ 695 narrows to seven lanes , with three southbound lanes and four northbound lanes . It continues north and interchanges with Edmondson Avenue before turning northwest and intersects US 40 ( Baltimore National Pike ) near the defunct Westview Mall , now a big @-@ box complex . Beyond US 40 , I @-@ 695 continues north through residential areas , narrowing to six lanes , with three lanes in each direction , before coming to a four @-@ level stack interchange with I @-@ 70 in Woodlawn .
= = = I @-@ 70 to I @-@ 83 = = =
The Baltimore Beltway narrows from seven to six lanes within the interchange , which contains braided ramps providing access to the next interchange , MD 122 ( Security Boulevard ) , located near the Security Square Mall and the headquarters of the Social Security Administration . Continuing north , the road widens to eight lanes again and continues through a mix of suburban homes and business parks in Lochearn . I @-@ 695 interchanges with MD 26 ( Liberty Road ) east of Randallstown and resumes north , narrowing to six lanes . It intersects the southern terminus of I @-@ 795 ( Northwest Expressway ) , which serves as a bypass of MD 140 in the Owings Mills area . The Baltimore Metro 's line to Owings Mills passes under I @-@ 695 within the interchange and runs in the median of I @-@ 795 as far as that town . At the I @-@ 795 interchange , the signage of route changes from north – south to east – west .
From here , I @-@ 695 heads northeast as an eight lane road and enters Pikesville , where it intersects MD 140 ( Reisterstown Road ) at a single @-@ point urban interchange . A short distance later , the road comes to a partial interchange with MD 129 ( Park Heights Avenue ) , with an eastbound exit and westbound entrance . I @-@ 695 heads east to another partial interchange with Stevenson Road , which has a westbound exit and eastbound entrance . The Baltimore Beltway passes through heavily forested land as it encounters Greenspring Avenue . Past this interchange , I @-@ 695 continues northeast through woodland before coming to an interchange with I @-@ 83 ( Jones Falls Expressway ) . The interchange includes connections to MD 25 ( Falls Road ) , which heads into the open countryside north of Baltimore . Within this interchange , I @-@ 83 forms a concurrency with I @-@ 695 and the roadway widens to ten lanes , with six for the Beltway and four for I @-@ 83 . After running concurrently , I @-@ 83 splits from I @-@ 695 by heading north on the Harrisburg Expressway at a directional interchange .
= = = I @-@ 83 to I @-@ 95 = = =
Beyond I @-@ 83 , I @-@ 695 turns northeast as a six lane road and heads into Towson , interchanging with MD 139 ( Charles Street ) . The Baltimore Beltway heads through residential and commercial areas before coming to interchanges with MD 45 ( York Road ) near The Shops at Kenilworth and MD 146 ( Dulaney Valley Road ) . Continuing east , the Baltimore Beltway passes to the north of Goucher College and comes to an interchange with Providence Road . I @-@ 695 turns southeast through residential areas past Providence Road and comes to an interchange with MD 542 ( Loch Raven Boulevard ) and Cromwell Bridge Road . The road continues towards Parkville , where it comes to a cloverleaf interchange with MD 41 ( Perring Parkway ) within commercial areas . The Baltimore Beltway continues through residential areas into Carney , coming to another cloverleaf interchange with MD 147 ( Harford Road ) . Continuing east into White Marsh , the route encounters the western terminus of MD 43 ( White Marsh Boulevard ) , a limited @-@ access at @-@ grade boulevard that provides access to White Marsh Mall , US 1 and I @-@ 95 .
I @-@ 695 turns south past MD 43 and interchanges with US 1 ( Belair Road ) south of White Marsh . The road continues southeast to an interchange with I @-@ 95 ( John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) a short distance after US 1 in Rossville . This interchange with I @-@ 95 ( to east of Baltimore city ) is a fully directional interchange where the carriageways of both routes crossed over each other onto the opposite side , then crossed over each other again ; at the site of each crossover , left @-@ hand entrance and exit ramps were provided to eliminate the need for directional flyovers . In 2008 , interchange reconstruction at the I @-@ 95 interchange removed the left @-@ hand entrance from northbound I @-@ 95 to westbound I @-@ 695 with the remaining left @-@ hand entrances to be removed by August 2009 as part of the construction of the I @-@ 95 Express Toll Lane Project ; all exits and entrances were now on the right , and I @-@ 95 's opposing roadways no longer crossed each other ( but I @-@ 695 's still did ) .
= = = I @-@ 95 to Curtis Creek = = =
Continuing south , the Baltimore Beltway officially becomes MD 695 again , despite being signed as I @-@ 695 , and soon encounters MD 7 ( Philadelphia Road ) . Between I @-@ 95 and MD 7 , the route ’ s changes from east – west to north – south . Immediately after MD 7 , the route interchanges with US 40 ( Pulaski Highway ) northwest of Essex near The Centre at Golden Ring . After US 40 , I @-@ 695 crosses over CSX ’ s Philadelphia Subdivision and comes to a partial directional interchange with MD 702 ( Southeast Boulevard ) . At this interchange , I @-@ 695 turns south onto the Windlass Freeway , crossing over the Northeast Corridor again within the interchange .
Running south along the Windlass Freeway , parallel to the Northeast Corridor , I @-@ 695 , now narrowed to four lanes , turns west before making a sharp turn to the south , crossing over the railroad line twice . The road becomes the Patapsco Freeway and continues south to an interchange with MD 150 ( Eastern Avenue ) and MD 157 ( Merritt Boulevard ) near the Eastpoint Mall . A short distance later , I @-@ 695 comes to an interchange with MD 151 ( North Point Boulevard ) . From here , the route continues southeast along the Back River into residential and industrial Dundalk , interchanging with Cove Road . The route turns south , with the median briefly widening to include trees , before coming to another interchange with MD 151 . Past MD 151 , the Baltimore Beltway continues southwest through industrial areas , with maintenance switching to the Maryland Transportation Authority at the crossing of a CSX rail line . It comes to an interchange with MD 157 ( Peninsula Expressway ) and MD 158 ( Bethlehem Boulevard ) before heading west . The route runs past the Sparrows Point Industrial Complex before crossing over Bear Creek and interchanging with unsigned MD 695A ( Broening Highway ) south of the Dundalk Marine Terminal , with an eastbound exit and westbound entrance .
Beyond this interchange , the route comes to two @-@ way toll plaza and has a U @-@ turn ramp from the southbound direction to the northbound direction intended to provide southbound motorists access to MD 695A . This ramp , known as MD 695C , also provides access to northbound I @-@ 695 from MD 695A by way of Authority Drive . After this , the route ascends onto the Francis Scott Key Bridge , which carries I @-@ 695 over the lower Baltimore Harbor and Patapsco River . Unlike the Fort McHenry or Harbor Tunnels , HAZMAT trucks are allowed to cross the Key Bridge . After crossing the Patapsco River over the bridge the route touches down within the Baltimore city limits and continues west past Thoms Cove through Hawkins Point 's industrial areas . It comes to an interchange with Quarantine Road , which provides access to MD 173 , south of Curtis Bay . By this point , the route ’ s signage changes from north – south to east – west . Past this interchange , the Baltimore Beltway continues west and returns to the Curtis Creek drawbridges .
= = = Exit numbering = = =
As opposed to I @-@ 495 ( Capital Beltway ) around Washington , D.C. , on which exit numbers are generally arranged by mileposts counterclockwise starting at the southern crossing of the Potomac River , the exit numbers for the Baltimore Beltway are arranged consecutively clockwise starting at Interchange # 1 at Quarantine Rd , west of the Francis Scott Key Bridge crossing of the Patapsco River .
= = History = =
The Baltimore County Planning Commission first conceived the Baltimore Beltway as a county @-@ level roadway project in 1949 ; by 1953 the project was taken over by the state due to slow progress at the county level . The project was included as part of the Interstate Highway System by 1956 , increasing the speed of construction due to federal funds available .
The first part of the Baltimore Beltway to be completed was in December 1955 between MD 25 ( Falls Road ) and the Harrisburg Expressway ( present @-@ day I @-@ 83 ) . In 1956 , the next portion of the road between the Harrisburg Expressway and MD 45 ( York Road ) opened . Several more segments of the Baltimore Beltway would be built in the following years , with the section from MD 168 ( Nursery Road ) to the Glen Burnie Bypass ( present @-@ day I @-@ 97 ) opening in 1957 ; the portions from MD 45 to MD 542 ( Loch Raven Boulevard ) , MD 7 ( Old Philadelphia Road ) to US 40 ( Pulaski Highway ) , and from MD 168 to US 40 ( Baltimore National Pike ) opening in 1958 ; the segment from MD 2 ( Ritchie Highway ) to the Glen Burnie Bypass completed in 1960 ; the portion from US 1 ( Belair Road ) to MD 7 finished in 1961 ; and the portions from MD 542 to US 1 and from US 40 to MD 25 finished in 1962 . At this time , the original length of the Baltimore Beltway , from MD 2 in the south clockwise to US 40 in the northeast , was fully completed and opened to traffic , providing the first Interstate @-@ grade bypass of Baltimore and the first beltway in the United States built under the Interstate Highway System . A segment of the road completed in 1973 ran from MD 10 to MD 2 , heading toward the Outer Harbor Crossing .
= = = Windlass and Patapsco freeways = = =
At the northeastern terminus , the Baltimore Beltway was planned to extend southeast along the Back River Neck peninsula and turn south to cross the river near the Essex Skypark Airport , heading towards an outer crossing of the Patapsco River . Part of this alignment was completed south of US 40 in 1972 with a further extension to MD 150 opening as the Southeast Freeway ( designated MD 702 ) by 1975 . However , the Baltimore Beltway was diverted to two freeways not planned to be part of it . The first was the Windlass Freeway ( MD 149 ) , a route planned to run from I @-@ 95 at Moravia Road northeast to Chase , paralleling US 40 to the south . The other freeway that was incorporated into the Baltimore Beltway was the Patapsco Freeway , a short connector from the Windlass Freeway southeast to the originally @-@ planned Baltimore Beltway . Only the segment of the Windlass Freeway between MD 702 the planned intersection with the Patapsco Freeway south to MD 151 ( North Point Boulevard ) were constructed , opening to traffic in 1973 .
Ramp stubs for the planned Windlass Freeway are present at the proposed west end at I @-@ 95 and Moravia Road , and at the present east end at the Southeast Freeway . The junction of the Windlass and Patapsco Freeways was originally built with provisions for extensions of each , but this has since been reconstructed .
= = = Outer Harbor Crossing = = =
The Outer Harbor Crossing is the name given to the segment of the Baltimore Beltway that is maintained by the Maryland Transportation Authority . It consists of the segment of I @-@ 695 between Exit 40 ( MD 151 ) and Exit 2 ( MD 10 ) , which includes the Francis Scott Key Bridge . The route was originally planned as a two @-@ lane freeway on a four @-@ lane right @-@ of @-@ way , with a two @-@ lane outer harbor tunnel across the Patapsco River . When the tunnel was advertised for construction in 1970 , the bids were so high that the decision was made to construct a four @-@ lane bridge instead . The bridge was to feature two @-@ lane approach roads on both sides .
Construction on the Outer Harbor Crossing , including the bridge , started in 1972 and was completed on March 23 , 1977 , completing the full Baltimore Beltway . The bridge was named the Francis Scott Key Bridge in honor of Francis Scott Key , who wrote " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner , " the national anthem of the United States . By the early 1980s , the southern approach to the Key Bridge was dualized , with a second roadway constructed along with a second drawbridge over Curtis Creek . The northern approach was left as a two @-@ lane viaduct in the Sparrows Point area until a four @-@ lane surface freeway was constructed along this portion , with interchanges reconfigured , following an $ 89 @.@ 5 million project completed in January 2000 . The Outer Harbor Crossing , as well as the entire Baltimore Beltway east of I @-@ 95 , was first signposted as MD 695 because portions of it were a two @-@ lane expressway not up to Interstate Highway standards . Improvements to the road have allowed the entire Baltimore Beltway to be signed as I @-@ 695 , even though all of I @-@ 695 between the junction of I @-@ 95 northeast of Baltimore and I @-@ 97 is officially considered MD 695 by the MDSHA .
= = = 1999 footbridge collapse = = =
On June 8 , 1999 , a tractor @-@ trailer carrying a backhoe that exceeded the maximum height requirement struck a pedestrian footbridge over the Baltimore Beltway just northwest of the I @-@ 95 junction near Arbutus . The footbridge collapsed onto the inner loop of the Beltway . One driver was killed when his SUV struck the collapsed bridge ; six others were injured , three critically . The incident occurred during the afternoon rush hour . The footbridge had been closed to pedestrians since November 1996 due to complaints about vandalism and crime .
= = = McKeldin Beltway = = =
The Beltway was dedicated in honor of former Governor Theodore R. McKeldin in May 2005 . McKeldin was responsible for the construction of the Beltway and other state highways during his term . Most Marylanders still refer to the highway as the " Baltimore Beltway , " " 695 , " or ( mostly among Baltimore metro area residents ) simply " The Beltway , " like its Washington counterpart .
= = Future = =
In March 2009 , construction began on the reconstruction of the bridge that carries MD 139 ( Charles Street ) over I @-@ 695 . The bridge will be decorative , featuring ornamental street lights . As part of the MD 139 project , the interchange will be reconstructed and the traffic circle at the MD 139 / I @-@ 695 ramps will be removed and replaced with a traffic signal . This project is expected to cost $ 50 million and be completed in 2012 .
At Exit 33 ( I @-@ 95 / John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) , both highways had crossed over themselves so that all through traffic was on the left side of the road with left @-@ hand entrance / exit ramps connecting the crossover sections . This interchange is currently being replaced by a more conventional flyover ramp interchange , as part of the I @-@ 95 expansion project under construction since 2007 , eliminating the left @-@ turn ramps and I @-@ 95 's double crossovers . So far , several ramps have been completed , with the ramp from northbound I @-@ 95 to eastbound I @-@ 695 completed in September 2008 , the ramp from westbound I @-@ 695 to northbound I @-@ 95 completed in October 2008 , the ramp from northbound I @-@ 95 to westbound I @-@ 695 completed in November 2008 ( eliminating the left @-@ hand exit ) , and the ramp from eastbound I @-@ 695 to southbound I @-@ 95 was completed in May 2009 . The ramps from southbound I @-@ 95 to both westbound and eastbound I @-@ 695 were completed in June 2009 and the ramp from westbound I @-@ 695 to southbound I @-@ 695 was completed in July 2009 and the ramp from eastbound I @-@ 695 to northbound I @-@ 95 opened in August 2009 . In addition to rebuilding these ramps , the project will also add four ramps to service the high @-@ occupancy toll lanes being added to I @-@ 95 .
There are long @-@ term plans to add express toll lanes to I @-@ 695 to ease traffic congestion along the route . In addition , there are also plans to widen the portion of I @-@ 695 between I @-@ 83 and I @-@ 95 to the north of Baltimore . This road , which is to be widened to eight lanes , is currently in the design phase .
= = Exit list = =
Exits are numbered sequentially ( unlike other interstates in Maryland which use a milepost @-@ based system ) , and in a clockwise ( inner loop ) direction , in accordance with AASHTO guidelines .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 695A runs along Broening Highway , a two @-@ lane undivided road that begins at I @-@ 695 exit 44 and heads northwest through residential and industrial areas in Dundalk , Baltimore County to the Baltimore city line . The route provides access to the Dundalk Marine Terminal from I @-@ 695 . MD 695A is 1 @.@ 93 mi ( 3 @.@ 11 km ) long .
MD 695B runs along Belclare Road from MD 695A north to Dundalk Avenue in Dundalk , Baltimore County . The route is 0 @.@ 10 mi ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) long .
MD 695C runs along Authority Drive from MD 695A southwest to I @-@ 695 in Dundalk , Baltimore County , looping under the route at the Francis Scott Key Bridge to merge onto northbound I @-@ 695 . MD 695C serves as part of a U @-@ turn ramp to provide access to MD 695A from southbound I @-@ 695 and to provide access to northbound I @-@ 695 from MD 695A . The route is 1 @.@ 23 mi ( 1 @.@ 98 km ) long .
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= The Boat Race 1911 =
The 68th Boat Race took place on 1 April 1911 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . Umpired by former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman , Oxford won by two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 18 minutes 29 seconds , taking their overall lead in the competition to 37 – 30 .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1910 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and led overall with 36 victories to Cambridge 's 30 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were H. R. Barker ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1908 and 1909 races ) , G. C. Bourne ( who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races ) , and Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) . Cambridge were coached by Stanley Bruce ( who had rowed in 1904 ) , William Dudley Ward ( who had rowed in 1897 , 1899 and 1900 races ) , Raymond Etherington @-@ Smith ( who had rowed in 1898 and 1900 ) and H. W. Willis ( who had previously coached Oxford in 1907 ) . For the eighth year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
The race was watched from the Oxford launch by the Prince of Wales and his brother Prince Albert . It was also the first time the launches were accompanied by aeroplanes .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 7 @.@ 5 lb ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) , 3 @.@ 625 pounds ( 1 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Six of the Cambridge crew had previous Boat Race experience , including R. W. M. Arbuthnot and J. B. Rosher , who were taking part in their third event . Oxford 's boat contained three rowers who had previously participated three times in the event , in Duncan Mackinnon , Robert Bourne and Stanley Garton . Six of the Dark Blues were studying at Magdalen College , five of whom had rowed to victory in the Grand Challenge Cup at the Henley Royal Regatta the previous July . Three participants in the race were registered as overseas Blues : Oxford 's Charles Littlejohn was Australian , while Cambridge 's Pieter Voltelyn Graham van der Byl and cox C. A. Skinner hailed from South Africa .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Umpire Pitman started the race at 2 : 36 p.m. in a light breeze which helped create an unusually strong spring tide . Oxford made the better start , with their stroke Bourne out @-@ rating his opposite number by two stroke per minute . At Craven Steps , the Dark Blues were three @-@ quarters of a length ahead which they held past the Mile Post . At this point Oxford pushed on to be clear by the Crab Tree pub and a further length ahead by Harrods Furniture Depository . By the time the crews passed below Hammersmith Bridge , the Dark Blues were two and a half lengths ahead and reduced their rating yet continued to pull away .
By Chiswick Steps , Oxford were four lengths clear and further ahead at Barnes Bridge . Cambridge 's determination meant that they reduced the deficit over the last few minutes of the race . Oxford won by two and three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 18 minutes 29 seconds . It was Oxford 's third consecutive victory and took the overall record to 37 – 30 in their favour . The winning time was the fastest in the history of the race .
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= André Kertész =
André Kertész ( French : [ kɛʁtɛs ] ; 2 July 1894 – 28 September 1985 ) , born Kertész Andor , was a Hungarian @-@ born photographer known for his groundbreaking contributions to photographic composition and the photo essay . In the early years of his career , his then @-@ unorthodox camera angles and style prevented his work from gaining wider recognition . Kertész never felt that he had gained the worldwide recognition he deserved . Today he is considered one of the seminal figures of photojournalism . The Estate of André Kertész is represented by Bruce Silverstein Gallery New York , NY
Expected by his family to work as a stockbroker , Kertész pursued photography independently as an autodidact , and his early work was published primarily in magazines , a major market in those years . This continued until much later in his life , when Kertész stopped accepting commissions . He served briefly in World War I and moved to Paris in 1925 , then the artistic capital of the world , against the wishes of his family . In Paris he worked for France 's first illustrated magazine called VU . Involved with many young immigrant artists and the Dada movement , he achieved critical and commercial success .
Due to German persecution of the Jews and the threat of World War II , Kertész decided to emigrate to the United States in 1936 , where he had to rebuild his reputation through commissioned work . In the 1940s and 1950s , he stopped working for magazines and began to achieve greater international success . His career is generally divided into four periods , based on where he was working and his work was most prominently known . They are called the Hungarian period , the French period , the American period and , toward the end of his life , the International period .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Andor Kertész was born on 2 July 1894 in Budapest to the middle @-@ class Jewish family of Lipót Kertész , a bookseller , and his wife , Ernesztin Hoffmann . Andor , known as " Bandi " to his friends , was the middle child of three sons , including Imre and Jenő . When Lipót died in 1908 from tuberculosis , the widowed Ernesztin was without a source of income to support their three children . Ernesztin 's brother , Lipót Hoffmann , provided for the family and acted much like a father to the boys . The family soon moved to Hoffman 's country property in Szigetbecse . Kertész grew up in a leisurely pace of life and pastoral setting that would shape his later career path .
Hoffman paid for his middle nephew 's business classes at the Academy of Commerce until his 1912 graduation , and arranged his hiring by the stock exchange soon after . Unlike his older brother Imre , who worked at the exchange in Budapest for all his life , Kertész had little interest in the field . He was drawn to illustrated magazines and to activities like fishing and swimming in the Danube River near his uncle 's property .
Kertész 's first encounters with magazine photography inspired him to learn photography . He was also influenced by certain paintings by Lajos Tihanyi and Gyula Zilzer , as well as by poetry .
= = = Hungarian period = = =
After earning enough money , Kertész quickly bought his first camera ( an ICA box camera ) in 1912 , despite his family 's protests to continue his career in business . In his free time , he photographed the local peasants , gypsies , and landscape of the surrounding Hungarian Plains ( the puszta ) . His first photograph is believed to be " Sleeping Boy , Budapest , 1912 " . His photographs were first published in 1917 in the magazine Érdekes Újság , during World War I , while Kertész was serving in the Austro @-@ Hungarian army . As early as 1914 ( for example , " Eugene , 1914 " ) , his distinctive and mature style was already evident .
In 1914 , at the age of 20 , he was sent to the frontline , where he took photographs of life in the trenches with a lightweight camera ( a Goerz Tenax ) . Most of these photographs were destroyed during the violence of the Hungarian Revolution of 1919 . Wounded in 1915 by a bullet , Kertész suffered temporary paralysis of his left arm .
He was sent for convalescence to a military hospital in Budapest , but was later transferred to Esztergom , where he continued to take photographs . These included a self @-@ portrait for a competition in the magazine Borsszem Jankó . His most famous piece of this period was " Underwater Swimmer , Esztergom , 1917 " , the only surviving work of a series of a swimmer whose image is distorted by the water . Kertész explored the subject more thoroughly in his series of " Distortions " photographs during the early 1930s .
Kertész did not heal soon enough to return to combat , and with peace in 1918 , he returned to the stock exchange . There he met his future wife Erzsebet Salomon ( later changed to Elizabeth Saly ) , who also worked at the exchange . He began to pursue her romantically . During this period of work and throughout his whole career , he used Elizabeth as a model for his photographs . Kertész also took numerous photographs of his brother Jenő . Kertész left his career at the exchange to try agricultural work and beekeeping during the early 1920s . This venture was brief given the political turmoil that accompanied the revolution and coming of communism .
After returning to the stock exchange , Kertész decided to emigrate , to study at one of France 's photographic schools . His mother dissuaded him , and he did not emigrate for several years . Working during the day at the exchange , he pursued photography the rest of the time .
In 1923 , the Hungarian Amateur Photographer 's Association selected one of his photographs for its silver award , on the condition that he print it by the bromoil process . Kertész disliked this , so turned down the medal . Instead , he was given a diploma from the association . On its 26 June 1925 , the Hungarian news magazine Érdekes Újság used one of his photographs for its cover , giving him widespread publicity . By that time , Kertész was determined to photograph the sights in Paris and join its artistic culture .
= = = French period = = =
Kertész emigrated to Paris in September 1925 , leaving behind his mother , his unofficial fiancee Elizabeth , both brothers , and his uncle Hoffman , who died shortly afterward . Jenő later emigrated to Argentina . Elizabeth Kertész remained until her future husband was well enough established in Paris that they could marry . Kertész was among numerous Hungarian artists who emigrated during these decades , including François Kollar , Robert Capa , Emeric Fehér , Brassaï , and Julia Bathory . Man Ray , Germaine Krull and Lucien Aigner also emigrated to Paris during this period .
Initially Kertész took on commissioned work for several European magazines , gaining publication of his work in Germany , France , Italy and Great Britain . Soon after arriving in Paris , Kertész changed his first name to André , which he kept for the rest of his life . In Paris he found critical and commercial success . In 1927 Kertész was the first photographer to have a one @-@ man exhibition ; Jan Slivinsky presented 30 of his photographs at the " Sacre du Printemps Gallery " . Kertész had become connected with members of the growing Dada movement . Paul Dermée dubbed him " Brother Seer " and " Brother Seeing Eye " during his first solo exhibit , alluding to a medieval monastery where all the monks were blind bar one . Over the next years , Kertész was featured in both solo exhibits and group shows . In 1932 at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York , the price of Kertész 's proofs was set at US $ 20 ( $ 347 in 2016 ) , a large sum of money during the Great Depression .
Kertész and other Hungarian artists formed a synergistic circle ; he was featured in exhibits with some of them later in his life . Visiting his sculptor friends , he was fascinated by the Cubism movement . He created photo portraits of painters Piet Mondrian and Marc Chagall , the writer Colette , and film @-@ maker Sergei Eisenstein . In 1928 , Kertész switched from using plate @-@ glass cameras to a Leica . This period of work was one of his most productive ; he was photographing daily , with work divided between magazine commissions through the late 1920s and his personal pieces . In 1930 , at the Exposition Coloniale in Paris , Kertész was awarded a silver medal for services to photography .
Kertész was published in French magazines such as Vu and Art et Médecine , for which his work was used for numerous covers . His greatest journalistic collaboration was with Lucien Vogel , the French editor and publisher of Vu . Vogel published his work as photo essays , letting Kertész report on various subjects through images . The photographer was intrigued with the variety of topics assigned by Vogel .
In 1933 Kertész was commissioned for the series , Distortion , about 200 photographs of Najinskaya Verackhatz and Nadia Kasine , two models portrayed nude and in various poses , with their reflections caught in a combination of distortion mirrors , similar to a carnival 's house of mirrors . In some photographs , only certain limbs or features were visible in the reflection . Some images also appeared in the 2 March issue of the " girly magazine " Le Sourire and in the 15 September 1933 issue of Arts et métiers graphiques . Later that year , Kertész published the book Distortions , a collection of the work .
In 1933 Kertész published his first personal book of photographs , Enfants , dedicated to his fiancee Elizabeth and his mother , who had died that year . He published regularly during the succeeding years . Paris ( 1934 ) was dedicated to his brothers Imre and Jenő . Nos Amies les bêtes ( " Our Friends the Animals " ) was released in 1936 and Les Cathédrales du vin ( " The Cathedrals of Wine " ) in 1937 .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
In the late 1920s , Kertész secretly married a French portrait photographer by the name of Rosza Klein ( she used the name Rogi André ) . The marriage was short @-@ lived and he never spoke about it .
In 1930 , he ventured back to Hungary to visit his family . After his return to Paris , Elizabeth followed him in 1931 , despite opposition by her family . Elizabeth and André remained together for the rest of their lives . Despite his mother 's dying in early 1933 , Kertész married Elizabeth on 17 June 1933 . He was said to have spent less time with his artist friends in favor of his new wife .
In 1936 they emigrated to New York , where within a decade , they became naturalized citizens . After creating and running a successful cosmetic business for years , in 1977 Elizabeth died of cancer .
= = = Pending war = = =
Social and political tensions were rising in Europe with the growing strength in Germany of the Nazi Party . Many magazines emphasized stories about political topics and stopped publishing Kertész because of his apolitical subjects . With his commissioned work dropping and persecution of Jews increasing , Kertész and Elizabeth decided to move to New York . He was offered work at the Keystone agency owned by Ernie Prince . In 1936 , Kertész and Elizabeth boarded the SS Washington bound for Manhattan .
The couple arrived in New York on 15 October 1936 , with Kertész intent on finding fame in America . They lived at the Beaux Arts Hotel in Greenwich Village . Kertész found life in America more difficult than he had imagined , beginning a period which he later referred to as the " absolute tragedy " . Deprived of his artist friends , he also found that Americans rejected having their photos taken on the street . Soon after his arrival , Kertész approached Beaumont Newhall , director of the photographic department at the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) , who was preparing a show entitled Photography 1839 – 1937 . Offering Newhall some of his Distortions photographs , Kertész bristled at his criticism , but Newhall did exhibit the photographs . In December 1937 Kertész had his first solo show in New York at the PM Gallery .
The Keystone agency , who had offered him offsite work , required him to stay in the company 's studio . Kertész tried to return to France to visit , but had no money . By the time he had saved enough , World War II had begun and travel to France was nearly impossible . His struggles with English compounded his problems . Years after learning to speak French in Paris , it was difficult for him to learn another new language . The lack of fluent language added to his feeling like an outsider .
Frustrated , Kertész left Keystone after Prince left the company in 1937 . He was commissioned by Harper 's Bazaar for an article on the Saks Fifth Avenue department store in their April 1937 issue . The magazine continued to use him in further issues , and he also took commissions from Town and Country to supplement his income . Vogue invited the photographer to work for the magazine , but he declined , believing it was not appropriate work for him . He chose to work for Life magazine , starting with a piece called The Tugboat . Despite orders , he photographed more than just tugboats , including works on the entire harbor and its activities . Life refused to publish the unauthorized photographs . Kertész resented the constraints on his curiosity .
On 25 October 1938 , Look printed a series of Kertész photographs , entitled A Fireman Goes to School ; but credited them mistakenly to Ernie Prince , his former boss . Infuriated , Kertész considered never working with photo magazines again . His work was published in the magazine Coronet in 1937 , but in 1939 he was excluded when the magazine published a special issue featuring its " Most memorable photographs " . He later severed all ties to the magazine and its editor Arnold Gingrich . After being excluded from the June 1941 issue of Vogue , dedicated to photography , Kertész broke off relations with them . He had contributed to more than 30 commissioned photo essays and articles in both Vogue and House and Garden , but was omitted from the list of featured photographers .
In 1941 , the Kertész couple were designated as enemy aliens because of World War II ( Hungary was fighting on the side of the Axis powers ) . Kertész was not permitted to photograph outdoors or to have any project related to national security . Trying to avoid trouble because Elizabeth had started a cosmetics company ( Cosmia Laboratories ) , Kertész ceased to do commissioned work and essentially disappeared from the photographic world for three years .
On 20 January 1944 , Elizabeth became a US citizen ; and Kertész was naturalized on 3 February . Despite competition from photographers such as Irving Penn , Kertész regained commissioned work . He was omitted from the list of 63 photographers which Vogue 's identified as significant in its " photographic genealogical tree " . But , House and Garden commissioned him to do photographs for a Christmas issue . In addition , in June 1944 László Moholy @-@ Nagy , director of the New Bauhaus - American School of Design offered him a position teaching photography . Despite the honor , he turned the offer down .
In 1945 , Kertész released a new book , Day of Paris , made up of photographs taken just before his emigration from France . It gained critical success . With his wife 's cosmetic business booming , Kertész agreed in 1946 to a long @-@ term , exclusive contract with House and Garden . Although it restricted his editorial freedom and required many hours in the studio , the pay of at least US $ 10 @,@ 000 per annum ( $ 121 @,@ 000 per year in 2016 ) was satisfactory . All photographic negatives were returned to him within six months for his own use .
Kertész worked in the settings of many famous homes and notable places , as well as overseas , where he traveled again in England , Budapest and Paris , renewing friendships and making new ones . During the 1945 – 62 period at House and Garden , the magazine published more than 3 @,@ 000 of his photographs , and he created a high reputation in the industry . With little time for his personal work , Kertész felt starved of being able to exercise more artistic creativity .
= = = Later life = = =
In 1946 , Kertész had a solo exhibition at the Art Institute of Chicago , featuring photographs from his Day of Paris series . Kertész said this was one of his greatest times in the United States . In 1952 , he and his wife moved to a 12th @-@ floor apartment near Washington Square Park , the setting for some of his best photographs since having immigrated to the US . Using a telephoto lens , he took a series of snow @-@ covered Washington Square , showing numerous silhouettes and tracks . In 1955 he was insulted to have his work excluded when Edward Steichen 's The Family of Man show was featured at MoMA . Despite the success of the Chicago show , Kertész did not gain another exhibit until 1962 , when his photographs were shown at Long Island University .
= = = International period = = =
Toward the end of 1961 , Kertész broke his contract to Condé Nast Publishing after a minor dispute , and started doing his own work again . This later period of his life is often referred to as the " International period " , when he gained worldwide recognition and his photos were exhibited in many countries . In 1962 his work was exhibited in Venice ; in 1963 , he was one of the invited artists of the IV Mostra Biennale Internazionale della Fotografia there and he was awarded a gold medal for his dedication to the photographic industry . Later in 1963 , his work was shown in Paris at the Bibliothèque nationale de France . He later visited Argentina to see his younger brother Jenő for the first time in years . Kertész experimented with color photographs , but only produced a few .
In 1964 , soon after John Szarkowski became the photography director at the Museum of Modern Art , he featured Kertész in a solo show . With his work critically acclaimed , Kertész gained recognition in the photographic world as an important artist . The work of Kertész was featured in numerous exhibitions throughout the world in his later life , even into his early nineties . Due to his newfound success , in 1965 Kertész was appointed as a member of the American Society of Media Photographers .
His awards rapidly accumulated :
1974 , Guggenheim Fellowship ;
1974 , Commander of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres ;
1977 , Mayor 's Award of Honor for Arts and Culture in New York ,
1980 the Medal of the City of Paris , and the first Annual Award of the Association of International Photography Art Dealers in New York ; and
1981 , honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from Bard College , and the New York Mayor 's Award of Honor for Arts and Culture that year .
During this period , Kertész produced a number of new books . He was able to recover some of the negatives he had left in France decades before .
Despite his successes , Kertész still felt unrecognised as a photographer . His last years were spent travelling to various locations around the globe for his exhibitions , especially Japan , and rekindling friendships with other artists . To deal with the loss of his wife in 1977 , Kertész fell back on his new network of friends , often visiting them to talk . By this time , he was said to have learned basic English and talked in what his friends called " Kertészian " , a mixture of Hungarian , English and French .
In 1979 , the Polaroid Corporation gave him one of their new SX @-@ 70 cameras , which he experimented with into the 1980s . Still growing in fame , Kertész was granted the National Grand Prize of Photography in Paris in 1982 , as well as the 21st Annual George Washington Award from the American Hungarian Foundation the same year .
= = Legacy and honors = =
1983 , honorary Doctorate from the Royal College of Art ; and title of Chevalier de la Légion d 'honneur in Paris , together with an apartment for future visits to the city ;
1984 , the Maine Photographic Workshop 's first Annual Lifetime Achievement Award ;
1984 , purchase of 100 prints by the Metropolitan Museum of Art , its largest acquisition of work from a living artist ;
1985 , Californian Distinguished Career in Photography Award ;
1985 , first Annual Master of Photography Award , presented by the International Center of Photography ; and
1985 , honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from Parson 's School of Design of the New School for Social Research .
Kertész died peacefully in his sleep at home on 28 September 1985 ; he was cremated and his ashes were interred with those of his wife .
= = Critical evaluation = =
Throughout most of his career Kertész was depicted as the " unknown soldier " who worked behind the scenes of photography , yet was rarely cited for his work , even into his death in the 1980s . Kertész thought himself unrecognised throughout his life , despite spending his life in the eternal search for acceptance and fame . Though Kertész received numerous awards for photography , he never felt both his style and work was accepted by critics and art audiences alike . Although , in 1927 , he was the first photographer to have a solo exhibition , Kertész said that it was not until his 1946 exhibition at the Art Institute of Chicago , that he first felt he received positive reviews on his work , and often cites this show as one of his finest moments in America . During his stay in America , he was cited as being an intimate artist , bringing the viewer into his work , even when the picture was that of subjects such as the intimidating New York City and even his reproduced work printed after his death received good reviews ; " Kertész was above all a consistently fine photographer " . Kertész 's work itself is often described as predominantly utilising light and even Kertész himself said that " I write with light " . He was never considered to " comment " on his subjects , but rather capture them – this is often cited as why his work is often overlooked ; he stuck to no political agenda and offered no deeper thought to his photographs other than the simplicity of life . With his art 's intimate feeling and nostalgic tone , Kertész 's images alluded to a sense of timelessness which was inevitably only recognised after his death . Unlike other photographers , Kertész 's work gave an insight into his life , showing a chronological order of where he spent his time ; for example , many of his French photographs were from cafés where he spent the majority of his time waiting for artistic inspiration .
Although Kertész rarely received bad reviews , it was the lack of commentary that lead to the photographer feeling distant from recognition . Now , however , he is often considered to be the father of photojournalism . Even other photographers cite Kertész and his photographs as being inspirational ; Henri Cartier @-@ Bresson once said of him in the early 1930s , " We all owe him a great deal . " When he was 90 years old , a person asked him why he was still taking photographs . He replied , " I 'm still hungry . "
= = Exhibitions = =
This list includes material from Capa et al , Corkin & Lifson , Könemann et al , and Naef et al .
= = Selected works = =
Bibliography
This list is compiled from Capa et al , Corkin & Lifson and Könemann et al .
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= Jeff Tambellini =
Jeff Tambellini ( born April 13 , 1984 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey winger currently playing for Djurgårdens IF in the Swedish Hockey League ( SHL ) . Originally selected 27th overall by the Los Angeles Kings in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft , he joined the National Hockey League in 2005 . During his rookie season , he was traded to the New York Islanders . He split his first three professional seasons between the NHL and his clubs ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliates , the Manchester Monarchs ( Los Angeles ) and Bridgeport Sound Tigers ( New York ) . In July 2010 , Tambellini signed with the Vancouver Canucks and spent a season with the organization .
During his junior career , Tambellini earned MVP honours in the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) , while also leading the Chilliwack Chiefs to a Fred Page Cup as league champions and a Doyle Cup as Pacific regional champions . In 2002 , he joined the college ranks with the Michigan Wolverines of the Central Collegiate Hockey Association ( CCHA ) . Over three seasons , he won two Mason Cups with Michigan as CCHA champions , while earning several individual honours , including league rookie of the year in 2003 and playoff MVP in 2005 . Internationally , he competed for Canada 's under @-@ 20 team at the 2004 World Junior Championships , earning a silver medal .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and college = = =
Tambellini played one season in the third @-@ tier Pacific International Junior Hockey League ( PIJHL ) with the Port Coquitlam Buckaroos in 1999 – 2000 . He scored 31 goals and 64 points over 41 games , earning PIJHL First Team All @-@ Star and Rookie of the Year honours . The following season , he joined the Junior A ranks with the Chilliwack Chiefs of the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) , recording 51 points over 54 games in his rookie season .
In 2001 – 02 , he improved to 117 points ( 46 goals and 71 points ) , receiving the Brett Hull Trophy as the league 's leading scorer along with Matt Ellison of the Cowichan Valley Capitals , who also scored 117 points . He was further distinguished with the Verne Dye Memorial Trophy as the Coastal Conference 's most valuable player . Tambellini went on to help the Chiefs to a Fred Page Cup as league champions , defeating the Vernon Vipers four games to two in the finals . Advancing to the Doyle Cup , the Chiefs beat the Alberta Junior Hockey League ( AJHL ) champion Drayton Valley Thunder by the same series score to capture the regional title . Competing for the Canadian Junior Hockey League ( CJHL ) title , Chilliwack lost in the Royal Bank Cup semifinals . During the tournament , Tambellini was chosen as the CJHL player of the year , beating out Jade Galbraith of the Drayton Valley Thunder and Tim Vokey of the Cornwall Colts .
Tambellini left the Chiefs after two seasons to play college hockey with the Michigan Wolverines of the Central Collegiate Hockey Association ( CCHA ) , where he served as an alternate captain . After scoring 45 points over 43 games in his freshman year , he received All @-@ Rookie Team , Second All @-@ Star Team and Rookie of the Year honours in the CCHA . In the playoffs , Tambellini helped the Wolverines to his first of two Mason Cups in his college career as CCHA champions .
Going into the 2003 NHL Entry Draft , he was ranked 21st among North American skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . Scouts listed him as a superior skater and defensively responsible with leadership qualities . He went on to be selected in the first round , 27th overall , by the Los Angeles Kings .
Returning to Michigan following his draft , his offensive production declined to 27 points over 39 games . The Wolverines returned to the CCHA finals , but were defeated by the Ohio State Buckeyes . Returning to form in 2004 – 05 , Tambellini notched 24 goals and 57 points over 42 games , earning CCHA First All @-@ Star Team honours . He led the Wolverines to a second Mason Cup championship in three years and was chosen as the CCHA Tournament MVP . Competing in the NCAA tournament , Tambellini was named to the NCAA Midwest Regional All @-@ Tournament and NCAA West Second All @-@ Star Teams .
= = = Professional = = =
On August 15 , 2005 , Tambellini signed an entry @-@ level contract with the Kings , foregoing his senior year with Michigan . In late @-@ September , he was assigned to their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manchester Monarchs , following his training camp with Los Angeles . Two months into the season , Tambellini was called up to the Kings , making his NHL debut on November 30 , 2005 , against the Chicago Blackhawks . The Kings lost the game 3 – 2 , while Tambellini earned nine minutes of ice time . After four pointless NHL games , he was sent back down to Manchester . On March 8 , 2006 , Tambellini was traded by the Kings , along with defenceman Denis Grebeshkov , to the New York Islanders , in exchange for forward Mark Parrish and defenceman Brent Sopel . Upon being dealt , he was called up from the AHL and played the remainder of the season with New York . He left Manchester with 25 goals and 56 points in 56 games , which finished the 2005 – 06 AHL season ranked as the third @-@ best points @-@ per @-@ game rate among league rookies .
Playing in his third game with the Islanders , he scored his first NHL goal against Martin Brodeur in a 6 – 1 win against the New Jersey Devils on March 14 , 2006 . He finished the campaign with a goal and four points in 21 games with New York . As the Islanders failed to qualify for the playoffs , they assigned Tambellini to their AHL affiliate , the Bridgeport Sound Tigers , for their Calder Cup playoffs . Over seven post @-@ season games , he recorded three points as Bridgeport was eliminated by the Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton Penguins in the first round .
Tambellini split the 2006 – 07 season between the Islanders and Sound Tigers . Called up from the AHL on three separate occasions , he recorded two goals and nine points over 23 games with New York . Over 50 AHL games , he led the Sound Tigers with 30 goals and 59 points . The following season , Tambellini set the Sound Tigers single @-@ season scoring record with 76 points in 57 games . His 38 goals ranked second in the league , while his points total was seventh . He was called up to the NHL five times , scoring a goal and four points over 31 games . In the off @-@ season , he was re @-@ signed to a two @-@ year , US $ 1 @.@ 175 million contract on July 16 , 2008 .
In 2008 – 09 , he began the campaign in the NHL . With the exception of a two @-@ week assignment with Bridgeport in December 2008 , he spent the entire season with the Islanders . Over 65 NHL games , he scored seven goals and 15 points , while recording three goals in six games with the Sound Tigers . The following season , Tambellini recorded his first NHL hat trick with his father in attendance on October 31 , 2009 , against the Buffalo Sabres . Often made a healthy scratch , he completed the season with 14 points over 36 games , while leading the Islanders in shootout percentage with three goals in five attempts .
Becoming an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Tambellini joined the Vancouver Canucks on July 1 , 2010 . His signed a one @-@ year , two @-@ way deal paying the league @-@ minimum $ 500 @,@ 000 at the NHL @-@ level and $ 105 @,@ 000 at the minor @-@ league level . He had received interest from other teams , but was quick to accept an offer from his hometown NHL team , commenting that he " grew up want [ ing ] to be part of the Vancouver Canucks from age six . " Tambellini scored his first goal as a Canuck on October 22 , 2010 , in a 5 – 1 win against the Minnesota Wild . While earning some time on the team 's second line , he played the majority of the season on the fourth unit , finishing with 9 goals and 17 points over 62 games . Assigned to the team 's AHL affiliate for brief periods in October and November 2010 , he recorded 7 points over 7 games with the Manitoba Moose . A healthy scratch for the majority of the 2011 playoffs , he made his NHL post @-@ season debut in Game 6 of the second round against the Nashville Predators . In total , he dressed in six games with no points during the playoffs as the Canucks advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals for the third time in team history , losing in Game 7 to the Boston Bruins .
After becoming an unrestricted free agent once more in the off @-@ season , Tambellini signed for the ZSC Lions of the National League A ( NLA ) in Switzerland . By joining Zurich , he followed after his father and grandfather , who both played for the team during their careers . He was recruited to play overseas by the Lions ' Bob Hartley , who previously coached in the NHL for the Colorado Avalanche and Atlanta Thrashers . Tambellini became the team 's premiere player in his first season with Zurich , leading the team in scoring and averaging more than 25 minutes a game . He described the Swiss league as a competitive level between the AHL and NHL . In his first season in Zurich he won the Swiss Championship and was the topscorer of the Lions .
Upon completion of an injury plagued second season with the Lions , Tambellini left as a free agent and signed a one @-@ year contract in Sweden with Modo Hockey of the Swedish Hockey League on March 25 , 2013 .
In the 2014 – 15 season , Tambellini skated in 30 games with Fribourg @-@ Gotteron of the Swiss @-@ A league , registering five goals and 13 points . He also played in 20 games with Vaxjo Lakers in the Swedish Hockey League , recording six goals and nine points . On July 5 , 2015 , the Tampa Bay Lightning signed forward Jeff Tambellini to a one @-@ year , two @-@ way contract . Tambellini has skated in 242 NHL games over six season , recording 27 goals and 63 points . He played his last NHL season with the Vancouver Canucks during the 2010 – 11 season .
After spending the 2015 – 16 season with the Lightning 's AHL affiliate , the Syracuse Crunch , in which he contributed with 49 points in 65 games , Tambellini returned to Sweden in securing a one @-@ year contract with Djurgårdens IF of the SHL on June 10 , 2016 .
= = International play = =
Tambellini competed for the Canadian national junior team at the 2004 World Junior Championships , held in Finland . He was the lone NCAA player on Canada 's roster . Playing against Ukraine in the round @-@ robin , he scored his first international goal against goaltender Yevgeniy Galyuk in a 10 – 0 win . Helping Canada reach the gold medal game , they lost to the United States by a 4 – 3 score , earning silver . In six games , Tambellini recorded two goals and five points , ranking sixth in team scoring .
= = Personal life = =
Tambellini was born in Calgary , Alberta . His father Steve Tambellini , a retired ice hockey player and former general manager of the Edmonton Oilers , was playing for the Calgary Flames at the time . Steve also played in the NHL with the New York Islanders , Colorado Rockies , New Jersey Devils and Vancouver Canucks . Tambellini 's grandfather , Addie Tambellini , was a member of the Trail Smoke Eaters who were the last Canadian amateur team to win the World Championships in 1961 . While his father became involved with the Canucks first as a player , then as an executive later in his career , Jeff lived in suburban Port Moody , British Columbia , gaining exposure to the NHL environment . After leaving home to begin his own hockey career , Jeff returned to Vancouver in the off @-@ seasons , residing in the downtown Coal Harbour neighbourhood .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Junior = = =
= = = College = = =
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= Pallid sturgeon =
The Pallid sturgeon ( Scaphirhynchus albus ) is an endangered species of ray @-@ finned fish , endemic to the waters of the Missouri and lower Mississippi river basins of the United States .
Named for its pale coloration , it is closely related to the relatively common shovelnose sturgeon ( Scaphirhyncus platorhynchus ) , but is much larger , averaging between 30 and 60 inches ( 76 and 152 cm ) in length and 85 pounds ( 39 kg ) in weight at maturity . This species takes 15 years to mature and spawns infrequently , but can live up to a century . A member of the sturgeon family , Acipenseridae , which originated during the Cretaceous period 70 million years ago , the pallid sturgeon has changed little since then .
In 1990 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service placed the pallid sturgeon on its endangered species list because few young individuals had been observed in the preceding decade and sightings had greatly diminished ; the species is now rarely seen in the wild . It was the first fish species in the Missouri River drainage area to be listed as endangered , and a loss of its habitat is thought to be responsible for its decline . The vast majority of the Missouri River drainage system has been channeled and dammed , reducing the gravel deposits and slow @-@ moving side channels that are its favored spawning areas . Until the middle of the 20th century , pallid sturgeon were common and anglers found catching such a large fish in fresh water a rewarding experience . The species is considered to be good @-@ tasting , and its eggs have been used as caviar , although less commonly than those of many other sturgeon .
Efforts to prevent the species from becoming extinct have had modest success . Pallid sturgeon are actively being raised in a dozen hatcheries and the offspring are being released back to the wild every year . To better understand pallid sturgeon behavior , researchers have implanted global positioning system transmitters to track their movements and help identify possible spawning areas . Federal and state agencies are working together to improve habitat by restoring spawning areas since restoration of these areas is required if the species is to survive in the wild .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
Taxonomists S. A. Forbes and R. E. Richardson classified the pallid sturgeon in 1905 , grouping it in the genus Parascaphirhynchus and the family Acipenseridae , which includes all sturgeon worldwide . Its closest relatives are the shovelnose sturgeon ( Scaphirhyncus platorhynchus ) , which is still relatively common , and the critically endangered Alabama sturgeon ( Scaphirhynchus suttkusi ) , which may soon become extinct . These three species belong to the subfamily Scaphirhynchinae , which has only one other genus , Pseudoscaphirhynchus , represented by three species found in west @-@ central Asia .
The word pallid means " deficient in color " , and compared to other species of sturgeon , the pallid is noticeably paler . The scientific name for the fish is derived from Scaphirhynchus , a Greek word meaning " spade snout " and albus which is Latin for " white " .
= = Biology = =
= = = DNA studies = = =
To better protect the pallid sturgeon from extinction , research on its DNA and that of other closely related species was conducted to assess the differences within various populations of pallid sturgeon , and the differences between pallid and shovelnose sturgeon . Early DNA research indicated that pallid sturgeon and shovelnose sturgeon were a single species . However , a 2000 study comparing DNA sequences in the three members of the genus Scaphirhynchus ( pallid , shovelnose , and Alabama sturgeon ) showed that the three are distinct species . Between 2001 and 2006 , several studies examined two populations of pallid sturgeon located in the upper Great Plains section of the Missouri River and compared them to a southern population located in the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana . These DNA studies concluded that the northern populations of pallid sturgeon are reproductively isolated and are genetically distinct from the Atchafalaya population . However , the genetic variability among pallid sturgeon was found to be far less than that between them and the shovelnose sturgeon .
Another reason for DNA testing was to determine the rates of hybridization between pallid and shovelnose sturgeon . The southern populations have more hybrids than are found in the middle sections of the Missouri River basin , while the northernmost populations have had few reports of hybrids . Hybrids are most common in the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana , and DNA sequencing in these hybrids showed a genetic distinction from pallid sturgeon , but based on the genetic markers assessed , they were genetically indistinguishable from shovelnose sturgeon . Because of this ability of two species to hybridize , some biologists have expressed concern that it is a violation of the Endangered Species Act to protect one species that may not be genetically isolated from another . It is not known if the hybrids are able to reproduce or not , although they appear to be the result of pallid sturgeon eggs being fertilized by shovelnose sturgeon males .
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
The pallid sturgeon is one of the largest freshwater fish species in North America . They are generally between 30 and 60 inches ( 76 and 152 cm ) in length and weigh as much as 85 pounds ( 39 kg ) . The species is ancient and has remained virtually unchanged for 70 million years , since the Cretaceous period . The pallid sturgeon has a distinctive appearance that has been referred to as " primitive " , " dinosaur @-@ like " and even " ugly " . Although visually similar , the shovelnose sturgeon is much smaller and usually weighs no more than 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 3 kg ) . Pallid sturgeon are much paler in coloration with grayish white backs and sides , while shovelnose sturgeon are brown . Pallid sturgeon turn whiter as they age and younger specimens are easily confused with adult shovelnose sturgeon since they are similar in color . Like the shovelnose sturgeon , their tails are heterocercal , with the top tail fin being longer than the bottom fin , though this is more pronounced in pallid sturgeon .
As with other sturgeon , pallid sturgeon lack the scales or bones found in more " modern " species of fish . Instead , they have cartilaginous skeletons with five rows of thick cartilage plates that extend along their sides , undersides , and backs , as well as over most of the head . These thick cartilage plates are covered by the skin and serve as a protective armor . The bony cartilage also extends along the backside , from the dorsal fin to the tail .
The pallid sturgeon 's snout and head are longer than that of the shovelnose sturgeon . In both species , the mouth is located well back from the tip of the snout . Lacking teeth , they use their extendable mouths to suck up small fish , mollusks , and other food sources from river bottoms . Both species also have four barbels which descend from the snout near the front of the mouth . The barbels are believed to be sensory features to locate food sources . On pallid sturgeon , the two inner barbels are about half as long as the outer ones , while on the shovelnose sturgeon , all four barbels are the same length . The inner barbels of the pallid sturgeon are positioned in front of the outer ones , but those on the shovelnose sturgeon are all located in essentially a straight line . The length and positioning of the barbels is one of the best ways to distinguish the two species .
= = = Reproduction and lifecycle = = =
Pallid sturgeon have a long lifespan , living in excess of 50 and perhaps as long as 100 years . They lack bones and scales , which makes it more difficult to establish their age and determine exactly how long they live . As is true for many long @-@ lived species , pallid sturgeon reach reproductive maturity relatively late . Males reach sexual maturity between the ages of 5 and 7 years , while females are believed to become capable of reproduction when they are at least 15 years old . One study of nine females indicated that they begin egg development between the ages of 9 and 12 years , but do not reach reproductive maturity until they are 15 years old . Reproduction does not take place every year ; the average interval between spawnings is three years , although other studies suggest an interval as long as 10 years . Spawning usually takes place May to July .
Prior to the construction of dams on the Missouri , pallid sturgeon migrated hundreds of miles upstream to spawn , and sought out rocky or hard surfaces to deposit hundreds of thousands of eggs . One female pallid sturgeon caught in the upper Missouri River was estimated to be carrying 170 @,@ 000 eggs , representing over 11 percent of its total body weight . After fertilization , pallid sturgeon eggs hatch in 5 to 8 days , after which the larvae drift back downstream for several weeks . As the larvae develop tails , they seek out slower @-@ moving waterways and slowly mature over a period of a dozen years . The rate of survival to maturity for pallid sturgeon larvae is extremely low , and of the hundreds of thousands of eggs spawned , only a few live to adulthood .
For several decades , no natural reproduction of pallid sturgeon was observed , since all the fish that had been captured were older specimens . In the late 1990s , young pallid sturgeon were discovered living in a restored riparian area of the lower Missouri River . This was the first documented example of wild spawned pallid sturgeon in 50 years . In 2007 , two female pallid sturgeon were also reported to have spawned in the Missouri National Recreational River area located downstream from Gavins Point Dam on the Missouri River .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution = = =
The pallid sturgeon 's historical range spanned the entire Missouri River and into the Mississippi River . Historically , the species was rare to nonexistent in the upper Mississippi , probably due to a lack of proper habitat . Currently , the species is considered imperiled throughout its entire range . As of 2008 , pallid sturgeon can still be found throughout their original range , but their population numbers have severely declined from the mid @-@ 20th century . The Missouri and Mississippi rivers from Montana to Louisiana , as well as the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana , continue to harbor an aging population of pallid sturgeon . Pallid sturgeon have never been very common ; as early as 1905 when the species was first identified , they represented only one in five of all sturgeon in the lower Missouri River and as few as one in 500 where the Illinois River meets the Mississippi . Between 1985 and 2000 , the ratio of pallid sturgeon to all sturgeon netted declined from one in about 400 to one in nearly 650 . A 1996 study concluded that between 6 @,@ 000 and 21 @,@ 000 pallid sturgeon remained in their natural habitat at that time .
Six areas were studied for wild pallid sturgeon population estimates and recovery recommendations by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) between 1990 , when the species was declared endangered , and 2006 . The USFWS has referred to these six areas of wild population studies as " recovery priority management areas " ( RPMAs ) . In the northernmost region of the study , known as RPMA 1 , located between the Marias River in Montana and the western reaches of Fort Peck Reservoir , only 45 wild ( nonhatchery ) individuals remain . Of these , no juveniles were observed and the population was declining . In RPMA 2 , located between Fort Peck Dam , the headwaters of Lake Sakakawea , and the lower Yellowstone River up to the confluence of the Tongue River , Montana , only 136 wild specimens remain . In RPMA 3 , stretching from upstream of the Niobrara River to Lewis and Clark Lake along the Missouri River , no native populations were recorded . All collected specimens appeared to be hatchery @-@ raised . However , these specimens were apparently maturing and adjusting well to this section of the river . Recovery priority management area 4 extends from Gavins Point Dam to the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers . This region also includes the Platte River . Here , at least 100 unique nonhatchery specimens were collected during the study period . Evidence also indicates some wild reproduction is going on in this region . In RPMA 5 , between the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico , several hundred specimens were documented . Again , some evidence suggests natural reproduction is occurring , as demonstrated by the recovery of a few examples of immature , nonhatchery @-@ raised individuals . The Atchafalaya River basin is designated as RPMA 6 and the findings there were similar to those in RPMAs 4 and 5 , but with greater numbers of unique individuals , near 500 in total .
= = = Habitat = = =
Pallid sturgeon prefer moderate to swift river currents and most captured specimens have been recovered in rivers and streams in which the current averages between 0 @.@ 33 and 2 @.@ 9 feet per second ( 0 @.@ 10 and 0 @.@ 88 m / s ) . They also prefer turbid waterways and water depths between 3 and 25 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 and 7 @.@ 62 m ) . The species is more commonly found where sandy substrates are plentiful , but also lives in predominately rocky waterways . Pallid sturgeon prefer swift river currents more often than do shovelnose sturgeon .
In a study based in Montana and North Dakota conducted on both the pallid and shovelnose sturgeon , both species were fitted with radio transmitters so researchers could track their swimming habits . Pallid sturgeon were found to prefer wider river channels , midchannel sandbars , and numerous islands , and were most commonly recorded in water depths between 2 and 47 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 and 14 @.@ 33 m ) . The study also showed that the pallid sturgeon moved as much as 13 miles ( 21 km ) per day and up to 5 @.@ 7 miles per hour ( 9 @.@ 2 km / h ) . Pallid sturgeon are believed to have preferred the muddy and generally warmer waters that existed prior to Missouri River dam construction .
= = = Food preferences = = =
Pallid sturgeon are generally bottom feeders , skimming the sandy reaches of the various rivers and streams in their habitat . Though little is known about the precise eating habits of the species , they are thought to be opportunistic feeders . One study which examined the contents from the stomachs of juvenile pallid sturgeon revealed that their diets were seasonally dependent . Various insects were consumed during some seasons and various fish species during others . These results support the description of the pallid sturgeon 's eating habits as opportunistic . Fish is a more important dietary staple for pallid sturgeon than it is for shovelnose sturgeon . In one study comparing dietary tendencies between adult shovelnose sturgeon and immature pallid sturgeon , the pallid sturgeon was found to consume far greater numbers of small fish such as cyprinids ( minnows ) . In another study conducted in the upper Missouri River region , an examination of the stomach contents of hatchery @-@ reared pallid sturgeon showed that 82 % of the wet weight was small fish and the balance was mosquito @-@ like insects , mayflies , and caddis flies and small amounts of detritus and plant material .
= = Conservation = =
Though never believed to be common , pallid sturgeon populations rapidly declined during the late 20th century and the species was listed as endangered on September 6 , 1990 . The U.S. government and most of the states with pallid sturgeon populations have commenced restoration efforts to save the species from extinction . Wild reproduction of pallid sturgeon is rare to nonexistent in most areas ; therefore , human intervention is needed to ensure the survival of the species . Pallid sturgeon were previously considered a prized trophy game fish species , until their numbers declined and they were placed on the endangered species list . All captured pallid sturgeon must now be released back to the wild . The species was known for being very palatable and the roe from females was used as caviar .
The route and the environmental characteristics of Missouri River in the northern Great Plains states of North and South Dakota , Nebraska , and Montana have been significantly altered . The resultant changes to the Missouri River in the upper Great Plains from channelization and impoundment prevent upstream migration . The reduced water flow rates and sediment loads have brought an end to the seasonal flooding of the flood plains in the region . Since the construction of the Fort Peck Dam in Montana in 1937 , and subsequent damming and channelization , the Missouri River has lost over 90 % of its wetland and sandbar ecosystems . More than 2 @,@ 000 mi ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) of the Missouri River have been altered and only that stretch of the river above Fort Peck Reservoir in Montana remains relatively unchanged . These alterations of the river have had a detrimental impact on a number of native fish species . In the 13 U.S. states where the pallid sturgeon is found , only a few other fish species are listed as endangered . Although substantial efforts are being implemented to ensure the survival of this species , the rarity of self @-@ sustaining populations of pallid sturgeon ensures that it will remain federally protected for many decades .
= = = Species preservation efforts = = =
Two populations of pallid sturgeon in the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers of Montana are both at risk of extinction , and current projections are that wild pallid sturgeon populations in Montana will be extinct by 2018 . Though a vigorous stocking effort was implemented in 1996 , until pallid sturgeon females reach reproductive maturity sometime after they are 15 years of age , recovery efforts in Montana will not be readily measurable . The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has been conducting spring pulse water releases from the Tiber Dam every four to five years to try to recreate a semblance of an annual spring flood to restore and rejuvenate downstream floodplains . These pulse releases are done in an effort to restore suitable habitat for numerous fish species .
In Nebraska , a small number of pallid sturgeon have been captured along the lower reaches of the Platte River . Unlike most rivers in the Mississippi @-@ Missouri River System , the Platte River has only a few dams and they are well upstream from its confluence with the Missouri River . The lower Platte River is shallow with numerous sand bars and small islands . Though pallid sturgeon prefer more turbulent and deeper rivers than the Platte , between 1979 and 2003 , over a dozen pallid sturgeon , including some from hatcheries , have been captured from the Platte River . A number of these pallid sturgeon have been fitted with radio transmitters which track their return to the Platte River when water levels and turbidity conditions are favorable . Coinciding with the majority of the pallid sturgeon that have been captured , the period that is generally most favorable is during the spring and early summer . By midsummer , a reduction in water levels and turbidity on the Platte River encourages pallid sturgeon to return to the Missouri River .
The lower reaches of the Platte River , a more than 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) stretch from the Elkhorn River to its confluence with the Missouri River , has suitable spawning habitat for pallid sturgeon , although no conclusive evidence has been found that spawning is occurring in this region . Along with the lower Yellowstone River , the lower Platte River was identified as one of the best of the remaining regions with the potential for the natural spawning .
In Missouri , at the Lisbon Bottoms section of the Big Muddy National Fish and Wildlife Refuge , wild pallid sturgeon larvae were collected in 1998 . These nonhatchery @-@ raised larvae were the first recovered on the lower Missouri River in the previous 50 years . The recovery was made along a side channel of the Missouri River that had been developed to provide suitable habitat for pallid sturgeon and other fish spawning . The side channel was apparently being used by the larva pallid sturgeon for protection from the swifter currents of the Missouri River .
In 2007 , the USFWS concluded that hatchery @-@ based reproduction efforts should be continued , along with monitoring of any population changes , to determine the effectiveness of human intervention . The 2007 findings also emphasized the need to determine the most likely areas of spawning , to identify any parasite or disease that may be impacting the reproductive capabilities of pallid sturgeon , and to examine engineering possibilities that may permit recreation of suitable habitats without reducing the USFWS 's ability to protect people from harmful and destructive flooding , and to maintain its ability to provide adequate water impoundment for irrigation and recreation purposes .
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= The Eolian Harp =
The Eolian Harp is a poem written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1795 and published in his 1796 poetry collection . It is one of the early conversation poems and discusses Coleridge 's anticipation of a marriage with Sara Fricker along with the pleasure of conjugal love . However , The Eolian Harp is not a love poem and instead focuses on man 's relationship with nature . The central images of the poem is an Aeolian harp , an item that represents both order and wildness in nature . Along with the harp is a series of oppositional ideas that are reconciled with each other . The Eolian Harp also contains a discussion on " One Life " , Coleridge 's idea that humanity and nature are united along with his desire to try to find the divine within nature . The poem was well received for both its discussion of nature and its aesthetic qualities .
= = Background = =
Coleridge began writing The Eolian Harp on 20 August 1795 during his engagement to Sara Fricker . Like his previous conversation poem Lines Written at Shurton Bars , the poem discusses both his engagement and his future marriage . Coleridge was inspired to write the poem after a visit to a house in Clevedon that would serve as his and Fricker 's home after their marriage . As Coleridge worked on the poem , he and Fricker were married and they moved to the Clevedon home . During this time , Coleridge held an idealised view of his life with Fricker , and these thoughts work their way into the poem . The poem was published in the 1796 edition of Coleridge 's poems and in all subsequent collections . Of his poems for the 1796 collection , Coleridge felt that The Eolian Harp was his favourite .
After the poem 's original creation , it was expanded from its original use of an Aeolian harp as its theme over the months that followed . However , Coleridge did not stop working on it when it was first published . Instead , the poem was expanded and rewritten throughout Coleridge 's life until 1817 . Of the final version , lines 21 – 25 were previously removed between the 1797 and 1815 editions of Coleridge 's poems . Likewise , lines 26 – 33 were altered through the multiple editions . Regardless of the amount of editing , Coleridge believed that the poem served as a model for other poems , especially those in the series called Conversation poems . Of The Eolian Harp as a model for poetry , Coleridge wrote , " Let me be excused , if it should seem to others too mere a trifle to justify my noticing it — but I have some claim to the thanks of no small number of the readers of poetry in having first introduced this species of short blank verse poems — of which Southey , Lamb , Wordsworth , and others have since produced so many exquisite specimens . "
= = Poem = =
The poem begins by addressing Fricker and discussing the house at Clevedon :
My pensive Sara ! thy soft cheek reclined
Thus on mine arm , most soothing sweet it is
To sit beside our cot , our cot o 'ergrown
With white @-@ flower 'd Jasmin , and the broad @-@ leav 'd Myrtle ,
( Meet emblems they of Innocence and Love ! )
And watch the clouds , that late were rich with light ,
Slow saddening round , and mark the star of eve
Serenely brilliant ( such should Wisdom be )
Shine opposite ! How exquisite the scents
Snatch 'd from yon bean @-@ field ! and the world so hushed !
The stilly murmur of the distant Sea
Tells us of silence . ( lines 1 – 12 )
As the poem continues , objects are described as if they were women being pursued :
And that simplest Lute ,
Plac 'd length @-@ ways in the clasping casement , hark !
How by the desultory breeze caressed ,
Like some coy maid half yielding to her lover ,
It pours such sweet upbraiding , as must needs
Tempt to repeat the wrong ! ( lines 12 – 17 )
The poem then introduces Coleridge 's idea of " One Life " , where man and nature are connected :
O the one Life within us and abroad ,
Which meets all motion and becomes its soul ,
A light in sound , a sound @-@ like power in light ,
Rhythm in all thought , and joyance every where —
Methinks , it should have been impossible
Not to love all things in a world so filled ;
Where the breeze warbles , and the mute still air
Is Music slumbering on her instrument . ( lines 26 – 33 )
Near the end of the poem , the narrator discusses pantheism before reproving himself for it soon after :
And what if all of animated nature
Be but organic Harps diversely framed ,
That tremble into thought , as o 'er them sweeps
Plastic and vast , one intellectual breeze ,
At once the Soul of each , and God of all ? ( lines 44 – 48 )
= = Themes = =
The poem discusses love , sex , and marriage , but it is not done in the form of a love poem . Instead , it compares love with an Aeolian harp , which is a symbol of poetry . In terms of the relationship described , the desire expressed during an engagement with Fricker is described as innocent . Also , the anticipation of the conjugal union is free of any potential disappointment or any guilt that would result in sex outside of marriage . As such , there is a thematic connection with the poem " Lines Written at Shurton Bars " written on the same subject around the same time . As the poem was completed after Coleridge 's marriage , the themes became similar to the ideas expressed in his Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement . Both poems discuss the Clevedon area and the impact of the countryside upon the viewer . Also , they provide information on how Coleridge and Fricker felt during their relationship and marriage . However , Reflections suggests that there are some problems within the relationship .
The poem portrays a series of oppositional ideas and how they can be reconciled with each other . The image of a beanfield is contrasted against the image of a lute while they are compared to the image of a coy woman being caressed and then resisting the caresses . This image is compounded with the coy woman being caressed compared to the innocence of Fricker . Nature is also seen in its oppositions , with a wildness within nature being contrasted with order within nature , especially in regards to the effects of an Aeolian harp and Coleridge 's pantheistic feelings about nature . In terms of religion , The Eolian Harp describes the mind 's desire to seek after the divine . Coleridge 's approach is similar to Ralph Cudworth 's in The True Intellectual System of the Universe . In the same theme , he wrote to John Thelwall in a letter dated 14 October 1797 @,@
I can at times feel strongly the beauties , you describe , in themselves & for themselves — but more frequently all things appear little — all knowledge , that can be acquired , child 's play — the universe itself — what but an immense heap of little things ? — I can contemplate nothing but parts , & parts are all little — ! — My mind feels as if it ached to behold & know something great — something one & indivisible — and it is only in the faith of this that rocks or waterfalls , mountains or caverns give me the sense of sublimity or majesty ! — But in this faith all things counterfeit infinity !
The nature images connect back to desire and marriage , especially with an image like the myrtle tree that performs this function in many of Coleridge 's poems . However , Coleridge 's pantheistic feelings on nature are said to receive reproof from Fricker , and Coleridge returns to a more traditional view of God that deals more with faith than finding the divine within nature .
The poem discusses his understanding of nature within the concept of " One Life " , an idea that is presented as a resulting from Coleridge 's reflection on his experiences at Clevedon . The conversation poems as a whole are connected to the ideas within The Eolian Harp that deal with understanding the universe . The " One Life " lines added to the 1817 edition interconnect the senses and also connects sensation and experience of the divine with the music of the Aeolian harp . Although the earlier editions do not include the same understanding of perception , there traces of the idea expressed in the earlier editions . Coleridge derived his early understanding from the works of Jakob Böhme , of which he wrote in a 4 July 1817 letter to Ludwig Tieck : " Before my visit to Germany in September , 1798 , I had adopted ( probably from Behmen 's Aurora , which I had conjured over at School ) the idea , that Sound was |
= Light under the praepotence of Gravitation , and Color =
Gravitation under the praepotence of Light : and I have never seen reason to change my faith in this respect . " Along with this view of sensation , Coleridge adopted Böhme 's idea of connecting to God through the will instead of the intellect , and that pantheism should be denied . Coleridge also relies in part on Böhme 's understanding of polarity of opposites in his own views of Polar Logic and man 's attempt to return to Paradise .
= = Critical response = =
During the mid 20th @-@ century , Virginia Radley states , " the ' Eolian Harp ' itself can be read with pleasure without a redaction of the poem for meaning . It is a poem which comes full circle from Eden to Eden " and that " Perhaps a poem should indeed not mean but be , and , to this point , the ' Eolian Harp ' is a true poem . The images and the personalities are striking enough to deserve approval from a purely belletristic standpoint . But the poem has meaning also . " Following this , M. H. Abrams declared that the idea of the " One Life " within The Eolian Harp , " best epitomize the Romantic constellation of joy , love , and the shared life " .
Later , Oswald Doughty argues that the poem is " one of his happiest poems " and " For once Coleridge and his environment blended into a single , harmonious idyllic mood , and the ' blank verse ' poem is permeated with a rare fusion of reflective thought and sensitivity to peaceful , nature beauty " . Richard Holmes simply describes The Eolian Harp as Coleridge 's " beautiful Conversation Poem " . Rosemary Ashton believes that the poem " shows an exact eye for natural detail combined with a sharp ear for rhythms both conversational and yet heightened into poetic form " . She later declared that " Only a few sonnets and ' The Eolian Harp ' [ ... ] display Coleridge 's gift for simplicity rising , as if effortlessly , to sublimity . "
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= Night of Your Life ( David Guetta song ) =
" Night of Your Life " is a song by French DJ and producer David Guetta , featuring guest vocals by American R & B recording artist Jennifer Hudson . Taken from Guetta 's fifth studio album , Nothing but the Beat ( 2011 ) , the song was written by Cristyle Johnson , Anthony Preston , Guetta and Giorgio Tuinfort , whilst production of the song was helmed by Guetta and Tuinfort . " Night of Your Life " was released digitally on August 22 , 2011 , as the third and final promotional single from the album , as part of the iTunes Store 's countdown to the album 's release .
Musically , " Night of Your Life " is an uptempo pop and future @-@ soul song , with lyrics that feature Hudson demanding to be worshiped like a queen . Music critics positively reviewed the song , praising Hudson 's vocal performance and noting it as one of the standout tracks from Nothing but the Beat . Critics also compared the song to Rihanna 's " Only Girl ( In the World ) " ( 2010 ) . Commercially , " Night of Your Life " reached the top 10 in Austria and Norway , and the top 20 in Denmark , Finland , Germany and Spain .
= = Background = =
" Night of Your Life " was written by Cristyle Johnson , Anthony Preston , David Guetta and Giorgio Tuinfort , whilst production of the song was helmed by Guetta and Tuinfort . In an interview with Akshay Bhansali of MTV News , Guetta revealed that he did not know Hudson before collaborating on the song , saying , " I had heard her voice [ before ] and I fell in love with it . It 's a difficult song . You need a really big voice to be able to perform that song . I was like , ' Whoa ! ' She obviously has an amazing voice , and I think it was a really interesting exercise for her and for me . " Guetta further explained that when he collaborates with artists , he likes to " take them out of their boxes " , and creating a dance record with Hudson was " really exciting " for him . On working with Hudson , he said , " She is beautiful in every way : as a person , as a singer , as a human being . She delivered [ the song ] like crazy . " " Night of Your Life " was released for digital download on August 22 , 2011 , as the third and final promotional single from the album , as part of the iTunes Store 's countdown to the album 's release .
= = Composition = =
" Night of Your Life " is an uptempo pop and future @-@ soul song , that features an infectious beat and clapping snares . According to Melinda Newman from HitFix , the opening of the song features beats that are " lightly bouncing around like colorful dancing polka dots " , before the song switches into a " retro @-@ sounding twirler with Hudson belting loud and clear . " The lyrics of " Night of Your Life " feature Hudson demanding that she be worshiped like a queen , singing " Love me / Baby treat me right / Make it an eternity and not only for one night / If you love me , till the end of time / Then I will promise you the night of your life . " Tom Ewing from The Guardian noted the song bears similarities to Rihanna 's " Only Girl ( In the World ) " ( 2010 ) . Genevieve Koski from The A.V. Club wrote that on the song , " Jennifer Hudson manage [ s ] to keep [ her ] head above the waves of synths ... by amping up [ her ] vocals to match the outsized beats . " Kerri Mason from Billboard magazine wrote that the song " takes a structure usually reserved for breathy chanteuses — the big @-@ room trance vocal — and adds the firepower of Jennifer Hudson . "
= = Critical reception = =
Scott Shetler from PopCrush called " Night of Your Life " " one of the most impressive tracks " on Nothing but the Beat , and noted that Hudson " sounds like a dance floor diva " on the song . Eric Henderson from Slant Magazine wrote that the song was " the album 's only comparative highlight " , but called it a " bald rip @-@ off " of Rihanna 's " Only Girl ( In the World ) . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy noted it as one of the album 's " standouts " , and wrote that " Hudson adds a classy , club classics touch to ' Night of Your Life ' " . Joe Copplestone from PopMatters noted that songs on the album such as " Night of Your Life " and " Titanium " , " recall the power " of Guetta 's previous collaborations with Kelly Rowland on " When Love Takes Over " ( 2009 ) and " Commander " ( 2010 ) . A writer for Daily Herald praised Hudson 's vocals on the track for having " all the right emotion in all the right places . "
Pkboo from Samesame.com.au called " Night of You Life " a " bangin ' radio ready single " and wrote that on " Night of Your Life " , Hudson delivers " the in control swagger that has become her trademark " . He also mentioned that the song was better than anything from her second studio album , I Remember Me ( 2011 ) . Becky Bain from Idolator wrote that " it 's one of the slickest collaborations " that she 's heard from David Guetta so far . Bain also added that it was " refreshing " to hear Hudson " in a euphoric party mood after her more low @-@ key offerings from her last album , I Remember Me . " Rich Lopez from Dallas Voice gave the song a mixed review , and wrote that it " is amateurish and never lives up to her talent . " Ben Norman from About.com met the song with a mixed review . He believed that its " production was lacking " the most , and not Hudson 's " abilities . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Night of Your Life " debuted at number 27 on the French Singles Chart , before dropping to number 73 the following week . The song debuted at number nine on the Austrian Singles Chart , peaked at number seven the following week , and spent eight non @-@ consecutive weeks on the chart . It also debuted at number nine on the Norwegian Singles Chart , where it remained for two consecutive weeks . " Night of Your Life " reached the top 20 on the singles charts of Denmark , Finland , Germany and Spain . In Sweden , the song debuted at number 51 on the Swedish Singles Chart on September 2 , 2011 , and peaked at number 31 the following week . In the United Kingdom , " Night of Your Life " debuted at number 35 on the UK Singles Chart on September 3 , 2011 . It also charted on the UK Dance Chart , where it peaked at number nine .
In the United States , " Night of Your Life " debuted at number 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the issue dated September 10 , 2011 , selling 27 @,@ 000 digital copies in its first week . In Switzerland , " Night of Your Life " debuted at number 24 on the Swiss Singles Chart on September 11 , 2011 , where it peaked . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , the song entered at number 38 , and dropped off the chart the following week . In Australia , the song debuted on the ARIA Singles Chart at its peak position of number 37 . On the Irish Singles Chart , " Night of Your Life " debuted and peaked at number 46 , and stayed on the chart for one week .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Nothing but the Beat .
David Guetta – songwriting , production
David Hachour – mastering
Jennifer Hudson – lead vocals
Cristyle Johnson – songwriting
Anthony Preston – songwriting
Florent Sabaton – mastering
Giorgio Tuinfort – songwriting , production
= = Charts = =
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= Chess =
Chess is a two @-@ player strategy board game played on a chessboard , a checkered gameboard with 64 squares arranged in an eight @-@ by @-@ eight grid . Chess is played by millions of people worldwide , both amateurs and professionals .
Each player begins the game with 16 pieces : one king , one queen , two rooks , two knights , two bishops , and eight pawns . Each of the six piece types moves differently . The most powerful piece is the queen and the least powerful piece is the pawn . The objective is to ' checkmate ' the opponent 's king by placing it under an inescapable threat of capture . To this end , a player 's pieces are used to attack and capture the opponent 's pieces , while supporting their own . In addition to checkmate , the game can be won by voluntary resignation by the opponent , which typically occurs when too much material is lost , or if checkmate appears unavoidable . A game may also result in a draw in several ways .
Chess is believed to have originated in India , some time before the 7th century , being derived from the Indian game of chaturanga . Chaturanga is also the likely ancestor of the Eastern strategy games xiangqi , janggi and shogi . The pieces took on their current powers in Spain in the late 15th century ; the rules were finally standardized in the 19th century . The first generally recognized World Chess Champion , Wilhelm Steinitz , claimed his title in 1886 . Since 1948 , the World Championship has been controlled by FIDE , the game 's international governing body ; the current World Champion is the Norwegian Magnus Carlsen . FIDE also organizes the Women 's World Championship , the World Junior Championship , the World Senior Championship , the Blitz and Rapid World Championships and the Chess Olympiad , a popular competition among teams from different nations . There is also a Correspondence Chess World Championship and a World Computer Chess Championship . Online chess has opened amateur and professional competition to a wide and varied group of players . There are also many chess variants , with different rules , different pieces , and different boards .
FIDE awards titles to skilled players , the highest of which is grandmaster . Many national chess organizations also have a title system . However , these are not recognised by FIDE . The term " master " may refer to a formal title or may be used more loosely for any skilled player .
Chess is a recognized sport of the International Olympic Committee ; some national sporting bodies such as the Spanish Consejo Superior de Deportes also recognize chess as a sport . Chess was included in the 2006 and 2010 Asian Games .
Since the second half of the 20th century , computers have been programmed to play chess with increasing success , to the point where the strongest home computers play chess at a higher level than the best human players . Since the 1990s , computer analysis has contributed significantly to chess theory , particularly in the endgame . The computer IBM Deep Blue was the first machine to overcome a reigning World Chess Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov in 1997 . The rise of strong computer programs ( known as " engines " ) that can be run on hand @-@ held devices has led to increasing concerns about cheating during tournaments .
= = Rules = =
The official rules of chess are maintained by FIDE ( Fédération Internationale des Échecs ) , chess 's international governing body . Along with information on official chess tournaments , the rules are described in the FIDE Handbook , Laws of Chess section .
= = = Setup = = =
Chess is played on a square board of eight rows ( called ranks and denoted with numbers 1 to 8 ) and eight columns ( called files and denoted with letters a to h ) . The colors of the 64 squares alternate and are referred to as " light " and " dark " squares . The chessboard is placed with a light square at the right @-@ hand end of the rank nearest to each player .
By convention , the game pieces are divided into white and black sets , and the players are referred to as " White " and " Black " respectively . Each player begins the game with 16 pieces of the specified color , which consist of one king , one queen , two rooks , two bishops , two knights , and eight pawns . The pieces are set out as shown in the diagram and photo , with each queen on a square of its own color , the white queen on a light square and the black queen on a dark .
= = = Movement = = =
The player with the white pieces always moves first . After the first move , players alternately move one piece per turn ( except for castling , when two pieces are moved ) . Pieces are moved to either an unoccupied square or one occupied by an opponent 's piece , which is captured and removed from play . With the sole exception of en passant , all pieces capture by moving to the square that the opponent 's piece occupies . A player may not make any move that would put or leave his or her king under attack . A player cannot " pass " ; at each turn they have to make a legal move ( this is the basis for the finesse called zugzwang ) .
If the player to move has no legal move , the game is over ; it is either a checkmate ( a loss for the player with no legal moves ) if the king is under attack , or a stalemate ( a draw ) if the king is not .
Each chess piece has its own style of moving . In the diagrams , the dots mark the squares where the piece can move if no other pieces ( including one 's own piece ) are on the squares between the piece 's initial position and its destination .
The king moves one square in any direction . The king has also a special move which is called castling and involves also moving a rook .
The rook can move any number of squares along any rank or file , but may not leap over other pieces . Along with the king , the rook is involved during the king 's castling move .
The bishop can move any number of squares diagonally , but may not leap over other pieces .
The queen combines the power of the rook and bishop and can move any number of squares along rank , file , or diagonal , but it may not leap over other pieces .
The knight moves to any of the closest squares that are not on the same rank , file , or diagonal , thus the move forms an " L " -shape : two squares vertically and one square horizontally , or two squares horizontally and one square vertically . The knight is the only piece that can leap over other pieces .
The pawn may move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same file , or on its first move it may advance two squares along the same file provided both squares are unoccupied ( black " ● " s in the diagram ) ; or the pawn may capture an opponent 's piece on a square diagonally in front of it on an adjacent file , by moving to that square ( black " x " s ) . The pawn has two special moves : the en passant capture and pawn promotion .
= = = Castling = = =
Once in every game , each king is allowed to make a special move , known as castling . Castling consists of moving the king two squares along the first rank toward a rook ( which is on the player 's first rank ) and then placing the rook on the last square the king has just crossed . Castling is permissible under the following conditions :
Neither the king nor the rook may have been previously moved during the game .
There must be no pieces between the king and the rook .
The king may not be in check , nor may the king pass through squares that are under attack by enemy pieces , nor move to a square where it is in check .
Note that castling is permissible if the rook is attacked , or if the rook crosses a square that is attacked .
= = = En passant = = =
When a pawn advances two squares from its starting position and there is an opponent 's pawn on an adjacent file next to its destination square , then the opponent 's pawn can capture it en passant ( in passing ) , and move to the square the pawn passed over . However , this can only be done on the very next move , otherwise the right to do so is forfeit . For example , if the black pawn has just advanced two squares from g7 ( initial starting position ) to g5 , then the white pawn on f5 may take it via en passant on g6 ( but only on white 's next move ) .
= = = Promotion = = =
When a pawn advances to the eighth rank , as a part of the move it is promoted and must be exchanged for the player 's choice of queen , rook , bishop , or knight of the same color . Usually , the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen , but in some cases another piece is chosen ; this is called underpromotion . In the diagram on the right , the pawn on c7 can be advanced to the eighth rank and be promoted to an allowed piece . There is no restriction placed on the piece that is chosen on promotion , so it is possible to have more pieces of the same type than at the start of the game ( for example , two queens ) .
= = = Check = = =
When a king is under immediate attack by one or two of the opponent 's pieces , it is said to be in check . A response to a check is a legal move if it results in a position where the king is no longer under direct attack ( that is , not in check ) . This can involve capturing the checking piece ; interposing a piece between the checking piece and the king ( which is possible only if the attacking piece is a queen , rook , or bishop and there is a square between it and the king ) ; or moving the king to a square where it is not under attack . Castling is not a permissible response to a check . The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent ; this occurs when the opponent 's king is in check , and there is no legal way to remove it from attack . It is illegal for a player to make a move that would put or leave his own king in check .
In casual games it is common to announce " check " when putting the opponent 's king in check , however this is not required by the rules of the game , and is not usually done in tournaments .
= = = End of the game = = =
= = = = Win = = = =
Games may be won in the following ways :
Checkmate
Resignation – either player may resign , conceding the game to the other player . It is usually considered poor etiquette to play on in a truly hopeless position , and for this reason high level games rarely end with a checkmate .
Loss on time – in games with a time control , a player may also lose by running out of time , even with a much superior position .
Forfeit – a player who cheats , or violates the laws of the game , or violates the rules specified for the particular tournament may be forfeited . In high level tournaments , players have been forfeited for such things as arriving late for the game ( even by a matter of seconds ) , receiving a call or text on a cell phone , refusing to undergo a drug test , refusing to undergo a body search for electronic devices and unsporting behavior ( such as refusing to shake the opponent 's hand ) .
= = = = Draw = = = =
Games may end in a draw in several ways :
Draw by agreement – draws are most commonly reached by mutual agreement between the players . The correct procedure is to verbally offer the draw , make a move , then start the opponent 's clock . Traditionally players have been allowed to agree a draw at any time in the game , occasionally even without playing a move ; in recent years efforts have been made to discourage short draws , for example by forbidding draw offers before move thirty .
Stalemate – the player whose turn it is to move is not in check , but has no legal move .
Threefold repetition of a position – this most commonly occurs when neither side is able to avoid repeating moves without incurring a disadvantage . In this situation , either player may claim a draw ; this requires the players to keep a valid written record of the game so that the claim may be verified by the arbiter if challenged . The three occurrences of the position need not occur on consecutive moves for a claim to be valid . FIDE rules make no mention of perpetual check ; this is merely a specific type of draw by threefold repetition .
The fifty @-@ move rule – if during the previous 50 moves no pawn has been moved and no capture has been made , either player may claim a draw , as for the threefold @-@ repetition rule . There are in fact several known endgames where it is theoretically possible to force a mate but which require more than 50 moves before the pawn move or capture is made ; examples include some endgames with two knights against a pawn and some pawnless endgames such as queen against two bishops . These endings are rare , however , and few players study them in detail , so the fifty @-@ move rule is considered practical for over the board play . Some correspondence chess organizations allow exceptions to the fifty @-@ move rule .
Fivefold repetition of a position , similar to the threefold @-@ repetition rule , but in this case no player needs to claim the draw for the game to be drawn . This rule took effect on 1 July 2014 . It establishes that there is a theoretical upper bound on the length of lawful chess games .
The seventy @-@ five @-@ move rule , similar to the fifty @-@ move rule ; however , if the final move in the sequence resulted in checkmate , this takes precedence . As for the fivefold @-@ repetition rule , this applies independently of claims by the players . The rule also took effect on 1 July 2014 and also establishes , independently , an upper bound on the game length
Insufficient material – a player may claim a draw if their opponent has insufficient material to checkmate , for example if the player has only the king left and the opponent has only the king and a bishop . Such a claim is only valid if checkmate is impossible . Under the revised rule that took effect on 1 July 2009 , which only refers to the impossibility of reaching checkmate without explicitly relating this to the players ' material , the game is ended immediately in a draw , not requiring a claim by a player .
= = = Time control = = =
Chess games may also be played with a time control , mostly by club and professional players . If a player 's time runs out before the game is completed , the game is automatically lost ( provided his opponent has enough pieces left to deliver checkmate ) . The duration of a game ranges from long games played up to seven hours to shorter rapid chess games , usually lasting 30 minutes or one hour per game . Even shorter is blitz chess , with a time control of three to 15 minutes for each player , and bullet chess ( under three minutes ) . In tournament play , time is controlled using a game clock that has two displays , one for each player 's remaining time .
= = Notation for recording moves = =
Chess games and positions are recorded using a special notation , most often algebraic chess notation . Abbreviated ( or short ) algebraic notation generally records moves in the format " abbreviation of the piece moved – file where it moved – rank where it moved " . For example , Qg5 means " queen moves to the g @-@ file and 5th rank " ( that is , to the square g5 ) . If there are two pieces of the same type that can move to the same square , one more letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved , e.g. Ngf3 means " knight from the g @-@ file moves to the square f3 " . The letter P indicating a pawn is not used , so that e4 means " pawn moves to the square e4 " .
If the piece makes a capture , " x " is inserted before the destination square . Thus Bxf3 means " bishop captures on f3 " . When a pawn makes a capture , the file from which the pawn departed is used in place of a piece initial , and ranks may be omitted if unambiguous . For example , exd5 ( pawn on the e @-@ file captures the piece on d5 ) or exd ( pawn on the e @-@ file captures a piece somewhere on the d @-@ file ) .
If a pawn moves to its last rank , achieving promotion , the piece chosen is indicated after the move , for example e1Q or e1 = Q. Castling is indicated by the special notations 0 @-@ 0 for kingside castling and 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 for queenside castling . An en passant capture is sometimes marked with the notation " e.p. " A move that places the opponent 's king in check usually has the notation " + " added . ( The notation " + + " for a double check is considered obsolete ) . Checkmate can be indicated by " # " . At the end of the game , " 1 – 0 " means " White won " , " 0 – 1 " means " Black won " , and " ½ – ½ " indicates a draw .
Chess moves can be annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols . For example , " ! " indicates a good move , " ! ! " an excellent move , " ? " a mistake , " ? ? " a blunder , " ! ? " an interesting move that may not be best , or " ? ! " a dubious move not easily refuted .
For example , one variant of a simple trap known as the Scholar 's mate ( see animated diagram ) can be recorded :
1 @.@ e4 e5
2 . Qh5 ? ! Nc6
3 . Bc4 Nf6 ? ?
4 . Qxf7 # 1 – 0
Until about 1980 , the majority of English language chess literature used a form of descriptive notation , whereby files are named according to the piece which occupies the back rank at the start of the game , and each square has two different names depending on whether it is from White 's or Black 's point of view . For example , the square known as " e3 " in algebraic notation is " K3 " ( King 's 3rd ) from White 's point of view , and " K6 " ( King 's 6th ) from Black 's point of view . The " Scholar 's mate " is rendered thus in descriptive notation :
1 . P @-@ K4 P @-@ K4
2 . Q @-@ R5 ? ! N @-@ QB3
3 . B @-@ B4 N @-@ B3 ? ?
4 . QxBP # 1 @-@ 0
A few mostly older players still prefer descriptive notation ; however , it is no longer recognized by FIDE .
= = Strategy and tactics = =
Chess strategy consists of setting and achieving long @-@ term positioning advantages during the game – for example , where to place different pieces – while tactics concentrate on immediate maneuver . These two parts of the chess @-@ playing process cannot be completely separated , because strategic goals are mostly achieved through tactics , while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play . A game of chess is normally divided into three phases : opening , typically the first 10 moves , when players move their pieces to useful positions for the coming battle ; then middlegame ; and last the endgame , when most of the pieces are gone , kings typically take a more active part in the struggle , and pawn promotion is often decisive .
= = = Fundamentals of tactics = = =
In chess , tactics in general concentrate on short @-@ term actions – so short @-@ term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player or by a computer . The possible depth of calculation depends on the player 's ability . In quiet positions with many possibilities on both sides , a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical , while in " tactical " positions with a limited number of forced variations , strong players can calculate long sequences of moves .
Simple one @-@ move or two @-@ move tactical actions – threats , exchanges of material , and double attacks – can be combined into more complicated combinations , sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players . Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers ; for example , pins , forks , skewers , batteries , discovered attacks ( especially discovered checks ) , zwischenzugs , deflections , decoys , sacrifices , underminings , overloadings , and interferences .
A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a combination . Brilliant combinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers . A common type of chess exercise , aimed at developing players ' skills , is showing players a position where a decisive combination is available and challenging them to find it .
= = = Fundamentals of strategy = = =
Chess strategy is concerned with evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long @-@ term plans for the future play . During the evaluation , players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board , control of the center and centralization , the pawn structure , king safety , and the control of key squares or groups of squares ( for example , diagonals , open files , and dark or light squares ) .
The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides . The point values used for this purpose are based on experience ; usually pawns are considered worth one point , knights and bishops about three points each , rooks about five points ( the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight being known as the exchange ) , and queens about nine points . The king is more valuable than all of the other pieces combined , since its checkmate loses the game . But in practical terms , in the endgame the king as a fighting piece is generally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook . These basic values are then modified by other factors like position of the piece ( for example , advanced pawns are usually more valuable than those on their initial squares ) , coordination between pieces ( for example , a pair of bishops usually coordinate better than a bishop and a knight ) , or the type of position ( knights are generally better in closed positions with many pawns while bishops are more powerful in open positions ) .
Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is the pawn structure ( sometimes known as the pawn skeleton ) , or the configuration of pawns on the chessboard . Since pawns are the least mobile of the chess pieces , the pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategic nature of the position . Weaknesses in the pawn structure , such as isolated , doubled , or backward pawns and holes , once created , are often permanent . Care must therefore be taken to avoid these weaknesses unless they are compensated by another valuable asset ( for example , by the possibility of developing an attack ) .
= = Phases = =
= = = Opening = = =
A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game ( the " opening moves " ) . Recognized sequences of opening moves are referred to as openings and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defence . They are catalogued in reference works such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings . There are dozens of different openings , varying widely in character from quiet positional play ( for example , the Réti Opening ) to very aggressive ( the Latvian Gambit ) . In some opening lines , the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to more than 30 moves . Professional players spend years studying openings and continue doing so throughout their careers , as opening theory continues to evolve .
The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar :
Development : This is the technique of placing the pieces ( particularly bishops and knights ) on useful squares where they will have an optimal impact on the game .
Control of the center : Control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relatively easily , and can also have a cramping effect on the opponent .
King safety : It is critical to keep the king safe from dangerous possibilities . A correctly timed castling can often enhance this .
Pawn structure : Players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated , doubled , or backward pawns , and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent 's position .
Most players and theoreticians consider that White , by virtue of the first move , begins the game with a small advantage . This initially gives White the initiative . Black usually strives to neutralize White 's advantage and achieve equality , or to develop dynamic counterplay in an unbalanced position .
= = = Middlegame = = =
The middlegame is the part of the game which starts after the opening . There is no clear line between the opening and the middlegame , but typically the middlegame will start when most pieces have been developed . ( Similarly , there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the endgame ; see start of the endgame . ) Because the opening theory has ended , players have to form plans based on the features of the position , and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of the position . The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur . Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain . Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent 's king ; some typical patterns have their own names ; for example , the Boden 's Mate or the Lasker – Bauer combination .
Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings which result in a specific type of pawn structure . An example is the minority attack , which is the attack of queenside pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside . The study of openings is therefore connected to the preparation of plans that are typical of the resulting middlegames .
Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transition into an endgame ( i.e. simplify ) . Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame , and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending . Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose ; for example , if one side keeps a light @-@ squared bishop and the opponent has a dark @-@ squared one , the transformation into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only , because an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a draw , even with an advantage of a pawn , or sometimes even with a two @-@ pawn advantage .
= = = Endgame = = =
The endgame ( or end game or ending ) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board . There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and endgame :
During the endgame , pawns become more important ; endgames often revolve around attempting to promote a pawn by advancing it to the eighth rank .
The king , which has to be protected in the middlegame owing to the threat of checkmate , becomes a strong piece in the endgame . It is often brought to the center of the board where it can protect its own pawns , attack the pawns of opposite color , and hinder movement of the opponent 's king .
Zugzwang , a disadvantage because the player has to make a move , is often a factor in endgames but rarely in other stages of the game . For example , the diagram on the right is zugzwang for both sides , as with Black to move he must play 1 ... Kb7 and let White promote a pawn after 2.Kd7 ; and with White to move he must allow a draw , either by 1.Kc6 stalemate , or by losing his last pawn after any other legal move .
Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces that remain on board . Basic checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate the opposing king , with the pieces working together with their king . For example , king and pawn endgames involve only kings and pawns on one or both sides and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns . Other more complicated endings are classified according to the pieces on board other than kings , such as the " rook and pawn versus rook endgame . "
= = History = =
= = = Predecessors = = =
Chess is believed to have originated in Eastern India , c . 280 – 550 , in the Gupta Empire , where its early form in the 6th century was known as chaturaṅga ( Sanskrit : चतुरङ ् ग ) , literally four divisions [ of the military ] – infantry , cavalry , elephants , and chariotry , represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn , knight , bishop , and rook , respectively . Thence it spread eastward and westward along the silk road . The earliest evidence of chess is found in the nearby Sassanid Persia around 600 , where the game came to be known by the name chatrang . Chatrang was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia ( 633 – 44 ) , where it was then named shatranj , with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names . In Spanish " shatranj " was rendered as ajedrez ( " al @-@ shatranj " ) , in Portuguese as xadrez , and in Greek as ζατρίκιον ( zatrikion , which comes directly from the Persian chatrang ) , but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh ( " king " ) , which was familiar as an exclamation and became the English words " check " and " chess " .
The oldest archaeological artifacts , ivory chess pieces , were excavated in ancient Afrasiab , today 's Samarkand , in Uzbekistan , central Asia , and date to about 760 , with some of them possibly older . The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to 840 @-@ 850 , written by al @-@ Adli ar @-@ Rumi ( 800 @-@ 870 ) , a renowned Arab chess player , titled Kitab ash @-@ shatranj ( Book of the chess ) . This is a lost manuscript , but referenced in later works . The eastern migration of chess , into China and Southeast Asia , has even less documentation than its migration west . The first reference to chess , called Xiang Qi , in China comes in the xuán guaì lù ( 玄怪录 , record of the mysterious and strange ) dating to about 800 . Alternately , some contend that chess arose from Chinese chess or one of its predecessors , although this has been contested .
The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes , the earliest being in the 9th century . By the year 1000 , it had spread throughout Europe . Introduced into the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors in the 10th century , it was described in a famous 13th @-@ century manuscript covering shatranj , backgammon , and dice named the Libro de los juegos .
= = = Origins of the modern game ( 1200 – 1700 ) = = =
Around 1200 , the rules of shatranj started to be modified in southern Europe , and around 1475 , several major changes made the game essentially as it is known today . These modern rules for the basic moves had been adopted in Italy and Spain . Pawns gained the option of advancing two squares on their first move , while bishops and queens acquired their modern abilities . The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece towards the end of the 10th century and by the 15th century had become the most powerful piece ; consequently modern chess was referred to as " Queen 's Chess " or " Mad Queen Chess " . Castling , derived from the ' kings leap ' usually in combination with a pawn or rook move to bring the king to safety , was introduced . These new rules quickly spread throughout western Europe . The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century . Also in the 19th century , the convention that White moves first was established ( formerly either White or Black could move first ) . Finally the rules around castling were standardized – variations in the castling rules had persisted in Italy until the late 19th century . The resulting standard game is sometimes referred to as Western chess or international chess , particularly in Asia where other games of the chess family such as xiangqi are prevalent . Since the 19th century , the only rule changes have been technical in nature , for example establishing the correct procedure for claiming a draw by repetition .
Writings about the theory of how to play chess began to appear in the 15th century . The Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez ( Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess ) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramirez de Lucena was published in Salamanca in 1497 . Lucena and later masters like Portuguese Pedro Damiano , Italians Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona , Giulio Cesare Polerio and Gioachino Greco , and Spanish bishop Ruy López de Segura developed elements of openings and started to analyze simple endgames .
= = = The Romantic Era in Chess ( 1700 @-@ 1873 ) = = =
The romantic era was characterized by opening gambits ( sacrificing pawns or even pieces ) , daring attacks , and brazen sacrifices . Many elaborate and beautiful but unsound move sequences called ' combinations ' were played by the masters of the time . The game was played more for art than theory . A profound belief that chess merit resided in the players ' genius rather than inherent in the position on the board pervaded chess practice .
In the 18th century , the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to France . The two most important French masters were François @-@ André Danican Philidor , a musician by profession , who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy , and later Louis @-@ Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais , who won a famous series of matches with the Irish master Alexander McDonnell in 1834 . Centers of chess activity in this period were coffee houses in big European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and Simpson 's Divan in London .
As the 19th century progressed , chess organization developed quickly . Many chess clubs , chess books , and chess journals appeared . There were correspondence matches between cities ; for example , the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824 . Chess problems became a regular part of 19th @-@ century newspapers ; Bernhard Horwitz , Josef Kling , and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems . In 1843 , von der Lasa published his and Bilguer 's Handbuch des Schachspiels ( Handbook of Chess ) , the first comprehensive manual of chess theory .
The first modern chess tournament was organized by Howard Staunton , a leading English chess player , and was held in London in 1851 . It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen , who was hailed as the leading chess master . His brilliant , energetic attacking style was typical for the time . Sparkling games like Anderssen 's Immortal game and Evergreen game or Morphy 's Opera game were regarded as the highest possible summit of the chess art .
Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players . American Paul Morphy , an extraordinary chess prodigy , won against all important competitors ( except Howard Staunton , who refused to play ) , including Anderssen , during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863 . Morphy 's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy ; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks .
= = = Birth of a sport ( 1873 – 1945 ) = = =
Prague @-@ born Wilhelm Steinitz beginning in 1873 described how to avoid weaknesses in one 's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent 's position . The scientific approach and positional understanding of Steinitz revolutionized the game . Steinitz was the first to break a position down into its components . Before Steinitz , players brought their queen out early , did not completely develop their other pieces , and mounted a quick attack on the opposing king , which either succeeded or failed . The level of defense was poor and players did not form any deep plan . In addition to his theoretical achievements , Steinitz founded an important tradition : his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship . Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger player , the German mathematician Emanuel Lasker , who maintained this title for 27 years , the longest tenure of all World Champions .
After the end of the 19th century , the number of master tournaments and matches held annually quickly grew . Some sources state that in 1914 the title of chess Grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker , Capablanca , Alekhine , Tarrasch , and Marshall , but this is a disputed claim . The tradition of awarding such titles was continued by the World Chess Federation ( FIDE ) , founded in 1924 in Paris . In 1927 , the Women 's World Chess Championship was established ; the first to hold the title was Czech @-@ English master Vera Menchik . It took a prodigy from Cuba , José Raúl Capablanca ( World Champion 1921 – 27 ) , who loved simple positions and endgames , to end the German @-@ speaking dominance in chess ; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years , until 1924 . His successor was Russian @-@ French Alexander Alekhine , a strong attacking player who died as the World champion in 1946 . He briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935 and regained it two years later .
Between the world wars , chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so @-@ called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti . They advocated controlling the center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns , which invited opponents to occupy the center with pawns , which become objects of attack .
= = = Post @-@ war era ( 1945 and later ) = = =
After the death of Alekhine , a new World Champion was sought . FIDE , which has controlled the title since then ( except for one interruption ) , ran a tournament of elite players . The winner of the 1948 tournament , Russian Mikhail Botvinnik , started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world . Until the end of the Soviet Union , there was only one non @-@ Soviet champion , American Bobby Fischer ( champion 1972 – 75 ) . Botvinnik revolutionized opening theory . Previously Black strove for equality , to neutralize White 's first @-@ move advantage . As Black , Botvinnik strove for the initiative from the beginning . In the previous informal system of World Championships , the current champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match . FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches . The world 's strongest players were seeded into Interzonal tournaments , where they were joined by players who had qualified from Zonal tournaments . The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the " Candidates " stage , which was initially a tournament , and later a series of knockout matches . The winner of the Candidates would then play the reigning champion for the title . A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later . This system operated on a three @-@ year cycle . Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years . He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954 . In 1957 , he lost to Vasily Smyslov , but regained the title in a rematch in 1958 . In 1960 , he lost the title to the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal , an accomplished tactician and attacking player . Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961 .
Following the 1961 event , FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch , and the next champion , Armenian Tigran Petrosian , a player renowned for his defensive and positional skills , held the title for two cycles , 1963 – 69 . His successor , Boris Spassky from Russia ( champion 1969 – 72 ) , won games in both positional and sharp tactical style . The next championship , the so @-@ called Match of the Century , saw the first non @-@ Soviet challenger since World War II , American Bobby Fischer , who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard @-@ of margins and clearly won the world championship match . In 1975 , however , Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when FIDE did not meet his demands , and Karpov obtained the title by default . Fischer modernized many aspects of chess , especially by extensively preparing openings .
Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes . Karpov 's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of Garry Kasparov , another Soviet player from Baku , Azerbaijan . Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990 ; Karpov never won his title back . In 1993 , Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competing Professional Chess Association ( PCA ) . From then until 2006 , there were two simultaneous World Champions and World Championships : the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games , and the other following FIDE 's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion . Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia . The World Chess Championship 2006 , in which Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov , reunified the titles and made Kramnik the undisputed World Chess Champion . In September 2007 , he lost the title to Viswanathan Anand of India , who won the championship tournament in Mexico City . Anand defended his title in the revenge match of 2008 , 2010 and 2012 . In 2013 , Magnus Carlsen beat Anand in the 2013 World Chess Championship . He defended his title the following year , again against Anand , and is the reigning world champion .
Chess remains a highly popular pastime among the general populace . A 2012 survey found that " chess players now make up one of the largest communities in the world : 605 million adults play chess regularly " . Chess is played at least once a year by 12 % of British people , 15 % of Americans , 23 % of Germans , 43 % of Russians , and 70 % of Indian people .
= = Place in culture = =
= = = Pre @-@ modern = = =
In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance , chess was a part of noble culture ; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the " King 's Game " . Gentlemen are " to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes " , says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione 's The Book of the Courtier ( 1528 , English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby ) , but chess should not be a gentleman 's main passion . Castiglione explains it further :
And what say you to the game at chestes ? It is truely an honest kynde of enterteynmente and wittie , quoth Syr Friderick . But me think it hath a fault , whiche is , that a man may be to couning at it , for who ever will be excellent in the playe of chestes , I beleave he must beestowe much tyme about it , and applie it with so much study , that a man may assoone learne some noble scyence , or compase any other matter of importaunce , and yet in the ende in beestowing all that laboure , he knoweth no more but a game . Therfore in this I beleave there happeneth a very rare thing , namely , that the meane is more commendable , then the excellency .
Many of the elaborate chess sets used by the aristocracy have been lost , but others partially survive , such as the Lewis chessmen .
Chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality . An example is Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum ( ' Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess ' ) , written by an Italian Dominican monk Jacobus de Cessolis c . 1300 . This book was one of the most popular of the Middle Ages . The work was translated into many other languages ( the first printed edition was published at Utrecht in 1473 ) and was the basis for William Caxton 's The Game and Playe of the Chesse ( 1474 ) , one of the first books printed in English . Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people , and human duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces :
The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse that he haue an helme on his heed and a spere in his ryght hande / and coueryd wyth his sheld / a swerde and a mace on his lyft syde / Cladd wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste / legge harnoys on his legges / Spores on his heelis on his handes his gauntelettes / his hors well broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid with his armes / whan the knyghtes ben maad they ben bayned or bathed / that is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners / also they wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle gyue hem grace that they may gete that thynge that they may not gete by nature / The kynge or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in signe / that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyr dispenses and dignyte .
Known in the circles of clerics , students , and merchants , chess entered into the popular culture of Middle Ages . An example is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the 13th century , which starts with the names of chess pieces , Roch , pedites , regina ...
= = = Modern = = =
During the Age of Enlightenment , chess was viewed as a means of self @-@ improvement . Benjamin Franklin , in his article " The Morals of Chess " ( 1750 ) , wrote :
The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement ; several very valuable qualities of the mind , useful in the course of human life , are to be acquired and strengthened by it , so as to become habits ready on all occasions ; for life is a kind of Chess , in which we have often points to gain , and competitors or adversaries to contend with , and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events , that are , in some degree , the effect of prudence , or the want of it . By playing at Chess then , we may learn :
I. Foresight , which looks a little into futurity , and considers the consequences that may attend an action [ ... ]
II . Circumspection , which surveys the whole Chess @-@ board , or scene of action : – the relation of the several Pieces , and their situations [ ... ]
III . Caution , not to make our moves too hastily [ ... ]
With these or similar hopes , chess is taught to children in schools around the world today . Many schools host chess clubs , and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children . Tournaments are held regularly in many countries , hosted by organizations such as the United States Chess Federation and the National Scholastic Chess Foundation .
Chess is often depicted in the arts ; significant works where chess plays a key role range from Thomas Middleton 's A Game at Chess to Through the Looking @-@ Glass by Lewis Carroll to The Royal Game by Stefan Zweig and Vladimir Nabokov 's The Defense . The thriller film Knight Moves is about a chess grandmaster who is accused of being a serial killer . Chess is featured in films like Ingmar Bergman 's The Seventh Seal and Satyajit Ray 's The Chess Players . Chess is also present in the contemporary popular culture . For example , J. K. Rowling 's Harry Potter plays " Wizard 's Chess " , while the characters of Star Trek prefer " Tri @-@ Dimensional Chess " . The hero of Searching for Bobby Fischer struggles against adopting the aggressive and misanthropic views of a world chess champion . Chess has been used as the core theme of a musical , Chess , by Tim Rice , Björn Ulvaeus , and Benny Andersson . Pawn Sacrifice starring Tobey Maguire as Bobby Fischer and Liev Schreiber as Boris Spassky depicts the 1972 World Chess Championship in Iceland during the Cold War and Fischer 's subsequent descent into madness .
= = Composition = =
Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems ( the problems themselves are sometimes also called chess compositions ) . A person who creates such problems is known as a chess composer . There are many types of chess problems . The two most important are :
Directmates : white to move first and checkmate black within a specified number of moves against any defense . These are often referred to as " mate in n " – for example " mate in three " ( a three @-@ mover ) ; two and three move problems are the most common . These usually involve positions which would be highly unlikely to occur in an actual game , and are intended to illustrate a particular " theme " , usually requiring a surprising or counter @-@ intuitive " key move " .
Studies : orthodox problems in which the stipulation is that white to play must win or draw . Almost all studies are endgame positions .
Chess composition is a distinct branch of chess sport , and tournaments ( or tourneys ) exist for both the composition and solving of chess problems .
= = = Example = = =
This is one of the most famous chess studies ; it was published by Richard Réti in 1921 . It seems impossible to catch the advanced black pawn , while the black king can easily stop the white pawn . The solution is a diagonal advance , which brings the king to both pawns simultaneously :
1 . Kg7 ! h4 2 . Kf6 ! Kb6
Or 2 ... h3 3.Ke7 and the white king can support its pawn .
3 . Ke5 ! !
Now the white king comes just in time to support his pawn , or catch the black one .
3 ... h3 4 . Kd6 ½ – ½
= = Competitive play = =
= = = Organization of competitions = = =
Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues , tournaments , and congresses . Chess 's international governing body is FIDE ( Fédération Internationale des Échecs ) . Most countries have a national chess organization as well ( such as the US Chess Federation and English Chess Federation ) which in turn is a member of FIDE . FIDE is a member of the International Olympic Committee , but the game of chess has never been part of the Olympic Games ; chess does have its own Olympiad , held every two years as a team event .
The current World Chess Champion is Magnus Carlsen of Norway . The reigning Women 's World Champion is Hou Yifan from China . The world 's highest rated female player , Judit Polgár , has never participated in the Women 's World Chess Championship , instead preferring to compete with the leading men and maintaining a ranking among the top male players .
Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship , the European Individual Chess Championship , and the National Chess Championships . Invitation @-@ only tournaments regularly attract the world 's strongest players . Examples include Spain 's Linares event , Monte Carlo 's Melody Amber tournament , the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting , Sofia 's M @-@ tel Masters , and Wijk aan Zee 's Tata Steel tournament .
Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Chess Championship . The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championships include both team and individual events .
Besides these prestigious competitions , there are thousands of other chess tournaments , matches , and festivals held around the world every year catering to players of all levels . Chess is promoted as a " mind sport " by the Mind Sports Organisation , alongside other mental @-@ skill games such as Contract Bridge , Go , and Scrabble .
= = = Titles and rankings = = =
The best players can be awarded specific lifetime titles by the world chess organization FIDE :
Grandmaster ( shortened as GM ; sometimes International Grandmaster or IGM is used ) is awarded to world @-@ class chess masters . Apart from World Champion , Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain . Before FIDE will confer the title on a player , the player must have an Elo chess rating ( see below ) of at least 2500 at one time and three favorable results ( called norms ) in tournaments involving other grandmasters , including some from countries other than the applicant 's . There are other milestones a player can achieve to attain the title , such as winning the World Junior Championship .
International Master ( shortened as IM ) . The conditions are similar to GM , but less demanding . The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400 .
FIDE Master ( shortened as FM ) . The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE rating of 2300 or more .
Candidate Master ( shortened as CM ) . Similar to FM , but with a FIDE rating of at least 2200 .
All the titles are open to men and women . Separate women @-@ only titles , such as Woman Grandmaster ( WGM ) , are available . Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978 , a number of women have earned the GM title , and most of the top ten women in 2006 hold the unrestricted GM title .
As of August 2011 , there are 1363 active grandmasters and 3153 international masters in the world . Top three countries with the largest numbers of grandmasters are Russia , Ukraine , and Germany , with 208 , 78 , and 76 . The country with most grandmasters per capita is Iceland , with 11 GMs and 13 IMs among the population of 310 @,@ 000 .
International titles are awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players ( by the International Correspondence Chess Federation ) . National chess organizations may also award titles , usually to the advanced players still under the level needed for international titles ; an example is the Chess expert title used in the United States .
In order to rank players , FIDE , ICCF , and national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by Arpad Elo . Elo is a statistical system based on the assumption that the chess performance of each player in their games is a random variable . Arpad Elo thought of a player 's true skill as the average of that player 's performance random variable , and showed how to estimate the average from results of player 's games . The US Chess Federation implemented Elo 's suggestions in 1960 , and the system quickly gained recognition as being both fairer and more accurate than older systems ; it was adopted by FIDE in 1970 . The highest FIDE rating of all time , 2881 , was achieved by Magnus Carlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating list .
= = Publications = =
Chess has a very extensive literature . In 1913 , the chess historian H. J. R. Murray estimated the total number of books , magazines , and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5 @,@ 000 . B.H. Wood estimated the number , as of 1949 , to be about 20 @,@ 000 . David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that , " Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications . No one knows how many have been printed . " There are two significant public chess libraries : the John G. White Chess and Checkers Collection at Cleveland Public Library , with over 32 @,@ 000 chess books and over 6 @,@ 000 bound volumes of chess periodicals ; and the Chess & Draughts collection at the National Library of the Netherlands , with about 30 @,@ 000 books . Grandmaster Lothar Schmid owned the world 's largest private collection of chess books and memorabilia . David DeLucia 's chess library contains 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 chess books , a similar number of autographs ( letters , score sheets , manuscripts ) , and about 1 @,@ 000 items of " ephemera " . Dirk Jan ten Geuzendam opines that DeLucia 's collection " is arguably the finest chess collection in the world " .
= = Mathematics and computers = =
The game structure and nature of chess are related to several branches of mathematics . Many combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess have been known of for hundreds of years .
= = = Combinatorics of chess and chess puzzles = = =
The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be about 1043 , and is provably less than 1047 , with a game @-@ tree complexity of approximately 10123 . The game @-@ tree complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10120 , a number known as the Shannon number . Typically an average position has thirty to forty possible moves , but there may be as few as zero ( in the case of checkmate or stalemate ) or as many as 218 .
Chess has inspired many combinatorial puzzles , such as the knight 's tour and the eight queens puzzle .
= = = Computer chess = = =
One of the most important mathematical challenges of chess is the development of algorithms that can play chess . The idea of creating a chess @-@ playing machine dates to the 18th century ; around 1769 , the chess @-@ playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax . Serious trials based on automata , such as El Ajedrecista , were too complex and limited to be useful .
Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s , chess enthusiasts , computer engineers and computer scientists have built , with increasing degrees of seriousness and success , chess @-@ playing machines and computer programs . The groundbreaking paper on computer chess , " Programming a Computer for Playing Chess " , was published in 1950 by Shannon . He wrote :
The chess machine is an ideal one to start with , since : ( 1 ) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations ( the moves ) and in the ultimate goal ( checkmate ) ; ( 2 ) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution ; ( 3 ) chess is generally considered to require " thinking " for skillful play ; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict our concept of " thinking " ; ( 4 ) the discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature of modern computers .
The Association for Computing Machinery ( ACM ) held the first major chess tournament for computers , the North American Computer Chess Championship , in September 1970 . CHESS 3 @.@ 0 , a chess program from Northwestern University , won the championship . Nowadays , chess programs compete in the World Computer Chess Championship , held annually since 1974 . At first considered only a curiosity , the best chess playing programs , for example Rybka , have become extremely strong . In 1997 , a computer won a chess match against a reigning World Champion for the first time : IBM 's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov 3 ½ – 2 ½ ( it scored two wins , one loss , and three draws ) . In 2009 , a mobile phone won a category 6 tournament with a performance rating 2898 : chess engine Hiarcs 13 running on the mobile phone HTC Touch HD won the Copa Mercosur tournament with nine wins and one draw . The best chess programs are now able to consistently beat the strongest human players , to the extent that human @-@ computer matches no longer attract interest from chess players or media .
With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability , computers can help players to learn chess and prepare for matches . Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents all over the world . The presence of computers and modern communication tools have raised concerns regarding cheating during games , most notably the " bathroom controversy " during the 2006 World Championship .
= = = Relation to game theory = = =
In 1913 , Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game strategies , which is considered as one of the predecessors of game theory . Zermelo 's theorem states that it is possible to solve chess , i.e. to determine with certainty the outcome of a perfectly played game ( either white can force a win , or black can force a win , or both sides can force at least a draw ) . However , according to Claude Shannon , there are 1043 legal positions in chess , so it will take an impossibly long time to compute a perfect strategy with any feasible technology .
The 11 @-@ category , game theoretical taxonomy of chess includes : two player , no @-@ chance , combinatorial , Markov state ( present state is all a player needs to move ; although past state led up to that point , knowledge of the sequence of past moves is not required to make the next move , except to take into account of en passant and castling , which do depend on the past moves ) , zero sum , symmetric , perfect information , non @-@ cooperative , discrete , extensive form ( tree decisions , not payoff matrices ) , sequential .
= = = Computational complexity = = =
Generalized chess ( played on n x n board , without 50 @-@ move drawing rule ) is EXPTIME @-@ complete .
= = = Combinatorial game theory = = =
Some applications of combinatorial game theory to chess endgames was found by Elkies ( 1996 ) .
Some positions in infinite chess ( an infinite chessboard , with one king of each color , but unlimited number of other pieces ) with transfinite combinatorial game values were constructed in Evans and Hamkins ( 2013 ) .
= = Psychology = =
There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology . Alfred Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal , rather than visuospatial , ability lies at the core of expertise . In his doctoral thesis , Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position . According to de Groot , this perception , made possible by years of practice and study , is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves . De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly . The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess @-@ playing skill , since masters and novices , when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces , had equivalent recall ( about half a dozen positions in each case ) . Rather , it is the ability to recognize patterns , which are then memorized , which distinguished the skilled players from the novices . When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game , the masters had almost total positional recall .
More recent research has focused on chess as mental training ; the respective roles of knowledge and look @-@ ahead search ; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices ; blindfold chess ; the role of personality and intelligence in chess skill ; gender differences ; and computational models of chess expertise . The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to a lot of research recently . Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess . Recent research indicates that factors other than practice are also important . For example , Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early spring . Chess players are more likely to be non @-@ right @-@ handed , though they found no correlation between handedness and skill .
= = = Chess and intelligence = = =
Although the link between performance in chess and general intelligence is often assumed , researchers have largely failed to confirm its existence . For example , a 2006 study found no differences in fluid intelligence , as measured by Raven 's Progressive Matrices , between strong adult chess players and regular people . There is some evidence towards a correlation between performance in chess and intelligence among beginning players . However , performance in chess also relies substantially on one 's experience playing the game , and the role of experience may overwhelm the role of intelligence . Chess experts are estimated to have in excess of 10 @,@ 000 and possibly as many as 300 @,@ 000 position patterns stored in their memory ; long training is necessary to acquire that amount of data .
A 2007 study of young chess players in the United Kingdom found that strong players tended to have above @-@ average IQ scores , but , within that group , the correlation between chess skill and IQ was moderately negative , meaning that smarter children tended to achieve a lower level of chess skill . This result was explained by a negative correlation between intelligence and practice in the elite subsample , and by practice having a higher influence on chess skill .
= = Variants = =
There are more than two thousand published chess variants , most of them of relatively recent origin . Variants can include :
direct predecessors of chess such as chaturanga and shatranj ;
traditional national or regional games which share common ancestors with Western chess such as xiangqi , shogi , janggi , makruk , and sittuyin ;
modern variations employing different rules ( e.g. Losing chess ) , or different forces ( e.g. Dunsany 's chess ) , or non @-@ standard pieces ( e.g. Grand Chess ) , or different board geometries ( e.g. hexagonal chess ) . One of the most popular modern variants is Chess960 , where the starting position is selected randomly , rendering the use of prepared opening lines impracticable .
In the context of chess variants , regular ( i.e. FIDE ) chess is sometimes referred to as Western chess , international chess , orthodox chess or orthochess .
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= Express ( Christina Aguilera song ) =
" Express " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for the accompanying soundtrack album to her film Burlesque ( 2010 ) . Written by Aguilera , C. " Tricky " Stewart and Claude Kelly and was produced by Stewart , " Express " is an uptempo electropop number . The track premiered on November 3 , 2010 on On Air with Ryan Seacrest to promote the soundtrack . It was also released to Australian radio as a single on December 6 , 2010 .
" Express " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who praised its both old @-@ school – and – contemporary sound . It attained moderate chart success , peaking at number two on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles and also charting in other territories . Aguilera performed the track at the American Music Awards of 2010 and on the seventh season of British television singing contest The X Factor .
= = Background and composition = =
In support of her sixth studio album , Bionic , Aguilera planned to embark on the Bionic Tour . However , on May 24 , 2010 , the singer and tour promoter Live Nation both posted messages on their websites stating that due to excessive promotion of Bionic and preparing for her upcoming film debut in Burlesque , she felt she would need more time to be able to put together a show that her fans deserve to see . Aguilera stated that this was not possible to do in less than one month between the release of the album and the start of the tour as she would need more time to rehearse . For the accompanying soundtrack for the film , Aguilera worked with Tricky Stewart ; he co @-@ wrote and produced two songs , " Show Me How You Burlesque " and " Express " , and produced several other tracks including " Something 's Got a Hold on Me " , " Tough Lover " and " But I Am a Good Girl " . " Express " was premiered on the On Air with Ryan Seacrest radio show ( KIIS @-@ FM ) on November 3 , 2010 as a promotional single from the album .
" Express " was written by Aguilera , Christopher Stewart and Claude Kelly , and was produced by Tricky Stewart . Aguilera 's vocals on the track span two octaves , from the low @-@ note of E3 to the high @-@ note of E5 . It is an electropop song ; the melody of " Express " is similar to the old @-@ school style of " Lady Marmalade " , and has a dance production . Thus , " Express " has an old @-@ school sound , but is also modern . Lyrically , the song evokes sexual theme , as she " seductively " sings , " Show a little leg , you gotta shimmy your chest " .
= = Reception = =
" Express " received mainly positive reviews from music critics . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine called the song " nasty , buzzing bump @-@ and @-@ grind " and " a bionic ' Lady Marmalade ' " . Blogcritics thought that " Express " , among with " Show Me How You Burlesque " are the two songs that " work better in the context of the movie , where the elaborate visuals help distract from their lack of melody and strong hooks " . An online website , Movie @-@ Moron was positive toward the track , saying that it is " the most modern sounding thing " in the soundtrack , also compared " Express " to Aguilera 's 2002 single " Dirrty " .
Commercially , " Express " charted on several music charts worldwide , despite not being released as an official single . In the United States , the song peaked at number two on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . In the United Kingdom , " Express " peaked at number 75 on the UK Singles Chart , and also charted on the UK R & B Chart at number 21 on December 25 , 2010 . On the Swiss Singles Chart , " Express " debuted and peaked at number 54 on January 21 , 2011 , and stayed there for 3 weeks . In Japan , the track also peaked at number 68 .
= = Live performances = =
To promote " Express " and Burlesque , Aguilera has performed the track on two shows . Aguilera performed " Express " for the first time at the American Music Awards of 2010 on November 21 , 2010 , held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles , California . During an interview with MTV News about the performance , Aguilera stated that the performance would be " fantastic " and would " give a fitting look inside the movie " . Wearing a " black spangly bodysuit " with knee @-@ high boots and a bowler , Aguilera seated in a chair with her back to the audience in the beginning of the show . She began to snap her fingers and leaned into the " jazzy , skittery rhythms " of " Express " . Later , the scene revealed a set made up to mimic the backstage at a burlesque club , with the singer surrounded by a number of dancers . Gil Kaufman of MTV News said that the performance is a flash back to the " Dirrty @-@ era " of Aguilera .
On December 11 , 2010 , Aguilera performed " Express " again on the seventh series of British television singing contest The X Factor . During the show , the singer cavorted around the stage in her lingerie with her " army of scantily clad female dancers " . Aguilera 's performance , as well as Rihanna 's one of " What 's My Name ? " , received criticism for being inappropriate for pre @-@ watershed television . ITV was later exonerated and the performances were deemed to be " at the limit " of acceptability for pre @-@ watershed television . However , Ofcom received about 2 @,@ 868 complaints about the matter .
= = Parody = =
On February 18 , 2011 , a video featuring a 10 @-@ year @-@ old Taiwanese boy dressing in drag and performing a dance number choreographed to " Express " , channeling Aguilera 's performance of the song in Burlesque , was uploaded to the Internet . The video was met with controversy , with Billboard magazine questioning if " the kid 's parents filmed his sexualized dance routine and uploaded it to YouTube " .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= BuzzSaw ( roller coaster ) =
BuzzSaw is a Maurer Söhne SkyLoop roller coaster located within the Town of Gold Rush section of the Dreamworld amusement park on the Gold Coast of Australia . The ride began operation on 17 September 2011 as part of Dreamworld 's 30th birthday celebrations .
BuzzSaw is one of Dreamworld 's " Big 9 " thrill rides and has a track length of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) . The steel ride consists of a single train which holds 12 riders and lasts approximately 50 seconds . BuzzSaw features the tallest inversion in the Southern Hemisphere and is currently the second @-@ highest inversion of its type in the world .
The ride is themed around a series of unexplainable occurrences in the Town of Gold Rush which date back to the late 1800s . The setting is based on encounters with the ghost of one Jack Darke , who was killed by a buzz saw at a sawmill built after the gold rush ended .
= = History = =
In December 2009 , a Gold Coast Bulletin report detailed a variety of new attractions for the region 's theme parks and stated that Dreamworld was in negotiations with a manufacturer to add to its " Big 6 " thrill rides . In February 2011 , Dreamworld 's operator , Ardent Leisure , announced the addition of two new rides in 2011 as part of Dreamworld 's 30th Birthday . In April 2011 , it was announced that in addition to a family thrill ride ( Shockwave which opened in June 2011 ) , another major ride would be opened in time for the September school holidays . The name " BuzzSaw " was confirmed two months later by the park 's outgoing CEO , Noel Dempsey , who also confirmed plans to team up with DreamWorks Animation . Vertical construction for BuzzSaw started around the same time .
On 20 July 2011 , Dreamworld officially announced the addition of BuzzSaw to the Dreamworld park to the public . Testing for the ride began in early September 2011 , and BuzzSaw opened officially to the public on 17 September 2011 .
= = = Marketing = = =
Marketing for BuzzSaw began on 6 July 2011 when Dreamworld released a television commercial promoting their plans to open a " new bone @-@ chilling thrill ride " by September of that year . At this stage , the name BuzzSaw had not been officially announced . A second television marketing campaign was released for BuzzSaw on 8 September 2011 , just before its official opening on 17 September 2011 . The commercial stated " this September fear will reach new heights " . Banners around Dreamworld advertise BuzzSaw as a " ripper of a ride " .
= = Characteristics = =
BuzzSaw is one of Dreamworld 's " Big 8 Thrill Rides " alongside The Claw , Cyclone , The Giant Drop , Mick Doohan 's Motocoaster , Pandamonium , Tower of Terror II and Wipeout . It boasts the tallest inversion in the Southern Hemisphere at 46 @.@ 2 metres ( 152 ft ) above the ground . This also ranks it tied as the third @-@ highest inversion worldwide . BuzzSaw 's steel roller coaster track is 150 metres ( 490 ft ) in length .
The ride consists of a single Maurer Söhne X @-@ Car train which holds 12 riders . The train features two cars , each of which seats riders in three rows of two . Riders are seated in the open carriage and are restrained by a lap bar .
= = Experience = =
= = = Backstory = = =
BuzzSaw is themed around a series of unexplainable occurrences in the Town of Gold Rush which date back to the late 1800s . In 1876 , the Town of Gold Rush was formed . It was a prosperous town during the great gold rush . Eleven years later , in 1887 , the town 's Gold supply was completely gone . The town then established a sawmill and turned their focus to timber . On a clear moon @-@ lit night , a sawmill worker named Jack Darke was killed by the buzz saw after he had a scuffle with some other workers who were attempting to set the building on fire . The circumstances leading up to his death were covered up by the town with the legend stating that Jack tried to burn down the sawmill and slipped into the path of the buzz saw . The sawmill has remained closed since with many people claiming encounters with the ghost of Jack on nights similar to that of his death .
= = = Entrance and station = = =
The entrance to BuzzSaw is located in the Town of Gold Rush where the Helicopter Joy Flights used to operate , opposite the former entrance of the Eureka Mountain Mine Ride . The station is themed to the abandoned sawmill in the town of Gold Rush and tells the story of Jack Darke . Within the building , guests are directed through a series of queue switchbacks and pathways . Several television screens are embedded in the walls and show burning timber . Parts of the theming are caged off with crime scene signs . Throughout the queue , guests are able to hear the sound of buzzsaws as well as several warnings to not go any further and to escape while they can . Large circular saws ( a.k.a. buzzsaws ) are located on the side and roof of the building .
= = = Ride = = =
BuzzSaw is a steel , Maurer Söhne SkyLoop XT 150 roller coaster . As part of Maurer Söhne 's X @-@ Coaster range of roller coasters , the SkyLoop begins with a vertical chain lift hill to a height of 46 @.@ 2 metres ( 152 ft ) . At the top of this lift hill , the car is pulled slowly back over on itself before it is released into a full heartline roll and a drop down a steep hill back towards the station . The train then oscillates between the two hills before it is caught by the chain hill and slowly lowered back down into the station . A single ride on BuzzSaw is completed in approximately 50 seconds .
= = Reception = =
The reception of BuzzSaw has been generally positive . Melinda Siegmeier of the Gold Coast Bulletin stated " the scream machine is certainly a fitting way to describe Dreamworld 's newest thrill ride the BuzzSaw " . Siegmeier also commented on the vertical lift hill : " by this stage I was certainly wishing I was back on the ground " . Ardent Leisure , the owners of Dreamworld , have claimed the launch of the ride to be a success . In the first year of operation , over 435 @,@ 000 people rode the attraction . However , in the worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll in 2012 , BuzzSaw ( along with other identical SkyLoop rides ) ranked 221 out of 365 .
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= Byzantine Greeks =
The Byzantine Greeks or Byzantines were the medieval Greek or Hellenised citizens of the Byzantine Empire ( Eastern Roman Empire ) , centered mainly in Constantinople , the southern Balkans , the Greek islands , Asia Minor ( modern Turkey ) , Cyprus and the large urban centres of the Levant and northern Egypt . Throughout the Middle Ages , the Byzantine Greeks self @-@ identified as Rhōmaîoi ( Greek : Ῥωμαῖοι pronounced [ roˈmei ] , " Romans " ) and Graikoí ( Γραικοί , " Greeks " ) , but are referred to as " Byzantines " and " Byzantine Greeks " in modern historiography . The terms " Byzantine Empire " and " Byzantine Greeks " were first coined in the English language by British historian George Finlay .
The social structure of the Byzantine Greeks was primarily supported by a rural , agrarian base that consisted of the peasantry , and a small fraction of the poor . These peasants lived within three kinds of settlements : the chorion or village , the agridion or hamlet , and the proasteion or estate . Many civil disturbances that occurred during the time of the Byzantine Empire were attributed to political factions within the Empire rather than to this large popular base . Soldiers among the Byzantine Greeks were at first conscripted amongst the rural peasants and trained on an annual basis . As the Byzantine Empire entered the 11th century , more of the soldiers within the army were either professional men @-@ at @-@ arms or mercenaries .
Until the twelfth century , education within the Byzantine Greek population was more advanced than in the West , particularly at primary school level , resulting in comparatively high literacy rates . Success came easily to Byzantine Greek merchants , who enjoyed a very strong position in international trade . Despite the challenges posed by rival Italian merchants , they held their own throughout the latter half of the Byzantine Empire 's existence . The clergy also held a special place , not only having more freedom than their Western counterparts , but also maintaining a patriarch in Constantinople who was considered the equal of the pope . This position of strength had built up over time , for at the beginning of the Byzantine Empire , under Emperor Constantine the Great ( reigned 306 – 337 ) , only a small part , about 10 % , of the population was Christian .
The language of the Byzantine Greeks since the age of Constantine had been Greek , although Latin was the language of the administration . From the reign of Emperor Heraclius ( reigned 610 – 641 ) , Greek was the predominant language amongst the populace and also replaced Latin in administration . At first the Byzantine Empire had a multi @-@ ethnic character , but following the loss of the non @-@ Greek speaking provinces it came to be dominated by the Byzantine Greeks . Over time , the relationship between them and the West , particularly with Latin Europe , deteriorated .
Relations were further damaged by a schism between the Catholic West and Orthodox East that led to the Byzantine Greeks being labeled as heretics in the West . Throughout the later centuries of the Byzantine Empire and particularly following the coronation of Charlemagne ( reigned as king of the Franks 768 – 814 ) in Rome in 800 , the Byzantine Greeks were not considered by Western Europeans as heirs of the Roman Empire , but rather as part of an Eastern kingdom made up of Greek peoples . However , the Byzantine Empire could claim to be the Roman Empire , continuing the unbroken line of succession of the Roman emperors .
= = Terminology = =
During most of the Middle Ages , the Byzantine Greeks identified themselves as Rhōmaîoi ( Ῥωμαῖοι , " Romans " , meaning citizens of the Roman Empire ) , a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks . They also identified themselves as Graikoí ( Γραικοί , " Greeks " ) ; the ethnonym was used habitually for self @-@ referential purposes except in official Byzantine political correspondence prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204 . The ancient name Hellene was in popular use synonymous to " pagan " and was revived as an ethnonym in the Middle Byzantine period ( 11th century ) .
While in the West the term " Roman " acquired a new meaning in connection with the Catholic Church and the Bishop of Rome , the Greek form " Romaioi " remained attached to the Greeks of the Eastern Roman Empire . These people called themselves Romaioi ( Romans ) in their language , and the term " Byzantines " or " Byzantine Greeks " is an exonym applied by later historians like Hieronymus Wolf . However , the use of the term " Byzantine Greeks " for the Romaioi is not entirely uncontroversial .
Most historians agree that the defining features of their civilization were : 1 ) Greek language , culture , literature , and science , 2 ) Roman law and tradition , 3 ) Christian faith . The term " Byzantine " has been adopted by Western scholarship on the assumption that anything Roman is essentially " Western " , and also by modern Greek scholarship for nationalistic reasons of identification with ancient Greece . In modern times , the Greek people still use the ethnonyms " Romaioi " ( or rather " Romioi " ) and " Graikoi " to refer to themselves . In addition , the Eastern Roman Empire was in language and civilization a Greek society .
Byzantinist August Heisenberg ( 1869 – 1930 ) defined the Byzantine Empire as " the Christianised Roman empire of the Greek nation " . Byzantium was primarily known as the Empire of the Greeks by foreigners due to the predominance of Greek linguistic , cultural , and demographic elements .
= = Historic perspective = =
Byzantine Greeks , forming the majority of the Byzantine Empire proper at the height of its power , gradually came under the dominance of foreign powers with the decline of the Empire during the Middle Ages . Mostly coming under Arab Muslim rule , Byzantine Greeks either fled their former lands or subdued to the new Muslim rulers , receiving the status of Dhimmi . Over the centuries surviving Christian societies of former Byzantine Greeks evolved into Antiochian Greeks , Melchites or merged into the societies of Arab Christians , existing to this day .
On the other hand , other Byzantines converted to Islam and underwent Turkification over time , mainly those in Anatolia .
= = Society = =
While social mobility was not unknown in Byzantium the order of society was thought of as more enduring , with the average man regarding the court of Heaven to be the archetype of the imperial court in Constantinople . This society included various classes of people that were neither exclusive nor immutable . The most characteristic were the poor , the peasants , the soldiers , the teachers , entrepreneurs , and clergy .
= = = The poor = = =
According to a text dated to AD 533 , a man was termed " poor " if he did not have 50 gold coins ( aurei ) , which was a modest though not negligible sum . The Byzantines were heirs to the Greek concepts of charity for the sake of the polis ; nevertheless it was the Christian concepts attested in the Bible that animated their giving habits , and specifically the examples of Basil of Caesarea ( who is the Greek equivalent of Santa Claus ) , Gregory of Nyssa , and John Chrysostom . The number of the poor fluctuated in the many centuries of Byzantium 's existence , but they provided a constant supply of muscle power for the building projects and rural work . Their numbers apparently increased in the late fourth and early fifth centuries as barbarian raids and a desire to avoid taxation pushed rural populations into cities .
Since Homeric times , there were several categories of poverty : the ptochos ( Greek : πτωχός , " passive poor " ) was lower than the penes ( Greek : πένης , " active poor " ) . They formed the majority of the infamous Constantinopolitan mob whose function was similar to the mob of the First Rome . However , while there are instances of riots attributed to the poor , the majority of civil disturbances were specifically attributable to the various factions of the Hippodrome like the Greens and Blues . The poor made up a non @-@ negligible percentage of the population , but they influenced the Christian society of Byzantium to create a large network of hospitals ( Greek : ιατρεία , iatreia ) and almshouses , and a religious and social model largely justified by the existence of the poor and born out of the Christian transformation of classical society .
= = = Peasantry = = =
There are no reliable figures as to the numbers of the peasantry , yet it is widely assumed that the vast majority of Byzantines lived in rural and agrarian areas . In the Taktika of Emperor Leo VI the Wise ( r . 886 – 912 ) , the two professions defined as the backbone of the state are the peasantry ( Greek : γεωργική , geōrgikē ) and the soldiers ( Greek : στρατιωτική , stratiōtikē ) . The reason for this was that besides producing most of the Empire 's food the peasants also produced most of its taxes .
Peasants lived mostly in villages , whose name changed slowly from the classical kome ( Greek : κώμη ) to the modern chorio ( Greek : χωριό ) . While agriculture and herding were the dominant occupations of villagers they were not the only ones . There are records for the small town of Lampsakos , situated on the eastern shore of the Hellespont , which out of 173 households classifies 113 as peasant and 60 as urban , which indicate other kinds of ancillary activities .
The Treatise on Taxation , preserved in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice , distinguishes between three types of rural settlements , the chorion ( Greek : χωρίον ) or village , the agridion ( Greek : αγρίδιον ) or hamlet , and the proasteion ( Greek : προάστειον ) or estate . According to a 14th @-@ century survey of the village of Aphetos , donated to the monastery of Chilandar , the average size of a landholding is only 3 @.@ 5 modioi ( 0 @.@ 08 ha ) . Taxes placed on rural populations included the kapnikon ( Greek : καπνικόν ) or hearth tax , the synone ( Greek : συνονή ) or cash payment frequently affiliated with the kapnikon , the ennomion ( Greek : εννόμιον ) or pasture tax , and the aerikon ( Greek : αέρικον , meaning " of the air " ) which depended on the village 's population and ranged between 4 and 20 gold coins annually .
Their diet consisted of mainly grains and beans and in fishing communities fish was usually substituted for meat . Bread , wine , and olives were important staples of Byzantine diet with soldiers on campaign eating double @-@ baked and dried bread called paximadion ( Greek : παξιμάδιον ) . As in antiquity and modern times , the most common cultivations in the choraphia ( Greek : χωράφια ) were olive groves and vineyards . While Liutprand of Cremona , a visitor from Italy , found Greek wine irritating as it was often flavoured with resin ( retsina ) most other Westerners admired Greek wines , Cretan in particular being famous .
While both hunting and fishing were common , the peasants mostly hunted to protect their herds and crops . Apiculture , the keeping of bees , was as highly developed in Byzantium as it had been in Ancient Greece . Aside from agriculture , the peasants also laboured in the crafts , fiscal inventories mentioning smiths ( Greek : χαλκεύς , chalkeus ) , tailors ( Greek : ράπτης , rhaptes ) , and cobblers ( Greek : τζαγγάριος , tzangarios ) .
= = = Soldiers = = =
During the Byzantine millennium , hardly a year passed without a military campaign . Soldiers were a normal part of everyday life , much more so than in modern Western societies . While it is difficult to draw a distinction between Roman and Byzantine soldiers from an organizational aspect , it is easier to do so in terms of their social profile . The military handbooks known as the Taktika continued a Hellenistic and Roman tradition , and contain a wealth of information about the appearance , customs , habits , and life of the soldiers .
As with the peasantry , many soldiers performed ancillary activities , like medics and technicians . Selection for military duty was annual with yearly call @-@ ups and great stock was placed on military exercises , during the winter months , which formed a large part of a soldier 's life .
Until the 11th century , the majority of the conscripts were from rural areas , while the conscription of craftsmen and merchants is still an open question . From then on , professional recruiting replaced conscription , and the increasing use of mercenaries in the army was ruinous for the treasury . From the 10th century onwards , there were laws connecting land ownership and military service . While the state never allotted land for obligatory service , soldiers could and did use their pay to buy landed estates , and taxes would be decreased or waived in some cases . What the state did allocate to soldiers , however , from the 12th century onwards , were the tax revenues from some estates called pronoiai ( Greek : πρόνοιαι ) . As in antiquity , the basic food of the soldier remained the dried biscuit bread , though its name had changed from boukelaton ( Greek : βουκελάτον ) to paximadion .
= = = Teachers = = =
Byzantine education was the product of an ancient Greek educational tradition that stretched back to the 5th century BC . It comprised a tripartite system of education that , taking shape during the Hellenistic era , was maintained , with inevitable changes , up until the fall of Constantinople . The stages of education were the elementary school , where pupils ranged from six to ten years , secondary school , where pupils ranged from ten to sixteen , and higher education .
Elementary education was widely available throughout most of the Byzantine Empire 's existence , in towns and occasionally in the countryside . This , in turn , ensured that literacy was much more widespread than in Western Europe , at least until the twelfth century . Secondary education was confined to the larger cities while higher education was the exclusive provenance of Constantinople .
Though not a society of modern mass literacy , Byzantine society was a profoundly literate one . Based on information from an extensive array of Byzantine documents from different periods ( i.e. homilies , Ecloga , etc . ) , Robert Browning concluded that functional literacy ( reading and writing ) , access to elementary education and even book ownership ( for those who could afford books ) were widespread in Byzantium ( i.e. cities , monasteries , countryside , etc . ) . Nikolaos Oikonomides , focusing on 13th @-@ century Byzantine literacy in Western Asia Minor , states that Byzantine society had " a completely literate church , an almost completely literate aristocracy , some literate horsemen , rare literate peasants and almost completely illiterate women . " Ioannis Stouraitis estimates that the percentage of the Empire 's population with some degree of literacy was at most 15 – 20 % based primarily on the mention of illiterate Byzantine tourmarchai in the Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise ( r . 886 – 912 ) .
In Byzantium , the elementary school teacher occupied a low social position and taught mainly from simple fairy tale books ( Aesop 's Fables were often used ) . However , the grammarian and rhetorician , teachers responsible for the following two phases of education , were more respected . These used classical Greek texts like Homer 's Iliad or Odyssey and much of their time was taken with detailed word @-@ for @-@ word explication . Books were rare and very expensive and likely only possessed by teachers who dictated passages to students .
= = = Women = = =
Women have tended to be overlooked in Byzantine studies as Byzantine society left few records about them . Women were disadvantaged in some aspects of their legal status and in their access to education , and limited in their freedom of movement . The life of a Byzantine Greek woman could be divided into three phases : girlhood , motherhood , and widowhood .
Childhood was brief and perilous , even more so for girls than boys . Parents would celebrate the birth of a boy twice as much and there is some evidence of female infanticide ( i.e. roadside abandonment and suffocation ) , though it was contrary to both civil and canon law . Educational opportunities for girls were few : they did not attend regular schools but were taught in groups at home by tutors . With few exceptions , education was limited to literacy and the Bible ; a famous exception is the Princess Anna Comnena , whose Alexiad displays a great depth of erudition . The majority of a young girl 's daily life would be spent in household and agrarian chores , preparing herself for marriage .
For most girls , childhood came to an end with the onset of puberty , which was followed shortly after by betrothal and marriage . Although marriage arranged by the family was the norm , romantic love was not unknown . Most women bore many children but few survived infancy , and grief for the loss of a loved one was an inalienable part of life . The main form of birth control was abstinence , and while there is evidence of contraception it seems to have been mainly used by prostitutes .
Due to prevailing norms of modesty , women would wear clothing that covered the whole of their body except their hands . While women among the poor sometimes wore sleeveless tunics , most women were obliged to cover even their hair with the long maphorion ( Greek : μαφόριον ) veil . Women of means , however , spared no expense in adorning their clothes with exquisite jewelry and fine silk fabrics . Divorces were hard to obtain even though there were laws permitting them . Husbands would often beat their wives , though the reverse was not unknown , as in Theodore Prodromos 's description of a battered husband in the Ptochoprodromos poems .
Although female life expectancy in Byzantium was lower than that of men , due to death in childbirth , wars and the fact that men married younger , female widowhood was still fairly common . Still , some women were able to circumvent societal strictures and work as traders , artisans , abbots , entertainers , and scholars .
= = = Entrepreneurs = = =
The traditional image of Byzantine Greek merchants as unenterprising benefactors of state aid is beginning to change for that of mobile , pro @-@ active agents . The merchant class , particularly that of Constantinople , became a force of its own that could , at times , even threaten the Emperor as it did in the eleventh and twelfth centuries . This was achieved through efficient use of credit and other monetary innovations . Merchants invested surplus funds in financial products called chreokoinonia ( Greek : χρεοκοινωνία ) , the equivalent and perhaps ancestor of the later Italian commenda .
Eventually , the purchasing power of Byzantine merchants became such that it could influence prices in markets as far afield as Cairo and Alexandria . In reflection of their success , emperors gave merchants the right to become members of the Senate , that is to integrate themselves with the ruling elite . This had an end by the end of the eleventh century when political machinations allowed the landed aristocracy to secure the throne for a century and more . Following that phase , however , the enterprising merchants bounced back and wielded real clout during the time of the Third Crusade .
The reason Byzantine Greek merchants have often been neglected in historiography is not that they were any less able than their ancient or modern Greek colleagues in matters of trade . It rather originated with the way history was written in Byzantium , which was often under the patronage of their competitors , the court , and land aristocracy . The fact that they were eventually surpassed by their Italian rivals is attributable to the privileges sought and acquired by the Crusader States within the Levant and the dominant maritime violence of the Italians .
= = = Clergy = = =
Unlike in Western Europe where priests were clearly demarcated from the laymen , the clergy of the Eastern Roman Empire remained in close contact with the rest of society . Readers and subdeacons were drawn from the laity and expected to be at least twenty years of age while priests and bishops had to be at least 30 . Unlike the Latin church , the Byzantine church allowed married priests and deacons , as long as they were married before ordination . Bishops , however , were required to be unmarried .
While the religious hierarchy mirrored the Empire 's administrative divisions , the clergy were more ubiquitous than the emperor 's servants . The issue of caesaropapism , while usually associated with the Byzantine Empire , is now understood to be an oversimplification of actual conditions in the Empire . By the fifth century , the Patriarch of Constantinople was recognized as first among equals of the four eastern Patriarchs and as of equal status with the Pope in Rome .
The ecclesiastical provinces were called eparchies and were headed by archbishops or metropolitans who supervised their subordinate bishops or episkopoi . For most people , however , it was their parish priest or papas ( from the Greek word for " father " ) that was the most recognizable face of the clergy .
= = Culture = =
= = = Language = = =
Linguistically , Byzantine or medieval Greek is situated between the Hellenistic ( Koine ) and modern phases of the language . Since as early as the Hellenistic era , Greek had been the lingua franca of the educated elites of the Eastern Mediterranean , spoken natively in the southern Balkans , the Greek islands , Asia Minor , and the ancient and Hellenistic Greek colonies of Southern Italy , the Black Sea , Western Asia and North Africa . At the beginning of the Byzantine millennium , the koine ( Greek : κοινή ) remained the basis for spoken Greek and Christian writings , while Attic Greek was the language of the philosophers and orators .
As Christianity became the dominant religion , Attic began to be used in Christian writings in addition to and often interspersed with koine Greek . Nonetheless , from the 6th at least until the 12th century , Attic remained entrenched in the educational system ; while further changes to the spoken language can be postulated for the early and middle Byzantine periods .
The population of the Byzantine Empire , at least in its early stages , had a variety of mother tongues including Greek . These included Latin , Aramaic , Coptic , and Caucasian languages , while Cyril Mango also cites evidence for bilingualism in the south and southeast . These influences , as well as an influx of people of Arabic , Celtic , Germanic , Turkic , and Slavic backgrounds , supplied medieval Greek with many loanwords that have survived in the modern Greek language . From the 11th century onward , there was also a steady rise in the literary use of the vernacular .
Following the Fourth Crusade , there was increased contact with the West ; and the lingua franca of commerce became Italian . In the areas of the Crusader kingdoms a classical education ( Greek : παιδεία , paideia ) ceased to be a sine qua non of social status , leading to the rise of the vernacular . From this era many beautiful works in the vernacular , often written by people deeply steeped in classical education , are attested . A famous example is the four Ptochoprodromic poems attributed to Theodoros Prodromos . From the 13th to the 15th centuries , the last centuries of the Empire , there arose several works , including laments , fables , romances , and chronicles , written outside Constantinople , which until then had been the seat of most literature , in an idiom termed by scholars as " Byzantine Koine " .
However , the diglossia of the Greek @-@ speaking world , which had already started in ancient Greece , continued under Ottoman rule and persisted in the modern Greek state until 1976 , although Koine Greek remains the official language of the Greek Orthodox Church . As shown in the poems of Ptochoprodromos , an early stage of modern Greek had already been shaped by the 12th century and possibly earlier . Vernacular Greek continued to be known as " Romaic " until the 20th century .
= = = Religion = = =
At the time of Constantine the Great ( r . 306 – 337 ) , barely 10 % of the Roman Empire 's population were Christians , with most of them being urban population and generally found in the eastern part of the Roman Empire . The majority of people still honoured the old gods in the public Roman way of religio . As Christianity became a complete philosophical system , whose theory and apologetics were heavily indebted to the Classic word , this changed . In addition , Constantine , as Pontifex Maximus , was responsible for the correct cultus or veneratio of the deity which was in accordance with former Roman practice . The move from the old religion to the new entailed some elements of continuity as well as break with the past , though the artistic heritage of paganism was literally broken by Christian zeal .
Christianity led to the development of a few phenomena characteristic of Byzantium . Namely , the intimate connection between Church and State , a legacy of Roman cultus . Also , the creation of a Christian philosophy that guided Byzantine Greeks in their everyday lives . And finally , the dichotomy between the Christian ideals of the Bible and classical Greek paideia which could not be left out , however , since so much of Christian scholarship and philosophy depended on it . These shaped Byzantine Greek character and the perceptions of themselves and others .
Christians at the time of Constantine 's conversion made up only 10 % of the population . This would rise to 50 % by the end of the fourth century and 90 % by the end of the fifth century . Emperor Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) then brutally mopped up the rest of the pagans , highly literate academics on one end of the scale and illiterate peasants on the other . A conversion so rapid seems to have been rather the result of expediency than of conviction .
The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the emperor in the affairs of the Church . The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative and financial routine of organising religious affairs , and this routine was applied to the Christian Church . Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea , the Byzantines viewed the emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ , responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans , and for the " externals " of the religion , such as administration and finances . The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed , legally defined system , however .
With the decline of Rome , and internal dissension in the other Eastern patriarchates , the church of Constantinople became , between the 6th and 11th centuries , the richest and most influential centre of Christendom . Even when the Byzantine Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self , the Church , as an institution , exercised so much influence both inside and outside the imperial frontiers as never before . As George Ostrogorsky points out :
" The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world , with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans , now lost to Byzantium , as well as in Caucasus , Russia and Lithuania . The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire . "
In terms of religion , Byzantine Greek Macedonia is also significant as being the home of Saints Cyril and Methodius , two Greek brothers from Thessaloniki ( Salonika ) who were sent on state @-@ sponsored missions to proselytize among the Slavs of the Balkans and east @-@ central Europe . This involved Cyril and Methodius having to translate the Christian Bible into the Slavs ' own language , for which they invented an alphabet that became known as Old Church Slavonic . In the process , this cemented the Greek brothers ' status as the pioneers of Slavic literature and those who first introduced Byzantine civilization and Orthodox Christianity to the hitherto illiterate and pagan Slavs .
= = Identity = =
= = = Self @-@ perception = = =
Within the Byzantine Empire , a Greek or Hellenised citizen was generally called a Rhōmaîos ( Ῥωμαῖος ) , which was first of all defined in opposition to a foreigner , ethnikós ( Greek : ἐθνικός ) . The Byzantine Greeks were , and perceived themselves as , the descendants of their classical Greek forebears , the political heirs of imperial Rome , and followers of the Apostles . Thus , their sense of " Romanity " was different from that of their contemporaries in the West . " Romaic " was the name of the vulgar Greek language , as opposed to " Hellenic " which was its literary or doctrinal form . " Greek " ( Γραικός ) had become synonymous with " Roman " ( Ῥωμαῖος ) and " Christian " ( Χριστιανός ) to mean a Christian Greek citizen of the [ Eastern ] Roman Empire . There was always an element of indifference or neglect of everything non @-@ Greek , which was therefore " barbarian " .
= = = Official discourse = = =
In official discourse , " all inhabitants of the empire were subjects of the emperor , and therefore Romans . " Thus the primary definition of Rhōmaios was " political or statist . " In order to succeed in being a full @-@ blown and unquestioned " Roman " it was best to be a Greek Orthodox Christian and a Greek @-@ speaker , at least in one 's public persona . Yet , the cultural uniformity which the Byzantine church and the state pursued through Orthodoxy and the Greek language was not sufficient to erase distinct identities , nor did it aim to . The highest compliment that could be paid to a foreigner was to call him andreîos Rhōmaióphrōn ( ἀνδρεῖος Ῥωμαιόφρων , roughly " a Roman @-@ minded fellow " ) .
= = = Regional identity = = =
Often one 's local ( geographic ) identity could outweigh one 's identity as a Rhōmaios . The terms xénos ( Greek : ξένος ) and exōtikós ( Greek : ἐξωτικός ) denoted " people foreign to the local population , " regardless of whether they were from abroad or from elsewhere within the Byzantine Empire . " When a person was away from home he was a stranger and was often treated with suspicion . A monk from western Asia Minor who joined a monastery in Pontus was ' disparaged and mistreated by everyone as a stranger ' . The corollary to regional solidarity was regional hostility . "
= = = Revival of Hellenism = = =
From an evolutionary standpoint , Byzantium was a multi @-@ ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire , soon comprised the Hellenised empire of the East , and ended its thousand @-@ year history , in 1453 , as a Greek Orthodox state : an empire that became a nation , almost by the modern meaning of the word . The presence of a distinctive and historically rich literary culture was also very important in the division between " Greek " East and " Latin " West and thus the formation of both . It was a multi @-@ ethnic empire where the Hellenic element was predominant , especially in the later period .
Spoken language and state , the markers of identity that were to become a fundamental tenet of nineteenth @-@ century nationalism throughout Europe became , by accident , a reality during a formative period of medieval Greek history . Beginning in the twelfth century , certain Byzantine Greek intellectuals began to use the ancient Greek ethnonym Héllēn ( Greek : Ἕλλην ) in order to describe Byzantine civilisation .
During the later period of the Byzantine Empire , Emperor Theodore I Laskaris ( r . 1205 – 1222 ) tried to revive Hellenic tradition by fostering the study of philosophy , for in his opinion there was a danger that philosophy " might abandon the Greeks and seek refuge among the Latins " . In a letter to Pope Gregory IX , the Byzantine emperor John Vatatzes ( r . 1221 – 1254 ) claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great , and put emphasis on his " Hellenic " descent , exalting the wisdom of the Greek people . He was presenting Hellenic culture as an integral part of the Byzantine polity in defiance of Latin claims .
Byzantine Greeks had always felt superior for being the inheritors of a more ancient civilisation , but such ethnic identifications had not been politically popular up until then . Hence , in the context of increasing Venetian and Genoese power in the eastern Mediterranean , association with Hellenism took deeper root among the Byzantine elite , on account of a desire to distinguish themselves from the Latin West and to lay legitimate claims to Greek @-@ speaking lands .
Claims of association with Hellenism continued and increased throughout the Palaiologan dynasty . The scholar , teacher , and translator , John Argyropoulos , addressed Emperor John VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1425 – 1448 ) as " Sun King of Hellas " and urged the last Byzantine emperor , Constantine XI Palaiologos ( r . 1449 – 1453 ) , to proclaim himself " King of the Hellenes " . During the same period , the neo @-@ platonic philosopher George Gemistos Plethon boasted " We are Hellenes by race and culture , " and proposed a reborn Byzantine Empire following a utopian Hellenic system of government centered in Mystras . According to the historian George Sphrantzes , on the eve of the Fall of Constantinople , the last Byzantine emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans .
= = = Western perception = = =
In the eyes of the West , after the coronation of Charlemagne , the Byzantines were not acknowledged as the inheritors of the Roman Empire . Byzantium was rather perceived to be a corrupted continuation of ancient Greece , and was often derided as the " Empire of the Greeks " or " Kingdom of Greece " . Such denials of Byzantium 's Roman heritage and ecumenical rights would instigate the first resentments between Greeks and " Latins " ( for the Latin liturgical rite ) or " Franks " ( for Charlemegne 's ethnicity ) , as they were called by the Greeks .
Popular Western opinion is reflected in the Translatio militiae , whose anonymous Latin author states that the Greeks had lost their courage and their learning , and therefore did not join in the war against the infidels . In another passage , the ancient Greeks are praised for their military skill and their learning , by which means the author draws a contrast with contemporary Byzantine Greeks , who were generally viewed as a non @-@ warlike and schismatic people . While this reputation seems strange to modern eyes given the unceasing military operations of the Byzantines and their eight century struggle against Islam and Islamic states , it reflects the realpolitik sophistication of the Byzantines , who employed diplomacy and trade as well as armed force in foreign policy , and the high @-@ level of their culture in contrast to the zeal of the Crusaders and the ignorance and superstition of the medieval West . As historian Steven Runciman has put it :
" Ever since our rough crusading forefathers first saw Constantinople and met , to their contemptuous disgust , a society where everyone read and wrote , ate food with forks and preferred diplomacy to war , it has been fashionable to pass the Byzantines by with scorn and to use their name as synonymous with decadence " .
A turning point in how both sides viewed each other is probably the massacre of Latins in Constantinople in 1182 . The massacre followed the deposition of Maria of Antioch , a Norman @-@ Frankish ( therefore " Latin " ) princess who was ruling as regent to her infant son Emperor Alexios II Komnenos . Maria was deeply unpopular due to the heavy @-@ handed favoritism that had been shown the Italian merchants during the regency and popular celebrations of her downfall by the citizenry of Constantinople quickly turned to rioting and massacre . The event and the horrific reports of survivors inflamed religious tensions in the West , leading to the retaliatory sacking of Thessalonica , the empire 's second largest city , by William II of Sicily . An example of Western opinion at the time is the writings of William of Tyre , who described the " Greek nation " as " a brood of vipers , like a serpent in the bosom or a mouse in the wardrobe evilly requite their guests " .
= = = Modern scholarship = = =
In modern Byzantine scholarship , there are currently three main schools of thought on medieval Eastern Roman identity : one that treats it as the medieval manifestation of a perennial Greek national identity , one that considers " Romanity " the mode of self @-@ identification of the subjects of a multi @-@ ethnic empire and a third , recently promulgated by Anthony Kaldellis , that argues that Eastern Roman identity was a pre @-@ modern national identity .
= = = Ethnic , religious and political formations = = =
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= Dumped =
Dumped is a British reality television programme which started on 2 September 2007 and aired nightly until 5 September 2007 on Channel 4 . It involved 11 contestants living for three weeks on a rubbish dump next to a landfill site near Croydon , Surrey . The contestants who " survived " the 21 days and used only what they found on the dump were awarded £ 20 @,@ 000 to share equally between them . The working title of the programme was Eco @-@ Challenge . One contestant , Darren Lumsden , voluntarily left the programme on Day 3 . The series was promoted with a large publicity campaign , which included advertisements on websites and a concert by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . The programme achieved a peak of 2 @.@ 4 million viewers , although this was marginally less than the number of people watching other channels at the same time . The programme was criticised because it was filmed on an artificial landfill and for its choice of " fame hungry " contestants .
= = Production and Format = =
Dumped , which was filmed in June 2006 , was initially scheduled for Channel 4 's Spring 2007 line @-@ up . However , this did not occur and the programme was then postponed until the start the channel 's period of " creative renewal " , which was established due to the racism controversy that occurred during the fifth series of Celebrity Big Brother in January 2007 .
11 participants , who were not initially informed of their task , must live on a purpose @-@ made rubbish dump adjacent to a working landfill site for 21 days after being left equipped only with a sleeping bag , drinking can and one roll of lavatory paper each . However , food was delivered to the landfill on a weekly basis . A prize fund of £ 20 @,@ 000 was shared equally between those who participated for the entire three weeks . Rob Holdway , director of environmental consultancy Giraffe Innovation , presented the programme and set the contestants regular challenges . The participants had to wear Kevlar gloves , protective boots and face masks when working on the real landfill site . Every person working on the programme was given tetanus , polio and hepatitis vaccinations for their safety .
= = Contestants = =
The 11 contestants who participated " represented the complete spectrum of public opinion on environmental issues " . Potential participants were not told that the programme would involve living on a landfill , but were instead told that they would be part of " a unique eco @-@ challenge " . One participant , Darren Lumsden , voluntarily left the programme after just three days , claiming that the experience had taught him nothing .
= = Pre @-@ series publicity = =
Described as Channel 4 's " biggest marketing campaigns of the year " , Dumped was promoted via various methods . Advertisements for the programme appeared on websites such as Yahoo , The Guardian , New Scientist , The Daily Telegraph and MSN . Television adverts , using the 1998 single " Delta Sun Bottleneck Stomp " by Mercury Rev , featured people performing everyday tasks such as bathing whilst on the landfill . Posters featuring the programme 's tagline , " Living off the landfill " , were displayed across Britain and others appeared on the London Underground . Some bus shelters within London featured posters which were made out of rubbish , and 2 September 2007 edition of The Sunday Times featured a biodegradable bag wrap to promote the programme . Eight members of the London Philharmonic Orchestra performed Land of Hope and Glory on the landfill site that the programme was filmed , using instruments that had been made out of waste .
= = Episode breakdown = =
= = Reaction = =
= = = Viewing figures = = =
Dumped received relatively low viewing figures for a peak time programme on a terrestrial channel . The first episode of the programme received just 2 @.@ 4 million viewers , 10 % of the audience , compared to the television premiere of The Queen on ITV1 which was watched by an average of 7 @.@ 9 million people and attracted a 36 % audience share . Coming Down the Mountain , also airing at the same time on BBC One , was watched by 4 @.@ 7 million and a 20 % share . The second episode was watched by 1 @.@ 7 million , compared to the 3 @.@ 6 million that watched the opening episode of the third series of ITV1 's Hell 's Kitchen . The penultimate episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 5 million viewers and had a 7 % audience share , while Hell 's Kitchen received 3 @.@ 4 million viewers and a 15 % audience share . The final episode of the programme attracted 1 @.@ 9 million viewers and an audience share of 8 % , while 4 @.@ 2 million viewed Hell 's Kitchen , a 19 % audience share . Both programmes were beaten in their slot by BBC One 's Traffic Cops , which attracted 5 @.@ 5 million and a 25 % share of the audience .
= = = Reviews = = =
Dumped was met with a mixed reaction from critics . James Walton , of The Telegraph , was critical of the programme and its purpose ; on Darren 's departure , he said : " According to the narrator , this proved that Darren “ didn ’ t understand ” the experiment . Another interpretation , of course , would be that he did . " The Times criticised the programme for setting the programme in an artificial rubbish dump for health and safety reasons , comparing it to various fakery scandals that had taken place in the programme Blue Peter in the past year . However , Nigel Kendall of the same newspaper called the programme " entertaining " and its contestants " likeable " , while Paul Hoggart said that it gets its point across . Website TV Scoop said that the programme was " a great experiment " , but did not approve of the inclusion of " fame hungry " participants and compared the programme to the most recent series of Big Brother . The website Hecklerspray gave the programme a negative review , calling the participants " absolute fucking morons " , and Orange gave the programme 3 out of 5 stars . Channel 4 controller Julian Bellamy commented on the programme 's failure during Edinburgh Television Festival 2008 , saying that it " didn 't have the human narrative you need " and that it was " a little bit too like other reality shows " .
= = Controversy = =
It was initially alleged that the programme was staged , as the landfill that the contestants were living on was created especially for the filming . However , Channel 4 has dismissed these allegations , stating that the programme could not be filmed on the real landfill due to health and safety regulations and that they have been " careful not to mislead " . An argument started in the camp between Jermaine and Selena on Day 15 , which resulted in some participants stating that they felt intimidated by his actions . The programme 's producers had to enter the dump and discuss , along with the other members of the group , whether Jermaine should remain on the programme . Jermaine himself offered to voluntarily leave the programme , but the producers and the other participants decided to keep him . This was criticised in some reviews ; one of which called Jermaine " a loud mouthed moron " .
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= Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in " The Curse of the Flying Hellfish " =
" Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in ' The Curse of the Flying Hellfish ' " ( or also known as The Curse of the Flying Hellfish ) is the 22nd episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 28 , 1996 .
In the episode , one of Abraham " Grampa " Simpson 's fellow World War II veterans , Asa Phelps , dies , leaving him and Mr. Burns as the only living members of Grampa 's war squad , the Flying Hellfish . In the final days of the war , the unit had discovered several paintings and agreed on a tontine , placing the paintings in a crate , and the final surviving member would inherit the paintings . As Mr. Burns wants the paintings as soon as possible , he orders Grampa 's assassination . To escape death , Grampa moves into the Simpsons ' house , where the family lets him live in Bart 's room . Bart eventually joins Grampa in a daring mission to recover the paintings .
The episode was written by Jonathan Collier and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . It was inspired by several stories about lost art surfacing . The animation of the episode has been praised for its action and underwater scenes . The staging in several scenes was based on DC Comics 's Sgt. Rock . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 3 , and was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
The relationship between Grampa and Bart deteriorates after Grampa 's senility and abrasiveness embarrass Bart during Grandparents Day at Springfield Elementary School , where Grampa claims to have invented the toilet , to have turned cats and dogs against one another , and that Kaiser Wilhelm II stole the word " twenty " .
Back at the retirement home , Grampa receives word that Asa Phelps , one of the men who served under his command in the Army during World War II , has died . Their infantry squad – known as the " Flying Hellfish " ( despite not being an aviation unit ) – also included Chief Wiggum 's father Iggy , Seymour Skinner 's father Sheldon , Griff McDonald , Milton " Oxford " or " Ox " Newman @-@ Haas , Etch Westgrin and Barney Gumble 's father Arnie . ( It is also mentioned that their field commander was a Flanders , though as his father is portrayed as beatnik in other episodes , this is perhaps Ned 's grandfather or uncle . ) Grampa and Mr. Burns are now the only two surviving members of their squad . Burns wants what he describes as the " Hellfish Bonanza " for himself ; not wanting to wait for Grampa 's natural death , he hires Fernando Vidal , " the world 's most devious assassin , " to kill him . Vidal tries several tricks ( including disguising himself as Homer , with Burns as Marge and Smithers as Bart ) , and as a last resort storms Grampa 's retirement home with a machine gun . Grampa evades the initial volleys by sheer luck and escapes when the attending nurse produces a shotgun and routs the surprised assassin . Fearing that Burns will not give up , Grampa takes shelter with the Simpsons . He moves into Bart 's room , putting further strain on their relationship , and reveals to Bart his reason Burns wants him dead .
In a flashback , it is revealed that during the final days of World War II , the Flying Hellfish discovered several priceless paintings in a German castle . To avoid being caught for theft , the soldiers set up a tontine and locked the paintings in a strongbox to be hidden away ; the one who outlived all the others would then inherit the collection . Each man was given a key , all of which would eventually be needed to trigger a mechanism that would reveal where the paintings were hidden .
After Grampa finishes his story , Bart dismisses it as fiction but is proven wrong when Burns suddenly breaks in to his room and tries to take Grampa 's key by force . However , Bart manages to steal both keys back and the two Simpsons go after the paintings . They hurry to the local cemetery , where a monument to the Hellfish is located . After activating the locator mechanism built into the monument , they discover that the paintings have been hidden at the bottom of a lake , so they steal a motorboat from Ned Flanders and head out onto the water . Bart brings up the strongbox , but just as he and Grampa open it , Burns shows up to take the paintings at gunpoint . When Bart calls him a coward and an embarrassment to the Hellfish , Burns kicks him into the empty strongbox , which topples back into the lake . Grampa dives in to save Bart , and the two chase Burns back to shore ; Grampa then overpowers Burns , gives him a dishonorable discharge for trying to kill his commanding officer and his grandson , and expels him from the tontine , much to Burns ' distress .
Before Grampa and Bart can go home with the paintings , representatives of the U.S. Department of State arrive on the scene . The government has been trying for 50 years to track down the paintings . Rather than arresting Grampa and Bart for the theft , the representatives instead turn over the paintings to a Euro @-@ trash heir of one of the original owners in order to avoid an international incident , and Bart and Grampa are left empty @-@ handed as the heir leaves for a Kraftwerk concert in Stuttgart . Grampa tells Bart that he did all of this to show that he used to be something besides a pathetic old man , and Bart says that he never thought of Grampa that way . The two hug , their relationship back on good terms .
= = Production = =
Jonathan Collier , who wrote the episode , got the idea after reading several then @-@ current stories about lost art surfacing . The story then evolved into one involving Grampa and Burns , and it gave the writers a chance to introduce the relatives of some of the recurring characters . The other members of the Flying Hellfish were based on stereotypical war movie characters . The idea of having a tontine came from Bill Oakley , who got the idea from " an old Barney Miller episode " . Collier originally named the unit the " Fighting Hellfish " but it was later changed to the " Flying Hellfish " . The logo for the unit ( and the letterhead on Grandpa 's message ) was designed using the original name and was not subsequently changed when the name was switched .
Supervising director David Silverman describes the directing in the episode as an " amazingly brilliant job " . Director Jeffrey Lynch received help from Brad Bird , with whom he worked on many complex staging shots . Lynch did not have any other episodes to work on at the time and was able to devote a lot of time to working on the episode . He storyboarded most of it by himself . The episode contains more effects shots than an average episode of The Simpsons , many of which were worked on by animator Dexter Reed . Other animators that worked on the episode include Chris Clements , Ely Lester , James Purdum , Tommy Tejeda and Orlando Baeza .
= = Cultural references = =
Much of the staging in the flashback scenes is based on DC Comics 's Sgt. Rock and Marvel 's Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos . Many of the paintings in the episode are based on real paintings that went missing during World War II . The animators referenced a book of lost art for the designs . Other cultural references in the episode include Grampa 's recollection of his brush with death at the Retirement Castle , which is a reference to Dorothy 's return to Kansas in The Wizard of Oz . The sequence where Ox explains the concept of a tontine is similar to a scene in the M * A * S * H episode " Old Soldiers " . The Flying Hellfish raid on the castle recalls the attack on the chateau in The Dirty Dozen . The scene where Grampa tries to assassinate Hitler is based on The Day of the Jackal and references the 1968 science fiction film They Saved Hitler 's Brain .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Curse of the Flying Hellfish " finished 48th in the ratings for the week of April 22 to April 28 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 3 . The episode was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote that the episode is " notable for Mr Burns ' impersonation of Marge , some spectacular action sequences , and some good underwater scenes – but [ it is ] not especially brilliant " .
Dave Foster of DVD Times said : " It 's easily the highlight of this season in terms of cinematic presence , with wonderful animation , staging and lighting which complements what is essentially a mini action adventure movie superbly realised via Grandpa and Bart. Like numerous episodes this season it also works as another example of family ties being reinforced though never at the sake of entertainment . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote that " many Grampa episodes tank , but “ Hellfish ” provides a very notable exception . It ’ s a lot of fun to see his wartime past , especially since we find precursors of series regulars . I also like the action swing the story takes , as it becomes clever and inventive . This comes out as a terrific show . " Adam Finley of TV Squad listed " Raging Abe " as one of the most touching episodes of The Simpsons , noting that it is " more " crazy action flick " than emotional , but I list it here because it shows Grandpa Simpson as someone other than a crazy old coot . "
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= Maiden Castle , Dorset =
Maiden Castle is an Iron Age hill fort 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) south west of Dorchester , in the English county of Dorset . Hill forts were fortified hill @-@ top settlements constructed across Britain during the Iron Age . The name Maiden Castle may be a modern construction meaning that the hill fort looks impregnable , or it could derive from the British Celtic mai @-@ dun , meaning a " great hill . "
The earliest archaeological evidence of human activity on the site consists of a Neolithic causewayed enclosure and bank barrow . In about 1800 BC , during the Bronze Age , the site was used for growing crops before being abandoned . Maiden Castle itself was built in about 600 BC ; the early phase was a simple and unremarkable site , similar to many other hill forts in Britain and covering 6 @.@ 4 hectares ( 16 acres ) . Around 450 BC it underwent major expansion , during which the enclosed area was nearly tripled in size to 19 ha ( 47 acres ) , making it the largest hill fort in Britain and by some definitions the largest in Europe . At the same time , Maiden Castle 's defences were made more complex with the addition of further ramparts and ditches . Around 100 BC habitation at the hill fort went into decline and became focused at the eastern end of the site . It was occupied until at least the Roman period , by which time it was in the territory of the Durotriges , a Celtic tribe .
After the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD , Maiden Castle appears to have been abandoned , although the Romans may have had a military presence on the site . In the late 4th century AD , a temple and ancillary buildings were constructed . In the 6th century AD the hill top was entirely abandoned and was used only for agriculture during the medieval period .
Maiden Castle has provided inspiration for composer John Ireland and authors Thomas Hardy and John Cowper Powys . The study of hill forts was popularised in the 19th century by archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers . In the 1930s , archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler undertook the first archaeological excavations at Maiden Castle , raising its profile among the public . Further excavations were carried out under Niall Sharples , which added to an understanding of the site and repaired damage caused in part by the large number of visitors . Today the site is protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument and is maintained by English Heritage .
= = Before the fort = =
Before the hill fort was built , a Neolithic causewayed enclosure was constructed on the site . Dating from around 4000 BC , it was an oval area enclosed by two ditches , It is called a causewayed enclosure because the way the ditches were dug meant that there would originally have been gaps . These gaps , and the bank being only 17 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) high , indicate the site would not have been defensive . Instead the ditches may have been symbolic , separating the interior of the enclosure and its activities from the outside . Archaeologist Niall Sharples , who was involved in excavating the hill fort in the 1980s , has identified the hilltop views of the surrounding landscape as a likely factor for the enclosure 's position . Situated on the side of the hill , it would have been visible from several miles away , and when first cut the ditches would have exposed the underlying white chalk and stood out against the green hillside . The interior of the enclosure has been disturbed by later habitation and farming . The site does not appear to have been inhabited , although a grave containing the remains of two children , aged 6 – 7 , has been discovered . The enclosure is the earliest evidence of human activity on the site .
The purpose of Neolithic causewayed enclosures is unclear , and they probably had a variety of functions . As well as burials , indicating the site at Maiden Castle was important for rituals related to death , pottery from the coast and areas to the east and west indicate it was used as a meeting place which attracted people over long distances . Radiocarbon dating indicates that the enclosure was abandoned around 3 @,@ 400 BC . Arrowheads discovered in the ditches may indicate that activity at the enclosure met a violent end .
Within a period of about 50 years , a bank barrow was built over the enclosure . It was a 546 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 791 ft ) long mound of earth with a ditch on either side ; the parallel ditches were 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft ) apart . Many barrows lie over graves and are monuments to the deceased , but as the barrow at Maiden Castle did not cover any burials , it has been suggested that it was a boundary marker , which would explain the limited human activity on the hilltop for the 500 years after the bank barrow 's construction . Around 1 @,@ 800 BC , during the early Bronze Age , the hill was cleared and used to grow crops , but the soil was quickly exhausted and the site abandoned . This period of abandonment lasted until the Iron Age , when the hill fort was built . The bank barrow survived into the Iron Age as a low mound , and throughout this period construction over it was avoided .
= = First hill fort = =
Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age , roughly the start of the first millennium BC . The reason for their emergence in Britain , and their purpose , has been a subject of debate . It has been argued that they could have been defensive sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe , built by invaders , or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and resulting pressure on agriculture . The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain . Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze . As a result , trading patterns shifted , and the old elites lost their economic and social status . Power passed into the hands of a new group of people . Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated that " [ the forts ] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [ of an increasing population ] burst out into open warfare . But I wouldn 't see them as having been built because there was a state of war . They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed , but this was not the only , or even the most significant , factor in their construction " .
There are around 31 hill forts in Dorset ; archaeologist Sharples , who undertook excavations at Maiden Castle , proposed that hill forts were used to control agricultural land to support a large community . Those in Dorset were situated near expanses of fertile land . Monumental defences such as the ditch at Maiden Castle indicate that the land was disputed and communities fought each other for control . This is supported by Cunliffe , who argues that the elaborate earthworks such as those around the entrances to Maiden Castle and Danebury were used to defend the weakest part of the hill fort . They increased the time the attackers took to reach the gateway , which would have left them vulnerable to defenders armed with slings . Hoards of carefully selected sling stones have been found at both sites .
Constructed on a territorial boundary in about 600 BC , the first hill fort at Maiden Castle was a 6 @.@ 4 @-@ hectare ( 16 @-@ acre ) area surrounded by a single ditch . The hill it sits on is part of a ridge on the north side of the South Winterborne valley , which feeds the River Frome . At the eastern end of the ridge and rising 132 m ( 433 ft ) above sea level , the site of the first hill fort was not the highest point along the ridge , although the highest point is the neighbouring Hog Hill and is only 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) higher . The hill projects about 40 m ( 131 ft ) above the surrounding countryside which is about 90 m ( 295 ft ) above sea level . The defences were 8 @.@ 4 m ( 28 ft ) high and consisted of the V @-@ shaped ditch and a rampart . The rampart would probably have been timber @-@ faced around just the entrances . Elaborate timber facing would have been used to impress visitors . The site could be accessed by an entrance in the northwest and a double entrance in the east . The double entrance is unique in hill forts in the British Isles . The reason for a double entrance is unclear ; however , archaeologist Niall Sharples has suggested that it was a form of segregation . It is likely that several farming communities lived in the hill fort and wanted different entrances .
The defences of the first hill fort were rebuilt on at least one occasion ; the ditch was deepened by 1 @.@ 5 to 7 m ( 4 @.@ 9 to 23 @.@ 0 ft ) . The spoil from re @-@ digging the ditch was deposited on the back of the rampart . At the same time , the defences around the eastern entrances were made more complex . A bank and ditch were built outside the two entrances , and a bank was erected between them . The bank had a wall faced with limestone , which originated over 3 km ( 2 mi ) away . Sharples believes this would have created an impressive entrance and was a demonstration of the settlement 's high status . The Early Iron Age archaeology has been largely destroyed due to later activity on the site . However , nearby Poundbury and Chalbury date to the same period , so through comparison it is possible to infer the Early Iron Age activity at Maiden Castle . From parallels at these sites , Niall Sharples deduces that it was probably densely occupied , with separate areas for habitation and storage . Not much is known about the material culture and economy of the Early Iron Age , and the paucity of finds from this period at Maiden Castle makes it difficult to draw conclusions about activity on the site .
= = Developed hill fort = =
In the Early Iron Age , Maiden Castle was generally unexceptional ; it was one of over 100 hill forts of similar size built around the same time in the area that is now Berkshire , Dorset , Hampshire , and Wiltshire . In the Middle Iron Age , Maiden Castle was expanded and in the process it became the largest hill fort in Britain and one of the largest in Europe . According to archaeologist Niall Sharples it is , by some definitions , in fact the largest in western Europe . In about 450 BC , Maiden Castle was expanded from 6 @.@ 4 to 19 ha ( 16 to 47 acres ) . The area was initially enclosed by a single bank and ditch , with the bank standing 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) high although the ditch was shallow . The hill fort 's expansion was not unique ; it was one of a series of " developed hill forts " in southern England . As some hill forts were expanded , many of the smaller hill forts that had proliferated in the Early Iron Age fell out of use , as was the case in Dorset . The developed hill forts in Dorset were spaced widely apart . This , and the abandonment of the smaller hill forts in the area when the developed hill forts were built , indicates that these developed hill forts were important . The developed hill forts of Berkshire , Dorset , Hampshire , and Wiltshire were equally spaced apart , with roughly equal access to resources such as water .
The emergence of developed hill forts has been attributed to Iron Age society becoming more complex . The emergence of one dominant hill fort in an area indicates that the inhabitants of a particular hill fort became more important than their contemporaries , possibly through warfare . However , a general dearth of evidence for destruction and an increase of artefacts associated with crafts and industry suggest that the reason for change was economic . Hill forts may have become important as centres of trade . This is supported by the possibility that the multiple rings of ditches often employed at developed hill forts ( the technical term for which is " multivallate " ) were likely to be not just defensive ; so many ditches and ramparts , such as those at Maiden Castle , were excessive for defence alone so were likely used as statements of power and authority . Developed hill forts were generally densely occupied ; this is best demonstrated at Danebury , where 57 % of the site has been excavated . While developed hill forts were of a higher status than their smaller predecessors , they were not all equal and Cunliffe states that the Maiden Castle 's monumental defences probably indicate that it was of higher status than other developed hill forts .
Maiden Castle expanded westwards , and the ditch was extended to enclose the neighbouring Hog Hill . The peaks of the two hills encompassed by the new , larger hill fort were separated by a dry valley . A shaft dug into the valley was possibly used as a water source . Almost immediately after the single ditch enclosure was expanded to 19 ha ( 47 acres ) , work began on making the defences more elaborate . The existing rampart was heightened to 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) , and more ramparts and ditches were added . On the south of the fort , four ramparts and three ditches were added , but because of the steepness of the northern slope of the hill the fourth rampart did not extend all the way round , and only three ramparts were built on the northern side . At the same time , the eastern entrance was again made more complex through the addition of further earthworks , lengthening the approach to the site .
The four @-@ post structures common in hill forts throughout England are also found in Maiden Castle . Their purpose on this site is uncertain however , since at 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) square they have been considered by archaeologists to be too small for dwellings ; as a result , it has been concluded that these structures were probably granaries . The presence of granaries suggests that the fort was used to control the area 's food supply . Little evidence has been discovered for houses in Maiden Castle during the sites reconstruction in the 5th century BC ; this is probably because the site has not been fully excavated and a quarry used to provide material for the rampart may have obliterated the evidence . It appears that houses were not built near the ramparts until after the defences were complete . Maiden Castle was occupied throughout the Iron Age and its inhabitants lived in roundhouses . The later houses appear to be organised in rows , and to be roughly similar in size , a reorganisation which indicates the increasing power of the elites over Iron Age society .
Bronze objects such as pins , jewellery , and rivets have been found on the site , dating from the Middle Iron Age . As there was no local source of tin and copper ore , this demonstrates long distance trade , probably with the southwest . Although bronze was not produced at Maiden Castle , there is evidence of it being reworked . Good quality iron ore could be found in the surrounding area , but the hill fort does not appear to have been a centre for iron production in this period ; this is not unusual as very few hill forts in Berkshire , Dorset , Hampshire , and Wiltshire exhibit traces of iron production . Early in the Iron Age , most of the pottery found at Maiden Castle was produced locally – within about 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) – however later on sources further afield became more important , and by the Late Iron Age 95 % of the pottery came from the area around Poole Harbour over 35 mi ( 56 km ) away . This long @-@ range trade has been taken as evidence for increasing relationships with groups of people over large areas and the emergence of tribal identities . Although Sharples states that developed hill forts such as Maiden Castle are not towns and cannot be considered truly urban because they are so closely related to agriculture and storage , Cunliffe and fellow @-@ archaeologists Mark Corney and Andrew Payne describe developed hill forts as " town @-@ like settlements " , a form of proto @-@ urbanism .
= = Decline = =
Across Britain , many hill forts fell out of use in the 100 years around the turn of the millennium . It has been suggested that this , and the contemporary change in material culture of the Britons ( such as the introduction of coinage and cemeteries and an increase in craft industries ) , was caused by increased interaction with the Roman Empire . The developing industries may have resulted in a shift away from the hill fort elites , whose power was based on agriculture . Such change is not as obvious in Dorset as it is in the rest of Britain , but there is a trend for abandonment of hill forts in the area and a proliferation of small undefended farmsteads , indicating a migration of the population .
Around 100 BC , Maiden Castle 's organised street pattern was replaced by more random habitation . At the same time , the western half of the site was abandoned and occupation was concentrated in the east of the fort . Also during the Late Iron Age , some of the earthworks around the eastern gateway were filled in and settlement expanded beyond the entrance , and into the areas between the banks . Excavations by archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler in this area revealed several houses , storage pits , an area used for iron working , and a cemetery . On the industrial site , more than 62 kg ( 137 lb ) of iron slag was discovered in an area of 30 m2 ( 320 sq ft ) , and it is believed the site produced around 200 kg ( 440 lb ) of iron . The amount of ore required could not have been supplied by local sources , so most likely originated from areas of specialist iron production such as the Weald , south west England , and Wales . Maiden Castle is one of the most important iron production sites from the Late Iron Age in southern Britain .
There is little evidence for burial in the Iron Age until late on in the period , and it is believed that the prevalent method of disposing of a body was by excarnation . Wheeler 's excavations on the cemetery in the eastern gateway revealed 52 burials , but only part of the cemetery was investigated , so the total number of burials is likely to be at least double this figure . One area of the cemetery featured burials of 14 people who had died in violent circumstances , including one body with a Roman catapult bolt in its back . Wheeler used the " war cemetery " , as he described it , as evidence of a Roman attack on Maiden Castle .
= = Roman activity and abandonment = =
In AD 43 , the Roman conquest of Britain began . Vespasian 's subsequent campaign to conquer the tribes of the Atrebates , Dumnonii , and Durotriges in the southwest of Britain took place in AD 43 – 47 . Based on the discovery of a group of bodies in the Late Iron Age formal cemetery that had met a violent death , archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler created a vivid story of the fall of Maiden Castle to Roman forces . He believed a legion wreaked destruction on the site , butchering men , women , and children , before setting fire to the site and slighting its defences . However , there is little archaeological evidence to support this version of events , or even that the hill fort was attacked by the Romans . Although there is a layer of charcoal , it is associated with the iron works , and the main evidence for slighting of defences comes from the collapse of an entranceway to the fort . Although 14 bodies in the cemetery exhibited signs of a violent death , there is no evidence that they died at Maiden Castle . The eastern part of the hill fort remained in use for at least the first few decades of the Roman occupation , although the duration and nature of habitation is uncertain . Many 1st @-@ century Roman artefacts have been discovered near the east entrance and in the centre of the hill fort . It has been suggested that Maiden Castle was occupied as a Roman military outpost or fort and the settlement discontinued , as there is no known fort in the area and it was not uncommon for hill forts in the southwest to have been occupied by Roman forces . This was a characteristic of Vespasian 's campaign in the region ; there was military occupation at Cadbury Castle in Somerset , Hembury in Devon , and Hodd Hill in Dorset .
Maiden Castle had been abandoned by the end of the 1st century , a time when Durnovaria ( Dorchester ) rose to prominence as the civitas , or regional capital , of the Durotriges , a Celtic tribe whose territory was in southwest England . However , in July 2015 archaeologists from Bournemouth University discovered the remains of the Iron Age settlement of Duropolis and believe that the abandonment of the fort may be connected with the new site . According to the ancient geographer Ptolemy , writing in the 2nd century AD , Dunium was the main settlement of the Durotriges . Although Dunium has long been thought to refer to Maiden Castle , Hod Hill and Hengistbury have been identified as two other possible sites for Dunium . Dunium may have derived from British duno- which meant " a fort " . Sometime after 367 , a Romano @-@ Celtic temple was built at Maiden Castle in the eastern half of the hill fort . The date was deduced from a hoard of coins discovered beneath a mosaic floor in the temple . A central room , measuring 6 m ( 20 ft ) square , was surrounded by a 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) passageway , similar to many Romano @-@ Celtic temples found in the south of England . Nearby were two other buildings : a rectangular building 7 @.@ 9 m × 5 @.@ 5 m ( 26 ft × 18 ft ) with two rooms that may have been a house for a priest , and a circular building that may have been a shrine . At the same time as the temple was built , the fort 's eastern gateway was refurbished ; there was possibly another shrine inside the gateway .
= = Later history = =
The 4th @-@ century temple gradually fell into disuse and Maiden Castle was used predominantly as pasture . There is evidence for activity on the site in the form of a few post @-@ Roman or Anglo Saxon burials , some possibly Christian , but the hill fort was not reused as a settlement . In the 16th and 17th centuries , a barn was built over the " war cemetery " . The only other significant activity on the hill top after the Romans was a short period of cultivation in the 17th century , as demonstrated by traces of ridge and furrow caused by ploughing . The modern name for the hill fort is first recorded in 1607 as Mayden Castell ; it is not unique to the site and occurs in several other places in Britain and probably means a " fortification that looks impregnable " or one that has never been taken in battle . Alternatively , the name may derive from the British mai @-@ dun , meaning a " great hill " . Over the following centuries , the site was abandoned completely and became open pasture , although it was of interest to antiquarians . Thomas Hardy , who built his house within sight of it , described the castle in a short story , " Ancient Earthworks and What Two Enthusiastic Scientists Found Therein " ( 1885 ) about a local antiquarian who spent much time investigating the site . In 1921 , composer John Ireland wrote Mai @-@ Dun , a symphonic rhapsody , about the hill fort in Dorset . John Cowper Powys wrote a novel titled Maiden Castle in 1936 , which was set in Dorset .
The first widespread investigation of hill forts was carried out in the second half of the 19th century under the direction of Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , but it was not until the 1930s that Maiden Castle was methodically investigated , the first large @-@ scale excavation of the interior of a hill fort . Between 1934 and 1937 , Mortimer Wheeler excavated both the interior and the defences , work that was funded almost entirely by donations from the public . Wheeler 's use of the media to disseminate information about the site resulted in Maiden Castle becoming well known . It was one of about 80 hill forts to have been excavated by 1940 , in a period known as " hill fort mania " during the 1920s and 1930s .
Between 1985 and 1986 further excavations under Niall Sharples were prompted by the hill fort 's deteriorating condition , partly caused by the large number of visitors to the site . Under the auspices of English Heritage , repair work and archaeological investigations were undertaken concurrently . Techniques such as radiocarbon dating were available to Sharples that were unavailable to Wheeler , allowing the site to be dated . The structure was made a Scheduled Ancient Monument in 1997 , giving Maiden Castle protection against unauthorised change ; it is now maintained by English Heritage . With parking facilities and information boards for visitors , Maiden Castle is open to the public all year round . Today , the site is in the civil parish of Winterborne Monkton at grid reference SY66938848 .
= = Cultural references = =
in 1921 , the English composer John Ireland ( 1879 – 1972 ) wrote the tone poem Mai @-@ Dun , A Symphonic Rhapsody about the place , adopting Hardy 's name for it . In 1931 , Ireland arranged his piece for piano four hands .
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= Dor ( film ) =
Dor ( Hindi : डोर , Urdu : ڈور , English : String ) is a 2006 Indian drama film written and directed by Nagesh Kukunoor that features Ayesha Takia , Gul Panag and Shreyas Talpade as the lead actors . It is a remake of the Malayalam film , Perumazhakkalam ( 2004 ) and was well received by the critics after its release on 22 September 2006 . Dor , which also released on a DVD , garnered rave reviews from critics and film buffs .
Dor , which was produced by Elahe Hiptoola , had cinematography by Sudeep Chatterjee and editing by Sanjib Datta . For a film that had Hindi as the predominant language with a sporadic use of Urdu , Salim @-@ Sulaiman composed the background score .
The story is about two women who come from different backgrounds and how fate brings them together . Meera ( Ayesha Takia ) , a young woman who becomes a widow shortly after marriage , is trapped by tradition . Zeenat ( Gul Panag ) , on the other hand , faces the daunting task of saving the life of her husband , who is on trial for murder . A bahuroopiya ( Shreyas Talpade ) helps her reach Meera , who holds the " string " to Zeenat 's hope . The companionship that develops between Meera and Zeenat results in redemption for both .
= = Plot = =
Zeenat ( Gul Panag ) is an independent Muslim woman living in Himachal Pradesh . She agrees to marry Amir Khan , her boyfriend , despite his parents ' reservations . After their marriage , her husband leaves for Saudi Arabia to begin employment .
Meera ( Ayesha Takia ) , a simple Rajasthani Hindu woman , has everything in her life in accordance with customs and traditions : her formative years , her recent marriage into a traditional Rajasthani family and her daily chores within the walls of her haveli . Coincidentally , her husband , Shankar , is in Saudi Arabia , his new workplace . Meera finds it tough without her husband but they manage to stay in touch . Shankar regularly sends his wages home to support his family that includes his father , Randhir Singh ( Girish Karnad ) , mother , Gowri Singh ( Prateeksha Lonkar ) , his paternal grandmother ( Uttara Baokar ) and Meera . One day , Meera does not find the remittance from Shankar . Time passes and when there are neither any further remittances nor any correspondence from her husband , Meera gets worried . When frantic inquiries are made , she is devastated to know that Shankar was killed in a freak accident that was allegedly caused by his Muslim roommate .
When the news of Shankar 's death reaches the Singh haveli , everyone turns somber and the ceremonies towards rendering her into a widow emotionally drains Meera . Her vivaciousness and exuberance are thrust behind her black veil . The rest of the family vents their frustration of losing their only bread @-@ winner on Meera , by blaming her for bringing bad @-@ luck to their family . Meera , being her respectful self , bears the insults silently .
On the other side , Zeenat hears that her husband has been arrested for murdering his roommate in Saudi Arabia . She is convinced that it must have been an accident , but the Saudi law is unforgiving and Amir is scheduled to be executed . An Indian officer explains to her that Saudi law permits release of a criminal if the wife of the deceased forgives the guilt . Armed only with a photograph of Shankar and Amir , Zeenat sets out to find Meera . On route , she meets a Behrupiya ( Shreyas Talpade ) . The bahuroopiya introduces himself and his profession as being multi @-@ faceted and multi @-@ talented in arts and mimicry . This profession requires him to keep visiting different places to perform " tricks " for his income . He turns out to be a petty con @-@ man when he hoodwinks Zeenat and steals her belongings . However , when Zeenat is in trouble , he returns to rescue her with his artistic talent . He reveals his sympathetic view when Zeenat details her plight ; he offers to help her with whatever knowledge he has . After making a lot of educated guesses , they reach Jodhpur . With local help , they identify the Singh haveli . When Zeenat directly requests the Singh family to pardon Amir 's mistake , their anger drives her away . She feels that maybe talking through and befriending Meera might help her cause . The bahuroopiya takes leave of Zeenat and wishes her the best for her efforts .
At a temple , which Meera visits as her daily ritual , Zeenat makes her first contact . Zeenat is too afraid to tell Meera the truth about the situation , and she does not reveal who she is or why she has come . Over a few weeks , they become good friends and spend most of the time together . Their friendship brings out the missing part in each of their personalities . In the process , Zeenat realizes helplessness ; this is totally new to her forthright way of thinking . Meera , on the other hand , gets a glimpse of freedom ; this brings her out of the shell of the traditions in her haveli and gives her a new perspective on her life .
In the meanwhile , the Singh haveli is under a debt to Chopra ( Nagesh Kukunoor ) , a local factory owner . When Randhir requests him for more time to repay it , he is given an offer — pardoning the debt in exchange for Meera . Though initially set back by Chopra 's offer , Randhir prefers the haveli to Meera .
When the news of the imminent death sentence arrives , Zeenat is compelled to tell the truth to Meera . Meera is shocked beyond belief to hear Zeenat 's words . The fact that her friendship was based on false pretenses is what hurts her more . She immediately refuses to sign the maafinama ( statement of forgiveness ) . She makes it clear that she wants to hurt her husband 's murderer , even if it was an accident , because of how much she is hurting in her new , veiled life . She leaves for the haveli . Zeenat , initially , is deeply hurt from Meera 's decision but eventually accepts it as fate and decides to leave for her hometown . Meera later has a change of heart , perhaps because of her disillusionment at Randhir 's willingness to " sell " her to Chopra . She gets encouragement from her paternal grandmother and hurries towards the railway station , where she meets Zeenat and gives her the signed statement of forgiveness . Zeenat extends her hand from the train and Meera grabs it and climbs aboard , presumably running away from the only life she has ever known , as the train speeds up into the distance .
= = Cast = =
Ayesha Takia as Meera , one of the two protagonists . Coming from an orthodox Rajput family , she has to descend into a life devoid of joy .
Gul Panag as Zeenat , the other protagonist . A gutsy and determined wife who hopes to save her husband 's life and this leads her to Meera .
Shreyas Talpade as Bahuroopiya , the multi @-@ faceted personality . He plays a supportive role to Zeenat by helping her to find Meera .
Girish Karnad as Randhir Singh , father @-@ in @-@ law of Meera . Quite orthodox in their customs and traditions , he turns tough on Meera after the death of the only bread @-@ winner of their house , his son .
Nagesh Kukunoor as Chopra , a businessman . Comes up with a proposal to forgive the debt of Randhir Singh 's ancestral house at the expense of Meera .
Prateeksha Lonkar as Gowri Singh , Randhir Singh 's wife . On the pretext of tradition and customs , she exercises restraint on Meera 's freedom and choices .
Uttara Baokar as Dadima , Meera 's grandmother @-@ in @-@ law . Her grumpy nature towards Meera transforms into empathy after Shankar , Meera 's husband , is murdered . She plays a significant role in Meera 's redemption from oppression .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The story of Dor began when Nagesh Kukunoor was attending the International Film Festival of India in November 2005 . During the festival , he had hinted to a journalist that he began writing his next script . He confirmed this in another interview that after watching Perumazhakkalam ( 2005 ) , whose story is based on a newspaper article , at the Film Festival , he decided to make his own version of the film . After purchasing the story rights from Kamal , director of Perumazhakkalam , he wanted to remake it in a different way . Through his story , he wanted to emphasize the protagonists ' ordeal while in isolation in the form of a visual drama . However , acknowledgments to Perumazhakkalam or its makers were not provided in the credits .
Kukunoor announced the news about film making in early March 2006 and suggested of its release in August 2006 . He conceptualized the film in thirds : the first and third for the lead characters and the second for the supporting one . However , Kukunoor said that all his films , at the core , have " the human element — the simplicity of the basic emotions that bind us all . "
Since the backdrop of the film was to be Rajasthan , he had been there and did the necessary research so as to better portray the place and characters .
The CEO of Sahara One Motion Pictures , who produced Kukunoor 's Iqbal ( 2005 ) , while speaking about their motivation to continue the association with Kukunoor said , " we all look forward to Kukunoor 's films mainly because the subject and content is so out of the ordinary and captivating . "
= = = Locations and casting = = =
Kukunoor had not visited Rajasthan or Himachal Pradesh before , but he felt that he would find great locations there . Salooni in Chamba district is considered for shooting in Himachal Pradesh . In spite of this geographical inexperience , all went as per the plans while shooting in Rajasthan . However , minor modifications in the script were allowed for the surroundings . Though Panag had been in Rajasthan , she felt the scorching summer heat unbearable at times . She liked the only continuous shooting schedule and said that it provided consistency in look and performance . In Himachal , it was slightly different when the crew had hard time framing the mountains correctly . On seeing the captured frames , they shifted all the interior shots to outside .
Filming was completed in 37 days in several locations of Rajasthan . Since most of the old palaces in Rajasthan have been converted into hotels , the crew stayed at a palace resort called Manwar . They resided at a palace resort in Pokhran , while filming was done at Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur . Kukunoor , after completion of the shooting , said that it was his most challenging film as it involved a real @-@ life story .
Gul Panag was impressed with Kukunoor 's previous film , Rockford ( 1999 ) and her constant correspondence with him fetched her the role of Zeenat . Kukunoor felt that Panag had characteristics of someone who was lean and fit , good height , large frame , and with an appropriate skin tone . After a successful audition , she was chosen for the character that she felt was a difficult one to portray . Critiquing the actress with " I see urgency , pain but no sadness " and " I see anger and vulnerability but no guilt " , the director pushed Panag to her limits . She felt that Kukunoor was such a man of conviction that he constantly forgot to eat and this once caused him a stomach infection . Gul Panag , on the other hand , said that her role was very multi @-@ dimensional , multi @-@ layered and hence it was quite tough to play the character . She said that Kukunoor helped her in defining her character with ease and said , " Nagesh looked at the minutest detail and was an immense support to me as an actor . " However , Dor 's executive producer , Elahe Hiptoola lent her voice for Panag in the film .
It was in Socha Na Tha ( 2004 ) that Kukunoor noticed Ayesha Takia and until then he assumed her to be a glamor doll . After getting convinced about her acting skills , she was roped in for the character of Meera . Takia said that though her character emotionally drained her , it was not tough to portray and that she could learn a lot about life . She further said that , " Dor was indeed an exciting challenge for the actor in me . I am happy that it was also a very exciting role , which not many actors get to portray at such a young age . " She said that with Dor , she was not only in the film industry for glamor , but also for her acting prowess . While filming , Kukunoor bonded so well with Takia that he requested her to be his sister . Since she did not have a brother in real life , she got quite emotional with Kukunoor 's brotherly proposal . This affection eventually solemnized in the form of a rakhi symbolically .
When Kukunoor was thinking of a character full of disguises , he first came up with an old man . When the thought of a scene with the three major characters dancing in the dunes came up , he realized that an older character could not realistically dance in the desert . He immediately felt that Shreyas Talpade , whom he knew of knowing mimicry , could be used for bahuroopiya . Kukunoor , who worked previously with Girish Karnad , said that he was the strength for the film and added that he found him a good actor and a good human being .
Talpade , who previously featured as the title character of Kukunoor 's Iqbal ( 2005 ) , observed the bahuroopiyas in Rajasthan and incorporated their dialect , accent , and their body language for his character . About Kukunoor , he said that , " though one tends to go overboard as an actor most of the times , the way he handles the character as a director , Nagesh makes you feel that it is very simple for you to delineate the character . " Through his character of a bahuroopiya , Talpade was required to perform mimicry . While he was good at mimicry in college , it was during the filming of Iqbal , Kukunoor noted this talent of his and thus Dor came into Talpade 's hands . About his co @-@ actors , he said that it was refreshing to work with Panag and Takia despite the scorching heat of 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) .
According to the DVD extras , Nagesh Kukunoor first wrote the screenplay in English , then had it translated to Hindi .
= = = Filming and music = = =
About the background score , Kukunoor said that " to put soaring music to give it a larger @-@ than @-@ life film image was pretty difficult " . Despite this worry , with Salim @-@ Sulaiman composing the music , he was happy with the way it was composed according to the sequence . Karsan Saquria , Sunidhi Chauhan and a Pakistani singer , Shafqat Amanat Ali Khan were among those who sang the songs . While releasing the soundtrack , Kukunoor said that Salim @-@ Sulaiman and he tried make songs that " stood out from the clutter and something that was different from the item numbers or the boring love ballads . "
= = Release and reception = =
Dor accumulated about Rs . 38 million in India at the end of 2006 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The Telegraph said in its review , " When you first watch Nagesh Kukunoor 's impressively shot Dor , you want to simply applaud it as good cinema . Whether it 's Ayesha 's award @-@ worthy performance or Shreyas ' amusing moments , the credit marks pile up in favor of the director who has made engaging cinema . " The Times of India said :
Dor makes a strong feminist statement without being strident or shouting slogans . And all along , the riveting friendship between the two polarized women and the events that bring them together , keep tugging at your heart . Shreyas Talpade proves that ( his previous film ) , Iqbal was no accident and Gul Panag gives one of the most convincing portrayals of her career . But , it is Ayesha Takia who simply blows your breath away . Her journey from joyous subjugation — where she is content to dance before her husband and be at the beck and call of her in @-@ laws — to silent emancipation is absolutely endearing .
About the technical department , The Hindu said :
" There is this one scene when the director cuts from Zeenat ( Gul Panag ) trying to fix her house literally from the outside , perched on a ladder , with a hammer in hand , to Meera ( Ayesha Takia ) inside the house and behind a veil . The play of such visual metaphors throughout gives the film a world @-@ class feel , the kind of stuff you usually see in Iranian cinema . "
Another review from The Telegraph says :
" Sudeep Chatterjee 's cinematography is excellent . He composes and constructs stylised but simple images which don 't scream for attention , but unassumingly add up to create the film 's striking overall visual design . "
While writing about the plot and the picturization , Rediff.com concluded :
" The script is engaging ; the dialogues entertaining , witty and yet quite profound . Every scene seems to have been well etched out . The character sketches are strong and the characters are inspiring but not patronizing . The script , the story and the characters take the spotlight and the sets , though picturesque add to the plot instead of overshadowing it . "
Taran Adarsh , while writing about the chances of its commercial success , said , " Dor is a well @-@ made film that caters to those with an appetite for qualitative cinema . Awards and glowing critical acclaim , yes , it has the power to win it . But , box @-@ office rewards and a mandate from the aam junta ( common man ) will elude it . The lethargic pacing will also go against it . "
= = = Reception and awards = = =
As per the reviews , the film could not capture much appeal at the theaters . In Kolkata , theater officials withdrew Dor from screening one week after its theatrical release . The reason cited for this withdrawal was due to many simultaneous releases such as the films Woh Lamhe and Snakes on a Plane . However , commercial success notwithstanding for these films , Dor was brought back to the screens . Following this , Dor was screened at the annual Indo @-@ American Arts Council Film Festival and the Atlanta Indo @-@ American Film Festival .
Along with nominations for cinematography , dialogues , lyrics and supporting actor ( for Shreyas Talpade ) , the film won the critics award for Ayesha Takia and Gul Panag at the 2007 Zee Cine Awards . At the annual Star Screen Awards , Talpade and Takia won the best actor in a comic role and critics choice for best actress awards respectively along with other nominations . At another such awards ceremony , Takia and Panag won awards for their performances . Takia further won the best actress award at the Bengal Film Journalists ' Association Awards .
= = Home media = =
= = = DVD = = =
The DVD version of the film was released on 20 October 2006 . The DVD release , which was distributed by Eros Entertainment , is available in 16 : 9 Anamorphic widescreen , Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround , progressive 24 FPS , widescreen and NTSC format . With a runtime of 147 minutes , the DVD has a provision for English subtitles . However , some versions of the film jacket list the runtime as 63 minutes .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack , which was composed by Salim @-@ Sulaiman and the lyrics by Mir Ali Husain , was released on 26 August 2006 with a typical and traditional Rajasthani flavor .
One review about the soundtrack said that , " this is no ordinary album and will be preferred by musical elites . Infused with classical music and Rajasthani folk music , it is a good quality album coming out of Salim @-@ Sulaiman . But the shortcoming comes in the form that this is not the kind of music that 'll please every ear . " Another review , in a similar tone , said that the album " works only for those who are either followers of classical music or enjoy hearing songs with a Rajasthani folk music base . There is no doubt that composers good quality throughout , but overall the album caters only to a niche audience . "
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= Gilli ( Hebridean earl ) =
Gilli was an eleventh @-@ century Hebridean chieftain whose career coincided with an era of Orcadian overlordship in the Kingdom of the Isles . According to mediaeval saga @-@ tradition , Gilli was a brother @-@ in @-@ law of Sigurðr Hlǫðvisson , Earl of Orkney , having married the latter 's sister Hvarflǫð . Traditionally regarded as one of the most powerful Orcadian earls , Sigurðr appears to have extended his authority into the Isles in the late tenth century , and Gilli apparently acted as Sigurðr 's viceroy or tributary earl in this region . Gilli 's name is probably Gaelic in origin , and he seems to have seated himself on either Coll or Colonsay , islands in the Inner Hebrides . It is possible that Gilli is identical to Gilla Ciaráin mac Glún Iairn , an Uí Ímair dynast who was slain at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 . If not , another possibility is that he was the father of a certain Conamal / Conmáel who was killed in 980 .
= = Earl in the Hebrides = =
There is evidence to suggest that Sigurðr Hlǫðvisson , Earl of Orkney ( died 1014 ) extended his authority from Orkney into the Isles in the late tenth- and early eleventh century . For instance , the thirteenth @-@ century Njáls saga — the only source that specifically refers to Gilli — states that one of Sigurðr 's followers , Kári Sǫlmundarson , extracted taxes from the northern Hebrides , then controlled by Gilli himself . Whether these taxes were due to Norwegian overlords of Sigurðr , as the saga states , is uncertain . The saga further declares that Sigurðr and his men defeated Guðrøðr Haraldsson , King of the Isles ( died 989 ) , after which they plundered the Isles . Also noted are additional assaults conducted by accomplices of Sigurðr throughout the Hebrides , Kintyre , Mann ( against Guðrøðr ) , and Anglesey . The thirteenth @-@ century Orkneyinga saga also reports Sigurðr 's raids into the Isles , as does Eyrbyggja saga , a thirteenth @-@ century source which further notes his taxation of the kingdom . Contemporary Orcadian expansion may be perceptible in the evidence of the land @-@ assessment system of ouncelands in the Hebrides and along the western coast of Scotland . If Sigurðr 's authority indeed stretched over the Isles in the last decades of the tenth century , such an intrusion could account for the numbers of silver hoards dating to this time .
Various Irish annals also reveal that this was a period of strife in the Isles , as Danair ( literally " Danes " ) are recorded active in the region throughout 986 and 987 . Although it is not impossible that the Danair ( perhaps merely meaning " pirates " ) refer to Sigurðr 's forces , it is more likely that they are instead identical to the Vikings who are otherwise attested attacking England in the 990s . In fact , it seems that the Danair were active in the region against opponents of Guðrøðr . This could indicate that either the kin of the recently deceased Amlaíb Cuarán , King of Northumbria and Dublin ( died 980 / 981 ) , or perhaps an Orcadian @-@ aligned Islesman like Gilli himself , may have fallen target to an alliance between the Danair and Guðrøðr . This could in turn reveal that the aforesaid claims of continuous Orcadian conquests in the Isles — otherwise unrecorded outwith saga @-@ tradition — give a less than unbiased account of events . Whatever the case , Guðrøðr was slain in 989 , after which the political cohesion of Kingdom of the Isles — perhaps shaken by Orcadian encroachment in the 980s — seems to have diminished .
The extent of Guðrøðr 's authority in Hebrides is unknown due to his coexistence with Gilli , and to the uncertainty of Orcadian encroachment . Guðrøðr 's successor is likewise uncertain . Although it is conceivable that either Gilli or Sigurðr capitalised on the king 's death , and extended their overlordship as far south as Mann , possible after @-@ effects such as these are uncorroborated . According to Njáls saga , Gilli was seated on Kola or Kolu , an island that appears to refer to Coll or perhaps Colonsay . The saga also states that Gilli was married to Sigurðr 's sister , Hvarflǫð . This marital alliance appears to further evince the southward extension of Sigurðr 's influence . The latter 's family was clearly not adverse to marrying into native dynasties , as Sigurðr 's own mother was the daughter of an Irish king , whilst his wife was the daughter of a Scottish king . In fact , the aforesaid sources appear to indicate that Gilli operated in the Hebrides as a tributary earl to his brother @-@ in @-@ law . Certainly , Eyrbyggja saga states that Sigurðr left menn ( " agents " ) in the Hebrides to collect tax from Mann , whilst Orkneyinga saga reveals that , at a later period in time , Sigurðr 's son and successor , Þórfinnr Sigurðarson , Earl of Orkney ( died c . 1065 ) , tasked a member of his own wife 's family , Kálfr Árnason ( died 1051 ) , to impose Orcadian authority in the Isles .
= = Clontarf , Gilla Ciaráin , and Conamal / Conmáel = =
By the end of the first decade of the eleventh century , the principal ruler in Ireland was Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig , High King of Ireland ( died 1014 ) . Brian 's daughter , Sláine , was married to Sitriuc mac Amlaíb , King of Dublin ( died 1042 ) , whilst the latter 's mother , Gormlaith ingen Murchada ( died 1030 ) was a former wife of Brian . In 1013 , Sitriuc allied himself to Brian 's enemies , and revolted against Brian 's overlordship . Although Brian proceeded to lay siege to Dublin — the only Viking town that participated in the revolt against his supremacy — Sitriuc retained possession of the settlement , and Brian retired to Munster for Christmas .
According to Njáls saga , Gilli and Sitriuc spent Yule with Sigurðr in Orkney , where Sitriuc convinced Sigurðr to ally himself against Brian on the condition that Sigurðr would gain Gormlaith in marriage . In April 1014 , the opposing forces met and clashed at the remarkably bloody Battle of Clontarf . Although Brian 's forces ultimately won the day , and Sigurðr himself was amongst the slain , Brian lost his life as well . As for Gilli , he appears in a chapter of Njáls saga that presents a series of supernatural events connected with the conflict . In one instance , a Caithnessman is said to have witnessed valkyrie @-@ like apparitions singing songs for the slain , whilst a similar event is said to have occurred in the Faroe Islands . Priests in Iceland are stated to have encountered paranormal phenomena , whilst an Orcadian is said to have encountered the spectre of Sigurðr before disappearing off the face of the earth . As for Gilli , the saga asserts that he dreamt of a song that foretold the outcome of the battle and the fall of Brian and Sigurðr . There is reason to suspect that the aforesaid supernatural manifestations — arguably somewhat detached from the saga 's general narrative — are actually interpolations of separate material . Elsewhere in the narrative , however , there are examples of paranormal phenomena intervening into human affairs . For example , the episode concerning Gilli 's dream seems to directly parallel an earlier episode in which another man , the Icelander Flosi Þórðarson , is depicted dreaming of the burning of the saga 's eponym , Njáll Þorgeirsson .
If the account of Gilli in the aftermath of Clontarf has been constructed for dramatic effect , the passage may not be evidence of his floruit beyond this point in history . In fact , it is possible that he is identical to Gilla Ciaráin mac Glún Iairn ( died 1014 ) , a man who was amongst those slain at the battle . The Annals of Ulster , which records the latter 's fall , styles him rígdamna Gall ( " heir @-@ designate of the Foreigners " ) , revealing that Gilla Ciaráin was indeed a prominent man . Sitriuc is known to have had an elder brother named Glún Iairn , a man who had reigned as King of Dublin until his death in 989 . If Gilla Ciaráin was a son of this king , his apparent tender age at the time of his father 's death could account for Sitriuc 's accession to the kingship . Furthermore , the aforesaid title accorded to Gilla Ciaráin appears to indicate that he was regarded as his uncle 's royal heir . If Gilli and Gilla Ciaráin are indeed identical , his pre @-@ eminent status in the Norse @-@ Gaelic world would help to explain his marital alliance with Sigurðr .
Gilla Ciaráin 's father bore a Gaelic name meaning " iron knee " . It may or may not be a Gaelicisation of Járnkné , an identical @-@ meaning Old Norse name . Gilla Ciaráin 's own name is Gaelic , meaning " the servant of Saint Ciarán " . Gaelic names beginning with the initial name @-@ element Gilla- first appear on record in last half of the tenth century . Such names were shortened to Gilli by Scandinavian settlers in Britain and Ireland . In fact , such a phenomenon may account for the name accorded to Gilli himself . Gilli 's name suggests that he was at least partly of Gaelic descent , perhaps either Irish or Hebridean . Although various names are attributed to Gilli 's wife in the numerous versions of Njáls saga , the best version of this source gives Hvarflǫð . This name appears to be an Old Norse form of Forbflaith , a relatively rare Gaelic name .
There may be further evidence concerning familial relations . In 980 , Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill , High King of Ireland utterly defeated Amlaíb Cuarán 's forces at the Battle of Tara . One of the casualties of this remarkable conflict was a man identified as " Conamhal m. airri Gall " by the Annals of Ulster , and " Conmael mac Gilli Airi " by the Annals of Tigernach . It is possible that these annal @-@ entries refer to a man named Conamal or Conmáel , who was in turn the son of a man named Gilli , and that either the father or the son bore the title airrí Gall ( " royal deputy of the Foreigners " ) . If correct , it is conceivable that that this father is identical to Gilli himself . Against this identification , however , is the fact that the aforesaid saga @-@ tradition depicts Gilli active at about the time of the Battle of Clontarf . The considerable span of time between the death of Conamal / Conmáel and this conflict may well be evidence that a paternal relationship between Conamal / Conmáel and Gilli is unlikely . Whatever the case , the sources appear to be confused as to whether the patronym refers to a personal name or a title . One possibility is that this confusion could indicate that the sources refer to both the personal name Gilla Maire and the epithet Gall .
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= Mortal Kombat : Deception =
Mortal Kombat : Deception is a fighting game developed and published by Midway as the sixth installment of the Mortal Kombat ( MK ) series . It was released for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox in October 2004 , and for the Nintendo GameCube in March 2005 . Mortal Kombat : Deception follows the storyline from the fifth installment , Deadly Alliance . Its story centers on the revival of the Dragon King Onaga , who attempts to conquer the realms featured in the series after defeating the sorcerers Quan Chi and Shang Tsung , the main antagonists in the previous game , and the Thunder God Raiden , defender of Earthrealm . The surviving warriors from the previous titles join forces to confront Onaga .
Twenty @-@ six characters are available to play in the game , with nine making their first appearance in the series . Deception contains several new features in the series , such as chess and puzzle games with the MK characters and an online mode . The Konquest Mode returns from Deadly Alliance , but follows the life of Shujinko , a warrior who is deceived by Onaga to search for artifacts to give Onaga more powers . In November 2006 , Midway released Mortal Kombat : Unchained , a port for the PlayStation Portable , which adds characters to the game from the previous title .
Series co @-@ creator Ed Boon designed Deception to be an unpredictable fighting game , and included new features such as the minigames as surprises . Several parts from Deadly Alliance such as combos and arenas were redesigned to be more realistic as well as more interactive . Deception has been well received by video game reviewers , who praised the fights and the new features . The Konquest Mode , however , received criticism for poor voice acting . Several publications have called Deception the best fighting game of 2004 .
= = Gameplay = =
The game 's arenas are similar to those in Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , but include new features such as unique weapons which players can use , and instant @-@ death traps which immediately kill a fighter who falls into them . The game also introduces the " Combo Breaker " , a system which allows players to interrupt combos up to three times per match . In contrast to Deadly Alliance , in which characters had only one Fatality , the Deception characters have two Fatalities and a hara @-@ kiri suicide move . The latter is used when the phrase " Finish Him / Her " is shown on the screen and the player is about to lose .
Deception introduces two minigames that use MK characters . " Chess Kombat " is a minigame similar to classical chess , but uses player @-@ selected characters as pieces that must best each other in combat to take a square . Some pieces have certain abilities , ranging from impersonating their opponents to instantly killing one of the opposing pieces . It also adds " Puzzle Kombat " , a puzzle game similar to Super Puzzle Fighter II Turbo which features super deformed versions of the MK characters that attack each other once a player gains an advantage in the game .
The " Krypt " returns from Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance and serves as an interface to access extra content hidden in " koffins " ( actual coffins named with the series ' trademark misspelling ) . In Deception , the size of the Krypt was reduced from 676 koffins to 400 koffins . Some koffins also have locks that require keys which can only be found in the Konquest mode . The Krypt in Mortal Kombat : Deception includes twelve bonus characters ( which was cut down to six characters in the GameCube version ) .
= = = Konquest mode = = =
Deadly Alliance 's action role @-@ playing game @-@ style game called " Konquest " also appears in Deception . Deception 's Konquest mode explores the history of Shujinko , starting prior to his training with Bo ' Rai Cho and ending with the beginning of Deception 's main story . While mostly an adventure game , the combat elements take place in the normal Deception fighting mode . In Konquest , a young Shujinko meets Damashi , a being who requests his assistance in collecting six powerful items , the Kamidogu , to send to the Elder Gods . By the time he collects the six Kamidogu , Shujinko is an old man , having spent forty @-@ six years on his mission . However , Damashi is then revealed to be the Dragon King Onaga , who deceived Shujinko to obtain the six Kamidogu . Players seeking to unlock much of the bonus content in Deception are required to play through the Konquest mode .
= = Plot = =
In the final events of Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , Raiden 's warriors , who were meant to protect the six fictional universes ( named " realms " ) , are killed by the Deadly Alliance ( Shang Tsung and Quan Chi ) , who attempted to conquer the realms . With Raiden defeated , the Deadly Alliance dissolves as the two sorcerers turn on each other for Shinnok 's amulet . When Quan Chi wins , the Dragon King Onaga , the former emperor of the realm of Outworld , appears to regain his power . Raiden awakes and then unleashes all his powers in a colossal explosion that , apart from destroying both members of the Deadly Alliance , the surrounding palace and himself , has little effect on Onaga .
Onaga now seeks to use six artifacts called Kamidogu ( literally " Tool of God " or " divine clay " ) , which are able to destroy the realms . Those fighters who survive the battle against the Deadly Alliance now stand against Onaga and his supporters . The latter include the forces of Edenia , now led by Mileena in the titular theme of deception as she masquerades as her sister , Princess Kitana . Other enemies include the former defenders from the realms , who were resurrected by Onaga and are under his control .
In the story explored in Konquest mode , a young man named Shujinko is deceived into spending his life collecting the Kamidogu for Onaga , who uses the guise of an emissary of the Elder Gods , the beings who created the realms , named Damashi . Onaga reveals his identity and intentions after Shujinko has gathered all the Kamidogu . Shujinko , led to believe he was working for the greater good , decides to continue training to defeat Onaga .
= = Characters = =
There are twenty @-@ eight characters in the game , nine new and nineteen returning . New characters include : Ashrah , a demon searching for redemption by killing demons ; Darrius , the leader of the resistance in the realm of Order ; Hotaru , a warrior of Order , pledged to serve the Dragon King ; Dairou , a mercenary contracted by Darrius to assassinate Hotaru ; Havik , a cleric of Chaos who wishes to consume Onaga 's heart and revive Emperor Shao Kahn to ensure chaos reigns ; Kira and Kobra , new members of the Black Dragon organization ; Onaga , the Dragon King and former emperor of Outworld who appears as the unplayable boss character from the arcade mode ; and Shujinko , an old warrior who was deceived by Onaga when he was young .
Several of the returning characters have been redesigned and were given new moves , such as Liu Kang , who reappears as a zombie , having been killed by the Deadly Alliance . Noob Saibot and Smoke are sub @-@ bosses who fight together under the name of Noob @-@ Smoke . The GameCube version and PlayStation Portable have two more playable characters : the sub @-@ boss from the first MK game Goro , and the boss from the two following titles Shao Kahn , both of whom were previously thought to have died in the prologue of Deadly Alliance .
Character redesigns were generally accepted favorably , namely in the case of Sub @-@ Zero . Once again appearing youthful rather than his depiction as a septuagenarian in Deadly Alliance , Sub @-@ Zero sported a " grandmaster " armor set that was often likened to Shredder . Scorpion was redesigned to resemble a more classical ninja look , while characters like Ermac received a considerable makeover from the standard ninja fare , offering up a more sorcerer @-@ like appearance .
= = Development = =
Mortal Kombat co @-@ creator Ed Boon wanted Deception to be an unpredictable fighting game that gave players new features " they could never imagine " . In order to do so , the Midway staff listened to fans on bulletin boards to know what to work on for Deception , such as the playable characters . Wanting to surprise fans and make the game deeper , they added the puzzle and chess minigames ( the chess minigame had first been considered for Deadly Alliance , but the developers lacked time to implement it ) . Boon and John Podlasek supervised the staff , which was divided into teams to work on different areas of the game . One of their concerns was to maintain the traditional feel of the MK series as they wanted the game 's violence to make it a more realistic fighting game , rather than " a fighting simulator " .
Character appearances were improved to make their moves " more responsive " to the player 's input . They also wanted to bring back several characters they felt were absent for too long — including Sindel , Nightwolf , Baraka , and Mileena — and an arena with several weapons which players could use to fight ; however , it was remade to become the Liu Kang 's Tomb arena . Characters ' combos were redesigned to be distinctive so that they would be more important ; as Boon noted , they were necessary for any move the player would use to inflict more damage on an opponent . The Midway staff focused on the designs and functions of the backgrounds , wanting to make them as influential to the outcome of the battle as the fighting between the characters .
Because of popular demand and favorable reception of Deadly Alliance , the number of finishing moves , known as Fatalities , increased to two per character . The Fatalities were developed by a group of animators led by Carlos Pesina ; they comically described Mileena 's Fatality in which she eats the opponents ' neck as the most disturbing due to how her " sexy moves " are modeled from Pesina . The Hara @-@ Kiri moves were added to allow the losers to perform a finishing move as well , creating a race between both players . The Death Traps , meant to be introduced in the previous game , were added to give the combat more strategy as well as to give more chances to players to win a fight if they are at a disadvantage . The game was originally meant to have other new finishing moves , such as tortures and falling cliffs similar to Fatalities .
One of the main features of Deception was the emphasis on online gameplay , which had yet to become common for console fighting games . A team of engineers took almost a full year to decide if the feature was viable . The MK team focused their energies solely on platforms that had strong online functionality available to the end consumer ; this led to a greater focus on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions . Because the GameCube games require some re @-@ engineering compared to the other platforms when porting , it was decided to exclude the GameCube from the work of the team until the online hurdles were cleared . Some time after the game 's release , Boon commented that he was disappointed that the GameCube version did not feature online gameplay as he regarded it as " the best in the business " .
Details about the game were first confirmed to the general public in the May 2003 issue of PlayStation : The Official Magazine , in which the game was called Mortal Kombat VI , and an online mode was confirmed . On February 6 , 2004 , Midway registered the domain names mkdeception.com and mortalkombatdeception.com. When Midway Entertainment was asked if Mortal Kombat : Deception was the official title , the developers gave no answers at that time . Later that month , Midway released the first trailer from the game , confirming this title .
= = Release = =
Mortal Kombat : Deception was released for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) and Xbox in North America on October 4 , 2004 , and in PAL territories on November 19 , 2004 . While the game is known as Mortal Kombat Mystification in France , other countries did not change its original name . A GameCube version was later released exclusively in North America on March 1 , 2005 .
Two versions were released for both the PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles : the standard edition for both systems , a Premium Pack for the PS2 , and Kollector 's Edition for the Xbox . The Premium Pack and Kollector 's Edition include a metal trading card and a bonus disc containing a history of Mortal Kombat , several video biographies of characters , and an " arcade perfect " version of the original Mortal Kombat . The Xbox version cover art features either Scorpion , Raiden , Baraka and Mileena , while the PS2 version uses the character Sub @-@ Zero .
In October 2005 , the game was redistributed as a Platinum Hits title on the Xbox and as a Greatest Hits title on the PS2 , coming in new packaging and sold for a discounted price . Deception is also included along with Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks and Mortal Kombat : Armageddon in the compilation Mortal Kombat Kollection , which was released on September 29 , 2008 for the PS2 .
= = Reception = =
During its release week , Mortal Kombat : Deception sold one million units , surpassing sales of the previous MK title and becoming the fastest @-@ selling game in Midway 's history . A year later , the game had sold 1 @.@ 9 million units worldwide .
Prior to the game 's release , GameSpot named it the best fighting game of E3 2004 . It was also the winner of the 2004 GameSpot Top Spike TV Video Game Awards in the category of best fighting game . In GameSpot 's Best and Worst of 2004 , Deception received the award for best fighting game . The PlayStation 2 version was a runner @-@ up in IGN 's PS2 Best of 2004 Awards in the best fighting game category , and won the Readers ' Choice . On February 1 , 2005 , Deception received the fighting game of the year award at the 8th Annual Interactive Achievements Awards . In the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition 2015 Ebook , the game was recognized for being the first fighting game to be given an online mode .
= = = Reviews = = =
Metacritic had 81 favourable reviews out of 100 for both the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions ; the GameCube version received 77 favorable reviews . Louis Bedigian of GameZone praised the interaction with stages as one of the best parts of the game , commenting that it adds more strategy to the combat . He praised the return of " classic characters " , commenting on their new designs and how different their attacks are . Jeremy Dunham of IGN wrote that it was the best game of the Mortal Kombat series . He also stated that the removal of special move buttons , which caused too much damage to an opponent , was one of the developer 's best decisions . With the special moves removed from the fights , and the addition of Breakers , players are now able to stop any combo . However , he called character designs in Deception " robotic " in comparison to other fighting games such as the Dead or Alive series or Virtua Fighter 4 . The soundtrack was also criticized for having " basic sound effects " . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin commented that the fights have been highly improved with the addition of new fighting styles which : " is clearly inspired by kung fu movies " . Although he stated the fights were not perfect and noted they could end in a few seconds due to the interaction with the arenas , he liked how painful and funny some moves looked . TeamXbox 's Dale Nardozzi praised the characters ' animations and movements , adding that the soundtrack : " sets the tone perfectly for your basic , disembowelments , decapitations , and impalements . "
The Konquest Mode received mixed opinions . Dunham liked how the Konquest Mode explains the storyline from the game . Conversely , Kasavin commented that the Konquest Mode " is the weak point from the game " and described it as " ugly " , lacking good voice acting and graphics . However , he noted that one of the " few nice touches " in Konquest was " hitting anybody you want " . He added that the mode had to be completed if he wanted to unlock characters . Bedigian complained that the Konquest is the biggest flaw of the game , criticizing the storyline , the trainings , and voice acting . However , Nardozzi found the mini @-@ games to be very entertaining if played online .
In contrast to the Xbox and PS2 versions , the GameCube port received lower scores from publications . It has been criticized for the lack of an online mode and pixelated picture quality on the unlockable videos & cutscenes , though 1UP.com still praised it . Although the addition of Goro and Shao Kahn was well received , GameSpot opined that the other ports were better , while also commenting on Goro 's appearance , which looks " anemic " . In his review , GameSpy 's Miguel Lopez wrote the GameCube version " is far from the best version of the game " and advised players to use another port to play .
= = Mortal Kombat : Unchained = =
Mortal Kombat : Unchained is the title of the PlayStation Portable version of Mortal Kombat : Deception , developed by Just Games Interactive . The game was released on November 13 , 2006 , in North America ; November 24 , 2006 , in Europe ; and December 9 , 2006 , in Australia .
Unchained includes all the characters from the GameCube version , and four more characters — Blaze , Frost , Jax and Kitana — from Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance that are exclusive to the PlayStation Portable version . The four characters have only one Fatality and no Hara @-@ kiri in contrast to other characters , most likely because that was all they had in Deadly Alliance . Exclusive to the Unchained version is the Endurance mode , where players can compete against a constant wave of opponents . The system 's wireless ad hoc network functionality can be used for multiplayer games . Characters who remain hidden in the other versions appear unlocked by default in Unchained ; producer Shaun Himmerick explained that the staff wanted to show players characters that were difficult to obtain in Deception , such as Liu Kang . Although Midway did not develop the game , they helped Just Games Interactives optimize their code and the Wi @-@ Fi feature , as they wanted to keep the frame rate very high . Metacritic gave it an average of 70 from 14 reviews . Jeff Haynes from IGN mentioned problems with the controls and criticized the long loading times .
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= Angus Lewis Macdonald =
Angus Lewis Macdonald PC QC ( August 10 , 1890 – April 13 , 1954 ) , popularly known as ' Angus L. ' , was a Canadian lawyer , law professor and politician from Nova Scotia . He served as the Liberal premier of Nova Scotia from 1933 to 1940 , when he became the federal minister of defence for naval services . He oversaw the creation of an effective Canadian navy and Allied convoy service during World War II . After the war , he returned to Nova Scotia to become premier again . In the election of 1945 , his Liberals returned to power while their main rivals , the Conservatives , failed to win a single seat . The Liberal rallying cry , " All 's Well With Angus L. , " was so effective that the Conservatives despaired of ever beating Macdonald . He died in office in 1954 .
Macdonald 's more than 15 years as premier brought fundamental changes . Under his leadership , the Nova Scotia government spent more than $ 100 million paving roads , building bridges , extending electrical transmission lines and improving public education . Macdonald dealt with the mass unemployment of the Great Depression by putting the jobless to work on highway projects . He felt direct government relief payments would weaken moral character , undermine self @-@ respect and discourage personal initiative . However , he also faced the reality that the financially strapped Nova Scotia government could not afford to participate fully in federal relief programs that required matching contributions from the provinces .
Macdonald was considered one of his province 's most eloquent political orators . He articulated a philosophy of provincial autonomy , arguing that poorer provinces needed a greater share of national tax revenues to pay for health , education and welfare . He contended that Nova Scotians were victims of a national policy that protected the industries of Ontario and Quebec with steep tariffs forcing people to pay higher prices for manufactured goods . It was no accident , Macdonald said , that Nova Scotia had gone from the richest province per capita before Canadian Confederation in 1867 to poorest by the 1930s .
Macdonald was a classical liberal in the 19th @-@ century tradition of John Stuart Mill . He believed in individual freedom and responsibility and feared that the growth of government bureaucracy would threaten liberty . For him , the role of the state was to provide basic services . He supported public ownership of utilities like the Nova Scotia Power Commission , but rejected calls for more interventionist policies such as government ownership of key industries or big loans to private companies .
= = Early life and education = =
Angus Lewis Macdonald was born August 10 , 1890 , on a small family farm at Dunvegan , Inverness County , on Cape Breton Island . He was the ninth child in a family of 14 . His mother was from a prominent Acadian family on Prince Edward Island while his father 's family had emigrated to Cape Breton from the Scottish Highlands in 1810 . The Macdonalds were devout Roman Catholics as well as ardent Liberal Party supporters .
In 1905 , when Macdonald was 15 , the family moved to the town of Port Hood , Cape Breton . Macdonald attended the Port Hood Academy . He hoped to enroll next in the Bachelor of Arts program at St Francis Xavier University in Antigonish , but his family couldn 't afford to pay for a university education so Macdonald obtained a teaching licence and taught for two years to finance his education . Midway through his university studies , he took another year off to earn money teaching . He completed his final term on credit and was required to teach in the university 's high school during 1914 – 15 to pay off his debt . Macdonald did well at St. FX . He played rugby , joined the debating team , edited the student newspaper and , in his graduating year , won the gold medal in seven of his eight courses . He was also class valedictorian .
= = War service = =
The First World War broke out while Macdonald was earning his university degree . In 1915 , he underwent military training in the Canadian Officers Training Corps . In February 1916 , he joined the 185th battalion , known as the Cape Breton Highlanders , leaving for Britain in October 1916 where he received further training . Macdonald was finally sent to the front lines in France in May 1918 as a lieutenant in Nova Scotia 's 25th battalion . He participated in heavy fighting and on one occasion led his entire company because all of the other officers had been wounded or killed . Macdonald felt fortunate to have been spared , but his luck ran out in Belgium when he was hit in the neck by a German sniper 's bullet on November 7 , 1918 , just four days before the Armistice . Macdonald spent eight months in Britain recovering from his wound . He returned home to his family in Cape Breton in 1919 . Biographer Stephen Henderson writes that the war had made him " more serious and less self @-@ confident " , but " struck by the willingness of so many to march to horrible deaths in the name of an abstract principle " .
= = Life before politics = =
In September 1919 , the 29 @-@ year @-@ old Macdonald began studying at Dalhousie Law School in Halifax . During his two years there , Macdonald formed lifelong friendships with students who were to become members of the political elite in the region . Once again , he excelled in athletics , was elected to the Dalhousie students ' council , became the associate editor of the student newspaper and led the opposition in the law school 's Mock Parliament . He scored firsts in nearly every course and graduated in 1921 with academic distinction .
Macdonald was hired by the Nova Scotia government as assistant deputy attorney @-@ general immediately after graduating from law school . He worked mainly as an administrator , although he occasionally appeared in court to help the attorney general prosecute a case .
In 1922 , Macdonald became a part @-@ time lecturer at the law school . When he left the attorney @-@ general 's office in 1924 , he became a full @-@ time professor . Macdonald was a popular and effective teacher . One former student describes him sitting at his desk on the rostrum speaking slowly and deliberately while gazing intently at the ceiling . " The more students disagreed ( with one another in class ) the more Angus encouraged it . "
On June 17 , 1924 , when he was 33 , Macdonald married Agnes Foley , a member of a prominent Irish Catholic family . They had worked together in the attorney general 's office where Foley served as secretary . Between 1925 and 1936 , the Macdonalds would have three daughters and a son . Agnes raised the children and ran the household after Macdonald entered politics . Biographer John Hawkins writes she eventually helped her husband win election in a Halifax riding with a significant Irish Catholic population . She had a large circle of friends including members of the powerful Liberal Women 's societies of Halifax . Hawkins also notes that Agnes Macdonald was a gifted hostess who loved conversation . " Quick witted , her rapid and varied flow of language contrasted with Angus L. ' s deliberate , thoughtful manner of speaking , which some have described as a ' drawl ' . "
In 1925 – 26 , while teaching at the Dalhousie Law School , Macdonald took additional courses in law at Columbia University in New York , mainly by correspondence . He used these courses as the basis for full @-@ time graduate work at the Harvard Law School in Boston , Massachusetts in 1928 . Harvard 's faculty members saw the law as an instrument for social improvement . That view was reflected in Macdonald 's 1929 doctoral thesis on the responsibility of property holders under civil law .
When the deanship of the law school came open in 1929 , Macdonald agonized over whether he should seek the job . He apparently had strong support from several members of the university 's board of governors . At the same time however , he was increasingly drawn to politics and accepting the deanship would mean postponing his political ambitions indefinitely . In the end , the job was offered to Sidney Smith , another prominent Canadian academic who accepted on condition that Macdonald remain at the school . Macdonald did stay , but only for one more year . In 1930 , he resigned so he would be free to enter politics .
= = Early political career = =
= = = Federal campaign , 1930 = = =
The federal election in the summer of 1930 gave the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Macdonald a chance to run for office . He decided to contest the riding of Inverness in his native Cape Breton . There he faced a Conservative opponent whose style contrasted sharply with his own cool and reserved manner . According to biographer John Hawkins , I. D. " Ike " MacDougall " was a gifted performer who before an audience could cut an opponent 's well @-@ marshalled arguments until they fell amid roars of laughter . He was the master of hyperbole , pun and high spirits . He could win a rural audience , not by his logic , but by his performance on the platform " . Macdonald campaigned hard , but the trend was against him . The Conservatives led by R. B. Bennett defeated Mackenzie King 's unpopular Liberals . And in Inverness , Ike MacDougall was re @-@ elected by the narrow margin of 165 votes . It was to be Macdonald 's only election defeat . Afterwards , Macdonald retreated to Halifax where he opened his own private law office in August 1930 .
= = = Provincial convention , 1930 = = =
Macdonald was active in provincial Liberal Party organizational work during the latter part of the 1920s . In 1925 , the party had suffered a crushing defeat after 43 years in power . On election day , the Liberals were reduced to three seats in the Nova Scotia legislature . Many believed that the time had come to return the party to its reformist roots . Macdonald worked with other reform @-@ minded members to establish a network of younger Liberals intent on reviving their party .
In the 1928 provincial election , the Liberals regained some of their lost popularity in one of the closest votes in Nova Scotia history . The Conservatives remained in power with 23 seats to the Liberals ' 20 . Economic conditions worsened after the stock market crash of 1929 making it seem increasingly likely that the Liberals would return to power in the next election . Macdonald helped draft a 15 @-@ point party platform for approval at a Liberal convention in the fall of 1930 . It promised an eight @-@ hour working day and free elementary school textbooks . It also pledged to establish a formal inquiry into Nova Scotia 's economic prospects and the province 's place within Confederation .
The convention , held on October 1 , 1930 , proved to be a turning point both for the party and for Macdonald . In a departure from tradition , the party 's new leader would be chosen by convention delegates instead of Liberal caucus members at the legislature . Two veterans of Liberal politics , both wealthy businessmen , were contesting the leadership . There was little enthusiasm , however , for either . Just as nominations were about to close , a delegate from Truro rose unexpectedly to nominate Macdonald . Surprised , Macdonald at first declined the nomination , then agreed to accept it when he sensed strong support on the convention floor . A few hours later , the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Macdonald had won a resounding first @-@ ballot victory to become the new Liberal leader .
= = = Liberal party leader = = =
After winning the Liberal leadership , Macdonald travelled the province on speaking tours helping organize party support in every constituency . As Liberal leader , he proved to be an effective platform speaker . According to biographer John Hawkins , Macdonald 's " plain talk and simplicity " persuaded audiences of his honesty . He developed the ability to explain political issues with a " clarity that every voter could understand " . When the legislature was in session , he led the Liberals from the public galleries because he had no seat in the House . There were six vacancies , but the Conservatives refused to call by @-@ elections fearing they would lose their five @-@ seat majority . Macdonald publicly criticized Premier Gordon Harrington for depriving so many Nova Scotians of representation . He deplored what he called " the loss of responsible government . " It was a message that struck a chord in the province that had been the first in Canada to achieve responsible government in 1848 thanks to the efforts of the great liberal Reformer Joseph Howe . Privately however , Macdonald rejoiced that the government couldn 't risk calling a by @-@ election telling one supporter years later , " If the truth must be told , I was sometimes afraid that they would open up a seat and deprive me of this sort of ammunition " .
Macdonald was able to use the theme of responsible government even more effectively during the provincial election campaign of 1933 . The governing Conservatives , desperate to avoid electoral defeat , had enacted changes requiring that new voters ' lists be drawn up by government @-@ appointed registrars immediately before each election . Predictably , thousands of Liberal voters were left off the lists and the new law allowed only three days for corrections . The Liberals secured a court order requiring the appointment of additional registrars and some of the disenfranchised voters were finally added to the lists . The so @-@ called Franchise Scandal enabled the Liberal press to cast Macdonald as a latter @-@ day Joe Howe , crusading for the rights of the people . " No newcomer to the political scene " , writes historian Murray Beck , " has ever become so quickly , widely , and favourably known in such a dramatic fashion " . The scandal , compounded by suffering in the province due to the Great Depression , resulted in Macdonald 's Liberals winning 22 of the 30 seats on August 22 , 1933 . The Conservatives were now associated in the public mind with corruption and hard times . They would not regain power for 23 years .
= = First term as premier 1933 – 37 = =
Macdonald was sworn in as Premier of Nova Scotia on September 5 , 1933 . He was 43 years old and had never held a seat in the legislature . Historian Murray Beck writes that Macdonald 's cabinet was " probably Nova Scotia 's strongest " . Biographer Stephen Henderson points out that the " ministers were fresh , motivated and knowledgeable about their portfolios " , although Macdonald himself had no experience in finance . Biographer John Hawkins characterizes the Liberal party of 1933 as " a party of thinkers and reformers " . During the 1930s , Macdonald 's Liberals took credit for leading the province out of the depths of the Great Depression . As journalist Harry Flemming wrote many years later , Macdonald became " God himself " , the premier who " paved the roads and put the power into every home from Cape North to Cape Sable " .
= = = Pensions and relief programs = = =
On his first day in office , Macdonald kept a key Liberal promise by bringing in old age pensions for elderly people in need . Cheques would be mailed out to 6 @,@ 000 pensioners by the end of March 1934 . It was a popular move even though monthly pension payments in Nova Scotia were substantially below the national average .
The economic conditions facing the new government were dismal . Tens of thousands of Nova Scotians were impoverished and unemployed . The government expected that 75 @,@ 000 Nova Scotians would need assistance during the coming winter . Biographer Stephen Henderson writes that Macdonald sympathized with the poor , but he worried that direct government relief payments would undermine their pride and self @-@ respect . Even though direct relief might be cheaper , the Macdonald government preferred to hire the unemployed for public works projects such as paving roads . Henderson reports that in 1933 , there were only 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) of paved roads in the province . By 1937 , that figure had risen to 605 . The government financed such public works by selling low @-@ interest bonds and raising gasoline taxes from six to eight cents a gallon .
Macdonald also urged the federal Conservative government of R. B. Bennett to increase financial support to poorer provinces . At the time , there was no national system of unemployment insurance and the Bennett Conservatives insisted that the unemployed were mainly the responsibility of the provinces and municipalities . Although the federal government did provide relief during the Depression , Nova Scotia and the two other Maritime provinces were hampered by the federal system of matching grants for relief programs . Under that system , provinces received federal money only if they were willing to contribute a percentage of their own revenues . Thus , the poorest provinces received less federal aid than the richer ones because they couldn 't afford to match the federal grants . Historian E. R. Forbes points out for example , that from January to May 1935 , all three levels of government spent an average of $ 2 @.@ 84 for each relief recipient in the Maritimes , an amount less than half the $ 6 @.@ 18 spent in the other six provinces .
= = = Jones Commission = = =
Macdonald tried to deal with the financial imbalances in Confederation by appointing a Royal Commission . He asked it to recommend economic polices the province should follow to lessen the effects of the Depression and to lay out a framework for negotiations with the federal government .
The three @-@ man Jones Commission included Harold Innis , a prominent economic historian who had studied disparities between highly developed manufacturing regions and marginal ones that depended primarily on exploiting natural resources . After touring the province and hearing from more than 200 witnesses , the Commission issued its report in December 1934 . Macdonald could take satisfaction in its finding that high tariffs had sheltered central Canadian manufacturing at Nova Scotia 's expense and that federal subsidies to the province were " seriously inadequate " .
The Commission recommended that the federal government assume responsibility for financing social programs such as old @-@ age pensions and unemployment insurance . It also argued that Ottawa should establish equity among provinces and that redistribution of federal tax revenues should be based on need , an idea that became central to Macdonald 's thinking about federal @-@ provincial relations . Among other things , the Commission called on the Macdonald government to continue paving roads ; to undertake a program of rural electrification to keep young people on family farms ; and , to establish a professional civil service that would defend Nova Scotia 's interests against federal bureaucrats in Ottawa .
= = = Tourism and Nova Scotian identity = = =
The Macdonald government took practical steps to promote tourism as a way of bringing money into the province . It improved conditions for tourists by granting small loans to hotel , motel and cottage owners to upgrade their facilities . It also offered cooking classes to restaurant and hotel employees . The government 's extensive road building program made it easier for tourists to travel . But biographer Stephen Henderson writes that Macdonald went well beyond these practical steps to promote Nova Scotia as a beautiful and rustic place peopled by colourful Scots , Acadians , Germans and Mi 'kmaq . Government advertising portrayed the province " as a place where urban , middle @-@ class families could go to ' step back in time ' " . Gradually , Henderson maintains , the tourism campaigns created a new identity for Nova Scotians . " They witnessed the provincial state constructing an elaborate network of modern roads ; they read books and brochures extolling the beauty of the province , and they heard their premier waxing romantically about the pure , simple nobility of their ancestors . " Macdonald was especially enthusiastic about " the romanticized culture of the Highland Scots " . Historian Ian McKay writes that under his leadership , the provincial government gave money to the Gaelic College ; bestowed Scottish names on key tourism sites and stationed " a brawny Scots piper " at the border with New Brunswick . Macdonald also helped assemble more than a quarter of a million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) for the Cape Breton Highlands National Park complete with a fancy resort hotel and world @-@ class golf course . " Macdonald believed " , Henderson writes , " he had created a piece of Scotland for tourists in the New World " . And , as more tourists came , Macdonald 's stature grew .
= = = Trade Union Act = = =
The Nova Scotia legislature recognized the growing power of industrial unions in the 1930s by passing what historian Stephen Henderson calls " Canada 's first piece of modern labour legislation " . Although Macdonald 's governing Liberals and the opposition Conservatives agreed on the need to protect union rights , the parties vied with each other to take credit for the Trade Union Act . In January 1937 , Premier Macdonald carried a bottle of bootleg rum to a meeting with union officials in Sydney , Cape Breton where they gave him a draft bill based on the American National Labor Relations Act . Before the Macdonald government could introduce the bill in the legislature , the Conservatives presented a similar one of their own . The legislation faced opposition from the Canadian Manufacturers ' Association during public hearings , but Liberals and Conservatives combined to pass it unanimously . The new Trade Union Act required employers to bargain with any union chosen by a majority of their employees . It also prohibited employers from firing workers for organizing a union .
= = = Government patronage = = =
Nova Scotia 's well @-@ entrenched system of paying off government supporters with jobs and contracts continued to flourish under the Macdonald Liberals . In his comprehensive history of Canadian patronage , journalist Jeffrey Simpson writes that the Liberals used road improvements to win votes , with highway crews " especially busy before and during election campaigns . " Simpson adds that the Liberals awarded government contracts to companies approved by the party . In return , the firms were required to kickback some of the money they received to the Liberals . Biographer Stephen Henderson argues that Macdonald himself did not relish the traditional practice of filling government jobs with party supporters . Nevertheless , the " wave of partisan hirings and firings " continued as committees in each riding " scrutinized employees for inappropriate political activity and rated prospective candidates based on what they or their families had done for the Liberal party " .
= = Second term as premier , 1937 – 40 = =
Fortunately for the Macdonald government , economic conditions improved during the 1930s . In March 1937 , Macdonald announced that after 14 years of running operating deficits , the Nova Scotia government had recorded a surplus with another forecast for the next year . The pro @-@ Liberal Halifax Chronicle gleefully described the scene in the legislature : " the House sat for a moment , as if not comprehending the good news , then rocked with acclaim , at least the Government side of the House did , though the opposition , stilled and stunned @-@ like , sat like figures carved in stone " . Macdonald promised the government would spend another $ 7 @.@ 5 million on its popular road paving program overseen by A. S. MacMillan , the veteran Minister of Highways . MacMillan , also Chairman of the Nova Scotia Power Commission , had been extending electrical service into rural areas . He now introduced a rural electrification bill designed to subsidize the cost of providing electricity .
After these preparations , the premier called a provincial election for June 29 , 1937 . Macdonald campaigned on his government 's record . On election day , his Liberals were rewarded with 25 of the 30 seats in the legislature .
Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King had invited Macdonald to run for federal office during the general election of 1935 . Although Macdonald turned him down , there were strong rumours in 1937 that Macdonald would soon enter federal politics . Biographer Stephen Henderson writes however , that Macdonald wanted to remain as premier so he could present Nova Scotia 's case to a Royal Commission on federal @-@ provincial relations .
= = = Rowell @-@ Sirois Commission = = =
The Depression of the 1930s exposed glaring weaknesses in federal @-@ provincial financial arrangements . Canada 's poorer provinces found it impossible to cope with widespread poverty and hunger while the federal government resisted taking full responsibility for unemployment relief . By 1937 , conditions had become so desperate that the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan faced bankruptcy . Finally , in August 1937 , Prime Minister King appointed the Royal Commission on Dominion @-@ Provincial Relations , popularly known as the Rowell @-@ Sirois Commission . According to biographer Stephen Henderson , Macdonald played an important role in shaping the Commission 's final recommendations .
Macdonald wrote Nova Scotia 's submission and presented it himself when the Commission held hearings in Halifax in February 1938 . He called on the federal government to take full responsibility for social programs such as unemployment insurance , old @-@ age pensions and mothers ' allowances . Macdonald recommended that the federal government be given exclusive jurisdiction over income taxes and succession duties to pay for these programs . He argued however , that to maintain their independence , the provinces needed to collect indirect sources of revenue such as sales taxes . He also called for exclusive provincial control over such minor tax fields as gasoline and electricity taxes .
A central part of Macdonald 's case concerned the redistribution of wealth from richer provinces to poorer ones . His argument was based on the premise that richer provinces benefited from national economic policies such as high tariffs while poorer provinces were penalized by them . Macdonald suggested that compensatory subsidies to poorer , less @-@ populated provinces be based on need , not population , so that they could pay for government services available in other parts of the country without having to impose higher @-@ than @-@ average levels of taxation .
The Commission 's final report , released in May 1940 , reflected many of Macdonald 's recommendations . Mackenzie King called a federal @-@ provincial conference in January 1941 to discuss the report . The provinces failed to agree on what should be done , but in April , the federal government went ahead on its own announcing it would levy steep taxes on personal and corporate incomes as a temporary measure to finance Canada 's participation in the Second World War .
= = = Summons to Ottawa = = =
The course of Macdonald 's political career changed sharply after Canada declared war on Germany in September 1939 . Three months later , Mackenzie King called a federal election and on March 26 , 1940 , his Liberals won a decisive victory . In spite of his victory , King was under pressure to recruit the country 's " best brains " into his wartime cabinet . The death of his minister of defence in an air crash in June 1940 gave King an opportunity to reorganize his administration . He asked J. L. Ralston , a native Nova Scotian , to become his new minister of defence . Ralston agreed but imposed two conditions : First that J. L. Ilsley of Nova Scotia replace him as minister of finance and second that he get assistance in his new portfolio .
King decided to appoint two additional ministers , one in charge of the Royal Canadian Air Force , the other to oversee the Royal Canadian Navy . He therefore , asked Macdonald to join the federal cabinet as minister of national defence for naval services . Macdonald , who had fought in World War I as a soldier on the front lines in France and Belgium , decided it was his duty to fight World War II as a political leader in Ottawa . He handed over his responsibilities as premier to A. S. MacMillan and was sworn into the federal cabinet on July 12 , 1940 .
= = Wartime federal career , 1940 – 45 = =
Macdonald 's five years in Ottawa were tumultuous ones . He oversaw a massive increase in Canada 's naval forces and played a key role in a political crisis that threatened to tear the Liberal government and the country apart . He also incurred the wrath of Mackenzie King , a political leader whom Macdonald grew to loathe . When he entered the federal cabinet in 1940 , Macdonald seemed a likely candidate to replace the aging King and one day become prime minister himself . By the time he resigned in 1945 , Macdonald 's federal political career was in tatters .
Mackenzie King wanted Macdonald to stand for a vacant seat in Kingston , Ontario . It was a traditional Conservative riding that had been represented by Sir John A. Macdonald , Canada 's first prime minister . In 1935 however , the riding had switched to the Liberals and King wanted to keep it . " I told Mr. King that I did not know Kingston at all , nor its problems , nor its people " , Macdonald wrote later . When the Conservatives agreed not to run a candidate against him however , Macdonald had no choice but to stand for office in Kingston . He won the seat by acclamation on August 12 , 1940 .
= = = Building the navy = = =
Macdonald faced a huge , but critical task in overseeing the expansion of the Royal Canadian Navy ( RCN ) . As historian Desmond Morton points out , the RCN was tiny when Canada entered the war in 1939 . It consisted of six destroyers , five minesweepers and about 3 @,@ 000 personnel in its regular forces and volunteer reserves . By the time Macdonald took office in 1940 , the RCN had grown to 100 ships and more than 7 @,@ 000 personnel , but as biographer Stephen Henderson notes , " few of its ships and sailors were ready for service at sea " . By the end of the war , the RCN had expanded by 50 times its original strength with about 400 fighting ships , almost 500 additional craft and about 96 @,@ 000 men and women .
The RCN was assigned the task of escorting supply vessels transporting food and other materials needed to keep the war going . This convoy duty was critically important as German submarines or U @-@ boats sought to starve Britain into submission by sinking supply ships . The RCN performed about 40 percent of the war 's transatlantic Allied escort duty . Desmond Morton argues it was Canada 's " most decisive " military contribution . Canada 's convoy protection efforts did not always run smoothly , however . In the early part of the war , the Canadian navy lacked equipment that could detect underwater submarines as well as efficient radar for sighting ones on the surface . To make matters worse , Canada didn 't have the long @-@ range aircraft that were the most effective anti @-@ submarine weapons .
As supply ship losses mounted , the RCN struggled to catch up to the better @-@ equipped British and American navies . Macdonald himself lacked military expertise and often depended on senior naval staff who kept him in the dark about equipment shortages and other problems . " Macdonald 's administration of Naval Affairs did not rise to brilliance " , Henderson writes , " [ but ] the problem may have lain more with the senior naval staff than with Macdonald " . Macdonald 's conflict with high ranking naval officers , particularly Rear Admiral Percy W. Nelles , led to the effective dismissal of the latter in 1944 . Yet , as the war progressed , the RCN , led by Macdonald , gradually became more effective in protecting the huge cargoes of materials on which Allied victory depended .
= = = Conscription crisis = = =
Biographer Stephen Henderson maintains that Macdonald played a key role in the wartime conscription crises that beset the federal government in 1942 , and again in 1944 , as Prime Minister Mackenzie King tried to avoid imposing compulsory military service overseas . Macdonald himself strongly favoured conscription rather than relying solely on voluntary enlistment . A committed internationalist , he believed it unfair that some bore the sacrifices of overseas service while others escaped what he saw as their military obligations . Macdonald realized however , that conscription was highly unpopular in French @-@ speaking Quebec and that enforcing it would split the country at a time when national unity was crucial . He also recognized that in the early years of the war , voluntary enlistment was producing enough recruits to meet the needs of the armed forces .
Nevertheless , Macdonald continued to push the government to commit itself to conscription if circumstances should change . His position earned him the enmity of the politically cautious Mackenzie King . " Macdonald is a very vain man " , the prime minister complained in his diary , " and has an exceptional opinion of himself . Undoubtedly , he came here expecting to possibly lead the Liberal party later on but has found that he will not be able to command the following that he expected " .
As the opposition Conservatives continued to press for overseas conscription , the King government held a national plebiscite on April 27 , 1942 . The plebiscite asked voters to release the government from its previous promise not to introduce compulsory war service . The results confirmed the sharp national split . English Canada voted strongly in favour and French Canada overwhelmingly against . The results of the plebiscite seemed to strengthen the position of ministers who supported conscription . Macdonald 's two cabinet colleagues from Nova Scotia , defence minister J. L. Ralston , and finance minister J. L. Ilsley , urged the government to introduce conscription immediately . A more cautious Macdonald wanted the government to commit itself to conscription should it be required to support the war effort .
The crisis flared again two years later when the Canadian military called for overseas reinforcements . Ralston wanted King to impose conscription , but at Macdonald 's urging , seemed willing to compromise by going along with the prime minister 's plan for one last voluntary recruitment campaign . King however , suddenly dismissed Ralston during a cabinet meeting on November 1 , 1944 . Macdonald considered resigning , but said later he would have struck King if he had risen to leave . Instead he sat in his chair ripping sheets of notepaper into small shreds and dropping them on the floor . Stephen Henderson writes that Macdonald 's decision not to resign probably saved the King government . King himself seemed to recognize that if Macdonald had left , Ilsley would have resigned too , possibly taking other ministers with him and causing the government 's collapse .
In the end , King was forced to impose overseas conscription after the failure of the voluntary recruitment campaign , but the war ended soon after and his government survived unscathed . The conscription crisis however , hardened the animosity between King and his naval minister . Macdonald , disillusioned by what he saw as the chicanery and ruthlessness of national politics , longed to return to Nova Scotia . After King called an election for June 11 , 1945 , Macdonald resigned from the federal cabinet .
= = Provincial premier , 1945 – 54 = =
When Macdonald returned to Nova Scotia in 1945 , he was only 55 , but the silver @-@ haired politician now seemed 20 years older . After the retirement of Premier A. S. MacMillan , the Liberals reaffirmed Macdonald 's leadership at their convention on August 31 , 1945 . Less than two months later , Macdonald 's Liberals swept the province wiping out the Conservatives for the first time since Confederation and winning all but two Cape Breton ridings where voters elected members of the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation or CCF , the forerunner of the present @-@ day New Democratic Party , or NDP . In spite of his huge victory , a close colleague noted that Macdonald was not the same man he had been before he left Nova Scotia in 1940 . He had trouble making decisions , not because he was a procrastinator , but because he was not well .
Nevertheless , Macdonald plunged into his role as a leading champion for the provinces . He argued that in order to maintain their independence , provinces needed exclusive jurisdiction over such sources of revenue as gasoline , electricity and amusement taxes . He lobbied for constitutional amendments designed to guarantee provincial rights . Macdonald urged the federal government to accept the 1940 recommendations of the Rowell @-@ Sirois Commission and redistribute national wealth based on need . Such a policy , he maintained , would enable poorer provinces to sustain government services available in other parts of the country without having to impose higher @-@ than @-@ average levels of taxation . In the end , Macdonald won only small victories such as gaining exclusive provincial access to gasoline taxes . The federal government refused to recognize financial need as the basis for provincial subsidies .
Aside from his role as a national spokesman for provincial rights , Macdonald presided over an administration that invested heavily in education . His government financed the building of rural high schools and extended financial assistance to Dalhousie University 's schools of medicine and law . Macdonald also appointed Nova Scotia 's first minister of education , Henry Hicks , in 1949 to oversee $ 7 @.@ 6 million in spending , about a fifth of the provincial budget .
The Macdonald Liberals easily won re @-@ election in 1949 and 1953 , but the Conservatives made steady gains under Robert Stanfield , their new leader . The Conservatives for example , drew attention to kickback schemes under which brewing companies , wineries and distilleries contributed to the Liberal party in exchange for the right to sell their products in government liquor stores . The Liberals seemed secure against such allegations however , as long as they were led by the popular Angus L. Macdonald . However , Macdonald suffered a slight heart attack on April 11 , 1954 , and was admitted to hospital where he died in his sleep two nights later , just four months before his 64th birthday .
Stephen Henderson writes that the Nova Scotia legislature sat on the day of his death . Macdonald 's seat was draped in Clanranald tartan and a sprig of heather decorated his desk . Macdonald 's body lay in state for three days in the legislative building as more than 100 @,@ 000 people filed past to pay their respects .
= = Aftermath of Macdonald 's death = =
Macdonald 's death proved disastrous for provincial Liberals . There was no obvious successor to the popular premier . At the party 's leadership convention held on September 9 , 1954 , the Liberals appeared badly split along religious lines . After five ballots , the convention rejected Harold Connolly , a Roman Catholic who had served as interim premier after Macdonald 's death . Instead they chose the Protestant Henry Hicks . " Unfortunately for the Liberals " , historian Murray Beck writes , " it appeared as if the delegates had ganged up to defeat the only Catholic among the contestants " . Beck also notes that " Nova Scotia governments have always been most vulnerable after a change in leadership " . In the next provincial election held on October 30 , 1956 , Robert Stanfield and his Conservatives won 24 seats , the Liberals 18 . The 23 @-@ year Liberal era , begun under Macdonald 's leadership , had finally ended .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
Murray Beck writes that Macdonald 's political appeal to Nova Scotians may have been even stronger than the legendary Joseph Howe 's . Like Howe , Macdonald was a passionate and eloquent leader whose elegantly crafted speeches reflected his wit , wide learning and respect for factual accuracy . Beck writes that by scrupulously fulfilling his campaign promises , Macdonald became known as a leader who always kept his word .
Macdonald 's reputation as the premier who led the province out of the Great Depression rested on his commitment to ambitious government projects such as highway construction and rural electrification . He continued to support highway improvements throughout his career . Two projects that he pushed especially hard for , the Canso Causeway linking Cape Breton Island to mainland Nova Scotia and a suspension bridge spanning Halifax Harbour were completed after his death . The bridge , named in his honour , made it possible to travel between Halifax and Dartmouth without having to board a ferry or drive several kilometres around the Bedford Basin .
Macdonald consistently called for a more equitable redistribution of wealth , so that poorer provinces such as Nova Scotia , could share fully in Canada 's prosperity . Biographer Stephen Henderson writes that Macdonald deserves credit for the introduction , in 1957 , of an equalization scheme designed to enable poorer provinces to provide comparable levels of services to their citizens . Macdonald 's advocacy of provincial autonomy however , fell victim to the centralizing tendencies of a post @-@ war welfare state in which the federal government increasingly assumed greater control over national social programs .
Throughout his life , Macdonald maintained ties to his alma mater , St. Francis Xavier University . He received an honorary doctor of laws degree from St. FX in 1946 . He served as honorary chair and fundraiser for the university 's centennial celebrations in 1953 and raised money to support student research into the early history of the Scots in Nova Scotia . Macdonald suggested that the reading room in a new university library be called the Hall of the Clans . St. FX adopted the idea and decided to name the library in his honour . Thus , when the Angus L. Macdonald Library officially opened on July 17 , 1965 , 50 coats of arms representing both Scottish and Irish clans adorned the walls of its reading room .
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= Samuel Colt =
Samuel Colt ( July 19 , 1814 – January 10 , 1862 ) was an American inventor and industrialist from Hartford , Connecticut . He founded Colt 's Patent Fire @-@ Arms Manufacturing Company ( today , Colt 's Manufacturing Company ) , and made the mass production of the revolver commercially viable .
Colt 's first two business ventures — producing firearms in Paterson , New Jersey , and making underwater mines — ended in disappointment . But his business expanded rapidly after 1847 , when the Texas Rangers ordered 1 @,@ 000 revolvers during the American war with Mexico . During the American Civil War , his factory in Hartford supplied firearms both to the North and the South . Later , his firearms were prominent during the settling of the western frontier . Colt died in 1862 as one of the wealthiest men in America .
Colt 's manufacturing methods were at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution . His use of interchangeable parts helped him become one of the first to exploit the assembly line . Moreover , his innovative use of art , celebrity endorsements and corporate gifts to promote his wares made him a pioneer in the fields of advertising , product placement and mass marketing .
= = Early years ( 1814 – 1835 ) = =
Samuel Colt was born in Hartford , Connecticut to Christopher Colt ( 1777 – 1850 ) , a farmer who had moved his family to the city after he became a businessman , and Sarah Colt , born Caldwell . His mother 's father , Major John Caldwell , had been an officer in the Continental Army and one of Samuel 's earliest possessions was his maternal grandfather 's flintlock pistol . Sarah died from tuberculosis when Samuel was six years old , and his father remarried two years later to Olivia Sargeant . Samuel had three sisters , one of whom died during her childhood . His oldest sister , Margaret , died of tuberculosis at 19 and the other , Sarah Ann , later committed suicide . One brother , James , became a lawyer ; another , Christopher , was a textile merchant . A third brother , John C. Colt , a man of many occupations , killed a creditor in 1841 in New York City , was found guilty of the murder , and committed suicide on the day he was to be executed .
At age 11 , Colt was indentured to a farmer in Glastonbury , where he did chores and attended school . Here he was introduced to the Compendium of Knowledge , a scientific encyclopedia that he preferred to read rather than his Bible studies . Its articles on Robert Fulton and gunpowder motivated Colt throughout his life . He discovered that other inventors in the Compendium had accomplished things that were once deemed impossible , and he wanted to do the same . Later , after hearing soldiers talk about the success of the double @-@ barreled rifle and the impossibility of a gun that could shoot five or six times without reloading , Colt decided that he would create the " impossible gun " .
In 1829 , at the age of 15 , Colt began working in his father 's textile plant in Ware , Massachusetts , where he had access to tools , materials , and the factory workers ' expertise . Following the encyclopedia , Samuel built a homemade galvanic cell and advertised as a Fourth of July event in that year that he would blow up a raft on Ware Pond using underwater explosives ; although the raft was missed , the explosion was still impressive . Sent to boarding school , he amused his classmates with pyrotechnics . In 1830 , a July 4 accident caused a fire that ended his schooling , and his father then sent him off to learn the seaman 's trade . On a voyage to Calcutta on board the brig Corvo , he noticed that regardless of which way the ship 's wheel was spun , each spoke always came in direct line with a clutch that could be set to hold it . He later said that this gave him the idea for the revolver . On the Corvo , Colt made a wooden model of a pepperbox revolver out of scrap wood . It differed from other pepperbox revolvers at the time in that it would allow the shooter to rotate the cylinder by the action of cocking the hammer with an attached pawl turning the cylinder which is then locked firmly in alignment with one of the barrels a bolt , a great improvement over the pepperbox designs which required rotating the barrels by hand and hoping for proper indexing and alignment .
When Colt returned to the United States in 1832 , he went back to work for his father , who financed the production of two guns , a rifle and a pistol . The first completed pistol exploded when it was fired , but the rifle performed well . His father would not finance any further development , so Samuel needed to find a way to pay for the development of his ideas . He had learned about nitrous oxide ( laughing gas ) from the factory chemist in his father 's textile plant , so he took a portable lab on the road and earned a living performing laughing gas demonstrations across the United States and Canada , billing himself as " the Celebrated Dr. Coult of New @-@ York , London and Calcutta " . Colt conceived of himself as a man of science and thought if he could enlighten people about a new idea like nitrous oxide , he could in turn make people more receptive to his new idea concerning a revolver . He started his lectures on street corners and soon worked his way up to lecture halls and museums . As ticket sales declined , Colt realized that " serious " museum lectures were not what the people wanted to pay money to see and that it was dramatic stories of salvation and redemption the public craved . While visiting his brother , John , in Cincinnati , he partnered with sculptor , Hiram Powers , for his demonstrations with a theme based on The Divine Comedy . Powers made detailed wax sculptures and paintings based on demons , centaurs and mummies from Dante . Colt constructed fireworks to complete the show , which was a success . According to Colt historian Robert Lawrence Wilson , the " lectures launched Colt 's celebrated career as a pioneer Madison Avenue @-@ style pitchman " . His public speaking skills were so prized that he was thought to be a doctor and was pressed into service to cure an apparent cholera epidemic on board a riverboat by giving his patients a dose of nitrous oxide .
Having some money saved and keeping his idea alive of being an inventor as opposed to a " medicine man " , Colt made arrangements to begin building guns using proper gunsmiths from Baltimore , Maryland . He abandoned the idea of a multiple barreled revolver and opted for a single fixed barrel design with a rotating cylinder . The action of the hammer would align the cylinder bores with the single barrel . He sought the counsel of a friend of his father , Henry Leavitt Ellsworth , who loaned him $ 300 and advised him to perfect his prototype before applying for a patent . Colt hired a gunsmith by the name of John Pearson to build his revolver . Over the next few years Colt and Pearson fought over money , but the design improved and in 1835 Colt was ready to apply for his US patent . Ellsworth was now the superintendent of the US Patent Office and advised Colt to file for foreign patents first as a prior US patent would keep Colt from filing a patent in Great Britain . In August 1835 , Colt left for England and France to secure his foreign patent .
= = Colt 's early revolver ( 1835 – 1843 ) = =
In 1835 , Samuel Colt traveled to the United Kingdom , following in the footsteps of Elisha Collier , a Bostonian who had patented a revolving flintlock there that achieved great popularity . Despite the reluctance of English officials to issue a patent to Colt , no fault could be found with the gun and he was issued his first patent ( Number 6909 ) . Upon his return to America , he applied for his US patent for a " revolving gun " ; he was granted the patent on February 25 , 1836 ( later numbered 9430X ) . This instrument and patent No. 1304 , dated August 29 , 1836 , protected the basic principles of his revolving @-@ breech loading , folding trigger firearm named the Colt Paterson .
With a loan from his cousin , Dudley Selden , and letters of recommendation from Ellsworth , Colt formed a corporation of venture capitalists in April 1836 to bring his idea to market . Through the political connections of these venture capitalists , the Patent Arms Manufacturing of Paterson , New Jersey , was chartered by the New Jersey legislature on March 5 , 1836 . Colt was given a commission for each gun sold in exchange for his dam of patent rights , and stipulated the return of the rights if the company disbanded .
Colt never claimed to have invented the revolver ; his design was a more practical adaption of Collier 's earlier revolving flintlock incorporating a locking bolt to keep the cylinder in line with the barrel . The invention of the percussion cap made ignition more reliable , faster , and safer than the older flintlock design . Colt 's great contribution was to the use of interchangeable parts . Knowing that some gun parts were made by machine , he envisioned that all the parts on every Colt gun to be interchangeable and made by machine , later to be assembled by hand . His goal was the assembly line . This is shown in an 1836 letter that Colt wrote to his father in which he said ,
The first workman would receive two or three of the most important parts and would affix these and pass them on to the next who would add a part and pass the growing article on to another who would do the same , and so on until the complete arm is put together .
Colt 's US revolver patent gave him a monopoly on revolver manufacture until 1857 . His was the first practical revolver and the first practical repeating firearm due to progress made in percussion technology . No longer a mere novelty arm , the revolver became an industrial and cultural legacy as well as a contribution to the development of war technology , ironically personified in the name of one of his company 's later innovations , the " Peacemaker " .
= = Early problems and failures = =
Although by the end of 1837 the Arms Company had made over 1 @,@ 000 weapons , there were no sales . Following the Panic of 1837 , the company 's underwriters were reluctant to fund the new machinery that Colt needed to make interchangeable parts , so he went on the road to raise money . Demonstrating his gun to people in general stores did not generate the sales volume he needed , so with another loan from his cousin , Selden , he went to Washington , D.C. , and demonstrated it to President Andrew Jackson . Jackson approved of the gun and wrote Colt a note saying so . Presidential approval in hand , Colt pushed a bill through Congress endorsing a demonstration for the military , but failed to obtain an appropriation for military purchase of the weapon . A promising order from the state of South Carolina for fifty to seventy @-@ five pistols was canceled when the company did not produce them quickly enough .
Constant problems for Colt were the provisions of the Militia Act of 1808 which stated that any arms purchased by a State militia had to be in current service in the United States Military . This Act prevented state militias from allocating funds towards the purchase of experimental weapons or foreign weapons .
Colt undermined his own company by his reckless spending . Selden constantly chastised him for using corporate funds to buy an expensive wardrobe or making lavish gifts to potential clients . Selden twice cut off Colt from company money for spending it on liquor and fancy dinners ; Colt thought getting potential customers inebriated would generate more sales .
The company was briefly saved by the war against the Seminoles in Florida which provided the first sale of Colt 's revolvers and his new revolving rifles . The soldiers in Florida praised the new weapon , but the unusual hammerless design , sixty years ahead of its time , led to difficulty in training men who were used to exposed @-@ hammer guns . Consequently , many curious soldiers took the locks apart . This resulted in breakage of parts , stripped screw heads and inoperable guns . Colt soon reworked his design to leave the firing hammer exposed , but problems continued . In late 1843 , after the loss of payment for the Florida pistols , the Paterson plant closed and a public auction was held in New York City to sell the company 's most liquid assets .
= = Mines and tinfoil = =
Colt did not refrain long from manufacturing , and turned to selling underwater electrical detonators and waterproof cable of his own invention . Soon after the failure of the Patent Arms Manufacturing Company , he teamed up with Samuel Morse to lobby the US government for funds . Colt 's waterproof cable , made from tar @-@ coated copper , proved valuable when Morse ran telegraph lines under lakes , rivers , bays , and in his attempts to lay a telegraph line under the Atlantic Ocean . Morse used the battery from one of Colt 's mines to transmit a telegraph message from Manhattan to Governors Island when his own battery was too weak to send the signal .
When tensions with Great Britain prompted Congress to appropriate funds for Colt 's project toward the end of 1841 , he demonstrated his underwater mines to the US government . In 1842 he used one of the devices to destroy a moving vessel to the satisfaction of the United States Navy and President John Tyler . However , opposition from John Quincy Adams , who was serving as a US Representative from Massachusetts 's 8th congressional district scuttled the project as " not fair and honest warfare " and called the Colt mine an " unchristian contraption " .
After this setback , Colt turned his attention to perfecting tinfoil cartridges he had originally designed for use in his revolvers . The standard at the time was to have powder and ball contained in a paper or skin envelope or " cartridge " for ease of loading . However , if the paper got wet it would ruin the powder . Colt tried alternate materials such as rubber cement , but settled on a thin type of tinfoil . In 1841 he made samples of these cartridges for the army . During tests of the foil cartridges , 25 rounds were fired from a musket without cleaning . When the breech plug was removed from the barrel no fouling from the tin foil was evident . The reception was lukewarm and the army purchased a few thousand rounds for further testing . In 1843 the army returned to Colt with an order for 200 @,@ 000 of the tinfoil cartridges packed 10 to a box for use in muskets .
With the money made from the cartridges Colt turned back to Morse and his cable for ideas other than detonating mines . Colt concentrated on manufacturing his waterproof telegraph cable , believing the business would prosper alongside Morse 's invention . He began promoting the telegraph companies so he could create a wider market for his cable , for which he was to be paid $ 50 per mile . Colt tried to use this revenue to resurrect the Patent Arms Manufacturing Company , but could not secure funds from other investors or even his own family . This left Colt time to improve his earlier revolver design and have a prototype built by a gunsmith in New York for his " New and improved revolver " . This new revolver had a stationary trigger and was in a larger caliber . Colt submitted his single prototype to the War Department as a " Holster revolver " .
= = Colt 's Patent Manufacturing Company ( 1847 – 1860 ) = =
Captain Samuel Walker of the Texas Rangers had acquired some of the first Colt revolvers produced during the Seminole War and seen first @-@ hand their effective use as his 15 @-@ man unit defeated a larger force of 70 Comanche in Texas . Walker wanted to order Colt revolvers for use by the Rangers in the Mexican @-@ American War , and traveled to New York City in search of Colt . He met Colt in a gunsmith 's shop on January 4 , 1847 , and placed an order for 1 @,@ 000 revolvers . Walker asked for a few changes ; the new revolvers would have to hold 6 shots instead of 5 , have enough power to kill either a man or a horse with a single shot and be quicker to reload . The large order allowed Colt to establish a new firearm business . Colt hired Eli Whitney Blake , who was established in the arms business , to make his guns . Colt used his prototype and Walker 's improvements as the basis for a new design . From this new design , Blake produced the first thousand @-@ piece order known as the Colt Walker . The company then received an order for a thousand more ; Colt took a share of the profits at $ 10 per pistol for both orders .
With the money he made from the sales of the Walkers and a loan from his cousin , banker Elisha Colt , Colt bought the machinery and tooling from Blake to build his own factory : Colt 's Patent Fire @-@ Arms Manufacturing Company factory at Hartford . The first revolving @-@ breech pistols made at the factory were called " Whitneyville @-@ Hartford @-@ Dragoons " and became so popular that the word " Colt " was often used as a generic term for the revolver . The Whitneyville @-@ Hartford Dragoon , largely built from leftover Walker parts , is known as the first model in the transition from the Walker to the Dragoon series . Beginning in 1848 , more contracts followed for what is today known as the Colt Dragoon Revolvers . These models were based on the Walker Colt , and in three generations slight changes to each model showed the rapid evolution of the design . The improvements were 7 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 190 mm ) barrels for accuracy , shorter chambers and an improved loading lever . The shorter chambers were loaded to 50 grains of powder , instead of 60 grains in the earlier Walkers , to prevent the occurrence of ruptured cylinders . Finally , a positive catch was installed at the end of the loading lever to prevent the lever from dropping under recoil .
Besides being used in the war with Mexico , Colt 's revolvers were employed as a sidearm by both civilians and soldiers . Colt 's revolvers were a key tool in the westward expansion . A revolver which could fire six times without reloading helped soldiers and settlers fend off larger forces which were not armed in the same way . In 1848 , Colt introduced smaller versions of his pistols known as Baby Dragoons that were made for civilian use . In 1850 General Sam Houston and General Thomas Jefferson Rusk lobbied Secretary of War William Marcy and President James K. Polk to adopt Colt 's revolvers for the US military . Rusk testified : " Colt 's Repeating Arms are the most efficient weapons in the world and the only weapon which has enabled the frontiersman to defeat the mounted Indian in his own peculiar mode of warfare . " Lt. Bedley McDonald , who served under Walker when Walker was killed in Mexico , stated that 30 Rangers used Colt 's revolvers to keep 500 Mexicans in check . Colt followed this design with the Colt 1851 Navy Revolver which was larger than the Baby Dragoon , but not quite as large as the full @-@ sized version . The gun became the standard sidearm for US Military officers and proved popular among civilian buyers . After the testimony by Houston and Rusk , the next issue became how quickly Colt could supply the military . Ever the opportunist , when the War with Mexico was over , Colt sent agents south of the border to procure sales from the Mexican government .
= = = Patent extension = = =
During this period , Colt received an extension on his patent since he did not collect on it in the early years . In 1852 , gun makers James Warner and Massachusetts Arms infringed on the patent . Colt sued the companies and the court ordered that the Warner and Massachusetts Arms cease revolver production . Colt then threatened to sue Allen & Thurber over the cylinder design of their double @-@ action pepperbox revolver . However , Colt 's lawyers doubted that this suit would have been successful and the case was resolved with a settlement of $ 15 @,@ 000 . Production of Allen pepperboxes continued until the expiration of Colt 's patent in 1857 . In 1854 Colt fought for his patent extension with the US Congress , who launched a special committee to investigate charges that Colt had bribed government officials in securing this extension . By August he was exonerated and the story became national news when Scientific American reported that the fault was not with Colt , but with Washington politicians . With a virtual monopoly , Colt sold his pistols in Europe , where demand was high due to tense international relations . By telling each nation that the others were buying Colt 's pistols , Colt was able to get large orders from many countries who feared falling behind in the arms race .
A key element to Colt 's success was vigorous protection of his patent rights . Even though he lawfully held the only patent on a revolver , scores of imitators copied his work and Colt found himself constantly in litigation . In each one of these cases , Colt 's lawyer , Edward N. Dickerson , deftly exploited the patent system and successfully shut down Colt 's competitors . However , Colt 's zealous protection of his patents greatly impeded firearms development as a whole in the United States . His preoccupation with patent infringement suits slowed his own company 's transition to the cartridge system and blocked other firms from pursuing revolver designs . At the same time , Colt 's policies forced some competing inventors to greater innovation by denying them key features of his mechanism ; as a result they created their own .
Colt knew he had to make his revolvers affordable , as the death of many great inventions was a high retail price . Colt fixed his prices at a level below his competition to maximize sales volume . From his experience in haggling with government officials , he knew what numbers he would have to generate to make enough profit to invest money in improving his machinery , thereby limiting imitators ' ability to produce a comparable weapon at a lower price . Although successful at this for the most part , his preoccupation with marketing strategies and patent protection caused him to miss a great opportunity in firearms development when he dismissed an idea from one of his gunsmiths , Rollin White . White had an idea of a " bored @-@ through " revolver cylinder to allow the use of metallic cartridges in a handgun . After Colt fired White for suggesting an improvement to his revolver , White took his idea to Colt 's competitor , Smith & Wesson , who patented his invention and kept Colt from being able to build cartridge firearms for almost 20 years .
= = = Colt 's Armories = = =
= = = = Hartford = = = =
Colt purchased a large tract of land beside the Connecticut River , where he built his first factory in 1848 , a larger factory called the Colt Armory in 1855 , a manor that he called Armsmear in 1856 , and employee tenement housing . He established a ten @-@ hour day for employees , installed washing stations in the factory , mandated a one @-@ hour lunch break , and built the Charter Oak Hall , where employees could enjoy games , newspapers , and discussion rooms . Colt ran his plant with a military @-@ like discipline , he would fire workers for tardiness , sub @-@ par work or even suggesting improvements to his designs .
Colt hired Elisha K. Root as his chief mechanic in setting up the plant 's machinery . Root had been successful in an earlier venture automating the production of axes and made , bought , or improved jigs , fixtures and profile machinery for Colt . Over the years he developed specialized machinery for stock turning or cutting the rifling in gun barrels . Historian Barbara Tucker credits Root as " the first to build special purpose machinery and apply it to the manufacture of a commercial product " . Colt historian Herbert G. Houze , wrote , " had it not been for Root 's inventive genius , Colt 's dream of mass production would never have been realized " .
Thus , Colt 's factory was the first to make use of the concept known as the assembly line . The idea was not new but was never successful in industry at the time because of the lack of interchangeable parts . Root 's machinery changed that for Colt , since the machines completed as much as 80 % of the work and less than 20 % of the parts required hand fitting and filing . Colt 's revolvers were made by machine , but he insisted on final hand finishing and polishing of his revolvers to impart a handmade feel . Colt turned to artisan gun makers from Bavaria and developed a commercial use for Waterman Ormsby 's grammagraph to produce " roll @-@ die " engraving on steel , particularly on the cylinders . He hired Bavarian engraver Gustave Young for fine hand engraving on his more " custom " pieces . In an attempt to attract skilled European @-@ immigrant workers to his plant , Colt built a village near the factory away from the tenements which he named Coltsville and modeled the homes after a village in Potsdam . In an effort to stem the flooding from the river he planted German osiers , a type of willow tree in a 2 @-@ mile long dike . He subsequently built a factory to manufacture wicker furniture made from these trees .
On June 5 , 1856 , Colt married Elizabeth Jarvis , the daughter of the Rev. William Jarvis , who lived downriver from Hartford . The wedding was lavish and featured the ceremony on a steamship overlooking the factory as well as fireworks and rifle salutes . The couple had four children : two daughters and a son who died in infancy and a son born in 1858 : Caldwell Hart Colt .
= = = = London = = = =
Soon after establishing his Hartford factory , Colt set out to establish a factory in Europe and chose London . He organized a large display of his firearms at the Great Exhibition of 1851 at Hyde Park , London and ingratiated himself by presenting cased engraved Colt revolvers to such appropriate officials as Britain 's Master General of the Ordnance . At one exhibit Colt disassembled ten guns and reassembled ten guns using different parts from different guns . As the world 's leading proponent of mass production techniques , Colt went on to deliver a lecture on the subject to the Institution of Civil Engineers ( ICE ) in London . The membership rewarded his efforts by awarding him the Silver Telford Medal . With help from ICE secretary , Charles Manby , Colt established his London operation near Vauxhall Bridge on the Thames River and began production on January 1 , 1853 . On a tour of the factory , Charles Dickens was so impressed with the facilities that he recorded his favorable comments of Colt 's revolvers in an 1852 edition of Household Words . The factory 's machines mass @-@ produced its parts that were completely interchangeable and could be put together on assembly lines using standardized patterns and gauges by unskilled labor as opposed to England 's top gun makers making each part by hand . Colt 's London factory remained in operation for only four years . Unwilling to alter his open @-@ top single @-@ action design for the solid frame double @-@ action revolver that the British asked for ; Colt scarcely sold 23 @,@ 000 revolvers to the British Army and Navy . In 1856 he closed the London plant and had the machinery , tooling , and unfinished guns shipped to Hartford .
= = = Marketing = = =
When foreign heads of state would not grant him an audience , as he was only a private citizen , he persuaded the governor of the state of Connecticut make him a lieutenant colonel and aide @-@ de @-@ camp in the state militia . With this rank , he toured Europe again to promote his revolvers . He used marketing techniques which were innovative at the time . He frequently gave custom engraved versions of his revolvers to heads of state , military officers , and personalities such as Giuseppe Garibaldi , King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy , and Hungarian freedom fighter Lajos Kossuth . Colt commissioned western artist George Catlin to produce a series of paintings depicting exotic scenes in which a Colt weapon was prominently used against Indians , wild animals , or bandits in the earliest form of " product placement " . He placed numerous advertisements in the same newspapers ; The Knickerbocker ran as many as eight in the same edition . Lastly , he hired authors to write stories about his guns for magazines and travel guides . One of Colt 's biggest acts of self @-@ promotion was the payment to the publishers of United States Magazine $ 1 @,@ 120 ( $ 61 @,@ 439 by 1999 standards ) to run a 29 @-@ page fully illustrated story showing the inner workings of his factory .
After his revolvers had gained acceptance , Colt looked for unsolicited news stories containing mention of his guns that he could excerpt and reprint . He went so far as to hire agents in other states and territories to find such samples , to buy hundreds of copies for himself and to give the editor a free revolver for writing them , particularly if such a story disparaged his competition . Many of the revolvers Colt gave away as " gifts " had inscriptions such as " Compliments of Col. Colt " or " From the Inventor " engraved on the back straps . Later versions contained his entire signature which was used in many of his advertisements as a centerpiece , using his celebrity to guarantee the performance of his weapons . Colt eventually secured a trademark for his signature .
= = Later years and death = =
As the American Civil War approached , Colt supplied both the North and the South with firearms . He had been known to sell weapons to warring parties on both sides of other conflicts in Europe and saw no difference with respect to the war in America . In 1859 Colt considered building an armory in the South and as late as 1861 had sold 2 @,@ 000 revolvers to Confederate agent John Forsyth . Although trade with the South had not been restricted at that time , newspapers such as the New York Daily Tribune , the New York Times and the Hartford Daily Courant labeled him a Southern sympathizer and traitor to the Union . In response to these charges , Colt was commissioned as a colonel by the state of Connecticut on May 16 , 1861 in the 1st Regiment Colts Revolving Rifles of Connecticut armed with the Colt revolving rifle . Colt envisioned this unit as being staffed by men over six feet tall and armed with his weapons . However , the unit never took the field and Colt was discharged on June 20 , 1861 .
Samuel Colt died of gout in Hartford on January 10 , 1862 , and was buried in Cedar Hill Cemetery . At the time of his death , Colt 's estate , which he left to his wife and three @-@ year @-@ old son Caldwell Hart Colt , was estimated to be valued at around $ 15 million ( $ 350 million by 2009 standards ) . His professional responsibilities were turned over to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Richard Jarvis . The only other person mentioned in Colt 's will was Samuel Caldwell Colt , the son of his brother , John .
Colt historian William Edwards wrote that Samuel Colt had married Caroline Henshaw ( who later married his brother , John ) in Scotland in 1838 , and that the son she bore later was Samuel Colt 's and not his brother John 's . In a 1953 biography about Samuel Colt based largely on family letters , Edwards wrote that John Colt 's marriage to Caroline in 1841 was a way to legitimize her unborn son as the real father , Samuel Colt , felt she was not fit to be the wife of an industrialist and divorce was a social stigma at the time . After John 's death , Samuel Colt took care of the child , named Samuel Caldwell Colt , financially with a large allowance and paid for his tuition in what were described as " the finest private schools . " In correspondence to and about his namesake , Samuel Colt referred to him as his " nephew " in quotes . Historians such as Edwards and Harold Schechter have said this was the elder Colt 's way of letting the world know that the boy was his own son without directly saying so . After Colt 's death in 1862 , he left the boy $ 2 million by 2010 standards . Colt 's widow , Elizabeth Jarvis Colt , and her brother , Richard Jarvis contested this . In probate Caroline 's son Sam produced a valid marriage license showing that Caroline and Samuel Colt were married in Scotland in 1838 and that this document made him a rightful heir to part of Colt 's estate , if not to the Colt Manufacturing Company .
= = Legacy = =
It is estimated that in its first 25 years of manufacturing , Colt 's company produced over 400 @,@ 000 revolvers . Before his death , each barrel was stamped : " Address Col. Samuel Colt , New York , US America " , or a variation using a London address . Colt did this as New York and London were major cosmopolitan cities and he retained an office in New York at 155 Broadway where he based his salesmen .
Colt was the first American manufacturer to use art as a marketing tool when he hired Catlin to prominently display Colt firearms in his paintings . He was awarded numerous government contracts after making gifts of his highly embellished and engraved revolvers with exotic grips such as ivory or pearl to government officials . On a trip to Constantinople he gave a custom @-@ engraved and gold inlaid revolver to the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Abdülmecid I , informing him that the Russians were buying his pistols , thus securing a Turkish order for 5 @,@ 000 pistols ; he neglected to tell the Sultan he had used the same tactic with the Russians to elicit an order .
Apart from gifts and bribes , Colt employed an effective marketing program which comprised sales promotion , publicity , product sampling , and public relations . He used the press to his own advantage by giving revolvers to editors , prompting them to report " all the accidents that occur to the Sharps & other humbug arms " , and listing incidents where Colt weapons had been " well used against bears , Indians , Mexicans , etc " . Colt 's firearms did not always fare well in standardized military tests ; he preferred written testimonials from individual soldiers who used his weapons and these were what he most relied on to secure government contracts .
Colt felt that bad press was just as important as good press ; provided that his name and his revolvers received mention . When he opened the London armory he posted a 14 @-@ foot sign on the roof across from Parliament reading " Colonel Colt 's Pistol Factory " as a publicity stunt which created a stir in the British press . Eventually the British government forced him to take down this sign . Colt historian Herbert Houze wrote that Colt championed the concept of modernism before the word was coined , he pioneered the use of celebrity endorsements to promote his products , he introduced the adjective " new and improved " to advertising and demonstrated the commercial value of brand @-@ name recognition as the word for " revolver " in French is Le Colt . Barbara M. Tucker , Professor of History and Director of the Center for Connecticut Studies at Eastern Connecticut State University , wrote that Colt 's marketing techniques transformed the firearm from a utilitarian object into a central symbol of American identity . Tucker added that Colt tied his revolvers to American patriotism , freedom and individualism while asserting America 's technological supremacy over Europe 's .
In 1867 , his widow , Elizabeth , had an Episcopal church designed by Edward Tuckerman Potter built as a memorial to Samuel Colt and the three children they lost . The church 's architecture contains guns and gun @-@ smithing tools sculpted in marble to commemorate Colt 's life as an arms maker . In 1896 a parish house was built on the site as a memorial to their son , Caldwell who died in 1894 . In 1975 the Church of the Good Shepherd and Parish House was listed in the National Register of Historic Places .
Colt set up libraries and educational programs within his armories for his employees which were seminal training grounds for several generations of toolmakers and other machinists , who had great influence in other manufacturing efforts of the next half century . Prominent examples included Francis A. Pratt , Amos Whitney , Henry Leland , Edward Bullard , Worcester R. Warner , Charles Brinckerhoff Richards , William Mason and Ambrose Swasey .
In 2006 , Samuel Colt was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame .
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= Prelude and Fugue on a Theme of Vittoria =
Prelude and Fugue on a Theme of Vittoria is a work for solo organ composed by Benjamin Britten in 1946 . It was commissioned for St Matthew 's Church , Northampton and first performed on 21 September 1946 , St Matthew 's Day , three days after its composition . It uses a theme from a motet by the Spanish composer Vittoria , both in the prelude ( where it is played repeatedly on the pedals ) and as the basis for the fugue . The piece , which lasts about five minutes in performance , has had a mixed reception . One writer has noted the difficulty on finding a suitable organ on which to perform the piece , given the difficulties in finding appropriate registration to meet Britten 's requirements . A reviewer of a concert performance in the 1960s called it " a contrived attempt to make bricks without straw " , although other commentators have been more favourable about the piece .
= = Background = =
The English composer Benjamin Britten was asked to write the Prelude and Fugue for St Matthew 's Church , Northampton . It was first performed there on St Matthew 's Day ( 21 September ) 1946 , three days after it was composed . There is a story that he wrote it in bed one morning before breakfast . Britten had previously been commissioned by the vicar of St Matthew 's , Walter Hussey , to write a cantata , Rejoice in the Lamb , for the church 's fiftieth anniversary in 1943 ; the organ accompaniment for the cantata used the organ in a " strikingly original way " . The Prelude and Fugue was one of two pieces based on themes by other composers that Britten wrote in 1946 ; the other was the Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra , which was based on a piece by Henry Purcell .
= = Structure = =
Both sections of the piece are based on a theme from a motet , Ecce sacerdos magnus ( " Behold a great priest " ) , by the Spanish composer Tomás Luis de Victoria ( or " Vittoria " , 1548 – 1611 ) . The theme , which comes from a plainchant melody used in Vittoria 's day on the feast day of a saint and bishop , is nine notes long and does not range widely . The Prelude , which is in 42 time ( four minims to a bar ) , opens with a statement of the theme played on the pedals in quintuplets ( five quavers played in the time of four ) , marked ff , ( fortissimo , " very loud " ) . The theme is repeated frequently in the pedals during the prelude , which is marked " largamente " ( " broadly " ) . The prelude , which takes about one and a half minutes in performance , is thirteen bars long .
Vittoria 's theme is also used ( with little development ) as the subject of the fugue . This section is in 34 time ( three crochets to a bar ) and is marked " Andante con moto " ( " at a walking pace , with movement " ) . The fugue , which is mainly in four @-@ part writing with frequent rhythmic changes , gradually builds to a climax . In bar 69 , a new louder melody is added in the right hand against the fugue theme in the pedals . Gradually , the piece dies away to two parts and ppp ( pianississimo , " very , very quietly " ) as the left and right hands play the fugue theme a bar apart from each other , in canon . The whole piece lasts about five minutes .
= = Assessment = =
The piece has had a mixed reception . Even one of its supporters says that " players do not seem to like it much " , despite it being written so that " the average parish organist might have a fair chance to play it . "
The American musician Luther Noss reviewed the piece upon its publication by Boosey & Hawkes in 1952 , stating that it was " well written for the organ " and " remarkably free " of some of the problems found in other modern organ music . He thought that it gave the impression of having been written with the organ in mind rather adapted from a piece intended for another instrument , unlike some other contemporary organ works . However , he commented that the theme provided little melodic or rhythmic interest and Britten used it , he thought , " not without a suggestion of monotony . " Although the theme is " not the stuff of which great music is made " , Noss remarked on the " exciting " pedal flourish at the opening of the piece , the attractive use of melody and harmony , and " grand crescendos and lingering diminuendos " to keep the listener interested . Another early reviewer described it as " spacious " , with a " by no means academic " fugue and a style that " suggests a modern romantic composer 's appreciation of the more austere aspects of the classical organ school . " The review also noted that many of the accents marked in the piece " seem incapable of realization by any of the usual methods of suggesting accentuation of the organ . "
It was included in a concert at St Clement Danes , London , in November 1963 that honoured Britten 's fiftieth birthday with performances of some of his lesser @-@ known works . The review in The Times remarked favourably on the Te Deum in C and the Six Metamorphoses after Ovid for solo oboe . Of the organ piece , though , the critic said that it was " a contrived attempt to make bricks without straw . "
The organist Alan Harverson describes it as " excellent " and notes its " orthodox layout and textures " , in comparison to the organ writing of Rejoice in the Lamb and the Festival Te Deum ( 1944 ) . He regards the Prelude as " concise and majestic " and describes the ending as " touchingly serene " with a " charming canon " . The musicologist and Britten expert Philip Brett describes the piece ( without naming it ) in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians as a " slight organ work " .
The organist Timothy Bond disagrees with the piece 's " bad press " and the " dismissive " comments made about it by Brett and others . According to Bond , this " fresh and vital " work is " a finer , more accomplished piece than it sometimes sounds in performance . " He notes the difficulty of finding the best registration – no registration suggestions are given – and the best organ to perform the piece on , since it seems to require steady and considerable changes in volume without changes in the tone quality produced by the organ yet also demands neoclassical " brightness and clarity " , a combination of requirements that it is difficult for organs to meet . On the right organ , however , Bond says that the piece can sound " particularly striking " and " harmonically bold and telling , if occasionally gauche " , as it moves through passages that are " serene " , " creepy " , " vigorous " , " nostalgic " and finally " serene " , albeit with a " rather pedestrian " cadence .
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= Frank Dekum =
Frank Dekum ( November 5 , 1829 – October 19 , 1894 ) was a prominent 19th century fruit merchant , banker , and real @-@ estate investor in Portland , Oregon . Born in Germany , Dekum emigrated to the north @-@ central U.S. with his family and as a young man went west in search of gold before starting a successful fresh @-@ fruit business in Portland . Prospering as a merchant , Dekum invested in real @-@ estate , banking , and an early railroad , was a president or board member of many of the city 's companies , and was one of 15 men named to Portland 's first municipal water committee .
Dekum involved himself in many building projects in downtown Portland . One of his structures , the Dekum Building , which served as headquarters for the city 's government in the 1890s , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 . The Portland and Vancouver Railway , financed partly by Dekum , ran along the east side of the Willamette River from East Portland to the Columbia River . Dekum Street in northeast Portland is named after him .
Married to Fanny Reinig , Dekum fathered eight children . He was the president of the German Song Bird Society , which imported to Oregon many German songbirds . After suffering great financial loss during the Panic of 1893 , he died in 1894 .
= = Early life = =
Dekum was born in Deiderfeld , Rheinfalz , Germany , on November 5 , 1829 . He and his brother and four sisters emigrated to the United States to settle on a farm near Belleville , Illinois . The family later moved to St. Louis , Missouri , where both parents died . After serving as an apprentice confectioner in St. Louis , Dekum and a friend , Frederick Bickel , went gold prospecting in California and Idaho before settling in Portland .
= = From fruit to real estate = =
In 1853 , the two men established a fruit and confectionery store , Dekum & Bickel , which prospered for the next quarter @-@ century in downtown Portland . Amassing wealth from the " largest wholesale fresh @-@ fruit business in the Northwest " , Dekum joined " the frenzied real @-@ estate speculations of the early 1860s " , and his large holdings included several buildings that bore his name . In 1875 , he and Simeon Reed financed the city 's most expensive building of the time ; it was known as the Dekum and Reed Block .
Portland historian Joseph Gaston wrote , " It is an interesting and noteworthy fact that he was connected with the construction of every building in whole or in part between First and Third on Washington street ... " . These projects included the first large brick building on Front Street , the Gadsby and Commercial blocks , the Waldo Building , and in 1892 the Dekum Building .
The latter , at the southwest corner of Southwest Third Avenue and Washington Street , is eight stories high , was built entirely of Oregon materials , and cost $ 300 @,@ 000 in 1892 dollars . The first three stories of the Romanesque structure are of rough @-@ cut sandstone ; the top five floors are of red brick and unglazed terracotta with floral designs . Decorative machicolations ( openings of the sort used in earlier eras for pouring pitch and dropping rocks on attackers ) appear in the parapet at the top of the building . For eight years starting in 1893 Portland 's government was headquartered in this structure , temporarily dubbed the Council Building . The exterior was renovated in 1987 , and the interior opened to the nearby Hamilton Building in the 1990s . The Dekum Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 and is part of the Skidmore / Old Town Historic District .
= = Banks , companies = =
In 1880 Dekum helped establish the Portland Savings Bank , of which he was named president in 1886 , succeeding David P. Thompson . He helped organize the Commercial National Bank of Portland and served as its president . ( The two banks occupied the same building and had overlapping directors , including John McCraken , George H. Williams , and Cyrus A. Dolph , as well as Dekum and Thompson . ) He was at various times president of Columbia Investment Company , Oregon Land and Investment Company , Columbia Fire and Marine Insurance Company , Portland and Vancouver Railway Company , Trinidad Asphalt & Paving Company , and the Portland Exposition Company . In 1885 , Dekum was one of 15 men named to the Portland Water Committee , empowered by the Oregon Legislative Assembly to acquire and operate a municipal water system for the city .
= = Portland and Vancouver Railway = =
In 1888 Dekum , Richard L. Durham , and John B. David built a narrow gauge railway , the Portland and Vancouver Railway , that began in what was then the separate city of East Portland and went north through the then @-@ separate city of Albina on the way to the Columbia River . The south end of the steam railway was at the east end of the Stark Street ferry between Portland and East Portland on the Willamette River . The north end of the line was at a landing on the Columbia that served ferries traveling between Oregon and Vancouver , Washington .
Dekum and Durham , through their Oregon Land and Development Company , invested in developing the Woodlawn District , which was near the railroad in Albina . Most of the railway route ran initially through " virgin timber and scattered clearings " , especially north of Albina , where " the country was quite primitive until the broad bottomlands of the Columbia were reached . " Because the land near the river was subject to annual flooding , the northernmost 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) of the line was elevated on trestles . In 1892 the line was sold to the Portland Consolidated Street Railway Company , which switched to a bigger gauge to match its other tracks and began to electrify the railway for trolleys .
= = Family , other interests = =
Dekum was married in 1859 to Fanny Reinig of St. Louis , with whom he had eight children . In Portland , they lived in a three @-@ story house , built in about 1864 , on a tract later defined by Northwest 13th and 14th avenues and Morrison and Yamhill streets , that was at the time well outside the city . The house featured staggered quoins at its corners , a three @-@ bay entrance porch , segmental arched windows , and a conservatory ( sun room ) on the south . Fanny died in 1877 .
President of the German Song Bird Society , Dekum contributed money to import German song birds , including thrushes , starlings , and nightingales , to Oregon . According to one report , the society brought a total of about 500 German birds to Oregon at various times and released many of them into the wild , mainly in Portland parks . Although birds from these early importations survived for years by some accounts , they all eventually disappeared . Dekum was also president of the German Aid Society of Portland .
= = Death and legacy = =
During the Panic of 1893 , when many banks failed , Dekum 's Portland Savings Bank barely survived . Portland historian E. Kimbark MacColl writes that among Portland bankers
the banker who suffered the heaviest loss was Frank Dekum , who died in 1894 , partially from the strain of the depression . With David P. Thompson 's help , he had managed to salvage enough out of the wreckage of the Portland Savings Bank to leave an estate of over $ 1 million , largely in downtown real estate ; his railway holdings had collapsed . Thompson , who had been president of the savings bank from 1880 to 1886 , had sold all his bank stocks before his appointment in 1891 as American Minister to Turkey . Upon his return in 1893 , he was appointed receiver for the bank .
Wells Fargo bought Dekum 's other bank , Commercial National Bank of Portland , in January 1894 . Dekum died on October 19 that year and was buried in Lone Fir Cemetery in southeast Portland . Northeast Dekum Street in Portland 's Woodlawn neighborhood is named after him .
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= SR Leader class =
The Leader was a class of experimental 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T articulated steam locomotive , produced in the United Kingdom to the design of the innovative engineer Oliver Bulleid . The Leader was an attempt to extend the life of steam traction by eliminating many of the operational drawbacks associated with existing steam locomotives . It was intended as a replacement for the ageing fleet of M7 class tank engines still in operation on the Southern Railway ( SR ) . Design work began in 1946 and development continued after the nationalisation of the railways in 1948 , under the auspices of British Railways ( BR ) .
The Leader project was part of Bulleid 's desire to modernise the steam locomotive based on experience gained with the Southern Railway 's fleet of electric stock . Bulleid considered that attitudes towards the labour @-@ intensity of steam operation had changed during the post @-@ war period , favouring dieselisation and electrification . In an effort to demonstrate the continued potential of steam , Bulleid pushed forward the boundaries of steam @-@ power , allowing it to compete with diesel and electric locomotives in terms of labour @-@ saving and ease of operation .
The design incorporated many novel features , such as the use of thermic siphons , bogies and cabs at either end of the locomotive , resulting in its unique — for a steam locomotive — modern diesel @-@ like appearance . Several of its innovations proved to be unsuccessful however , partly accounting for the project 's cancellation in the early 1950s . Five Leader locomotives were begun , although only one was completed . The operational locomotive was trialled on the former Southern Railway network around Brighton . Problems with the design , indifferent reports on performance and political pressure surrounding spiralling development costs , led to all locomotives of the class being scrapped by 1951 .
= = Background = =
The basis of the Leader originated from a 1944 review of the Southern Railway 's steam locomotive fleet , resulting in a Southern Railway design brief which called for a high @-@ powered locomotive requiring little maintenance to replace the ageing fleet of M7 class tank engines . The brief also stipulated that the locomotive would be used on both passenger and freight trains , requiring high route availability . Bulleid proposed an initial design based on his SR Q1 class locomotive , which had proved easy to maintain in service . As the proposal progressed , Bulleid saw that certain tasks required with conventional steam locomotives could be eliminated by adopting some of the features of the contemporary Southern electric locomotives . However , one of the subsequent designs of a 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement had an unacceptably high axle @-@ loading of 20 long tons ( 20 @.@ 3 tonnes ; 22 @.@ 4 short tons ) , which increased the risk of damaging the Southern Railway 's track . By developing the proposal further , Bulleid settled for a 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T design of bogied locomotive , which spread the weight more evenly over the rails and reduced the axle @-@ loading .
= = Design = =
A series of initial ideas were presented to the Southern Railway management by Bulleid that incorporated double @-@ ended running , giving the locomotive driver maximum visibility in either direction without a boiler or tender obscuring his view . The need for a turntable to turn the locomotive around was therefore eliminated , although the initial designs were rejected by the operating department because of problems with welding technique . The accepted design included two 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 steam bogies with weight @-@ saving sleeve valves and chains to couple the driving axles . The boiler was offset to provide space for a communication corridor , allowing the driver to access both cabs without leaving the locomotive , an arrangement which led to later problems . The firebox , near the centre of the locomotive , was fed by the fireman from a third cab , linked to both driving cabs by the communication corridor . The entire ensemble was placed on a common frame and thus often referred to as an 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T .
The Leader prototype was constructed at Brighton railway works , work beginning in 1946 . An initial order for five locomotives was placed straight from the drawing board in 1946 and a further 31 were ordered in 1947 , although , with nationalisation looming , this was merely a gesture . The latter order was cancelled after the Southern Railway was taken into public ownership , to allow trials to be carried out on the prototype .
= = = Bogie and cylinder design = = =
Each of the two bogies had three cylinders , with the driving wheels connected by chains enclosed in an oil @-@ bath , based upon Bulleid 's chain @-@ driven valve gear on his Pacific locomotives . The valve gear used the unusual sleeve valve arrangement that was also tested on the ex @-@ LB & SCR H1 class Hartland Point in parallel with the construction of the first Leader locomotive . The Leader was the first steam locomotive to use a form of sleeve valve since Cecil Paget 's locomotive of 1908 and the concurrent testing of the principle on Hartland Point hints at the rushed nature of the locomotive 's conception . The locomotive sat on the unusual Bulleid Firth Brown wheels , which were lighter , yet stronger , than the spoked equivalent .
The use of sleeve valves and oil baths to lubricate the moving parts of the engine units was inspired by contemporary internal combustion engine practice . This included oscillating gear that gave a 25 @-@ degree axial movement to the sleeves , allowing even lubrication of the moving parts . However , this resulted in an over @-@ complicated mechanism that was difficult to maintain , perpetuating the seizures it was meant to eradicate . This feature was removed from both bogies of the prototype as the trials progressed . Another innovative feature of the steam bogie assembly was the ability to interchange them when faults occurred , an easy operation for maintenance staff when compared to the complexities of overhauling a regular steam locomotive 's motion .
The three cylinders of each bogie were cast in mono @-@ block format , each surrounded by two annular inlet steam chests and a single large outlet steam chest . These had the added function of keeping the cylinder heated by hot steam to maintain the temperature and pressure of steam entering the cylinders . However , these castings were difficult to machine accurately . The steam @-@ sealing arrangements needed for this system were also complex , with each of the six cylinders and valve sleeves requiring 24 sealing rings .
= = = Boiler , firebox , smokebox and casing design = = =
The boiler was the culmination of lessons learned with the Pacifics and was a prolific steam @-@ raiser . All Leader boilers were constructed at Eastleigh , and proved to be the least problematic area of the entire design . The boiler pressure was set at 280 psi ( 1 @.@ 93 MPa ) and each was fitted with four thermic siphons within the firebox to increase the rate of evaporation and improve water circulation . These were previously used to great effect on Bulleid 's Merchant Navy and West Country and Battle of Britain class designs .
The Leader had a " dry lining " firebox ; it was not surrounded on top and sides by a " jacket " of water as in normal practice . It was constructed of welded steel and used firebricks instead of water for insulation , which was a novel but troublesome solution to dry @-@ lining the firebox . These had the effect of reducing the grate area from 47 square feet ( 4 @.@ 4 m2 ) to 25 @.@ 5 square feet ( 2 @.@ 37 m2 ) and concentrated the fire in a smaller area . The firehole door was offset to the left of the boiler backhead and was to provide difficulty for the fireman to add coal to the fire . The firebox was not initially equipped with a firebrick arch , although one was retro @-@ fitted during the summer of 1950 . The arch was problematic as it promoted the tendency for flames to enter the cab at high outputs , a situation made worse by the narrowing of the firebox area .
The smokebox had an inherent problem in maintaining a constant vacuum . This was a result of another Bulleid labour @-@ saving innovation , a sliding hatch controlled from the front cab that enabled ash to be cleaned out through a chute onto the track when on the move . The problem lay with ash manifesting itself around the edges of the slide , allowing air to leak into the smokebox , therefore reducing the overall efficiency of the locomotive . The fierce blast from the exhaust also meant that ash and embers were ejected into the atmosphere , creating a potential lineside fire hazard .
For ease of maintenance , the boiler , firebox and smokebox were encased in steel sheeting that resembled a modern diesel locomotive , a major departure from traditional steam locomotive design , allowing the engine to be cleaned using a carriage @-@ washing plant . The locomotive was designed to carry 4 tons ( 4 @.@ 06 tonnes ) of coal and 4 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 18 @,@ 000 l ; 4 @,@ 800 US gal ) of water with the coal bunker covered by a tarpaulin to prevent water ingress into the fireman 's cab . Entry into the locomotive was by way of ladders leading up to sliding doors although , due to the bogie design , the climb into the fireman 's cab necessitated clambering over the oilbath casing .
= = Construction = =
Construction of the first five Leader locomotives began at the Southern Railway 's Brighton railway works in July 1947 . British Railways inherited the Leader project upon nationalisation in 1948 , which was far enough advanced to continue constructing the prototype , as Bulleid was still Chief Mechanical Engineer of the newly formed Southern Region of British Railways . Although work on the other four locomotives stalled , the prototype Leader emerged from Brighton as locomotive No. 36001 in June 1949 .
The other four members of the initial order made by the Southern Railway , Nos. 36002 – 5 , were at varying stages of construction by the end of the development period . No. 36002 was almost complete , No. 36003 was without its outer casing , and Nos. 36004 – 5 were little more than sets of frames , although most of their major components had been constructed at Eastleigh and Brighton and were stored ready for fitting . With no prospect of further money being allocated by the Railway Executive for their completion , the unfinished locomotives were put into store at various depots around the former Southern Railway network pending a decision on their future .
= = Operational details = =
No. 36001 was immediately put into service trials using empty passenger carriage stock in the south @-@ east of England . The official trial records kept at Brighton works reported varying degrees of success and failure on the runs undertaken . However , the results of the trials as reported to British Railways headquarters at Marylebone were " conspicuous by the absence of praise " for the strengths of the Leader , namely the boiler , braking system and total adhesion provided by the two bogies . Several theories have been put forward regarding this state of affairs , the most plausible being that the more conservative members of the railway workforce at Brighton and the Railway Executive felt that the Leader was too revolutionary and were keen to maintain the status quo .
= = = Performance of No. 36001 = = =
Following trials that lasted over a year , No. 36001 was shown to have several flaws , including heavy coal and water consumption , mechanical unreliability , untenable working conditions for both fireman and driver , loss of steam through the cylinder rings and uneven weight distribution on the bogies . After renewing the cylinder assembly , it was tested around Brighton and Eastleigh using an LNER Dynamometer car , where good running was experienced at high costs in fuel and effort on the part of the fireman . The Leader was tested against the performance of a U class control locomotive and indicated that the brake release was too slow in service for use on tight schedules despite the brake application being noted as the best used on a Bulleid design .
Throughout No. 36001 's trials , the firebrick lining provided a constant problem by continually collapsing into the fire . The firebricks were then replaced with cast iron substitutes that melted in the intense heat of the firebox , which were in turn replaced by thicker 9 inches ( 23 cm ) firebricks . Some of the firemen allotted to the Leader complained about cramped conditions in the centre cab of the locomotive , a situation made worse by flames entering the cab from the firebox at high outputs . It was an enclosed space that was constantly hot and the single fireman 's entrance door on the side of the locomotive was left open during travel to promote ventilation . The door into the fireman 's cab also attracted criticism , as it would have been blocked in the event of the locomotive overturning on that side , preventing the fireman 's escape , so that members of the railway trade union ASLEF threatened to stop their crews from operating the Leader .
The offset boiler and coal bunker caused the locomotive 's centre of gravity to be shifted to one side . Experiments had to be undertaken to balance the locomotive by filling the linking corridor with large quantities of scrap metal , replaced in a re @-@ design by a raised floor , covering the weighted material . These modifications resulted in the engine exceeding the total weight limit of 150 tons ( 151 tonnes ) , severely limiting the design 's route availability during testing . A related problem was that despite being a tall locomotive , at 12 feet 11 inches ( 3 @.@ 94 m ) , the cab ceilings were relatively low . The cab at the smokebox end of the locomotive suffered from the same excessive heat as did the fireman 's cab . To circumvent this problem the locomotive was used in reverse , as the rear cab was next to the water tank and coal chute and therefore away from the hot gases circulating inside the smokebox .
Despite its problems , the locomotive displayed outstanding steaming characteristics and total traction from the two power bogies on its trial runs . When properly fired , the Leader was capable of keeping up with the schedules , even running ahead on occasions . However , operational difficulties when stopping for water tended to lose any time advantages gained and affected the published performance figures . Despite hauling test trains over the Central Section of the former Southern Railway , the Leader prototype was never used on a revenue @-@ earning service because of the risk of failure of the valve gear and the adverse publicity this would cause for British Railways .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = Southern Railway = = =
When the project was under the auspices of the Southern Railway , No. 36001 would have been numbered CC101 . Bulleid advocated a continental style of locomotive nomenclature , based upon his experiences at the French branch of Westinghouse Electric before the First World War and those of his tenure in the rail operating department during that conflict . The Southern Railway number followed an adaptation of the UIC classification system where " C " refers to the number of driving axles – in this case three on each bogie . Since the design has six driving axles , the numbering would have been CC101 – CC105 for the initial batch , the final number being the locomotive identifier .
= = = British Railways = = =
Operational livery was ex @-@ works photographic grey with red and white lining . The British Railways " Cycling Lion " crest was also used though , after the works photograph , this was painted over without explanation . Numbering was the British Railways standard system , in the 36001 series . If the class had gone into full production , the locomotives would have been painted in British Railways mixed traffic / freight black livery with red , grey and cream lining . 36001 was initially painted in this livery but this preceded the official works photograph and was subsequently repainted in photographic grey livery .
= = Operational assessment = =
Despite the high expectations attached to the Leader , it was not the motive power revolution that Bulleid intended it to be . No part of the Leader design was perpetuated on the British Railways Standard class locomotives by Robert Riddles , nor did it find favour internationally , with the Garratt articulated locomotives providing a similar function for less maintenance . The whole concept was quietly dropped in 1951 after Bulleid left British Railways to become Chief Mechanical Engineer of Córas Iompair Éireann ( where he produced CIÉ No . CC1 , a peat @-@ burning locomotive to a similar design ) and all five were scrapped . The culmination of the project was a £ 178 @,@ 865 5s 0d ( equivalent to £ 5 @,@ 527 @,@ 041 as of 2015 ) bill for the taxpayer though , when the press reported the story as late as 1953 , it was claimed that £ 500 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 15 @,@ 450 @,@ 294 as of 2015 ) was wasted on the project . R. G. Jarvis , who was placed in charge of the project after Bulleid 's departure , insisted that the locomotive required an entire re @-@ design to solve the problems of the original concept .
No members of the Leader class survived the 1950s and only the numberplates of No. 36001 and No. 36002 are known to exist . The numberplate for No. 36001 is located in the National Railway Museum , although a locomotive builder 's plate intended for the locomotive , but never fitted in service , was sold at auction in 2008 . The Leader was a bold attempt at pushing back the boundaries of contemporary steam locomotive design and , if successful , would have prolonged the life of steam on Britain 's Railways .
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= 3rd Pioneer Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 3rd Pioneer Battalion was an Australian infantry and light engineer unit raised for service during the First World War as part of the all volunteer Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . Formed in Victoria in March 1916 , the battalion subsequently undertook further training in the United Kingdom before arriving in France in late 1916 . It later served on the Western Front in France and Belgium until the end of the war . Assigned to the 3rd Division , the 3rd Pioneer Battalion fought in most of the major battles that the AIF participated in between mid @-@ 1916 and the end of the war in November 1918 . It was subsequently disbanded in early 1919 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
The 3rd Pioneers were raised in Victoria , in March 1916 , from volunteers drawn from Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , and Western Australia and was subsequently assigned to the 3rd Division . The battalion was formed in the aftermath of the failed Gallipoli campaign when the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) was expanded as part of plans to transfer it from the Middle East to Europe for service in the trenches along the Western Front . This expansion saw several new infantry divisions raised in Egypt and Australia , as well as specialist support units such as machine gun companies , engineer companies , artillery batteries and pioneer battalions .
Trained as infantrymen , the pioneers were tasked with light combat engineer functions in the field , with a large number of personnel possessing trades from civilian life . The concept had existed within the British Indian Army before the war , but was adopted by the Australian Army in early 1916 to meet a need for troops with construction and engineering skills to assist with digging trenches , labouring , constructing strong points and undertaking battlefield clearance . As such , they were designated as pioneer units . At the same time , they could be pressed into the line to fight alongside regular infantry where required .
A total of five pioneer battalions were raised by the AIF during the war , with one being assigned to each of the five infantry divisions that the Australians deployed to the battlefield in France and Belgium . The battalions consisted of four companies , under a headquarters company . To identify the 3rd Pioneer Battalion 's personnel , they were issued with a purple and white Unit Colour Patch . The colours were in common with other Australian pioneer battalions , while the horizontal oval shape denoted that the unit was part of the 3rd Division .
The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Robert Law , and upon establishment it was decided that the unit would be an " all States " unit , meaning that personnel would not just be drawn exclusively from one particular state , but would instead draw recruits from all around Australia . The headquarters and ' A ' Company were recruited from Victoria , and was established at Ascot Vale , before moving to Campbellfield in March , while ' B ' Company was composed of New South Welshmen , ' C ' Company came from Queensland and ' D ' Company was a composite sub @-@ unit drawn from South Australia and Western Australia . After the sub @-@ units had formed in their home locations – Liverpool , Bathurst , Brisbane , Blackboy Hill , and Adelaide – the battalion began concentrating at Campbellfield in April 1916 .
Detailed training began at Campbellfield shortly after concentration and in May the battalion marched through the streets of Melbourne , before being presented with its unit colour . They were subsequently laid up at St Paul 's Cathedral in Melbourne prior to embarkation . They departed Australia on the transport Wandilla on 6 June 1916 , and endured a seven @-@ week voyage to the United Kingdom , sailing via Cape Town . After arriving in the United Kingdom , the battalion subsequently concentrated with the rest of the 3rd Division around Larkhill on Salisbury Plain , in Wiltshire . Between July and November 1916 , the 3rd Pioneers carried out intensive training to prepare them for their arrival on the Western Front . Finally , on 25 November the battalion entrained at Amesbury bound for Southampton from where they were ferried across the English Channel to Le Havre .
= = = Western Front = = =
The 3rd Pioneers would subsequently serve on the Western Front from late 1916 until the end of the war . After a brief period of acclimatisation in a " nursery sector " around Armentieres , the battalion 's first major action came around Messines in June 1917 , during which several of the battalion 's companies were assigned to the assaulting companies to dig communication trenches while other troops were assigned general engineering duties such as road clearance , tramway maintenance , anti @-@ aircraft defence and water supply , laying pipes and ensuring that they were maintained throughout the battle . Following this , the battalion 's next major battle of 1917 was the Third Battle of Ypres , before moving back to Wavrans in late October 1917 . One member of the battalion , Lance Corporal Walter Peeler , received the Victoria Cross , for his bravery during the Battle of Broodseinde in October 1917 . During the action , Peeler was part of a Lewis Gun team that was supporting the 37th Infantry Battalion ; tasked with providing anti @-@ aircraft defence , when the first wave of the assault was held up , Peeler advanced ahead of the assaulting infantry and destroyed one of the German positions that was causing heavy casualties . He then proceeded to destroy a machine gun position .
The battalion wintered around Messines , during which time it provided reinforcements to the Australian engineer tunneling companies , as well as helping to construct and maintain the divisional tramway systems . In early 1918 , the battalion took part in efforts to blunt the German Spring Offensive , serving around Belle , Heilly and Ribemont between March and May 1918 . In the lull that followed the failed German offensive , the Allies sought to regain the initiative , and after being relieved by the 2nd Pioneers around Heilly , the 3rd Pioneers were dispatched to the Somme , taking over from the 4th Pioneers around Villers @-@ Bretonneux . They then took part in the Battle of Hamel before joining the Hundred Days Offensive , which was launched around Amiens in August 1918 . The battalion 's final actions of the war came against the Hindenburg Line , around the St. Quentin Canal in early October 1918 , during which a company of Americans from the US 102nd Engineers were attached to them . The battalion was subsequently withdrawn from the line for reorganisation along with the rest of the Australian Corps after the battle around the St. Quentin Canal , and moved back to the Abbeville area . They did not see further action before the armistice came into effect on 11 November 1918 .
After the conclusion of hostilities , the battalion 's strength dwindled as personnel were sent to England and elsewhere for educational courses to prepare them to return to civilian life . The first batch of around 100 personnel left for Australia for demobilisation in February 1919 , and the battalion was formally disbanded the following month . During the war , a total of 1 @,@ 964 men served in the 3rd Pioneer Battalion ; this includes the original enlistments and eight batches of reinforcements . Of these , 140 were killed or died of wounds , 19 died from illness or from accident , 208 were gassed , and 619 were wounded in action . Including Peeler 's VC , a total of 129 honours and awards were bestowed upon members of the battalion : one VC , four Distinguished Service Orders , 16 Military Crosses , 10 Distinguished Conduct Medals , 73 Military Medals , nine Meritorious Service Medals , and three Mentions in Despatches . In addition , three members of the battalion were invested as Members of the Order of the British Empire and one was appointed as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire .
= = Legacy = =
After the war , the concept of pioneer battalions was discontinued in the Australian Army . In the immediate aftermath of the war , as plans were drawn up for the shape of the post conflict Army , a proposal was put forth to raise six pioneer battalions in the peacetime Army , but a combination of global disarmament and financial hardship resulted in this plan being scrapped . As a result , pioneer battalions disappeared from the Australian Army order of battle until the Second World War , when four such battalions were raised as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force . According to Alexander Rodger , as a result of the decision not to re @-@ raise pioneer battalions in the interwar years , no battle honours were subsequently awarded to the 3rd Pioneer Battalion – or any other First World War pioneer battalion – as there was no equivalent unit to perpetuate the honours when they were promulgated by the Australian Army in 1927 .
= = Commanding officers = =
The battalion was commanded by the following officers :
Lieutenant Colonel R. Law ( 1916 – 17 )
Lieutenant Colonel L.F.S. Mather ( 1917 – 18 )
Lieutenant Colonel H. Grant ( 1918 )
Lieutenant Colonel W.H. Sanday ( 1918 )
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= Dark Horse ( George Harrison song ) =
" Dark Horse " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released as the title track to his 1974 solo album on Apple Records . The song was the album 's lead single in North America , becoming a top @-@ twenty hit in the United States , but it was Harrison 's first single not to chart in Britain when issued there in February 1975 . While the term " dark horse " had long been applied to Harrison due to his success as a solo artist following the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , commentators recognise the song as Harrison 's rebuttal to a number of possible detractors : those reviewers who criticised the spiritual content of his 1973 album Living in the Material World ; his first wife , Pattie Boyd ; and his former bandmates John Lennon and Paul McCartney . Harrison also used the title for that of his record label , and his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar would come to be known as the Dark Horse Tour .
Harrison taped an early version of the song with Ringo Starr in 1973 , intending to finish this recording for the album . The officially released version was recorded during rehearsals for his 1974 concerts , at a time when Harrison 's exhaustion through overwork contributed to him contracting laryngitis and losing his voice . Harrison 's singing was similarly affected throughout the ensuing tour . A number of music critics rate " Dark Horse " as one of Harrison 's finest post @-@ Beatles compositions and believe that the single would have achieved greater success with a cleaner vocal performance . The recording reflects Harrison 's embracing of the jazz @-@ funk musical genre , and features contributions from musicians such as Tom Scott , Jim Horn , Billy Preston , Willie Weeks and Andy Newmark .
Harrison played " Dark Horse " throughout both the 1974 tour and his 1991 Japanese tour with Eric Clapton . A live version appears on his 1992 album Live in Japan . Recordings also exist of Harrison performing the song during radio and television appearances in the 1970s , although none of these versions are available on official releases . For the first time since the debut CD releases of Dark Horse and The Best of George Harrison in the early 1990s , " Dark Horse " was remastered in 2014 , along with its parent album , as part of Harrison 's Apple Years reissues . The latter release includes an acoustic demo of the song , which Harrison recorded in 1974 before the onset of laryngitis .
= = Background and composition = =
George Harrison 's 1973 album Living in the Material World had divided music critics , with Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone lauding it as " a pop religious ceremony for all seasons " and " an article of faith , miraculous in its radiance " , while the NME 's reviewer derided the pious nature of the songs and concluded : " So damn holy I could scream . " Although the album was another " massive " commercial success for Harrison , and the general perception remained that he was still the most capable of the four ex @-@ Beatles , Harrison was reportedly stung by this criticism of the overt Vaishnava Hindu spirituality in his music . His purchase of Bhaktivedanta Manor early that year as a UK headquarters for ISKCON – or , colloquially , " the Hare Krishna movement " – led to ridicule in the British press . Author Joshua Greene , a former ISKCON devotee , describes a visit Harrison made to the house in August 1973 when the singer shared his concerns with Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , the movement 's international leader : " I 'm provoking a bad reaction , " Harrison confided . " The stronger the commitment on my part , the stronger the animosity becomes . "
At the same time , Harrison 's marriage to Pattie Boyd was coming to an end , and he would later describe his behaviour during their final years together as " the naughty period , 1973 − 74 " . Biographer Ian Inglis has written of Harrison 's dismay at the more negative reviews for Material World : " It coincided with a period of intense disarray and frequent infidelities in his personal life , and the combination of these two sources of disappointment produced a mood of gloom and cynicism that would invariably work its way into his next musical projects . "
Harrison wrote " Dark Horse " in 1973 , apparently as a rebuttal to critics of Living in the Material World . Like a number of reviewers of the Dark Horse album , Inglis also interprets the composition as Harrison 's message of defiance to Boyd . Harrison 's comments on " Dark Horse " in his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , are as " obscure " as the song 's lyrics , writes theologian Dale Allison . While the term " dark horse " usually refers to an unlikely or surprise winner , Harrison states in I , Me , Mine that he was unaware of that meaning at the time ; his lyrics instead referred to someone who carried out clandestine sexual relationships − that is , a dark horse in Liverpudlian terms .
Harrison 's musical biographer , Simon Leng , views " Dark Horse " as its composer addressing his critics by creating a " new persona " . " This ' George ' is a man one step ahead of his detractors , " Leng writes , " triumphing with quicker feet and better gags . Commentators try to pin his character down at peril , for he is likely to change and take the least expected course . " In the song 's choruses , Harrison declares himself " a dark horse / Running on a dark race course " , " a blue moon " , and a " cool jerk " who is " Looking for the source " . Leng paraphrases this self @-@ depiction as meaning " a loner " and " an elusive , cheeky maverick " .
While describing the lyrics as " smarmy , if not somewhat defensive " , AllMusic 's Lindsay Planer identifies the song 's opening verse as " seem [ ing ] to address the situation " between Harrison and Boyd :
You thought that you knew where I was and when
Baby , looks like you 've been fooling you again
You thought that you had got me all staked out
Baby , looks like I 've been breaking out .
Planer suggests that the " searing " verse @-@ two lines " You thought you had got me in your grip / Baby , looks like you was not so smart " are a further example of this interpretation . Like Planer , Inglis recognises a third possible target of Harrison 's scorn – former bandmates John Lennon and Paul McCartney . Inglis observes that in the song 's final verse , Harrison is making it clear to those who have underestimated him in the past that his abilities are not " recent acquisitions " :
I thought that you knew it all along
Until you started getting me not right
Seems as if you heard a little late
I warned you when we both was at the starting gate .
Leng notes that this Harrison " character " would return in his 1976 composition " This Song " , written as a light @-@ hearted reflection on his " travails in court " during the " My Sweet Lord " plagiarism case .
= = Recording = =
= = = 1973 basic track = = =
Harrison first recorded " Dark Horse " at his Friar Park studio , FPSHOT , in Oxfordshire , in November 1973 . Along with tracks by future Dark Horse Records acts Ravi Shankar and Splinter , Harrison included the song on a tape he compiled for music @-@ business executive David Geffen before departing for India in late January 1974 . This early , unfinished version of " Dark Horse " featured Harrison on acoustic guitar and guide vocal , bassist Klaus Voormann and Ringo Starr on drums , and it is noticeably slower in tempo than the official release .
Harrison used the song title as the name for his new record label , launched in May 1974 ( with worldwide distribution through A & M Records ) , for which Shankar and Splinter were the first signings . Harrison then announced that he would be touring the United States – the first US tour by a member of the Beatles since 1966 – with Shankar as co @-@ headliner .
= = = Official version = = =
By October , when he arrived in Los Angeles to prepare for the tour , a combination of Harrison 's business commitments , his dedication to projects by his Dark Horse acts , and a lifestyle that Leng terms " one drink too many , too frequently " meant that production on Harrison 's Dark Horse album was severely behind schedule . For three weeks , by day Harrison rehearsed with his tour band , which included Tom Scott , Billy Preston , Jim Horn , Robben Ford , Willie Weeks and Andy Newmark , at the A & M studio complex on La Brea Avenue , Hollywood . In the evenings , he added vocals and other overdubs to tracks rush @-@ recorded at Friar Park . He had intended to finish " Dark Horse " in this way but decided instead to re @-@ record the track , since the musicians were having to learn the song for inclusion in the concert setlist .
Already exhausted through overwork before arriving in Los Angeles , Harrison lost his voice early on in the rehearsals and contracted laryngitis , the results of which were obvious on the finished songs , particularly " Dark Horse " . Harrison and his tour band recorded the album 's title track live on a sound stage at A & M in late October , with Norm Kinney engineering the session . Lon and Derrek Van Eaton , who , like Preston , were a former Apple Records act now signed with A & M Records , overdubbed backing vocals soon afterwards .
This official version of " Dark Horse " is notable for its arrangement , incorporating aspects of funk and jazz , as well as for Harrison 's lead vocal , which he described as sounding like the singer Louis Armstrong . Harrison later told reporters that he quite liked the result , but according to Andy Newmark , Harrison was concerned about how concert @-@ goers would react to his shot vocals . The recording features a trio of flute players , led by Scott ; Billy Preston on electric piano ; and Robben Ford doubling Harrison 's capo @-@ ed acoustic @-@ guitar part , much like Pete Ham had done three years before on " Here Comes the Sun " at the Concert for Bangladesh . The busy rhythm section of " funky stalwarts " Weeks and Newmark contributed to the track sounding more contemporary than Harrison 's recent solo work , which had used the previously preferred team of Voorman , Starr and / or Jim Keltner , although the latter does provide hi @-@ hats here , supporting Newmark 's beat . In addition , Emil Richards played a percussion instrument known as a crochet .
= = Release = =
Backed with " I Don 't Care Anymore " , " Dark Horse " was issued as the album 's lead single in America ( as Apple 1877 ) , on 18 November 1974 . The single was available in a white sleeve on which the song lyrics and a large dot appeared in blue print . Capitol Records , Apple 's US distributor , sent an edited mix , cutting a minute 's worth from the middle of the song , as a promotional disc for radio stations across America .
" Dark Horse " made a strong impact as a single , authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter write , reaching the US top 20 " with ease " . It then peaked at a relatively low number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 , however , on 11 January 1975 , before disappearing from the chart altogether two weeks later . In Canada , where the tour had begun on 2 November , " Dark Horse " reached number 26 on the RPM 100 . In Britain , the song was released as the second single off Dark Horse , in February 1975 ( as Apple R 6001 ) , with the show @-@ opening " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " on the B @-@ side . The single failed to place at all on the UK Singles Chart , then just a top 50 .
Due to the delay in completing the recording , Capitol was unable to issue the Dark Horse album until the second week of December , towards the end of the tour . In the original , LP format , " Dark Horse " appeared as the second track on side two , between " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , the album 's other single , and the soul @-@ inflected " Far East Man " . In his handwritten sleeve notes , Harrison lists A & M Records secretary and future wife Olivia Arias among the participating musicians , her contribution being " Blissed out " . The couple had first met at the start of Harrison 's hectic few weeks in Los Angeles , and Arias became his constant companion on the tour .
" Dark Horse " appeared on the 1976 Capitol compilation The Best of George Harrison but it was omitted from the posthumous , career @-@ spanning Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison in 2009 . Having last been remastered for Dark Horse 's debut release on CD , in January 1992 , the song was remastered for inclusion on Harrison 's Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissues , released in September 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
On release , Billboard magazine described " Dark Horse " as " a pleasing , acoustic flavored cut " with an " instantly catchy sound that should satisfy AM listeners and more ' critical ' fans " , adding that the use of flutes " spices [ up ] " the recording . The following month , the same magazine 's album review referred to Harrison " riding high " with the title track and noted " lots of FM potential " in the songs on Dark Horse .
With the US release coming two weeks into Harrison 's high @-@ profile tour with Shankar , much of the critical reaction there to " Dark Horse " centred on the perilous state of Harrison 's voice . " Dark Hoarse " was a widely used moniker , as several concert reviewers wrote disparagingly of Harrison " croaking " his way through Beatles classics such as " Something " and " In My Life " . Discussing this period of Harrison 's career in an article for Mojo , in November 2014 , Mat Snow writes that " George 's ' 70s honeymoon with the public was over " .
In a notably unfavourable review of the album , for Rolling Stone , Jim Miller quoted the chorus of the title track to illustrate his point that the singer 's " quest for illumination populates his lyrics with sermons and awkward mea culpas " . Miller added that " thanks to Harrison 's no @-@ voice and stilted lyrics , [ ' Dark Horse ' ] quite fails to evoke the self @-@ confident master of ' My Sweet Lord ' or even ' Living in the Material World . ' " Reviewing the album for the NME , Bob Woffinden took exception to Harrison 's lyrics , ridiculing " Dark Horse " as " a putdown of Patti [ Boyd ] , an affirmation of Harrison 's male chauvinism – he was on top of the game all through " .
Among more favourable reviews , Michael Gross of Circus Raves defended the Harrison – Shankar tour as having been " plagued by untrue press reports [ while ] creating a new , unbounded music that defied labelling as easily as the men involved defied national boundaries " . Gross wrote that " Dark Horse " " brings back memories of The White Album , as Chuck Findlay , Jim Horn and Scott dart through the intricate melody on flutes " . In Melody Maker , Brian Harrigan found Harrison 's gruff vocal a bonus , writing that he " coaxes a tremendous amount from his normally unimpressive voice " and sings " particularly well " on the title track . Harrigan highlighted " Dark Horse " as " easily the strongest number on the album " , with support musicians Newmark and Preston " playing up a storm " .
In their 1975 book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , NME critics Roy Carr and Tony Tyler similarly approved of Harrison 's husky singing on " Dark Horse " , praising it as " definitely a style to pursue " . Like Carr and Tyler , Nicholas Schaffner rated " Dark Horse " among Harrison 's finest compositions . Writing in The Beatles Forever , Schaffner opined that " Dark Horse " could have been one of Harrison 's most successful singles had he " only waited to recoup his voice before committing it to tape " . Seven years after his unfavourable review in the NME , Woffinden acknowledged that the song would have sounded " really good " had it been " graced with good vocals " and released in a " different context " .
= = = Retrospective assessment and legacy = = =
Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Greg Kot took issue with Harrison 's strained vocal and viewed the song as " continu [ ing ] in the condescending autobiographical vein " of Material World tracks such as " The Light That Has Lighted the World " . Conversely , author Alan Clayson has written of the song 's " sandpapery appeal " , with the lead vocal " a not unattractive cross between McCartney and Rod Stewart " .
Simon Leng considers " Dark Horse " to be a " jaunty and pleasing hit " and one of Harrison 's best compositions , but rues the fact that Harrison did not marry up his vocal from an earlier , bluesy demo with the backing he subsequently recorded in LA . Leng reasons that a bigger chart hit would surely have been the result , if the song 's vocal track had not sounded " like the torments of a man swallowing razor blades " . Dale Allison also subscribes to this view , while Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley writes that " Dark Horse " might have made an " excellent stand @-@ alone single " , backed by " So Sad " . This coupling would have provided Harrison with the necessary product to promote on tour , Huntley observes , without " derailing [ his career ] at full speed " , which the rushed and vocally compromised Dark Horse album effectively did .
Reviewing Harrison 's 2014 Apple Years reissues for the Chicago Tribune , Mark Caro describes the song as " one of [ Harrison 's ] most sublime creations despite his dark @-@ hoarse vocals " . Shawn Perry of vintagerock.com writes that " the title track [ of Dark Horse ] with Harrison 's scratchy vocal assumes a special personality all its own " , while Paul Trynka , in a review for Classic Rock magazine , describes it as " a fine song … marred by George 's voice , tired , worn and sapped of its usual sweetness " . Andrew Grant Jackson features " Dark Horse " in his book Still the Greatest : The Essential Solo Beatles Songs , and considers that " the huskiness of his voice threatens to distract " , but " the strength of the composition , the uplifting chorus , the ' Stairway to Heaven ' -esque flute by Tom Scott , and the subtly funk keys by Preston nudge it into Harrison 's top tier , though just by a nose . "
= = Other versions = =
As well as performing the song throughout both the 1974 tour and his 1991 Japanese tour with Eric Clapton , his only other tour as a solo artist , Harrison recorded " Dark Horse " a number of times before and after the officially released studio version . The " laidback " original take , from the November 1973 sessions at FPSHOT , is available unofficially on the Harri @-@ Spector Show bootleg compilation , along with the other selections sent to David Geffen and outtakes from Harrison and Phil Spector 's February 1971 sessions for Ronnie Spector .
= = = 1974 Apple Years demo = = =
The Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set and Dark Horse reissue includes a previously unreleased version of " Dark Horse " . Recorded as a solo demo , this reading features Harrison on vocals and acoustic guitar , with added backing vocals . Brennan Carley of Spin magazine writes of the " newly unearthed version " being " a bit twangier and more acoustic than Harrison 's final product " and describes his singing as " clearer , less gruff , and more natural " compared to the 1974 release . While viewing " Dark Horse " as " a great personal theme song of sorts " for Harrison , Blogcritics ' Chaz Lipp considers his lead vocal on this " excellent demo " to be an improvement . Trynka similarly writes that this version " puts things right " , with Harrison 's vocal " impassioned , but subtle " .
= = = October – December 1974 radio and television performances = = =
In October 1974 , shortly before leaving for Los Angeles , Harrison performed " Dark Horse " on acoustic guitar during a radio interview with BBC disc jockey Alan Freeman . The location has been identified as either Apple 's offices on St James 's Street , London , or in front of a fire at Friar Park . During the candid interview , Harrison enthused about Eric Clapton and Ravi Shankar , jokingly referred to John Lennon as " a saint " and " such a bastard " , and claimed that Paul McCartney had " ruined " him as a guitar player . This version of " Dark Horse " is available unofficially on bootlegs such as Pirate Songs .
On 30 October , days before the band left for the first show in Vancouver , Harrison and his musicians recorded an abridged live performance of the song for promotional purposes at the A & M sound stage where they were rehearsing . Later in the tour , Harrison found a way to alter his vocal pitch to better cope with the effects of laryngitis , but Simon Leng writes of this performance : " It gives a candid glimpse of the pain [ that ] Harrison 's need to sing was inflicting on him . " At the end of the 1974 tour , Harrison and the tour band filmed another performance of " Dark Horse " , intended for inclusion in the debut series of Saturday Night Live . The filming took place at NBC TV Studios in New York on 19 December , but the network decided to delay the show for a year and the Harrison segment was never aired .
= = = November 1976 , Saturday Night Live = = =
In November 1976 , while promoting his first album on Dark Horse Records , Thirty Three & 1 / 3 , Harrison finally appeared on Saturday Night Live , performing a number of songs with Paul Simon , as well as a solo version of " Dark Horse " . Although the song does not appear on lists of the tracks taped on 19 November at NBC , Alan Clayson writes of Harrison singing " Dark Horse " , " hunched over a hollow @-@ body Gretsch " , in a blue @-@ lit studio . Harrison and Simon 's duet on " Homeward Bound " later appeared on the Olivia Harrison @-@ inspired charity album Nobody 's Child : Romanian Angel Appeal in 1990 , but nothing else from this 1976 performance has been officially released .
= = = 1991 Japanese tour = = =
In what Leng terms a " safe " setlist for his 1991 Japanese tour with Clapton , Harrison 's inclusion of " Dark Horse " provided a rare example of a song from his post @-@ All Things Must Pass work from the 1970s , along with the Living in the Material World hit " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " . " Dark Horse " appeared on the Live in Japan album , released in July 1992 . Elliot Huntley has written that it was " a joy " to hear this live version , since : " Unencumbered by problems with his throat , the catchiness of ' Dark Horse ' positively shines through . " The performance on Live in Japan was recorded at Osaka 's Castle Hall on 11 December 1991 .
= = Personnel = =
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitar
Billy Preston – electric piano
Robben Ford – acoustic guitar
Willie Weeks – bass
Andy Newmark – drums
Jim Keltner – drums
Tom Scott – flute
Jim Horn – flute
Chuck Findley – flute
Emil Richards – percussion
Derrek Van Eaton – backing vocals
Lon Van Eaton – backing vocals
= = Chart positions = =
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= Tjioeng Wanara =
Tjioeng Wanara ( [ tʃiˈuŋ waˈnara ] ; Perfected Spelling : Ciung Wanara ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies ( modern @-@ day Indonesia ) directed and produced by Jo Eng Sek . Starring R Sukran , Elly Joenara , and AB Djoenaedi , it featured more than 500 people in supporting roles . The film follows a young prince named Tjioeng Wanara who must reclaim his throne from the cruel King of Galuh ; it is adapted from the Sundanese legend of the same name .
The second production by Star Film , Tjioeng Wanara was released on 18 August 1941 . It was advertised heavily , emphasising the fact that the scholar Poerbatjaraka had served as the historical adviser and that the film was based on Balai Pustaka 's version of the legend . It premiered to commercial success , but received mixed reviews . This black @-@ and @-@ white production , which was screened until at least 1948 , is now thought lost .
= = Plot = =
In 1255 Saka , Permana Dikoesoemah is the King of Galuh , beloved by his people and his wife Naganingroem . The minister Aria Kebonan wants power for himself , and persuades the king to surrender the crown to him . Permana Dikoesoemah warns Aria Kebonan to respect him always and not to bother his wife . He then abdicates to meditate , ultimately ascending to a higher plane of existence . Aria Kebonan , meanwhile , magically gains the king 's appearance , ensuring that the people of Galuh are unaware that they have a new king .
Aria Kebonan proves to be an unpopular ruler . One day , he hears that both Naganingroem and the king 's former concubine , Dewi Pangrenjep , are pregnant . With Dewi Pangrenjep , Aria Kebonan plans to eliminate Naganingroem 's son . During childbirth the son is replaced with a dog , while Dewi Pangrenjep takes the newborn and throws him into a river . He is later found and rescued by farmers , who name him Tjioeng Wanara . Dewi Pangrenjep , meanwhile , gives birth to a son , Aria Banga .
Years pass , and Tjioeng Wanara grows to be a strong young man . Aria Banga , meanwhile , has taken over the throne and rules with an iron fist , hated and feared by his people . Tjioeng Wanara returns to Galuh and overthrows the king , arresting Aria Kebonan and Dewi Pangrenjep ; Aria Banga , however , is able to escape and establish the kingdom of Majapahit . Tjioeng Wanara rules kindly over his people and later moves his capital to Pajajaran .
= = Production = =
Tjioeng Wanara was directed and produced by Jo Eng Sek for Star Film . It was the second production by both Jo and the company , following Pah Wongso Pendekar Boediman in 1941 . Poerbatjaraka , a scholar of traditional literature , served as the historical adviser to the production . Cinematography for the black @-@ and @-@ white film was handled by Chok Chin Hsien . By June 1941 production was almost complete .
The film starred R Sukran , Elly Joenara , AB Djoenaedi , Muhamad Arief , and S Waldy . Waldy had made his film debut in 1940 's Zoebaida for Oriental Film Company , later joining Star for Pah Wongso ; Joenara and Arief had begun their cinema careers in the latter film . Tjioeng Wanara featured the first on @-@ screen performances by Djoenaedi and Sukran . The stars were supported by over 500 extras and actors in bit parts . As such , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia records the production as the first " colossal " film in the Indies , in terms of scale .
Tjioeng Wanara was based on a Sundanese legend of the same name , retold by M. A. Salmoen in a 1938 Balai Pustaka @-@ published edition which was then adapted by Rd Ariffien ; as such , a review in the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad found that the film contained little of the original tale except for the characters ' names . The film featured traditional arts such as the Serimpi dance .
= = Release and reception = =
Though initially slated for a July 1941 release , Tjioeng Wanara ultimately premiered at the Orion Theatre in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) on 18 August 1941 . It was publicised extensively , often emphasising the role of Poerbatjaraka and using the name of Balai Pustaka , the official publishing house of the Dutch East Indies government known for its printed versions of traditional tales , in advertisements . The film was rated for all ages .
The premiere of Tjioeng Wanara was shown to a packed theatre . Reception of the film , however , was mixed . An anonymous review in the Soerabaijasch Handelsblad was positive , considering the film to be successful in its adaptation of the legend , while another , in the same newspaper , recommended it . Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran , however , writes that some viewers considered the film " nothing more than a stage play brought to the silver screen " .
= = Legacy = =
Star made four further films before it was closed in 1942 , when the Japanese occupied the Indies ; Jo Eng Sek did not direct again . After writing Tjioeng Wanara , Ariffien left Star Film to work at a circus ; Biran writes that he was disappointed over the work 's poor reception . Joenara , Arief , and Waldy remained in the film industry ; Joenara went on to be a producer , while Arief and Waldy later took up directing . Neither Djoenaedi nor Sukran are recorded as making another film .
Tjioeng Wanara was screened as late as June 1948 , though it is now likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , Kristanto records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Babel One =
" Babel One " is the twelfth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on January 28 , 2005 . The episode was written by Mike Sussman and André Bormanis , and directed by David Straiton . " Babel One " was the first of a three @-@ part story which continued in the episodes " United " and " The Aenar " . The arc was intended to precede the Romulan War which had been mentioned in previously aired episodes of the franchise , while " Babel One " was a reference to the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Journey to Babel " .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , Enterprise is escorting a Tellarite Ambassador , when they respond to distress calls from Andorian vessel under attack . Pursuing the mysterious attacking vessel , they begin to uncover a plot to derail cooperative relations between the Tellarites , Andorians and Humans .
The guest cast included several actors who had previously appeared in the franchise , including Lee Arenberg , Brian Thompson and Jeffrey Combs . It also featured Molly Brink for the second time as Lieutenant Talas . The episode required extensive make @-@ up for the guest cast , with Brink undergoing more than four and a half hours of work prior to filming for her first day on set as she had to be painted blue head to toe in addition to the normal prosthetics . Reviewers were positive of the episode , calling it an improvement on the previous week 's " Observer Effect " , and praised the ending . Although Nielsen ratings of 1 @.@ 7 / 3 percent showed an improvement over the previous episode , the number of actual viewers was the lowest yet for the series with 2 @.@ 53 million watching the episode on the first broadcast .
= = Plot = =
It is November 2154 , and Captain Archer and Ensign Sato spend time preparing for the arrival of Ambassador Gral and the Tellarite delegation , by practicing being blunt , complaining , and arguing . En route to the trade summit on " Babel One " , they detect a distress call from the Andorian warship , Kumari , now under attack . Enterprise alters its course to assist , and arrives to find Captain Shran , Lieutenant Talas , and 17 other survivors in escape @-@ pods . Archer goes to meet him in Sickbay , and an angry Shran claims that both the Andorian Ambassador 's and his ship were attacked and destroyed by a powerful Tellarite vessel .
Scans of the debris indicate Tellarite weapon signatures , and recovered sensor data shows a Tellarite vessel firing . With both delegations on board , and accusations of duplicity rising between the groups , Archer considers taking the Andorians to their homeworld . At full warp , Enterprise is suddenly attacked by an Andorian ship . When attempts at communicating fail , Archer demands that Shran intervenes — he complies by explaining how to knock out its shields — but the attempt is ineffective . Enterprise is spared only when the attacking ship has to retreat because of a fluctuating power grid . T 'pol then notices that the " Andorian " and " Tellarite " ships have the same energy signature .
Shran is unconvinced , and using Talas as a distraction , manages to escape and capture Gral , before order is restored . The alien vessel is then tracked , and it appears to be capable of holographically disguising itself . Commander Tucker , Lieutenant Malcolm Reed and several MACOs beam aboard the ship , only to find it deserted and without life support . Tucker and Reed become stranded when the vessel warps away , and make their way to an empty bridge . On Romulus , it is revealed that the ship is actually being controlled remotely by a group of Romulans ( led by Admiral Valdore , a scientist called Nijil , and a virtual pilot ) in an attempt to prevent a regional détente .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Mike Sussman and André Bormanis . The duo had previously collaborated on several episodes , the most recent of which season three 's " Hatchery " . Meanwhile , they had written episodes individually , with Sussman writing three episodes so far during season four and Bormanis penning " Awakening " . " Babel One " was directed by David Straiton , his third in season four after the second part of " Storm Front " as well as the stand @-@ alone episode " Daedalus " .
Filming began on November 2 , 2004 and lasted until November 10 . The first scene filmed was on the Andorian bridge , which had been used in previous episodes but was made to look battle damaged for this episode . Other sets used included the standing sets to represent the Enterprise , as well as new sets showing the interior of the Romulan vessel . The title of the episode was an intentional reference to the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Journey to Babel " . The three part story was intended to represent a precursor to the Romulan Wars which had been referenced in " Balance of Terror " and " The Defector " .
= = = Casting and make @-@ up = = =
The guest cast included a number of Star Trek alumni . Jeffrey Combs returned to his recurring role of Shran , for his second appearance during season four . Joining him as a returning Andorian , was Molly Brink who had previously appeared as Talas in the episode " Proving Ground " . Brian Thompson played the Romulan Valdore , having previously appeared in Star Trek : The Next Generation and Star Trek : Deep Space Nine as well as the film Star Trek Generations . He is better known for portraying the Alien Bounty Hunter in The X @-@ Files and Luke , a vampire who becomes The Master 's " vessel " in Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Another Deep Space Nine actor who portrayed a new character in this episode was Lee Arenberg . He had previously appeared in a variety of roles across the franchise , three times as a Ferengi in The Next Generation and Deep Space Nine ( including one , coincidentally also named Gral , no relation to the Tellarite Gral he plays here ) . He also appeared as a Malon , Pelk , in the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Juggernaut " .
The guest cast required a variety of levels of make @-@ up to portray their alien characters . Combs ' make @-@ up took around three and a half hours each day , as did the Tellarite prosthetics . The Andorian female cast members took around four and a half hour each day to get into make @-@ up and costume , but on the first day Brink required further make @-@ up time as that day 's shoot required her to appear in @-@ character in her underwear . This meant that after the normal make @-@ up schedule , she was sprayed blue from head to toe . At the end of that day 's filming , the shower facilities at the studio 's executive gym was used to remove the paint . Meanwhile , the Romulan make @-@ up took three hours to apply , with all the relevant scenes completed in a single day .
= = Reception and home media = =
" Babel One " was first aired in the United States on UPN on January 28 , 2005 . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 7 / 3 percent . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 7 percent of all households , and 3 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was an increase in ratings compared to the previous week 's episode , but saw a lower overall number of viewers . " Babel One " was watched by 2 @.@ 53 million viewers , the lowest overall number of viewers to date for a first run episode of Enterprise .
Michelle Erica Green in her review for TrekNation enjoyed the interaction between Shran and Graal , and thought it was an improvement over the previous week 's " Observer Effect " . She also compared it to The Original Series episode " Journey to Babel " , which she watched immediately prior to the Enterprise episode . She said that " On the surface " Babel One " has a very similar plot , yet it plays out like an original take on the situation rather than a retread . " Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website Jammer 's Reviews thought that the majority of the episode was " passable " but ultimately ended on a " good note " due to the twist in the ending . However , he criticised the promotional campaign by UPN , as he felt that the trailer for the episode had the " unfortunate effect of making the first 30 minutes of the plot extremely obvious to us , forcing us to watch in frustration while the characters put the pieces together " . He gave the episode a rating of three out of four .
The first home media release of the episode was on DVD ; having been released as part of the season four box set on November 1 , 2005 in the United States . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
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= 2008 – 09 Calgary Flames season =
The 2008 – 09 Calgary Flames season was the 29th season for the Calgary Flames , and the 37th for the Flames franchise in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Flames finished second in the Northwest Division , and qualified for the 2009 Stanley Cup Playoffs as the fifth seed in the Western Conference , their fifth consecutive appearance in the post season . Their season ended when they were defeated by the Chicago Blackhawks in the Western Conference quarter @-@ finals .
The year began with the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , which saw the Flames select forward Greg Nemisz with their first round selection . The Flames made several trades during the draft , acquiring forward Mike Cammalleri from the Los Angeles Kings as part of a three way trade that saw Calgary deal the 17th overall pick to the Anaheim Ducks . They then sent Alex Tanguay to the Montreal Canadiens in exchange for the 25th overall pick , with each team adding lower round picks to the deal . The Flames signed forward Todd Bertuzzi during the off @-@ season , a move that generated controversy amongst a fan base with which he had been previously unpopular . Calgary was also active at the trade deadline , making three deals , including a significant trade to add Olli Jokinen from the Phoenix Coyotes .
Jarome Iginla surpassed Theoren Fleury 's franchise record of 830 points during the season , scoring his 831st point on the same night he recorded his 400th goal against the Tampa Bay Lightning as part of his second career five point game . Iginla also scored his 400th career assist during the season , and scored his first all @-@ star goal in his fifth appearance at the 2009 All @-@ Star Game in Montreal . Eight players made their NHL debuts with the Flames in 2008 – 09 .
= = Regular season = =
The Flames began the season with five games against divisional opposition . Despite holding leads in four of those games , Calgary won only one game , lost three in regulation , and a fourth in overtime . Goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff became the focus of the team 's early struggles , as his play was argued to be a major cause of the Flames ' inability to hold a lead . Calgary rebounded with a six @-@ game winning streak , during which Kiprusoff allowed only nine goals on 152 shots . The team again struggled to win games at the start of November , losing five games in seven , including a pair of 6 – 1 losses to the Chicago Blackhawks and San Jose Sharks that led head coach Mike Keenan to cancel a planned mini @-@ vacation for the players . The cancellation appeared to be a turning point in the season , as the Flames recorded a mark of 15 – 4 – 3 following the loss , including a dominating 5 – 2 victory over the Sharks at home . The Flames again beat the Sharks , 3 – 2 in San Jose , on January 15 , to end the Sharks streak of 31 games without a home loss in regulation .
Rookie Brett Sutter became the 8th member of the Sutter family to play in the NHL on December 23 when he made his debut against the Anaheim Ducks . The son of general manager Darryl Sutter , Brett scored a goal in his first game to help the Flames enter the Christmas break with a one @-@ point lead on the Vancouver Canucks in the Northwest Division . Calgary expanded on that lead to five points after both Jarome Iginla and Mike Cammalleri posted career @-@ high five point nights in a 6 – 4 win over the Edmonton Oilers on New Year 's Eve .
The Flames lost one of their original owners early in the new year as Daryl " Doc " Seaman died January 11 , 2009 . Seaman had been one of the original group of six owners who brought the team to Calgary in 1980 and remained with the ownership group until his death .
Iginla reached numerous personal milestones throughout the season . He recorded his 400th career assist in an early season game against Colorado . He represented the Flames at the 2009 All @-@ Star Game , his fifth appearance , and recorded his first All @-@ Star goal . On March 1 , Iginla surpassed Theoren Fleury 's franchise record of 830 career points as part of another five point night against Tampa Bay , a game where he also scored his 400th career goal .
Injuries became a serious concern for the Flames entering March , as Mark Giordano ( shoulder surgery ) , Rene Bourque ( high ankle sprain ) , Todd Bertuzzi ( knee surgery ) , Brandon Prust ( concussion ) and Daymond Langkow ( hand ) were all on injured reserve to start the month . Looking to improve the team , Sutter completed two significant deals at the March 4 trade deadline , acquiring defenceman Jordan Leopold from the Colorado Avalanche and centre Olli Jokinen from the Phoenix Coyotes . The deals paid immediate dividends , as Jokinen scored twice and Leopold once in a 5 – 1 victory the next night against the Philadelphia Flyers allowing the Northwest Division leading Flames to move ten points ahead of the second place Canucks .
The Tim Hortons Brier took over the Saddledome in early March , forcing the Flames on a season long , seven @-@ game road trip , during which the team struggled to a 3 – 4 record that saw them suffer lopsided losses to the Carolina Hurricanes , Atlanta Thrashers and Toronto Maple Leafs ; the Flames surrendered 27 goals in the final five games of the trip . Consequently , the Flames saw their lead for the division shrink to five points barely a week after the victory in Philadelphia . Calgary 's lead fell to one point following consecutive shutout losses to the Pittsburgh Penguins and Columbus Blue Jackets in late March . The Flames and Canucks ended the season in a battle for top spot , as both teams repeatedly took over the division lead heading into the final week of play .
Injuries continued to batter the Flames towards the end of the regular season , as defencemen Robyn Regehr ( MCL ) and Cory Sarich ( broken foot ) were both lost in early April . The injuries led the Flames to call up rookies Matt Pelech and John Negrin , the latter of whom had just finished his junior season and had never played a professional game , to make their NHL debuts against the Minnesota Wild . The Flames were forced to play their final games of the regular season with as few as 15 skaters , below the normal 18 , as the team lacked available salary cap space to call up replacements without sending other players down to their minor league affiliate in Quad City .
Calgary 's late season collapse ended with Vancouver winning the Northwest Division in the final weekend of the regular season following consecutive victories by the Canucks over the Flames , Los Angeles Kings and Colorado Avalanche while the Flames lost against Vancouver and Edmonton . As a result , the Flames finished the regular season second in the Northwest Division , and fifth in the Western Conference .
The Flames finished the regular season having allowed the most shorthanded goals in the League , with 15 .
= = = Divisional standings = = =
= = = Conference standings = = =
bold - qualified for playoffs , y – division winner , p – Presidents ' Trophy winnerCE - Central Division , NW - Northwest Division , PA - Pacific Division
= = Schedule and results = =
= = Playoffs = =
The Flames qualified for the 2009 Stanley Cup Playoffs as the fifth seed in the Western Conference , and faced the fourth seeded Chicago Blackhawks in the first round . The two teams met four times in the regular season , all of which resulted in Chicago victories . It was the fourth time the two teams met in the playoffs . Calgary defeated Chicago in 1981 and 1989 , while Chicago prevailed in 1996 .
The Western Conference quarter @-@ final series opened in Chicago ; the first Blackhawk playoff games in seven years . The Flames dropped the first two games , each by identical 3 – 2 scores . In both games , they played strong to start the games , earning 1 – 0 and 2 – 0 leads respectively before conceding the advantage . The Flames lost the first game after just 12 seconds of overtime . An angry Flames team returned to Calgary for games three and four , promising to improve their play . They won game three , 4 – 2 , on the strength of Kiprusoff 's 36 @-@ save performance in goal . The first three games of the series were physically intense and occasionally violent , prompting the league to warn both teams to tone down both the verbal attacks they were exchanging as well as to remain within the rules when engaging in scrums after the play ended . TSN commentator Pierre McGuire , stationed between each team 's benches , insisted that Iginla in particular had taken more verbal abuse than he had ever seen . A " fired up " Iginla responded with two goals and an assist in game four as the Flames tied the series with a 6 – 4 victory .
Iginla and the Flames were unable to maintain their momentum when the series returned to Chicago for game five . Iginla recorded only one shot , while Miikka Kiprusoff was pulled early in the second period as the Blackhawks easily won the game 5 – 1 . Forward Andre Roy missed the fifth game after being suspended and fined $ 2 @,@ 500 after he initiated contact with Chicago 's Aaron Johnson during the warm @-@ up prior to game four . The Flames ' season came to an end in the sixth game as Nikolai Khabibulin 's 43 @-@ save performance led the Hawks to a 4 – 1 win over the Flames . It was the first time Chicago had won a playoff series since they last defeated the Flames in 1996 .
The Flames revealed the true extent of their injury situation following the loss , noting that Dion Phaneuf , who missed game six , was playing with broken ribs , while Cory Sarich was playing on a fractured ankle . With Rhett Warrener , Mark Giordano and Robyn Regehr all sidelined for the entire series , the Flames had five defencemen either out or playing hurt the entire series . In addition , Craig Conroy , Rene Bourque and Daymond Langkow were all playing despite various ailments . In spite of the Flames ' injury situation , the team 's fourth consecutive first round defeat led to new demands that head coach Mike Keenan be replaced as the team 's head coach . Keenan was fired on May 22 .
= = Player statistics = =
= = = Skaters = = =
Note : Pos |
= Position ; GP =
Games played in ; G |
= Goals ; A =
Assists ; Pts |
= Points ; PIM =
Penalty minutes ; + / - |
= Plus / minus ; PPG =
Power @-@ play goals ; SHG |
= Short @-@ handed goals ; GWG =
Game @-@ winning goals
= = = Goaltenders = = =
Note : Min , TOI |
= Minutes played ; W =
Wins ; L |
= Losses ; T , T / OT =
Ties ; OTL |
= Overtime losses ; GA =
Goals @-@ against ; GAA |
= Goals @-@ against average ; SO =
Shutouts ; SA |
= Shots against ; SV =
Shots saved ; SV % = Save percentage ;
† Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Flames . Stats reflect time with the Flames only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season
Bold / italics denotes franchise record
= = Awards and records = =
Several players made their NHL debuts with the Flames in 2008 – 09 . Adam Pardy began the season with the Flames , while Warren Peters , Brett Sutter , David Van der Gulik , Kris Chucko , John Negrin and Matt Pelech were each recalled from the Quad City Flames during the season . The latter two made their debuts on the same night , April 3 , after the Flames lost three defencemen in previous games . 2007 first round pick Mikael Backlund played one game with the Flames after leaving his Swedish team before being sent to the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League .
= = = Records and milestones = = =
= = Transactions = =
The Flames made two trades at the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , sending forward Alex Tanguay to Montreal and acquiring Mike Cammalleri from Los Angeles in two separate deals . Calgary sent the 17th overall selection in the draft to the Kings , and received the 25th overall pick from the Canadiens as part of the trades .
Todd Bertuzzi was signed by the Flames as a free agent on July 8 , 2009 . The controversial forward best known for his attack on Steve Moore in 2003 – 04 , had previously been extremely unpopular with Flames fans . Bertuzzi , who had previously been booed by Calgary fans every time he touched the puck was greeted with loud cheers when he was introduced before the Flames ' first exhibition game of the season .
The trade deadline on March 4 saw the Flames emerge as one of the most active teams on the day , completing three trades . Calgary acquired defenceman Jordan Leopold from Colorado for Lawrence Nycholat , who was picked up on waivers from Vancouver one day prior and never played with Calgary , minor leaguer Ryan Wilson and a draft pick . General Manager Darryl Sutter then completed what was considered the biggest deal of the day , acquiring Olli Jokinen and a third round pick from the Coyotes in exchange for Matthew Lombardi , Brandon Prust and a first round pick . The Flames then ended the day with a minor move , sending minor @-@ league goaltender Kevin Lalande to Columbus for a fourth round pick .
= = = Trades = = =
= = = Additions and subtractions = = =
= = Draft picks = =
The Flames entered the 2008 NHL Entry Draft in Ottawa with the 17th overall selection . They dealt that pick to Los Angeles , and acquired the 25th overall selection from Montreal . With that pick , the Flames selected centre Greg Nemisz from the Ontario Hockey League 's Windsor Spitfires . Listed at six @-@ foot @-@ three and 197 pounds , Nemisz is described as being a potential power forward who is not afraid of working hard . Calgary drafted six other players , led by second @-@ round selection Mitch Wahl , whom the Flames project to be a potential top @-@ six forward .
Statistics are updated to the end of the 2014 – 15 NHL season . † denotes player was on an NHL roster in 2014 – 15 .
= = Farm teams = =
= = = Quad City Flames = = =
The Quad City Flames entered their second season in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) in 2008 – 09 . The team was dogged throughout the season by rumours that the franchise would relocate to Abbotsford , British Columbia in 2009 – 10 . The owners in Quad Cities acknowledged that the Flames had been considering a change , but expected the franchise would remain in Moline , Illinois . Despite these assurances , Calgary confirmed on March 11 that they had reached an agreement with the owners in Quad Cities to end their affiliation agreement after only two seasons , and announced their intent to move into Abbotsford . The proposed relocation was approved by the AHL board of governors on April 29 , 2009 .
On the ice , Quad City finished with a 36 – 31 – 6 – 7 record , fifth in the West Division , and one point shy of making the playoffs . Quad City played its final game on April 11 , 2009 with a 5 – 3 win over the Iowa Chops . Kyle Greentree led the team in scoring , with a franchise high 76 points .
= = = Las Vegas Wranglers = = =
The Las Vegas Wranglers remained Calgary 's ECHL affiliate for the sixth season , where they finished 2nd in the Pacific division with a 34 – 31 – 2 – 6 record . In the Kelly Cup playoffs , the Wranlgers defeated the Bakersfield Condors and Stockton Thunder in seven games each to reach the National Conference finals . The season came to an end against the Alaska Aces , who eliminated Las Vegas in four games .
As part of their affiliation agreement with Las Vegas , the Flames assigned four players to the Wranglers to begin the season : Gord Baldwin , Hugo Carpentier , Kevin Lalande and Dan Spang . Lalande led the team amongst goaltenders with 21 games played , recording a record of 9 – 8 – 0 – 3 , while Glen Fisher led the team with 11 wins . Dan Riedel , acquired from the Dayton Bombers during the season led the team with 23 goals and 57 points .
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= New York State Route 319 =
New York State Route 319 ( NY 319 ) was a state highway in Chenango County , New York , in the United States . It was 5 @.@ 47 miles ( 8 @.@ 80 km ) long and connected the hamlet of Preston to the nearby city of Norwich . The route began in the hamlet at an intersection with three county @-@ maintained highways and proceeded eastward through the town of Preston to downtown Norwich , where it terminated at an intersection with NY 12 .
What became NY 319 was originally built during the early 19th century as the Norwich and Preston Turnpike , one of many privately maintained turnpikes in the state of New York . The state of New York assumed ownership of the turnpike 's routing in the early 20th century , and the Preston – Norwich state highway was designated as NY 319 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . Maintenance of NY 319 was split between the state and the city of Norwich , with the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) handling the part of the route west of the city limits .
In 1962 , the New York State Legislature approved a highway maintenance swap that would transfer the state @-@ maintained section of NY 319 to Chenango County when a new alignment was constructed for NY 23 through the northwestern part of the county . The project was completed in July 1984 , at which time the NY 319 designation was completely removed and Chenango County assumed maintenance of the route 's former alignment west of Norwich . The new county road was redesignated County Route 10A ( CR 10A ) .
= = Route description = =
NY 319 began at an intersection with three county routes ( CR 4 , CR 10 , and CR 19 ) in the hamlet of Preston , a small community in the northern portion of the town of the same name . The highway proceeded eastward , climbing the side of a hill approximately 1 @,@ 560 feet ( 480 m ) above sea level at its peak . NY 319 briefly descended to cross a creek then continued climbing , reaching an elevation of 1 @,@ 760 feet ( 540 m ) near Packer – Mason Cemetery . The route slowly descended in elevation from the cemetery , crossing Gilmore Brook on its way into the town of Norwich , where it intersected CR 19 for a second time just east of the town line . Past CR 19 , the highway turned southeastward to descend the side of a ridge overlooking the city of Norwich .
At the bottom of the descent , the route turned eastward and crossed over Canasawacta Creek , a tributary of the Chenango River , as it entered the city of Norwich and became known as West Main Street . In Norwich , NY 319 served Emmanuel Episcopal Church and passed through the Chenango County Courthouse District , established in 1975 in the city 's downtown area . In the center of the historic district , NY 319 reached its eastern terminus at its intersection with NY 12 ( Broad Street ) . West Main Street becomes East Main Street at this junction , and the latter continues eastward as NY 990L , one of New York 's reference routes .
= = History = =
= = = Norwich and Preston Turnpike = = =
The town of Norwich was created on January 19 , 1793 , comprising a much larger area than it does today . On April 2 , 1806 , part of the town was split off to form a new town named Preston . A charter on April 8 , 1808 , established the Norwich and Preston Turnpike , a turnpike connecting the town of Preston in the west to the town of Norwich in the east . The Norwich and Preston Turnpike was privately owned and maintained , as most turnpikes in New York were at the time .
The routing of the Norwich and Preston Turnpike was taken over by the state of New York in the early 20th century . On December 14 , 1907 , a contract was let to improve a 4 @.@ 86 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 82 km ) long portion of the former turnpike . Construction cost $ 57 @,@ 714 ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 52 million in 2016 ) and was completed by late 1908 . The improved highway was added to the state highway system on November 16 , 1908 , as State Highway 598 ( SH 598 ) . A second contract to improve an additional 0 @.@ 22 miles ( 0 @.@ 35 km ) of the turnpike was let on April 9 , 1910 . Work on this segment cost approximately $ 6 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 152 @,@ 379 in 2016 ) and was completed by mid @-@ 1911 . This section of the turnpike was added to the state highway system on July 22 , 1911 as SH 598A . The first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 ; however , none of the former Norwich and Preston Turnpike was assigned a designation at that time .
= = = Designation and removal = = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , several of the routes assigned during the 1920s were renumbered or modified . At the same time , hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways which did not yet have a route number , such as the Preston – Norwich state highway , were assigned one . The road was designated as NY 319 and maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation west of the Norwich city limits and by the city of Norwich within the city . The alignment of NY 319 remained unchanged for the next half @-@ century .
Ownership and maintenance of NY 319 west of the Norwich city limits was slated to be transferred from the state of New York to Chenango County as part of a highway maintenance swap approved by the New York State Legislature and signed into law on February 13 , 1962 . However , the swap in maintenance was contingent on the construction and completion of a new alignment for NY 23 in northwestern Chenango County . The new road would extend from the Chenango – Cortland county border in the town of Pitcher to Scotts Corners in the town of Pharsalia , a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of the hamlet of North Pharsalia . At the time , NY 23 began at NY 26 in northwest Pharsalia and followed an easterly and southerly routing to Scotts Corners , where it turned eastward onto its modern alignment . The portion of the exchange describing the roads that would be transferred to Chenango County is written in New York State Highway Law as follows , with annotations in parentheses :
to enter an official order of abandonment to the county of Chenango of that portion of state highway eight hundred seven ( NY 23 ) easterly and southeasterly from state highways eight thousand one hundred sixty @-@ one and six hundred sixty @-@ three ( NY 26 ) to its intersection with the [ new alignment of NY 23 ] , all of state highways five hundred ninety @-@ eight @-@ a and five hundred ninety @-@ eight ( NY 319 )
The new highway in the towns of Pitcher and Pharsalia was completed in July 1984 , at which time NY 23 was rerouted to follow the highway and the entirety of the pre @-@ approved highway maintenance swap went into effect . Thus , ownership and maintenance of NY 23 's old alignment through Pharsalia and the entirety of NY 319 west of Norwich was transferred to Chenango County . The former alignment of NY 23 became CR 42 while the now county @-@ maintained section of NY 319 was redesignated CR 10A , a spur of the pre @-@ existing CR 10 . The NY 319 designation was also removed from West Main Street in the city of Norwich at this time .
= = = Post @-@ designation = = =
In 1997 , the bridge that had carried NY 319 over Gilmore Brook in the town of Preston was replaced . The new 29 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) structure handles an average of 1 @,@ 154 vehicles per day . Farther east , the 74 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 23 m ) bridge over Canasawacta Creek was also reconstructed in 1997 . It was built in 1937 and carries an average of 2 @,@ 093 cars per day .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Chenango County .
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= David McGurk =
David Michael McGurk ( born 30 September 1982 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a defender for National League North club Harrogate Town .
McGurk started his career with the Darlington youth system and broke into the first team during the 2001 – 02 season . He was eventually loaned out to York City in the Conference National in 2004 . He had two further loan periods with York before joining the club permanently in 2006 , after making 62 appearances for Darlington . He played for the team in the play @-@ offs in his first season and won the club 's Clubman of the Year award in his second season . He played in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium and returned to the stadium for the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final .
= = Career = =
= = = Darlington = = =
Born in Middlesbrough , North Yorkshire , McGurk played for Marton Boys from the age of nine up until under @-@ 15 level , when he was approached by Middlesbrough and Sunderland to play games for them . He was invited back to Middlesbrough after playing for them , but was offered a contract by Sunderland and stayed with the club for six months before being released . He was offered a Youth Training Scheme with Darlington and progressed through the club 's youth system . He started his career with the club , making his first team debut on 17 November 2001 against Kidderminster Harriers in the FA Cup first round . He finished his first season , 2001 – 02 , with 13 appearances and signed a professional contract with Darlington on 9 August 2002 . He scored Darlington 's equalising goal against Kidderminster on 17 January 2004 , halting a run of five 1 – 0 defeats out of six games for the team during the 2003 – 04 season , which helped them avoid relegation from the Third Division . He finished the season with 31 appearances and four goals .
McGurk joined Conference National team York City on a one @-@ month loan on 16 September 2004 , after the deal had been held up due to the club 's wage budget , where he made seven appearances in the 2004 – 05 season . Despite York hoping to extend his loan , he returned to Darlington following its expiration on 19 October 2005 and played against Swansea City in a 2 – 1 defeat on 17 November , with manager David Hodgson saying he " did very well " . McGurk picked up an injury to his knee cartilage , which was operated on in December 2004 , and after making " excellent progress " in recovering he made his return against Notts County on 12 February 2005 , scoring Darlington 's goal in a 2 – 1 defeat . He was named in the League Two Team of the Week in March 2005 but later that month picked up a cartilage injury . He featured in one more game in the 2004 – 05 season , which he finished with 10 appearances and 2 goals for Darlington .
McGurk signed a new one @-@ year contract with Darlington in May 2005 and was soon told he was allowed to leave the club after not being guaranteed first team football for the forthcoming season . He was loaned out to York for a second time on 2 August 2005 on a six @-@ month deal , so his progress could be monitored and could play regular first team football . Darlington manager Hodgson said McGurk could have been brought back to the club when his loan at York ended , which he did having made 24 appearances and scored one goal for York , and it was confirmed that he " will be going nowhere " . He made his first Darlington appearance in 10 months as a replacement for Shelton Martis in a 2 – 1 victory over Peterborough United on 14 January 2006 . However , after making one more appearance for Darlington , he rejoined York on loan until the end of the 2005 – 06 season on 24 January 2006 and he finished the loan with 15 appearances and one goal . Following this " hugely successful " loan spell he made his last appearance of the season with Darlington after starting in a 1 – 1 draw with Wrexham on 6 May 2006 to cover for the suspended Matthew Clarke .
= = = York City = = =
York manager Billy McEwan hoped to re @-@ sign him following the end of the season and McGurk declared he wanted to join the club permanently . After turning down a new contract at Darlington he signed for York permanently on 28 June 2006 . He suffered from a throat infection in October 2006 , which resulted in an operation , eventually returning to the side in November . He featured in both legs of their play @-@ off semi @-@ final defeat to Morecambe 2 – 1 on aggregate and finished the 2006 – 07 season with 41 appearances . The club exercised their option to extend his contract for another season and was later persuaded by manager Colin Walker to sign an extended contract in January 2008 . He captained the side during Manny Panther 's two @-@ match omission from the squad during the 2007 – 08 season , but Panther regained the captaincy after his return . He was voted by supporters as York 's Clubman of the Year for 2007 – 08 , having made 56 appearances and scored one goal during the season , missing one game .
He started the 2008 – 09 season as an ever @-@ present in the team before pulling a calf muscle during an FA Trophy second round match against Oxford United on 13 January 2009 , which ruled him out for three weeks . He was expected to make his return ahead of schedule against Eastbourne Borough on 24 January 2009 , but was not named in the team . His return for the reserve team eventually came in a game against Rotherham United on 4 March 2009 and came on as a 90th minute substitute in the league game against Ebbsfleet United four days later . During the period of his injury , York signed defender Shaun Pejic , whose form alongside Danny Parslow in central defence resulted in McGurk being unable to reaffirm his place in the team . He started in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium on 9 May 2009 , which York lost 2 – 0 to Stevenage Borough . He finished the season with 45 appearances .
McGurk and Parslow were appointed as club captains for the 2009 – 10 season , although Parslow would wear the armband throughout the season . He picked up a hamstring injury during a 2 – 1 victory over Gateshead in August 2009 . He captained York during their 2 – 0 victory over Southern Football League Division One Midlands team Bedworth United in the FA Cup fourth qualifying round in October 2009 , which was his 200th appearance for the club . He picked up a knee injury during a 2 – 1 defeat to Forest Green Rovers on 6 March 2010 , making his return as a 77th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 victory over Mansfield Town on 16 March after missing two games . His first goal in over two years came with the equaliser against Altrincham on 5 April 2010 , which York went on to win 2 – 1 . He signed a new contract with York in April 2010 . He played in both legs of York 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victory over Luton Town , which finished 2 – 0 on aggregate . He started in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley on 16 May 2010 , which was lost 3 – 1 to Oxford . He finished the season with 46 appearances and one goal for York .
McGurk made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in the opening game , a 2 – 1 defeat to Kidderminster on 14 August 2010 . He handed in a transfer request in November 2010 having expressed his desire to join Luton Town , after they had a number of bids for him rejected and he had turned down a contract extension with York . His transfer request was rejected by manager Gary Mills and McGurk went on to explain he wanted to join Luton as he believed they offered him a better opportunity of achieving his ambition of returning to the Football League . Luton manager Richard Money eventually gave up on signing McGurk due to York demanding what he called a " ridiculous fee " for the player . However , another Luton bid was rejected after the transfer window opened in January 2011 . He received the first red card of his York career after being sent off in the second minute of a 4 – 0 loss at Southport on 29 January 2011 . McGurk signed a new contract with York in March 2011 , which contracted him to the club until June 2013 . An ankle ligament injury suffered in a 2 – 1 victory over Newport County on 9 April 2011 ruled him out for the rest of the season , during which he made 40 appearances .
= = = Harrogate Town = = =
McGurk retired from professional football in May 2014 as a result of injury problems , but remained playing as a part @-@ timer after signing for Conference North side Harrogate Town on 2 June . He made his debut in a 0 – 0 home draw with Tamworth on the opening day of the 2014 – 15 season on 9 August 2014 . His first goal for the club came on 20 September 2014 in Harrogate 's 3 – 1 away win over Leamington , side footing the ball into the goal from an Adam Nowakowski cross in the 85th minute . McGurk was voted by supporters as Harrogate 's Player of the Year for 2014 – 15 season , in which he made 36 appearances and scored two goals .
= = Style of play = =
McGurk plays as a centre @-@ back and is a " reliable performer at the heart of defence " .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 23 April 2016 .
= = Honours = =
Individual
York City Clubman of the Year : 2007 – 08
Harrogate Town Player of the Year : 2014 – 15
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= Turok 2 : Seeds of Evil =
Turok 2 : Seeds of Evil is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Iguana Entertainment and originally released for the Nintendo 64 video game console on October 21 , 1998 . A port of the game was also released for Microsoft Windows shortly afterwards . Turok 2 is the second game in the Turok video game series and a sequel to Turok : Dinosaur Hunter . The game features a single @-@ player mode consisting of six levels where the player assumes the role of Turok as he tries to defeat a powerful alien entity called the Primagen . It also includes a multiplayer mode where various players can compete against each other in several game types .
Turok 2 received very positive reviews from video game journalists and sold more than one million copies in the United States . Critics praised the arsenal of weapons and the length of the levels , but opinions were mixed on its inconsistent frame rate . A separate game , also titled Turok 2 : Seeds of Evil , was released for the Game Boy Color in December 1998 . Although set in the same fictional universe , it follows a different storyline . A sequel , Turok 3 : Shadow of Oblivion , was released in 2000 . A remastered version of the game , developed by Night Dive Studios , is planned to be released for the Xbox One .
= = Plot = =
Turok 2 : Seeds of Evil begins with the new Turok , Joshua Fireseed , appearing through a portal to face a blue @-@ skinned woman named Adon . She explains he has been called by the Elders of the Lost Lands , the Lazarus Concordance , to defeat a powerful alien entity called the Primagen . The Primagen is a creature imprisoned long ago in the wreckage of his spacecraft after attempting to conquer a place called the Lost Lands ; a bizarre and barbarian world where " Time has no meaning " . The Primagen seeks to destroy five devices called Energy Totems and has mobilized several races of creatures in an attempt to destroy them . Turok must locate the Energy Totems and destroy all forces mobilized to attack them , and then defeat the Primagen himself to end the threat he poses to the Lost Land . To accomplish his quest , Turok must acquire ancient magical powers from Talisman chambers .
Throughout the game , a mysterious entity calling itself Oblivion attempts to thwart Turok 's quest by creating false copies of the Talisman chamber portals that lead to areas populated by its servants , the Flesh Eaters . Eventually , Turok faces the Primagen himself . How the Primagen dies and the game 's ending depends on what the player did during the game . If not all of the objectives are completed , the Primagen will collapse from his fatal injuries . When talking to Adon , she thanks Joshua for his efforts , but states that although the Primagen 's body was fatally injured , traces of his psychic powers seem to remain , causing her to wonder if he 's really dead . If all of the objectives are completed , the Primagen will be obliterated by a series of energy blasts from the totems . Adon will give a greater thanks to Joshua and state the Primagen 's body is destroyed and no traces of his powers remain . Once the credits have finished rolling , the player will hear Oblivion say " It is inevitable " . This sets up the plot for the sequel Turok 3 : Shadow of Oblivion .
= = Gameplay = =
Like its predecessor Turok : Dinosaur Hunter , Turok 2 is a first @-@ person shooter where the player assumes the role of Turok from a first @-@ person perspective . As Turok , the player can run , jump , climb ladders , swim and dive underwater for a limited period of time . The player can also carry an unlimited number of weapons , ranging from bows and arrows to pistols , rifles , a shotgun , a grenade launcher , a flamethrower , a speargun , and more advanced weapons such as the Cerebral Bore , which fires a homing projectile capable of latching onto enemy 's heads , killing them by drilling into their skulls and exploding . Turok has a certain amount of health which decreases when attacked by enemies . If Turok 's health is fully depleted , the player loses one Life Force point and has to continue the game from a previous checkpoint . If the player loses all Life Force points , the game will be over . Ammunition , health , and Life Force suppliers can be collected throughout the game to increase the player 's resources .
To progress through the single @-@ player campaign , the player must venture through six expansive levels interconnected by a hub area . In each level , the player must complete a certain set of objectives and then exit the level via a portal . Objectives range from destroying objects to rescuing hostages and defeating enemies , among others . Upon exiting a level , the player must either protect a totem from enemy forces or defeat a boss , or both , depending on which level the player was ; the first three levels require the player to protect a totem , the fourth and fifth levels require the player to protect a totem and then defeat a boss , and the last level requires the player to defeat a boss . Once a particular level has been completed , the player is sent to the hub area , which features six portals to each of the individual levels and a gate that leads to the final boss , the Primagen .
Exploration is a very important aspect of gameplay , as all the portals in the hub area , except for the first one , must be unlocked with keys that need to be collected within the levels . The keys that unlock the portals to the second and third levels are found in the first level , the keys that unlock the portal to the fourth level are found in the second level , the keys that unlock the portal to the fifth level are found in the third level , and the keys that unlock the last level are found in the fourth and fifth levels . As a result , the game allows the player to complete certain levels in a nonlinear order . In the Nintendo 64 game , the player 's progress can only be saved in special portals within the levels , while the Microsoft Windows version lets players save the game at any point . In these portals , the player may also fully restore Turok 's health and ammunition once per level .
In addition to level keys , every level has one Primagen key . The six Primagen keys unlock the gate to the final boss in the hub area and require the player to use Talismans to collect them . Talismans grant Turok special powers , such as allowing him to jump long distances or walk over lava . To use the power of a Talisman , the player must collect a feather in a level and then take it to the Talisman chamber of that level . There are five Talismans in the game and every level , except for the first one , features a feather and a Talisman Chamber . The Primagen key of one particular level requires the player to use the Talisman of the next level , except the Primagen key of the last level , which requires the player to use all five Talismans . Therefore , the player needs to play some levels more than once to collect all Primagen keys and complete the game . The game also features an automap to help players navigate through the levels .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
In addition to the single @-@ player mode , Turok 2 features a multiplayer mode where various players can compete against each other in several game types . Options such as time limit , map to play on , and character selection can be changed to match player preference . Each character has certain strengths and weaknesses , with some being able to regenerate health . The most notable is the Raptor , which is limited to close @-@ range attacks , but extremely fast and agile . Multiplayer games in the Nintendo 64 version of the game support up to four players via split screen . In contrast , multiplayer games in the Microsoft Windows version support up to 16 players via LAN or internet .
The Nintendo 64 version essentially features two game types : Deathmatch , where the objective is to kill as many players or players of the opposing team as possible , and Frag Tag , in which one random player is transformed into a monkey with no attacks and very little health . This player 's task is to go to a specific point to return to their normal character and transform another random player into the monkey . Players gain points by killing the monkey and lose points if they die as the monkey . The Microsoft Windows version features three game types : Rok Match , which is the same as Deathmatch ; Arena , where two players or teams must battle against each other in an arena setting . The winning player or team will have to face a new opponent . If the player or team loses , they will have to get in line and wait for their next turn to fight again ; and Capture the Flag , where the goal is to capture opposing flags and return it to a team 's base .
= = Development = =
Turok 2 was developed by Iguana Entertainment and published by Acclaim Entertainment . The game was announced in January 1997 before Dinosaur Hunter was released , under the title Turok : Dinosaur Hunter 2 . The game was completed in 21 months with a team of roughly the same size as that who worked on Dinosaur Hunter , which was composed of 18 people . During development , more staff were brought on board to assist in completing the game . Reportedly , over 10 @,@ 000 hours of game testing was conducted during its creation . The game was originally designed with a 12MB cartridge in mind . When cartridges prices fell , the storage was increased to 16MB allowing the team to add a multiplayer mode . Eventually , the cartridge size was increased again , and was finalised at 32MB .
The Cerebral Bore weapon was inspired by the Tall Man 's weapons from the movie Phantasm . The base idea for the weapon was created during a brainstorming session concerning weapon design . The original concept had the weapon " being slow and agonizing " . An artist suggested a Leech gun , which was rejected by project manager , David Dienstbier . However , a " Vampire Gun " was eventually added to the sequel , Turok 3 : Shadow of Oblivion . The game also aimed to offer less distance fog with a wider field of vision so that the gameplay would not feel as claustrophobic as the original . Unlike GoldenEye 007 , the multiplayer levels were designed so that players could have all sort of mobility , including running , jumping , climbing and swimming . According to Dienstbier , this freedom of movement " means that [ players ] have a lot less predictable death match play because [ they ] have far more possible escape routes within each level . "
Iguana Entertainment , having received Nintendo 64DD development kits which included the 4MB Expansion Pak , added a high @-@ resolution mode to the game early on in the development timeline . This was demonstrated to Nintendo at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 1998 , running at a resolution of 640x480 , a technical accomplishment for the Nintendo 64 at the time . Before the official unveiling of the Expansion Pak , IGN asked Dienstbier about the possibility of the game running in the high resolution mode in the leadup to the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo . He stated that it ran in the same resolution as the first Turok game . The game was fairly anticipated as retailers worldwide ordered 1 @.@ 75 million copies of the game before launch . It was released in North America on October 21 , 1998 . Acclaim Entertainment missed the original cartridge production slot for the game , forcing a delay from November to December 1998 in the UK . This delay was due to problems in fitting the game on a 32MB cartridge . In Japan , the game was released as Violence Killer : Turok New Generation ( バイオレンスキラー TUROK NEW GENERATION ) . A port of the game was released for Microsoft Windows in 1999 .
In 2015 , Night Dive Studios , a company that is known for remastering several classic games , announced that they were developing a remastered version of both Turok 2 and its predecessor , commenting : " We are very excited to have the opportunity to bring this great franchise back to life and to be able to share these great titles with today 's gaming audience . " In March 2016 , the company confirmed that the game would be released for the Xbox One video game console .
= = Reception = =
The Nintendo 64 version of Turok 2 was a critical and commercial success , selling more than one million copies in the United States . Next Generation praised the game , noting that " the artistic range is remarkable " and that " GoldenEye 007 now seems simple " when comparing the artificial intelligence of enemies . Game Revolution highlighted the " tremendous " length of the levels , but also admitted that " You 'll occasionally find yourself running around in circles for hours trying to figure out where to go next . This may be enjoyable for people who like puzzles and long gameplay , but it is aggravating for more action @-@ oriented players . "
The game 's large arsenal of weapons was highly praised , as GameSpot reviewer James Mielke remarked that the Cerebral Bore is " possibly the grossest weapon ever conceived " . He also praised the sound effects and the music for being " well suited to the game and never intrusive " . Victor Lucas of Electric Playground stated similar pros , describing the soundtrack as " suspenseful , dynamic and always adrenaline charged . " Despite the overall positive reaction from critics , the game 's frame rate was a consistent complaint . Writing for IGN , Peer Schneider said that " While Turok 1 was an exercise in smoothness , [ Turok 2 ] forgoes framerate for detail so often , some gamers will definitely be put off by the choppiness . " Nevertheless , he praised the multiplayer mode for its use of 3D space and innovative game types .
Critical reception for the Microsoft Windows port was mixed . Tal Blevins of IGN criticized the controls for its limited support of keyboard functions and the graphics for their distance fog , which was not common in computer games at the time . Despite this , he praised the save system for letting players save the game at any point . Writing for GameSpot , Elliott Chin criticized the game for its confusing level design and insistence on playing a level again if the player misses a key . In a retrospective review , Martin Watts of NintendoLife stated that Turok 2 " is quite possibly the best third @-@ party effort ever released for Nintendo 64 . " GameSpot awarded Turok 2 the Shooting Game of the Year accolade for 1998 .
= = Game Boy Color version = =
A separate game developed by Bit Managers , also titled Turok 2 : Seeds of Evil , was released for the Game Boy Color in December 1998 . Although set in the same fictional universe , it follows a different storyline than the console version , involving the Amaranthine Accordance trying to bring a massive Dinosoid army to Earth from the Lost World with Joshua Fireseed trying to stop them . The gameplay is spread over eight levels and four boss encounters . It involves platform levels that are very similar to the first Game Boy title utilizing familiar weaponry such as the bow and arrow , shotgun and grenade . Other levels have Turok on the back of a Pterodactyl with horizontal shooter gameplay , while another has him riding downriver in a canoe avoiding enemies .
The standard platform levels of the game were first created on graph paper , then replicated on a PC level editor before becoming a playable level on the Game Boy hardware . The distinctive music was produced by Alberto José González , who produced music for the other Game Boy @-@ based Turok games . IGN reviewer Peer Schneider gave it a rating of 5 @.@ 0 out of 10 and said that the game is " an E @-@ rated cookie @-@ cutter sidescroller with decent controls and unimpressive visuals . " Total Game Boy reviewed the game with a rating of 40 % and criticized the level design and unrelated gameplay to the Nintendo 64 game .
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= Typhoon Fitow =
Typhoon Fitow , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Quedan , was the strongest typhoon to make landfall in Mainland China during October since 1949 . The 21st named storm of the 2013 Pacific typhoon season , Fitow developed on September 29 to the east of the Philippines . It initially tracked north @-@ northwestward , gradually intensifying into a tropical storm and later to typhoon status , or with winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Fitow later turned more to the west @-@ northwest due to an intensifying ridge to the east , bringing the typhoon over the Ryukyu Islands with peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) on October 5 . The next day , the typhoon struck China at Fuding in Fujian province , with a landfall pressure of 955 mbar ( 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) according to the China Meteorological Administration ( CMA ) . Fitow quickly weakened over land , dissipating on October 7 .
Across its path , Fitow spurred many airlines to cancel flights and caused other transport disruptions . In Japan , the typhoon damaged 1 @,@ 464 houses and left about 6 @,@ 800 households without power on Miyako @-@ jima . Heavy rainfall in Taiwan flooded houses and caused mudslides that closed two highways . Damage was heaviest in Fujian and Zhejiang provinces in China near where Fitow struck . In the latter province , rainfall peaked at 803 mm ( 31 @.@ 6 in ) in Yuyao , which flooded 70 % of the town with up to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) of waters ; as a result , the floods were the worst in a century for Yuyao , which disrupted aid distribution in the storm 's aftermath . Across China , Fitow damaged about 95 @,@ 000 houses and left at least 159 @,@ 000 other houses without power . The storm also flooded about 75 @,@ 000 hectares ( 185 @,@ 000 acres ) of fields and killed thousands of fish at fish farms . Damage in the country reached ¥ 63 @.@ 1 billion ( 2013 RMB , $ 10 @.@ 3 billion USD ) , of which ¥ 6 billion ( RMB , $ 1 billion USD ) was from insured losses , the second @-@ costliest event on record . There were also 12 deaths in China , eight of them related to electrocutions .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Fitow were from a persistent area of convection , or thunderstorms , about 310 kilometres ( 195 miles ) north @-@ northeast of Palau , an island in the western Pacific Ocean during mid @-@ late September . At the time , wind shear dislocated the convection to the west of a broad and poorly @-@ defined circulation . Although the system was poorly organized , tropical cyclone forecast models noted the potential for development to occur . The convection gradually consolidated and outflow increased to the west , indicative of increased organization . Early on September 29 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) declared that a tropical depression formed about 310 km ( 195 mi ) to the northeast of Palau . Around the same time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also began issuing warnings on the depression , giving it the local name Quedan . Early on September 30 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 22W , noting that the circulation had become increasingly well @-@ defined amid decreasing wind shear .
With a ridge to the east , the system tracked to the north @-@ northwest through an area of warm water temperatures . At 1200 UTC on September 30 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Fitow . Although outflow and convection increased in general , the thunderstorm activity diminished over the center due to sinking air . By late on October 1 , however , convection increased over Fitow 's center , and the next day the JMA upgraded it to a severe tropical storm . On October 2 , an eye began developing on satellite imagery , although the rainbands wrapping into the eye were fragmented . It took until midday on October 3 for the JTWC to upgrade Fitow to typhoon status , with 1 – minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . By that time , the convection had increased in coverage and intensity , with outflow increased by a trough to the north . The JMA did not follow suit until 1200 UTC on October 4 , by which time the eye had become better defined .
After officially becoming a typhoon , Fitow turned more to the northwest due to the ridge building to the east . Despite increasing wind shear , the typhoon continued to intensify due to amplified outflow . Late on October 4 , the JMA upgraded Fitow to peak 10 – minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Early the next day , the JTWC estimated peak 1 – minute winds of 165 mph ( 105 km / h ) , and shortly thereafter the typhoon passed about 225 km ( 140 mph ) south of Okinawa . By that time , the eye had expanded to 75 km ( 45 mi ) , which initially remained unaffected by the increased wind shear . Also on October 5 , PAGASA issued the final advisory as the storm exited the agency 's area of responsibility . Around 1500 UTC on October 5 , Fitow passed about 40 km ( 65 mi ) north of Miyako @-@ jima , by which time the eye began deteriorating . As the typhoon passed northeast of Taiwan , the ragged eye became cloud @-@ filled and the convection weakened . Late on October 6 , Fitow made landfall just south of Wenzhou in eastern China , at Fuding in Fujian province . Fitow became the strongest China typhoon landfall for the month since 1949 according to the China Meteorological Administration ( CMA ) , with a landfall pressure of 955 mbar ( 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) and sustained winds of 151 km / h ( 94 mph ) . While continuing northwestward near the border of Zhejiang and Fujian provinces , Fitow rapidly weakened , dissipating on October 7 .
= = Preparations = =
On the Japanese island of Okinawa , 288 flights at Naha Airport were canceled , affecting 28 @,@ 000 people . Officials also canceled bus , monorail , and ferry services . In South Korea , workers involved with the 2013 Formula One season issued a typhoon alert and began planning contingencies in the event Fitow affected the Korean Grand Prix . Officials in Taiwan issued a storm warning before Fitow passed north of the island . The Taiwan military activated 20 @,@ 000 troops to protect and be on standby . Seventeen ferry services between Taiwan and the offshore islands were terminated , and over 200 flights were canceled . Schools and government offices closed in portions of Taiwan due to the storm .
Ahead of the storm , officials in China issued warnings for Zhejiang and Fujian for the potential of high winds and flooding , which was later credited for reducing casualties . The Chinese army was utilized to assist in mitigating against potential flooding . Officials told boat owners to put their property in shelter , totaling 65 @,@ 000 vessels ordered to return to report . Coastal facilities such as seaside bathing centers were closed . Before Fitow struck China , 177 @,@ 000 people evacuated in Fujian and a further 574 @,@ 000 evacuated their houses in Zhejiang , totaling 751 @,@ 000 people . In Shanghai , 42 train or bus rides were canceled , along with 40 canceled flights . Two airports in Zhejiang had 49 canceled flights , with another 20 canceled in Fujian .
= = Impact = =
In Japan , Fitow produced peak wind gusts of 133 km / h ( 83 mph ) on Miyako @-@ jima , where about 6 @,@ 800 homes lost power . Winds gusted to 193 km / h ( 120 mph ) on Yoronjima to the north of Okinawa , while 167 km / h ( 104 mph ) gusts were recorded at Kunigami on the northern tip of Okinawa . In Okinawa , the typhoon caused power outages , disrupted transportation , and damaged farms . In Japan , Fitow damaged 1 @,@ 464 homes and injured five people .
While passing north of Taiwan , Fitow dropped heavy rainfall reaching 536 mm ( 21 @.@ 1 in ) at a station in Hsinchu County . In the county , the rains forced 224 people to evacuate their houses . Mudslides and the threat for flooding spurred officials to close portions of two provincial highways . The typhoon also produced strong winds that caused power outages for 6 @,@ 900 people .
= = = China = = =
Throughout eastern China , the high winds and rains knocked down trees and ruined local shrimp and seaweed farms , and overall 75 @,@ 000 hectares ( 185 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops were flooded , including 46 @,@ 800 ha ( 116 @,@ 000 acres ) in Wenzhou . Widespread areas were flooded , forcing residents to travel by boats . Fitow damaged or destroyed about 95 @,@ 000 houses . The typhoon killed 12 people in the country , and left ¥ 63 @.@ 1 billion in damage ( 2013 RMB , $ 10 @.@ 3 billion USD ) . Insured losses from Fitow totaled ¥ 6 billion ( RMB , $ 1 billion USD ) , the second costliest event on record for China .
As Fitow made landfall in mainland China , it produced wind gusts of 274 km / h ( 170 mph ) in the Shiping Mountains of Zhejiang , setting a record for the province . The typhoon spread heavy rainfall across eastern China in the Jiangnan region , in conjunction with a plume of cold air . An area 175 @,@ 000 km2 ( 68 @,@ 000 sq mi ) wide received 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of precipitation , while an area of 38 @,@ 000 km2 ( 15 @,@ 000 sq mi ) wide received over 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall . Yuyao in Zhejiang reported a peak rainfall total of 803 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 6 in ) , a record for the city , while Ningbo reported a daily average of 390 mm ( 15 in ) over three days , setting a record . A station in Shanghai reported 152 @.@ 9 mm ( 6 @.@ 02 in ) , the highest daily rainfall total since 1961 . The rains increased levels along 17 rivers , rising from 0 @.@ 09 to 2 @.@ 79 m ( 0 @.@ 30 to 9 @.@ 15 ft ) , and Lake Tai rose by 3 @.@ 60 m ( 11 @.@ 8 ft ) . The Yaojiang River , a tributary of the Yongjiang river , reached its highest levels on record , reaching a height of 5 @.@ 33 m ( 17 @.@ 5 ft ) in Yuyao .
Across eastern China , Fitow left heavy damage due to strong winds , heavy rainfall , and a powerful storm surge . Floodwaters covered about 70 % of the metropolis of Yuyao , reaching 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in some areas , which cut off power and water supply . The floods were the worst in a century for the city , covering most roadways , and forcing most schools , health facilities , and factories to close . In the city , about 100 @,@ 000 people were forced to evacuate , with 289 temporary shelters opened . Damage in the city alone totaled about ¥ 20 billion ( RMB , $ 3 @.@ 25 billion USD ) . In Ningbo in eastern Zhejiang , Fitow wrecked 26 @,@ 180 houses and damaged local fish farms , killing 51 @,@ 000 tons of fish . The storm forced 18 @,@ 134 factories to shut down , and there were also power and telecommunication outages .
In Shanghai , high waters along the Huangpu River damaged a portion of a flood prevention wall . Rainfall caused several matches to be canceled at the 2013 Shanghai Masters . Flooding closed the city zoo and 60 parks , and entered 600 houses . In Cangnan County in Wenzhou , Fitow wrecked 1 @,@ 200 houses , and throughout Wenzhou , two people died – one after being blown off a hill , and the other trapped under collapsed rubble . High winds left 254 @,@ 746 people in Zhejiang without power , and eight people died in the province from electrocutions . Another two people died after driving into a flooded river . Throughout China , Fitow damaged or destroyed 95 @,@ 000 houses .
= = Aftermath = =
In Zhejiang , about 10 @,@ 000 utility men worked to restore the widespread power outages . In the days following the storm , about 1 @.@ 24 million people were forced to stay in shelters due to damage . A total of 11 @,@ 732 soldiers or militia members assisted in helping in the storm 's aftermath . Many cleared mudslides from roads , repaired dams , and helped people leave flooded homes . In Tongxiang in Zhejiang province , thousands of people blocked a highway in protest for not receiving aid , prompting the riot police to break up the gathering . The town did not receive supplies other than water tanks , due to it being designated a " self @-@ rescuing area " according to a local official . Ping An Insurance received insurance claims for 11 @,@ 348 flooded cars in the days after the storm . The storm caused slight delays to shipping in Ningbo and Shanghai . The Chinese Ministry of Finance and Civil Affairs allocated ¥ 118 million ( $ 19 million USD ) in funding for Zhejiang and Fujian provinces after the storm .
In general , local governments assisted the affected storm victims by providing food , water , and clothing , even traveling by canoe to distribute aid . However , residents in Yuyao complained about insufficient assistance , as many people were without food or clean water for several days , due to ongoing flooding making distribution difficult . This sparked thousands of people to protest the government , although they dispersed after increased numbers of policemen . Residents were initially required to show food coupons to receive meals , but later anyone with a residence permit could receive the meals ; however , the food distribution was disorganized , and there were reports of people looting for food . By October 18 , the flooding in Yuyao had subsided and roadways had reopened , and power service was gradually restored . Due to the extended disruptions to the city , garbage service was halted . Two people in Yuyao were arrested after spreading false rumors online that reservoir collapsed during the storm , killing 40 people .
= = = Retirement = = =
During their 2014 annual session , the ESCAP / WMO Typhoon Committee announced that the name Fitow would be retired from the naming lists . The name Mun was chosen to replace Fitow .
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= Charolais horse =
The Charolais or Charollais is an extinct breed of warmblood horse from the Charolais region of France surrounding the town of Charolles , now in the Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire department of Burgundy , in eastern central France . Like other French warmbloods , it was the result of crossing local agricultural horses with the Thoroughbred , and was known by the name of the region in which it was bred . The Charolais never had a breed @-@ specific studbook . The Charolais and other French warmblood breeds were fused in 1958 to create the national warmblood studbook for a unified breed , the Selle Français . It was originally used as a multipurpose horse for riding , driving , and agriculture . During the late 19th century , additional Thoroughbred blood was added and a new type emerged that was principally used as a light cavalry mount . It was also used for dressage and show jumping .
= = Characteristics = =
The Charolais breed was small , and most closely physically resembled the Morvan horse , another now @-@ extinct French type . The breed had a short head with small ears and a short , strong neck attached low on the shoulder . The body was short and rounded , with a broad croup and strong legs . They were generally considered to be small and inelegant . They were strong , robust and hardy , the last of these traits especially so before the breeding changes of the 19th century , and were known for their pulling power .
The Charolais was appreciated for its gaits and endurance . It was known for its ability as a cavalry horse , and in 1933 was called a perfect war horse . It was also used for dressage and show jumping , and members of the breed competed in international events in these sports . It was considered to be a better galloper than the Anglo @-@ Norman horse , another French breed .
= = History = =
The original landrace ancestors of the Charolais include the Cheval Bourguignon ( Burgundy Horse ) , which developed from horses bred in the Burgundy region in the Middle Ages . Although small , Burgandy horses were known for their endurance and robustness . They were used for riding and agriculture , and as coach horses . This type , combined with other blood , developed into the Charolais , which belonged to a group of French breeds called demi @-@ sang or " half @-@ bloods " — crosses between native breeds and Thoroughbreds . Some 19th and early 20th century sources claim that Arabian blood was also added from horses captured from the Saracens after the Battle of Poitiers .
Until the mid @-@ 20th century , the Charolais and other demi @-@ sang breeds , such as the Angevin , the Charentais , the Cheval Limousin and the Vendéen , were generally known by the name of the region in which they existed , and did not have individual breed studbooks . As these horses were not separated by breed type , but instead by geography , there were no significant physical characteristics that distinguished the Charolais from other demi @-@ sang types that developed prior to the mid @-@ 19th century . Charolais horses were primarily raised in what is now the Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire department . The areas of Cluny , Charolles , Blanzy , Paray @-@ le @-@ Monial and Digoin were preferred for breeding , due to the clay @-@ limestone soils that favored the development of the equine skeletal structure .
Multi @-@ purpose types like the Charolais and the Morvan were slowly supplanted in farmers ' favor by draft horses . The Nivernais breed , in particular , was preferred by farmers and threatened the existence of the Charolais . Thus , the original small multi @-@ purpose strain of Charolais gave way to a type of small draft horse that was next crossed with purebred and crossbred Thoroughbreds until , by 1850 , it had become a horse for cavalry purposes . It was thought by some enthusiasts , however , that this outcrossing reduced the quality of the breed , and many missed the old @-@ style Charolais , which had disappeared due to a lack of demand and use . However , others thought that the outcrossings had benefited the Charolais breed : in 1919 , one author stated that the breeding of the Charolais type was in excellent condition , and a report from the time stated that the favorite horse of King Albert I of Belgium was a Charolais named Titanic .
Like many other French saddle horse types , in 1958 the Charolais was part of a reorganization of French horse breeding . Multiple demi @-@ sang types , including the Charolais , were merged to create a new national breed called the Selle Français , or French Saddle Horse . The Selle Français has been called " one of the finest sport horses today " , and is seen in international competition in show jumping , as well being used for events such as dressage , three @-@ day eventing and racing .
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= Suillus pungens =
Suillus pungens , commonly known as the pungent slippery jack or the pungent suillus , is a species of fungus in the genus Suillus . The fruit bodies of the fungus have slimy convex caps up to 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) wide . The mushroom is characterized by the very distinct color changes that occur in the cap throughout development . Typically , the young cap is whitish , later becoming grayish @-@ olive to reddish @-@ brown or a mottled combination of these colors . The mushroom has a dotted stem ( stipe ) up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long , and 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . On the underside on the cap is the spore @-@ bearing tissue consisting of minute vertically arranged tubes that appear as a surface of angular , yellowish pores . The presence of milky droplets on the pore surface of young individuals , especially in humid environments , is a characteristic feature of this species . S. pungens can usually be distinguished from other similar Suillus species by differences in distribution , odor and taste . The mushroom is considered edible , but not highly regarded .
An ectomycorrhizal species , S. pungens forms an intimate mutualistic relationship between its underground mycelium and the young roots of the associated host tree . The fungus — limited in distribution to California — fruits almost exclusively with Monterey and bishop pine , two trees with small and scattered natural ranges concentrated in the West Coast of the United States . Several studies have investigated the role of S. pungens in the coastal Californian forest ecosystem it occupies . Although the species produces more fruit bodies than other competing ectomycorrhizal fungi in the same location , it is not a dominant root colonizer , and occupies only a small percentage of ectomycorrhizal root tips . The fungus 's propensity to fruit prolifically despite minimal root colonization is a result of its ability to efficiently transfer nutrients from its host for its own use .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and phylogeny = =
The fungus was first described scientifically by American mycologists Harry D. Thiers and Alexander H. Smith in their 1964 monograph on North American Suillus species . The type collection was made on the campus of San Francisco State University in San Francisco . Smith and Thiers classified S. pungens in section Suilli — a grouping of related species characterized by the presence of either a ring on the stipe , a partial veil adhering to the cap margin , or a " false veil " not attached to the stipe but initially covering the tube cavity .
A 1996 molecular analysis of 38 different Suillus species used the sequences of their internal transcribed spacers to infer phylogenetic relationships and clarify the taxonomy of the genus . The results suggest that S. pungens was genetically similar to S. collinitus , S. neoalbidipes , S. pseudobrevipes , S. luteus , S. brevipes , S. weaverae , and certain isolates of S. granulatus .
The specific epithet is derived from the Latin pungens , and refers to the pungent aroma of the fruit bodies . The mushroom is commonly known as the " pungent slippy jack " or the " pungent suillus " . It has also been referred to as the " slippery jack " , a common name applied to several Suillus species .
= = Description = =
The cap of S. pungens is roughly convex when young , becoming plano @-@ convex ( flat on one side and rounded on the other ) to somewhat flat with age , and reaches diameters of 4 – 14 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) . The cap surface is sticky to slimy when moist , becoming shiny when dried . The surface is smooth but is sometimes streaked with the sticky glue @-@ like cap slime when older . The cap color is highly variable in this species , and the cap is often variegated with a mixture of light and dark colors . When young it is dirty @-@ white to olive with pale olive splotches . Maturing caps can retain the color they had when young , or become tawny to orange @-@ yellow to reddish @-@ brown , or a combination of these colors . The cap margin is initially rolled inward and has a cottony roll of white tissue , but becomes naked and curves downward with age . The flesh is 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , white and unchanging in young fruit bodies , frequently changing to yellow when older .
The tubes that comprise the hymenium ( spore @-@ bearing tissue ) on the underside of the cap are up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long , adnate when young , becoming decurrent or nearly so with age . In young specimens , they are whitish to pale buff , and are covered with milky droplets that become brown to ochraceous when dried . As specimens mature the color of the pore surface changes to yellowish , and finally to dark yellow . The angular pores , which are 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm in diameter , are not radially arranged , and do not change color when bruised . The stipe is solid ( rather than hollow ) , 3 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) long , and 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick near the top . Its shape is variable : either roughly equal in width throughout , thicker at the base , or somewhat thicker in the middle . Its surface is dry and smooth , and covered with irregularly shaped glandular dots . The dots — minute clumps of pigmented cells — are initially reddish before becoming brownish . The background color of the stipe is initially whitish ( roughly the same color as the tubes ) , but becomes more yellow with age . It does not change color when bruised , and does not have a ring . The flesh of the stipe is white , and does not change color when exposed to air .
The spore print is olive @-@ brown to pale cinnamon @-@ brown . Individual spores are thin @-@ walled , hyaline ( translucent ) , and smooth . Their shape is ellipsoid to roughly cylindrical in face view or inequilateral when viewed in profile , and they measure 9 @.@ 5 – 10 by 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells of the hymenium ) are hyaline , club @-@ shaped and four @-@ spored , with dimensions of 33 – 36 by 8 – 10 μm . The thin @-@ walled cystidia are rare to scattered on the tube surface but abundant on the pores , where they usually occur in massive clusters . They appear dark brown when mounted in a dilute ( 3 % ) solution of potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) , and are cylindric to roughly club @-@ shaped , measuring 43 – 79 by 7 – 10 μm . They are usually encrusted with pigment , although some may be hyaline . The tissue comprising the tube is hyaline , and made of divergent to nearly parallel hyphae that are 3 – 5 μm wide . The pileipellis is a tissue type known as an ixotrichodermium ( made of interwoven gelatinized hyphae ) ; it stains brown in KOH , and is made of hyphae that are 4 – 5 μm wide . The stipe cuticle is made of clusters of cystidia similar to those found in the hymenium . Clamp connections are absent in the hyphae of S. pungens .
Several chemical tests can be employed in the field to aid in the identification of S. pungens . With an application of a drop of KOH , the flesh will turn vinaceous ( the color of red wine ) , the tubes red , the cap cuticle black , and the stipe cuticle pale vinaceous . With ammonium hydroxide ( NH4OH ) , the flesh becomes very pale vinaceous , and the tubes turn bright red . Iron ( II ) sulfate ( FeSO4 ) turns the flesh gray , the tubes dark gray to black , and the stipe cuticle light gray .
= = = Edibility = = =
The mushroom is considered edible , but not choice . Its taste is harsh , nauseating , and weakly acidic ; the odor is strong and ranges from pleasant , resembling bananas , to pungent . When collecting for the table , young specimens are preferred , as older ones " literally seethe with fat , agitated maggots and sag with so much excess moisture that they practically demand to be wrung out like a sponge ! " Michael Kuo 's 100 Edible Mushrooms ( 2007 ) rates the mushroom 's edibility as " bad " and warns that dishes cooked with the mushroom will assume an unpleasant taste .
= = = Similar species = = =
Suillus pungens is characterized by the very distinct color changes that occur in the cap as it develops . The range of color variation makes it possible to misidentify the species with others whose color overlaps . Suillus pungens has been misidentified as S. placidus because of the white color of the young fruit bodies and the droplets of exudate . S. placidus has a wider distribution , is usually found in association with eastern white pine , is generally smaller , with a maximum cap diameter up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) , and has smaller spores , measuring 7 – 9 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 2 μm . It does not have any distinctive taste or odor . North American S. granulatus is another potential lookalike species , and at maturity it is nearly identical to Suillus pungens . The cap of S. granulatus is variable in color , ranging from pale yellow to various shades of brown , while the pore surface is initially whitish , later becoming yellowish , and similar to S. placidus , its typical host is eastern white pine . Unlike S. pungens , it lacks a characteristic odor and taste . The Californian species Suillus glandulosipes has veil material attached to the edge of the cap when young . It also lacks the distinctive changes in cap color during development , is associated with lodgepole pine , has smaller spores ( 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 8 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 μm ) , and lacks any obvious taste and odor . Another Californian species , Suillus quiescens , newly described in 2010 , may resemble S. pungens , especially at maturity . S. quiescens can be distinguished by its lack of white or olive colors when young and by a less glandular stipe when mature .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Suillus pungens is an ectomycorrhizal ( EM ) basidiomycete that forms symbiotic relationships almost exclusively with Monterey pine ( Pinus radiata ) and bishop pine ( Pinus muricata ) ; some collections have been made under knobcone pine ( Pinus attenuata ) and ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) , but only within the range of Monterey pine . All these trees have small scattered natural ranges largely restricted to California . An EM symbiosis is a mutualistic relationship between an EM fungus and the root tip of a compatible EM plant . The fruit bodies of Suillus pungens grow solitarily , scattered or in groups in humus . They are often found growing near fruit bodies of Chroogomphus vinicolor and Helvella lacunosa . Suillus pungens is often the most abundant Suillus in the San Francisco Bay Area . The type collection was made on the campus of San Francisco State University in San Francisco , where it occurs in abundance during the fall and winter seasons . Although it occurs most frequently in the autumn and winter , it is one of the few species of Suillus that continue to fruit sporadically throughout the year , especially in wet weather . It has also been identified in the southeastern Sierra Nevada and on Santa Cruz Island .
A genet is a group of genetically identical individuals that have grown in a given location , all originating vegetatively from a single ancestor . Once established , genets vegetatively spread hyphae out from the root tip into the soil and may connect two or more trees to form a network of mycorrhizae . In field studies , the approximate size of fungal genets is typically estimated by collecting and mapping fruit bodies on a site , determining which fruit bodies are genetically identical by either somatic incompatibility ( a method fungi use to distinguish self from non @-@ self by delimiting their own mycelia from that of other individuals of the same species ) or various molecular techniques , and then determining the distance between identical fruit bodies . In a 1996 study , mycologists Monique Gardes and Thomas Bruns hypothesized that S. pungens , an abundant fruiter in pine forests , would be dominant on the roots of the pine trees . However , by sampling underground ectomycorrhizae in addition to above @-@ ground fruit bodies , they found that the fungus can fruit prolifically while occupying only a small fraction of the ectomycorrhizal root assemblage , which was otherwise dominated by Russula species and Tomentella sublilacina . Gardes and Bruns hypothesized that the disparity between above- and below @-@ ground representation may be because the fungus invests less energy in vegetative growth and persistence and more in fruiting , or alternatively , because the species is particularly efficient at acquiring carbon from its hosts and so needs to colonize only a few rootlets to obtain enough to allow abundant fruiting . A 1998 study by Pierluigi Bonello and colleagues used single @-@ strand conformation polymorphism analysis to detect minute genetic differences among S. pungens genets , and showed that most of the fruiting occurred from a single large genet . This result indicates that the fungus persists because of extensive vegetative growth , rather than frequent establishment of new genets from spores , and that it uses carbon resources efficiently . The study also described an S. pungens genet with an area of approximately 300 m2 ( 3 @,@ 200 sq ft ) and a span greater than 40 m ( 130 ft ) across , which was at the time the largest EM fungal genet reported . The large S. pungens genet was not detected after wildfire , demonstrating that it did not survive in the absence of a host , and suggesting that spores are the primary means by which the fungus recolonizes after a fire .
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= National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking =
The National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking is a four @-@ year action plan that was established by the Government of Canada on June 6 , 2012 to oppose human trafficking in Canada . In 2004 , the government 's Interdepartmental Working Group on Trafficking in Persons was mandated to create a national anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking plan , but the mandate went unfulfilled despite reminders from politicians and non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) . Member of Parliament ( MP ) Joy Smith put forward motion C @-@ 153 in February 2007 to put a plan in place , and the House of Commons passed it unanimously . Smith began developing a proposal and released it in September 2010 under the title " Connecting the Dots " . University of British Columbia law professor Benjamin Perrin helped guide Smith 's writing of the proposal . Before the establishment of the NAP @-@ CHT , a variety of people and organizations — including the 2009 and 2010 Trafficking in Persons ( TIP ) Reports of the United States Department of State — criticized Canada for failing to have such a plan .
During the 2011 Canadian federal election , Stephen Harper , Prime Minister of Canada , promised to establish the NAP @-@ CHT by 2012 and to invest CA $ 20 million into it . The Plan was established by the Government of Canada on schedule on June 28 , 2012 with a budget of $ 25 million , $ 500 @,@ 000 of which was to be used for supporting victims . The NAP @-@ CHT 's recommendations are divided into four categories called the " 4 Ps " : partnership , prevention , prosecution , and protection . Although Smith recommended that the government investigate ways in which prostitution law in Canada might be altered to emulate Sweden 's Sex Purchase Act , thereby prosecuting those who purchase sexual acts and not those who perform them , the plan does not make any such legislative recommendations . The NAP @-@ CHT replaced the IWG @-@ TIP with the Human Trafficking Taskforce , chaired by Public Safety Canada and mandated with coordinating the plan 's implementation and the generation of annual progress reports , to be made publicly available .
The National Action Plan was received positively by many , but not all , Canadian NGOs and law enforcement officials . Natasha Falle , founder and director of Sex Trade 101 , said that , as an organization of sex trafficking victims , they were extremely pleased with the establishment of the NAP @-@ CHT . When the Canadian government announced that the country 's sex industry would no longer be allowed to employ foreign workers because of the risks of exploitation , abuse , and trafficking in that environment , Tim Lambrinos — leader of the Adult Entertainment Association of Canada — said that he might challenge the policy because he believed that the government was " destroying an industry [ and ] creating a labour shortage . " Bethany Hastie of McGill University , Shae Invidiata of Free @-@ Them , and Andrea Burkhart of ACT Alberta all criticized the plan for focusing too much on law enforcement and not enough on victim services .
= = Proposals = =
= = = Background = = =
In 2004 , the Interdepartmental Working Group on Trafficking in Persons ( IWG @-@ TIP ) , the working group responsible for coordinating the Government of Canada 's efforts against human trafficking , was mandated to create a national anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking plan . On March 31 of that year , the IWG @-@ TIP website was updated to state that it was meeting with academics and non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) " to discuss various elements of a potential federal anti @-@ trafficking strategy , " but no more updates were forthcoming on the website for the next four years . Politicians and NGOs proceeded to remind the IWG @-@ TIP of its unfulfilled mandate for the eight years following 2004 , and the IWG @-@ TIP continued to promise to establish such a plan .
Joy Smith , Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Kildonan — St. Paul with the Conservative Party , put forward motion C @-@ 153 in February 2007 to put in place a Canada @-@ wide action plan to combat human trafficking , and the House of Commons passed the motion unanimously . Thomas Axworthy of the Toronto Star said that the unanimity of this decision demonstrated that the Harper government was just as dedicated to opposing human trafficking as was Barack Obama , President of the United States . Early promoters of a Canadian anti @-@ trafficking action plan hoped for up to $ 100 million in funding , which they argued would turn Canada into a world leader in the fight against human trafficking . World Vision Canada began lobbying for a national human trafficking action plan in 2009 .
= = = " Connecting the Dots " = = =
= = = = Development = = = =
In September 2009 , Smith 's Bill C @-@ 268 successfully passed into law as An Act to amend the Criminal Code ( minimum sentence for offences involving trafficking of persons under the age of eighteen years ) . The following September , she released " Connecting the Dots " , a national action plan proposal she had been working on for three years . " Connecting the Dots " sought " to rescue and restore the victims and prosecute the offenders " of human trafficking ; Smith intended it to address both trafficking within Canada and international trafficking into the country . Smith announced several dozen specific recommendations for the proposed plan , one of which was to create an office to regularly evaluate national human trafficking opposition efforts and generate annual reports of their findings . Other recommendations were to increase funding for organizations that support human trafficking victims ; to establish safe houses for victims in every Canadian province ; to increase the use of Canada 's human trafficking laws by educating police , judges , and lawyers about these relatively new laws ; to initiate an extensive public relations campaign on the subject ; and to have the federal government coordinate its activities with provincial governments , Aboriginal leaders , NGOs , law enforcement agencies , and human trafficking survivors .
Smith recommended that the Canadian government investigate ways in which prostitution law in Canada might be altered to emulate Sweden 's 1999 Sex Purchase Act , which criminalizes purchasing and attempting to purchase sex in Sweden — whether in the context of brothels , massage parlors , or street prostitution . Human trafficking in Sweden has significantly decreased since the institution of the Sex Purchase Act , and Smith said that Canada " can adapt many concepts from [ the Swedish ] model concerning the demand for the sex trade . " Smith 's proposal recommended that Canada , like Sweden , prosecute those who purchase sexual acts and not those who perform them . Smith 's recommendations were in keeping with a 2007 report released by the Standing Committee on the Status of Women , which stated that prostitutes should be considered exploitation victims and that prostitution has been demonstrated to engender human trafficking .
Smith argued that Canadians convicted of child sexual abuse should not be permitted to travel outside Canada , and that Canada should help combat the trafficking of children in other countries . The " Connecting the Dots " document called for the institution of a " Connecting the Dots Day " at elementary schools for students in Grade 6 , which Smith suggested would be the best grade in which to introduce the concept of human trafficking to students because younger children are increasingly at risk of being victimized . She also recommended that the Canada Border Services Agency ( CBSA ) track foreign women who arrive alone in Canada for six months to ensure their safety from traffickers . Smith said that she was " convinced that a federally led national action plan would address [ the ] challenges [ of human trafficking ] by implementing an integrated response to target the traffickers and provide relief and protection for the victims . " She said that the plan needed to be integrated on a national level because human trafficking is a clandestine activity . Smith advocated making the protection of victims central to the plan , and recommended consulting First Nations communities about anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking efforts . University of British Columbia law professor Benjamin Perrin helped guide Smith 's writing of " Connecting the Dots " .
= = = = Responses = = = =
Smith 's proposal received strong endorsement from organizations that support human trafficking victims and from law enforcement agencies . Marlene Jennings , a Liberal MP , praised Smith 's proposal overall but argued that it did not sufficiently distinguish between human trafficking and prostitution . Smith responded that there is a clear correlation between the two issues . Callandra Cochrane of Citizens for Public Justice said that such a plan " has become an imperative in order to ensure the protection of victims and effectively combat human trafficking , " but that Smith 's proposal had " definite weaknesses that need to be strengthened . " Cochrane praised the document 's suggestions that NGOs be granted funding , that efforts be coordinated with First Nations communities , that awareness @-@ raising campaigns be initiated , and that immigration be regulated . She argued that " Connecting the Dots " was too focused on those who create the demand for sex trafficking and did not sufficiently address victim rehabilitation . Loly Rico of the Canadian Council for Refugees made the same complaint . Rico recommended that the proposal be amended to allow human trafficking victims to become permanent residents of Canada so they would be more effectively protected against being trafficked again .
In October 2010 , Tara Teng used her position as Miss BC World to meet with Stephen Harper , Prime Minister of Canada , to discuss the possibility of implementing the NAP @-@ CHT . The day after their meeting , Teng received a letter from Harper stating that he was against human trafficking . Teng was disappointed that he did not have a more substantial response to their meeting , and she said that she " would like to see even more , to be very honest , from him as the person entrusted to protect the Canadian people . " In 2011 , Teng — who was Miss Canada at the time — helped Smith promote the proposal while Teng was interning with Smith through Trinity Western University 's Laurentian Leadership Centre . Smith quoted William Wilberforce , an 18th @-@ century British abolitionist , saying , " Having heard all of this you may choose to look the other way ... but you may never again say that you did not know . "
The Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs voiced its support for Smith 's proposal . Ron Evans , the assembly 's Grand Chief , said that Smith 's recommendations " bring attention to the fact that most vulnerable victims of domestic human trafficking and sexual exploitation are First Nations youth . " Ottawa Victim Services executive director Steve Sullivan commended Smith and Perrin on their development of the proposal . Timea Nagy , a former human trafficking victim and the founder of Walk With Me ( an organization that supports human trafficking victims in Toronto ) , said that she " felt a huge amount of relief " when she heard about the proposed NAP @-@ CHT , and said , " It 's time for Canada to have a National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking . "
Eventually , Smith submitted " Connecting the Dots " to Harper . In March 2012 , she spoke about her proposal at a human @-@ trafficking @-@ themed conference hosted by the Sisters of Loretto at St. Michael 's College . Smith circulated a petition requesting that the House of Commons establish an anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking national action plan . The Office for Systemic Justice , which is part of the Canadian Federation of Sisters of St. Joseph , released a report responding to " Connecting the Dots " , commending Smith on her work and recommending that her proposal incorporate the Delphi Indicators of Human Trafficking , based on the Delphi method . Additional recommendations for the plan were submitted by International Justice Mission ( IJM ) Canada , World Vision , the Alliance Against Modern Slavery ( AAMS ) , Beyond Borders , The Salvation Army , Not for Sale Canada , the Evangelical Fellowship of Canada ( EFC ) , ACT Alberta , and other NGOs .
= = Criticism of Canada for lacking such a plan = =
Before the establishment of the National Action Plan , a variety of people and organizations — including First Nations , human trafficking victims , law enforcement , and victim service providers — criticized Canada for failing to have such a plan . Charles Momy , president of the Canadian Police Association , said that despite existing efforts from local law enforcement agencies , Canada lacked and required " a coordinated response to ensure the offenders are prosecuted , and put a stop to this modern day form of slavery . " In October 2008 , John Fenn of Toronto 's Streetlight Support Services expressed his frustration that there was still no national action plan on this subject despite the passing of the corresponding motion the previous year . Fenn said , " Even if we make a muck of the thing if we get started , let 's get started . " Benjamín Santamaria of Project Desert Roses , another Toronto @-@ based organization , voiced the same complaint .
In 2009 , the United States Department of State annual Trafficking in Persons ( TIP ) Report was released at a news conference at the American consulate in Vancouver ; it criticized the Government of Canada for failing to have a national action plan to address human trafficking . At the conference , Perrin , who was named in the report as one of the world 's ten anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking heroes , called for Harper " to announce that he will enact a national action plan to combat human trafficking to follow up on the measures that his government has already taken . " Perrin said that Canada 's lack of a plan made the country look bad internationally and prevents the issue from being adequately addressed . Perrin said that the establishment of a national action plan on this issue " should be a priority for our federal government to end this atrocious crime that is flourishing in Canada . " He wrote the book Invisible Chains : Canada 's Underground World of Human Trafficking and said that a national anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking plan is necessary if the country is to be free and just . Perrin said that his book , which was published within three weeks of the release of " Connecting the Dots " , " shows that while traffickers have a plan , Canada doesn 't . "
The 2010 TIP report also condemned Canada 's lack of a national action plan , and said that Canada is a destination , source , and transit country for forced prostitution , unfree labour , the prostitution of children , and other forms of human trafficking . The report said that the federal and provincial governments of Canada were not cooperating sufficiently with respect to policing these crimes , and that a strategy for cooperation should be formulated in a national action plan . York Regional Police vice unit Detective Thai Truong agreed with the report 's assessment , and said that " a unified understanding and approach " to human trafficking " does not even exist at the municipal level of policing " in Canada . Also in 2010 , retired Toronto Police Service officer Dave Perry said that Canada 's lack of a national action plan had resulted in the country failing to adequately deal with North Preston 's Finest , a gang that engages in sex trafficking between Nova Scotia and Toronto . Perry had led a police taskforce against the gang in the late 1980s and early 1990s , but he said that without a national action plan , politicians lost interest in the endeavour and funding ran out . Perry stated that a plan would need to be well @-@ funded because traffickers in Canada are making " big , big money ... and the only way you can combat that is with a pretty healthy budget . "
York University professor Natalya Timoshkina , who was part of two research studies about human trafficking in Canada , said that the United States was combatting human trafficking much more effectively than Canada was . Timoshkina said that Canada 's responses to human trafficking have been sporadic and that , even if a national action plan was implemented , Canada needed to begin engaging with other countries on this issue . In February 2011 , Shae Invidiata of Free @-@ Them — a Canadian organization that raises awareness about human trafficking — said it was " mind blowing [ that ] currently we do not have a national action plan to combat human trafficking in Canada . "
= = Preparations by the federal government = =
During the 2011 Canadian federal election , Harper promised to establish the NAP @-@ CHT by 2012 and to invest $ 20 million into it . The annual budget of British Columbia 's Office to Combat Trafficking in Persons ( OCTIP ) was reduced by $ 200 @,@ 000 a few months later . OCTIP was Canada 's only provincial government agency responsible for coordinating efforts to address human trafficking . The federal government held a round table to determine the contents of the NAP @-@ CHT . Carleen McGuinty , child protection specialist for the Christian NGO World Vision Canada , said at the discussion that the NAP @-@ CHT should focus on the needs of children and that the plan should not emphasize child sexual abuse to the exclusion of addressing child labour . Smith said that she was confident that Harper would have her review the plan before it was established . The government consulted ACT Alberta , The Salvation Army , and the AAMS in the development of the plan .
= = Establishment = =
= = = Announcement = = =
The plan was established by the Government of Canada on June 6 , 2012 with a four @-@ year budget of $ 25 million , $ 500 @,@ 000 of which was to be used for supporting victims . The establishment was announced simultaneously in three Canadian cities . Smith made the announcement in Vancouver . In Ottawa , the announcement was made by Rona Ambrose , Minister responsible for the Status of Women and Minister of Public Works and Government Services ; and Vic Toews , Minister of Public Safety . Steven Blaney , Minister of Veterans Affairs , was the announcer in Montreal .
Ambrose called the plan an " important step to ensure the safety and security of women and girls across Canada who are being targeted for sexual exploitation by violent traffickers " . Toews said that the need to establish the NAP @-@ CHT was demonstrated by the ongoing legal proceedings regarding the Domotor @-@ Kolompar criminal organization , Canada 's largest human trafficking case to date . Smith said that the plan was an important step in the process of increasing the number of human @-@ trafficking @-@ related cases that go before court . Smith said that the NAP @-@ CHT would not be independently sufficient to end human trafficking in the country because this crime can only be effectively combatted when the country 's citizens are united against it ; she therefore recommended the establishment of a National Human Trafficking Awareness Day on February 22 to help raise awareness .
= = = Contents = = =
The plan states that human trafficking " is often described as a modern form of slavery , " but that no one knows how prevalent it is in Canada . The NAP @-@ CHT also says that women and girls are the most common victims of human trafficking . Randy Hoback , MP for Prince Albert , Saskatchewan , said that the goals of the action plan included " enhancing the response of law enforcement and the justice system to cases of missing and murdered Aboriginal women and girls and supporting culturally appropriate victim 's services . " The NAP @-@ CHT document states that there had been 25 human @-@ trafficking @-@ specific convictions in Canada prior to April 2012 , and that 41 people had been victims of those 25 crimes .
The plan 's recommendations are divided into four categories called the " 4 Ps " : partnership , prevention , prosecution , and protection . Included in the plan are action items with measurable goals . The plan encompasses support for victims , the increase of law enforcement across the country , and the consolidation of existing anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking efforts . The plan also outlines novel initiatives to more effectively prosecute perpetrators , identify and protect their victims , prevent further crimes , and engage in international partnership . There is a specific commitment to participate in international child protection . The NAP @-@ CHT instituted the Human Trafficking Taskforce , chaired by Public Safety Canada and mandated with coordinating the plan 's implementation and the generation of annual progress reports , which were to be made publicly available . This taskforce replaced the IWG @-@ TIP , which had been tasked solely with information sharing . The new taskforce involves 18 federal government departments . Public Safety Canada called the NAP @-@ CHT " a comprehensive blueprint to guide the Government of Canada 's fight against the serious crime of human trafficking . "
It introduced training for police officers and anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking service providers in communities that are particularly susceptible to human trafficking . The plan also includes an increase in training for prosecutors , border guards , and judges . The plan launched a nationally integrated law enforcement team tasked specifically with combatting human trafficking , the first of its kind in Canada . The team combines the forces of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) , CBSA , and local police . Due to difficulties encountered by Canadian law enforcement when investigating human trafficking before the establishment of the NAP @-@ CHT , this model of law enforcement integration , emulating successful teams combatting human trafficking in the United States , was included . This law enforcement integration model is intended to optimize information sharing and facilitate proactive investigation . The NAP @-@ CHT allocates substantial funds to the RCMP Human Trafficking National Coordination Centre ( HTNCC ) , which is based in Ottawa .
Also included in the plan is an outline for raising awareness about human trafficking across Canada . The plan specifically mentions TruckSTOP , a campaign of Persons Against the Crime of Trafficking in Humans Ottawa , as being integral to the plan . According to the plan , the CBSA is responsible for informing foreigners about human trafficking because of their increased vulnerability . The plan includes a provision for the government to partner with NGOs that oppose human trafficking . Although Smith said that human trafficking would be more effectively combatted if Canada 's prostitution laws were reformed to align with those of Sweden , criminalizing the purchasing rather than the selling of sex , the NAP @-@ CHT does not make such legislative recommendations . The plan enables immigration officers to issue temporary residence permits to foreigners victimized by human trafficking in Canada , thereby providing these victims with opportunities to receive aid .
= = = Implementation = = =
The plan came into force on June 28 , 2012 . After the establishment of the national action plan , British Columbia established a provincial action plan informed by the national one to coordinate its anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking efforts with the federal government 's . OCTIP then became involved in implementing the national and provincial action plans . The provincial action plan , published in March 2013 , states that contributing to development of the NAP @-@ CHT through consultation and information sharing was an immediate priority .
The month after the plan took effect , the Canadian government announced that the country 's sex industry would no longer be allowed to employ foreign workers because of the risks of exploitation , abuse , and trafficking in that environment . As part of this policy , the Department of Citizenship and Immigration Canada stopped issuing new temporary work permits for foreigners seeking work with escort agencies , massage parlours , and strip clubs . Jason Kenney , Minister of Citizenship and Immigration , said that he hoped that the NAP @-@ CHT would be strengthened by this new policy , and said that its purpose was to protect foreigners " from what they might not know will happen to them when they get to Canada . " That November , Status of Women Canada sought to support the NAP @-@ CHT by soliciting the public for proposals of how to best support community organizations that serve female victims of sex trafficking — the most common victims of this form of trafficking . In late 2012 , Smith launched the Joy Smith Foundation as a follow @-@ up to the NAP @-@ CHT ; this nonpartisan , apolitical foundation is dedicated to raising awareness about human trafficking and providing support to human trafficking victims with counselling , housing , and clothing .
The Canadian government spent more than $ 6 million on actions related to the NAP @-@ CHT in 2013 . In September of that year , Kellie Leitch , Minister responsible for the Status of Women and Minister of Labour , announced that the government would give the Women 's Support Network of York Region $ 200 @,@ 000 to initiate a project aimed at eradicating human trafficking in the Regional Municipality of York , and she appealed to the NAP @-@ CHT when making the announcement . In February 2013 , the Toronto City Council decided to coordinate its anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking efforts with the NAP @-@ CHT . That May , during a meeting of the sixty @-@ seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly at United Nations Headquarters in New York City that was convened to discuss the Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons , the Canadian delegation spoke about the NAP @-@ CHT .
= = Reactions = =
= = = To the plan 's establishment = = =
The establishment of the plan was received positively by many Canadian NGOs and law enforcement officials . Within a day of its establishment , the plan had received support from the parents of human trafficking victims . Glendene Grant , mother of missing human trafficking victim Jessie Foster , said , " From the bottom of my heart , I would like to thank the government of Canada for their development and launch of the Canadian National Action Plan to Combat the Crime of Human Trafficking , making our country one of the leaders in the fight against this crime . " Around the same time , the EFC voiced its support for the plan , specifically praising the commitments to create a national human trafficking law enforcement taskforce , to raise awareness , to invest in prevention , to care for victims , and to consult with stakeholders on an ongoing basis . The EFC 's policy analyst Julia Beazley said that the organization was " particularly pleased with the proposals aimed at combatting sexual exploitation , and with the focus given to our Aboriginal communities , which are particularly vulnerable to trafficking . "
Luis CdeBaca , United States Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons , said , " With the announcement of a new national action plan , Canada is showing the international community what an effective anti @-@ trafficking strategy looks like . " Nagy said that she was " absolutely thrilled " with the establishment of the plan . Invidiata said that she and many others " stand proud to be Canadian " because of the announcement of the NAP @-@ CHT 's " important measures to protect our women and children in Canada . " Natasha Falle , founder and director of Sex Trade 101 , said that , as an organization of sex trafficking victims , they were extremely pleased with the establishment of the NAP @-@ CHT . She said that she and the other members of Sex Trade 101 " have been collectively afraid , raped , beaten , sold , discarded [ so ] we are forever grateful to MP Joy Smith for being a voice for those who are not allowed to speak out . "
Brian Venables , Divisional Secretary for Public Relations and Development for the British Columbia Division of The Salvation Army , said , " We welcome a plan that enhances the support for the victims of these horrible crimes ... and are pleased to have been part of the plan 's development . " He also praised the plan 's outline of how to educate the public on the subject of human trafficking and how the police and the judiciary should cooperate on the subject . Brian McConaghy of Ratanak International said that he was pleased to see the NAP @-@ CHT established and that the plan 's framework is necessary to protect those at risk of being trafficked . Sister Nancy Brown of Covenant House British Columbia said that her organization was in support of the NAP @-@ CHT and Smith 's efforts to combat human trafficking . The Servants Anonymous Society 's chief financial officer , Dominique Machefert , said that her organization " applauds the Conservative Government for taking the issue of human trafficking seriously and for executing the necessary steps to enact the National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking . "
A common criticism of the plan is that it is not victim @-@ centric and that its support for victims is insufficient . Bethany Hastie of McGill University said that the HTNCC had a good track record of intelligence assessment and awareness @-@ raising with respect to human trafficking , and she therefore approved of the plan 's funding of the HTNCC . She was critical of the plan 's emphasis on law enforcement , saying that " the crime @-@ fighting focus of the plan has unfortunately detracted from ... victim services . " She said that more attention to victim services was necessary because most Canadian provinces were employing only ad @-@ hoc methods of supporting victims , often omitting important elements such as legal aid and situation @-@ appropriate shelter . A few weeks after the establishment of the NAP @-@ CHT , Dean Allison , MP for Niagara West — Glanbrook , Ontario travelled to Cambodia and Thailand to learn more about human trafficking as part of a parliamentary delegation with World Vision Canada , and he said that his meetings there convinced him " that we are on the right track in Canada with our National Action Plan . "
In October 2012 , the Canadian Coalition for the Rights of Children ( CCRC ) said that it approved of Canada 's adoption of the plan , but was reserving judgement on whether the new Human Trafficking Taskforce would be more effective than the body it replaced . The CCRC criticized the NAP @-@ CHT for including " few specific strategies for children and no mention of strengthening respect for children 's rights as part of prevention . " The CCRC also said that the NAP @-@ CHT lacks recognition of the responsibilities Canada has according to the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children , Child Prostitution and Child Pornography . The coalition therefore recommended that the plan be amended to include mandatory sentencing for traffickers of children , and to provide for collaboration with youth organizations .
Also in October 2012 , Jamie McIntosh of IJM Canada said that his organization supports the NAP @-@ CHT , and that the plan 's promises to participate in international child protection would be best fulfilled by apprehending and prosecuting Canadians who engage in child sex tourism and child trafficking in other countries . McIntosh recommended that this work be focused on Cambodia , the Dominican Republic , Mexico , the Philippines , and Thailand because these countries are particularly vulnerable to Canadian traffickers . He also recommended focusing on these countries because Canadians have been caught participating in child sex tourism there ; McIntosh made specific reference to the cases of Kenneth Klassen and Donald Bakker .
In response to the plan , Chab Dai Canada initiated the Canadian Freedom Registry Project " to promote and enable the implementation of ... Canada ’ s National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking ... focusing specifically on partnership . " Chab Dai sought to research ways to improve anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking activities in Canada and to facilitate information sharing between anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking organisations and the federal and provincial governments . In April 2013 , a troika of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights composed of Brazil , the Philippines , and the Republic of Ireland released a report reviewing Canada as part of that year 's Universal Periodic Review ; the report highlighted the establishment of the NAP @-@ CHT as a positive achievement . UNICEF Canada approved of the establishment of the NAP @-@ CHT , and encouraged Canadians to write letters to politicians asking them to make sure that youth and children are the plan 's foremost priorities . The politicians UNICEF recommended that people write to Harper , Toews , Kenney , and Rob Nicholson , the Minister of Justice .
= = = To the plan 's implementation = = =
A month after the plan 's establishment , Public Service Alliance of Canada Prairies Regional Executive Vice @-@ President Marianne Hladun wrote an open letter to Brad Trost , MP for Saskatoon — Humboldt , saying that , while she approved of the NAP @-@ CHT , the government was being inconsistent in its treatment of human trafficking because it had recently announced that it would be eliminating four CBSA intelligence officer positions , thereby dismissing four people who were already doing effective anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking work . When it was announced that foreign workers would no longer be issued permits for work in Canada 's sex industry , Tim Lambrinos , leader of the Adult Entertainment Association of Canada , said that he might challenge the policy because he believed that " strip clubs are a very safe environment " and that the government was " destroying an industry [ and ] creating a labour shortage . " At Toronto 's third annual Walk for Freedom in September 2012 , Shae Invidiata criticized the NAP @-@ CHT for allotting only $ 500 @,@ 000 to victim services , saying , " I 'm very grateful , but we need more . " Smith also said that the $ 500 @,@ 000 allotted to support victims was insufficient . She said that many of these organizations " still struggle to provide basic care for victims of human trafficking " and that there should be a " considerable increase in support from the federal and provincial governments for these organizations . "
In June 2013 , on the first anniversary of the plan 's establishment , a variety of NGOs released a joint report about the NAP @-@ CHT . In this report , Don Hutchinson , vice president of the EFC , said that " continuing focused implementation of the Action Plan is essential to Canadians doing our part to put an end to this travesty . " Michael Maidment , director of federal government relations for The Salvation Army , wrote that the plan was important and sends a message to traffickers about the government 's commitment to end human trafficking . Andrea Burkhart , on behalf of ACT Alberta , wrote that victim support funding needed to increase . Karlee Sapoznik , president of the AAMS , criticized the NAP @-@ CHT for ignoring the country 's " crucial lack of research and data , " writing that " we need sustained research on the nature of human trafficking within and involving Canada . " Nonetheless , she said that her organization was pleased to have been consulted in the development of the plan .
That July , Stefan Lehmeier , a World Vision Canada Senior Policy Advisor for Child Protection , said that World Vision was pleased with the establishment of the NAP @-@ CHT and with Canadian politicians ' level of interest in the plan . He said that " there has been progress in combating human trafficking " as a result of the NAP @-@ CHT , but he criticized the country for not doing more with the new information that the plan has exposed , saying that " we haven 't seen the number of convictions we wanted to see . " Lehmeier said that the RCMP should collaborate more with law enforcement agencies in Southeast Asia to address the issue of Canadians participating in sex tourism there .
In September , Jennifer Lucking of Walk With Me encouraged Canadians to write to their members of parliament to make sure that the promises outlined in the plan come to fruition . In preparation for 2013 Walk for Freedom , Invidiata said she was glad that the NAP @-@ CHT had come into existence , but that the related funds should be released in a different way .
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= Emile Heskey =
Emile William Ivanhoe Heskey ( born 11 January 1978 ) is an English professional footballer who last played as a striker for Championship club Bolton Wanderers . Before joining the club , he made more than 500 appearances in the Football League and Premier League over an 18 @-@ year career , and represented England in international football . He also had a spell for Australian A @-@ League side Newcastle Jets .
Born in Leicester , Heskey started his career with Leicester City after progressing through their youth system , making his first team debut in 1995 . After winning the League Cup in 1997 and 2000 he made an £ 11 million move to Liverpool in 2000 , which , at the time , was the record transfer fee paid by the club . At Liverpool , he won multiple honours , including the FA Cup in 2001 . He moved to Birmingham City in 2004 and after their relegation from the FA Premier League signed for Wigan Athletic for a club record £ 5 @.@ 5 million fee in 2006 . He signed for Aston Villa in 2009 and was released in 2012 before signing for Australian A @-@ League side Newcastle Jets . After two years , he returned to England , signing for Championship club Bolton Wanderers .
Heskey was an England international at under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 18 , under @-@ 21 , B and senior levels . He made his England debut against Hungary in a 1 – 1 draw in 1999 . He lost his place in the squad after UEFA Euro 2004 , during which he failed to shine and was the subject of much criticism . After a long lay @-@ off from international duty , Heskey was recalled to the England squad for UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers in September 2007 . He retired from international football following the 2010 FIFA World Cup , having attained 62 caps and scored 7 goals for his country .
= = Club career = =
= = = Leicester City = = =
Heskey was born in Leicester , Leicestershire to a family of Antiguan descent , and his father , Tyrone Heskey , ran the security of nightclubs in Leicester . He was a keen footballer in his childhood and played for Ratby Groby Juniors , a local youth team in Leicester . He stood out amongst his peers and at the age of nine he accepted a place at Leicester City 's football academy . Progressing through their youth system , he made his first team debut at the age of 17 while still a first @-@ year trainee in an FA Premier League match against Queens Park Rangers on 8 March 1995 . Leicester were relegated to the First Division following the end of the 1994 – 95 season and he signed his first professional contract with the club on 3 October 1995 . He became a first team regular in the 1995 – 96 season , making 30 appearances for the club , helping them earn promotion back to the FA Premier League . During this season , Heskey scored his first goal as a professional footballer , which came in a 1 – 0 victory over Norwich City , in a season he managed to score seven goals .
During the 1996 – 97 season , his first in the Premier League , Heskey scored 10 goals in 35 appearances , and scored the equaliser in the 1997 League Cup Final against Middlesbrough , which Leicester won in a replay . The following season , 1997 – 98 , saw interest from Leeds United and Tottenham Hotspur for Heskey , as he again managed to score 10 Premier League goals , which made him Leicester 's top scorer that season . However , the 1998 – 99 season saw Heskey score only six top @-@ flight goals , and he was criticised for not scoring enough goals and going to ground too easily . During this season however , he forged an effective strike partnership with Tony Cottee , who benefited from Heskey 's unselfish style of play , which manager Martin O 'Neill claimed kept the club in the Premier League . He went on to win the League Cup again in 2000 with a 2 – 1 win against Tranmere Rovers in the Final .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Heskey joined Liverpool on 10 March 2000 in a long @-@ anticipated £ 11 million move , which , at the time , set the record transfer fee for the Merseyside club . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier looked forward to working with him , but stated that " at his age he is not the finished product " . The press saw the move as expensive and risky as Heskey was relatively inexperienced and was not a prolific goalscorer . However , he was held in high regard by both the England under @-@ 21 manager , Peter Taylor , and England and Liverpool teammate Michael Owen . Veteran Liverpool striker Ian Rush approved of the signing , noting that Heskey would " give Liverpool a different dimension " , bringing strength to the Liverpool strikeforce and complementing Owen and Robbie Fowler 's pacey play . Heskey made his debut in an FA Premier League clash with Sunderland on 11 March 2000 and scored his first goal in a 3 – 0 victory over Coventry City on 1 April . He finished the 1999 – 2000 season with 12 appearances and three goals for Liverpool . He featured in the 2001 FA Cup Final on 12 May 2001 , starting ahead of Fowler , which Liverpool won 2 – 1 against Arsenal . During the 2000 – 01 season Heskey scored 22 goals for Liverpool as the club won the FA Cup , League Cup and UEFA Cup treble . He also scored Liverpool 's second goal when they beat Bayern Munich 3 – 2 in the 2001 UEFA Super Cup .
Heskey was linked with a £ 12 million move to Tottenham in December 2002 , but Houllier insisted he was a part of his long @-@ term plans and he remained at Liverpool . The same year , Heskey made a six @-@ figure donation to aid a consortium led by Gary Lineker in their bid to buy @-@ out his former club , Leicester City , who were experiencing financial difficulties . The 2002 – 03 season saw him score nine goals in 51 appearances for Liverpool and received criticism for his low goal to game ratio , with Houllier claiming that his future at the club was safe .
He picked up a hamstring injury during a match against Newcastle United in January 2004 , which ruled him out of action for three weeks . In the 2003 – 04 season Heskey faced increasing competition from Milan Baroš for a place in the Liverpool starting line @-@ up . Nevertheless , he scored 12 goals and secured a place in the England squad for UEFA Euro 2004 .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
At the end of the 2003 – 04 season , Heskey signed for Birmingham City on a five @-@ year contract for an initial fee of £ 3 @.@ 5 million , which could have risen to £ 6 @.@ 25 million , and would thus have become Birmingham 's most expensive player . He suffered from an ankle injury during a pre @-@ season friendly against CA Osasuna , which put his Premier League debut against Portsmouth in doubt . He was eventually able to play against Portsmouth on 14 August , and the match ended as a 1 – 1 draw . His first goal came with a header in the eighth minute against Manchester City , which was enough to earn a 1 – 0 victory on 24 August . Despite Birmingham 's mediocre 2004 – 05 season , Heskey was named as the club 's Player 's Player of the Season , Fan 's Player of the Season , finished as top goalscorer with 11 goals and won most Man of the match awards .
He suffered from an ankle injury against Blackburn Rovers on 19 April 2006 , and after passing a late fitness test , played in a 0 – 0 draw against Everton on 22 April . Birmingham 's 2005 – 06 season , during which Heskey scored only four goals in 34 league appearances , culminated in relegation into the Championship . During this season , Heskey gave inconsistent performances and received abuse from Birmingham fans . Birmingham managing director Karren Brady stated that Birmingham 's relegation meant that the last £ 1 @.@ 5 million of the maximum £ 6 @.@ 25 million fee for signing Heskey from Liverpool would not be payable .
= = = Wigan Athletic = = =
Heskey was signed by Wigan Athletic for a fee of £ 5 @.@ 5 million on 7 July 2006 . He made his debut for Wigan against Newcastle United on 19 August 2006 , which his new club lost 2 – 1 . On his 500th league appearance , Heskey scored his first goal for Wigan in a 1 – 0 Premier League victory over Reading on 26 August . He scored eight goals in 36 appearances during the 2006 – 07 season , as Wigan avoided relegation on goal difference over Sheffield United , against whom Heskey played well for Wigan on 13 May 2007 , in a game he nearly scored a bicycle kick . He suffered a suspected broken metatarsal in September 2007 , and made his return for Wigan in a 2 – 0 defeat to Arsenal in November . He picked up an ankle injury during Wigan 's 5 – 3 victory against Blackburn in December 2007 . On 14 April 2008 , Heskey scored a 90th minute equalising goal against Chelsea , which damaged their hopes of winning the Premier League . He went on to score Wigan 's equaliser against Tottenham in the following game to give them a 1 – 1 draw , which proved to be his last goal of the 2007 – 08 season , which he finished with four goals in 30 appearances .
His first goal of the 2008 – 09 season came in Wigan 's fourth game , a 5 – 0 victory against Hull City at the KC Stadium . He hinted in October 2008 that he would be interested in leaving Wigan to play in the Champions League , with former club Liverpool believed to be interested in signing him in the January transfer window . However , Wigan manager Steve Bruce hoped to persuade him to sign a new contract at the club . Heskey commented on reports of interest from Liverpool by saying " It would be lovely . We 'll see how it goes . " He scored his 100th goal in the Premier League against Portsmouth on 1 November 2008 , which secured a 2 – 1 victory for Wigan . Dave Whelan , the Wigan chairman , hinted that Heskey could be transferred by Wigan in January 2009 , as a fee would be received , whereas he would move on for free in the summer , which came after he had stalled on talks over a new contract . However , Bruce said he would only accept an offer for Heskey if it was " outrageous " . He later said he was confident of keeping Heskey at the club . Heskey picked up a hamstring injury during a match against Bolton Wanderers in December 2008 , which resulted in him missing an FA Cup third round tie against Tottenham . He later said he would stay at Wigan and see out his contract until the summer of 2009 .
= = = Aston Villa = = =
Heskey signed for Aston Villa for a fee of £ 3 @.@ 5 million on a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract on 23 January 2009 . He made his debut against Portsmouth on 27 January 2009 and scored in this game with a strike from 20 yards ; the first time he has scored on his debut for any club for which he has played . He scored one more goal before the end of the season , with the opening goal in a 1 – 1 draw with West Ham United . He finished the season with 14 appearances and two goals for Villa .
He suffered from concussion after minutes into a Peace Cup pre @-@ season friendly game against Málaga CF in July 2009 . Heskey was reported to have said he was considering leaving Villa during the January 2010 transfer window , to help ensure he would be chosen for the England team at the 2010 FIFA World Cup , to which manager Martin O 'Neill responded by saying " There are players at this club with England ambitions . I wouldn 't be overly concerned about all that yet . " However , Heskey later denied he was seeking to leave Villa . O 'Neill told him to " build up a head of steam " in February 2010 , saying he was concerned that Heskey 's injuries were denying him from producing his best form . Heskey finished the 2009 – 10 season with 42 appearances and five goals .
His first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season came after starting in a 1 – 1 draw at Rapid Vienna in the Europa League play @-@ off first leg . Under Gérard Houllier , who previously managed Heskey at Liverpool , the striker enjoyed a successful start to the 2010 – 11 campaign including winning goals in the local derbies with Wolverhampton Wanderers and West Bromwich Albion .
On 7 May 2011 in Aston Villa 's home game against Wigan , Heskey barged into referee Mike Jones and continued to argue with him because he did not award a free kick for an alleged elbow by Antolín Alcaraz . Heskey received a yellow card for his behaviour and had to be restrained by team @-@ mates such as Brad Friedel and captain Stiliyan Petrov . He played for the remainder of the half , but had to be restrained again in the tunnel at the interval . Caretaker manager Gary McAllister chose to substitute him for Marc Albrighton at half @-@ time , and Heskey was not allowed to remain at the stadium for the rest of the game . Despite his outburst , Heskey received no punishment from either Villa or The Football Association . Teammate Luke Young later said that Heskey was " lucky he didn 't get sent off " .
Heskey remained at Villa Park for one more year , during which he scored just once , in an August 2011 win over Blackburn , before he was released in May 2012 after being told he would not be offered a new contract .
= = = Newcastle Jets = = =
Heskey signed for Australian A @-@ League side Newcastle Jets on 21 September 2012 as their marquee player for the 2012 – 13 season . He made his debut in the Jets ' 2 – 0 home defeat to Adelaide United , in which he was substituted in the 72nd minute for James Virgili . Heskey scored his first A @-@ League goal in a 3 – 2 away win against Sydney FC on 13 October 2012 . In five starts , Heskey put his goal tally up to five , with his goal against Sydney FC , followed by one goal against F3 Derby rivals the Central Coast Mariners , two goals against Melbourne Victory on 26 October and one goal against the Western Sydney Wanderers , which took him to joint top scorer of the league . The match against Melbourne featured " Heskey Cam " , which allowed the viewer to track Heskey 's movements with one camera throughout the match . Having finished the 2012 – 13 season with nine goals in 23 appearances and earning a nomination for the Jets ' Player of the Year award , Heskey signed a new contract for the 2013 – 14 season in April 2013 . After scoring once in 19 appearances in the 2013 – 14 season , Heskey left the Jets to pursue a move to an English club .
= = = Bolton Wanderers = = =
After a successful trial Heskey signed for Championship club Bolton Wanderers on a short @-@ term contract on 24 December 2014 . He made his debut two days later as a half @-@ time substitute for Robert Hall with Bolton 1 – 0 down at home to Blackburn , but after scoring the equalising goal in the 59th minute Bolton went on to win the match 2 – 1 . His goal was set up by another 36 @-@ year @-@ old forward who the club had re @-@ signed that month , Eiður Guðjohnsen who had played for them 14 years earlier . Heskey was released by Bolton when his contract expired at the end of the 2015 – 16 season .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth level = = =
Heskey gained his first international recognition after playing for the England under @-@ 16 team , making four appearances and appearing at the 1994 UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship . He played alongside Michael Owen in the under @-@ 18 team which finished third in the European Championships in France , and made eight appearances and scored five goals for the team . Heskey went on to gain recognition with the under @-@ 21 team , making his debut after starting in a 0 – 0 draw with Poland on 8 October 1996 ; a year later on 30 May 1997 , he scored against the same side in a 1 – 1 stalemate . After making his final appearance in a 3 – 0 victory over Yugoslavia in a 2000 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification play @-@ off on 29 March 2000 , he finished his under @-@ 21 career with 17 caps , in which he scored six goals . He was capped once by the England B team , against Chile on 10 February 1998 , in which he scored a 90th @-@ minute goal in a 2 – 1 defeat .
= = = Senior level = = =
Heskey was given his first call @-@ up to the senior England team for a friendly against the Czech Republic on 18 November 1998 , but did not play . He made his debut in a friendly against Hungary in Budapest in a 1 – 1 draw on 28 April 1999 and made his first start against Argentina at Wembley Stadium on 23 February 2000 . That showing ensured he was in the England squad for the UEFA Euro 2000 tournament . However , his two substitute performances in the tournament could not help England , as the team were eliminated in the group stage .
= = = = 2002 FIFA World Cup = = = =
Heskey was selected in the squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan , and was used as a makeshift option to play in England 's left @-@ wing role in the game against Sweden , but did not perform well out of his regular position . He scored against Denmark in England 's 3 – 0 victory , which saw England reach the quarter @-@ finals of the tournament . He featured in this game , where England were beaten 2 – 1 by the eventual champions Brazil . He and teammate Ashley Cole received abuse from some Slovakia supporters when England played them in a friendly in October 2002 , which led to UEFA opening an investigation into the allegations . Slovakia were eventually forced to play their next home international behind closed doors .
= = = = UEFA Euro 2004 = = = =
Heskey 's place in the England squad had been placed under scrutiny in 2003 with the emergence of Wayne Rooney into the England squad . However , despite being criticised for his lack of international goals , he continued to be an integral part of the international squad and took over the captaincy from Michael Owen after he was substituted when England beat Serbia and Montenegro 2 – 1 in his hometown of Leicester in June 2003 . Heskey was named in the England squad for UEFA Euro 2004 , but failed to perform well , and was the subject of much criticism . He came on as a substitute while England were leading 1 – 0 against France and fouled Claude Makélélé on the edge of the penalty area , giving away a direct free kick from which France equalised . England eventually lost 2 – 1 .
= = = = 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification = = = =
Heskey was recalled into the England squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Northern Ireland and Azerbaijan in 2005 , after having been dropped following the game against Ukraine in August 2004 . Since the emergence of Peter Crouch in the England squad , the possibility of a recall receded further .
= = = = UEFA Euro 2008 qualification = = = =
Heskey 's international appearances under manager Steve McClaren were limited , although he was recalled to the England squad in September 2007 for the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers as cover for the injured Rooney against Israel and Russia , on the recommendation of Michael Owen , after stating that he wanted to play alongside Heskey . He started the game against Israel and played an important role in the England attack , and by featuring he became the first England player to be capped for England whilst playing for Wigan Athletic . Heskey also started the next match against Russia , fighting off competition from Peter Crouch for a place in the team , during which he created an assist for Owen 's second goal . He was widely praised for his performances in the two matches , with former England international Alan Shearer commenting , " Never in a million years did I expect to be discussing whether Emile Heskey should keep his place ahead of Wayne Rooney but the Wigan striker was outstanding over both games . "
= = = = 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification = = = =
Heskey was called into manager Fabio Capello 's first squad against Switzerland , but had to withdraw due to an injury . He was called into the squad for a friendly against the Czech Republic in August 2008 and came on as a 46th @-@ minute substitute , in a match that finished 2 – 2 . He featured in the following 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification victories against Andorra and Croatia . Heskey was alleged to have been racially abused during the match against Croatia , with monkey chants being heard from sections of the Croatia support , after which FIFA opened an investigation , and eventually fined the Croatian Football Federation £ 15 @,@ 000 for the incident . He played his 50th game for England in the 2010 World Cup qualifier against Belarus on 15 October 2008 , after which he was credited as helping Wayne Rooney 's improved form in international matches , with the two forming an effective strike partnership and keeping Owen out of the side . He started in a friendly against Spain in February 2009 , which drew an angry reaction by Villa manager Martin O 'Neill , who wanted to know why Capello played Heskey after suffering from an injury . Heskey scored his first goal for England in six years against Slovakia , scoring England 's first in a 4 – 0 victory at Wembley Stadium.He picked up a hamstring injury during this game , which forced him into withdrawing from the squad . He scored in a 4 – 0 victory over Kazakhstan in a 2010 World Cup qualifier in June 2009 , which was his first competitive goal for England in seven years .
= = = = 2010 FIFA World Cup = = = =
Heskey was named in England 's preliminary 30 @-@ man squad for the 2010 World Cup on 11 May 2010 and was eventually chosen for the final 23 @-@ man squad on 1 June . Heskey injured England captain Rio Ferdinand during a training session on 4 June , which ruled Ferdinand out of the tournament . He started in England 's opening game , a 1 – 1 draw with the United States and assisted Steven Gerrard 's goal .
Heskey retired from international football on 15 July 2010 , at the age of 32 , having scored seven goals in 62 appearances for England .
= = Style of play = =
Heskey plays as a forward with pace , being a powerful targetman with physical strength and is hard working . His play has been likened to " a blunt instrument with which to bludgeon defences " . His main contributions to the team lie in the way he holds the ball up and draws defenders out , leaving space behind him for another player to score . He has been credited as being an unselfish player who allows other forwards to benefit . He is not a prolific goalscorer but is able to provide a significant number of assists . He has been quoted as saying " Forwards are judged on their goalscoring . But I like to think I bring a lot more to the game and I do get pleasure from assisting " . He impressed the England staff with his versatility , as he can also play down the left wing . However , he has been criticised by the media for his lack of goals ; lapses in his goalscoring have been described as being " hardly uncommon " . In 2008 it was stated that " It is only the perception of his talents that changes " after Heskey stated he was no better or worse than before .
= = Personal life = =
Heskey was the partner of Kylee Pinsent but he left her in 2004 and is now engaged to Chantelle Tagoe . He started seeing Tagoe secretly in 2002 , who worked part @-@ time as a waitress at a lap @-@ dancing bar in Liverpool , while still in a relationship with Pinsent . Following the revelation of his two @-@ year affair with Tagoe , Pinsent broke up with Heskey . He is the father of five children , three of them with former partner Pinsent and two with Tagoe . His fiancée Tagoe was held at knifepoint at their home in Hale , Greater Manchester in July 2008 , while he was at a training session . The thieves burgled the house and stole Heskey 's BMW but neither Tagoe , nor their two children who were in the house , were hurt . Following this , he said Tagoe was " very , very distressed " by the incident . In 2009 , he was rated as owning a personal fortune of £ 12 million . Heskey and other members of the England team supported the Shoe Aid for Africa campaign in 2009 , which was aimed at helping underprivileged children in Africa .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 7 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
= = = International goals = = =
England score listed first , score column indicates score after each Heskey goal .
= = Honours = =
Leicester City
Football League First Division play @-@ offs : 1995 – 96
Football League Cup : 1996 – 97 , 1999 – 2000
Liverpool
FA Cup : 2000 – 01
Football League Cup : 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03
FA Charity Shield : 2001
UEFA Cup : 2000 – 01
UEFA Super Cup : 2001
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= And Their Name Was Treason =
And Their Name Was Treason is the debut studio album by American rock band A Day to Remember , released on May 10 , 2005 through Indianola Records . It followed their self @-@ released EP , which was produced the previous year . The album was the band 's only release under Indianola ; its success led the group sign to Victory Records . Several songs on the album were written during the band members ' teenage years . Recorded in the producer 's bedroom , the album contains audio excerpts from several films . The band toured in the United States to help promote the album . The album has since sold over 10 @,@ 000 copies . A re @-@ recorded version of the album , titled Old Record , was released in October 2008 by Victory . The band members later admitted that they were forced to do the re @-@ recording at the request of label owner Tony Brummel . The reissue charted at number 16 on the Heatseekers Album Chart in the U.S.
= = Background = =
A Day to Remember formed when guitarist Tom Denney asked Jeremy McKinnon if he would like to join the band as a vocalist . The pair hung out with drummer Bobby Scruggs , who later joined the band . During this period , both Denney and Scruggs were already in a band ; Denney was in 2 Days 2 Late , while McKinnon played in All for Nothing . The trio wrote a song which McKinnon said " was better than everything our other bands had come up with " . Shortly afterwards the trio decided to form a band which was called End of An Era in its first week of existence . The name was inspired by a movie listing in a TV guide found in Denney 's home . One day at rehearsal , a friend of Scruggs showed up with his girlfriend , who came up with the band 's name A Day to Remember .
Scruggs ' friend stayed in the band for a short period . He was fired after several instances of walking off stage mid @-@ performance . According to Denney , the group 's original bassist and rhythm guitarist " didn 't work out " . They were subsequently replaced by guitarist Neil Westfall and bassist Joshua Woodard . At the time , Westfall was also in 2 Days 2 Late , while Woodard was a fan of the band . A Day to Remember practiced in McKinnon 's garage , who was living with his parents at the time . The band released an independent EP which helped them secure a recording contract .
= = Writing and recording = =
According to McKinnon , And Their Name Was Treason was recorded " probably within 3 days " , in Andrew Wade 's bedroom at his parents house ( credited in the album booklet as The Wade Studio ) . The members later said they had " no idea " what were they doing when they were recording the album . The album features samples from various films throughout ; " Intro " features a sample from the film Donnie Darko , " 1958 " features a sample from the film The Boondock Saints and " Sound the Alarm " features audio from Shaun of the Dead . Speaking about the lyrical themes on the record , guitarist Tom Denney said that they were " all experiences that [ singer ] Jeremy has had , its all based on life " .
A few of the songs were written by the band when they were teenagers , such as " 1958 " , " Heartless " , and " You Should Have Killed Me When You Had the Chance " , the latter being one of the first songs that the band ever wrote . " 1958 " was written about a temporary drummer , who threatened to go McKinnon 's parents house with a baseball bat ; the numbers " 1958 " being the last four digits of his phone number . Denney added that the song " talks about family and us sticking together no matter what . "
= = Release = =
= = = Initial release and touring = = =
Record label Indianola were introduced to the band by their PureVolume account , which was shown to the label by a mutual friend of the band . On February 9 , 2005 , the band got signed to Indianola , which McKinnon later said that the band thought " was the biggest shit in the world " . On the same day , And Their Name Was Treason was announced for release later that year . Samples of three tracks , " 1958 " , " Casablanca Sucked Anyways " , and " If Looks Could Kill " , were posted on the website of The Wade Studio prior to release . Since its release on May 10 , 2005 , And Their Name Was Treason sold over 10 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. with little advertising and no media exposure . The album 's success helped the band sign to Victory for their following album . The group toured in the U.S. in the summer of 2005 to promote the record , along with other bands such as Caldwell and Orion . The tour continued throughout October and November with Foreknown and Blessed by a Broken Heart as supporting acts . The group 's travel vehicles were financed by McKinnon 's parents .
Shortly before the beginning of one tour , Scruggs told the band he wasn 't going , so Woodard and Westfall recruited Alex Shelnutt . Upon being asked , Shelnutt 's response was " Ask my mom " , as he was 15 at the time . " A Second Glance " had a music video , directed by Reel Players . It was included on the promotional Welcome to Indianola Records album . The band left Indianola as they thought the label would not be able to take them " to the next level " , as McKinnon commented .
= = = Reissue – Old Record = = =
In 2008 , both Old Record and the band 's newest release at that time , Homesick ( 2009 ) , were announced . The artwork for Old Record was released a month prior , and then the track list was posted online before the album 's release on October 28 , 2008 , through Victory . The re @-@ release features different cover art , a rearranged track listing and re @-@ recorded instrumentation . Old Record charted at number 16 on the Top Heatseekers Albums chart in the U.S. The re @-@ release came about due to the album 's later unavailability in stores and as McKinnon commented , the band wanted " people to be able to get it " . " Your Way with Words Is Through Silence " was streamed as part of Distrophonix 's various artists compilation Screaming to Stop Sex Slavery in July 2009 .
On December 6 , 2010 , two colored vinyl editions of Old Record were released . In an interview with USA Today in 2011 , McKinnon said that the band " had a bunch of people tell us we 'd sold out — and that was our first album " when they had released And Their Name Was Treason . On July 2 , 2013 , Victory announced that Old Record was to be reissued again on vinyl , in 3 different colors , from July 9 : standard black , and limited edition copies of both pink and clear with black smoke . In an October 2013 interview , McKinnon revealed the band had to re @-@ record the whole album in a couple of days due to pressure from Victory @-@ owner Tony Brummel . McKinnon was " absolutely [ ... ] ashamed " it was released as he thought the band had " butchered it . Because it was two days [ recording ] . "
= = Reception = =
Chris H. of AbsolutePunk said the band has made " a big impression " with its debut album and called it " the heaviest " release in their catalogue . According to him , " 1958 " was " the heaviest song on the album " , while " Heartless " was nearly a " perfect way to start the album " with its fast guitars and steady drums pace . Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia mentioned that the album was full of " bite @-@ sized songs " which are combination of " extremely melodic chorus sections " and " depths @-@ of @-@ hell Cookie Monster growling " . Rivadavia went on to say the album is not " better or worse than a thousand emocore albums released during a 12 @-@ month span " . Writing for Scene Point Blank , Kevin Fitzpatrick said the album was " a very frustrating listen " featuring " eighth grade lovesick lyrics " . Although Fitzpatrick said that the guitar work on the album was " passable " , he panned Bobby Scruggs ' drumming for being " sloppy " at times .
Allschools writer Björn , mentioned that the band did the album " really well and mosh [ ed ] like crazy " , despite adding that the growls " suffered , grieved [ and were ] sometimes a little desperate " . Fake Train reviewer Ken Hawk said the album was maybe " one of the best fusions of metallic hardcore and melodic punk @-@ rock " , continuing with how the band were able to " spring back @-@ and @-@ forth between booming chugga mosh breakdowns , melodic guitar thrashing , and driving upbeat rock … flawlessly " in an easy manner . Scene It All 's Anson said the band " finally succeeded in rightfully earning that title " of " bridg [ ing ] the gap between hardcore and emo " . McKinnon 's voice was praised as using " his voice extremely well [ ... ] He manages to give the lowest screams and yet still can hit the highest notes when it comes to singing . A feat , most singers can 't manage . "
Reviewing the album 's reissue for AbsolutePunk , Blake Solomon wrote that Old Record wasn 't " anything to go nuts over " if the listener already owned the original release . He felt that the lyrics were " a bit more honest " compared to its follow @-@ up For Those Who Have Heart ( 2007 ) . Rock Sound added " 1958 " to their unnumbered list of 50 Songs of Hate .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by A Day to Remember .
Old Record
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
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= Altes Stadthaus , Berlin =
Altes Stadthaus ( " Old City Hall " ) is a former administrative building in Berlin , currently used by the Senate . It faces the Molkenmarkt and is bound by four roads ; Jüdenstraße , Klosterstraße , Parochialstraße , and Stralauer Straße . Designed by Ludwig Hoffmann , chief of construction for the city , it was built in 1902 – 11 at a cost of 7 million marks ( US $ 1 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 ) to supplement the Rotes Rathaus .
The building has five courtyards and features many sculptures , including 29 allegorical representations of civic virtues and of Greek deities which are mounted on the tower . A Georg Wrba sculpture of a bear , the symbol of Berlin , is located in the central Bärensaal ( Bear Hall ) .
Originally called the " Neues Stadthaus " ( New City House ) , it became the seat of the Council of Ministers of the GDR after World War II . The building next to it became the center of administration for East Berlin , and was also called " Neues Stadthaus " ; to avoid confusion , Neues Stadthaus became known as " Altes Stadthaus " ( Old city house ) .
During World War II , the Allied bombing campaign and fierce fighting in the Battle of Berlin caused severe damage ; the roof was almost completely destroyed as were the statues above the rear entrance , and there was substantial water damage . In the first phase of reconstruction in 1951 , the statue of the goddess of Fortuna was removed , and is assumed to have been smelted in 1962 . The remaining statues , urns , and other carvings on the exterior were removed in 1976 – 77 due to rain damage . It was completely refurbished in the 1990s and exterior restoration required replacement of some 180 sculptural elements , including the allegorical figures of the virtues , giant vases , window embrasures and one of the columns . The original mansard roof was reconstructed in 1998 – 99 .
= = Plans for second city hall = =
In the 1860s , the population of Berlin was growing rapidly with the influx of around 50 @,@ 000 people a year , creating a large administrative burden . When construction began on the Rotes Rathaus , the city had around half a million inhabitants , but this grew to 800 @,@ 000 by the time of its completion in 1869 . By the 1880s , the city had offices in ten additional buildings near the Rotes Rathaus and since it could not be extended , it was clear that a second administration building was required .
In 1893 , the executive committee of the Berlin city council proposed a site on the banks of the river Spree , roughly corresponding to the current location of the Berlin Finance Department and the offices of the Social Association of Germany . The proposal was rejected by the full city council because it would overshadow the city hall . Further proposals were put on hold for several years . After discussing many locations , in 1898 , chief of construction Ludwig Hoffmann became involved and the council agreed on Molkenmarkt . The 32 built @-@ up parcels of land on the site were bought up and cleared .
Based on his participation in the debate and his reputation , Hoffmann received the commission to design the new building . Without any kind of competitive bidding or restrictions , he was commissioned to design it with space for approximately 1 @,@ 000 employees . In 1900 , the prosperous city decided the building should feature a tower . Hoffmann 's design was accepted in 1901 , and demolition of the existing buildings began . The cornerstone was laid in 1902 .
= = Specifications = =
Hoffmann created a monumental building with five courtyards to " once and for all incorporate the offices of the municipal administration which have no place in the city hall ; however , it should in addition include the hall for large @-@ scale public events which the city lacks , and also in its exterior be representative of the Berlin of today and thus be [ a ] magnificent building distinguished in its monumentality , " according to the author of a 1914 monograph to him . It is his most important Berlin work .
An imposing external feature of the building is the tower , approximately 80 metres ( 260 ft ) tall , which rises from a square base over the central bay facing Judenstraße . Inspired by those designed by Carl von Gontard for the French and German Cathedrals on the Gendarmenmarkt , it consists of a double set of cylinders with encircling columns , . This structure is surmounted by a dome on which a 3 @.@ 25 metres ( 10 @.@ 7 ft ) copper sculpture of the goddess Fortuna , by Ignatius Taschner , stands on a gilded globe . It was originally intended to show that Berlin " is taking an upward path in its development " .
The tower is also adorned with many sculptures , including vases and 29 representations of the civic virtues and Greek deities by Taschner , Josef Rauch , Georg Wrba and William Widemann . In the centre of the building is a barrel @-@ vaulted hall three stories high capable of accommodating 1 @,@ 500 people and decorated in Jugendstil style . The walls over the doorways are inscribed with moral sayings , and the room originally had a floor of red Verona marble , six ceremonial candelabra , and three bronze gates , all by Georg Wrba . In addition , the room contains a 400 kilograms ( 880 lb ) bronze bear , the symbol of Berlin , commissioned from Wrba by the city in 1911 , giving the hall its name , Bärensaal ( Bear Hall ) . Wrba placed the bear in a symbolic setting signifying the bases of European culture ; the height of the plinth on which it stands places the viewer at belly level creating a respectful distance , it stands in a triangle signifying the Trinity and in association with a Solomonic saying and depictions of Greco @-@ Roman deities .
The building has an irregular trapezoidal footprint corresponding to that of the group of buildings that formerly occupied the site presenting some difficulties in symmetry . It was also originally enclosed by other buildings , so Hoffmann 's design emphasizes its appearance from close by rather than from a distance . The facades , executed in grey muschelkalk , are articulated with reference to the principles of Palladian architecture and based on the Palazzo Thiene in Vicenza . A rusticated plinth comprising the first floor and half the height of the mezzanine is surmounted by columns and pilasters in Tuscan order comprising two and a half stories , above which is a mansard roof . The lack of alignment with the stories is an intentional variation from the model . The facades facing the Jüdenstraße , Klosterstraße , Parochialstraße and Stralauer Straße are 82 @.@ 63 metres ( 271 @.@ 1 ft ) , 126 @.@ 93 metres ( 416 @.@ 4 ft ) , 108 @.@ 31 metres ( 355 @.@ 3 ft ) and 94 @.@ 46 metres ( 309 @.@ 9 ft ) long , respectively . The main entrances are in the centre of projecting bays on the Jüdenstraße ( front ) and Klosterstraße ( rear ) facades , with the " Bear Hall " on the axis between them . The side wings forming the facades on the Parochialstraße and Stralauer Straße sides terminate in projecting bays at the ends of these two primary facades . Cross wings and an opening in the main axis between the vestibule on the rear , Klosterstraße side and the " Bear Hall " create five courtyards within the building . The vestibules at the main , Judenstraße entrance and the rear entrance on Klosterstraße are lined with the same stone as the exterior to create a sense that the grand public rooms were also part of the city outside ; in the latter , Hoffmann placed a large wall fountain also of Verona marble .
= = Opening = =
Construction lasted for nine and a half years , from April 1902 until October 1911 , with the tower construction alone taking three years ( 1908 – 11 ) . Different departments of the city administration moved in at different times with some , such as the police department , moving in as early as March 1908 . The building was formally opened by Mayor Martin Kirschner on October 29 , 1911 .
= = During the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich = =
Until the 1920s , there were no significant changes to the building . Neither World War I nor the November revolution of 1918 caused damage to it . In 1920 , the administrative burden was considerably increased by the incorporation of several outlying towns and villages into the city of Berlin in the Greater Berlin Act . As a result , some departments and units had to be housed outside the building . In 1929 , the Magistrat commissioned the city planning division to develop a concept for a new administrative building encompassing two city blocks that would also link the Stadthaus to the City Hall . This plan also included the existing main city library and the city savings bank . It would have been part of a wideranging plan to redevelop the area of the Molkenmarkt , including replacement of the old and substandard housing along Am Krögel , an alley leading to the Spree . These plans had to be abandoned in 1931 because of the political and economic situation of Berlin after World War I.
After the Nazis came to power in 1933 , the Magistrat revived the urban renewal plan as an appropriate contribution to the " program of national renewal " . However , the Ministry of Transportation was charged with developing a new canal that would require replacing the Mühlendamm bridge and removing a number of buildings . A plan was developed to create an " administrative forum " around the Molkenmarkt , which would include a new centralized mint , the Fire Society Building that today is the Neues Stadthaus , and a residence for a City President but retain the Stadthaus flanked by two large new wings . This plan superseded the former housing concept . The Krögel block was demolished in 1936 and the Fire Society Building was completed in 1938 . By the outbreak of war in 1939 , the Mint and one other government building had also been completed .
In World War II the building suffered some damage during the Allied bombing campaign , but was later severely damaged during the Battle for Berlin towards the end of the war . The roof was almost completely destroyed by fire and there was substantial water damage . The statues above the rear entrance , on Klosterstraße , were also destroyed . Assessments estimated that 50 % of the building had suffered damage .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Shortly after the official surrender of the Wehrmacht on May 8 , 1945 , the Soviet military administration , headed by Nikolai Berzarin , looked for capable anti @-@ fascists to form a new public administration . On 19 May Berzarin appointed a new 19 @-@ member Magistrat under Arthur Werner as acting Governing Mayor . However , both the Rotes Rathaus and the Stadthaus were so damaged that the Fire Society Building adjacent to the Administration Building became the new seat of the Magistrat , and became known as " Neues Stadthaus " . Since then , the former " new " building has been known as Altes Stadthaus , to distinguish it from that building .
The Department of Construction was developing schemes for the building as early as 1948 . The most urgent need was for a new roof . Two alternatives emerged : an accurate reconstruction of the mansard roof , or a flat pitched roof . Timber was in short supply , so a pitched roof requiring 214 square metres ( 2 @,@ 300 sq ft ) of timber was chosen , instead of a mansard roof requiring 930 square metres ( 10 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . Issues of landmark preservation played featured little in the decision and starting from 1948 the roof was partially replaced with a pitched roof .
By 1950 , 45 % of the necessary repairs had been made to Altes Stadthaus by a few simple expedients such as emergency roofing . In the immediate post @-@ war years , neither manpower , supplies , nor financing was available to undertake repairs on a larger scale . The reconstruction took place between 1950 and 1955 in five phases ; the first focused on building up the courtyard wing on the Stralauer Straße side while the second phase , completed in early 1952 , focused on the Stralauer Straße / Judenstraße wing and included construction of additional offices on the fourth floor and a 300 @-@ person dining hall with kitchen . However , for a number of reasons most significant of which was that the building was not the seat of government , the remaining three phases were not carried out . In addition , the reconstruction of Wilhelmine architecture was not a high priority , where as housing was and so funding for the restoration work was not included in the economic plan .
In effect , the building had become the " third city hall " ; it housed some government departments , such as planning and housing . Although the office space was fully occupied , the " Bear Hall " and the tower rooms remained unused except for some exhibits of plans by the City Construction Supervisor , Hans Scharoun , and so were left unheated leading to damp and mould damage . The tower was eventually used by the Stasi .
In 1955 , after five years of reconstruction , the Rotes Rathaus was fully operational and departments were able to move back into it from both administration buildings and from other more remote locations . Early in the same year , it was announced that Altes Stadthaus was to be transferred from the Magistrat ( now of East Berlin , West Berlin having established the separate Berlin Senate ) to the Council of Ministers of the GDR , which had been established in 1949 , to house the significantly increased workforce . Altes Stadthaus was planned to be only an interim solution to this problem . Prime Minister Otto Grotewohl moved his offices into the building later that year , after renovation work to create appropriate accommodations that included furnishings for various official rooms , the planned expansion onto the fourth floor , upgrading of the stairways , ventilation equipment , and electrical work had been completed . Red carpets were laid in hallways and stair landings , and eventually paper shredders were placed in all offices . Between 1958 – 61 , the building was extensively altered . The inner courtyard was covered and the " Bear Hall " was converted into the chamber of the Council of Ministers . The hall capacity was reduced from 1 @,@ 500 to 300 people , the windows and arcades on the long sides were closed off , wood wall moldings and a suspended ceiling installed to create a modern room within the space . The candelabra , bronze door grilles , and marble flooring were removed . In 1959 , the bear statue was also removed and installed in the newly opened East Berlin zoo in Friedrichsfelde . A security zone was created at the front of the building . The public entrance to what was now the " Building of the Council of Ministers " was now on Klosterstraße . The main entrance facing Jüdenstraße , over which the GDR national emblem , the hammer and compass , was installed in place of the arms of the City of Berlin , was only opened on special occasions . The alterations demonstrated the negative opinion in the GDR of Wilhelmine architecture , and cost 2 million marks .
The statue of the goddess Fortuna on the dome was removed in the first phase of reconstruction in 1951 and replaced by a 13 metres ( 43 ft ) antenna for broadcast transmissions . After the Television Tower came into service in 1969 , this was in turn replaced by a flagpole flying the national flag . The statue was stored inside the dome until the 1960s but is last mentioned in the records in 1962 and is assumed to have been melted down . The remaining statues , urns , and other carvings on the exterior of the building remained in place until 1976 / 77 , when they were also removed and placed in storage in Friedrichsfelde and other locations , as they had been seriously damaged by rain and frost .
In 1974 – 75 , the reception and meeting rooms were further upgraded with extensive use of imported goods from the West . However , over time , Altes Stadthaus became less important to the GDR government . Important events , celebrations and ceremonies took place in the Rotes Rathaus , the Palace of the Republic or the State Council Building . The historical high point in the use of the building under the GDR came in its final phase , when the only freely elected government of East Germany , under Lothar de Maizière relocated there . The provisions of the agreement on German reunification were therefore negotiated there .
= = Complete refurbishment in the 1990s = =
The GDR emblem was removed from over the main entrance in 1990 , the year of reunification , leaving a dark patch . Following reunification , the Berlin offices of the German Chancellery and the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs moved into the building . In January 1993 , after a legal decision , the Federal Government returned the building to the Federal State of Berlin , which wished to use it for its original purpose of city administration . However , it first urgently required refurbishment ; under the GDR , upkeep had been neglected and the plumbing facilities , for example , dated in part to the 1920s . Access also needed to be provided for the handicapped .
Renovation began in 1994 under the direction of architect Gerhard Spangenberg , with the objective of returning the building so far as possible to its original condition while not ignoring the events of the more recent past . The first priority was the removal of iron girders , particle board , and chipboards . Relics of the GDR period deemed worthy of preservation were placed either in the Museum of German History in the former Prussian arsenal or in the House of History in Bonn . The original murals and reliefs , painted over and enclosed during the GDR period , were then restored . The fountain in the Klosterstraße vestibule was accurately recreated . Four bronze bear sculptures by Ignatius Taschner were returned from the Märkisches Museum and reinstalled on replacement stone columns in the Judenstraße vestibule . Exterior restoration of the building required either restoration or replacement with replicas of some 180 sculptural elements from the tower , including the allegorical figures of the virtues , giant vases , window embrasures , and one of the columns , which had bomb damage and had merely been patched . In addition , the original mansard roof was reconstructed in 1998 / 99 on the west , main facade facing Jüdenstraße . The technical facilities were also updated , including ventilation equipment , elevators , lighting , and plumbing . It proved impossible to use the tower for offices because it lacked the second exit required by safety regulations . This was later rectified by the addition of office space in the roof cavity .
A replacement 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) statue of Fortuna was created by restoration expert Bernd @-@ Michael Helmich based on a model made by Joost van der Velden from a miniature . On September 2 , 2004 , it was hoisted to the top of the dome using a tower crane . The replacement of the Fortuna statue was financed by entrepreneur and art patron Peter Dussmann at a cost of € 125 @,@ 000 . The restoration of the statues to the tower was delayed by a dispute with one of the contracted companies , which had gone bankrupt .
The renovation also included restoration of the " Bear Hall " , which reopened on June 21 , 1999 . After the zoo in Friedrichsfelde had requested and received a copy at a cost of 30 @,@ 000 marks , the bronze bear was transported back to the building in June 2001 . A replica plinth had been constructed for it .
The restoration of the building , estimated in 2001 to cost 150 million marks , was largely paid for by the federal and Berlin state governments . Some financing was contributed by British mobile phone company Vodafone , which paid 100 @,@ 000 marks for a giant red advertising banner that concealed the scaffolding around the tower for a year .
The building is again the location of the Berlin Senate Department of Internal Affairs , which moved in during 1997 . The registry office for the Borough of Mitte was also located in the building for a while , but has exchanged quarters with the Department of Historic Monuments . The parliament of the borough of Mitte also met there . In 2008 , plans were announced for the Constitutional Protection Division of the State Department of Internal Affairs to also move to the building , after which all divisions of the department would be housed there . As of 2012 , these plans are still being considered in the city council .
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= Dave Bancroft =
David James Bancroft ( April 20 , 1891 – October 9 , 1972 ) was an American baseball shortstop and manager . Nicknamed " Beauty " for his penchant for calling good pitches " beauties " , he played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1915 to 1930 , for the Philadelphia Phillies , New York Giants , Boston Braves , and Brooklyn Robins .
Born in Sioux City , Iowa , Bancroft played in minor league baseball from 1909 through 1914 , at which point he was bought by the Phillies . The Giants traded for Bancroft during the 1920 season . After playing for the Giants through the 1923 season , he became player @-@ manager of the Braves , serving in that role for four years . After he was fired by the Braves , Bancroft played two seasons for the Robins and ended his playing career with the Giants the next season . He coached with the Giants , then managed in the minor leagues and the All @-@ American Girls Professional Baseball League .
Bancroft was part of the Giants ' World Series championship teams in 1921 and 1922 . He was also a part of the National League pennant @-@ winning teams of 1915 and 1923 . Considered an excellent defensive shortstop and a smart ball player , Bancroft was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in 1971 . However , his election was not without controversy , as the Veterans Committee included former teammates of Bancroft , resulting in charges of cronyism against the Veterans Committee .
= = Early life = =
Bancroft was born in Sioux City , Iowa , the youngest of three children of Ella ( née Gearhart ) and Frank Bancroft . Frank worked as a news vendor on the Milwaukee Railroad . Bancroft attended Hopkins Grade School and Sioux City High School .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In the summer after his junior year of high school , at the age of 18 , Bancroft began his professional career in 1909 with the Duluth White Sox of the Class @-@ D Minnesota – Wisconsin League . Bancroft did not have immediate success , registering a .210 batting average and .917 fielding percentage in 111 games , but he developed a positive reputation in the league . The Superior Blues acquired Bancroft at midseason , and he remained there through the 1911 season . Bancroft finished the 1911 season with a .273 batting average and 41 stolen bases , and the Blues won the league championship .
The Portland Beavers of the Class @-@ AA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) drafted Bancroft from Superior for the 1912 season . He struggled in 1912 , batting .207 , and was demoted to the Portland Colts of the Class @-@ B Northwestern League in 1913 . After batting .244 for the Colts , he was promoted back to the Beavers in 1914 , where he batted .271 and drew comparisons to former Beavers star shortstop Roger Peckinpaugh as the team won the PCL championship . While with the Beavers , Bancroft earned the nickname " Beauty " , for his habit of referring to pitches as " beauties " while he batted .
= = = Major League Baseball = = =
= = = = Philadelphia Phillies = = = =
Before the 1915 season , the Philadelphia Phillies purchased Bancroft from Portland for $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 116 @,@ 957 in current dollar terms ) . Portland 's manager was quoted as saying he did not expect Bancroft would last with the Phillies . In his rookie season , Bancroft finished second in the National League ( NL ) to teammate Gavvy Cravath in walks ( 77 ) , third in runs scored ( 85 ) , and tied Fred Luderus for sixth in home runs ( 7 ) . For his ability to hit with power from both sides of the plate , The Pittsburgh Press declared he was developing into " a second Honus Wagner " . The Phillies won their first NL pennant in 1915 , but lost the 1915 World Series to the Boston Red Sox . Bancroft 's offense contributed to the Phillies ' victory in Game 1 , as he had an infield hit leading to the Phillies ' winning run . Though the Phillies batted .182 as a team in the series , Bancroft batted .294 .
Bancroft batted third in the Phillies ' lineup in 1916 . However , he slumped to a .212 batting average that season , the lowest of his career . Despite his offensive struggles , he gained recognition for his fielding skills , and an injury to Bancroft late in the season contributed to the Phillies ' poor play late in the season .
Bancroft feuded with Cravath , who became the Phillies ' manager in 1919 . Before the 1919 season , Bancroft requested a trade to the Cincinnati Reds , but the trade request was not granted . John McGraw , manager of the New York Giants , coveted Bancroft due to his intelligent and hard @-@ nosed style of playing . Upon McGraw 's urging , the Giants traded Art Fletcher , Bill Hubbell and $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 181 @,@ 229 in current dollar terms ) to the Phillies for Bancroft on June 7 , 1920 .
= = = = New York Giants = = = =
With the Giants , Bancroft was an able performer . His 102 runs scored during the 1920 season were second only to new Giants teammate George Burns . On June 1 , 1921 , in a game the Giants won against the Phillies , Bancroft hit for the cycle . His 153 games played in the 1921 season tied for second in the NL with several others , behind only Rogers Hornsby . He also tied teammate Frankie Frisch for second with 121 runs scored , behind only Hornsby , while his 193 hits were eighth @-@ best and his .389 on @-@ base percentage was ninth @-@ best in the NL . However , he only batted .152 in the 1921 World Series , which the Giants won over the New York Yankees in eight games .
Bancroft played in all 156 games in the 1922 season . He tied Jack Smith for third with 117 runs scored , finished third with 209 hits , and tied Bob O 'Farrell for second with 79 walks . His .321 batting average was his career @-@ high . He set an MLB record for the most fielding chances by a shortstop in a season ( 984 ) . Though the Giants swept the 1922 World Series from the Yankees in four games , he again had a poor World Series , batting .211 .
Serving as team captain , Bancroft began to suffer through leg injuries in 1923 . He was also hospitalized with a case of pneumonia during the season . Bancroft returned by the postseason , but batted .091 in the 1923 World Series , which the Yankees won in six games .
= = = = Boston Braves = = = =
With a young Travis Jackson ready to succeed Bancroft as the Giants ' shortstop , and with Bancroft desiring an opportunity to manage , McGraw traded Bancroft to the Boston Braves with Bill Cunningham and Casey Stengel for Joe Oeschger and Billy Southworth after the 1923 season . McGraw was also looking to aid his former star Christy Mathewson , who was then the General Manager of the Braves .
Bancroft served as player – manager for the Braves for three seasons , from 1924 through 1927 . Upon becoming manager , he became the youngest manager in the National League ( NL ) . He missed time during the 1924 season with appendicitis . After finishing in last place in the eight @-@ team NL , Bancroft overhauled the Braves ' roster for the 1925 season . However , he lost the services of Rube Marquard and Joe Genewich , and the Braves finished in fifth place . Bancroft suggested that Bob Smith , ineffective as an infielder , become a pitcher ; Smith 's successes as a pitcher benefited the Braves ' starting rotation . The Braves lacked offense going into the 1926 season , but hoped their pitching and defense could lead them into contention . The Braves finished in seventh place in the NL in 1926 and 1927 .
= = = = Brooklyn Robins and return to the Giants = = = =
Failing to turn the Braves into a winning team , Bancroft requested his release from the team after the 1927 season . He signed with the Brooklyn Robins the same day . Stating that he was happy to no longer have the stress of managing , he played for the Robins for the 1928 and 1929 seasons . During his time with the Robins , he was seen as a possible successor to manager Wilbert Robinson .
The Robins released Bancroft after the 1929 season , and he returned to the Giants as assistant manager and coach , serving under McGraw . He ended his MLB playing career in 1930 . He remained as a coach , filling in for McGraw when he was too ill to manage . During the 1930 offseason , he led a team of MLB players on an exhibition trip to Cuba . When McGraw retired in 1932 , the Giants appointed Bill Terry as player @-@ manager . Surprised and disappointed that Terry was chosen over him , Bancroft left the Giants .
= = = Later career = = =
After retiring as a player , Bancroft managed in minor league baseball . He managed the Minneapolis Millers of the Class @-@ AA American Association in 1933 . Though the Millers reached the championship series , he was not retained for the 1934 season , as the Millers sought a player @-@ manager to help the team reduce costs .
After the season , Bancroft interviewed for the managerial job with the Cincinnati Reds ; however , the Reds hired O 'Farrell . Bancroft next managed the Sioux City Cowboys of the Class @-@ A Western League in 1936 . He appeared in one game for Sioux City as a player . Bancroft then managed the St. Cloud Rox of the Class @-@ C Northern League in 1947 . In the All @-@ American Girls Professional Baseball League , Bancroft managed the Chicago Colleens in 1948 and South Bend Blue Sox in 1949 and 1950 .
= = Legacy = =
Grover Cleveland Alexander , Bancroft 's teammate in Philadelphia , and Hughie Jennings , his coach in New York , considered Bancroft one of the best shortstops in MLB . Sportswriter Frank Graham called Bancroft " the greatest shortstop the Giants ever had and one of the greatest that ever lived . " Bancroft is still considered to be among the top fielders in baseball history . He was also considered one of the fastest shortstops in baseball . In contrast to other great fielding shortstops , Bancroft was noted for his offensive ability .
After failing to be elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) , the Veterans Committee elected Bancroft in 1971 . Former Giants teammates Terry and Frankie Frisch , who joined the Veterans Committee in 1967 , aided the elections of several of their former teammates . Terry and Frankie shepherded the selections of Jesse Haines in 1970 , Bancroft and Chick Hafey in 1971 , Ross Youngs in 1972 , George Kelly in 1973 , Jim Bottomley in 1974 , and Freddie Lindstrom in 1976 . Bancroft , along with some of the other selections made by Terry and Frisch , has been considered among the weakest of all inductees . According to the BBWAA , the Veterans Committee was not selective enough in choosing members . Charges of cronyism were levied against the Veterans Committee . This led to the Veterans Committee having its powers reduced in subsequent years .
Despite the criticism of players elected to the Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in this period , Bancroft grades well in terms of sabermetric statistics . He finished fourth in the NL in Wins Above Replacement in 1920 ( 6 @.@ 5 ) and third in 1921 ( 7 @.@ 2 ) and 1922 ( 6 @.@ 0 ) . Bancroft was also inducted in The Des Moines Register 's Iowa Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Personal life = =
Bancroft married Edna Harriet Gisin while he played minor league baseball . They had no children and lived in Superior , Wisconsin for the remainder of their lives .
After retiring from baseball , Bancroft worked as a warehouse supervisor for Interprovincial Pipeline Company . He retired in 1956 and spent his later years hunting and fishing . Bancroft died on October 9 , 1972 in a hospital in Superior at the age of 81 .
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= Wanderlei Silva vs. Quinton Jackson =
Wanderlei " The Axe Murderer " Silva versus Quinton " Rampage " Jackson is a mixed martial arts trilogy that began in the now @-@ defunct Pride Fighting Championships in Japan . All three fights have been contested at the Light Heavyweight limit of 205 pounds ( 93 kg ) and televised live on pay @-@ per @-@ view .
The trilogy features three particularly violent fights in mixed martial arts , with all three contests ending in a knockout or technical knockout . On two occasions , the loser of the fight was rendered unconscious . The second fight in particular has received high acclaim , as it was named the 2004 Fight of the Year by the Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards . The trilogy is also known for the rivalry and bad blood between the two fighters . Indeed , Chris Parry of the Vancouver Sun considers the matches between Wanderlei Silva and Quinton Jackson to be " legendary " for the hatred and violence displayed . MMAWeekly.com considers Silva vs. Jackson to be among the greatest trilogies in the history of mixed martial arts .
The rivalry began in the months leading up to Pride Final Conflict 2003 on November 9 , 2003 , where the first fight took place . Silva was victorious in the first meeting , after landing close to 20 standing knee strikes to Jackson 's face before the contest was halted . Silva once again bested Jackson with a combination of knees in the subsequent rematch at Pride 28 : High Octane , leaving the latter motionless and hanging between the ropes . The third fight took place in the Ultimate Fighting Championship ( UFC ) at UFC 92 : The Ultimate 2008 on December 27 , 2008 . This time , however , it would be Quinton Jackson avenging his two earlier defeats to Silva by knocking him unconscious with a left hook .
= = Background = =
The rivalry between the two fighters reportedly began around the Pride Middleweight ( 205 lb ) Grand Prix . In an attempt to set up a " tune @-@ up " bout for Kazushi Sakuraba , who had just been defeated by Silva , Pride brought in Quinton Jackson , a relative unknown at the time , to face the Japanese fighter . The fight did not go as expected , with the much bigger Jackson overpowering Sakuraba and landing several punches . Sakuraba was eventually victorious via submission , but Jackson established himself as a legitimate contender to Wanderlei Silva 's Pride Middleweight Championship in the process .
Following this success , Jackson began to direct several personal insults at Silva , a gesture that infuriated the champion . Silva was in the midst of what would be a 17 @-@ fight unbeaten streak . He captured the championship from Sakuraba at Pride 17 , and defeated him a total of three times . Jackson continued his negative comments towards the champion , and directed his latest insult at Silva 's training camp at the time , the Chute Boxe Academy .
These insults culminated in an altercation between the two on March 16 , 2003 , at Pride 25 . Following a victory over Kevin Randleman , Jackson was given the microphone and started talking directly to Silva , who was sitting at ringside , saying " I want you boy . It 's gonna be me and you . " Silva immediately jumped to his feet and made his way into the ring . He was now face @-@ to @-@ face with Jackson , who continued by saying , " You have my belt , you 're keeping it warm for me . " Silva responded by yelling " MY BELT ! " and giving Jackson a forceful shove . Jackson , visibly upset , advanced towards Silva as dozens of Pride officials intervened . Jackson stood still as he was surrounded by officials , while Silva had to be constantly restrained from charging at Jackson . Jackson later stated that he was instructed by Pride executives to make these comments . He added that Silva 's shove infuriated him , and he was ready to fight Silva immediately .
Since then , Jackson has further clarified the origins and the nature of the bad blood between the two . According to Jackson , the rivalry exists because he was one of the few fighters in Japan who was not afraid of Silva outside of the ring . Jackson stated that fighters were afraid to eat or be in an elevator with Silva , but he was not one of them . He added that the bad blood is only coming from Silva 's end . Silva , on the other hand , cited Jackson 's apparent insults towards him on the internet to account for the bad blood in an interview prior to the UFC 92 fight .
= = Pride Fighting Championship = =
= = = Pride Final Conflict 2003 = = =
The first meeting between the two took place in the final round of Pride 's Middleweight tournament at Pride Final Conflict 2003 on November 9 , 2003 . The venue for the fight was the sold @-@ out Tokyo Dome in Tokyo , Japan , with a live audience of 53 @,@ 000 . The two fighters each fought in the same night prior to the finals , with Silva defeating Hidehiko Yoshida , and Jackson defeating Chuck Liddell , respectively . On the line was the Pride 2003 Middleweight Grand Prix Championship .
The fight began with Jackson looking to close the distance early . Jackson immediately went for a double @-@ leg takedown , and picked Silva up . Silva then locked his legs , creating a standing closed guard , and applied a guillotine choke . The two stayed in this position until Jackson loosened his own grip , taking the fight to the ground for the first time , with Silva holding onto the chokehold .
After going to the ground , Jackson managed to slip out of the choke . Jackson began to attack with ground and pound , dealing strikes to Silva 's body while Silva answered with the same from the bottom . Jackson began to land punches to Silva 's face , and the latter attempted a Juji @-@ gatame , a variation of an armbar . Silva could not pull off the hold , and Jackson moved into side control shortly after . From here , Jackson threw punches to Silva 's head and followed by landing two knees , again to the head ( which were legal under Pride rules ) .
Jackson spent the next 5 minutes working on body strikes from closed guard . The referee then decided to return the fight to stand up due to inactivity . This decision by the referee is seen as controversial by some commentators , such as Dave Meltzer . Jackson has also voiced his displeasure for the stand @-@ up . Sam Caplan , an MMA journalist , added that the Pride referees were employees of the promotion , and Jackson was victim of several " hasty " stand @-@ ups from the officials . Whether he was referring specifically to the fights against Silva is unknown . Shortly following the stand @-@ up , Silva secured a Muay Thai Clinch and landed approximately 20 knee strikes to Jackson 's face and several soccer kicks to the head before the referee called a stop to the contest . Silva was declared the winner by Technical Knockout at 6 : 28 of the 1st round and the Pride 2003 Middleweight Grand Prix Champion .
= = = Pride 28 : High Octane = = =
The rematch took place on October 31 , 2004 at Pride 28 : High Octane . The venue for the fight was the Saitama Super Arena in Saitama , Japan , with a live audience of 24 @,@ 028 . This time , Silva 's Middleweight Championship was on the line . Jackson became the number one contender after knocking out Ricardo Arona with a slam at Pride Critical Countdown 2004 .
The second fight began with Jackson moving forward and getting into a clinch early . The two exchanged strikes in this position before breaking up . Jackson followed by throwing a brief flurry of punches and landing a knee . About halfway into the first round , Silva threw a flurry of punches and landed several knees from the Muay Thai Clinch before pushing Jackson against the turnbuckle . Jackson scrambled out of the clinch and scored a takedown with a combination of a leg trip and a headlock . Jackson attacked with ground and pound , but to limited damage , while Silva attempted submissions unsuccessfully . The referee then stood the fighters up due to inactivity .
Silva re @-@ opened the action standing with a combination of punches and kicks . Jackson answered with a straight right hand , knocking Silva on to the canvas . Jackson followed Silva down and looked to finish the fight in Silva 's closed guard . Jackson moved into side control shortly after and landed a clean knee strike to Silva 's head followed by several punches , again to the head to end the round .
The second round began with the two fighters exchanging a flurry of strikes . Silva then attempted a takedown with a combination of a body lock and a trip , but Jackson reversed it into a takedown of his own . The action stayed in Silva 's guard very briefly , until the two scrambled back to their feet .
During the subsequent exchange of strikes , Silva landed a direct right hook on Jackson 's face , stunning Jackson and sending him backpedaling towards the ropes . Silva closed the distance and secured a Muay Thai clinch . From here , Silva landed approximately 5 knee strikes to Jackson 's head , causing him to fall into the ropes , unconscious and with blood pouring out of his face . Silva was declared the winner by Knockout at 3 : 26 of the 2nd round to remain the Pride Middleweight Champion .
Following the second fight , Jackson fought a pair of disappointing performances against the Rua brothers , earning a controversial decision over Murilo and getting brutally TKO 'd by Mauricio . These fights caused the rivalry to " cool down , " because Jackson was no longer promoted as a contender for Silva 's Middleweight Championship . Silva 's unbeaten streak was ended in his next fight , when he lost a split decision to heavyweight kickboxer , Mark Hunt . The streak lasted from August 2000 to December 2004 . The rivalry between Silva and Jackson would be rekindled in the Ultimate Fighting Championship more than 4 years later .
= = Ultimate Fighting Championship = =
Wanderlei Silva signed with the UFC in August 2007 , and had two fights in the organization , a decision loss to Chuck Liddell at UFC 79 , and a 36 second knockout victory over Keith Jardine at UFC 84 . Quinton Jackson joined the organization in December 2006 , became the UFC Light Heavyweight Champion with a technical knockout of Chuck Liddell at UFC 71 , and successfully defended the belt at UFC 75 against Dan Henderson . Jackson then lost the championship to Forrest Griffin in a decision at UFC 86 .
It was announced that the third fight between Wanderlei Silva and Quinton Jackson would take place at UFC 92 . The winner between the two would likely be the next challenger for the UFC 's Light Heavyweight Championship . " Showdown " Joe Ferraro expected the third fight between Silva and Jackson to " steal the show " at UFC 92 , and would " no doubt be one for the ages . " Jason Probst of Sherdog expected the fight to be a " solid fight at worst " and an " epic struggle at best . " Adam Morgan of FiveOuncesofPain.com predicted another " classic battle " between the two . Kevin Iole of Yahoo ! Sports added that it would not be a surprise if the contest turned out to be the fight of the year .
The fight was announced after a series of personal incidents involving the former UFC Light Heavyweight Champion . Among them were Jackson 's split with former trainer and mentor , Juanito Ibarra , relocation to the UK @-@ based training camp , Wolfslair , hit and run arrest , and possible jail time . There were questions surrounding Jackson 's mental health , following an apparent episode of delirium on the day of his arrest on July 15 , 2008 . UFC President Dana White attributed the condition to a combination of Jackson not eating and sleeping for four days , while drinking only water and energy drinks . White added that drugs or alcohol were not factors in the incident . Jackson 's personal problems and mental state became central issues for those who analyzed the fight , including for Randy " The Natural " Couture , a fighter noted for his exceptional ability in fight analysis . After consideration of these events , speculation arose as to whether putting Jackson back into action against Silva would be too soon .
Wanderlei Silva reiterated his dislike for Jackson in pre @-@ fight interviews , and asserted that his sentiments toward Jackson have not changed since their previous fight . In an interview with UFC.com , Silva stated that he was not fighting Jackson for money , but for " pure pleasure . " He again cited Jackson 's apparent insults toward him on the internet to account for the animosity . Jackson on the other hand , insisted that the third fight with Silva was not about avenging his two prior defeats , but was " merely his job . " He also added that the third encounter with Silva was inevitable , especially after Silva signed with the UFC .
Silva and Jackson had another brief altercation , this time at the UFC 92 weigh @-@ ins . After both tipping the scales , they participated in an intense staredown for photography . In the course of the staredown , Wanderlei Silva shoved Quinton Jackson before the UFC officials and security quickly intervened . Jackson could be seen smiling and saying something to Silva immediately preceding the scuffle . Jackson followed with his trademark howl and a " throat @-@ slashing " gesture , as Silva was escorted away .
= = = UFC 92 : The Ultimate 2008 = = =
The third fight between Silva and Jackson took place on December 27 , 2008 at UFC 92 . The venue for the fight was the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas , Nevada , with a live audience of 14 @,@ 166 .
The fight began with Jackson taking the center of the cage as Silva circled outside . Jackson opened the action with an overhand right , and immediately moved backwards . Both fighters appeared cautious for the opening minutes of the fight , exchanging strikes and quickly moving away . Silva focused on leg kicks , while Jackson focused on working the jab .
At 3 : 21 of the 1st round , after Wanderlei flurried and missed a punch with his right hand , Jackson countered with a left hook on Silva 's jaw , sending the latter on to the canvas and rendering him unconscious . Jackson followed with three punches to Silva 's head on the ground , two of which occurred after referee Yves Lavigne attempted to halt the contest . Wanderlei remained on the canvas for several moments , but appeared to be OK as he left the cage under his own power .
Following the fight at UFC 92 , Jackson drew criticism from Todd Martin of CBS Sports for ignoring referee Yves Lavigne 's attempt to stop the contest . Martin compared Jackson 's actions to Renato Sobral 's continued choke of David Heath following a tap out , which led to Sobral 's dismissal from the UFC . Martin called for punishment against Jackson , but no action was taken against Jackson for this allegedly unsportsmanlike behavior .
= = Aftermath = =
The rivalry between Silva and Jackson has been regarded as " exceptionally violent , " and the fights in the Pride Fighting Championship have been considered to be two of the most brutal matches to ever take place in the organization . Chris Parry of the Vancouver Sun asserted that the two fights in Pride will be remembered as " some of the best fights in this era , " and as " some of the most devastating boxing and kickboxing exchanges seen in years . " The rematch at Pride 28 has been noted as an exciting fight with back @-@ and @-@ forth action , and was also named the 2004 Fight of the Year by the Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards . The first fight at Pride Final Conflict 2003 has also gained fight of the year consideration .
Jackson 's next fight was not against the new UFC Light Heavyweight Champion , Rashad Evans , as the pre @-@ fight reports suggested . UFC President Dana White indicated that the original plan was for Jackson to receive an immediate title shot , but Evans requested time off to recover from injuries he sustained from his fight against Forrest Griffin . Instead , Jackson faced Keith Jardine at UFC 96 , and was victorious by unanimous decision . He was then scheduled to face Rashad Evans at UFC 98 , but it was later revealed on March 11 , 2009 that Jackson needed surgery to repair torn ligaments in his jaw , effectively cancelling the bout against Evans .
In a post fight interview following UFC 92 , Wanderlei Silva stated that he would be making his return to action in the Summer of 2009 , preferably at UFC 100 . He added that would like to fight Jackson for a fourth and even fifth time if possible . Silva 's next fight was a catchweight contest against Rich Franklin at UFC 99 , in Cologne , Germany on June 13 , 2009 . Silva lost by unanimous decision in a competitive fight .
While Silva had an impending fight with Franklin , he was still asked about his future with Jackson . Indeed , in an interview with Fighters Only Magazine , Silva reiterated his desire to fight Jackson for a fourth time , and added that he wants it to be the final fight of his career . He also said that he no longer has problems with Jackson outside of the cage . Silva ended by saying that he spoke with Jackson at UFC 95 in London , England , and the two shook hands .
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= Operation Cobra =
Operation Cobra was the codename for an offensive launched by the First United States Army seven weeks after the D @-@ Day landings , during the Normandy Campaign of World War II . American Lieutenant General Omar Bradley 's intention was to take advantage of the German preoccupation with British and Canadian activity around the town of Caen , in Operation Goodwood , and immediately punch through the German defenses that were penning in his troops while the Germans were distracted and unbalanced . Once a corridor had been created , the First Army would then be able to advance into Brittany , rolling up the German flanks and releasing itself of the constraints imposed by operating in the Norman bocage countryside . After a slow start the offensive gathered momentum , and German resistance collapsed as scattered remnants of broken units fought to escape to the Seine . Lacking the resources to cope with the situation , the German response was ineffectual , and the entire Normandy front soon collapsed . Operation Cobra , together with concurrent offensives by the Second British and First Canadian Armies , was decisive in securing an Allied victory in the Normandy Campaign .
Having been delayed several times by poor weather , Operation Cobra commenced on 25 July with a concentrated aerial bombardment from thousands of Allied aircraft . Supporting offensives had drawn the bulk of German armored reserves toward the British and Canadian sector , and coupled with the general lack of men and materiel available to the Germans , it was impossible for them to form successive lines of defense . Units of VII Corps led the initial two @-@ division assault , while other First Army corps mounted supporting attacks designed to pin German units in place . Progress was slow on the first day , but opposition started to crumble once the defensive crust had been broken . By 27 July , most organized resistance had been overcome , and VII and VIII Corps were advancing rapidly , isolating the Cotentin peninsula .
By 31 July , XIX Corps had destroyed the last forces opposing the First Army , and Bradley 's troops were finally freed from the bocage . Reinforcements were moved west by Field Marshal Günther von Kluge and employed in various counterattacks , the largest of which ( codenamed Operation Lüttich ) was launched on 7 August between Mortain and Avranches . Although this led to the bloodiest phase of the battle , it was mounted by already exhausted and understrength units , and had little effect other than to further deplete von Kluge 's forces . On 8 August , troops of the newly activated Third United States Army captured the city of Le Mans , formerly the German Seventh Army 's headquarters . Operation Cobra transformed the high @-@ intensity infantry combat of Normandy into rapid maneuver warfare , and led to the creation of the Falaise pocket and the loss of the German position in northwestern France .
= = Background = =
Following the successful Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944 , progress inland was slow . To facilitate the Allied build @-@ up in France and to secure room for further expansion , the deep water port of Cherbourg on the western flank of the American sector and the historic town of Caen in the British and Canadian sector to the east , were early objectives . The original plan for the Normandy campaign envisioned strong offensive efforts in both sectors , in which the Second Army ( Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Miles Dempsey ) would secure Caen and the area south of it and the First US Army ( Lieutenant General Omar Bradley ) would " wheel round " to the Loire .
General Sir Bernard Montgomery — commanding all Allied ground forces in Normandy — intended Caen to be taken on D @-@ Day , while Cherbourg was expected to fall 15 days later . The Second Army was to seize Caen and then form a front to the southeast , extending to Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé , to acquire airfields and protect the left flank of the First US Army as it moved on Cherbourg . Possession of Caen and its surroundings — desirable for open terrain that would permit maneuver warfare — would also give the Second Army a suitable staging area for a push south to capture Falaise , which could be used as the pivot for a swing right to advance on Argentan and then the Touques River . Caen 's capture has been described by historian L. F. Ellis as the most important D @-@ Day objective assigned to Lieutenant @-@ General Crocker 's British I Corps . Ellis and Chester Wilmot called the Allied plan " ambitious " since the Caen sector contained the strongest defences in Normandy .
The initial attempt by I Corps to reach the city on D @-@ Day was blocked by elements of the 21st Panzer Division and with the Germans committing most of the reinforcements sent to meet the invasion to the defense of Caen , the Anglo @-@ Canadian front rapidly congealed short of Second Army 's objectives . Operation Perch in the week following D @-@ Day and Operation Epsom ( 26 – 30 June ) brought some territorial gains and depleted its defenders but Caen remained in German hands until Operation Charnwood ( 7 – 9 July ) , when the Second Army managed to take the northern part of the city up to the River Orne in a frontal assault .
The successive Anglo @-@ Canadian offensives around Caen kept the best of the German forces in Normandy , including most of the available armor , to the eastern end of the Allied lodgement , but even so First US Army made slow progress against dogged German resistance . In part , operations were slow due to the constraints of the bocage landscape of densely packed banked hedgerows , sunken lanes , and small woods , for which U.S. units had not trained . With no port facilities in Allied hands , all reinforcement and supply had to take place over the beaches via the two Mulberry harbors and was at the mercy of the weather . On 19 June , a severe storm descended on the English Channel , lasting for three days , and causing significant delays to the Allied build @-@ up and the cancellation of some planned operations . The First US Army advance in the western sector was eventually halted by Bradley before the town of Saint @-@ Lô , to concentrate on the seizure of Cherbourg . The defense of Cherbourg consisted largely of four battlegroups formed from the remnants of units that had retreated up the Cotentin peninsula but the port defences had been designed principally to meet an attack from the sea . Organized German resistance ended only on 27 June , when the 9th US Infantry Division managed to reduce the defences of Cap @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Hague , north @-@ west of the city . Within four days , VII Corps ( Major General J. Lawton " Lightning Joe " Collins ) resumed the offensive toward Saint @-@ Lô , alongside XIX Corps and VIII Corps , causing the Germans to move additional armor into the U.S. sector .
= = Planning = =
The originator of the idea for Operation Cobra remains disputed . According to Montgomery 's official biographer , the foundation of Operation Cobra was laid on 13 June . Planning was immensely aided by detailed Ultra Intelligence which supplied up @-@ to @-@ date decodes of communications between German High Command and Hitler 's generals . Montgomery 's plan at that time called for Bradley 's First Army to take Saint @-@ Lô and Coutances and then make two southward thrusts ; one from Caumont toward Vire and Mortain , and the other from Saint @-@ Lô toward Villedieu and Avranches . Although pressure was to be kept up along the Cotentin Peninsula towards La Haye @-@ du @-@ Puits and Valognes , the capture of Cherbourg was not an immediate priority . However , with Cherbourg 's seizure by Collins ' VII Corps on 27 June , Montgomery 's initial timetable was soon outdated and the thrust from Caumont was never adopted .
Following the conclusion of Operation Charnwood and the cancellation of First Army 's offensive towards Saint @-@ Lô , Montgomery met with Bradley and Dempsey on 10 July to discuss 21st Army Group 's next move . During the meeting , Bradley admitted that progress on the western flank was very slow . However , he had been working on plans for a breakout attempt , codenamed Operation Cobra , to be launched by the First Army on 18 July . He presented his ideas to Montgomery , who approved , and the directive that emerged from the meeting made it clear that the overall strategy over the coming days would be to draw enemy attention away from the First Army to the British and Canadian sector ; Dempsey was instructed to " go on hitting : drawing the German strength , especially the armour , onto yourself — so as to ease the way for Brad [ ley ] " . To accomplish this , Operation Goodwood was planned , and Eisenhower ensured that both operations would have the support of the Allied air forces with their strategic bombers .
On 12 July , Bradley briefed his subordinate commanders on the Cobra plan , which consisted of three phases . The main effort would be under the control of Collins ' VII Corps . In the first phase , the breakthrough attack would be conducted by Major General Eddy 's 9th and Major General Hobbs ' 30th infantry divisions , which would punch a hole in the German tactical zone and then hold the flanks of the penetration while Major General Huebner 's 1st Infantry and Major General Brooks ' 2nd Armored divisions pushed into the depth of the position until resistance collapsed . The 1st Infantry Division " was to take Marigny , with this objective exploited by a stream of General Watson 's 3rd Armored Division armor that would move south toward Coutances . " The 2nd Armored Division — part of " Collins ' exploitation force " of the 2nd Armored Division in the east of the VII Corps sector and the " 1st Infantry Division reinforced by Combat Command B ( CCB ) of the 3rd Armored division in the west " — would " pass through the 30th Infantry Division sector ... and guard the overall American left flank . " If VII Corps ' efforts were successful the western German position would become untenable , permitting a relatively easy advance to the southwest end of the bocage to cut off and seize the Brittany peninsula . First Army 's intelligence estimated that no German counterattack would occur in the first few days after Cobra 's launch , and that if attacks materialized after that date , they would consist of no more than battalion @-@ sized operations .
Cobra was to be a concentrated attack on a 7 @,@ 000 yd ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) front , unlike previous American ' broad front ' offensives , and would have heavy air support . Fighter @-@ bombers would concentrate on hitting forward German defenses in a 250 yd ( 230 m ) belt immediately south of the Saint @-@ Lô – Periers road , while General Spaatz 's heavy bombers would bomb to a depth of 2 @,@ 500 yd ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) behind the German main line of resistance . It was anticipated that the physical destruction and shock value of a short , intense preliminary bombardment would greatly weaken the German defense , so in addition to divisional artillery , Army- and Corps @-@ level units would provide support , including nine heavy , five medium , and seven light artillery battalions . Over 1 @,@ 000 tubes of divisional and corps artillery were committed to the offensive , and approximately 140 @,@ 000 artillery rounds were allocated to the operation in VII Corps alone , with another 27 @,@ 000 for VIII Corps .
In an attempt to overcome the mobility constraints of the bocage that had made offensive operations so difficult and costly for both sides , " Rhino " modifications were made to some M4 Sherman and M5A1 Stuart tanks , and M10 tank destroyers , by fitting them with hedge @-@ breaching ' tusks ' that were capable of forcing a path through the Norman hedgerows . While German tanks remained restricted to the roads , U.S. armor would now be able to maneuver more freely , although in practice these devices were not as effective as often believed . However , by the eve of Cobra , 60 % of First Army 's tanks were so equipped . To preserve operational security , Bradley forbade their use until Cobra was launched . In all , 1 @,@ 269 M4 medium tanks , 694 M5A1 light tanks , and 288 M10 tank destroyers were available .
= = = Supporting operations = = =
On 18 July , the British VIII and I Corps — to the east of Caen — launched Operation Goodwood . The offensive began with the largest air bombardment in support of ground forces yet , with more than 1 @,@ 000 aircraft dropping 6 @,@ 000 short tons ( 5 @,@ 400 t ) of high explosive and fragmentation bombs from low altitude . German positions to the east of Caen were shelled by 400 artillery pieces and many villages were reduced to rubble , but German artillery further to the south , on the Bourguébus Ridge , was outside the range of the British artillery , and the defenders of Cagny and Émiéville were largely unscathed by the bombardment . This contributed to the losses suffered by Second Army , which sustained over 4 @,@ 800 casualties . Principally an armored offensive , between 250 and 400 British tanks were put out of action , although recent examination suggests that only 140 were completely destroyed with an additional 174 damaged . The operation remains the largest tank battle ever fought by the British Army , and resulted in the expansion of the Orne bridgehead and the final capture of Caen .
Simultaneously , the II Canadian Corps on Goodwood 's western flank launched Operation Atlantic . Intended to strengthen the Allied foothold along the banks of the Orne River and take Verrières Ridge to the south of Caen , Atlantic made initial gains but ran out of steam as casualties mounted . Having cost the Canadians 1 @,@ 349 men and with the heavily defended ridge firmly in German hands , Atlantic was closed down on 20 July . However , at Montgomery 's urging , " strongly underlined in the Supreme Commander 's communications to Montgomery " , II Canadian Corps 's commander , Lieutenant @-@ General Guy Simonds , launched a second offensive a few days later , codenamed Operation Spring . This had the limited but important aim of tying down German units that might otherwise be transferred to the American sector , although Simonds took the opportunity to make another bid for Verrières Ridge . Again the fighting for Verrières Ridge proved extremely bloody for the Canadians , with 25 July marking the single costliest day for a Canadian battalion — The Black Watch ( Royal Highland Regiment ) of Canada — since the Dieppe Raid of 1942 . A counterstroke by two German divisions pushed the Canadians back past their start lines and Simonds had to commit reinforcements to stabilize the front . However , in conjunction with Goodwood , the Canadian operations caused the Germans to commit most of their armor and additional reinforcements to the British and Canadian sector . Operation Spring — despite its cost — had drawn the 9th SS Panzer Division away from the U.S. sector on the eve of Cobra 's launch . Only two Panzer divisions with 190 tanks now faced Bradley 's First Army . Seven Panzer divisions with 750 tanks were positioned in the Caen area , far away from where Operation Cobra would be launched , as were all the heavy Tiger tank battalions and all three Nebelwerfer brigades in Normandy .
= = = Logistics = = =
Each division consumed 750 short tons ( 680 t ) of supplies daily .
= = Allied offensive = =
= = = Preliminary attacks = = =
To gain good terrain for Operation Cobra , Bradley and Collins conceived a plan to push forward to the Saint @-@ Lô – Periers road , along which VII and VIII Corps were securing jumping @-@ off positions . On 18 July , at a cost of 5 @,@ 000 casualties , the American 29th and 35th Infantry Divisions managed to gain the vital heights of Saint @-@ Lô , driving back General der Fallschirmtruppen Eugen Meindl 's II Parachute Corps . Meindl 's paratroopers , together with the 352nd Infantry Division ( which had been in action since its D @-@ Day defense of Omaha Beach ) were now in ruins , and the stage for the main offensive was set . Due to poor weather conditions that had also been hampering Goodwood and Atlantic , Bradley decided to postpone Cobra for a few days — a decision that worried Montgomery , as the British and Canadian operations had been launched to support a break @-@ out attempt that was failing to materialize . By 24 July the skies had cleared enough for the start order to be given , and 1 @,@ 600 Allied aircraft took off for Normandy . However , the weather closed in again over the battlefield . Under poor visibility conditions , more than 25 Americans were killed and 130 wounded in the bombing before the air support operation was postponed until the following day . Some enraged soldiers opened fire on their own aircraft , a not uncommon practice in Normandy when suffering from friendly fire .
= = = Main attack and breakthrough 25 – 27 July = = =
After the one @-@ day postponement , Cobra got underway at 09 : 38 on 25 July , when around 600 Allied fighter @-@ bombers attacked strongpoints and enemy artillery along a 300 yd ( 270 m ) -wide strip of ground located in the St. Lô area . For the next hour , 1 @,@ 800 heavy bombers of the U.S. Eighth Air Force saturated a 6 @,@ 000 yd × 2 @,@ 200 yd ( 5 @,@ 500 m × 2 @,@ 000 m ) area on the Saint @-@ Lô – Periers road , succeeded by a third and final wave of medium bombers . Approximately 3 @,@ 000 U.S. aircraft had carpet @-@ bombed a narrow section of the front , with the Panzer @-@ Lehr @-@ Division taking the brunt of the attack . However , once again not all the casualties were German ; Bradley had specifically requested that the bombers approach the target from the east , out of the sun and parallel to the Saint @-@ Lô – Periers road , in order to minimize the risk of friendly losses , but most of the airmen instead came in from the north , perpendicular to the front line . Bradley , however , had apparently misunderstood explanations from the heavy bomber commanders that a parallel approach was impossible because of the time and space constraints Bradley had set . Additionally , a parallel approach would not in any event have assured that all bombs would fall behind German lines because of deflection errors or obscured aim points due to dust and smoke . Despite efforts by U.S. units to identify their positions , inaccurate bombing by the Eighth Air Force killed 111 men and wounded 490 . The dead included Bradley 's friend and fellow West Pointer Lieutenant General Lesley McNair — the highest @-@ ranking U.S. soldier to be killed in action in the European Theater of Operations .
By 11 : 00 , the infantry began to move forward , advancing from crater to crater beyond what had been the German outpost line . Although no serious opposition was forecast , the remnants of Fritz Bayerlein ′ s Panzer Lehr — consisting of roughly 2 @,@ 200 men and 45 armored vehicles — had regrouped and were prepared to meet the advancing U.S. troops , and to the west of Panzer Lehr the German 5th Parachute Division had escaped the bombing almost intact . Collins ' VII Corps were quite disheartened to meet fierce enemy artillery fire , which they expected to have been suppressed by the bombing . Several U.S. units found themselves entangled in fights against strongpoints held by a handful of German tanks , supporting infantry and 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) guns — VII Corps gained only 2 @,@ 200 yd ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) during the rest of the day . However , if the first day 's results had been disappointing , General Collins found cause for encouragement ; although the Germans were fiercely holding their positions , these did not seem to form a continuous line and were susceptible to being outflanked or bypassed . Even with prior warning of the American offensive , the British and Canadian actions around Caen had convinced the Germans that the real threat lay there , and tied down their available forces to such an extent that a succession of meticulously prepared defensive positions in depth , as encountered during Goodwood and Atlantic , were not created to meet Cobra .
On the morning of 26 July , the U.S. 2nd Armored Division and the veteran 1st Infantry Division joined the attack as planned , reaching one of Cobra 's first objectives — a road junction north of Le Mesnil @-@ Herman — the following day . Also on the 26th , Major General Troy H. Middleton 's VIII Corps entered the battle , led by the 8th and 90th Infantry Divisions . Despite clear paths of advance through the floods and swamps across their front , both divisions initially disappointed the First Army by failing to gain significant ground , but first light the next morning revealed that the Germans had been compelled to retreat by their crumbling left flank , leaving only immense minefields to delay VIII Corps ' advance . By noon on 27 July , the 9th Infantry Division of VII Corps was also clear of any organized German resistance , and was advancing rapidly .
= = = Breakout and advance 28 – 31 July = = =
By 28 July , the German defenses across the U.S. front had largely collapsed under the full weight of VII and VIII Corps ' advance , and resistance was disorganised and patchy . VIII Corps ' 4th Armored Division — entering combat for the first time — captured Coutances but met stiff opposition east of the town , and U.S. units penetrating into the depth of the German positions were variously counterattacked by elements of the 2nd SS Panzer , 17th SS Panzergrenadier , and 353rd Infantry Divisions , all seeking to escape entrapment . A desperate counterattack was mounted against the 2nd Armored Division by German remnants , but this was a disaster and the Germans abandoned their vehicles and fled on foot . An exhausted and demoralized Bayerlein reported that his Panzer Lehr Division was " finally annihilated " , with its armor wiped out , its personnel either casualties or missing , and all headquarters records lost .
Meanwhile , Marshal von Kluge — commanding all German forces on the Western Front ( Oberbefehlshaber West ) — was mustering reinforcements , and elements of the 2nd and 116th Panzer Divisions were approaching the battlefield . The U.S. XIX Corps — led by Major General Charles H. Corlett — entered the battle on 28 July on the left of VII Corps , and between 28 and 31 July became embroiled with these reinforcements in the fiercest fighting since Cobra began . During the night of 29 July near Saint @-@ Denis @-@ le @-@ Gast , to the east of Coutances , elements of the U.S. 2nd Armored Division found themselves fighting for their lives against a German column from the 2nd SS Panzer and 17th SS Panzergrenadier Divisions , which passed through the American lines in the darkness . Other elements of the 2nd Armored were attacked near Cambry and fought for six hours ; however , Bradley and his commanders knew that they were currently dominating the battlefield and such desperate assaults were no threat to the overall American position . When ordered to concentrate his division , Colonel Heinz Günther Guderian — 116th Division 's senior staff officer — was frustrated by the high level of Allied fighter @-@ bomber activity . Without receiving direct support from the 2nd Panzer Division as promised , Guderian stated that his panzergrenadiers could not successfully counterattack the Americans . Advancing southward along the coast , later that day , the U.S. VIII Corps seized the town of Avranches — described by historian Andrew Williams as " the gateway to Brittany and southern Normandy " — and by 31 July XIX Corps had thrown back the last German counterattacks after fierce fighting , inflicting heavy losses in men and tanks . The American advance was now relentless , and the First Army was finally free of the bocage .
= = = Operation Bluecoat , 30 July – 7 August = = =
On 30 July , to protect Cobra 's flank and prevent the disengagement and relocation of further German forces , the British VIII Corps and XXX Corps launched Operation Bluecoat south from Caumont toward Vire and Mont Pinçon . Operation Bluecoat kept German armoured units fixed on the British eastern front and continued the wearing down of the strength of German armoured formations in the area . The breakthrough in the centre of the Allied front surprised the Germans , when they were distracted by the Allied attacks at both ends of the Normandy bridgehead . By the time of the American breakout at Avranches , there was little to no reserve strength left for Operation Luttich , the German counter @-@ offensive , which had been defeated by 12 August , leaving the 7th Army with no choice but to retire rapidly east of the Orne river , followed by a rearguard by all the remaining armoured and motorised units , to allow time for the surviving infantry to reach the Seine . After the first stage of the withdrawal beyond the Orne , the manoeuvre collapsed for a lack of fuel , Allied air attacks and the constant pressure of the Allied armies and culminated in the encirclement of many German forces in the Falaise pocket .
= = Aftermath = =
At noon on 1 August , the U.S. Third Army was activated under the command of Lieutenant General George S. Patton . Lieutenant General Courtney Hodges assumed command of the First Army and Bradley was promoted to the overall command of both armies , named the U.S. 12th Army Group . Patton wrote a poem containing the words :
So let us do real fighting , boring in and gouging , biting .
Let 's take a chance now that we have the ball .
Let 's forget those fine firm bases in the dreary shell raked spaces ,
Let 's shoot the works and win ! Yes , win it all !
The U.S. advance following Cobra was extraordinarily rapid . Between 1 August and 4 August , seven divisions of Patton 's Third Army had swept through Avranches and over the bridge at Pontaubault into Brittany . The German army in Normandy had been reduced to such a poor state by the Allied offensives that , with no prospect of reinforcement in the wake of the Soviet summer offensive against Army Group Centre , very few Germans believed they could now avoid defeat . Rather than order his remaining forces to withdraw to the Seine , Adolf Hitler sent a directive to von Kluge demanding " an immediate counterattack between Mortain and Avranches " to " annihilate " the enemy and make contact with the west coast of the Cotentin peninsula . Eight of the nine Panzer divisions in Normandy were to be used in the attack but only four ( one of them incomplete ) could be relieved from their defensive tasks and assembled in time . German commanders immediately protested that such an operation was impossible given their remaining resources but these objections were overruled and the counter @-@ offensive , codenamed Operation Lüttich , commenced on 7 August around Mortain . The 2nd , 1st SS and 2nd SS Panzer Divisions led the assault , although with only 75 Panzer IVs , 70 Panthers , and 32 self @-@ propelled guns between them . Hopelessly optimistic , the offensive threat was over within 24 hours , although fighting continued until 13 August .
By 8 August , the city of Le Mans — the former headquarters of the German 7th Army — had fallen to the Americans . With von Kluge 's few remaining battleworthy formations destroyed by the First Army , the Allied commanders realised that the entire German position in Normandy was collapsing . Bradley declared :
This is an opportunity that comes to a commander not more than once in a century . We 're about to destroy an entire hostile army and go all the way from here to the German border " .
On 14 August , in conjunction with American movements northward to Chambois , Canadian forces launched Operation Tractable ; the Allied intention was to trap and destroy the entire German Seventh and Fifth Panzer Armies near the town of Falaise . Five days later , the two arms of the encirclement were almost complete ; the advancing U.S. 90th Infantry Division had made contact with the Polish 1st Armored Division , and the first Allied units crossed the Seine at Mantes Gassicourt while German units were fleeing eastward by any means they could find . By 22 August , the Falaise Pocket — which the Germans had been fighting desperately to keep open to allow their trapped forces to escape — was finally sealed , effectively ending the Battle of Normandy with a decisive Allied victory . All German forces west of the Allied lines were now dead or in captivity and although perhaps 100 @,@ 000 German troops succeeded in escaping they left behind 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 prisoners and over 10 @,@ 000 dead . A total of 344 tanks and self @-@ propelled guns , 2 @,@ 447 soft @-@ skinned vehicles and 252 artillery pieces were found abandoned or destroyed in the northern sector of the pocket alone . The Allies were able to advance freely through undefended territory , and by 25 August all four Allied armies ( 1st Canadian , 2nd British , 1st U.S. , and 3rd U.S. ) involved in the Normandy campaign were on the river Seine .
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= Amanita ocreata =
Amanita ocreata , commonly known as the death angel , destroying angel , angel of death or more precisely Western North American destroying angel , is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus , one of many in the genus Amanita . Occurring in the Pacific Northwest and California floristic provinces of North America , A. ocreata associates with oak trees . The large fruiting bodies ( the mushrooms ) generally appear in spring ; the cap may be white or ochre and often develops a brownish centre , while the stipe , ring , gill and volva are all white .
Amanita ocreata resemble several edible species commonly consumed by humans , increasing the risk of accidental poisoning . Mature fruiting bodies can be confused with the edible A. velosa , A. lanei or Volvariella speciosa , while immature specimens may be difficult to distinguish from edible Agaricus mushrooms or puffballs . Similar in toxicity to the death cap ( A. phalloides ) and destroying angels of Europe ( A. virosa ) and eastern North America ( A. bisporigera ) , it is a potentially deadly fungus responsible for a number of poisonings in California . Its principal toxic constituent , α @-@ amanitin , damages the liver and kidneys , often fatally , and has no known antidote . The initial symptoms are gastrointestinal and include colicky abdominal pain , diarrhea and vomiting . These subside temporarily after 2 – 3 days , though ongoing damage to internal organs during this time is common ; symptoms of jaundice , diarrhea , delirium , seizures , and coma may follow with death from liver failure 6 – 16 days post ingestion .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Amanita ocreata was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1909 from material collected by Charles Fuller Baker in Claremont , California . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin ocrěātus ' wearing greaves ' from ocrea ' greave ' , referring to its loose , baggy volva . Amanita bivolvata is a botanical synonym . The mushroom belongs to the same section ( Phalloideae ) and genus ( Amanita ) as several deadly poisonous fungi including the death cap ( A. phalloides ) and several all @-@ white species of Amanita known as " destroying angels " : A. bisporigera of eastern North America , and the European A. virosa . " Death angel " is used as an alternate common name .
= = Description = =
A. ocreata is generally stouter than the other fungi termed destroying angels . It first appears as a white egg @-@ shaped object covered with a universal veil . As it grows , the mushroom breaks free , though there may rarely be ragged patches of veil left at the cap edges . The cap is initially hemispherical , before becoming more convex and flattening , sometimes irregularly . This may result in undulations in the cap , which may reach up to 12 cm ( 5 in ) in diameter . The colour varies from white , through yellowish @-@ white to shades of ochre , sometimes with a brownish centre . Occasionally parts of the fruiting bodies may have pinkish tones . The rest of the fungus below the cap is white . The crowded gills are free to narrowly adnate . The stipe is 8 – 20 cm ( 3 – 8 in ) high and 1 @.@ 5 – 2 cm ( ½ – ⅔ in ) thick at the apex , and bears a thin white membranous ring . The volva is thin , smooth and sac @-@ like , although may be quite extensive and contain almost half the stipe . The spore print is white , and the subglobose to ovoid to subellipsoid , amyloid spores are 9 – 14 x 7 – 10 μm viewed under a microscope . There is typically no smell , though some fruiting bodies may have a slight odour , described as that of bleach or chlorine , dead fish or iodine . Like other destroying angels , the flesh stains yellow when treated with potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) .
This fungus resembles the edible mushrooms Agaricus arvensis and A. campestris , and the puffballs ( Lycoperdon spp . ) before the caps have opened and the gills have become visible , so those collecting immature fungi run the risk of confusing the varieties . It also resembles and grows in the same areas as the edible and prized Amanita velosa , which can be distinguished from A. ocreata by its lack of ring , striate cap margin and thick universal veil remnants comprising the veil . The edible Amanita lanei lacks a ring and is more likely to have veil patches remaining on its cap , which is generally darker . Volvariella speciosa has pink spores and no ring or volva .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Appearing from January to April , A. ocreata occurs later in the year than other amanitas except A. calyptroderma . It is found in mixed woodland on the Pacific coast of North America , from Washington south through California to Baja California in Mexico . It may feasibly occur on Vancouver Island in British Columbia though this has never been confirmed . It forms ectomycorrhizal relationships and is found in association with coast live oak ( Quercus agrifolia ) , as well as hazel ( Corylus spp . ) . In Oregon and Washington , it may also be associated with the Garry oak ( Quercus garryana ) .
= = Toxicity = =
Amanita ocreata is highly toxic , and has been responsible for a number of mushroom poisonings in western North America , particularly in the spring . It contains highly toxic amatoxins , as well as phallotoxins , a feature shared with the closely related death cap ( A. phalloides ) , half a cap of which can be enough to kill a human , and other species known as destroying angels . There is some evidence it may be the most toxic of all the North American phalloideae , as a higher proportion of people consuming it had organ damage and 40 % perished . Dogs , too , have been known to consume this fungus in California with fatal results .
Amatoxins consist of at least eight compounds with a similar structure , that of eight amino @-@ acid rings ; of those found in A. ocreata , α @-@ amanitin is the most prevalent and along with β @-@ amanitin is likely to be responsible for the toxic effects . The major toxic mechanism is the inhibition of RNA polymerase II , a vital enzyme in the synthesis of messenger RNA ( mRNA ) , microRNA , and small nuclear RNA ( snRNA ) . Without mRNA , essential protein synthesis and hence cell metabolism stop and the cell dies . The liver is the principal organ affected , as it is the first organ encountered after absorption by the gastrointestinal tract , though other organs , especially the kidneys , are susceptible to the toxins .
The phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds , all of which have seven similar peptide rings . Although they are highly toxic to liver cells , phallotoxins have since been found to have little input into the destroying angel 's toxicity as they are not absorbed through the gut . Furthermore , one phallotoxin , phalloidin , is also found in the edible ( and sought @-@ after ) blusher ( Amanita rubescens ) .
= = = Signs and symptoms = = =
Signs and symptoms of poisoning by A. ocreata are initially gastrointestinal in nature and include colicky abdominal pain , with watery diarrhea and vomiting which may lead to dehydration , and , in severe cases , hypotension , tachycardia , hypoglycemia , and acid @-@ base disturbances . The initial symptoms resolve two to three days after ingestion of the fungus . A more serious deterioration signifying liver involvement may then occur — jaundice , diarrhea , delirium , seizures , and coma due to fulminant liver failure and attendant hepatic encephalopathy caused by the accumulation of normally liver @-@ removed substances in the blood . Renal failure ( either secondary to severe hepatitis or caused by direct toxic renal damage ) and coagulopathy may appear during this stage . Life @-@ threatening complications include increased intracranial pressure , intracranial hemorrhage , sepsis , pancreatitis , acute renal failure , and cardiac arrest . Death generally occurs six to sixteen days after the poisoning .
= = = Treatment = = =
Consumption of A. ocreata is a medical emergency that requires hospitalization . There are four main categories of therapy for poisoning : preliminary medical care , supportive measures , specific treatments , and liver transplantation .
Preliminary care consists of gastric decontamination with either activated carbon or gastric lavage . However , due to the delay between ingestion and the first symptoms of poisoning , it is commonplace for patients to arrive for treatment long after ingestion , potentially reducing the efficacy of these interventions . Supportive measures are directed towards treating the dehydration which results from fluid loss during the gastrointestinal phase of intoxication and correction of metabolic acidosis , hypoglycemia , electrolyte imbalances , and impaired coagulation .
No definitive antidote for amatoxin poisoning is available , but some specific treatments such as intravenous penicillin G have been shown to improve survivability . There is some evidence that intravenous silibinin , an extract from the blessed milk thistle ( Silybum marianum ) , may be beneficial in reducing the effects of amatoxins , preventing their uptake by hepatocytes , thereby protecting undamaged hepatic tissue . In patients developing liver failure , a liver transplant is often the only option to prevent death . Liver transplants have become a well @-@ established option in amatoxin poisoning . This is a complicated issue , however , as transplants themselves may have significant complications and mortality ; patients require long @-@ term immunosuppression to maintain the transplant . Evidence suggests that , although survival rates have improved with modern medical treatment , in patients with moderate to severe poisoning up to half of those who did recover suffered permanent liver damage . However , a follow @-@ up study has shown that most survivors recover completely without any sequelae if treated within 36 hours of mushroom ingestion .
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= 1950 USS Missouri grounding incident =
The USS Missouri grounding incident occurred 17 January 1950 when the battleship USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) ran aground while sailing out of Chesapeake Bay . No casualties occurred during the incident ; however , the battleship remained stuck for over two weeks before being freed from the sand . Damage to the ship incurred from the incident required her to return to port and reenter dry dock for repairs .
After the battleship was freed a naval court of inquiry was convened to determine the facts surrounding the grounding . In the end , Captain William D. Brown and a handful of other naval officers were found guilty of negligence for their role in the grounding incident . Captain Brown suffered the loss of 250 places on the promotion list , which effectively ended his naval career .
Missouri was repaired and reentered service with the active fleet shortly afterward . She would go on to serve in the Korean War before being decommissioned in 1954 . She entered the Puget Sound Reserve Fleet in Bremerton , Washington , where she remained until being reactivated in 1984 as part of the 600 @-@ ship Navy plan put forth by then President Ronald Reagan and his Navy Secretary John Lehman .
= = Background = =
Missouri was one of the Iowa @-@ class " fast battleship " designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair . She was laid down at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 6 January 1941 , launched on 29 January 1944 and commissioned on 11 June . The ship was the third of the Iowa class , but the fourth and final Iowa @-@ class ship commissioned by the United States Navy . The ship was christened at her launching by Mary Margaret Truman , daughter of Harry S. Truman , then a United States senator from Missouri .
Missouri was active in the Pacific Theatre of World War II , escorting the Fast Carrier Task Forces and shelling beachheads for Allied Army and Marine Corps personnel involved in amphibious operations against the Imperial Japanese forces . After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki the Empire of Japan capitulated to Allied demands , signing the instrument of surrender to the allied powers aboard Missouri on 2 September 1945 . Afterwards , as part of the ongoing Operation Magic Carpet , Missouri departed Japanese waters with homeward @-@ bound GIs . Between 1945 and 1950 the US fleet of battleships had been entirely decommissioned ; however , Missouri was spared this fate due to the influence of President Harry S. Truman , a native Missourian , who refused to allow the battleship to be decommissioned , and against the advice of Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson , Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan , and Chief of Naval Operations Louis E. Denfeld , Truman ordered Missouri to be maintained with the active fleet partly because of his fondness for the battleship and partly because the battleship had been christened by his daughter . As a result , Missouri was involved in various training and flag waving exercises at home and abroad between World War II and the Korean War .
= = Events leading to the accident = =
In October 1949 , amid increasing political scrutiny , Missouri arrived at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for three months of scheduled maintenance . During this period Captain Harold Page Smith was relieved by Captain William D. Brown . A graduate of Annapolis and veteran of 30 years , Captain Brown had amassed a distinguished record commanding submarines and destroyers , but had never commanded a ship the size of Missouri , and had not been to sea in a command capacity since World War II . Captain Brown formally assumed command of Missouri on 10 December , just ahead of the completion of maintenance work on the battleship . On 23 December , Brown took the battleship out for a brief trip around the Virginia capes and returned to Norfolk on Christmas Eve . Her next scheduled departure was 17 January , at which time Missouri was to sail to Guantanamo Bay for maneuvers .
On 13 January , Brown received a manila envelope from Naval Base Headquarters that contained a request from the Naval Ordnance Laboratory . The request was for the battleship to proceed through a channel in which the United States Navy had strewn acoustic cables as part of an ongoing system development project that aimed to identify ships by their propeller signatures . The request was entirely optional , but as the captain was preoccupied with the details of the upcoming sortie to Cuba he gave the letter little attention and instead referred the matter to his operations officer , Commander John R. Millett , who in turn referred the letter to the ship 's navigator , Lieutenant Commander Frank G. Morris .
On 14 January , Captain Brown and his operations and navigating officers met to discuss the upcoming cruise to Cuba and the details surrounding this cruise , and also talk briefly about the acoustical test they were to run . The ship was to pass between two orange @-@ and @-@ white @-@ striped buoys that marked the entrance and exit from the range . The range itself was located precariously close to the " danger bearing " — the shoal area in which the safe 50 – 60 feet ( 15 – 18 m ) of water that could accommodate a ship shoaled to only 10 – 20 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 1 m ) . To make matters worse the range through which Missouri was to pass had originally been marked with five buoys , but this number had been reduced to two buoys two days prior to the arrival of Captain Brown . Morris was aware that three of the five buoys had been removed from the range , but had not received authorization to delete the non @-@ existent buoys from the chart . Although informed of this during the conference , Captain Brown and Commander Millett left the conference under the mistaken belief that there were still five buoys marking the acoustical range .
= = Grounding = =
At 7 : 25 am 17 January 1950 Missouri set sail for the Atlantic Ocean with harbor pilot R. B. McCoy at the helm . Because of the better view afforded on the forward mast structure , the battleship was sailed through the Chesapeake Bay from the eighth level of the battleship 's forward mast structure . At the time she had a full complement of ammunition and water , and her fuel tanks were 95 % full , which brought Missouri 's total displacement to 57 @,@ 000 tons ; she drew 35 feet ( 11 m ) at her bow and 36 feet 9 inches ( 11 @.@ 20 m ) at her stern . At 7 : 49 am , near the Elizabeth River Channel Buoy 3 , the pilot turned control of the battleship over to Captain Brown and departed for shore . The weather was clear and Missouri was now free to run through the acoustic channel . Missouri sailed toward two red markers that Commander George Peckham believed marked the shoal water in the channel .
With the departure of R. B. McCoy , Captain Brown assumed full command of Missouri . He ordered the battleship engines brought to two @-@ thirds speed and order a course set for 053 on the recommendation of navigator , Lieutenant Commander Morris .
At 8 : 05 am , as Missouri sailed past Fort Wool , Captain Brown turned control of the ship ( known in naval terms as the " conn " of the ship ) over to the officer of the deck and departed for the chart house . His arrival at the chart house caused Ensign E. R. Harris , who had been tracking the battleship 's course on the chart , to move away from the table , resulting in the interruption of the plot . Around the same time Captain Brown informed Commander Peckham that Missouri would soon run an acoustical range . This was the first time that the executive officer had heard about a planned acoustical range run .
Approximately two minutes after departing for the chart room , Captain Brown reemerged on the open bridge and reassumed the conn of the battleship . He summoned Lieutenants Hatfield and Arnold , Missouri 's morning and forenoon officers of the watch , respectively , and informed them of the planned run through the acoustical range . As with Commander Peckham , this was the first time that either of these two men had heard anything about the planned acoustical test run . When Captain Brown noted their confused looks , he promptly informed the men to " Go get yourselves informed " , at which point both officers reported to the chart room on level eight . There they learned of the impending run through the acoustical range by looking at the chart with the buoys marking the range ; despite this , both remained confused over aspects of the planned run .
At 8 : 10 am Captain Brown ordered a course change to 060 degrees and informed the men that the conn for the battleship would remain on the eighth @-@ level bridge until they cleared the course . This was unusual for Missouri , as the conn was usually shifted to the fourth @-@ level bridge during the transit at the point when a ship passed Fort Wool and Old Point Comfort . The initial course change to 060 was altered to 058 as a result of a strong ocean current that swung Missouri too far to the right during the course correction .
It was at this point that the first indication that something was dangerously amiss during the transit occurred . The executive officer , who passed through the chart room while preparing for the shift change , noticed that Missouri was rapidly approaching the shoal water , and promptly told Morris " For God 's sake watch it ! " At the same time a discussion occurred on the eighth @-@ level bridge as to whether it would be advisable for the battleship 's speed to be increased to 15 knots . Morris and Millet differed in opinion on the idea ; the former felt speed should be reduced five knots , and the latter felt that any steady speed held during the transition would be okay . Captain Brown therefore decided to increase speed to 15 knots , and the engine room replied by increasing power .
Around the same time , Lieutenant Arnold located a small buoy with orange @-@ and @-@ white stripes 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) away . Initially this buoy was identified as one of the acoustical range markers as a result of the letter " B " painted on it , but this information was not properly relayed to the rest of the crew . Mistakenly believing that this was the marker was for the right side of the range , both Captain Brown and the battleship 's operation 's officer agreed to order the battleship to pass to the left of the marker . By then Missouri was sailing for the danger line marking the separation between the deep water of the channel into the shallow water of the shoals . This was made apparent when a pair of spar buoys marking the entrance to a shallow fishing channel appeared ahead of Missouri . Brown incorrectly identified these markers as the end of the acoustical range , but several of the quartermasters , as well as Commander Peckham , Lieutenant Arnold , and other officers knew this was an incorrect assumption . It was at this point the first recommendation to turn right was made by Morris , the navigator ; Brown declined because of his mistaken belief that the markers for the fish channel were actually the end of the acoustical range . A similar recommendation from Commander Peckham also went unheeded .
Around the same time in Missouri 's Combat Information Center ( CIC ) crew members manning the battleship 's navigational radar system noticed that the radar returns indicated that Missouri was steaming for dangerous waters ; however , the CIC crew did not report this information to the captain . Lieutenant John Carr , the officer on duty in the CIC at the time of the grounding , concluded that radar equipment was likely not operating correctly . Carr later explained the decision not to report the radar information by stating , " the standard practice on board ship did not call for radar advice to the bridge in the absence of specific requests . " He also pointed out that the fathometer , a water depth @-@ reading instrument , was out of order and had not been repaired in the yard .
At 8 : 15 am Missouri crossed the danger bearing into the shoal water . At this time Commander Peckham sent a message to Captain Brown stating " Ship heading into Danger shoals . Recommend you come right immediately ! " , but this message was relayed by " talkers " ( men charged with relaying messages for officers to different stations ) and the talker who was supposed to pass Peckham 's message to Brown had a tendency to mumble badly . At the same time Peckham was attempting to alert Brown of the impending grounding , Morris again approached Brown and recommended coming right to avoid the shoal water . Captain Brown did not recall being informed of this , and made no reply to Morris . At this point Morris took a bearing on Thimble Shoals , and alarmed at the impending grounding Morris frantically returned to the captain waving his arms and shouting " Come right ! There 's shoal water ahead ! " A disbelieving Captain Brown dismissed Morris pleas by stating that it was his belief that the navigator did not know where they were . To verify Morris ' claims of impending shoal water , Brown asked Commander Millet to check Morris 's position . As a precautionary move , Brown then ordered Quartermaster Travis , Missouri 's helmsman , to alter course to 058 , but this order came too late .
At 8 : 17 am , Missouri slid up on a shoal ( or mud bar ) and stuck to the ground . In a last @-@ ditch effort to save the ship , Peckham sent a message to Brown stating " Come right immediately ! Twist ship ! " , but this effort was too little , too late ; Missouri had already run aground . Her hull had traveled approximately 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) , which was very nearly the entire length of the shoal , raising the battleship several feet out of the water , and her engines were shut down after the bay sand began to clog the battleship 's intakes in engineering . She had come to rest on an almost even keel on the sandbar within plain sight of a number of admirals of the United States Navy stationed at Hampton Roads , and similar number of high @-@ ranking officers of the United States Army stationed at Fort Monroe .
= = Salvage = =
By 8 : 30 am a request went out summoning all available tugs to the site of the grounding with the hope that they would be able to free the leviathan before any further damage occurred . An attempt made by Missouri 's sailors on the day of the grounding met with failure , as did an initial attempt to pull Missouri back into deep water with sixteen tugboats . Before the tugs could lend any further assistance , the naval brass postponed the attempt , pending the outcome of further assessment . Missouri had traversed the shoal nearly 2 @,@ 500 feet , and to compound her problem she had run aground during an unusually high tide . To add insult to injury , she had become the butt of a number of bad jokes among the American public , the navy 's rival service branches , and the Soviet Union 's Atlantic fleet , who were quick to pounce upon the dreadnought 's grounding as material for the naval publication Red Fleet .
Initially , high @-@ ranking US Navy officials elected to contract a private salvage firm to free the battleship , but Admiral Smith , at the time Commander , Cruisers , Atlantic , and the man who was responsible for issuing Missouri 's orders disagreed with this plan . He reasoned that if the Navy got her on to the shoal , then they should be responsible for getting her off the shoal . Ultimately , he won his case for a US Navy salvage effort , but he was explicitly informed by officials at The Pentagon that his career would ride on his ability to successfully get Missouri back into deep water . To better organize the salvage effort , Smith and a number of men on his staff moved aboard Missouri to supervise her return to deep water . Smith 's supervision also extended to answering the nearly 10 @,@ 000 letters sent to the Navy from concerned citizens offering advice on how to get the battleship back into deep water .
Commanding this salvage effort was Rear Admiral Homer N. Wallin . Wallin was the Navy Yard Commandant at Norfolk , and as a captain he had been instrumental in cleaning up the mess left by the Imperial Japanese Navy after the 7 December 1941 air raid that brought the United States into World War II . In total the salvage team that Wallin commanded successfully resurrected 19 of the 21 ships initially declared total losses and helped to refit those ships to serve in the Second World War . Wallin pledged to assist in the salvage effort , and initiated a five @-@ point plan aimed at getting Missouri off the mud and back into the water :
Remove as much weight as possible from the battleship ,
Lift the ship ,
Remove as much sand as possible from around the battleship ,
Use the combined power of the area 's tugboats to pull the battleship ,
Dredge the channel to provide deep water for Missouri to reenter the shipping lanes .
Because Missouri had run aground during an unusually high tide , Wallin required a date on which the tide would be roughly comparable to the conditions under which Missouri was grounded in order to free her . The date selected was 2 February , on which there would be another unusually high tide . With time as a factor Wallin took charge of the operation and put his five point plan into motion . With the assistance of Admiral Smith , Wallin was able to assemble a large salvage force which included submarine rescue ships , special salvage ships , divers , and pontoons to add additional buoyancy for the tug boats when the time came to move Missouri .
On 19 January Comber , an army dredge , arrived at the site of the Missouri grounding and began the process of sucking mud out of the intended path through which Missouri would be freed . On 22 January Comber was joined by the civilian run dredge Washington in the dredging phase of Wallin 's plan . Around the time the dredging began Missouri 's crew began offloading all non essential items . Both 16 @-@ inch and 5 @-@ inch shells , powder , food , drink , and other materials were removed from the battleship and placed aboard barges and other ships to help lighten Missouri . At the same time the Cimarron @-@ class fleet oilers Chemung and Pawcatuck began the process of offloading Missouri 's fuel . As the fuel was required to operate the generators aboard Missouri its absence resulted in a shift from supplying the power Missouri required with her own generators to relying on the submarine rescue ships for power and water needs .
Originally , the weight reduction phase had included removing the anchors from the battleship , but Wallin ordered one of the anchors to be reattached . His reason for doing so was that the anchor would effectively shift Missouri 's center of gravity forward to a narrower part of the battleship , thereby reducing the friction at her widest point . During this time the Bureau of Ships offered valuable technical and salvage advice to both the civilian and military participants in the salvage effort .
On 31 January an attempt was made to free Missouri with the assembled collection of tug boats and salvage ships . This attempt was ultimately unsuccessful , owing to an anchor from a previous wreck that had become embedded in Missouri 's hull . The extreme force generated by the tugs caused several two @-@ inch cables made from wire rope to break , and the failed attempt also revealed that Missouri needed to lose more weight if the next attempt was to be successful . In light of this some additional changes were made for the next attempt , which included cutting the anchors and chains off the battleship after they had been readded at Wallin 's request and the inclusion of additional pontoons to help lighten Missouri even more . A second attempt was tentatively scheduled for 1 February .
= = Missouri freed = =
On 1 February Missouri was finally freed with the assistance of 23 vessels . Five tug boats pulled alongside , six pulled astern , and three swung to the bow to facilitate movement . Additionally , two Gypsy @-@ class salvage vessels , Salvager and Windlass , and seven yard tugs helped keep the other vessels in place . Kedge anchors were also used to expedite the process . About the time that Missouri began to move again she suffered one last incident : while being towed off the shoal she bumped into Windlass , wiping out a portion of Windlass 's side railing . Thankfully , this damage was insignificant , and as the battleship slowly returned to the harbor the band played Missouri Waltz , Anchors Aweigh , and Nobody Knows the Trouble I 've Seen . Crewmen also hoisted battle flags and hoisted signal flags which read " Reporting for Duty " . A Norfolk harbor pilot was responsible for issuing the engine and rudder orders to the battleship , while Missouri 's own navigator issued course orders for the battleship during the tow .
With an audience observing the process , Missouri finally returned to the deep water at 7 : 09 am . Following her liberation from the muddy shoal , Missouri was towed back to the naval yard where her incomplete sister ship Kentucky had been removed from dry dock to allow Missouri to undergo repairs , which apart from structural inspection included replacement of some of her double bottom plating that had buckled and ruptured three fuel tanks .
= = Aftermath = =
Captain Brown was court martialed as a result of the incident , pleaded guilty , and was relieved of command of Missouri . As a result of his plea he suffered the loss of 250 places on the list of captains awaiting ships . Four others were court martialed , two were cleared of all charges , one received a letter of reprimand , and one was reduced on the promotion list . Despite these setbacks , Missouri was repaired and returned to fleet . She stayed in commission throughout the Korean War , and after the cease @-@ fire agreement was decommissioned into the United States Navy reserve fleets , where she remained until the 1980s . Despite proof to the contrary , rumors continue to circulate that Missouri suffered permanent damage as a result of the grounding incident .
Thereafter , the ship was sometimes referred to as the " Muddy Mo , " a takeoff on " Mighty Mo " .
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= Kyo Kusanagi =
Kyo Kusanagi ( 草薙 京 , Kusanagi Kyō ) is a fictional character in SNK 's The King of Fighters fighting game series ; he was first introduced in The King of Fighters ' 94 as the leader of the Japan team . He is one of the iconic characters in the series and appears regularly on publicity material and merchandise . His name and abilities were designed in order to relate him to the Yamata no Orochi legend . Because he was highly popular , and his outfit changed throughout the series , designers created a few clones with his old appearance .
Kyo , heir to the Kusanagi clan , is first introduced as a cocky delinquent high school student who can use pyrokinetic powers . In The King of Fighters universe , his clan is one of the three clans that sealed the legendary snake entity , Yamata no Orochi . Because his clan 's past , Kyo fights against the Kusanagi 's enemies , his rival Iori Yagami , the last member of the Yagami clan , and the Orochi 's soldiers . He enters every The King of Fighters tournament representing Japan and uses his clan 's fighting style of kenpo combined with his pyrokinetic ability . Aside from the main series , Kyo also appears in several other media series including spin @-@ offs and crossover video games as well as comic adaptations of the series .
Video game journalists have praised his design and fighting style as one of the best of the series . Reviewers note that he is a necessary character in every video game produced from the series and that he has the best winning pose . A variety of Kyo collectibles have been created , including key chains and figurines .
= = Conception and creation = =
When designing characters for the first King of Fighters game , developers wanted a new , " snazzy " hero who would easily fight against Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting characters . Through most of his development , Kyo was meant to be called Syo Kirishima ( 霧島 翔 , Kirishima Shō ) , and was dressed in martial arts clothing common in fighting games at the time . But late in production , his name was changed to Kyo Kusanagi in order to relate him to the Yamata no Orochi legend , which was used as the idea for the first story arc . His fighting style was changed as part of the series ' overhaul in The King of Fighters ' 96 . To appease fans , producers also included an older version of Kyo from KOF ' 94 into The King of Fighters ' 97 and placed The King of Fighters ' 95 version of Kyo in The King of Fighters ' 98 , which made both versions of Kyo popular during location tests . Developers of the game decided that Kyo 's main skill would be fire along with the other movesets from the other members of the original Japan Team inspired by the anime Getter Robo . In addition , the three members of the Japan Team had personalities similar to those of the main characters from such anime . Kyo was based on the main character who had a fiery persona . The elements and the personalities are also an homage to a Japanese phrase about giving birth to fire ; it is roughly translated : " lighting strikes the earth which sparks the flame " . According to Kyo 's designer , Ashita no Joe and Devilman were influences too .
The idea of having two Kyos at once led to the concept of his clones . During the early stages of the development of The King of Fighters ' 99 , SNK planned to avoid adding Kyo and Iori Yagami to the game , as the story 's focus was meant to center on the new protagonist , K ' . However , they reversed this decision as " they couldn 't leave these popular characters in limbo " . Kyo was redesigned for the game , but some designers wanted to return to his iconic school uniform . When they were nearing the end of their production schedule , staff members could not decide which uniform the Kyo clone should wear . The project head decided to make two clones instead . To save time , the project head drew designs for Kyo @-@ 1 and Kyo @-@ 2 on the character roster . The same event was repeated in The King of Fighters 2002 ; the designers created another clone from Kyo called Kusanagi to include his school uniform design .
Although Kyo retains his third outfit in The King of Fighters XII , his moves were modified to his original ones from the first two games of the series . This was done in order to make the character fight in close quarters rather than using projectiles , improving the balance of the roster , and making fights more entertaining . His signature move , the Orochinagi ( 大蛇薙 ) , was given a mid @-@ air variation for The King of Fighters XIII with designers keeping in mind the concept of coolness as well as the small difficulty in performing it . Kyo 's Neo Max technique , the " Ura 121 Shiki : Ama @-@ no @-@ Murakumo ( 裏百弐拾壱式 ・ 天叢雲 ) " , was the first move of this category to be made for the game . As a result , all the other characters ' Neo Max techniques were made according Kyo 's in order to keep a balance of flashy moves .
Kyo 's appears repeatedly in the series at the insistence of the marketers and the main planners . Iori , and other SNK regulars also appear in every game , making it a challenge to decide the storyline for each title . Along with his rival Iori , it has been noted by several of the series ' designers that Kyo is one of the most difficult characters to illustrate because of his popularity among fans . Originally , Kyo 's girlfriend , Yuki , was not meant to be conceptualized , since her first mention ever in the story was in Kyo 's profile as one of his most cherished possessions . Her addition to his profile was done by one of the programmers mostly as a joke since Kyo was more popular with female gamers .
For The King of Fighters XIV , Kyo was made slimmer and given a modern redesign . Kyo 's Japanese voice actor , Masahiro Nonaka , related with his character as he was young and reckless until he " grew up " ; in his later appearances he expressed some difficulty accepting Kyo on the same level . Tomoaki Maeno replaced Nonaka for The King of Fighters XIV . Maeno said he was putting all his efforts when Kyo and expected the fandom to enjoy his work .
= = Attributes = =
Kyo is an overconfident but well @-@ meaning person , more interested in enjoying life than taking on responsibilities . He is quick to dismiss subjects that do not interest him and will often carry out his actions with a devil @-@ may @-@ care attitude . He treasures his friends and family , enjoying their presence and particularly dotes on his girlfriend , Yuki . His strong sense of justice and zeal to fight stronger opponents are what he believes drives him to carry out his destiny . Kyo enters most of The King of Fighters tournaments representing the Japanese team along with teammates Benimaru Nikaido and Goro Daimon . In his fights he uses the clan 's martial art , the Kusanagi @-@ style of Kempo ( Kusanagi @-@ ryū Kenpō ) , attacking opponents using flames along with several hits . In later series ' tournaments he would combine fire with a personal style of kenpō .
Kyo is one of the last members of the Kusanagi clan who can create fire . 660 years ago , the Kusanagi and Yasakani clans were allies . However , due to the latter 's jealousy over the former 's fame , the Yasakani made a pact with the demon Orochi for more power . Since then , the clans have had a generation long grudge with casualties on both sides . His rivalry with Iori is one of mutual hatred and was not spurred by their clans ' history . When they join forces , it is begrudgingly as a last resort solution to the conflict at hand . Kyo takes his responsibilities to his clan on a more personal level , disregarding ancient legends and predestined events as any reason for his actions .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
In the first The King of Fighters video game , Kyo stars in the famous fighting tournament as the leader of the Japan team along with Benimaru Nikaido and Goro Daimon . They become the champions and defeat the host Rugal Bernstein . In the next video game , the Japan Team once again faces Rugal as well as Kyo 's brainwashed father , Saisyu . While Rugal dies , Saisyu is saved from Rugal 's control . Prior to the events of The King of Fighters ' 96 , one of the Four Heavenly Kings of the legendary creature Orochi , Goenitz , easily defeats Kyo . The current host , Chizuru Kagura , wants to gather Kyo and Iori Yagami on her team to defeat Orochi in the same way as their ancestors and stop Goenitz . In The King of Fighters ' 97 Kyo faces Orochi 's remaining followers and eventually Orochi himself , possessing one of them . However , Kyo and Iori defeat him . In KOF ' 98 , Kyo appears as a playable character on the Japan Team with Benimaru and Daimon . An alternative version of his character , with movesets used in previous games , is also playable .
Kyo is a secret character in most versions of The King of Fighters ' 99 , and has no team . In the story , Kyo is kidnapped by the NESTS syndicate to use his DNA to make various clones of himself . He tries to obtain answers personally from his captors entering their base but is forced to retreat when the place around him begins to collapse . Depending on how many points the player has when the game finishes , Kyo can be faced as a bonus fight . He continues his fight against the NESTS alone in The King of Fighters 2000 and in the next game , Kyo reunites with his old teammates , and his student Shingo Yabuki , to make a comeback on the Japan Team . In KOF 2002 , Kyo is a playable character on the original Japan Team .
In The King of Fighters 2003 , Chizuru appears to both Kyo and Iori , asking that they form a team to investigate suspicious activities concerning the Orochi seal . During the investigation , the team is ambushed by the fighter Ash Crimson who plans to get their clans ' powers , and steal them from Chizuru . In The King of Fighters XI , Kyo and Iori once again form a team with Shingo filling Chizuru 's spot to stop Ash . However , the growing presence of the Orochi causes Iori to go berserk , forcing him to harm his teammates . Ash then appears and steals Iori 's abilities after defeating him . In King of Fighters XII , Kyo is a playable character , but like each of them , he does not have a team . Kyo reunites with the original members of the Esaka Team in The King of Fighters XIII . Additionally , an alternative version of himself , with different moves called NESTS Style Kyo , is available as downloadable content .
He is set to return in the upcoming The King of Fighters XIV with his old comrades , whereas his classic form will appear as a pre @-@ order bonus and downloadable content .
A role @-@ playing video game was created with the name of The King of Fighters : Kyo in which Kyo travels around the world to prepare for The King of Fighters tournament until the events of KOF ' 97 . Kyo appears in the spin @-@ off video games of the series Neowave and Maximum Impact series . In Maximum Impact 2 , he is also playable as his classic version from the first games as well as with a new outfit . In each North American edition from Maximum Impact , Kyo is played by Andrew Roth , an English voice actor . During The King of Fighters EX : Neo Blood , Moe Habana , the heir of one of the ten sacred treasures , finds Kyo seriously wounded after his fight against Orochi . After healing him , Moe joins Kyo along with Benimaru to participate in a tournament developed by the criminal Geese Howard , who is searching for the power from Orochi . In the game sequel , The King of Fighters EX2 : Howling Blood , Reiji Okami , another member of the ten sacred treasured , asks Kyo to join him as his teammate in a new tournament so that they can investigate who is interfering with the Orochi seal .
Kyo has also appeared in video games outside The King of Fighters series . He is a playable character in the shooter game Sky Stage . In the crossover video games Neo Geo Battle Coliseum and SNK vs. Capcom series , Kyo appears as a playable character ; in the former game he appears with his 99 costume , while in the latter he is in his school uniform . Kyo is also meant to be featured in the card battle video game Lord of Vermillion Re : 2 's Tie @-@ Ups .
= = = In other media = = =
Aside from the main series , Kyo has also appeared in other media from The King of Fighters series . In the anime , The King of Fighters : Another Day , he is featured prominently in the fourth chapter . A number of image songs and audio dramas featuring Kyo 's character have been released , including the contents of his own character image album consisting of a number of his theme songs . Kyo also appears in the manhua adaptation of The King of Fighters : Zillion that was created by Andy Seto . This manhua tells Kyo 's and Iori 's story between their fight against Orochi until the one against NESTS . He stars in further manwhua for the games , starting with The King of Fighters 2001 through the King of Fighters 2003 along with the Maximum Impact series . He also has a spin @-@ off manga story based on the events following The King of Fighters ' 95 entitled , The King of Fighters : Kyo created by Masato Natsumoto , who also did the character design for the eponymous action RPG ( set as a parallel story to the events of The King of Fighters ' 97 ) for the PlayStation . In the The King of Fighters movie Kyo is played by Sean Faris , and is portrayed as Japanese @-@ American .
= = Reception = =
Kyo 's character has received praise and criticism from several video game publications and other media . The website IGN 's writer A.E. Sparrow , has commented that Kyo is one of the most enjoyable characters to play in the King of Fighters series praising the dynamism of his moveset and fighting style . In another review , they considered him to be one of the most useful characters from the games and one of the best ones for " veteran players " . However , they lamented the fact that Kyo has a few appearances in the volume from the manhua The King of Fighters 2003 in comparison to Ash Crimson , who is the greater focus of the series . His recurring interactions with Iori Yagami during fights were called appealing despite the fact English @-@ speaking gamers are not able to understand them ; they add depth to the games , even though some lack a storyline . The ending of Kyo in The King of Fighters ' 97 has been considered by 1UP.com as one of the strangest parts of the story . However , they considered Kyo 's winning pose as the best from the series . On the other hand , 4thletter enjoyed Kyo 's ending with Chizuru Kagura and Iori , stating " this [ is how you write a climax to a four @-@ year @-@ long story ] " as it was closing the ending of the Orochi story arc from the series . Damien McFerran of Virtual Console Reviews considered Kyo one of the most excellent creations from The King of Fighters series , as well as the most original one . Lucke M. Albiges of Eurogamer praised Kyo , along with Iori , and considered him a veteran character with one of the most unpredictable appearances in the series . In a retrospective view of the series ' debut , Videogamer.com called Kyo one of the most popular video game characters from Japan . GameSpot has criticized the addition of the Kyo clones in The King of Fighters ' 99 , commenting they do not add new elements to the game since they share most of the moves of the original Kyo . In 2012 , Complex ranked Kyo as the 11th Most Dominant Fighting Game Character praising his special moves and labeling him as a " cool " character .
Kyo has been well @-@ received by gamers , with his character appearing in several popularity polls . In Gamest 's 1997 Heroes Collection , Kyo was voted as the staff 's second favorite character , behind his rival Iori . In a 2005 poll made by SNK @-@ Playmore USA , he was voted the sixth fan favorite character with a total of 176 votes . Additionally , in the January 30 , 1995 issue of Gamest magazine in Japan , Kyo was featured at No. 4 in the Top 50 Characters of 1994 . In the character popularity poll on Neo Geo Freak 's website , he was voted as the third favorite character with a total of 2 @,@ 574 votes . For the special endings in The King of Fighters ' 97 , three video games journals , Gamest , Famitsu and Neo Geo Freak , had to create a team composed of three characters from the game so that they would be featured in an image after passing the arcade mode . The Neo Geo Freak 's team created a team composed of Kyo , Mai Shiranui and Billy Kane . The special ending only appears in Japanese versions of the game . In an ASCII Media Works poll in which fans voted on whose video game or manga character they would like to name their children after , Kyo 's name was tenth in the male category . Merchandising based on Kyo 's appearance has also been released . Yutaka released an articulated action figure and a puzzle of Kyo from KoF ' 97 . With the release of new video games in the series , SNK developed new action figures as well as key @-@ chains .
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= Tropical Storm Christine ( 1973 ) =
Tropical Storm Christine was the easternmost forming Atlantic tropical cyclone on record . Forming as a tropical depression over the country of Guinea on August 25 , 1973 , the system tracked nearly due west for several days before intensifying into a tropical storm on August 28 . However , the National Hurricane Center did not issue their first advisory on the system until its intensity was confirmed by a reconnaissance aircraft on August 30 . Turning slightly northward , Christine gradually intensified , attaining its peak strength on September 2 . At that time , the storm had winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) , just below hurricane status . Shortly after , increasing wind shear caused the system to quickly weaken . By September 4 , Christine had been downgraded to a tropical depression as it tracked through the Leeward Islands . After degenerating into a tropical wave , the cyclone 's remnants fully dissipated on September 6 .
Although Christine had weakened to a tropical depression by the time it passed through the Leeward Islands , heavy rains from the storm , peaking at 11 @.@ 74 in ( 298 mm ) , caused flooding in Puerto Rico . Over 600 homes were flooded and dozens of families had to be evacuated from several towns . One person died from electrocution after stepping on a downed wire on a flooded street . Minor damage was recorded in the Virgin Islands , mainly downed power lines which left roughly 500 people without telephone service .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Christine originated from a tropical wave over Africa in late @-@ August . As it neared the Atlantic Ocean , the wave spawned a tropical depression at 14 @.@ 0 ° W , over the country of Guinea , on August 25 . The formation of this depression was farther east than any other tropical cyclone on record in the Atlantic hurricane basin , although storms may have gone undetected prior to the start of satellite imagery in the 1960s . This record would not be approached by any other storm until Hurricane Jeanne in 1998 , which formed at 17 @.@ 4 ° W. This was unlike most cyclone producing waves which travel several hundred miles over water before spawning a depression . Tracking nearly due west , the depression moved over water several hours later and bypassed the Cape Verde Islands on August 27 .
The following day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm ; however , advisories were not issued by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) on the system until August 30 because of the lack of reconnaissance aircraft data . It was determined that Christine had become a tropical storm by this time after receiving reports of gale @-@ force winds from a German cargo ship in the vicinity of the storm . The first advisory from the NHC came after a reconnaissance plane found sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1007 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 74 inHg ) . At that time , Christine was located roughly 1000 mi ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) east of Trinidad . Although the storm was relatively disorganized by this point , satellite imagery showed large outer bands extending hundreds of miles ( kilometres ) from the storm .
By August 31 , the storm began to slow and turn towards the west @-@ northwest . The NHC noted that they did not have a firm grip on the storm and were unsure of its future track and intensity . Below average sea surface temperatures ahead of the system would hamper significant development . Continuing on this track , Christine gradually intensified and on September 2 , the storm attained its peak intensity just below hurricane @-@ status while situated roughly 300 mi ( 500 km ) east of Guadeloupe . At this time , a reconnaissance aircraft recorded sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Shortly after Christine attained this intensity , increasing wind shear caused the storm to weaken as it neared the Leeward Islands .
The NHC noted that a trough ahead of Christine would determine the future of the storm . This trough would either merge with the storm and allow significant intensification , or remain separate and cause Christine to dissipate . By September 3 , the low @-@ level circulation had been displaced from all convective activity and Christine weakened to a tropical depression . Several hours after weakening , the depression passed over Antigua with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The following day , the system degenerated into a tropical wave near the northeastern coast of the Dominican Republic . The remnants of Christine were monitored by the NHC for several days before dissipating near the trough on September 6 .
= = = Observation = = =
Throughout its existence , Christine was monitored by astronauts in the Skylab 3 project . During this project , active and passive microwave satellite imagery was used for the first time to determine the wind speed within a tropical cyclone . This was accomplished after the removal of regions of heavy rain from the data , a factor that gives inaccurate wind readings .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On September 2 , the National Hurricane Center issued gale warnings and hurricane watches for Guadeloupe , Desirade , Antigua and Barbuda . Later that day , the gale warnings were expanded southward to include islands north of Dominica . After Christine weakened to a tropical depression , the NHC discontinued all watches and warnings for the Leeward Islands . Schools were closed in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands as a precaution . Six scientists had to be evacuated from the small island of Aves once the storm posed a threat to them . On St. Thomas , nine emergency shelters were opened , mainly in schools . On September 5 , an emergency meeting was held by disaster officials in Puerto Rico about the threat of flooding from Christine . All residents were urged by government officials to have their disaster kits ready and be prepared to evacuate if told to do so . Firefighters , on and off @-@ duty , were advised about the possibility of evacuations and would be pulled into work if needed .
During its passage through the Leeward Islands , Christine produced torrential rainfall , peaking at 11 @.@ 74 in ( 298 mm ) in eastern Puerto Rico . A maximum of 3 @.@ 16 in ( 80 mm ) also fell in the United States Virgin Islands . Rainfall totals on other islands are unknown but are likely similar to those in the U.S. Virgin Islands . The precipitation led to flooding on several islands . One person was killed during the storm after being electrocuted by a downed power line on a flooded road . Public works crews worked throughout the storm to keep roads clear ; however , one road that was under construction became a " sea of mud " as crews could not clear the flood waters fast enough . The towns of Yabucoa , Humacao , Maunabo , Las Piedras and Carolinas sustained flood damage from the storm . In Yabucoa , 40 families were evacuated as 25 homes were damaged . The most substantial flooding took place in Humacao where 60 families were evacuated and 500 homes sustained damage . A total of six bridges , four sewer systems and 14 homes were damaged in Maunabo . An additional 21 people were evacuated from Las Piedras and 41 homes were damaged and in Carolinas , 23 more homes were damaged . Although there was extensive property damage , no monetary value is available .
Numerous calls were made to police in the United States Virgin Islands about downed power lines throughout the passage of the depression . High winds , gusting up to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) left roughly 500 people without telephone service on St. Croix . No major damage was reported on any of the affected islands in the wake of Christine . Residents in the drought @-@ stricken regions of Florida were hoping for increased rainfall from the remnant wave of Christine ; however , the system did not reach the United States before dissipating . The storm 's remnants only produced squally weather in Florida on September 7 and 8 .
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= Geology of Scotland =
The geology of Scotland is unusually varied for a country of its size , with a large number of differing geological features . There are three main geographical sub @-@ divisions : the Highlands and Islands is a diverse area which lies to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault ; the Central Lowlands is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations ; and the Southern Uplands , which lie south of the Southern Uplands Fault , are largely composed of Silurian deposits .
The existing bedrock includes very ancient Archean gneiss , metamorphic beds interspersed with granite intrusions created during the Caledonian mountain building period ( the Caledonian orogeny ) , commercially important coal , oil and iron bearing carboniferous deposits and the remains of substantial Paleogene volcanoes . During their formation , tectonic movements created climatic conditions ranging from polar to desert to tropical and a resultant diversity of fossil remains .
Scotland has also had a role to play in many significant discoveries such as plate tectonics and the development of theories about the formation of rocks and was the home of important figures in the development of the science including James Hutton ( the " father of modern geology " ) , Hugh Miller and Archibald Geikie . Various locations such as ' Hutton 's Unconformity ' at Siccar Point in Berwickshire and the Moine Thrust in the north west were also important in the development of geological science .
= = Overview = =
From a geological and geomorphological perspective the country has three main sub @-@ divisions all of which were affected by Pleistocene glaciations .
= = = Highlands and Islands = = =
The Highlands and Islands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault , which runs from Arran to Stonehaven . This part of Scotland largely comprises ancient rocks , from Cambrian and Precambrian times , that were uplifted to form a mountain chain during the later Caledonian orogeny . These foundations are interspersed with many igneous intrusions of more recent age , the remnants of which have formed mountain massifs such as the Cairngorms and Skye Cuillins . A significant exception to the above are the fossil @-@ bearing beds of the Old Red Sandstone found principally along the Moray Firth coast and in the Orkney islands . These rocks are around 400 million years old , and were laid down in the Devonian period . The Highlands are generally mountainous and are bisected by the Great Glen Fault . The highest elevations in the British Isles are found here , including Ben Nevis , the highest peak at 1 @,@ 344 metres ( 4 @,@ 409 ft ) . Scotland has over 790 islands , divided into four main groups : Shetland , Orkney , and the Hebrides , further sub @-@ divided into the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides .
The Hebridean archipelago outlier of St Kilda is composed of Paleogene igneous formations of granites and gabbro , heavily weathered by the elements . These islands represent the remnants of a long extinct ring volcano rising from a seabed plateau approximately 40 m ( 130 ft ) below sea level .
The geology of Shetland is complex with numerous faults and folds . These islands are Scotland 's most northerly area of Caledonian orogenic rocks and there are outcrops of Lewisian , Dalradian and Moine metamorphic rocks with similar histories to their equivalents on the Scottish mainland . Similarly , there are also Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions . The most distinctive feature is the ultrabasic ophiolite peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar , which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor . Much of Shetland 's economy depends on the oil @-@ bearing sediments in the surrounding seas .
= = = Midland Valley = = =
Often referred to as the Central Lowlands , this is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations . Many of these sediments have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fuelled Scotland 's industrial revolution are to be found . This area has also experienced intense vulcanism , Arthur 's Seat in Edinburgh being the remnant of a once much larger volcano active in the Carboniferous period some 300 million years ago . This area is relatively low @-@ lying , although even here hills such as the Ochils and Campsie Fells are rarely far from view .
= = = Southern Uplands = = =
The Southern Uplands are a range of hills almost 200 km ( 120 mi ) long , interspersed with broad valleys . They lie south of a second fault line running from Ballantrae towards Dunbar . The geological foundations largely comprise Silurian deposits laid down some 4 @-@ 500 million years ago .
= = = Post @-@ glacial events = = =
The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation , and to a lesser extent by subsequent sea level changes . In the post @-@ glacial epoch , circa 6100 BC , Scotland and the Faeroe Islands experienced a tsunami up to 20 metres high caused by the Storegga Slides , an immense underwater landslip off the coast of Norway . Earth tremors are infrequent and usually slight . The Great Glen is the most seismically active area of Britain , but the last event of any size was in 1901 .
= = Chronology = =
= = = Archean and Proterozoic eons = = =
The oldest rocks of Scotland are the Lewisian gneisses , which were formed in the Precambrian period , up to 3 @,@ 000 Ma ( million years ago ) . They are among the oldest rocks in both Europe and the World . They form the basement to the west of the Moine Thrust on the mainland , in the Outer Hebrides and on the islands of Coll and Tiree . These rocks are largely igneous in origin , mixed with metamorphosed marble , quartzite and mica schist and intruded by later basaltic dykes and granite magma . One of these intrusions forms the summit plateau of the mountain Roineabhal in Harris . The granite here is anorthosite , and is similar in composition to rocks found in the mountains of the Moon .
Torridonian sandstones were also laid down in this period over the gneisses , and these contain the oldest signs of life in Scotland . In later Precambrian times , thick sediments of sandstones , limestones muds and lavas were deposited in what is now the Highlands of Scotland .
= = = Paleozoic era = = =
= = = = Cambrian period = = = =
Further sedimentary deposits were formed through the Cambrian period ( 542 – 488 Ma ) , some of which , along with the earlier Precambrian sediments , metamorphosed into the Dalradian series . This is composed of a wide variety of materials , including mica schist , biotite gneiss schist , schistose grit , greywacke and quartzite . The area that would become Scotland was at this time close to the south pole and part of Laurentia . Fossils from the north @-@ west Highlands indicate the presence of trilobites and other primitive forms of life .
= = = = Ordovician period = = = =
The proto @-@ Scotland landmass moved northwards , and from 460 – 430 Ma , sandstone , mudstone and limestone were deposited in the area that is now the Midland Valley . This occurred in shallow tropical seas at the margins of the Iapetus Ocean . The Ballantrae Complex near Girvan was formed from this ocean floor and is similar in composition to rocks found at The Lizard in Cornwall . Nonetheless , northern and southern Britain were far apart at the beginning of this period , although the gap began to close as the continent of Avalonia broke away from Gondwana , collided with Baltica and drifted towards Laurentia . The Caledonian orogeny began forming a mountain chain from Norway to the Appalachians . There was an ice age in the southern hemisphere , and the first mass extinction of life on Earth took place at the end of this period .
= = = = Silurian period = = = =
During the Silurian period ( 443 – 416 Ma ) the continent of Laurentia gradually collided with Baltica , joining Scotland to the area that would become England and Europe . Sea levels rose as the Ordovician ice sheets melted , and tectonic movements created major faults which assembled the outline of Scotland from previously scattered fragments . These faults are the Highland Boundary Fault , separating the Lowlands from the Highlands , the Great Glen Fault that divides the North @-@ west Highlands from the Grampians , the Southern Uplands Fault and the Iapetus Suture , which runs from the Solway Firth to Lindisfarne and which marks the close of the Iapetus Ocean and the joining of northern and southern Britain .
Silurian rocks form the Southern Uplands of Scotland , which were pushed up from the sea bed during the collision with Baltica / Avalonia . The majority of the rocks are weakly metamorphosed coarse greywacke . The Highlands were also affected by these collisions , creating a series of thrust faults in the northwest Highlands including the Moine Thrust , the understanding of which played an important role in 19th century geological thinking . Volcanic activity occurred across Scotland as a result of the collision of the tectonic plates , with volcanoes in southern Scotland , and magma chambers in the north , which today form the granite mountains such as the Cairngorms .
= = = = Devonian period = = = =
The Scottish landmass now formed part of the Old Red Sandstone Continent and lay some 25 degrees south of the equator , moving slowly north during this period to 10 degrees south . The accumulations of Old Red Sandstone laid down from 408 to 370 million years ago were created as earlier Silurian rocks , uplifted by the formation of Pangaea , eroded and were deposited into a body of fresh water ( probably a series of large river deltas ) . A huge freshwater lake - Lake Orcadie - existed on the edges of the eroding mountains stretching from Shetland to the southern Moray Firth . The formations are extremely thick , up to 11 @,@ 000 metres in places , and can be subdivided into three categories " Lower " , " Middle " , and " Upper " from oldest to youngest . As a result , the Old Red Sandstone is an important source of fish fossils and it was the object of intense geological studies in the 19th century . In Scotland these rocks are found predominantly in the Moray Firth basin and Orkney Archipelago , and along the southern margins of the Highland Boundary Fault .
Elsewhere volcanic activity , possibly as a result of the closing of the Iapetus Suture , created the Cheviot Hills , Ochil Hills , Sidlaw Hills , parts of the Pentland Hills and Scurdie Ness on the Angus coast .
= = = = Carboniferous period = = = =
During the Carboniferous period ( 359 – 299 Ma ) , Scotland lay close to the equator . Several changes in sea level occurred and the coal deposits of Lanarkshire and West Lothian and limestones of Fife and Dunbar date from this time . There are oil shales near Bathgate around which the 19th @-@ century oil @-@ processing industry developed , and elsewhere in the Midland Valley there are ironstones and fire clay deposits that had significance in the early Industrial Revolution . Fossil Grove in Victoria Park , Glasgow contains the preserved remains of a Carboniferous forest . More volcanic activity formed Arthur 's Seat and the Salisbury Crags in Edinburgh and the nearby Bathgate Hills .
= = = = Permian period = = = =
The Old Red Sandstone Continent became a part of the supercontinent Pangaea in the Permian ( 299 – 251 Ma ) , during which proto @-@ Britain continued to drift northwards . Scotland 's climate was arid at this time and some fossils of reptiles have been recovered . However , Permian sandstones are found in only a few places - principally in the south west , on the island of Arran , and on the Moray coast . Stone quarried from Hopeman in Moray has been used in the National Museum and Scottish Parliament buildings in Edinburgh .
At the close of this period came the Permian – Triassic extinction event in which 96 % of all marine species vanished and from which bio @-@ diversity took 30 million years to recover .
= = = Mesozoic era = = =
= = = = Triassic period = = = =
During the Triassic ( 251 – 200 Ma ) , much of Scotland remained in desert conditions , with higher ground in the Highlands and Southern Uplands providing sediment to the surrounding basins via flash floods . This is the origin of sandstone outcrops near Dumfries , Elgin and the Isle of Arran . Towards the close of this period sea levels began to rise and climatic conditions became less arid .
= = = = Jurassic period = = = =
As the Jurassic ( 200 – 145 Ma ) started , Pangaea began to break up into two continents , Gondwana and Laurasia , marking the beginning of the separation of Scotland and North America . Sea levels rose , as Britain and Ireland drifted on the Eurasian Plate to between 30 ° and 40 ° north . Most of northern and eastern Scotland including Orkney , Shetland and the Outer Hebrides remained above the advancing seas , but the south and south @-@ west were inundated . There are only isolated sedimentary rocks remaining on land from this period , on the Sutherland coast near Golspie and , forming the Great Estuarine Group , on Skye , Mull , Raasay and Eigg . This period does however have considerable significance . The burial of algae and bacteria below the mud of the sea floor during this time resulted in the formation of North Sea oil and natural gas , much of it trapped in overlying sandstone by deposits formed as the seas fell to form the swamps and salty lakes and lagoons that were home to dinosaurs .
= = = = Cretaceous period = = = =
In the Cretaceous ( 146 – 66 Ma ) , Laurasia split into the continents of North America and Eurasia . Sea levels rose globally during this period and much of low @-@ lying Scotland was covered in a layer of chalk . Although large deposits of Cretaceous rocks were laid down over Scotland , these have not survived erosion except in a few places on the west coast such as Loch Aline in Morvern where they form a part of the Inner Hebrides Group . At the end of this period the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event brought the age of dinosaurs to a close .
= = = Cenozoic era = = =
= = = = Paleogene period = = = =
In the early Paleogene period between 63 and 52 Ma , the last volcanic rocks in the British Isles were formed . As North America and Greenland separated from Europe , the Atlantic Ocean slowly formed . This led to a chain of volcanic sites west of mainland Scotland including on Skye , the Small Isles and St. Kilda , in the Firth of Clyde on Arran and Ailsa Craig and at Ardnamurchan . Sea levels began to fall , and for the first time the general outline of the modern British Isles was revealed . At the beginning of this period the climate was sub @-@ tropical and erosion was caused by chemical weathering , creating characteristic features of the Scottish landscape such as the topographical basin of the Howe of Alford near Aberdeen . The vegetation of the period is known from Paleocene sedimentary deposits on Isle of Mull . The rich flora here included temperate @-@ climate tree species such as plane , hazel , oak , Cercidiphyllum , Metasequoia and ginkgo .
= = = = Neogene period = = = =
= = = = = Miocene and Pliocene epochs = = = = =
In the Miocene and Pliocene epochs further uplift and erosion occurred in the Highlands . Plant and animal types developed into their modern forms . Scotland lay in its present position on the globe . As the Miocene progressed , temperatures dropped and remained similar to today 's .
= = = = = Pleistocene epoch = = = = =
Several ice ages shaped the land through glacial erosion , creating u @-@ shaped valleys and depositing boulder clays , especially on the western seaboard . The last major incursion of ice peaked about 18 @,@ 000 years ago , leaving other remnant features such at the granite tors on the Cairngorm Mountain plateaux .
= = = = = Holocene epoch = = = = =
Over the last twelve thousand years the most significant new geological features have been the deposits of peat and the development of coastal alluvium . Post @-@ glacial rises in sea level have been combined with isostatic rises of the land resulting in a relative fall in sea level in most areas . In some places , such as Culbin in Moray , these changes in relative sea level have created a complex series of shorelines . A rare type of Scottish coastline found largely in the Hebrides consists of machair habitat , a low lying dune pasture land formed as the sea level dropped leaving a raised beach . In the present day , Scotland continues to move slowly north .
= = Geologists in Scotland = =
Scottish geologists and non @-@ Scots working in Scotland have played an important part in the development of the science , especially during its pioneering period in the late 18th century and 19th century .
James Hutton ( 1726 – 1797 ) , the " father of modern geology " , was born in Edinburgh . His Theory of the Earth , published in 1788 , proposed the idea of a rock cycle in which weathered rocks form new sediments and that granites were of volcanic origin . At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains he found granite penetrating metamorphic schists . This showed to him that granite formed from the cooling of molten rock , not precipitation out of water as the Neptunists of the time believed . This sight is said to have " filled him with delight " . Regarding geological time scales he famously remarked " that we find no vestige of a beginning , no prospect of an end " .
John Playfair ( 1748 – 1819 ) from Angus was a mathematician who developed an interest in geology through his friendship with Hutton . His 1802 Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth were influential in the latter 's success .
John MacCulloch ( 1773 – 1835 ) was born in Guernsey and like Hutton before him , studied medicine at Edinburgh University . A president of the Geological Society from 1815 – 17 , he is best remembered for producing the first geological map of Scotland , published in 1836 . ' MacCulloch 's Tree ' , a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) high fossil conifer in the Mull lava flows , is named after him .
Sir Charles Lyell ( 1797 – 1875 ) was also from Angus and his Principles of Geology built on Hutton 's ideas . Lyell 's theory of uniformitarianism and his interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a central theme in the Principles , and a powerful influence on the young Charles Darwin . ( Robert FitzRoy , captain of HMS Beagle , loaned Darwin a copy of Volume 1 of the first edition just before they set out on the ' Voyage of the Beagle ' . ) Lyell is buried in Westminster Abbey .
Sir Roderick Murchison ( 1792 – 1871 ) was born in Ross and Cromarty and served under Wellesley in the Peninsular War . Knighted in 1846 , his main achievements were the investigation of Silurian rocks published as The Silurian System in 1839 and of Permian deposits in Russia . The Murchison crater on the Moon and at least fifteen geographical locations on Earth are named after him .
Hugh Miller ( 1802 – 56 ) from Cromarty was a stonemason and self @-@ taught geologist . His 1841 publication The Old Red Sandstone became a bestseller . The fossils founds in these rocks were one of his fascinations , although his deep religious convictions led him to oppose the idea of biological evolution .
James Croll ( 1821 – 90 ) developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth 's orbit . Born near Perth , he was self @-@ educated and his interest in science led to his becoming appointed as a janitor in the museum at the Andersonian College and Museum , Glasgow in 1859 . His 1864 paper On the Physical Cause of the Changes of Climate during Glacial Epochs led to a position in the Edinburgh office of the Geological Survey of Scotland , as keeper of maps and correspondence , where Sir Archibald Geikie , encouraged his research . He was eventually to become a Fellow of the Royal Society .
Sir Archibald Geikie ( 1835 – 1924 ) was the first to recognise that there had been multiple glaciations , and his 1863 paper On the glacial drift of Scotland was a landmark in the emergent theories of glaciation . He became Director @-@ General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom in 1888 and was also well known for his work on vulcanism .
Arthur Holmes ( 1890 – 1965 ) was born in England and became Regius Professor of Geology at the University of Edinburgh in 1943 . His magnum opus was Principles of Physical Geology , first published in 1944 , in which he proposed the idea that slow moving convection currents in the Earth 's mantle created ' continental drift ' as it was then called . He also pioneered the discipline of geochronology . He lived long enough to see the theory of plate tectonics become widely accepted , and he is regarded as one of the most influential geologists of the 20th century .
= = Important sites = =
= = = Siccar Point = = =
Siccar Point , Berwickshire is world famous as one of the sites that proved Hutton 's views about the immense age of the Earth . Here Silurian rocks have been tilted almost to the vertical . Younger Carboniferous rocks lie unconformably over the top of them , dipping gently , indicating that an enormous span of time must have passed between the creation of the two beds . When Hutton and James Hall visited the site in 1788 their companion Playfair wrote :
" On us who saw these phenomenon for the first time the impression will not easily be forgotten ... We felt necessarily carried back to a time when the schistus on which we stood was yet at the bottom of the sea , and when the sandstone before us was only beginning to be deposited , in the shape of sand or mud , from the waters of the supercontinent ocean ... The mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far back into the abyss of time ; and whilst we listened with earnestness and admiration to the philosopher who was now unfolding to us the order and series of these wonderful events , we became sensible how much further reason may sometimes go than imagination may venture to follow . " John Playfair ( 1805 ) Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , vol . V , pt . III .
= = = Knockan Crag = = =
The Moine Thrust in Assynt is one of the most studied geological features in the world . Its discovery in the 1880s was a milestone in the history of geology as it was one of the first thrust belts in the world to be identified . Investigations by John Horne and Benjamin Peach resolved a dispute between Murchison and Geikie on the one hand and James Nicol and Charles Lapworth on the other . The latter believed that older Moine rocks lay on top of younger Cambrian rocks at Knockan Crag , and Horne and Peach 's work confirmed this in their classic paper The Geological Structure of the Northwest Highlands of Scotland , which was published in 1907 . A statue to these two pioneers of fieldwork was erected at Inchnadamph near the hotel there which played a prominent part in the annals of early geology . This area is at the heart of the ' North West Highlands Geopark ' .
= = = Dob 's Linn = = =
Lapworth also had a prominent role to play in the fame of Dob 's Linn , a small gorge in the Scottish Borders , which contains the ' golden spike ' ( i.e. the official international boundary or stratotype ) between the Ordovician and Silurian periods . Lapworth 's work in this area , especially his examination of the complex stratigraphy of the Silurian rocks by comparing fossil graptolites , was crucial in to the early understanding of these epochs .
= = = Skye Cuillin = = =
The Skye Cuillin mountains provide classic examples of glacial topography and were the subject of an early published account by James Forbes in 1846 ( who had become a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh aged only nineteen ) . He partnered Louis Agassiz on his trip to Scotland in 1840 and although they subsequently argued , Forbes went on to publish other important papers on Alpine glaciers . In 1904 Alfred Harker published The Tertiary Igneous Rocks of Skye , the first detailed scientific study of an extinct volcano .
= = = Strontian = = =
In the hills to the north of the village of Strontian the mineral strontianite was discovered , from which the element strontium was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808 .
= = = Staffa = = =
The island of Staffa , contains Fingal 's Cave made up of massive rectangular columns of Paleogene basalt and Mackinnon 's Cave , one of the longest sea caves in the world .
= = = Schiehallion = = =
The Munro Schiehallion 's isolated position and regular shape led Nevil Maskelyne to use the deflection caused by the mass of the mountain to estimate the mass of the Earth in a ground @-@ breaking experiment carried out in 1774 . Following Maskelyne 's survey , Schiehallion became the first mountain to be mapped using contour lines .
= = = Rhynie = = =
The village of Rhynie in Aberdeenshire is the site of an important sedimentary deposit - Rhynie chert . The bulk of this fossil bed consists of primitive plants that had water @-@ conducting cells and sporangia but no leaves , along with arthropods : Collembola , Opiliones ( harvestmen ) , pseudoscorpions and the extinct , spider @-@ like Trigonotarbids . This fossil bed is remarkable for two reasons . Firstly , the age of the find ( early Devonian circa 410 Ma ) makes this one of the earliest sites anywhere containing terrestrial fossils , coinciding with the first stages of the colonisation of land by plants and animals . Secondly , these cherts are famous for their exceptional state of ultrastructural preservation , with individual cell walls easily visible in polished specimens . For example , stomata have been counted and lignin remnants detected in the plant material .
= = = East Kirkton quarry = = =
A disused quarry at East Kirkton in the Bathgate Hills is the location where the Carboniferous fossil of Westlothiana lizziae ( aka ' Lizzie ' ) was found in 1984 . This lizard is one of the earliest known ancestors of the reptiles . The specimen was purchased in part by public subscription and is now on display in the National Museum of Scotland . The site was originally discovered in the early 19th century and has also provided fossil eurypterids , sharks and a variety of primitive acanthodian fish .
= = = Wester Ross bolide = = =
In 2008 the ejected material from a meteorite impact crater was discovered near Ullapool in Wester Ross . Preserved within sedimentary layers of sandstone , this is the largest known bolide impact from what are now the British Isles .
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= Charles Inglis ( engineer ) =
Sir Charles Edward Inglis , OBE , FRS ( / ˈɪŋɡəlz / ; 31 July 1875 – 19 April 1952 ) was a British civil engineer . The son of a doctor , he was educated at Cheltenham College and won a scholarship to King 's College , Cambridge , where he would later forge a career as an academic . Inglis spent a two @-@ year period with the engineering firm run by John Wolfe @-@ Barry before he returned to King 's College as a lecturer . Working with Professors James Alfred Ewing and Bertram Hopkinson , he made several important studies into the effects of vibration on structures and defects on the strength of plate steel .
Inglis served in the Royal Engineers during the First World War and invented the Inglis Bridge , a reusable steel bridging system – the precursor to the more famous Bailey bridge of the Second World War . In 1916 he was placed in charge of bridge design and supply at the War Office and , with Giffard Le Quesne Martel , pioneered the use of temporary bridges with tanks . Inglis retired from military service in 1919 and was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire . He returned to Cambridge University after the war as a professor and head of the Engineering Department . Under his leadership , the department became the largest in the university and one of the best regarded engineering schools in the world . Inglis retired from the department in 1943 .
Inglis was associated with the Institution of Naval Architects , Institution of Civil Engineers , Institution of Mechanical Engineers , Institution of Structural Engineers , Institution of Waterworks Engineers and British Waterworks Association ; he sat on several of their councils and was elected the Institution of Civil Engineers ' president for the 1941 – 42 session . He was also a fellow of the Royal Society . Inglis sat on the board of inquiry investigating the loss of the airship R101 and was chair of a Ministry of War Transport railway modernisation committee in 1946 . Knighted in 1945 , he spent his later years developing his theories on the education of engineers and wrote a textbook on applied mechanics . He has been described as the greatest teacher of engineering of his time and has a building named in his honour at Cambridge University .
= = Early life and career = =
Charles Inglis was the second son of Dr. Alexander Inglis ( a general practitioner in Worcester ) and his first wife , Florence , the daughter of newspaper proprietor John Frederick Feeney . Alexander Inglis was born in Scotland to a respectable family – his grandfather , John Inglis , was an Admiral in the Royal Navy and had captained HMS Belliqueux at the Battle of Camperdown in 1797 .
Charles Inglis was born on 31 July 1875 . He was not expected to survive and was hurriedly baptised in his father 's drawing room ; his mother died from complications eleven days later . His family moved to Cheltenham and Inglis was schooled at Cheltenham College from 1889 to 1894 . In his final year , he was elected head boy and received a scholarship to study the Mathematics Tripos at King 's College , Cambridge . Inglis was 22nd wrangler when he received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1897 ; he remained for a fourth year , achieving first class honours in Mechanical Sciences . Inglis was a keen sportsman and enjoyed long distance running , walking , mountaineering and sailing . At Cambridge , he nearly achieved a blue for long distance running but was forced to withdraw from a significant race because of a pulled muscle . He was also a follower of the Cambridge University Rugby Union team , watching their matches at Grange Road .
After graduation , Inglis began work as an apprentice for the civil engineering firm of John Wolfe @-@ Barry & Partners . He worked as a draughtsman in the drawing office for several months before being placed with Alexander Gibb , who was acting as resident engineer on an extension to the Metropolitan District Railway between Whitechapel and Bow . Inglis was responsible for the design and supervision of all thirteen bridges on the route . It was during this time that he began his lifelong study of vibration and its effects on materials , particularly bridges .
= = Early academic career = =
In 1901 Inglis was made a fellow of King 's College after writing a thesis entitled The Balancing of Engines , the first general treatment of the subject – which was becoming increasingly important due to the growing speeds of locomotives . In the same year , he received his Master of Arts degree and was accepted as an Institution of Civil Engineers ( ICE ) associate member after winning the institution 's Miller Prize for his student paper on The Geometrical Methods in Investigating Mechanical Problems . Inglis left his employment with Wolfe @-@ Barry , having completed two years of his five @-@ year apprenticeship , to return to King 's College and become an assistant to James Alfred Ewing , professor of mechanism and applied mechanics . Inglis maintained his interest in engine balancing and filed a US patent on 16 April 1902 for an improved engine with the cylinders mounted end to end to balance out the forces acting between them .
Professor Ewing left the university in 1903 to become the first Director of Naval Education at the Admiralty but Inglis remained ; he was appointed a university demonstrator in mechanism by Professor Bertram Hopkinson , Ewing 's successor , and worked with him to study the effects of vibration . Inglis was promoted to lecturer of mechanical engineering in 1908 . Hopkinson recognised Inglis ' academic abilities and assigned him the heaviest teaching load of all the staff , covering statics , dynamics , structural engineering theory , materials engineering , drawing , engine balance and the design of steel girders and reinforced concrete . Inglis later recalled that if he wished to learn more on a subject then he volunteered to teach a course on it . From 1911 Inglis became involved in hydraulic engineering and served on the board of the Cambridge University and Town Waterworks Company , serving as deputy chairman from 1924 to 1928 and chairman from 1928 to 1952 .
Inglis conducted research into the problem of fracture in the metal plates of ships ' hulls and noticed that the rivet holes along the path of a crack were often deformed into an elliptical shape . This phenomenon led him to investigate the magnification of stress caused at the edges of an elliptical defect ; in 1913 he published a paper of his theories that has been described as his most important contribution to engineering and the first serious modern work on the fracturing of materials . Alan Arnold Griffith later drew on Inglis ' paper for his work on the apparent discrepancy between calculated and actual strengths of materials . Inglis 's 1913 paper has been cited by around 1 @,@ 200 subsequent works .
Inglis had married Eleanor Moffat , daughter of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Herbert Moffat of the South Wales Borderers , in 1901 , having met on holiday in Switzerland . They lived at Maitland House , Cambridge , until 1904 , when Inglis built a house he named Balls Grove at nearby Grantchester , where his two daughters were born and the family resided until 1925 . They later moved to 10 Latham Road , which Inglis renamed Niddrys after the first known address of his ancestors in Edinburgh .
= = Military service = =
Inglis was involved with the Cambridge University Officer Training Corps ( CUOTC ) , being commissioned a second lieutenant on 24 May 1909 . He served with the CUOTC 's engineering detachment and noticed that when the unit was deployed on field days with the rest of the force it often had little to do . To remedy this , Inglis designed a reusable steel bridge , with the intention that it could be erected and dismantled by the unit in a single afternoon . An army general who was inspecting the unit noticed his design and offered advice : " If you 're making anything for the army , keep it simple – no complicated gadgets " . Upon the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , Inglis volunteered for active service in the British Army and was officially listed as an Assistant Instructor in the School of Military Engineering , with the temporary rank of lieutenant . The army expressed interest in Inglis ' bridge design ; it was approved for use by a panel of army officers that included the general who had first commented on the design , to whom Inglis said " I hope , Sir , you will find I have profited by your advice " . The design remained in service with the British Army until the higher @-@ capacity Bailey bridge was introduced during the Second World War .
The Inglis Bridge was designed so that all of its components could be moved by manpower alone ; moreover , it could be erected with few tools in a short span of time – a troop of 40 sappers could erect a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) bridge in 12 hours . The design was composed of a series of 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) Warren truss bays made from tubular steel sections , to a maximum span of six bays ( 90 feet or 27 metres ) . The design went through three revisions , with the Mark II replacing the original design 's variable @-@ length tubes with identical @-@ length ones and , during the Second World War , the Mark III using higher strength steel but smaller tube diameters , increasing the carrying capacity to 26 long tons ( 26 t ) . In addition to his bridge design , during the war 's course he developed the similar Inglis Tubular Observation Tower . Inglis received a US Patent for his bridge on 25 April 1916 and for the type of joints used in it on 26 June 1917 .
In 1916 , Inglis was placed in charge of bridge design and supply at the War Office in which role he was a proponent for the increased use of girder bridges in military applications . It was Inglis that first proved to the army that the heavy components essential to girder bridges did not prevent their rapid assembly in field conditions . This led to the greater use of such bridges , particularly the Inglis Bridge , for tanks later in the war . He received promotion to the rank of captain on the General List of Officers on 6 May 1916 and became a staff captain attached to the War Office on 26 June 1917 . He was promoted to the brevet rank of major as part of the King 's Birthday Honours on 3 June 1918 and later that year worked with Giffard Le Quesne Martel to develop some of the earliest bridgelaying tanks . Inglis retired from the army on 9 March 1919 , having been rewarded for his military service with an appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire .
= = Return to King 's College = =
Inglis returned to Cambridge in 1918 and was appointed as the professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics ( renamed Mechanical Sciences in 1934 ) . On 25 March 1919 , he was selected to head the Cambridge University Engineering Department as the successor of Hopkinson , who had died in an air crash the previous year . Though he made no radical changes , such as had occurred under his predecessors , under Inglis ' supervision the department became the largest in the university and one of the best engineering schools in the world . He was responsible for expanding the department to meet the increased post @-@ war demand for engineers and for the move from its traditional home at Free School Lane . Inglis acquired the 4 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) Scroope House on Trumpington Street for the department and constructed a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 600 m2 ) laboratory on the site by 1923 , followed in 1931 by a structure containing lecture theatres and a drawing office .
At Cambridge Inglis ' students included Sir Frank Whittle ( developer of the jet engine ) , James N. Goodier ( mechanical engineer and academic ) , Sir Morien Morgan ( called the " Father of Concorde " ) and Beryl Platt , Baroness Platt ( Conservative peer ) . He was also in contact with Russian railway engineer Yury Lomonosov and lectured to biochemist Albert Chibnall . Despite mentoring some of the best engineers of their generation Inglis was realistic about the actual intentions of many of his students at the time . He once told a new intake class : " Your fathers , gentlemen , have sent you to Cambridge to be educated , not to become engineers . They think , however , that reading engineering is a very good way of becoming educated . In 10 years ' time , however , 90 % of you will have become managers , whether of design , manufacturing , sales , research or even accounts departments in industry . The remaining 10 % of you will have become successful lawyers , novelists , and things of that sort " . Undeterred , Inglis sought to give his students the broadest possible engineering education , covering all fields to prevent them becoming " cramped by premature specialisation " .
Inglis had close contacts with industry and was able to establish a professorship in aeronautical engineering and links with a nearby Air Ministry experimental flight station . He was also successful in arranging with the War Office for Royal Engineers officers to study the Engineering Tripos at the university . The university drew praise for the quality of its teaching during Inglis ' tenure , though his department has been criticised for its " comparative neglect of original research " . From 1923 , he was involved with the analysis of vibration and its effects on railway bridges , including a period spent working with Christopher Hinton during the latter 's final year as a student at Cambridge . Inglis was appointed to a sub @-@ committee of the British government 's Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bridge Stress Committee by Ewing , who was chairman , and became responsible for almost all of the mathematics of the investigation . Inglis derived a theory that allowed for the accurate assessment of the vibrations caused by hammer blow force imparted to the bridge by locomotives , and the committee 's 1928 report included recommendations that the hammer blow force be included in bridge design calculations in the future . During the course of this work Inglis was able to show that the increased oscillation of bridges at train speeds beyond those that corresponded with the natural frequency of the bridge was due to the influence of the locomotive 's suspension – the first time that this phenomenon had been explained . Inglis ' work on bridge vibration has been described as his most important post @-@ war research . He followed up the work by using a harmonic series and Macaulay 's method to approximate the vibration of beams of non @-@ uniform mass distribution or bending modulus . This work is related to the later method used by Myklestad and Prohl in the field of rotordynamics .
Inglis was elected an Institution of Civil Engineers member in 1923 and became a member of its council in 1928 . He was very active professionally and also served on the councils of the Institution of Naval Architects , Institution of Structural Engineers and the Institution of Waterworks Engineers ; he was an Institution of Mechanical Engineers honorary member . Inglis was also a prolific writer , publishing 25 books and academic papers on a wide range of engineering topics . He received the ICE 's Telford Medal in 1924 for a paper entitled The Theory of Transverse Oscillations in Girders and its Relation to Live Load and Impact Allowance . In 1926 , he was appointed to a Royal Commission considering cross @-@ river traffic in London with particular reference to the Waterloo and St Paul 's bridges . Inglis founded the Cambridge Engineers ' Association to promote social activities at the University , and saw Sir Charles Parsons appointed as its first president in 1929 . In the same year , he was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws by the University of Edinburgh .
In 1930 Inglis was appointed to the board of inquiry looking into the crash of the airship R101 , and in the same year was made a Fellow of the Royal Society . He was a member of the London , Midland and Scottish Railway 's Advisory Committee on Scientific Research from 1931 to 1947 and conducted numerous experiments on their behalf in the laboratories at Cambridge . He was able to prove the factors behind hunting oscillation , a violent oscillation of railway carriages , and developed testing equipment to approximate the wear of rail track and wheels in the field .
Inglis published the book A Mathematical Treatise on Vibrations in Railway Bridges in 1934 , which was described by a reviewer as " a valuable asset for both the mathematician and engineer " , and also submitted several papers on the matter to the Institution of Civil Engineers ( ICE ) . Inglis delivered the Trevithick Memorial Lecture for the ICE in 1933 , and was elected British Waterworks Association president in 1935 . At around this time , he was appointed to the governing council of Cheltenham College , of which he remained a member for the rest of his life . Inglis was the president of the 1934 International Congress on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics held at Cambridge , one of the series of Congresses that gave rise to the IUTAM . He was a proposer for the Royal Society fellowship of Andrew Robertson , the mechanical engineer , in 1936 .
= = Second World War and after = =
Inglis was due to retire from the university in 1940 , but was persuaded to remain for another three years so that John Baker could be appointed in his stead . Interest in Inglis ' army bridge was rekindled in the Second World War and the Mark III design introduced in 1940 . Inglis applied for a United States patent for the particular type of triangular trusses used in his bridge in 1940 ; which was approved and granted in 1943 . Testing of a prototype of the Mark III revealed a weakness in the top chord of the truss and the subsequent redesign complicated the production process . Whilst the bridge was produced in limited quantities from 1940 it was largely replaced by the Bailey bridge , introduced in 1941 , a fact that disappointed Inglis . The Inglis design remained in service for some time owing to a lack of resources for production of the Bailey bridge and saw service in rear areas and with the 1st Canadian Infantry Division .
Inglis was elected as ICE president for the 1941 – 42 session , having been vice @-@ president in 1938 , and gave an inaugural address on the education of engineers that was judged to be one of the best ever given . In his address , he stated that " the soul and spirit of education is that habit of mind which remains when a student has completely forgotten everything he has ever been taught " , a quote which has since been used by several organisations to describe the importance of an engineering education . He delivered the Thomas Hawksley Lecture on " Gyroscopic Principles and Applications " for the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1943 and the fiftieth ICE James Forrest lecture on " Mechanical Vibrations , their Cause and Prevention " in 1944 , being awarded the ICE 's Charles Parsons medal the same year . He gave the Parsons Memorial Lecture to the North @-@ East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in 1945 in which he presented his Basic Function Method , an alternative to the use of Fourier series for the analysis of vibrations in beams .
After his retirement as department head Inglis served as Vice @-@ Provost of King 's College from 1943 to 1947 . He received a knighthood in the 1945 King 's Birthday Honours , and in 1946 was appointed as chair of the committee charged with advising the Minister of War Transport on railway modernisation . Inglis continued to develop his theories on teaching engineering and wrote in the Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1947 on the teaching of engineering mathematics : " Mathematics [ required by engineers ] though it must be sound and incisive as far as goes , need not be of that artistic and exalted quality which calls for the mentality of the real mathematician . It can be termed mathematics of the tin @-@ opening variety , and in contrast to real mathematicians , engineers are more interested in the contents of the tin than in the elegance of the tin @-@ opener employed " . He published the textbook Applied Mechanics for Engineers in 1951 , following which he spent three months as a visiting professor at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa . His wife , Lady Eleanor Inglis , died on 1 April 1952 , and Charles died eighteen days later at Southwold , Suffolk . The Cambridge University Engineering Department 's Inglis Building is named in his honour . Inglis has been described as the greatest teacher of engineering of his time .
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= Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets =
" Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets " is the fourth episode of the first season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Psych . It was written by writer and co @-@ executive producer Steve Franks , and was directed by Jeff Melman , his only work on the show . The episode originally aired on USA Network in the United States on July 28 , 2006 . The installment features guest appearances by series regulars Kirsten Nelson , Sage Brocklebank , Liam James , and Patricia Idlette among other guests .
The series follows Shawn Spencer ( James Roday ) and his colleague and best friend Gus ( Dulé Hill ) , who claim to operate a psychic detective agency . It is actually based on Shawn 's hyperobservant ability . In the episode , the wife of a dead bank robber is brought to the police station to be warned that her husband 's partners are being released from prison . She hires Shawn and Gus to help her find the money that was stolen and never found . Shawn and Gus search for the money , and find that the husband was not actually dead . Shawn realizes where the money is , and tells the woman , who he later discovers is actually the criminal mastermind . Detective Carlton Lassiter ( Timothy Omundson ) arrests the woman , and Shawn finds the money .
" Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets " has received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reception from television critics . The installment was considered to be , at its airtime , the best of the first season . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 35 million people during its original broadcast , making up approximately 3 @.@ 04 million households . It received a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic on a National Broadcasting Corporation ( NBC ) re @-@ airing .
= = Plot = =
Detectives Carlton Lassiter ( Timothy Omundson ) and Juliet O 'Hara ( Maggie Lawson ) bring Raylene Wilcroft ( Anne Marie DeLuise ) into the police station to warn her that her deceased husband 's co @-@ conspirators , who are bank robbers , are being released from prison and she might be in danger . She hires Shawn Spencer ( James Roday ) and Burton " Gus " Guster ( Dulé Hill ) to find the money her husband and the men stole and lost . While Shawn and Gus meet with Raylene and her family , Lassiter and Juliet follow the bank robbers , in the hope that they will lead the police to the money . After conducting a séance in the Psych office , Shawn and Gus visit the cemetery where the husband , David Wilcroft ( Steve Bacic ) is buried . Shawn and Gus find David alive and well at the cemetery , where he tells them that he faked his death after he accidentally lost the money . He , like his partners , has been searching for the money .
Shawn and Gus return and inform Raylene that David is still alive and living at the cemetery . Shawn talks to detective Lassiter and tells him of his plan to put the criminals back in prison due to parole violations ; Lassiter denies Shawn 's idea , wanting to find the money and put an end to the case . Determined , Shawn and Gus visit the robber 's hotel room , in order to find evidence to put them back in prison . However , they are caught in the process . In an attempt to save themselves , Shawn tells the men that David wants them to know where the money is and that they shouldn 't harm Raylene ; the robbers inform them that Raylene was actually the mastermind of the plan . Shawn and Gus rush back to the cemetery to find Raylene threatening to shoot David if she doesn 't get the money . Shawn stalls long enough for the robbers , Juliet , and Lassiter to show up , and David and Raylene are arrested . Shawn then " psychically " locates the money .
= = Production = =
" Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets " was the only episode directed by Jeff Melman . The installment was the fourth of the series written by writer and co @-@ executive producer Steve Franks ; he had previously written the season 's first three episodes " Pilot " , " Spellingg Bee " , and " Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " . Franks would not write another episode for the show until the tenth installment , " From the Earth to the Starbucks " . Tracey Jeffery was the episode 's producer ; John J. Sakmar , Douglas Steinberg , and Kerry Lenhart were the consulting producers , and Mel Damski , Steve Franks , Kelly Kulchak , and Chris Henze were the executive producers . Erin Smith was the production manager . Tracy Hillman was the installment 's associate producer , and Michael McMurray was the director of photography , while James Ilecic and Anupam Nigam acted as the editors . The music for the episode was written by Adam Cohen and John Robert Wood . Assistant directors for the installment were Jack Hardy and Roger Russell .
Although meant to take place in Santa Barbara , California , the installment , like the majority of Psych 's episodes , was filmed in and around the Vancouver area of British Columbia . According to the show 's creator Steve Franks , about half of the scenes in each episode are filmed in the suburb town of White Rock . Several of the sets , like the Psych office and Henry Spencer 's house , are located along the coast in the White Rock area . Because of the differences between Vancouver and Santa Barbara , the show 's producers were forced to bring in props for each episode , such as nine fake palm trees which had to be trucked to the set every day . The scripts for each Psych episode had to go through several reviews , and often were cut down by as much as a few dozen pages . A large portion of show 's dialogue consists of on @-@ the @-@ spot improvisation by the actors , specifically Roday and Hill . The writers noted that much of the humor in the installments came from improvisation . The episode also included several reoccurring gags on the show , such as an introductory flashback and the inclusion of a pineapple ; both gags were created by the action of one of the actors .
All fifteen episodes of Psych 's first season were written with a stand @-@ alone plot , meaning that no episode built off of a previous one . However , the installments were noted that even though they were stand @-@ alone , episodes often built on each other for character development and would occasionally reference each other , creating a feel of continuity . Because of the writing style , the show 's writing team would occasionally move around portions of episodes . The introduction to the second episode , " Spellingg Bee " , was originally part of the script for " Woman Seeking Dead Husband " , but was moved to the other episode due to a need to introduce the character Juliet O 'Hara earlier in the season . The installment featured several guest stars . Kirsten Nelson , Sage Brocklebank , and Liam James all reprised their roles as the reoccurring characters police chief Karen Vick , officer Buzz McNab , and Young Shawn Spencer , respectively . Patricia Idlette made her final appearance as Desk Sergeant Martha Allen . Special guest appearances were made by Steve Bacic , who played David Wilcroft , the supposedly deceased former criminal , and Anne Marie DeLuise , who appeared as Raylene Wilcroft , the wife of Bacic 's character . Maggie Lawson originally auditioned for the show using the scene which was moved to Spellingg Bee ; the use of actual scenes from the episodes for auditioning was common for casting .
= = = Release = = =
The episode was originally broadcast in the United States on July 21 , 2006 , on USA Network as the seventh episode of the show 's first season . It aired at a 10 : 00 P.M. EST / PST time slot , following a new episode of the show Monk . The episode aired under a rating of TV @-@ PG , meaning that some of its content may not be appropriate for young children . The episode was rebroadcast by the National Broadcasting Corporation ( NBC ) on August 7 , 2006 , due to the network 's struggling ratings . The installment was part of the first " mini @-@ season " ; the show took a mid @-@ season break between August 2006 and January 2007 . " Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets " runs for approximately 43 minutes , the average length for a Psych episode .
" Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets " , along with the fourteen other episodes from Psych 's first season were released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States and Canada on June 26 , 2007 . The set includes full audio commentaries for six episodes , deleted scenes for most episodes , blooper reals , audition tapes , character profiles , the international version of the episode " Pilot " , an " Inside the writers ' room " featurette , and other special features . The set is filmed in 1 @.@ 78 : 1 aspect ratio , with English subtitles available , and Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround . The DVD set was released in the United Kingdom and other Region 2 countries on January 9 , 2008 , and was released in Australia on April 30 of the same year . The entire first season has also been released on the iTunes store for digital download , as well as independent downloads of each individual episode . Included on the DVD set was a deleted scene for " Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets " . The feature consisted of the single cut scene , approximately 45 seconds of video . The deleted scene contained Juliet and Lassiter talking with each other about being shown @-@ up by Shawn 's ability to solve cases , while they were following the paroled criminals .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Woman Seeking Dead Husband : Smokers Okay , No Pets " was viewed by a total of 4 @.@ 35 million people in its original USA Network broadcast . This totaled to approximately 3 @.@ 04 million households which viewed the episode . The NBC rebroadcasting of the episode received a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that on average 2 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the installment at any given moment , while 5 percent of households watching TV were tuned into it during the time slot . This was a drop in viewership compared to the previous episode , " Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " , which brought in 4 @.@ 69 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 6 rating / 5 share . The viewership was also significantly lower than the following episode , " 9 Lives " , which was seen by 4 @.@ 72 million people and also brought in a 1 @.@ 6 rating / 5 share .
Since airing , the installment has received mixed to generally positive reviews . In his review for IGN , contributor Colin Moriarty presented mixed feelings toward the episode , saying that , for the show , " perhaps there 's light at the end of the tunnel after all " . He considered the episode to have " dropped in posthaste behind Monk " , but that it " didn 't have its usual negative connotation this week ... at least , not in full force " . Moriarty stated that the " show seemed to take an interesting and much @-@ desired turn for the better " . He considered the show to be moving away from being predictable , but that its " stride is below average " . Moriarty considered the episode to be more intriguing , and that the characters were developed quite well , especially that of Gus . He continued to question whether the show would be able to last more than one season , but considered the show to be becoming better developed . Moriarty praised two scenes in the episode , Shawn and Gus ' conversation on the way to the graveyard and Shawn snooping in the police file room , as being the funniest of the episode . The installment was given a rating of 7 , or " good " , making it an improvement over the previous two episodes , " Spellingg Bee " and " Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece " , as well as tying it for the highest rated episode of the season at the time .
In his review for TV Squad , critic Richard Keller generally praised the installment , calling it " the funniest episode of the series so far " . Keller compared James Roday to Ben Stiller , and praised the development of Gus ' character . He also praised the development of detectives Lassiter and O 'Hara . He cited the scene in which Shawn and Gus are trapped by the criminals as an example of why the episode was the funniest to him . However , Keller also had a few complaints with the installment . He criticized the episode 's beginning , where " a seemingly large evergreen forest looming " can be seen , saying that it ruined the illusion of the show taking place in Santa Barbara . He stated that " the whole thing seemed a little bit incomplete " due to the lack of a complete " psychic reveal " at the end of the episode , and that the reduced use of Corbin Bernsen in the installment was an issue .
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= Scott Neilson =
Scott Steven Neilson ( born 15 May 1987 ) is a professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for National League South side Whitehawk .
Neilson started his career alongside his brother , Tony , at first Hertford Town and then Ware , before he earned a move to Cambridge City . He made his name in non @-@ league as a goal @-@ scoring winger and he came to the attention of a number of league clubs . He had trials with three of them and eventually won a move to League Two side Bradford City . He scored a goal on his full debut but Bradford soon changed manager and Neilson dropped back into non @-@ league , first out on loan to Cambridge United and then signed by Crawley Town , having spent less than 12 months with Bradford . Neilson spent a short but successful loan spell with Grimsby Town in 2012 , and then joined Luton on a short @-@ term contract in January 2013 before his release a few months later .
= = Early life = =
Neilson was born on 15 May 1987 in Enfield , London , to David and Amanda Neilson , the latter who was born in Swansea . He has an older brother , Tony . His maternal grandfather was Cliff Jones , the former Tottenham Hotspur and Welsh international footballer , whose father Ivor and brother Bryn were also professional footballers and Welsh internationals . Neilson has also worked as a plumber .
= = Career = =
= = = Non @-@ league = = =
Neilson was a member of Norwich City 's youth teams at the age of 11 , went on to Charlton Athletic and also won schoolboy honours for Wales . His senior career started at his brother Tony 's club Hertford Town of the Isthmian League in 2005 . He was top goalscorer for the reserves when he made his debut on 25 October in a Isthmian League Associate Members Trophy game against Clapton , before going on to play 15 games in his first season and scoring one goal . In his second season , he played 24 games upping his goal tally by another nine , before he earned a move in December 2006 to Ware – a second club where his brother also played . In one game in January 2008 , Neilson came off the bench to score four goals for Ware against Tilbury in a 5 – 2 victory . The goals went towards Neilson 's total of 23 from 40 games for Ware in the Isthmian League First Division North , helping Ware towards the end @-@ of @-@ season play @-@ offs . However , he left Ware before the end of the season to join Cambridge City in March 2008 for the rest of the club 's Conference South campaign .
Neilson 's debut at Cambridge City came three days later in a 3 – 1 defeat to Lewes , when he came off the bench in the second half . He played seven games , starting all but his debut performance , with six games coming in the league . He scored three goals in his seven matches . He also scored in the Cambridge Invitational Cup final as Cambridge recorded a 3 – 0 victory against Histon reserves to lift the cup for a record 12th time . Despite an enforced relegation , Neilson stayed at Cambridge for the following season and signed a new contract in first April and then October 2008 . He played a total of 49 games in his first full season with the Lilywhites , 40 of which were in the league , scoring a total of 11 league goals and two cup goals . He also helped Cambridge defend their Cambridge Invitational Cup crown with a 1 – 0 defeat of CRC .
Neilson signed a new one @-@ year contract with Cambridge City in July 2009 . However , his form also attracted a number of league clubs and , at the start of the 2009 – 10 season he had trials with sides Norwich City , Derby County and Bradford City and was offered a trial with Hartlepool United . Neilson scored twice in a reserve game for Bradford as part of his trial , prompting a bid to buy the winger . Bradford 's first bid was turned down but they had an improved bid accepted later the same week . The fee remained undisclosed but included a 25 per cent sell @-@ on fee entitling Cambridge City to a share of any fee Bradford received for selling Neilson on to another club – a year later , another manager Martin Ling revealed the initial fee that Cambridge received to be £ 20 @,@ 000 . Neilson had played a further two league games for Cambridge before his departure .
= = = Bradford City = = =
Neilson signed a three @-@ year deal with League Two side Bradford City in August 2009 , and was given a place on the substitutes ' bench for the club 's next game with Torquay United , which Bradford won 2 – 0 with Neilson coming on for Joe Colbeck . Colbeck was sold three days later and so Neilson made his full debut in a Football League Trophy game with Rochdale . Neilson capped his debut with the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory to send City through to the second round for the first time in four years . At the end of his full first full month with the club , Neilson scored his first league goal in professional football during a 3 – 0 win against Chesterfield , which helped to extend Bradford 's unbeaten run to seven games . The club 's form did not last and following a run of poor results , manager Stuart McCall left in February 2010 to be replaced by Peter Taylor . Neilson played in Taylor 's first game in charge as City lost 2 – 0 to Accrington Stanley .
However , Taylor criticised Neilson for his lack of fitness , and as a result the winger did not feature in any of the following three games and was instead loaned out to Cambridge United initially on a month @-@ long loan to act as cover for Antonio Murray and Robbie Willmott , who were suspended and injured respectively . He capped his debut for Cambridge United on 6 March 2010 against Barrow by scoring the only goal of the game to give his new side a 1 – 0 victory . After scoring another two goals , Cambridge extended Neilson 's loan with manager Martin Ling saying he would " assess the situation in the summer " . He played in all 14 of Cambridge 's games during his loan spell and scored three goals helping them finish in the top @-@ half of the table before he returned to Bradford at the end of the Conference Premier season .
Neilson returned to the first @-@ team squad at City ahead of their 2010 – 11 season and received praise from his manager , who said : " He 's obviously got very good talent , he can get goals and I think he 'll do well . It 's down to him really . " Neilson played in City 's first game of the League Two campaign – only his second under Taylor – but City lost 3 – 1 to Shrewsbury Town with Neilson replaced by debutant Louis Moult in the second @-@ half . Neilson was substituted at half @-@ time in the club 's next game and then dropped for the next league match , before he was sold to Conference side Crawley Town for officially an undisclosed five @-@ figure sum , although it was reported to be anywhere from £ 15 @,@ 000 to £ 50 @,@ 000 . Neilson had played 30 games for Bradford in all competitions .
= = = Crawley Town = = =
Neilson said he was " delighted to have joined such an ambitious club " and his new manager Steve Evans revealed the club had been interested in him for some time and Crawley had made several previous bids for the winger , which were all rejected . Neilson made his debut the following day against Cambridge United , the club where he had spent the latter part of the previous season on loan . The game finished 2 – 2 , but Neilson 's mistake allowed Cambridge to begin their fightback from an early two @-@ goal deficit . Crawley soon went on a good run of form to go top of the table – Neilson 's first goal for the club came in a 2 – 0 win at home to Kidderminster Harriers at the start of October to extend that lead over AFC Wimbledon to three points . He followed it up by scoring four goals in the next seven games , including one in the FA Cup on his return to West Yorkshire in a 5 – 0 win against Guiseley . In February , Neilson broke a toe in his left foot . Neilson missed three months of the season , including an FA Cup game against Manchester United at Old Trafford , but returned for the final five games of Crawley 's promotion campaign . He finished with 27 league appearances and scored five goals .
On 19 September 2012 he joined Grimsby Town on a three @-@ month loan deal . Towards the end of his stay at Blundell Park , Grimsby manager Paul Hurst admitted his desire to sign Neilson on a permanent deal following an impressive loan spell . Following his final game for the club , a 1 – 0 victory over promotion rivals Wrexham which put Grimsby on top of the table , Hurst admitted that it was unlikely that Neilson would be returning to Grimsby despite making him a good offer . Neilson departed Grimsby on 21 December 2012 having played ten league games , scoring a single goal .
= = = Luton Town = = =
Neilson signed for Luton Town on a contract until the end of the season following the end of his loan at Grimsby on 24 December 2012 , though he officially joined the club on 1 January 2013 when the transfer window opened . The move also confirmed that Neilson would transfer to a more local side after rejecting a move to Grimsby having not desired relocating himself to the north of England . Neilson 's contract was not extended and he was released by Luton at the end of the 2012 – 13 season after playing in 8 games and scoring once .
= = = Grimsby Town = = =
Following his release from Luton , Neilson spoke about his desire to return to Grimsby Town . On 13 May 2013 , Neilson signed a one year deal with The Mariners .
On 9 February 2015 , Neilson had his contract terminated with Grimsby Town by mutual consent .
= = = Whitehawk = = =
On 14 February 2015 , Neilson signed for Conference South side Whitehawk on a free transfer .
= = Playing style = =
Neilson is a midfielder , who likes to play on the right wing , but has also been used in a more central role . Despite playing in midfield , Neilson has been known for scoring goals . One of his former teammates Lee Bullock said he was " a winger who looks like he 's got some decent skills " while Paul Carden , his assistant manager at Cambridge United , said : " You can see he 's an intelligent player and very quick ... he catches the eye because he can go past people and is good with the ball at his feet . " Neilson , however , was also told to improve his crossing ability and criticised for his lack of fitness by former manager Peter Taylor .
= = Personal life = =
He comes from a footballing family being the grandson of Cliff Jones and great @-@ grandson of Ivor Jones , both former Welsh internationals .
Neilson is a keen supporter of Arsenal football club .
= = Career statistics = =
Updated to 26 April 2013 .
= = Honours = =
Cambridge City
Cambridge Invitational Cup : 2008 , 2009
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= Iwane Matsui =
Iwane Matsui ( 松井 石根 , Matsui Iwane , July 27 , 1878 – December 23 , 1948 ) was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army and the commander of the expeditionary force sent to China in 1937 . He was convicted of war crimes and executed by the Allies for his involvement in the Nanking Massacre .
Born in Nagoya , Matsui chose a military career and served in combat during the Russo @-@ Japanese War ( 1904 – 05 ) . He volunteered for an overseas assignment there shortly after graduating from the Army War College in 1906 . As Matsui rose through the ranks , he earned a reputation as the Japanese Army 's foremost expert on China , and he was an ardent advocate of pan @-@ Asianism . He played a key role in founding the influential Greater Asia Association .
Matsui retired from active duty in 1935 but was called back into service in August 1937 at the start of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War to lead the Japanese forces engaged in the Battle of Shanghai . After winning the battle Matsui succeeded in convincing Japan 's high command to advance on the Chinese capital city of Nanking . The troops under his command who captured Nanking on December 13 were responsible for the notorious Nanking Massacre .
Matsui finally retired from the army in 1938 . Following Japan 's defeat in World War II he was convicted of war crimes at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East ( IMTFE ) and executed by hanging . He and other convicted war criminals were enshrined at Yasukuni Shrine in 1978 , an act that has stirred controversy .
= = Early life and military career , 1878 – 1906 = =
Iwane Matsui was born in Nagoya on July 27 , 1878 . He was the sixth son of Takekuni Matsui , an impoverished samurai and former retainer to the daimyo of Owari during the Tokugawa shogunate . After completing elementary school , his parents insisted that he continue his education , but Matsui worried about his father 's debts and did not want to burden him financially . Though he was a short , thin , and sickly young man , Matsui opted for a career in the Army , because in Japan at that time military schools charged the lowest tuition fees .
Matsui enrolled in the Central Military Preparatory School in 1893 and in 1896 was accepted into the Imperial Japanese Army Academy . Matsui was an excellent student and graduated second in his class in November , 1897 . His classmates included the future generals Jinzaburō Masaki , Nobuyuki Abe , Shigeru Honjō , and Sadao Araki .
In 1901 , Matsui was admitted into the Army War College , an elite institution which accepted only about ten percent of annual applicants . Matsui was still taking classes there in February , 1904 , when the College closed due to the outbreak of the Russo @-@ Japanese War . He was immediately sent overseas where he served in Manchuria as a company commander in a combat unit of the 6th Regiment . During the Battle of Shoushanpu , he was wounded in action and most in his company were killed . At war 's end , Matsui resumed his studies at the Army War College , and graduated at the top of his class in November , 1906 .
= = The " China expert " , 1906 – 31 = =
Matsui had a lifelong interest in Chinese civilization . His father was a scholar of Chinese classics and Matsui studied the Chinese language during his military education . Matsui was a fervent admirer of the recently deceased Sei Arao ( 1858 @-@ 1896 ) , a " continental adventurer ' ( tairiku rōnin ) and pan @-@ Asianist army officer from his hometown who had served in China . Arao believed that China and Japan , as the two strongest powers in Asia , had to forge a close trading and commercial partnership under Japanese hegemony to resist Western imperialism , an idea which Matsui incorporated into his own worldview . After graduating from the Army War College , Matsui immediately requested to be stationed in China . Only one other officer had made this request , since a posting in China was considered undesirable at the time . Matsui 's stated ambition was to become " a second Sei Arao " .
At first the Army General Staff gave Matsui an assignment in France , but in 1907 he got his wish to go to China , where he worked as an aide to the military attaché and did intelligence work . Matsui worked in China between 1907 and 1911 , and then again as resident officer in Shanghai between 1915 and 1919 . In 1921 Matsui was posted to Siberia as a staff officer , but returned in 1922 to China where he served until 1924 as an advisor to Zhang Zuolin in the Manchurian city of Harbin and did intelligence work for Japan 's Kwantung Army .
Due to his extensive experience in China Matsui became recognized as one of the most important of the Japanese Army 's " China experts " , and he was well known in the Army for his love of things Chinese and his hobby of writing Chinese poetry . His work took him throughout China , and he came to know many prominent Chinese soldiers and politicians . Matsui formed an especially warm friendship with Sun Yat @-@ sen , the first president of the Republic of China . In 1907 when a young Chinese soldier named Chiang Kai @-@ shek wanted to study abroad , Matsui helped him find a place to stay in Japan .
= = = Head of intelligence = = =
Matsui quickly rose through the ranks and in 1923 was promoted to the rank of major general . Between 1925 and 1928 he would serve in the influential post of Chief of the Intelligence Division of the Army General Staff . He was the first " China expert " to be appointed to that position and would have a major influence determining Japan 's foreign policies toward China .
As Chief of the Intelligence Division , Matsui was a strong supporter of Chiang Kai @-@ shek , who was attempting to end the civil war in China and unify the country under his leadership . Matsui hoped that Chiang would succeed and form a strong partnership with Japan to resist both Western influence in Asia and communism . However , Matsui 's tenure in office was punctuated by a series of crises . Against Matsui 's advice the Japanese government sent troops to the Chinese city of Jinan in 1928 to protect Japanese property and civilians , but they ended up clashing with the Chinese Army . Matsui headed to Jinan to help settle the affair , but while he was still there Japanese army officers assassinated Zhang Zuolin , the warlord leader of Manchuria . Matsui , who had been a supporter of Zhang , immediately left for Manchuria to find out what had happened . He demanded that the officers responsible for the assassination be punished .
In December 1928 Matsui left his post as Chief of the Intelligence Division in order to make an official , year @-@ long trip to Europe . Matsui was interested in France as well as China ; he spoke fluent French and had already done work for the Japanese Army in both France and French Indochina .
= = Matsui 's pan @-@ Asian vision , 1931 – 37 = =
Sino @-@ Japanese relations plummeted in September 1931 when the Kwantung Army invaded Manchuria . At the time Matsui was back in Japan commanding the 11th Division , but at the end of the year he was sent to Geneva , Switzerland , to attend the World Disarmament Conference as an army plenipotentiary .
At first Matsui condemned the invasion as the work of renegade army officers , but he was equally stung by what he believed were unfair denunciations of Japan itself by Chinese delegates to the League of Nations . Matsui suspected that the Western powers and the League of Nations were deliberately attempting to provoke conflict between Japan and China . Matsui believed that the 30 million Manchurians had been relieved by the Japanese invasion and conquest , which he called ' the Empire 's sympathy and good faith ' and that the solution to the larger regional problem was for the nations of Asia to create their own " Asian League " , which would " extend to the 400 million people of China the same help and deep sympathy that we have given Manchuria " .
After returning to Japan in late 1932 , Matsui abruptly appeared at the office of the Pan @-@ Asia Study Group , a Tokyo @-@ based think tank , and presented its members with a bold plan to expand their small organization into an international mass movement . Matsui persuaded them to adopt his ideas , and in March 1933 the study group was rechristened the Greater Asia Association ( 大亜細亜協会 Dai @-@ Ajia Kyōkai ) , described by the historian Torsten Weber as " the single most influential organization to propagate pan @-@ Asianism between 1933 and 1945 . " The goal of the Greater Asia Association was to promote " the unification , liberation , and independence of the Asian peoples " , and Matsui would use the organization as a powerful vehicle to promote his " Asian League " concept both in Japan and abroad . The writings he published with the Association were widely read by Japan 's political and military elites .
In August 1933 Matsui was dispatched to Taiwan to command the Taiwan Army , and then on October 20 was promoted to the rank of general , the highest rank in the Japanese Army . While in Taiwan , he took the opportunity to set up a branch of the Greater Asia Association , which declared Matsui its " honorary advisor " . He then returned to Japan in August 1934 to take a seat on Japan 's Supreme War Council .
Meanwhile , Sino @-@ Japanese relations continued to deteriorate and Matsui too was gradually souring toward the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai @-@ shek , the same government he had strongly promoted back when serving as Chief of the Intelligence Division . In the first issue of the Greater Asia Association 's official bulletin , put out in 1933 , Matsui denounced China 's leaders for having " sold out their own country of China and betrayed Asia " due to their allegedly pro @-@ Western attitudes . Over time he gravitated toward a group within the Army General Staff led by General Tetsuzan Nagata , which was advocating that Japan use military force to overthrow Chiang Kai @-@ shek .
Matsui 's career came to an abrupt end in August 1935 when Nagata , a member of the so @-@ called " Control Faction " , was assassinated by a member of the rival Imperial Way Faction . By this point Matsui was fed up with the ruthless factional infighting that had divided the Japanese Army , and so he decided that he would take responsibility for the scandal and resign from active duty in the Army .
= = = A general in the reserves = = =
Now that he was a reservist , Matsui had more time to pursue his pan @-@ Asian project . Between October and December 1935 he toured the major cities of China and Manchukuo speaking to Chinese politicians and businessmen about pan @-@ Asianism and setting up a new branch of the Greater Asia Association in Tianjin . Upon his return to Japan in December 1935 he became President of the Greater Asia Association . In February and March 1936 , amid ongoing tension with China , Matsui made a second trip to China , this time on a government @-@ sponsored goodwill tour . Matsui met personally with Chiang , and though he found little common ground with him , they at least were united in their anti @-@ communism . Matsui came out of the meeting believing that joint anti @-@ communism could be the basis for Sino @-@ Japanese cooperation in the future . Then in December 1936 , following the Xi 'an Incident , Chiang agreed to join with the Communist Party of China to resist Japan , a move that Matsui viewed as a personal betrayal .
= = At war in China , 1937 – 38 = =
In July 1937 , following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident , full @-@ scale war broke out between Japan and China . Initially limited to northern China , the fighting spread in August to Shanghai . The Japanese government decided to send two divisions of reinforcements to drive the Chinese Army from Shanghai , which would be organized as the Shanghai Expeditionary Army ( SEA ) . Due to a shortage of active duty generals , the Army General Staff opted to pull someone from the reserves to lead the new army and on August 15 Matsui was officially appointed commander of the SEA . The reason why Matsui was selected is not entirely clear , but his reputation as a " China expert " was likely a major factor . The historian Ikuhiko Hata argues that at the time the Army General Staff was hoping to seek a settlement with China once Shanghai had been secured for Japan , and Matsui , because of his close friendships with China 's leaders , was seen as an ideal candidate to conduct the negotiations . Matsui declared that his mission would be " to make the Chinese people recognize that Japanese troops are the real friends of China " , and likewise stated that " I am going to the front not to fight an enemy but in the state of mind of one who sets out to pacify his brother . " However , one of his old acquaintances in the Chinese Army remarked in The New York Times that " There can be no friendship between us while there is war between China and Japan . "
While sailing to Shanghai Matsui adopted a plan drawn by the Japanese Navy to divide the SEA between two landing sites north of Shanghai , Wusong and Chuanshakou , and then use the former force to attack Shanghai directly and the latter force to encircle the Chinese Army . On August 23 Matsui oversaw the landing operation from aboard his flagship the Yura . The initial landings went well , but increasingly intense fighting ensued on land and casualties mounted . Matsui had never believed that he had been given enough soldiers to handle the job and was continuously pressing the high command for more reinforcements . He himself was not able to go ashore in Shanghai until September 10 , but that was the same day on which the Army General Staff informed him that three additional divisions would be deployed under his command . Still , even this infusion of new troops proved insufficient to dislodge the Chinese . He had mistakenly judged at the beginning of October that the Chinese Army was about to withdraw from Shanghai and had ordered concentrated infantry charges on the Chinese positions in the expectation that the campaign would be wrapped up before November . In fact the SEA was still battering Chinese defensive lines at Nanxiang and Suzhou Creek at that point . The turning point of the campaign did not come until November 5 when an entirely new army , the 10th Army led by Heisuke Yanagawa , landed south of Shanghai and forced the Chinese Army to make a hasty retreat . The battle was won at the cost of over 9 @,@ 000 Japanese dead .
The fighting also took a toll on Chinese civilians , and even at the height of the battle Matsui took a special interest in the plight of Chinese refugees . In October he ordered that improvements be made to living conditions in Chinese refugee camps and later he made a large personal donation of $ 10 @,@ 000 to the French humanitarian Father Jacquinot to help him in establishing a " safety zone " for Chinese civilians in Shanghai .
= = = The road to Nanking = = =
On November 7 Matsui was appointed commander of the Central China Area Army ( CCAA ) , a new position created to provide unified leadership to the SEA and the 10th Army . Matsui continued to command the SEA as well until Prince Asaka was appointed to take over from him on December 2 . Nonetheless , the Army General Staff was keen on keeping the war as contained as possible and so at the same time that it created the CCAA it also laid down an " operation restriction line " forbidding the CCAA from leaving the vicinity of Shanghai .
However , Matsui had made it clear to his superiors even before he had left Japan in August that he was determined to capture the capital city of China , Nanking , which lay 300 kilometers west of Shanghai . Matsui forcefully asserted that the war with China would not end until Nanking was in their control , and he envisaged that the fall of Nanking would result in the total collapse of Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's government . After Chiang 's fall Matsui hoped to play a role in forming a new government in China which , according to his own conception , would be a democracy that would better serve the interests of both Japan and the people of China . However , the historian Tokushi Kasahara also sees personal motives behind Matsui 's insistence on capturing Nanking . Kasahara suspects that Matsui , as an aging general with a relatively undistinguished military record , desperately wanted to crown his career with one last battlefield victory like the capture of the Chinese capital .
Ultimately though , it was Heisuke Yanagawa 's 10th Army which , on November 19 , abruptly crossed the operation restriction line and began advancing on Nanking . In response to this flagrant act of insubordination , Matsui , it is claimed , made some effort to restrain Yanagawa , but he also insisted to the high command that marching on Nanking was the right course of action . On December 1 the Army General Staff finally came around and approved an operation against Nanking , though by then many of Japan 's units in the field were already well on their way .
Matsui had gotten his way , but he still understood that his troops were tired from the fighting in Shanghai . He therefore decided to advance slowly with the aim of securing the city within two months . Nevertheless , his subordinates refused to play along and instead raced with one another to be the first to Nanking . Matsui revised his plans only upon discovering that his own armies were well ahead of their scheduled operational targets . It is again argued that Matsui was unable to restrain the men under his command , and that , since Matsui was an elderly general pulled from retirement , most of his younger and brasher subordinates had little respect for his orders and assumed that he would be back in the reserves and shortly out of their way . Matsui 's command problems were made further complicated by the fact that , between December 5 and December 15 , he was frequently bedridden due to bouts of malaria , which he had first shown symptoms of on November 4 . Though ill , he forced himself to press on with his duties , issuing orders from his sickbed . On December 7 he moved his command post from Shanghai to Suzhou in order to be closer to the frontlines , and on December 9 he ordered that a " summons to surrender " be dropped by airplane over Nanking . Because the Chinese Army defending Nanking did not respond , the next day Matsui approved an all @-@ out attack on the city . The CCAA suffered significant casualties fighting along the mountainous terrain just north of the city because Matsui had forbidden his men from using artillery there to prevent any damage from coming to its two famous historical sites , Sun Yat @-@ sen Mausoleum and Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum . Although the Chinese garrison defending Nanking collapsed under pressure of the Japanese attack within a few days , instead of formally surrendering the Chinese soldiers simply threw away their uniforms and weapons and then merged with the city 's civilian population . The Japanese occupied Nanking on the night of December 12 / 13 . Japanese soldiers in the city then massacred prisoners of war and engaged in random acts of murder , looting , and rape which are collectively known as the Nanking Massacre .
= = = The Nanking Massacre = = =
Matsui and his staff officers in the CCAA had been especially intent on ensuring that the property and citizens of third party nations were not harmed in order to avoid causing an international incident ; they had foreseen the possibility that their troops might disobey orders upon entering Nanking , as many of them were poorly disciplined reservists . To forestall this possibility , Matsui tacked a lengthy addendum entitled " Essentials for Assaulting Nanking " onto the comprehensive operational orders that he passed down to all units on December 7 . In " Essentials " Matsui instructed each of his divisions to only allow one of their regiments into the city itself in order to reduce the Japanese Army 's contact with Chinese civilians , and he reminded all his subordinates that criminal acts like looting or arson would be severely punished , though in the court martial ledger for December 20 , Matsui , taking note of raping and looting incidents , wrote that ' the truth is that some such acts are unavoidable ' . Ultimately , Matsui 's orders were again disobeyed . Most of the buildings and civilian homes outside Nanking had been burned down by the Chinese Army to deprive the Japanese of shelter , so Matsui 's subordinate commanders decided on their own that they had no choice but to station all their men within the city itself .
Nevertheless , Matsui 's instructions said nothing about treatment of Chinese POWs . Matsui would inadvertently contribute to the atrocity in a major way when he demanded on December 14 that his triumphal entrance into Nanking be scheduled for the early date of December 17 . At the time his subordinates in Nanking objected because they were still in the process of scrambling to apprehend all the former Chinese soldiers hiding in the city and had no facilities in which to hold them . Regardless , Matsui held firm , and in many cases his men responded to the conundrum by ordering that all their prisoners be executed immediately after capture . Most of the large @-@ scale massacres that took place within Nanking occurred in the days immediately prior to Matsui 's entrance into the city .
On December 16 Matsui spent the day recovering from his malaria at the Tangshuizhen hot springs east of Nanking , and then the next day he rode into Nanking itself at the head of a large victory parade . It is not clear to what extent Matsui was aware of the atrocities perpetrated in Nanking . His former Chief of Staff in the SEA later testified that Matsui had been informed of " a few cases of plunder and outrage " shortly after entering the city , and Matsui 's own field diary also mentions being told that Japanese troops had committed acts of rape and looting . Matsui commented in his field diary , " The truth is that some such acts are unavoidable . " When a representative from the Japanese Foreign Ministry came to investigate the matter , Matsui admitted that some crimes had occurred and he blamed his subordinate commanders for allowing too many soldiers into the city in violation of his orders . After the war , Matsui 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp Yoshiharu Sumi claimed that not long after the capture of Nanking Matsui caught wind of a plan by some of his subordinates to massacre Chinese POWs and upon hearing of this he immediately put a stop to it . However researchers have since discovered that Sumi 's testimony contained a large number of inaccuracies .
Matsui left Nanking on December 22 and returned to Shanghai , though reports of scandalous incidents perpetrated by Japanese soldiers in Nanking continued to filter in to his headquarters over the following month . When Matsui returned to Nanking on February 7 , 1938 , for a two @-@ day tour he assembled his subordinates , including Prince Asaka and Heisuke Yanagawa , and harangued them for failing to prevent " a number of abominable incidents within the past 50 days " .
= = = Final days in China = = =
The capture of Nanking had not led to the surrender of the Nationalist Government as Matsui had predicted and the war with China continued . Undeterred , Matsui began planning out new military operations in places like Xuzhou and Zhejiang Province soon after he had returned to Shanghai . The other big task occupying his time in January and February 1938 was his plan to establish a new Chinese government in Central China . Matsui was bound and determined to press forward with his ambition to found a new regime to rival Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's Nationalist Government , and though he did not finish the job before leaving office , the Reformed Government of the Republic of China would eventually come into being in March 1938 . However , the leaders of Japan 's Army General Staff showed scant interest in his plan to create a new government in China and they also repeatedly refused to approve any new military campaigns under his command . By the beginning of February Matsui was contemplating suicide to protest their lack of enthusiasm .
By then , there was already a movement within the Army General Staff to have Matsui removed from his post . Reports of the atrocities in Nanking had reached the Japanese government and some within the Army General Staff blamed Matsui for mishandling the crisis and causing Japan international embarrassment . Some even wanted him court @-@ martialed for negligence . Even so , the Japanese government was not planning on dismissing Matsui solely because of the Nanking Massacre . The Foreign Ministry was displeased by anti @-@ Western statements Matsui had made after becoming CCAA commander , including his comment that he did not recognize the neutrality of foreign concessions in Shanghai , and the Army General Staff was concerned about Matsui 's severe personality conflicts with his subordinate commanders , which were interfering with the chain of command . The Army Minister Hajime Sugiyama told General Shunroku Hata that the inability of Matsui and his subordinates to coordinate and cooperate with one another was the reason he was being removed .
On February 10 Matsui received a messenger from the Army General Staff who informed him , much to Matsui 's chagrin and disappointment , that he would soon be relieved of command and replaced with Shunroku Hata . Ultimately , the Army General Staff did not punish Matsui but they did shake up the whole field command in China and Matsui was just one of eighty senior officers , including Asaka and Yanagawa , who were all recalled at the same time .
= = Life in retirement , 1938 – 46 = =
Matsui sailed out of Shanghai on February 21 , 1938 and landed back in Japan on February 23 . Though the time and place of his return to Japan had been kept secret by the military , reporters quickly caught wind of his return and soon Matsui was being greeted everywhere he went by cheering crowds . Later that year Matsui bought a new home in Atami in Shizuoka Prefecture and from then until 1946 he would spend his winters living in Atami and his summers living at his old house on Lake Yamanaka .
In spite of retiring from the military , Matsui hoped to get another job in China working with the Japanese @-@ sponsored government there . Ultimately , he instead accepted the position of Cabinet Councillor , an advisory post , in June 1938 . He continued to serve in this capacity until January 1940 when he resigned to protest Prime Minister Mitsumasa Yonai 's opposition to an alliance with Nazi Germany .
It was also in 1940 that Matsui commissioned the construction of a statue of Kannon , the bodhisattva of mercy , and then had a special temple built in Atami to enshrine it . He named it the Koa Kannon , which means the " Pan @-@ Asian Kannon " , and he consecrated it in honor of all the Japanese and Chinese soldiers who perished during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . At the time the newspaper New York Times praised Matsui 's act , noting that " few Western generals have ever devoted their declining years to the memory of the men who died in their battles . " Henceforth , on every single day that Matsui spent in Atami for the rest of his life he would pray in front of the Koa Kannon once early in the morning and once in the evening .
Throughout this time Matsui remained active in the pan @-@ Asian movement . Although the Greater Asia Association was reorganized several times between 1942 and 1945 , at no point did Matsui ever cease to serve as either the President or Vice President of the organization . Following Japan 's entrance into World War II in December 1941 , Matsui strongly advocated that Japan grant independence to the new territories it had occupied during the war and then form an alliance of Asian states to combat the Allied Powers . Between June and August 1943 Matsui undertook a tour of Asia , including China , Indochina , Singapore , Thailand , Burma , Malaysia , Indonesia , and the Philippines in order to promote his ideas . Matsui met with Wang Jingwei in China and with Subhas Chandra Bose , the head of the Indian National Army , in Singapore . He also caused a diplomatic incident in Indochina , which was still nominally under French colonial rule , when he delivered a speech demanding that it be granted full independence . Matsui 's efforts played a key role in the creation and consolidation of the Greater East Asia Co @-@ Prosperity Sphere , which was the culmination of Matsui 's lifelong vision of an " Asian League " united against the West .
In addition to the Greater Asia Association , Matsui also served throughout the war as President of the Association for the National Defense Concept , a virulently anti @-@ Western and anti @-@ Semitic organization founded in February 1942 to support the Japanese war effort . In 1945 as the Allies bore down on the Philippines Matsui declared over the radio that Japan would never withdraw from the Philippines " even though Tokyo should be reduced to ashes . " Soon after he also stated his plans to speak at a lecture meeting on August 20 opposing any surrender . Nevertheless , on August 15 , 1945 , at his home in Atami Matsui heard Emperor Hirohito announce that Japan had surrendered unconditionally to the Allies .
The Allied occupation of Japan began soon after . On November 19 the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers issued an arrest warrant for Matsui on suspicion of war crimes . Matsui was ill with pneumonia at the time and so was given until March to recover . One of Matsui 's final acts before going to prison was to ask his wife to adopt their longtime maid Hisae as their daughter . He also converted from Shintoism to Buddhism and asked that his wife do the same . On March 6 , 1946 , he checked himself in to Sugamo Prison .
= = On trial in Tokyo , 1946 – 48 = =
On April 29 , 1946 , Iwane Matsui became one of twenty @-@ eight individuals formally indicted before the International Military Tribunal for the Far East ( IMTFE ) , a tribunal established by the Allies of World War II to try Japanese war criminals . The prosecution charged Matsui with Class A war crimes or " crimes against peace " , alleging that he had participated in a conspiracy to wage aggressive war against other countries , and also with Class B / C war crimes or " conventional war crimes " , alleging that he was responsible for the Nanking Massacre of 1937 to 1938 .
Matsui had told friends before going to Sugamo Prison that at the IMTFE he planned to defend not only himself but also Japan 's wartime conduct as a whole . Matsui insisted that Japan had acted defensively against aggression by foreign powers and that Japan 's war aims were to liberate Asia from Western imperialism . Concerning the origins of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Matsui called it " a fight between brothers within the ' Asian family ' " and stated that the war was fought against the Chinese , not " because we hate them , but on the contrary because we love them too much . It is just the same in a family when an elder brother has taken all that he can stand from his ill @-@ behaved younger brother and has to chastise him in order to make him behave properly . "
On the matter of the Nanking Massacre , Matsui admitted that he was aware of a few isolated crimes committed by individual soldiers , including acts of rape , looting , and murder , but he adamantly denied that any large @-@ scale massacres had occurred in the city . Still , Matsui admitted to the IMTFE that he bore " moral responsibility " for the wrongdoing of his men . He denied that he bore " legal responsibility " because , he claimed , it was the military police of each division who were in charge of prosecuting individual criminal acts , not the army commander . However , Matsui also testified that he had urged that any offenders be sternly punished , a statement which , the prosecution quickly noted , implied that he did have some level of legal responsibility .
Ultimately the IMTFE dismissed most of the accusations laid against Matsui . Of the thirty @-@ eight counts he was charged with , Matsui was found not guilty of thirty @-@ seven , including all charges relating to Class A war crimes . The judges rejected Matsui 's membership in the Greater Asia Association as being evidence that he was involved in the " conspiracy " to wage wars of aggression .
Nonetheless , for his role in the Nanking Massacre , he was convicted and sentenced to death under Count 55 , charging defendants with having " deliberately and recklessly disregarded their legal duty to take adequate steps to secure the observance and prevent breaches " of the laws of war . The IMTFE delivered the following verdict on November 12 , 1948 .
The Tribunal is satisfied that Matsui knew what was happening . He did nothing , or nothing effective to abate these horrors . He did issue orders before the capture of the city enjoining propriety of conduct upon his troops and later he issued further orders to the same purport . These orders were of no effect as is now known , and as he must have known ... He was in command of the Army responsible for these happenings . He knew of them . He had the power , as he had the duty , to control his troops and to protect the unfortunate citizens of Nanking . He must be held criminally responsible for his failure to discharge this duty .
Historian Yuma Totani notes that this verdict represents " one of the earliest precedents for command responsibility in the history of international law . "
Shortly after hearing the verdict Matsui confided to his prison chaplain , Shinsho Hanayama , his feelings about the atrocities in Nanking and the rebuke he delivered to his subordinates on February 7 , 1938 . He blamed the atrocities on the alleged moral decline of the Japanese Army since the Russo @-@ Japanese War , and said ,
The Nanking Incident was a terrible disgrace ... Immediately after the memorial services , I assembled the higher officers and wept tears of anger before them , as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ... I told them that after all our efforts to enhance the Imperial prestige , everything had been lost in one moment through the brutalities of the soldiers . And can you imagine it , even after that , these officers laughed at me ... I am really , therefore , quite happy that I , at least , should have ended this way , in the sense that it may serve to urge self @-@ reflection on many more members of the military of that time .
On the night of December 22 , 1948 , Matsui met fellow condemned inmates Hideki Tojo , Akira Mutō , and Kenji Doihara at the prison chapel . As the oldest member of the group , Matsui was asked to lead them in shouting three cheers of banzai to the Emperor . Then he led the group up to the gallows where they were all hanged simultaneously shortly after midnight on the morning of December 23 , 1948 .
Soon after Matsui was executed , he was cremated and the US Army took away his ashes to prevent a memorial from being created . However , unbeknownst to them , some of the ashes had been hidden by the owner of the crematorium . He later brought these ashes to the shrine Matsui had founded , the Koa Kannon , and they remain there to this day . In 1978 , all seven war criminals executed by the IMTFE , including Iwane Matsui , were officially enshrined in Yasukuni Shrine in a secret ceremony conducted by head priest Nagayoshi Matsudaira . This event did not become publicly known until the following year .
= = Assessments and perception = =
In Japan the majority of the historical literature on Iwane Matsui 's life focuses on his role in the Nanking Massacre . He has both sympathizers , who depict him as " the tragic general " who was unjustly executed , and detractors , who assert that he had the blood of a massacre on his hands . Among his detractors are the historian Yutaka Yoshida , who believes that Matsui made six serious mistakes which contributed to the massacre . First , he insisted on advancing on Nanking without ensuring proper logistical support which forced his men to rely on plunder . Second , he established no policies to protect the safety of Chinese POWs . Third , he permitted an excessively large number of soldiers to enter the city of Nanking . Fourth , he did not cooperate sufficiently with the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone . Fifth , he insisted that his triumphal entrance into Nanking be held at an early date , a demand which his subordinate commanders responded to by increasing the speed and severity of their operations . Finally , he spent too much time on political maneuvering and neglected his duties as commander . The historian Keiichi Eguchi and the researcher Toshio Tanabe likewise find that Matsui bears responsibility for urging the government to march on Nanking , which led directly to the massacre . Tanabe concurs with Yoshida that Matsui should have put in place policies to protect Chinese POWs and should not have ordered a premature triumphal entrance into the city of Nanking .
Nevertheless , other historians like Masahiro Yamamoto have argued that the death sentence was too severe a penalty for Matsui 's crime of mere negligence in failing to stop the massacre . The journalist Richard Minear also points out that Matsui 's penalty was disproportionately severe compared to the other convicted defendants . Kuniaki Koiso was found guilty on four counts and Mamoru Shigemitsu was found guilty on five counts , in both cases including one count of negligence , and both were given prison sentences . Matsui , by contrast , was found guilty of only one count of negligence but was sentenced to death . The historian Tokushi Kasahara argues that the prosecution at the IMTFE did not attempt seriously to investigate all those who were involved in the Nanking Massacre , and instead just decided to make Matsui the sole scapegoat for the whole atrocity .
Matsui has a somewhat infamous reputation in China today . The popular nonfiction author Takashi Hayasaka asserts that he often heard Matsui referred to as " the Hitler of Japan " by Chinese citizens during his travels in the city of Nanking because of Matsui 's connection to the Nanking Massacre . However , Matsui 's name was not always notorious in China for this reason . In 1945 the Communist Party of China denounced Matsui as a war criminal because of his propaganda work for an ultranationalist group , rather than for the Nanking Massacre . Historian Masataka Matsuura notes that the focus within current scholarship on Matsui 's role in the Nanking Massacre has distracted from the fact that his pan @-@ Asianism was the defining characteristic of his life .
= = Writings in English = =
The Japanese Army and the Dispute in the Far East ( Geneva : Kundig , 1932 )
An Asiatic League of Nations ( Tokyo : Office of the Greater Asia Association , 1937 )
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= Megadeth =
Megadeth is an American thrash metal band from Los Angeles , California . The group was formed in 1983 by guitarist Dave Mustaine and bassist David Ellefson , shortly after Mustaine 's dismissal from Metallica . A pioneer of the American thrash metal scene , the band is credited as one of the genre 's " big four " with Anthrax , Metallica and Slayer , responsible for thrash metal 's development and popularization . Megadeth plays in a technical style , featuring fast rhythm sections and complex arrangements . Themes of death , war , politics and religion are prominent in the group 's lyrics .
In 1985 , the band released its debut album on the independent label Combat Records . The album 's moderate commercial success caught the attention of bigger labels , which led to Megadeth signing with Capitol Records . Their first major @-@ label album , Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? , was released in 1986 and influenced the underground metal scene . Despite its prominence in thrash metal , frequent disputes between its members and substance abuse issues brought Megadeth negative publicity during this period .
After the lineup stabilized , the band released a number of platinum @-@ selling albums , including Rust in Peace ( 1990 ) and Countdown to Extinction ( 1992 ) . These albums , along with touring worldwide , helped bring public recognition to Megadeth . The band temporarily disbanded in 2002 when Mustaine suffered an arm injury and re @-@ established in 2004 without bassist Ellefson , who had taken legal action against Mustaine . Ellefson settled with Mustaine out of court and rejoined the group in 2010 . Megadeth has hosted its own music festival , Gigantour , several times since mid @-@ 2005 .
As of 2014 , Megadeth has sold 50 million records worldwide , earned platinum certification in the United States for five of its fifteen studio albums , and received eleven Grammy nominations . The band 's mascot , Vic Rattlehead , regularly appears on album artwork and , since 2010 , in live shows . The group has experienced controversy over its musical approach and lyrics , including canceled concerts and album bans . MTV has refused to play two of the band 's videos that the network considered to condone suicide .
= = History = =
= = = 1983 – 84 : Formation = = =
Dave Mustaine was the lead guitarist for Metallica when the band formed in 1981 . He was a member for nearly a year and helped compose some of the group 's early songs . However , before Metallica began recording its debut album , Mustaine was expelled over substance abuse and conflicts with James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich . Two months later , Mustaine and bassist David Ellefson formed Megadeth in Los Angeles . Mustaine wanted the new band to play faster and heavier music than Metallica . According to Mustaine , the name " Megadeth " represents the annihilation of power . It is a misspelling of the term megadeath , meaning one million deaths by nuclear explosion . The name came from a pamphlet by California senator Alan Cranston that Mustaine found on the floor of a bus after being fired from Metallica . It read : " The arsenal of megadeath can 't be rid no matter what the peace treaties come to . "
Despite his enthusiasm , Mustaine had trouble finding other members to fill out the lineup . He and Ellefson examined about 15 drummers , hoping to find one who understood meter changes in music . In the meantime , Kerry King from Slayer filled in on rhythm guitar . They eventually selected Lee Rausch as drummer , and settled on Mustaine as lead vocalist after six months of searching . Mustaine was also the band 's primary songwriter , lead , and rhythm guitarist . In 1984 , Megadeth recorded a three @-@ song demo tape featuring Mustaine , Ellefson , and Rausch . The demo featured early versions of " Last Rites / Loved to Death " , " The Skull Beneath the Skin " , and " Mechanix " , all of which appeared on the band 's debut album . After several performances in 1984 , Megadeth replaced Rausch with jazz fusion drummer Gar Samuelson . Guitarist Chris Poland joined the group that December . After considering several labels , Mustaine signed the band to Combat Records , a New York @-@ based Independent record label that offered Megadeth the highest budget to record and tour .
= = = 1985 : Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! = = =
In 1985 , Combat Records gave the band $ 8 @,@ 000 to record and produce its debut album . After spending $ 4 @,@ 000 of the budget on drugs , alcohol , and food , the band fired the original producer and finished the recording themselves . Despite its low fidelity sound , Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! was relatively successful in underground metal circles on its release that summer and attracted major @-@ label interest . Music writer Joel McIver praised its " blistering technicality " and stated that the album " raised the bar for the whole thrash metal scene , with guitarists forced to perform even more accurately and powerfully " . The front cover marked the debut of band mascot Vic Rattlehead , who regularly appeared on subsequent album artwork .
Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! features " Mechanix , " a song Mustaine wrote during his time with Metallica . Though Mustaine told the band after his dismissal not to use the music he had written , Metallica recorded a different version of the song entitled " The Four Horsemen " , with a slower tempo and a melodic middle section . The album also included a cover of Nancy Sinatra 's " These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' , " at a faster tempo and with altered lyrics . Megadeth 's version generated controversy during the 1990s , when its writer , Lee Hazlewood , called Mustaine 's changes " vile and offensive " . Under threat of legal action , the song was removed from pressings released from 1995 to 2001 . In mid @-@ 1985 , on a bill with Exciter , Megadeth played its first North American tour : the Killing for a Living Tour . Poland was in the band as the tour began , but abruptly left and was replaced by touring guitarist Mike Albert . Poland rejoined Megadeth in October , shortly before the group began its second album for Combat .
= = = 1986 – 87 : Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? = = =
According to Mustaine , the band was under pressure to deliver another successful album : " That sophomore offering is the ' be @-@ all or end @-@ all ' of any band . You either go to the next level , or it 's the beginning of the nadir . " The songs were developed relatively quickly in an old warehouse south of Los Angeles before recording began . Mustaine composed the music , with the other members adding arrangement ideas . Megadeth 's second album was produced on a $ 25 @,@ 000 budget from Combat Records . Dissatisfied with its financial limitations , the band left Combat and signed with Capitol Records . Capitol bought the rights to the upcoming album , and hired producer Paul Lani to remix the earlier recordings . Released in late 1986 , Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? has clearer production and more sophisticated songwriting . Mustaine wanted to write socially conscious lyrics , unlike mainstream heavy metal bands who sang about " hedonistic pleasures " . The album was noted for its political commentary and helped Megadeth expand its fanbase . The title track was the album 's lead single and was accompanied by a music video that received regular airplay on MTV .
In February 1987 , Megadeth was the opening act on Alice Cooper 's Constrictor tour , and the following month the band began its first headlining world tour in the United Kingdom . The 72 @-@ week tour was supported by Overkill and Necros , and continued in the United States . During the tour , Mustaine and Ellefson considered firing Samuelson for his drug abuse . According to Mustaine , Samuelson had become too much to handle when intoxicated . Drummer Chuck Behler traveled with Megadeth for the last dates of the tour as the other band members feared Samuelson would not be able to continue touring . Poland occasionally quarreled with Mustaine , and was accused of selling band equipment to buy heroin . As a result , Samuelson and Poland were asked to leave Megadeth in 1987 . That year , 16 @-@ year @-@ old guitarist Jeff Loomis of Sanctuary auditioned for the band . Mustaine complimented Loomis ' playing but considered him too young to join . Poland was initially replaced by Jay Reynolds of Malice , but as the band began working on its next record , Reynolds was replaced by his guitar teacher , Jeff Young , when Megadeth was six weeks into the recording of its third album .
= = = 1988 – 89 : So Far , So Good ... So What ! = = =
With a major @-@ label budget , the Paul Lani @-@ produced So Far , So Good ... So What ! took over five months to record . The album was plagued with problems during production , partially due to Mustaine 's struggle with drug addiction . Mustaine later said : " The production of So Far , So Good ... So What ! was horrible , mostly due to substances and the priorities we had or didn 't have at the time . " Mustaine clashed with Lani on several occasions , beginning with Lani 's insistence that the drums be recorded separately from the cymbals , an unheard @-@ of process for rock drummers . Mustaine and Lani became estranged during the album 's mixing , and Lani was replaced by Michael Wagener , who remixed the album .
So Far , So Good ... So What ! was released in January 1988 and was well received by fans and critics . The album featured a cover version of the Sex Pistols ' " Anarchy in the U.K. " ; Mustaine changed the song 's lyrics , later saying that he had simply heard them incorrectly . To support the album , Megadeth embarked on a world tour , opening for Dio in Europe and then joining Iron Maiden 's Seventh Tour of a Seventh Tour in the United States . In August , the band appeared at the Monsters of Rock festival at Castle Donington in the United Kingdom , performing to an audience of more than 100 @,@ 000 . One show featured a guest appearance by Metallica drummer ( and Mustaine 's former bandmate ) Lars Ulrich . The band was added to the Monsters of Rock European tour , but left after the first show due to Ellefson 's drug problems , for which he was treated immediately .
Shortly after the Monsters of Rock appearance , Mustaine fired Behler and Young and canceled Megadeth 's scheduled Australian tour . " On the road , things escalated from a small border skirmish into a full @-@ on raging war " , Mustaine later recalled . " I think a lot of us were inconsistent [ on the 1988 tour ] because of the guy we were waiting for after the show . " During the tour , Mustaine noticed problems developing with Behler and brought in drummer Nick Menza as Behler 's drum technician . As with Samuelson , Menza was expected to take over if Behler could not continue the tour . Menza replaced Behler in 1989 . Young 's dismissal resulted from Mustaine 's suspicions that he was having an affair with Mustaine 's girlfriend , an allegation Young denied .
The band was unable to quickly find a suitable replacement for Young . At this time , Megadeth recorded a cover version of Alice Cooper 's " No More Mr. Nice Guy " which appeared on the soundtrack to the Wes Craven horror movie Shocker . The video was directed by Penelope Spheeris , who recalled the filming as a " Herculean task " as Mustaine was unable to play guitar because of his drug addiction . In June 1988 , Megadeth appeared in Spheeris ' documentary The Decline of Western Civilization Part II : The Metal Years . The documentary chronicled the Los Angeles heavy metal scene of the late 1980s with a focus on glam metal . Mustaine remembered the film as a disappointment , as it aligned Megadeth with " a bunch of shit bands " . During the March 1989 auditions for a new lead guitarist , Mustaine was arrested for driving under the influence and possession of narcotics after crashing into a parked vehicle occupied by an off @-@ duty police officer . Mustaine entered court @-@ ordered drug rehabilitation shortly afterwards , and became drug @-@ free for the first time in ten years .
= = = 1990 – 91 : Rust in Peace = = =
With Mustaine sober , Megadeth continued searching for a new lead guitarist . Among those who auditioned were Lee Altus of Heathen and Eric Meyer of Dark Angel . Meyer was invited to join the band after Poland 's departure , but chose to remain with Dark Angel . Guns N ' Roses guitarist Slash had been jamming with Mustaine and Ellefson , and although it seemed that he might join Megadeth , he remained with Guns N ' Roses . Dimebag Darrell of Pantera was offered the job , but refused to join without his brother , Pantera drummer Vinnie Paul . As Megadeth had already hired Menza , Darrell declined to join the band .
Marty Friedman filled the guitarist position at the recommendation of Ron Laffitte , a member of Capitol management . Laffitte had heard Dragon 's Kiss , a solo recording by Friedman when he was in Cacophony . Mustaine and Ellefson were satisfied with Friedman 's style and thought he understood Megadeth 's music . With Friedman in the group , the band completed what fans consider the definitive Megadeth lineup . The revitalized band entered Rumbo Studios in March 1990 with co @-@ producer Mike Clink to begin Megadeth 's most critically acclaimed album to date , Rust in Peace . For the first time the band 's members remained sober in the studio , alleviating many problems which plagued previous albums . Clink was the first producer to complete a Megadeth album without being fired . Its recording was documented in Rusted Pieces , a home video released in 1991 with six music videos and an interview with the band .
Released in September 1990 , Rust in Peace debuted at number 23 in the United States and number eight in the United Kingdom . Mustaine had developed a writing style with a rhythmically complex , progressive edge , and the songs had longer guitar solos and frequent tempo changes . Described as a genre @-@ defining work by Decibel , the album solidified Megadeth 's reputation in the music industry . It features the singles " Holy Wars ... The Punishment Due " and " Hangar 18 " , both of which were accompanied by music videos and became live staples . Rust in Peace received a Grammy nomination in 1991 for Best Metal Performance , and was the group 's third album to go platinum when certified in December 1994 .
Early in 1990 , Slayer proposed a major tour featuring American thrash metal bands . Megadeth accepted , joining Slayer , Testament , and Suicidal Tendencies for the successful European Clash of the Titans tour . An American leg began the following year featuring Megadeth , Slayer , and Anthrax , with Alice in Chains as a supporting act . The tour was considered a multi @-@ headliner , as the three main bands alternated time slots . In addition to the Clash of the Titans tour , Megadeth played with Judas Priest in North America late in 1990 and appeared at the second Rock in Rio festival in January 1991 .
= = = 1992 – 93 : Countdown to Extinction = = =
The recording sessions for Megadeth 's fifth studio album began in January 1992 at Enterprise Studios in Burbank , California . Max Norman was chosen to produce the album , as the band was pleased with his mixing of Rust in Peace . Megadeth spent nearly four months in the studio with Norman , writing and recording what became the band 's most commercially successful effort , Countdown to Extinction . The album , whose title was suggested by Menza , features songwriting contributions from each band member . Ellefson explained that the band changed its approach to songwriting for this album , beginning to write more melodic songs .
Released in July 1992 , Countdown to Extinction entered the Billboard 200 chart at number two and was certified double platinum in the United States . The album 's overseas success helped the band to develop a larger following outside the US . It received a nomination for Best Metal Performance at the 1993 Grammy Awards , and its title track won a Genesis Award from the Humane Society in 1993 for raising awareness for animal rights issues . Ellefson later said that he and Friedman were disappointed that Megadeth did not win the Grammy : " It was such a bizarre moment , because it was as if the amount of work it had taken to ramp up to that hopeful night was literally gone in a second . "
A world tour in support of the album was launched in late 1992 , with Pantera and White Zombie as supporting acts . The tour included a North American leg in early 1993 , with Stone Temple Pilots as the opening act . One month into the leg , the remaining shows , including dates in Japan , were canceled when Mustaine returned to substance abuse , ending up in a hospital emergency room . After seven weeks in rehab , Mustaine emerged sober again and the band returned to the studio to record " Angry Again " . The song featured the soundtrack of the 1993 film Last Action Hero and received a Grammy nomination in 1994 .
During mid @-@ 1993 , Megadeth performed at a number of shows with Metallica in Europe . The first was at Milton Keynes Bowl in England , and included Diamond Head . In July , Megadeth was added as the opening act for Aerosmith 's Get a Grip Tour , but was removed from the bill after three shows . Aerosmith said that Megadeth was " dumped " because of Mustaine 's erratic behavior , while Capitol Records said it was due to " artistic restrictions " . After the canceled US tour , Megadeth returned to the studio to record " 99 Ways to Die " , which appeared on The Beavis and Butt @-@ head Experience , a compilation album released in November featuring songs interspersed with commentary by the main characters of the animated series Beavis and Butt @-@ head . The song was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 1995 Grammy Awards . During these sessions , Megadeth recorded a cover version of Black Sabbath 's " Paranoid " , which appeared on the Black Sabbath tribute album Nativity in Black ; it was nominated for a Grammy the following year .
= = = 1994 – 95 : Youthanasia = = =
In early 1994 , Megadeth reunited with producer Max Norman for the follow @-@ up to Countdown to Extinction . With three band members living in Arizona , initial work began at Phase Four Studios in Phoenix . A few days into pre @-@ production , problems with Phase Four 's equipment forced the band to look for another studio . Mustaine insisted on recording in Arizona , but no suitable recording facility could be found . At Norman 's request , the band built its own recording studio in Phoenix in a rented warehouse , later called " Fat Planet in Hangar 18 " . During the studio 's construction , much of the pre @-@ production songwriting and arrangements were done at Vintage Recorders in Phoenix . At Norman 's suggestion , the tracks on Youthanasia had a slower tempo than previous albums , at about 120 beats per minute . The band abandoned the progressive approach from its previous albums and focused on stronger vocal melodies and more accessible , radio @-@ friendly arrangements . For the first time , Megadeth wrote and arranged the entire album in the studio , including basic tracks recorded live by the entire band . The album 's recording was video recorded and released as Evolver : The Making of Youthanasia in 1995 .
After eight months of studio work , Youthanasia was released in November 1994 . It debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and charted in several European countries . The album was certified gold in Canada the day it was released , and was certified platinum in the US two months later . Megadeth hired fashion photographer Richard Avedon to enhance the band 's image . Avedon had the band members exchange their jeans and T @-@ shirts for a more conscious appearance . To promote Youthanasia , the band played a Halloween show in New York City called " Night of the Living Megadeth " , which was broadcast live on MTV . In November , the band performed twice on the Late Show with David Letterman , playing " Train of Consequences " on the first appearance and " À Tout le Monde " on the second .
An eleven @-@ month tour began in South America in November 1994 . In 1995 , Megadeth played in Europe and North America with several opening acts , including Corrosion of Conformity , Korn and Fear Factory . The tour culminated with an appearance at the Monsters of Rock festival in Brazil , co @-@ headlining with Alice Cooper and Ozzy Osbourne . In January 1995 , Megadeth appeared on the soundtrack of the horror movie Demon Knight with the song " Diadems " . In July , Megadeth released Hidden Treasures , an extended play featuring songs which originally appeared on movie soundtracks and tribute albums .
= = = 1996 – 98 : Cryptic Writings = = =
After the extensive world tour in support of Youthanasia , Megadeth took time off late in 1995 . Mustaine began work on MD.45 , a side project with vocalist Lee Ving of Fear . The duo hired drummer Jimmy DeGrasso , who had played with Alice Cooper on the South American Monsters of Rock tour earlier that year . Marty Friedman built a studio in his new home in Phoenix and completed his fourth solo album , released in April 1996 . In September 1996 , Megadeth went to London to work on songs for the next album . The songwriting was closely supervised by new manager Bud Prager , who contributed musical ideas and lyrics ; many lyrics and song titles were changed at his request . Regarding Prager 's influence , Mustaine later wrote : " I figured maybe this guy [ Prager ] could help me get that intangible number one record I so badly wanted . " The album , recorded in Nashville , was Megadeth 's first collaboration with country pop producer Dann Huff , who had met Mustaine in 1990 .
Cryptic Writings was released in June 1997 . The album peaked at number ten on the Billboard 200 , and was eventually certified gold in the United States . Its lead single , " Trust " , became Megadeth 's highest charting song on the Mainstream Rock Tracks at number five , and was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 1998 Grammy Awards . Although all four singles from the album entered the top 20 on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart , press response to the album was mixed . The album featured a diverse set of songs which the Los Angeles Times described as a " rousing balance " between older material and experimental songs . Asked about the album 's eclecticism , Mustaine said that Cryptic Writings was divided into thirds . One part was based around faster , more aggressive material , another was " radio @-@ orientated music like Youthanasia " , and the final third was more melodic .
After more than a year since the band 's last concert , Megadeth returned as a live act in June 1997 , beginning a world tour with the Misfits and touring in the United States with Life of Agony and Coal Chamber . In July , the band participated in Ozzfest ' 98 but , halfway through the tour , Menza reportedly discovered a tumor on his knee and left to undergo surgery . Jimmy DeGrasso , who had collaborated with Mustaine in MD.45 , was hired to replace Menza for the remainder of the tour . Though initially meant to be a temporary replacement , DeGrasso joined the band permanently after the tour . Mustaine later said that he dismissed Menza from the band because he believed the drummer had lied about having cancer .
= = = 1999 – 2000 : Risk = = =
Following the band 's mainstream radio success with Cryptic Writings , Megadeth again worked with Dann Huff on its eighth studio album . The band began writing in January 1999 , supervised by manager Bud Prager , who was credited with co @-@ writing five of the album 's twelve songs . With high expectations following the chart success of " Trust " , Prager convinced Mustaine to grant Huff even more control over the album 's recording , a decision Mustaine later regretted .
Risk , released in August 1999 , was a critical and commercial failure and led to backlash from many longtime fans . Although its two predecessors incorporated rock elements alongside a more traditional heavy metal sound , Risk was virtually devoid of metal . About the band 's musical direction , Dave Mustaine said : " We hit the nadir of our career with Risk , and I vowed after that we were going to get back to our roots . It took a little bit of time to do that . " Despite this , Risk was certified gold in the United States . The album 's lead single , " Crush ' Em " , appeared on the soundtrack for Universal Soldier : The Return and was used as an entrance theme for NHL hockey games and professional wrestling events .
On July 22 , 1999 , former drummer Gar Samuelson died of liver failure at age 41 in Orange City , Florida . Three days later , during Megadeth 's performance at Woodstock 1999 , Mustaine dedicated " Peace Sells " to Samuelson 's memory . That month , Megadeth also recorded a cover version of the Black Sabbath 's " Never Say Die " for the second Nativity in Black tribute album . The band began a world tour in support of Risk in September , playing with Iron Maiden during the European leg . Three months into the tour , Friedman announced his resignation from Megadeth , citing musical differences . Mustaine later said : " I told [ Marty ] after Risk that we had to go back to our roots and play metal , and he quit . " In January 2000 , guitarist Al Pitrelli , formerly of Savatage and the Trans @-@ Siberian Orchestra , became Friedman 's replacement .
In April , Megadeth returned to the studio to work on its ninth studio album . A month into production , the band received an offer to join the Maximum Rock tour with Anthrax and Mötley Crüe . Megadeth put the recording on hold and toured North America during the second quarter of 2000 . Early in the tour , Anthrax was removed from the bill , allowing Megadeth to play an extended co @-@ headlining set . The tour , however , had poor ticket sales .
= = = 2000 – 01 : The World Needs a Hero = = =
After 15 years with Capitol Records , Megadeth left the label in July 2000 . According to Mustaine , the departure was due to ongoing tensions with Capitol management . Capitol returned the band 's newest recordings and released a greatest hits album , Capitol Punishment : The Megadeth Years , with two new tracks : " Kill the King " and " Dread and the Fugitive Mind " . In November , Megadeth signed with Sanctuary Records . The band returned to the studio in October to finish its next album , The World Needs a Hero , which was near completion when Megadeth joined the Maximum Rock tour six months earlier . Following the negative response to Risk , Mustaine fired Bud Prager and produced the album himself . The songs were written by Mustaine alone , except for " Promises " , which had contributions from Pitrelli . Two days before the release of The World Needs a Hero , Megadeth appeared in an episode of VH1 's Behind the Music showcasing Mustaine , Ellefson , several past members , and Mustaine 's old Metallica bandmates James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich .
The World Needs a Hero was released in May 2001 , and debuted at number sixteen on the Billboard 200 . It was banned in Malaysia when the national government determined that the album 's artwork was " unsuitable for the nation 's youth " . Consequently , the band canceled its August 2 concert in Kuala Lumpur . The album marked Megadeth 's return to a more aggressive sound after the stylistic variations of its previous two albums , but critics felt it fell short of expectations . Mustaine compared the album to a huge ship at sea , turning and trying to right itself to get back on course . Its lead single , " Moto Psycho " , reached number 22 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart .
A European tour with AC / DC in support of The World Needs a Hero began in mid @-@ 2001 , followed by an American tour with Iced Earth and Endo in September . Mustaine allowed fans to choose the setlist in each American city . However , the tour was cut short following the September 11 attacks ; all dates were canceled , including a DVD shoot in Argentina . The band instead played two shows in Arizona on November 16 and 17 , which were filmed and released as Megadeth 's first live release , Rude Awakening . That year , Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! was remixed and remastered ; the reissue featured modified artwork and several bonus tracks .
= = = 2002 – 03 : Breakup = = =
In January 2002 , Mustaine was hospitalized for the removal of a kidney stone and was administered pain medication that triggered a relapse of his drug addiction . Following his stay , Mustaine checked himself into a treatment center in Texas , where he suffered a peculiar injury causing severe nerve damage to his left arm . The injury , induced by falling asleep with his left arm over the back of a chair , caused compression of the radial nerve . He was diagnosed with radial neuropathy , which left him unable to grasp or even make a fist with his left hand .
On April 3 , Mustaine announced in a press release that he was disbanding Megadeth as his arm injury rendered him unable to play guitar . For the next four months , he had physical therapy five days a week , and slowly began to " re @-@ teach " his left hand . To fulfill contract obligations to Sanctuary , Megadeth released the compilation album Still Alive ... and Well ? The first half of the album contains live tracks recorded at the Web Theatre in Phoenix , and the second half has studio recordings from The World Needs a Hero .
Following nearly a year of recovery , including physical and electroshock therapy , Mustaine began work on what was to have been his first solo album . The new material was recorded with session musicians Vinnie Colaiuta and Jimmie Lee Sloas in October 2003 . The project was put on hold when Mustaine agreed to remix and remaster Megadeth 's eight @-@ album back catalog on Capitol Records , re @-@ recording portions that were missing or altered without his knowledge in the original mixing .
= = = 2004 : The System Has Failed = = =
In May 2004 , Mustaine returned to his solo project . Contractual obligations to the band 's European label , EMI , resulted in the recording 's release as a Megadeth album . Mustaine reformed the band and contacted the fan @-@ favorite Rust in Peace lineup to re @-@ record backing tracks . While drummer Nick Menza agreed to return , both Marty Friedman and David Ellefson were unable to come to an agreement with Mustaine . Menza was sent home shortly after rehearsals began , a few days before the start of a tour supporting Megadeth 's upcoming album . Mustaine said Menza was insufficiently prepared for the physical demands of a US tour , and " it just didn 't work out " . This was the first album without Ellefson . Chris Poland , who played lead guitar on Megadeth 's first two albums , was hired to contribute guitar solos to the new album , working with Mustaine for the first time since the 1980s . Poland opted to serve only as a session musician , wanting to remain focused on his jazz fusion project OHM .
The System Has Failed was released in September 2004 . Critics heralded it as a return to form ; Revolver gave the album a favorable review , calling it " Megadeth 's most vengeful , poignant and musically complex offering since 1992 's Countdown to Extinction " . The album marked a shift toward the band 's earlier sound ; journalist Amy Sciarretto of CMJ New Music Report wrote that the album contained " neo @-@ thrash riffing with biting , politically charged lyrics " . The System Has Failed debuted at number eighteen on the Billboard 200 and was led by " Die Dead Enough " , which reached number 21 on the US Mainstream Rock chart . Mustaine announced that the album would be the band 's last and would be followed by a farewell tour , after which he would focus on a solo career .
Megadeth began the Blackmail the Universe world tour in October , enlisting touring bassist James MacDonough of Iced Earth and guitarist Glen Drover of Eidolon and King Diamond . Five days before the first show , Menza was replaced by Shawn Drover , who remained with the band as a regular member . The band toured the US with Exodus and Europe with Diamond Head and Dungeon . In June 2005 , Capitol released a greatest @-@ hits compilation , Greatest Hits : Back to the Start , featuring remixed and remastered versions of songs chosen by fans from Megadeth 's Capitol albums .
= = = 2005 – 06 : Gigantour = = =
In mid @-@ 2005 , Mustaine organized an annual heavy metal festival tour , Gigantour . Megadeth headlined the inaugural tour with acts such as Dream Theater , Nevermore , Anthrax , and Fear Factory . Performances at the Montreal and Vancouver shows were filmed and recorded for a live DVD @-@ and @-@ CD set released in the second quarter of 2006 . On October 9 , following the successes of The System Has Failed and the Blackmail the Universe world tour , Mustaine announced to a sold @-@ out crowd at the Pepsi Music Rock Festival in Argentina that Megadeth would continue to record and tour . The concert , held at Obras Sanitarias stadium in Buenos Aires in front of 25 @,@ 000 fans , was filmed and released on DVD as That One Night : Live in Buenos Aires in 2007 .
In February 2006 , bassist James MacDonough left the band over " personal differences " . He was replaced by James LoMenzo , who had worked with David Lee Roth , White Lion and Black Label Society . The new Megadeth lineup made its live debut headlining the Dubai Desert Rock Festival in the United Arab Emirates with Testament . In March , Capitol released a two @-@ disc DVD , Arsenal of Megadeth , which included archive footage , interviews , live shows , and many of the band 's music videos . Due to licensing issues , soundtrack and non @-@ Capitol videos were not included . The second Gigantour began during the third quarter of 2006 ; Megadeth again headlined , this time with Lamb of God , Opeth , Arch Enemy and Overkill . The 2006 tour included three dates in Australia , supported by Soulfly , Arch Enemy and Caliban .
= = = 2007 – 08 : United Abominations = = =
In May 2006 , Megadeth announced that its eleventh studio album , United Abominations , was near completion . Originally scheduled for release in October , Mustaine said that the band was " putting the finishing touches on it " and postponed its release to May of the following year . He commented on the release : " Metal needs a really good old @-@ school record again . I believe I have delivered . " United Abominations was the band 's first album to feature Glen Drover , Shawn Drover , and James Lomenzo . It also has a newer version of " À Tout le Monde " entitled " À Tout le Monde ( Set Me Free ) " . The 2007 version is a duet with Cristina Scabbia of Lacuna Coil ; it was recorded at a slightly faster tempo than the original and contains an extended solo .
Released in May 2007 , United Abominations debuted at number eight on the Billboard 200 , selling 54 @,@ 000 copies in the first week . In March , Megadeth began a North American tour opening for the newly reformed Heaven & Hell . The band played with Down for Canadian shows and with Machine Head for the US dates . A European summer festival tour followed . Late in the year , Megadeth returned to the United States to headline its Tour of Duty . In November , the band brought Gigantour to Australia with a lineup including Static @-@ X , DevilDriver and Lacuna Coil .
In January 2008 , Glen Drover quit Megadeth , stating that he was tired of the frequent touring and wanted to spend more time with his family . He also cited personal issues with other band members . Drover was replaced by Chris Broderick , formerly of Nevermore and Jag Panzer . Broderick was initially asked by Mustaine 's management company at the end of 2007 if he would be interested in auditioning for Megadeth . After an informal meeting at Mustaine 's house , Broderick was introduced as the band 's new guitarist . Mustaine complimented Broderick 's playing skills and called him " the best guitarist Megadeth has ever had " . Broderick 's former Nevermore bandmate , Van Williams , congratulated Megadeth on " getting one hell of a good player , more importantly they 're getting a great guy to hang out with and a true friend " .
The new lineup made its live debut at the Helsinki Ice Hall on February 4 . The 2008 Gigantour , with 29 North American dates , began shortly afterwards . Mustaine wanted a shorter lineup , allowing each band a chance to perform well . The third tour featured In Flames , Children of Bodom , Job for a Cowboy and High on Fire . Megadeth continued the Tour of Duty in South America and Mexico in May and June . A compilation album , Anthology : Set the World Afire , was released in September 2008 .
= = = 2009 – 10 : Endgame = = =
In February 2009 , Megadeth and Testament were scheduled on the European " Priest Feast " tour , with Judas Priest as headliners . At this time , Metallica , who had been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , invited Mustaine to attend the ceremony . Mustaine was informed that he would not be inducted to the Hall of Fame because such honors were granted only to those members who received recording credit on a Metallica album . Mustaine congratulated the group respectfully , and honored his commitment to the European tour with Judas Priest . In April , Megadeth and Slayer co @-@ headlined the Canadian Carnage . This was the first time they had performed together in more than 15 years . Machine Head and Suicide Silence opened for the four shows that occurred later in June .
In May , Megadeth finished recording its twelfth album , Endgame . According to Mustaine , the name paid homage to Alex Jones ' 2007 film of the same name . The release date for Endgame was announced on the Megadeth official website , and Metal Hammer was the first to review the album track @-@ by @-@ track . Megadeth began its Endgame tour in October , and finished it in December . The tour featured a number of supporting acts , including Machine Head , Suicide Silence , and Warbringer . In January 2010 , Megadeth was set to embark on the American Carnage tour with Slayer and Testament , but the tour was postponed due to Tom Araya 's back surgery . Several weeks later , Megadeth 's " Head Crusher " was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 2010 Grammy Awards , the band 's eighth Grammy nomination in 19 years .
In March , Megadeth embarked on the Rust in Peace 20th Anniversary Tour , which took place in North America and had support from Testament and Exodus . During the tour , Megadeth played Rust in Peace in its entirety . Prior to the start of the tour , original bassist Ellefson rejoined Megadeth after eight years . In an interview for Classic Rock , he stated that Shawn Drover contacted him , informing him that bassist LoMenzo was leaving the band , saying " if ever there was a time for you and Dave [ Mustaine ] to talk , now is it " .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Thirteen = = =
Megadeth , along with Metallica , Slayer , and Anthrax , collectively known as the " big four " of thrash metal , agreed to perform on the same bill during mid @-@ 2010 . These performances were part of the Sonisphere Festival and were held in a number of European countries . One such performance in Sofia , Bulgaria , was filmed and released as a video album entitled The Big Four : Live from Sofia , Bulgaria . These shows continued the following year in the United States . The first took place in Indio , California , and was the only scheduled show in the United States at the time , although a second American production was held at Yankee Stadium in New York City shortly afterwards .
In July 2010 , after the European " big four " shows , Megadeth and Slayer commenced the first leg of the American Carnage Tour , where Megadeth played Rust in Peace in its entirety , while Slayer performed its album Seasons in the Abyss , both of which were released in 1990 . From these shows onward , Vic Rattlehead started making sustained onstage appearances , to improve the visual facet of Megadeth 's live performances . Shortly afterward , the two bands united with Anthrax for the Jägermeister Music Tour in late 2010 . During the final show of the tour , Kerry King joined Megadeth on stage at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Hollywood to perform Megadeth 's " Rattlehead " . It was the first time that King had performed onstage with Megadeth as the latter 's early shows in 1984 . Megadeth and Slayer again shared the stage for the European Carnage Tour in March and April 2011 . Megadeth also headlined the fourth annual Rockstar Mayhem Festival in July and August the same year .
In September , the band released the DVD album Rust in Peace Live , recorded at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles . Later that month , Megadeth released " Sudden Death " for the video game Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock . The song was commissioned by the publishers of the Guitar Hero franchise , who wanted the track to feature dark lyrics and multiple guitar solos . It was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 2011 Grammy ceremony .
Megadeth returned to its own Vic 's Garage studio to record its thirteenth album , to be produced by Johnny K , because Andy Sneap , the producer of Megadeth 's previous two albums , was unavailable . The album was titled Thirteen and featured previously released tracks such as " Sudden Death " and " Never Dead " . The album was released in November 2011 , and charted at number eleven on the Billboard 200 ; its lead single " Public Enemy No. 1 " received a Grammy nomination for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance , but did not win . Shortly after the album was released , Dave Mustaine stated that , after a four @-@ year hiatus , there would be a new Gigantour tour in early 2012 . The lineup consisted of Motörhead , Volbeat , and Lacuna Coil alongside Megadeth . After the conclusion of Gigantour , Rob Zombie and Megadeth announced a nine @-@ date co @-@ headlining US tour scheduled for May 2012 .
= = = 2012 – 14 : Super Collider = = =
In September 2012 , it was announced that the band would re @-@ release Countdown to Extinction in honor of the album 's 20th anniversary . To mark the occasion , Megadeth launched a tour in which the band performed the album live in its entirety . One such performance , filmed at the Pomona Fox Theater , was released as a live album called Countdown to Extinction : Live the following year . Additionally , another track from Thirteen , " Whose Life ( Is It Anyways ? ) " , was nominated for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance at the 2013 Grammy Awards , but lost to Halestorm 's " Love Bites ( So Do I ) " .
In August , the band announced the recording of its fourteenth album with producer Johnny K. At the start of 2013 , Megadeth left Roadrunner Records for Mustaine 's newly founded label , Tradecraft , distributed through Universal Music Group . The album , Super Collider , was released in June and debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 , the band 's highest chart position since 1994 's Youthanasia . Critical reaction to the album , however , was largely negative . Shortly after the release of Super Collider , Mustaine stated that he had already started thinking about a fifteenth Megadeth album . He said this had been spurred by the death of Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman , which gave him a sense of mortality . Mustaine elaborated : " You know , time is short . Nobody knows how long they 're gonna live . You see what happened with Jeff Hanneman , so I wanna write as much as I can while I can . "
The 2013 edition of Gigantour featured Black Label Society , Hellyeah , Device , and Newsted as opening bands . At the final show , Jason Newsted , Metallica 's former bassist , joined Megadeth onstage to perform " Phantom Lord " , a song Mustaine had co @-@ written during his stint with Metallica . Early in 2014 , Megadeth was slated to play the Soundwave festival in Australia , but pulled out over a disagreement with tour promoter A. J. Maddah concerning the band 's sideshows with Newsted . Icon , an eleven @-@ song compilation of Megadeth 's Capitol @-@ era material , was released as part of Universal Music 's Icon series in February .
= = = 2014 – present : Dystopia = = =
The band encountered several setbacks through the second half of 2014 . The August concert in Tel Aviv was canceled due to an armed conflict between Israel and Gaza . Megadeth was scheduled to appear on Motörhead 's Motörboat cruise in late September , but withdrew because of Mustaine 's complications following his cervical spine surgery . In late November , Drover quit the band after ten years , wanting to pursue his own musical interests . This was quickly followed by the departure of Broderick , due to artistic and musical differences . Ellefson denied rumors that Megadeth would disband , and said he and Mustaine would continue working on new music . Lamb of God drummer Chris Adler and guitarist Kiko Loureiro of Angra performed on Megadeth 's fifteenth studio album . Mustaine said that one of the reasons for Broderick 's and Drover 's departure was the frustration caused by Megadeth 's fan base demanding a reunion with Friedman and Menza .
In October 2015 , Megadeth streamed " Fatal Illusion " off the album Dystopia , which was released in January 2016 . In support of Dystopia , Megadeth embarked on a North American tour in February and March with Suicidal Tendencies , Children of Bodom and Havok . Menza died from a heart attack in May while performing with OHM at a jazz club in Los Angeles . Mustaine announced that Adler , who performed double duty drumming , was no longer in the band because of scheduling conflicts between Megadeth and Lamb of God . He was replaced by Dirk Verbeuren from Soilwork , on Adler 's recommendation . A second US tour is planned for September and October with Amon Amarth , Suicidal Tendencies , Metal Church , and Havok .
= = Controversies = =
Mustaine has made numerous inflammatory statements in the press , usually regarding issues with former Metallica bandmates . The feud stemmed from his ejection from the band , how it was conducted , and disagreements on songwriting credits . Mustaine expressed his anger in the movie Some Kind of Monster , in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized , and that it did not represent the full extent of what happened during the meeting .
During a live performance of " Anarchy in the U.K. " at a 1988 show in Antrim , Northern Ireland , Mustaine drunkenly and confusedly dedicated the song to " the cause " of " giving Ireland back to the Irish ! " Before the final song , Mustaine said , " This one 's for the cause ! " This elicited a riot and fighting between Catholics and Protestants among the audience . The band had to travel in a bulletproof bus for the remainder of the tour of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland . Mustaine later said that he had been misled by T @-@ shirt bootleggers about the meaning of the expression " the cause " . This incident served as inspiration for the song " Holy Wars ... The Punishment Due " .
Controversial and misinterpreted lyrics have caused complications for the band . In 1988 , MTV deemed that the song " In My Darkest Hour " encouraged suicide and banned the video . The station banned the video for " À Tout le Monde " for the same reason , though Mustaine said the song was written from the perspective of a dying man saying his last words to his loved ones . According to him , MTV considered the videos for " Skin o ' My Teeth " and " Symphony of Destruction " a " little bit too harsh " and refused to play them as well .
During a world tour in 2001 , the Malaysian government canceled the band 's show in the nation 's capital because the authorities had a negative perception of the group 's image and music . The government pointed the band 's mascot Vic Rattlehead as inappropriate and told the members that they would be arrested if they performed . Dave Mustaine responded : " I recognize what the Malaysian government is trying to do , and it is admirable of them trying to protect the young people in the country . But it just shows the degree of ignorance and apathy that the government has toward the problem . "
In 2003 , after recovering from an arm injury that threatened to end his career , Mustaine became a born again Christian . Minor controversy was sparked by Mustaine 's announcement that Megadeth would not play certain songs live due to his new identification as a Christian . In May 2005 , Mustaine allegedly threatened to cancel shows in Greece and Israel with extreme metal bands Rotting Christ and Dissection due to the bands ' anti @-@ Christian beliefs . This caused the two bands to cancel appearances .
In July 2004 , Ellefson sued Mustaine for $ 18 @.@ 5 million in Manhattan Federal Court . Ellefson alleged that Mustaine short @-@ changed him on profits including tour merchandise and publishing royalties . The suit was dismissed in 2005 , and Mustaine filed a countersuit alleging that Ellefson had used the band 's name in an advertisement for musical equipment ; the suit was settled out of court .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences and style = = =
Traditional heavy metal bands such as UFO and Black Sabbath , new wave of British heavy metal ( NWOBHM ) bands such as Motörhead , Iron Maiden , and Diamond Head , and punk rock bands such as the Sex Pistols and Ramones had a significant influence on Megadeth 's sound . Hard rock bands such as AC / DC and Led Zeppelin were also influential on the group 's guitar style . Although the music has roots in punk , university professor Jason Bivins wrote that Megadeth followed the basic blueprint of Motörhead and Iron Maiden . He described the style as a mix of " the instrumental virtuosity of the NWOBHM with the speed and aggression of hardcore punk " , while also drawing lyrical inspiration from the horror @-@ obsessed punk band Misfits . Mustaine has also listed albums by the Beatles as recordings that influenced him .
Mustaine is the band 's primary songwriter . He develops songs starting with a particular riff that , with modifications , becomes the central part of the song . He has said that song fragments are composed separately , and then the band makes a compact structure from them . Drummer Shawn Drover stated that Mustaine had saved many riffs over the years and that some recent material is based on those demo recordings . Ellefson stated that the band constantly creates new material , and that making a recording begins with exchanging ideas after which the band enters the studio and discusses the concept , direction , artwork , and song titles . The lyrics are usually written after the music is arranged . Discussing the band 's lyrics , Mustaine said that many of the themes are derived from literature , such as the novels of George Orwell .
The music of Megadeth and its underground metal contemporaries from the 1980s featured harsh vocals , double bass drum patterns , staccato riffing , tremolo picking , and screeching lead guitar work ; albums from this period were produced on low budgets . After forming Megadeth , Mustaine followed the thrash metal style of his previous band , Metallica , with more emphasis on speed and intensity . Megadeth 's music is characterized by its neat instrumental performance , featuring fast rhythm sections , complex arrangements , and " snarling " vocals . When asked to describe Megadeth 's guitar style , Mustaine answered : " When you go to a show and see a guitar player who just stands there , that 's a guitar player . A thrash guitar player is a guy who plays like he wants to beat the guitar 's guts out . " Most of the songs are recorded in standard guitar tuning as Mustaine believes it to provide a superior melody to alternative methods of tuning .
During the band 's early days , Mustaine was the rhythm guitarist , while Chris Poland played lead . Although Poland performed only on Megadeth 's first two albums , music journalists Pete Prown and Harvey P. Newquist credit him with making the music more colorful because of his jazz influences . According to former Metal Maniacs editor Jeff Wagner , the band 's songwriting techniques peaked with the fourth album , Rust in Peace , which he described as a " flurry of precision and fluidity , making good on Megadeth 's claim to being the world 's state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art speed metal band " . Musicologist Glenn Pillsbury stated the guitar work on the album was a mixture of Mustaine 's " controlled chaos " and the " technical brilliance " of Marty Friedman . Studio efforts released in the mid- and late 1990s featured songs with compact structures and less complicated riffing .
Megadeth 's lyrics often focus on death , war , politics , and religion . The lyricism centers on nihilistic themes , but occasionally deals with topics such as alienation and social problems . The earliest releases featured themes such as occultism , graphic violence , and Satanism . Nuclear warfare and government conspiracy were preoccupations on albums such as Rust in Peace and Countdown to Extinction . During Megadeth 's commercial peak , Mustaine elaborated on more personal themes such as addiction and intimate relationships . For the lyrics on Cryptic Writings , Mustaine said that he wanted to write songs that had more appeal to a wider audience . The title of United Abominations is a satiric play on the name of the United Nations ; Mustaine criticized the organization 's ineffectiveness on a number of songs on that album . Later albums contained lyrics in a similar vein .
= = = Legacy = = =
Having sold over 50 million units worldwide as of 2014 , Megadeth is one of the few bands from the 1980s American underground metal scene to have achieved mass commercial success . Along with contemporaries Metallica , Slayer , and Anthrax , Megadeth is regarded as one of the core founding groups of thrash metal . These bands are often referred to as the " big four " of thrash metal , responsible for the genre 's development and popularization . Loudwire ranked Megadeth the third best thrash metal band of all time , praising the group 's " provoking lyrics and mind @-@ warping virtuosity " . CMJ New Music Report called the band 's debut album a seminal release and a representative of " the golden age of speed metal " . Similarly , Billboard called the band 's second album Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? a " landmark of the thrash movement " whose lyrics it found still relevant . MTV also recognized the band as an influential metal act , highlighting the technical aspect of the early albums .
Megadeth is considered one of the most musically influential groups that originated in the 1980s . As part of the early American thrash metal movement , the band 's music was a direct influence on death metal . Sociologist Keith Kahn @-@ Harris wrote that the mainstream success of Megadeth was one of the reasons for the expansion of extreme metal to countries where it had previously been unknown . The band 's sound and album artwork influenced a number of thrash metal bands in the 21st century , including Toxic Holocaust and Warbringer . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Megadeth has sold 9 @.@ 2 million copies of its albums in the United States between 1991 and 2014 .
= = Awards = =
Genesis Awards :
1993 : Doris Day Music Award – Countdown to Extinction
Loudwire Music Awards :
2011 : Metal Album of the Year – Thirteen
2011 : Metal Song of the Year – " Public Enemy No. 1 "
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards :
2007 : Riff Lord – Dave Mustaine
2015 : Golden God – Dave Mustaine
Revolver Golden Gods Awards :
2009 : Golden God – Dave Mustaine
= = Members = =
Dave Mustaine – lead vocals , guitar ( 1983 – 2002 , 2004 – present )
David Ellefson – bass , backing vocals ( 1983 – 2002 , 2010 – present )
Kiko Loureiro – guitar , backing vocals ( 2015 – present )
Dirk Verbeuren – drums ( 2016 – present )
= = Discography = =
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= Fears in Solitude =
Fears in Solitude , written in April 1798 , is one of the conversation poems by Samuel Taylor Coleridge . The poem was composed while France threatened to invade Great Britain . Although Coleridge was opposed to the British government , the poem sides with the British people in a patriotic defense of their homeland . The poem also emphasizes a desire to protect one 's family and to live a simple life in harmony with nature . The critical response to the poem was mixed , with some critics claiming that the work was " alarmist " and anti @-@ British .
= = Background = =
Coleridge , a radical and Jacobin , was an early supporter of the French revolution and believed that it would bring much @-@ needed political change to Europe and to Great Britain . However , the actions of the French government after the beginning of the revolution , especially their invasion of other nations , caused him to lose faith in their cause . Although Coleridge was opposed to the British government under prime minister William Pitt , he supported the British nation and the national defense when France threatened to invade Britain ; the belief held by many Britons was that France would invade the Irish kingdom , which was experiencing rebellion at the time .
These fears of an invasion manifested in April 1798 , and Britons began to arm themselves . In April , Coleridge traveled to his childhood home at Ottery and then went to visit William and Dorothy Wordsworth ; during this time Coleridge wrote " Fears in Solitude : Written in April 1798 , During the Alarm of an Invasion " . Fears in Solitude was first published in a small pamphlet collection that included Frost at Midnight and France : An Ode It was eventually printed seven times in various collections . One of the later printings of the poem , by Daniel Stuart , removed lines that directly attacked Pitt and the British government . This change reflected Coleridge 's own changing political views from radical to more conservative beliefs .
= = Poem = =
The poem begins with a Quantocks setting before moving onto politics :
A green and silent spot , amid the hills ,
A small and silent dell ! O 'er stiller place
No singing skylark ever poised himself . ( lines 1 – 3 )
The poem continues by pointing out that the best life is a simple life and that there are men that live with nature :
And he , with many feelings , many thoughts ,
Made up a meditative joy , and found
Religious meanings in the forms of Nature ! ( lines 22 – 24 )
However , some of the British are like a plague that spreads their poor behavior to other nations :
Like a cloud that travels on ,
Steamed up from Cairo 's swamps of pestilence ,
Even so , my countrymen ! have we gone forth
And borne to distant tribes slavery and pangs ,
And , deadlier far , our vices , whose deep taint
With slow perdition murders the whole man ,
His body and his soul ! ( lines 47 – 53 )
Although he attacks the corruption of British politicians , the narrator supports Britain :
O native Britain ! O my Mother Isle !
How shouldst thou prove aught else but dear and holy
To me , who from thy lakes and mountain @-@ hills ,
Thy clouds , thy quiet dales , thy rocks and seas ,
Have drunk in all my intellectual life ,
All sweet sensations , all ennobling thoughts ,
All adoration of the God in nature ,
All lovely and all honourable things ,
Whatever makes this mortal spirit feel
The joy and greatness of its future being ? ( lines 183 – 192 )
The poem ends with the narrator praising his home at Nether Stowey and nature :
And now , beloved Stowey ! I behold
Thy church @-@ tower , and , methinks , the four huge elms
Clustering , which mark the mansion of my friend ;
And close behind them , hidden from my view ,
Is my own lowly cottage , where my babe
And my babe 's mother dwell in peace ! With light
And quickened footsteps thitherward I tend ,
Remembering thee , O green and silent dell !
And grateful , that by nature 's quietness
And solitary musings , all my heart
Is softened , and made worthy to indulge
Love , and the thoughts that yearn for human kind ( lines 222 – 233 )
= = Themes = =
The politics within the poem emphasizes the problems within British politics and expresses Coleridge 's views that the conservatives were warmongering and that there was corruption within the government . Although he feels this way , he still feels loyalty to the country and wants the British to be safe regardless of their problems . His other poem on the same topic , France : an Ode , describes how his view about the French revolution changed over time , especially with France 's invasion of Switzerland .
The images of the poem operate in a circular pattern , and the poem begins and ends with the Stowey dell where Coleridge lived . The peaceful home at the beginning is a parallel to the " Valley of Seclusion " in Coleridge 's Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement , which is a quiet place that allows for a pleasant life . The ideas about nature also found in " The Eolian Harp " are brought up , following Coleridge 's familiar Plotinian view . The poem also includes Coleridge 's views on the unity of mankind and nature and the fear that an invasion would destroy this unity . To safeguard it , the narrator protects his family and the dell , along with the rest of Britain . There is also an emphasis on simple living , and the poem 's conclusion , a return to the dell , represents a return of Coleridge to his own family .
The gothic elements of the poem connect it to many of his other works , including The Rime of the Ancient Mariner , " Ballad of the Dark Ladie " , France : An Ode , Frost at Midnight , The Nightingale , " Three Graves " , and " Wanderings of Cain " .
= = Critical response = =
A letter sent to Coleridge from his friends Robert and Edith Southey described the poem as " beautiful " . There were four contemporary reviews of the original pamphlet collection including Fears in Solitude . The Critical Review believed that the poetry expressed alarmism . The British Critic thought he was anti @-@ Britain . A review in the December Monthly Visitor emphasized the " beautiful lines " starting with line 129 until the end . Another review , in the January 1799 Monthly Mirror , claims , " The author 's Fears are , perhaps , not highly honourable to his feelings as a Briton , nor very complimentary to the national character . "
The Victorian poet Algernon Charles Swinburne , in the Preface to the 1875 edition of Christabel , argues ,
Compare the nerveless and hysterical verses headed ' Fears in Solitude ' ( exquisite as is the overture , faultless in tone and colour , and worthy of a better sequel ) with the majestic and masculine sonnet of Wordsworth [ ... ] for , great as he is , I at least cannot hold Wordsworth , though so much the stronger and more admirable man , equal to Coleridge as a mere poet – speaks with a calm force of thought and resolution ; Coleridge wails , appeals , deprecates , objurgates in a flaccid and querulous fashion without heart or spirit . This debility of mind and manner is set off in strong relief by the loveliness of landscape touches in the same poem .
In a September 1889 Fortnightly Review article called " Coleridge as a Poet " , Edward Dowden writes , " Coleridge still declaims against the sins of England , and protests against the mad idolatry of national wrong @-@ doing [ ... ] yet utters himself before the close with all the filial loyalty of a true son of England , and he declares in a noble strain of eloquence how the foundations of his patriotism have been laid in the domestic affections " .
During the 20th @-@ century , Virginia Radley points out that " The most serious charge that can be brought against the poem is that it is not poetry as Coleridge generally conceived poetry to be . In fact , it is the one poem in this group that may mean but is not [ ... ] Like ' France ' too , the poem suffers from a lack of ' heart ' . " George Watson declares that the poem " shows how precarious Coleridge 's new achievement was . It is a shameless return to the older , effusive manner , evidently written in a white heat of patriotic indignation against the degradation of English public opinion during the French wars , and it is only by stretching charity that it can be considered a conversation poem at all . "
Following this , Geoffrey Yarlott states , " though disproportionate in qualities of thought and feeling ( and one of the less successful therefore of the major ' annus mirabilis ' poems ) , [ Fears in Solitude ] exemplifies the problems Coleridge had to wrestle with in assimilating didacticism to the requirements of poetic organization . " Richard Holmes claims Fears in Solitude as " one of the most difficult of [ Coleridge 's ] Conversation Poems " . The ending , to Holmes , is " evoked with the magic , pastoral power of a Samuel Palmer picture " .
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= Polikarpov ITP =
The Polikarpov ITP ( Istrebitel Tyazholiy Pushechniy ; Russian : Истребитель Тяжелый Пушечный ; Heavy Cannon Fighter ) was a Soviet fighter prototype designed during World War II . Development was prolonged by the evacuation of the design bureau forced by the German advance on Moscow in the fall of 1941 . By the time the second prototype was finished the Soviets had fighters with equivalent or better performance already in production and the program was cancelled .
= = Development = =
In November 1940 , Nikolai Polikarpov proposed a heavy cannon @-@ armed fighter for bomber escort duties and ground attack missions . The new ITP was designed around either the 1 @,@ 230 kW ( 1 @,@ 650 hp ) Klimov M @-@ 107P or the Mikulin AM @-@ 37 inline engines . Two armament configurations were planned . The first consisted of a 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) cannon firing through the propeller hub and two synchronized 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon mounted on each side of the fuselage nose . The 37 mm cannon was provided with 50 rounds and the ShVAK had 200 rounds each . The second configuration substituted an additional ShVAK with 200 rounds for the 37 mm cannon . It had racks for eight unguided RS @-@ 82 rockets underneath the wings .
The ITP was a low @-@ wing , mixed construction monoplane with a wooden monocoque fuselage made from ' shpon ' , molded birch plywood . The two @-@ spar metal wing was built in three sections with automatic leading edge slats . The engine radiators were built into the wing center section with intakes in the wing roots while the oil cooler was located under the engine . The curved , one @-@ piece windshield lacked a flat front panel which gave the pilot a rather distorted view . The conventional undercarriage , including the tailwheel , was fully retractable . It carried 624 litres ( 137 imp gal ; 165 US gal ) of fuel in tanks between the spars of the wing center section . The rear fuselage , cockpit and tail resembled that of the Polikarpov I @-@ 185 .
The first ITP prototype ( M @-@ 1 ) was completed in October 1941 with a 1 @,@ 300 @-@ horsepower ( 970 kW ) M @-@ 107P engine . Due to German attacks , the aircraft was evacuated to Novosibirsk and did not make its first flight until 23 February 1942 . The M @-@ 107P engine proved unreliable and was changed to a M @-@ 107A in late 1942 . The 37 mm gun was deleted in exchange for another 20 mm gun mounted on the side of the fuselage . Flight testing was not completed because the airframe was used for ground static testing , but the estimated maximum speed at 6 @,@ 300 metres ( 20 @,@ 669 ft ) was 655 km / h ( 407 mph ) with a time to 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) of 5 @.@ 9 minutes .
The second ITP prototype ( M @-@ 2 ) was built in 1942 and fitted with a Mikulin AM @-@ 37 engine which also proved unreliable and was replaced with a 1 @,@ 345 kW ( 1 @,@ 800 hp ) Mikulin AM @-@ 39 that December . It first flew on 23 November 1943 but the manufacturer 's flight tests were not completed until June 1944 . Since several other aircraft with about the same level of performance were already available , it was not placed into production .
= = Specifications ( M @-@ 2 ) = =
Data from Gordon , Soviet Airpower in World War 2
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 9 @.@ 2 m ( 30 ft 2 in )
Wingspan : 10 m ( 32 ft 10 in )
Wing area : 16 @.@ 5 m2 ( 178 sq ft )
Empty weight : 2 @,@ 910 kg ( 6 @,@ 415 lb )
Gross weight : 3 @,@ 570 kg ( 7 @,@ 871 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × Mikulin AM @-@ 39 liquid @-@ cooled V @-@ 12 , 1 @,@ 268 kW ( 1 @,@ 700 hp )
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed
Performance
Range : 980 km ( 609 mi ; 529 nmi )
Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 500 m ( 37 @,@ 730 ft )
Time to altitude : six minutes to 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft )
Wing loading : 216 kg / m2 ( 44 lb / sq ft )
Armament
Guns : 3 × 20 mm ShVAK cannons , 200 rpg
Rockets : 8 × unguided RS @-@ 82
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= César Cielo =
César Cielo Filho ( Portuguese pronunciation : [ ˈsɛzɐɾ si.ˈelu ˈfiʎu ] , born 10 January 1987 ) is a Brazilian competitive swimmer who specializes in sprint events . He is the most successful Brazilian swimmer in history , having obtained three Olympic medals , winning six individual World Championship gold medals and breaking two world records .
Cielo is the current world record holder in the 100 @-@ metre and 50 @-@ metre freestyle ( long course ) . His gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics , in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle competition , is Brazil 's only Olympic gold in swimming to date . In 2008 , he broke the NCAA record in the 50 @-@ yard ( 46 m ) freestyle ( 18 @.@ 47 seconds ) and in the 100 @-@ yard ( 91 m ) freestyle ( 40 @.@ 92 seconds ) . Cielo became the fastest swimmer in the world in the two distances , and was named NCAA Swimmer of the Year for the second year in a row .
= = Early life = =
César Cielo was born on January 10 , 1987 in Santa Bárbara d 'Oeste , São Paulo , Brazil . The son of pediatrician César Cielo and physical education teacher Flávia Cielo , Cielo began his athletic career at small swimming clubs in his native state . As a young teenager , Cielo trained under coach Mario Francisco Sobrinho at the Esporte Clube Barbarense , where his mother taught swimming . When he was 13 , Cielo started training in Piracicaba at the Clube de Campo de Piracicaba under coach Reinaldo Rosa . At 16 years old , he transferred to Esporte Clube Pinheiros in São Paulo to train under coach Alberto Silva and Brazilian swimming legend Gustavo Borges . As a gift while at Esporte Clube Pinheiros , he received the swimsuit used by Borges in Athens 2004 .
Cielo was a childhood friend of André Schultz . When Cielo was a child , his father formed a group to organize and encourage swimming at Esporte Clube Barbarense . Werner Schultz , André Schultz 's father , also belonged to the group . They began to create competitions and take the boys on trips . At one point , there were 500 people practicing swimming at the club , in a city , which almost 20 years later , has less than 200 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Werner Schultz constructed a swimming pool with two Olympic lanes in the courtyard of his house , where Cielo used to train . Since childhood , Cielo could not bear to lose . Maria Schultz , mother of André Schultz , said , " He could not bear to lose . Several American coaches say this : that good swimmers like to win , and exceptional not afford to lose . Such is the case of Cesão . " Cielo was so eager for victory that during the 1996 Summer Olympics , at nine years old , he was already studying his main reference , Russian Alexander Popov , through videos , noting details like his starts ( block outputs ) and turnarounds .
Cielo started competing in backstroke . In the region at the time , Guilherme Guido stood out as the opponent to beat . Guido defeated Cielo repeatedly in freestyle , while Cielo won the backstroke events . However , at a certain point , Guido began to lose to freestyle opponents , and began competing in backstroke events . He defeated Cielo , who then decided not swim backstroke anymore . At age 15 , Cielo attended a series of trainings in Florida , USA , and returned home , willing to defeat Guido . When Cielo and Guido were reunited in a 100m freestyle contest , Guido fell behind and lost . From then on , Guido focused on backstroke , reversing positions with Cielo .
= = Collegiate career = =
In 2005 , Cielo received a scholarship from Auburn University in the United States . He studied international trade with a specialization in Spanish . While there , Cielo competed for the eight @-@ time NCAA National Champion Auburn Tigers swimming and diving team . At Auburn , he was trained by Brett Hawke , an Australian Olympic finalist swimmer in Athens . Hawke helped Cielo with his last months of preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Cielo was also tutored by short @-@ distance specialist Fernando Scherer in 2008 . At Auburn , Cielo 's scholarship contract was very strict , prohibiting him from drinking alcohol or taking girlfriends on a night out .
Cielo holds the NCAA and U.S. Open record for the 50 @-@ yard ( 46 m ) freestyle , set at the 2008 NCAA Division 1 Swimming and Diving Championships . At Auburn , Cielo won six National Championship events , including sweeping the 50 and 100 freestyle championships in 2007 . Cielo gave up his fourth and final year of NCAA eligibility to become a professional swimmer .
= = International career = =
= = = 2004 Short Course Swimming Championships = = =
Cielo participated in his first major international tournament , the 2004 FINA World Swimming Championships ( 25 m ) , in the city of Indianapolis , in October 2004 . At the age of 17 , he won the silver medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle event . On a team with Guilherme Guido , Kaio Almeida and Eduardo Fischer , he finished 4th in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley , breaking the South American record with a time of 3 : 33 @.@ 02 . He also finished 6th in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , 10th in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , and 19th in the 50 @-@ metre backstroke .
= = = 2006 – 2007 = = =
Cielo competed in the 2006 FINA World Swimming Championships ( 25 m ) in Shanghai , where he finished 5th in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( only 17 hundredths of a second away from winning a medal ) and in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle events . He also competed in the 4 × 200 @-@ metre freestyle , where he broke the South American record with a time of 7 : 06 : 09 , along with Rodrigo Castro , Thiago Pereira and Lucas Salatta . In December , he began to stand out on the national scene , by breaking the South American record of Fernando Scherer in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 48 @.@ 69 seconds ) which had stood since 1998 . Cielo 's time was 48 @.@ 61 seconds , beating the record by 0 @.@ 08 seconds . At that moment , Cielo 's was the fourth fastest time in the 2006 world ranking .
Afterward , Cielo went to the 2006 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Victoria , Canada , where he finished 6th in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , 7th in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , 7th in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley , and was disqualified at the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle .
Cielo was a finalist in the 2007 World Aquatics Championships in Melbourne , in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 4th place , only 4 hundredths behind Eamon Sullivan , the bronze medalist , and 8 hundredths behind gold medalists Filippo Magnini and Brent Hayden ) , 50 @-@ metre freestyle ( 6th ) and 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 8th ) . He also took 9th place in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley . At that time , Cielo had established himself as the fastest Brazilian sprinter , by breaking the Fernando Scherer 's South American record in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle . In that event 's semifinal , Cielo swam for 22 @.@ 09 seconds , improving on Fernando Scherer 's time , from in August 1998 , by nine hundredths of a second . He also broke his South American record in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 48 @.@ 51 seconds , and the South American record of the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 3 : 17 @.@ 03 , on a team with Thiago Pereira , Nicolas Oliveira and Rodrigo Castro .
At the 2007 Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro , Cielo won three gold medals in the 50 @-@ metre , 100 @-@ metre , and 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle events , and a silver medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley . In the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , he won the event with a time of 21 @.@ 84 seconds , beating the Pan American Games record , and becoming the first swimmer from South America to swim it in under 22 seconds . Cielo began to get close to the world record in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , a time of 21 @.@ 64 seconds , which at the time belonged to legendary swimmer Alexander Popov . He also broke the Pan Am Games and South American record in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 3 : 15 @.@ 90 , along with Fernando Silva , Eduardo Deboni and Nicolas Oliveira . It the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , he broke the Pan Am Games record with his time of 48 @.@ 79 seconds , and in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley , he broke the South American record with a time of 3 : 35 @.@ 81 , along with Thiago Pereira , Henrique Barbosa and Kaio Almeida .
In November 2007 , at the Italy Grand Prix , Cielo broke the short @-@ course South American record for the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 47 @.@ 00 seconds .
= = = 2008 = = =
In February 2008 , at the Missouri Grand Prix , Cielo improved his South American record in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 48 @.@ 49 seconds . In April , at the Ohio Grand Prix , he broke the record again , with a time of 48 @.@ 34 seconds , also defeating Michael Phelps .
A month before the Olympics , in July 2008 , he broke his South American record in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 21 @.@ 75 seconds .
Afterward , Cielo went to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , where he broke the Americas record in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle heats , with a time of 47 @.@ 91 seconds . Although the Brazilian team was disqualified , Cielo 's record was allowed to stand . In the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , Cielo qualified for the final , taking eighth place in the heats , with a time of 48 @.@ 07 seconds . Cielo excelled in the early part of the first semifinal , making his turn in second place , at 22 @.@ 62 seconds , but finishing fifth . In the final , Cielo adopted a different tactic , turning third , slower ( 22 @.@ 74 seconds ) than in the semifinals , and saving energy for the finish , which resulted in his winning the bronze medal and breaking the South American record with a time of 47 @.@ 67 seconds ( tied with American swimmer Jason Lezak ) . Alain Bernard won the gold medal and Eamon Sullivan won the silver . Shortly after winning the bronze medal , Cielo gave a statement to the Brazilian press , stating categorically : " Now I 'm going to win the 50m " . In the 50 @-@ metre freestyle event , Cielo set the Olympic record , that Alexander Popov had set in the 1992 Summer Olympics , during the heats ( 21 @.@ 47 seconds , equaling Garrett Weber @-@ Gale 's Americas record ) and in the semifinals ( 21 @.@ 34 seconds ) . He lowered this further in the finals , again breaking the Olympic record with a time of 21 @.@ 30 seconds , winning the gold medal and missing the world record by 0 @.@ 02 seconds . With this , he became the first Brazilian Olympic swimming champion . Until Cielo 's Olympic gold , the best Brazilian Olympic swimming result had been obtained by Ricardo Prado , who won the silver medal in the 400 @-@ metre individual medley at the 1984 Summer Olympics , and previously Gustavo Borges , who won the silver medal in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle at the 1992 Summer Olympics and in the 200 @-@ metre freestyle at the 1996 Summer Olympics .
After the Olympics , in October , in the first stage of the 2008 FINA Swimming World Cup , held in Belo Horizonte , Brazil , Cielo equaled the short @-@ course South American record in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 21 @.@ 32 seconds .
= = = 2009 = = =
Cielo trained at the Esporte Clube Pinheiros until 2009 . He worked with Coach Albertinho at Pinheiros from 15 to 22 years old . On May 2009 , Cielo broke the South American record in the 50 @-@ metre butterfly , but the record lasted only a few minutes . Cielo achieved a time of 23 @.@ 49 seconds competing for the Maria Lenk Trophy but , in the next heat , Guilherme Roth swam a time of 23 @.@ 46 seconds and established a new continental record . In the final , Cielo regained the record with a time of 23 @.@ 42 seconds . In the same competition , he broke the South American record for the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 47 @.@ 60 seconds .
At the 2009 US World Championship Trials in Indianapolis , Cielo swam a time of 21 @.@ 14 seconds in the B final of the 50 @-@ metre freestyle ( the A final was limited to Americans ) . His time was the fastest time among all competitors , and set a new Americas record . It was also the 2nd fastest time in the event 's history , 0 @.@ 20 seconds behind Frédérick Bousquet 's world record .
At the 2009 World Aquatics Championships in Rome , Cielo led the Brazilian 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay team to a 4th @-@ place finish , along with Nicolas Oliveira , Guilherme Roth and Fernando Silva . In this event , he opened with a time of 47 @.@ 39 seconds in the heats ( a South American and Championship record ) and a time of 47 @.@ 09 seconds in the final , only 0 @.@ 04 seconds from beating Eamon Sullivan 's world record , and earning the second fastest time in the history of the 100 @-@ metre freestyle . In the 100 @-@ metre freestyle final , the Brazilian swimmer won the gold medal , defeating the Olympic champion Alain Bernard and breaking the world record with a time of 46 @.@ 91 seconds , entering into the select pantheon of swimmers who won an Olympic gold , a World Championships gold , and a World Record . In the 50 @-@ metre freestyle final , Cielo defeated world record holder Frédérick Bousquet and won the gold medal with a time of 21 @.@ 08 seconds , beating the competition record and the Americas record . Cielo became the third swimmer to achieve this feat in a single World Championship , after Anthony Ervin and Alexander Popov . Popov , Ervin , and Cielo each won Olympic and World Championship gold medals in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle in succession . When he finished the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley , a contest where the first four relays in the race beat the US world record from the 2008 Summer Olympics , Cielo led Brazil to fourth place , along with Guilherme Guido , Henrique Barbosa and Gabriel Mangabeira , very close to winning the event 's bronze and silver medals . His two gold medals at the World Championships led Brazil to the best performance in the history of the competition .
Cielo became the sixth Brazilian to achieve a world record in the long course , after Maria Lenk , Manuel dos Santos , José Fiolo , Ricardo Prado and Felipe França . It was the 13th world record made by a Brazilian swimmer .
On 18 December 2009 , in São Paulo , Cielo broke the world record in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 20 @.@ 91 seconds , at a championship hosted at Esporte Clube Pinheiros , his club in Brazil and where he had trained since 2003 . It was the last official event allowing the use of super @-@ suits in Brazil . A day later , he established the best time in the world , 1 : 26 @.@ 12 , in the 4 × 50 @-@ metre freestyle . The time was not considered a world record because this event is not part of the Olympics and World Championships .
= = = 2010 = = =
In 2010 , Cielo changed clubs . He began the year receiving proposals from several teams in Brazil and elsewhere , but he chose to sign with Flamengo , under the chairmanship of former swimmer Patrícia Amorim , with a mission to contribute to the strengthening of swimming in Rio de Janeiro and other big Brazilian clubs . On June 27 , 2010 , he became the first swimmer in the world to break the Alexander Popov 's world record in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , without the help of technological swimsuits . He earned a time of 21 @.@ 55 seconds , wearing only shorts , and won the Paris Open .
At the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Irvine , California , the Brazilian started by winning a gold in the 50 @-@ metre butterfly , beating the championship record . He hoped to also win gold in the 50 @-@ metre and 100 @-@ metre freestyle , but settled for silver in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , and bronze in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle . When interviewed after the contest , Cielo said there could have been some flaw in his training program , resulting in a lack of stamina .
In September 2010 , at the Jose Finkel Trophy , Cielo broke the short @-@ course South American record for the 100 @-@ metre freestyle twice : first with a time of 46 @.@ 13 seconds in the semifinal , and again with 45 @.@ 87 seconds in the final .
At the December 2010 FINA Short Course World Swimming Championships in Dubai , Cielo , along with Nicholas Santos , Nicolas Oliveira and Marcelo Chierighini , won the bronze medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 3 : 05 @.@ 74 , setting a South American record and leaving behind the US team . In the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , Cielo twice broke the Americas record , earning 20 @.@ 61 seconds in the heats , and winning the gold medal with a time of 20 @.@ 51 seconds , a new Americas and Championship record , just 0 @.@ 21 seconds slower than Roland Schoeman 's world record . ( Schoeman broke the world record using super @-@ suit technology in 2009 , when it was still allowed , while Cielo made his time without a super @-@ suit . ) His time became the third fastest of any ever achieved in the event , and a world textile best . In the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , Cielo also won the gold with a time of 45 @.@ 74 seconds , a South American and championship record . With that , Cielo , at 23 years old , managed to unify the world titles of the two events : the 50 @-@ metre and the 100 @-@ metre freestyle in both the long and short courses . Completing his participation in the Short Course Worlds , Cielo led the Brazilian 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley relay team of Guilherme Guido , Felipe França Silva and Kaio de Almeida to win the bronze medal . The team broke the South American record with a time of 3 : 23 @.@ 12 .
= = = 2011 = = =
In May 2011 , Cielo tested positive for the banned substance furosemide . Furosemide is a diuretic often used to help lose weight but it is also a masking agent which may hide the presence of other drugs . Cielo was one of four Brazilian swimmers who tested positive for the substance and was given a warning by Brazil 's national swimming federation . Cielo claimed the positive drug test was a result of a cross @-@ contamination . FINA appealed Cielo 's case to the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) and CAS upheld the warning for Cielo . CAS claimed that a caffeine supplement had been contaminated , causing the failed drug test . CAS was convinced that the furosemide found was not aimed at improving athletic performance or masking the use of some other performance @-@ enhancing substance .
The CAS decision allowed Cielo to compete in the 2011 World Aquatics Championships in Shanghai , as he was cleared to compete three days before the competition began . This generated controversy among other competitors . Notably , Kenyan swimmer Jason Dunford flashed a " thumbs down " to the audience after Cielo 's win in the 50 @-@ metre butterfly ( Dunford finished seventh in the race ) .
Further controversy followed when Cielo made a slit @-@ eyed gesture into the cameras after winning the 50 meter freestyle . The gesture was called " insensitive and offensive " towards the Chinese hosts .
At the 2011 World Aquatics Championships in Shanghai , Cielo won the gold medal in the 50 @-@ metre butterfly with a time of 23 @.@ 10 seconds . Days later in the same competition , Cielo won a second gold medal in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle . In the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , Cielo earned a time of 48 @.@ 01 seconds , the best time of his life without the use of technological swimsuits , but ended in the fourth position , one @-@ hundredth of a second away from winning a bronze and six hundredths away from silver . The winner of the 100 @-@ metre freestyle was James Magnussen , an Australian who surprised the world a few days earlier with his time of 47 @.@ 49 seconds in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle .
At the 2011 Pan American Games in Guadalajara , Cielo won four gold medals : in the 50 and 100 @-@ metre freestyle , and in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle and medley relay . He broke the Pan @-@ American record in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle ( 21 @.@ 58 seconds ) , the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 47 @.@ 84 seconds ) , and in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 3 : 14 @.@ 65 ) . His highlight for the competition was his time of 47 @.@ 84 seconds in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , the best time of his life without the use of a technological swimsuit .
In 2011 , Cielo announced the creation of P.R.O. 16 – the " Going for 2016 Gold " Project . The initiative , designed to serve as Brazilian swimming 's " elite squad " , gathered Cielo , who would be leading the project , and six other swimmers – André Schultz , Leonardo de Deus , Nicholas Santos , Henrique Rodrigues , Tales Cerdeira and Vinicius Waked – all selected for potential medals in the 2016 Summer Olympics , in Rio de Janeiro . The idea would be to prepare the swimmers also for the main competition in the coming years . For two years , the innovative program , which proposed a system of high level training without relying on the infrastructure of big clubs , worked . But the difficulty of finding sponsors and the change of attitude of the clubs made the training group lose almost all its members . In 2013 , Cielo was the only one left in the project , but highlighted its continuity , with changes in the project , receiving new members and getting new sponsors .
= = = 2012 = = =
On April 25 , 2012 , participating in the Maria Lenk Trophy in Rio de Janeiro , Cielo finished the 50 @-@ metre freestyle race in 21 @.@ 38 seconds , earning the best time of the year in the event , and getting close to the best time in the event 's history without using super @-@ suits ( 21 @.@ 36 seconds made by Frédérick Bousquet ) . A day later , he broke the Americas record for the 50 @-@ metre butterfly , with a time of 22 @.@ 76 seconds beating the previous record , 22 @.@ 87 seconds set by Nicholas Santos . It was a world textile best .
At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Cielo finished 6th in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 47 @.@ 92 seconds . The gold went to Nathan Adrian ( 47 @.@ 52 seconds ) , followed by James Magnussen ( 47 @.@ 53 seconds ) and Brent Hayden ( 47 @.@ 80 seconds ) . At the 50 @-@ metre mark , Cielo had the fastest split with a time of 22 @.@ 60 seconds . In the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , where Cielo was the favorite to win gold , he ranked first in the semifinal , tied with Cullen Jones , with a time of 21 @.@ 54 seconds . But in the final , he finished with a worse time than in the semifinal round , but managed to earn his third Olympic medal , a bronze , with a time of 21 @.@ 59 seconds . The winner was Frenchman Florent Manaudou with a time of 21 @.@ 34 seconds . Cielo 's Olympic record of 21 @.@ 30 seconds set in 2008 still held .
On August 20 , at the Jose Finkel Trophy in São Paulo , Cielo broke the short @-@ course South American record in the 4 × 50 @-@ metre freestyle , with a time of 1 : 25 @.@ 28 .
At the end of the year , Cielo had an operation on both knees . Since 2007 , the Brazilian had suffered patellar tendinopathy in both knees . Cielo was in constant pain , and the injury started to hurt his training and performance . The nadir was at the 2012 London Olympics , where Cielo was already struggling at the start . In September , he had an operation on the patellar tendon . " He had a chronic wear of the patellar tendon , which generated an inflammatory process that bothered him greatly . In London , Cielo has lost much of the leg muscles because this inflammatory process . He came to lose two inches in circumference on each leg for a period of ten days . As the inflamed knee , he lost output quality . An output was once the best in the world ended up much like those of their adversaries " said Gustavo Magliocca , Cielo 's doctor .
= = = 2013 = = =
The new leadership of Flamengo , elected in 2012 , decided not to follow Amorim 's plans , and Cielo left the club in 2013 . In February 2013 , American Scott Goodrich took over Cielo 's training . Under a contract until the end of 2016 , Albertinho was the next head coach of the group .
In April 2013 , Cielo confirmed his place in the 2013 World Aquatics Championships , in Barcelona , in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , with the second best time in the world of the year : 21 @.@ 57 seconds . He also qualified for the 50 @-@ metre butterfly . Due to his operation in both knees , Cielo did not compete in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle and the Brazilian relays . In the competition , Cielo became two @-@ time World Champion of the 50 @-@ metre butterfly . The semifinals were the strongest stage of the race , with five swimmers earning times below 23 seconds . Cielo went to the final in second place with a time of 22 @.@ 86 seconds , behind his compatriot Nicholas Santos . In the final , the athletes ' performance was not the same , but Cielo showed more consistency and won the gold with a time of 23 @.@ 01 seconds . In the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , Cielo reached the final with the third fastest time , 21 @.@ 60 seconds , tied with Nathan Adrian . Florent Manaudou and Anthony Ervin qualified for the final as favorites , with strong times of 21 @.@ 37 and 21 @.@ 42 seconds respectively , in the second semifinal . But , in a final with a high technical level in which three Olympic champions ( Manaudou , Cielo and Ervin ) were competing , Cielo earned the best time of his life without a high @-@ tech suit ( and an unofficial world fastest time swum in textile ) , 21 @.@ 32 seconds , becoming the first three @-@ time World Champion of the event . Manaudou and Ervin did not even reach the podium . It was Cielo 's sixth gold medal in individual events at the World Championships . With this result , Cielo overcame Alexander Popov and became the sprinter with more individual golds in World Championship history . Only four male swimmers have won more gold individual medals in World Championships than Cielo : Aaron Peirsol ( 7 ) , Grant Hackett ( 7 ) , Ryan Lochte ( 9 ) and Michael Phelps ( 15 ) . Regarding his gold medal in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , Cielo assured his fans that it was the most important gold of his career , declaring at the World Championships : " It was certainly different from all others . Each medal has a different feeling . This was the most special of my life . From London , all I had to overcome ... it was very exciting " . Cielo 's results were considered a " redemption " , because of low expectations entering the 2013 World Championships due to the troubled period following the London Olympics , when he underwent surgery on both knees , left his club and changed his coach .
= = = 2014 = = =
On April 23 , 2014 , participating in the Maria Lenk Trophy competition in São Paulo , Cielo finished the 50 @-@ metre freestyle race in 21 @.@ 39 seconds , earning the best time of the year in the event . Two days later , he won the 50 @-@ metre butterfly with a time of 23 @.@ 01 , also a world @-@ leading time . On April 26 , he won the 100 @-@ metre freestyle with a time of 48 @.@ 13 , third in the world rankings behind only James Magnussen ( 47 @.@ 59 ) and Cameron McEvoy ( 47 @.@ 65 ) .
On September 3 , 2014 , participating in the José Finkel Trophy ( short course ) competition in Guaratinguetá , Cielo finished the 50 @-@ metre freestyle race in 20 @.@ 68 seconds , earning the best time of the year in the event . Three days later , he won the 100 @-@ metre freestyle with a time of 46 @.@ 08 , also a world @-@ leading time . On September 5 , he finished second in the 50 @-@ metre butterfly with a time of 22 @.@ 46 , third in the world rankings behind only Chad Le Clos and Nicholas Santos
At the 2014 FINA World Swimming Championships ( 25 m ) in Doha , Qatar , Cielo won three gold and two bronze medals , into the best Brazilian participation of all time , where the country won the competition for the first time . In the Men 's 4 × 50 metre medley relay , formed by Cielo , Felipe França , Nicholas Santos and Guilherme Guido , considered the " Dream Team " by Cielo himself ( formed only by medalists or world champions in their respective individual events ) , Brazil won the gold shattering the world record with a time of 1 : 30 @.@ 51 . In the Men 's 50 metre freestyle , Cielo went to the final in first place with a time of 20 @.@ 80 seconds , but in the final , he had problems with his start and at the turn , finishing with a time of 20 @.@ 88 and getting the bronze . His rival , the French Florent Manaudou , won the gold beating the world record . Cielo also helped the Brazilian 4 × 50 metre mixed freestyle relay ( formed by Cielo , João de Lucca , Etiene Medeiros and Larissa Oliveira ) to win the bronze medal , beating the South American record with a time of 1 : 29 @.@ 17 , only 4 hundredths of Russia , which won the silver medal . In this race , Cielo opened with a time of 20 @.@ 65 , showing that could have done a better time in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle final . On the last day of the competition , Cielo won the rematch against Manaudou , in the Men 's 100 metre freestyle , where Manaudou was also favorite , but was defeated by Cielo , who won the gold with a time of 45 @.@ 75 . Cielo also closed the competition with a flourish , leading the Brazilian quartet to an unprecedented gold in the traditional Men 's 4 × 100 metre medley relay , with a time of 3 : 21 @.@ 14 , South American record . Cielo took the relay in fourth place and surpassed everyone with an incredible split time of 44 @.@ 67 .
= = = 2015 = = =
Cielo didn 't participate in the 2015 Pan American Games in Toronto , Canada , targeting the World Championships , who would happen after some days .
At the 2015 World Aquatics Championships in Kazan , Brazil finished 4th in the Men 's 4 × 100 metre freestyle , in a relay composed by Bruno Fratus , Marcelo Chierighini , Matheus Santana and João de Lucca . César Cielo didn 't swim in the final - despite being a participant in the championship , he was suffering with shoulder pain . According to the doctor of the Brazilian Aquatic Sports Confederation ( CBDA ) , Gustavo Magliocca , Cielo had an inflammation of the supraspinatus tendon . The injury is considered common in the athletes , and it was being treated with physiotherapy . Due to the problem , in the Men 's 50 metre butterfly , Cielo struggled though the heats and the semifinals , but slumped to 6th in the final . On August 5 , Cielo left the competition due to the increase of his injury .
= = = 2016 = = =
In April 2016 , at the Maria Lenk Trophy , held in Rio de Janeiro , Cielo failed to qualify for the 2016 Summer Olympics . In the 100 @-@ metre freestyle , Cielo swam 48 @.@ 97 in the heats and chose not to participate in the final . Thus , Cielo finished with the seventh time in Brazil , and was officially off the 4 × 100 free . In the 50 @-@ metre freestyle , Cielo won the heats with 21 @.@ 99 , staying temporarily with the Brazil 's second vacancy . However , in the final , Ítalo Duarte finished second , with a time of 21 @.@ 82 . Cielo finished third , with a time of 21 @.@ 91 . Brazil 's Olympic vacancies were with Bruno Fratus and Ítalo Duarte .
= = Personal = =
Cielo dated Priscila Machado , Miss Brasil 2011 , for eight months . In October 2012 , he was photographed with his new girlfriend , model Kelly Gisch . Cielo married Gisch , and their son , Thomas , was born in September 2015 .
Alongside his career in the sport , Cielo is also a businessman , schedules other athletes and manages since December 2010 a restaurant called Original da Granja , located in São Paulo , which guarantees sponsorships .
= = Career best times = =
= = = Long course ( 50 meter pool ) = = =
= = = Short course ( 25 meter pool ) = = =
= = Records progression = =
= = = Long course ( 50 meter pool ) = = =
50m freestyle
100m freestyle
r = relay lead @-@ off
50m butterfly
4 × 100 m freestyle
4 × 100 m medley
= = = Short course ( 25 meter pool ) = = =
50m freestyle
100m freestyle
4 × 100 m freestyle
4 × 200 m freestyle
4 × 100 m medley
= = Honors and awards = =
Cielo has received the following awards :
NCAA Swimmer of the Year : 2007 , 2008 .
Prêmio Brasil Olímpico : 2008 , 2009 , 2011 . In 2010 he was elected best swimmer of the year . Cielo competed for the Prêmio Brasil Olímpico award against Murilo Endres ( volleyball ) and Leandro Guilheiro ( judo ) ; Endres was elected the winner . In 2013 he was elected best swimmer of the year . Cielo competed for the Prêmio Brasil Olímpico award against Arthur Zanetti ( artistic gymnastics ) and Jorge Zarif ( sailing ) ; Zarif was elected the winner .
Cielo was recognized by Época magazine as one of the 100 most influential Brazilians in 2008 , 2009 , 2011 , 2013 and 2014
Prêmio Faz Diferença ( " Makes Difference " Award ) – O Globo newspaper : 2009 .
Best Ibero @-@ American athlete of 2009 .
Best athlete of the decade by " Sport Life " magazine .
= = Achievements = =
= = = Olympic Games = = =
Beijing Olympics ( China ) :
Men 's 50 m freestyle gold medal ( OR ) .
Men 's 100 m freestyle bronze medal .
London Olympics ( England ) :
Men 's 50 m freestyle bronze medal .
= = = FINA World Championships = = =
FINA World Championships 2009 in Rome ( Italy ) :
Men 's 100 m freestyle gold medal ( WR ) .
Men 's 50 m freestyle gold medal ( CR ) .
( 4th ) Men 's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay .
( 4th ) Men 's 4 × 100 m medley relay .
FINA Short Course World Championships 2010 in Dubai ( UAE ) :
Men 's 100 m freestyle gold medal ( CR ) .
Men 's 50 m freestyle gold medal ( CR ) .
Men 's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay bronze medal .
Men 's 4 × 100 m medley relay bronze medal .
FINA World Championships 2011 in Shanghai ( China ) :
Men 's 50 m butterfly gold medal .
Men 's 50 m freestyle gold medal .
( 4th ) Men 's 100 m freestyle .
FINA World Championships 2013 in Barcelona ( Spain ) :
Men 's 50 m butterfly gold medal .
Men 's 50 m freestyle gold medal .
FINA Short Course World Championships 2014 in Doha ( Qatar ) :
Men 's 100 m freestyle gold medal .
Men 's 4 × 50 m medley relay gold medal ( WR ) .
Men 's 4 × 100 m medley relay gold medal .
Men 's 50 m freestyle bronze medal .
Men 's 4 × 50 m mixed freestyle relay bronze medal .
|
= Fish =
A fish is any member of a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill @-@ bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits . Included in this definition are the living hagfish , lampreys , and cartilaginous and bony fish , as well as various extinct related groups . Most fish are ectothermic ( " cold @-@ blooded " ) , allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change , though some of the large active swimmers like white shark and tuna can hold a higher core temperature . Fish are abundant in most bodies of water . They can be found in nearly all aquatic environments , from high mountain streams ( e.g. , char and gudgeon ) to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans ( e.g. , gulpers and anglerfish ) . With 33 @,@ 100 described species , fish exhibit greater species diversity than any other group of vertebrates .
Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide , especially as food . Commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries ( see fishing ) or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean ( see aquaculture ) . They are also caught by recreational fishers , kept as pets , raised by fishkeepers , and exhibited in public aquaria . Fish have had a role in culture through the ages , serving as deities , religious symbols , and as the subjects of art , books and movies .
Because the term " fish " is defined negatively , and excludes the tetrapods ( i.e. , the amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals ) which descend from within the same ancestry , it is paraphyletic , and is not considered a proper grouping in systematic biology . The traditional term pisces ( also ichthyes ) is considered a typological , but not a phylogenetic classification .
The earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft @-@ bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period . Although they lacked a true spine , they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts . Fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era , diversifying into a wide variety of forms . Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators . The first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period , after which many ( such as sharks ) became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods .
= = Evolution = =
Fish do not represent a monophyletic group , and therefore the " evolution of fish " is not studied as a single event .
Early fish from the fossil record are represented by a group of small , jawless , armored fish known as ostracoderms . Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct . An extant clade , the lampreys may approximate ancient pre @-@ jawed fish . The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils . The diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth . It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force , improved respiration , or a combination of factors .
Fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral @-@ like Sea squirt , whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways . The first ancestors of fish may have kept the larval form into adulthood ( as some sea squirts do today ) , although perhaps the reverse is the case .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Fish are a paraphyletic group : that is , any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods , which are not fish . For this reason , groups such as the " Class Pisces " seen in older reference works are no longer used in formal classifications .
Traditional classification divide fish into three extant classes , and with extinct forms sometimes classified within the tree , sometimes as their own classes :
Class Agnatha ( jawless fish )
Subclass Cyclostomata ( hagfish and lampreys )
Subclass Ostracodermi ( armoured jawless fish ) †
Class Chondrichthyes ( cartilaginous fish )
Subclass Elasmobranchii ( sharks and rays )
Subclass Holocephali ( chimaeras and extinct relatives )
Class Placodermi ( armoured fish ) †
Class Acanthodii ( " spiny sharks " , sometimes classified under bony fishes ) †
Class Osteichthyes ( bony fish )
Subclass Actinopterygii ( ray finned fishes )
Subclass Sarcopterygii ( fleshy finned fishes , ancestors of tetrapods )
The above scheme is the one most commonly encountered in non @-@ specialist and general works . Many of the above groups are paraphyletic , in that they have given rise to successive groups : Agnathans are ancestral to Chondrichthyes , who again have given rise to Acanthodiians , the ancestors of Osteichthyes . With the arrival of phylogenetic nomenclature , the fishes has been split up into a more detailed scheme , with the following major groups :
Class Myxini ( hagfish )
Class Pteraspidomorphi † ( early jawless fish )
Class Thelodonti †
Class Anaspida †
Class Petromyzontida or Hyperoartia
Petromyzontidae ( lampreys )
Class Conodonta ( conodonts ) †
Class Cephalaspidomorphi † ( early jawless fish )
( unranked ) Galeaspida †
( unranked ) Pituriaspida †
( unranked ) Osteostraci †
Infraphylum Gnathostomata ( jawed vertebrates )
Class Placodermi † ( armoured fish )
Class Chondrichthyes ( cartilaginous fish )
Class Acanthodii † ( spiny sharks )
Superclass Osteichthyes ( bony fish )
Class Actinopterygii ( ray @-@ finned fish )
Subclass Chondrostei
Order Acipenseriformes ( sturgeons and paddlefishes )
Order Polypteriformes ( reedfishes and bichirs ) .
Subclass Neopterygii
Infraclass Holostei ( gars and bowfins )
Infraclass Teleostei ( many orders of common fish )
Class Sarcopterygii ( lobe @-@ finned fish )
Subclass Actinistia ( coelacanths )
Subclass Dipnoi ( lungfish )
† – indicates extinct taxon
Some palaeontologists contend that because Conodonta are chordates , they are primitive fish . For a fuller treatment of this taxonomy , see the vertebrate article .
The position of hagfish in the phylum Chordata is not settled . Phylogenetic research in 1998 and 1999 supported the idea that the hagfish and the lampreys form a natural group , the Cyclostomata , that is a sister group of the Gnathostomata .
The various fish groups account for more than half of vertebrate species . There are almost 28 @,@ 000 known extant species , of which almost 27 @,@ 000 are bony fish , with 970 sharks , rays , and chimeras and about 108 hagfish and lampreys . A third of these species fall within the nine largest families ; from largest to smallest , these families are Cyprinidae , Gobiidae , Cichlidae , Characidae , Loricariidae , Balitoridae , Serranidae , Labridae , and Scorpaenidae . About 64 families are monotypic , containing only one species . The final total of extant species may grow to exceed 32 @,@ 500 .
= = Diversity = =
The term " fish " most precisely describes any non @-@ tetrapod craniate ( i.e. an animal with a skull and in most cases a backbone ) that has gills throughout life and whose limbs , if any , are in the shape of fins . Unlike groupings such as birds or mammals , fish are not a single clade but a paraphyletic collection of taxa , including hagfishes , lampreys , sharks and rays , ray @-@ finned fish , coelacanths , and lungfish . Indeed , lungfish and coelacanths are closer relatives of tetrapods ( such as mammals , birds , amphibians , etc . ) than of other fish such as ray @-@ finned fish or sharks , so the last common ancestor of all fish is also an ancestor to tetrapods . As paraphyletic groups are no longer recognised in modern systematic biology , the use of the term " fish " as a biological group must be avoided .
Many types of aquatic animals commonly referred to as " fish " are not fish in the sense given above ; examples include shellfish , cuttlefish , starfish , crayfish and jellyfish . In earlier times , even biologists did not make a distinction – sixteenth century natural historians classified also seals , whales , amphibians , crocodiles , even hippopotamuses , as well as a host of aquatic invertebrates , as fish . However , according to the definition above , all mammals , including cetaceans like whales and dolphins , are not fish . In some contexts , especially in aquaculture , the true fish are referred to as finfish ( or fin fish ) to distinguish them from these other animals .
A typical fish is ectothermic , has a streamlined body for rapid swimming , extracts oxygen from water using gills or uses an accessory breathing organ to breathe atmospheric oxygen , has two sets of paired fins , usually one or two ( rarely three ) dorsal fins , an anal fin , and a tail fin , has jaws , has skin that is usually covered with scales , and lays eggs .
Each criterion has exceptions . Tuna , swordfish , and some species of sharks show some warm @-@ blooded adaptations — they can heat their bodies significantly above ambient water temperature . Streamlining and swimming performance varies from fish such as tuna , salmon , and jacks that can cover 10 – 20 body @-@ lengths per second to species such as eels and rays that swim no more than 0 @.@ 5 body @-@ lengths per second . Many groups of freshwater fish extract oxygen from the air as well as from the water using a variety of different structures . Lungfish have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods , gouramis have a structure called the labyrinth organ that performs a similar function , while many catfish , such as corydoras extract oxygen via the intestine or stomach . Body shape and the arrangement of the fins is highly variable , covering such seemingly un @-@ fishlike forms as seahorses , pufferfish , anglerfish , and gulpers . Similarly , the surface of the skin may be naked ( as in moray eels ) , or covered with scales of a variety of different types usually defined as placoid ( typical of sharks and rays ) , cosmoid ( fossil lungfish and coelacanths ) , ganoid ( various fossil fish but also living gars and bichirs ) , cycloid , and ctenoid ( these last two are found on most bony fish ) . There are even fish that live mostly on land . Mudskippers feed and interact with one another on mudflats and go underwater to hide in their burrows . The catfish Phreatobius cisternarum lives in underground , phreatic habitats , and a relative lives in waterlogged leaf litter .
Fish range in size from the huge 16 @-@ metre ( 52 ft ) whale shark to the tiny 8 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) stout infantfish .
Fish species diversity is roughly divided equally between marine ( oceanic ) and freshwater ecosystems . Coral reefs in the Indo @-@ Pacific constitute the center of diversity for marine fishes , whereas continental freshwater fishes are most diverse in large river basins of tropical rainforests , especially the Amazon , Congo , and Mekong basins . More than 5 @,@ 600 fish species inhabit Neotropical freshwaters alone , such that Neotropical fishes represent about 10 % of all vertebrate species on the Earth . Exceptionally rich sites in the Amazon basin , such as Cantão State Park , can contain more freshwater fish species than occur in all of Europe .
= = Anatomy = =
= = = Respiration = = =
= = = = Gills = = = =
Most fish exchange gases using gills on either side of the pharynx . Gills consist of threadlike structures called filaments . Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide . Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen @-@ rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills . In some fish , capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water , causing countercurrent exchange . The gills push the oxygen @-@ poor water out through openings in the sides of the pharynx . Some fish , like sharks and lampreys , possess multiple gill openings . However , bony fish have a single gill opening on each side . This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called an operculum .
Juvenile bichirs have external gills , a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians .
= = = = Air breathing = = = =
Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended periods . Amphibious fish such as the mudskipper can live and move about on land for up to several days , or live in stagnant or otherwise oxygen depleted water . Many such fish can breathe air via a variety of mechanisms . The skin of anguillid eels may absorb oxygen directly . The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air . Catfish of the families Loricariidae , Callichthyidae , and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts . Lungfish , with the exception of the Australian lungfish , and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills . Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way . Loaches , trahiras , and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut . Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin ( similar to frogs ) . A number of fish have evolved so @-@ called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air . Labyrinth fish ( such as gouramis and bettas ) have a labyrinth organ above the gills that performs this function . A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function , most notably snakeheads , pikeheads , and the Clariidae catfish family .
Breathing air is primarily of use to fish that inhabit shallow , seasonally variable waters where the water 's oxygen concentration may seasonally decline . Fish dependent solely on dissolved oxygen , such as perch and cichlids , quickly suffocate , while air @-@ breathers survive for much longer , in some cases in water that is little more than wet mud . At the most extreme , some air @-@ breathing fish are able to survive in damp burrows for weeks without water , entering a state of aestivation ( summertime hibernation ) until water returns .
Air breathing fish can be divided into obligate air breathers and facultative air breathers . Obligate air breathers , such as the African lungfish , must breathe air periodically or they suffocate . Facultative air breathers , such as the catfish Hypostomus plecostomus , only breathe air if they need to and will otherwise rely on their gills for oxygen . Most air breathing fish are facultative air breathers that avoid the energetic cost of rising to the surface and the fitness cost of exposure to surface predators .
= = = Circulation = = =
Fish have a closed @-@ loop circulatory system . The heart pumps the blood in a single loop throughout the body . In most fish , the heart consists of four parts , including two chambers and an entrance and exit . The first part is the sinus venosus , a thin @-@ walled sac that collects blood from the fish 's veins before allowing it to flow to the second part , the atrium , which is a large muscular chamber . The atrium serves as a one @-@ way antechamber , sends blood to the third part , ventricle . The ventricle is another thick @-@ walled , muscular chamber and it pumps the blood , first to the fourth part , bulbus arteriosus , a large tube , and then out of the heart . The bulbus arteriosus connects to the aorta , through which blood flows to the gills for oxygenation .
= = = Digestion = = =
Jaws allow fish to eat a wide variety of food , including plants and other organisms . Fish ingest food through the mouth and break it down in the esophagus . In the stomach , food is further digested and , in many fish , processed in finger @-@ shaped pouches called pyloric caeca , which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients . Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract . The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption .
= = = Excretion = = =
As with many aquatic animals , most fish release their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia . Some of the wastes diffuse through the gills . Blood wastes are filtered by the kidneys .
Saltwater fish tend to lose water because of osmosis . Their kidneys return water to the body . The reverse happens in freshwater fish : they tend to gain water osmotically . Their kidneys produce dilute urine for excretion . Some fish have specially adapted kidneys that vary in function , allowing them to move from freshwater to saltwater .
= = = Scales = = =
The scales of fish originate from the mesoderm ( skin ) ; they may be similar in structure to teeth .
= = = Sensory and nervous system = = =
= = = = Central nervous system = = = =
Fish typically have quite small brains relative to body size compared with other vertebrates , typically one @-@ fifteenth the brain mass of a similarly sized bird or mammal . However , some fish have relatively large brains , most notably mormyrids and sharks , which have brains about as massive relative to body weight as birds and marsupials .
Fish brains are divided into several regions . At the front are the olfactory lobes , a pair of structures that receive and process signals from the nostrils via the two olfactory nerves . The olfactory lobes are very large in fish that hunt primarily by smell , such as hagfish , sharks , and catfish . Behind the olfactory lobes is the two @-@ lobed telencephalon , the structural equivalent to the cerebrum in higher vertebrates . In fish the telencephalon is concerned mostly with olfaction . Together these structures form the forebrain .
Connecting the forebrain to the midbrain is the diencephalon ( in the diagram , this structure is below the optic lobes and consequently not visible ) . The diencephalon performs functions associated with hormones and homeostasis . The pineal body lies just above the diencephalon . This structure detects light , maintains circadian rhythms , and controls color changes .
The midbrain or mesencephalon contains the two optic lobes . These are very large in species that hunt by sight , such as rainbow trout and cichlids .
The hindbrain or metencephalon is particularly involved in swimming and balance . The cerebellum is a single @-@ lobed structure that is typically the biggest part of the brain . Hagfish and lampreys have relatively small cerebellae , while the mormyrid cerebellum is massive and apparently involved in their electrical sense .
The brain stem or myelencephalon is the brain 's posterior . As well as controlling some muscles and body organs , in bony fish at least , the brain stem governs respiration and osmoregulation .
= = = = Sense organs = = = =
Most fish possess highly developed sense organs . Nearly all daylight fish have color vision that is at least as good as a human 's ( see vision in fishes ) . Many fish also have chemoreceptors that are responsible for extraordinary senses of taste and smell . Although they have ears , many fish may not hear very well . Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system , which detects gentle currents and vibrations , and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey . Some fish , such as catfish and sharks , have organs that detect weak electric currents on the order of millivolt . Other fish , like the South American electric fishes Gymnotiformes , can produce weak electric currents , which they use in navigation and social communication .
Fish orient themselves using landmarks and may use mental maps based on multiple landmarks or symbols . Fish behavior in mazes reveals that they possess spatial memory and visual discrimination .
= = = = = Vision = = = = =
Vision is an important sensory system for most species of fish . Fish eyes are similar to those of terrestrial vertebrates like birds and mammals , but have a more spherical lens . Their retinas generally have both rods and cones ( for scotopic and photopic vision ) , and most species have colour vision . Some fish can see ultraviolet and some can see polarized light . Amongst jawless fish , the lamprey has well @-@ developed eyes , while the hagfish has only primitive eyespots . Fish vision shows adaptation to their visual environment , for example deep sea fishes have eyes suited to the dark environment .
= = = = = Hearing = = = = =
Hearing is an important sensory system for most species of fish . Fish sense sound using their lateral lines and their ears .
= = = = Capacity for pain = = = =
Experiments done by William Tavolga provide evidence that fish have pain and fear responses . For instance , in Tavolga 's experiments , toadfish grunted when electrically shocked and over time they came to grunt at the mere sight of an electrode .
In 2003 , Scottish scientists at the University of Edinburgh and the Roslin Institute concluded that rainbow trout exhibit behaviors often associated with pain in other animals . Bee venom and acetic acid injected into the lips resulted in fish rocking their bodies and rubbing their lips along the sides and floors of their tanks , which the researchers concluded were attempts to relieve pain , similar to what mammals would do . Neurons fired in a pattern resembling human neuronal patterns .
Professor James D. Rose of the University of Wyoming claimed the study was flawed since it did not provide proof that fish possess " conscious awareness , particularly a kind of awareness that is meaningfully like ours " . Rose argues that since fish brains are so different from human brains , fish are probably not conscious in the manner humans are , so that reactions similar to human reactions to pain instead have other causes . Rose had published a study a year earlier arguing that fish cannot feel pain because their brains lack a neocortex . However , animal behaviorist Temple Grandin argues that fish could still have consciousness without a neocortex because " different species can use different brain structures and systems to handle the same functions . "
Animal welfare advocates raise concerns about the possible suffering of fish caused by angling . Some countries , such as Germany have banned specific types of fishing , and the British RSPCA now formally prosecutes individuals who are cruel to fish .
= = = Muscular system = = =
Most fish move by alternately contracting paired sets of muscles on either side of the backbone . These contractions form S @-@ shaped curves that move down the body . As each curve reaches the back fin , backward force is applied to the water , and in conjunction with the fins , moves the fish forward . The fish 's fins function like an airplane 's flaps . Fins also increase the tail 's surface area , increasing speed . The streamlined body of the fish decreases the amount of friction from the water . Since body tissue is denser than water , fish must compensate for the difference or they will sink . Many bony fish have an internal organ called a swim bladder that adjusts their buoyancy through manipulation of gases .
= = = Homeothermy = = =
Although most fish are exclusively ectothermic , there are exceptions .
Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures . Endothermic teleosts ( bony fish ) are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the billfishes , tunas , and one species of " primitive " mackerel ( Gasterochisma melampus ) . All sharks in the family Lamnidae – shortfin mako , long fin mako , white , porbeagle , and salmon shark – are endothermic , and evidence suggests the trait exists in family Alopiidae ( thresher sharks ) . The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish , which warm only their eyes and brain , to bluefin tuna and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 ° C above ambient water temperatures . See also gigantothermy . Endothermy , though metabolically costly , is thought to provide advantages such as increased muscle strength , higher rates of central nervous system processing , and higher rates of digestion .
= = = Reproductive system = = =
Fish reproductive organs include testicles and ovaries . In most species , gonads are paired organs of similar size , which can be partially or totally fused . There may also be a range of secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness .
In terms of spermatogonia distribution , the structure of teleosts testes has two types : in the most common , spermatogonia occur all along the seminiferous tubules , while in atherinomorph fish they are confined to the distal portion of these structures . Fish can present cystic or semi @-@ cystic spermatogenesis in relation to the release phase of germ cells in cysts to the seminiferous tubules lumen .
Fish ovaries may be of three types : gymnovarian , secondary gymnovarian or cystovarian . In the first type , the oocytes are released directly into the coelomic cavity and then enter the ostium , then through the oviduct and are eliminated . Secondary gymnovarian ovaries shed ova into the coelom from which they go directly into the oviduct . In the third type , the oocytes are conveyed to the exterior through the oviduct . Gymnovaries are the primitive condition found in lungfish , sturgeon , and bowfin . Cystovaries characterize most teleosts , where the ovary lumen has continuity with the oviduct . Secondary gymnovaries are found in salmonids and a few other teleosts .
Oogonia development in teleosts fish varies according to the group , and the determination of oogenesis dynamics allows the understanding of maturation and fertilization processes . Changes in the nucleus , ooplasm , and the surrounding layers characterize the oocyte maturation process .
Postovulatory follicles are structures formed after oocyte release ; they do not have endocrine function , present a wide irregular lumen , and are rapidly reabsorbed in a process involving the apoptosis of follicular cells . A degenerative process called follicular atresia reabsorbs vitellogenic oocytes not spawned . This process can also occur , but less frequently , in oocytes in other development stages .
Some fish , like the California sheephead , are hermaphrodites , having both testes and ovaries either at different phases in their life cycle or , as in hamlets , have them simultaneously .
Over 97 % of all known fish are oviparous , that is , the eggs develop outside the mother 's body . Examples of oviparous fish include salmon , goldfish , cichlids , tuna , and eels . In the majority of these species , fertilisation takes place outside the mother 's body , with the male and female fish shedding their gametes into the surrounding water . However , a few oviparous fish practice internal fertilization , with the male using some sort of intromittent organ to deliver sperm into the genital opening of the female , most notably the oviparous sharks , such as the horn shark , and oviparous rays , such as skates . In these cases , the male is equipped with a pair of modified pelvic fins known as claspers .
Marine fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column . The eggs have an average diameter of 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) .
The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae . They are usually poorly formed , carry a large yolk sac ( for nourishment ) , and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens . The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short ( usually only several weeks ) , and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure ( a process termed metamorphosis ) to become juveniles . During this transition larvae must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey , a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density , starving many larvae .
In ovoviviparous fish the eggs develop inside the mother 's body after internal fertilization but receive little or no nourishment directly from the mother , depending instead on the yolk . Each embryo develops in its own egg . Familiar examples of ovoviviparous fish include guppies , angel sharks , and coelacanths .
Some species of fish are viviparous . In such species the mother retains the eggs and nourishes the embryos . Typically , viviparous fish have a structure analogous to the placenta seen in mammals connecting the mother 's blood supply with that of the embryo . Examples of viviparous fish include the surf @-@ perches , splitfins , and lemon shark . Some viviparous fish exhibit oophagy , in which the developing embryos eat other eggs produced by the mother . This has been observed primarily among sharks , such as the shortfin mako and porbeagle , but is known for a few bony fish as well , such as the halfbeak Nomorhamphus ebrardtii . Intrauterine cannibalism is an even more unusual mode of vivipary , in which the largest embryos eat weaker and smaller siblings . This behavior is also most commonly found among sharks , such as the grey nurse shark , but has also been reported for Nomorhamphus ebrardtii .
Aquarists commonly refer to ovoviviparous and viviparous fish as livebearers .
= = Diseases = =
Like other animals , fish suffer from diseases and parasites . To prevent disease they have a variety of defenses . Non @-@ specific defenses include the skin and scales , as well as the mucus layer secreted by the epidermis that traps and inhibits the growth of microorganisms . If pathogens breach these defenses , fish can develop an inflammatory response that increases blood flow to the infected region and delivers white blood cells that attempt to destroy pathogens . Specific defenses respond to particular pathogens recognised by the fish 's body , i.e. , an immune response . In recent years , vaccines have become widely used in aquaculture and also with ornamental fish , for example furunculosis vaccines in farmed salmon and koi herpes virus in koi .
Some species use cleaner fish to remove external parasites . The best known of these are the Bluestreak cleaner wrasses of the genus Labroides found on coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans . These small fish maintain so @-@ called " cleaning stations " where other fish congregate and perform specific movements to attract the attention of the cleaners . Cleaning behaviors have been observed in a number of fish groups , including an interesting case between two cichlids of the same genus , Etroplus maculatus , the cleaner , and the much larger Etroplus suratensis .
= = = Immune system = = =
Immune organs vary by type of fish . In the jawless fish ( lampreys and hagfish ) , true lymphoid organs are absent . These fish rely on regions of lymphoid tissue within other organs to produce immune cells . For example , erythrocytes , macrophages and plasma cells are produced in the anterior kidney ( or pronephros ) and some areas of the gut ( where granulocytes mature . ) They resemble primitive bone marrow in hagfish . Cartilaginous fish ( sharks and rays ) have a more advanced immune system . They have three specialized organs that are unique to Chondrichthyes ; the epigonal organs ( lymphoid tissue similar to mammalian bone ) that surround the gonads , the Leydig 's organ within the walls of their esophagus , and a spiral valve in their intestine . These organs house typical immune cells ( granulocytes , lymphocytes and plasma cells ) . They also possess an identifiable thymus and a well @-@ developed spleen ( their most important immune organ ) where various lymphocytes , plasma cells and macrophages develop and are stored . Chondrostean fish ( sturgeons , paddlefish , and bichirs ) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the meninges ( membranes surrounding the central nervous system . ) Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes , reticular cells and a small number of macrophages . The chondrostean kidney is an important hemopoietic organ ; where erythrocytes , granulocytes , lymphocytes and macrophages develop .
Like chondrostean fish , the major immune tissues of bony fish ( or teleostei ) include the kidney ( especially the anterior kidney ) , which houses many different immune cells . In addition , teleost fish possess a thymus , spleen and scattered immune areas within mucosal tissues ( e.g. in the skin , gills , gut and gonads ) . Much like the mammalian immune system , teleost erythrocytes , neutrophils and granulocytes are believed to reside in the spleen whereas lymphocytes are the major cell type found in the thymus . In 2006 , a lymphatic system similar to that in mammals was described in one species of teleost fish , the zebrafish . Although not confirmed as yet , this system presumably will be where naive ( unstimulated ) T cells accumulate while waiting to encounter an antigen .
B and T lymphocytes bearing immunoglobulins and T cell receptors , respectively , are found in all jawed fishes . Indeed , the adaptive immune system as a whole evolved in an ancestor of all jawed vertebrate .
= = Conservation = =
The 2006 IUCN Red List names 1 @,@ 173 fish species that are threatened with extinction . Included are species such as Atlantic cod , Devil 's Hole pupfish , coelacanths , and great white sharks . Because fish live underwater they are more difficult to study than terrestrial animals and plants , and information about fish populations is often lacking . However , freshwater fish seem particularly threatened because they often live in relatively small water bodies . For example , the Devil 's Hole pupfish occupies only a single 3 by 6 metres ( 10 by 20 ft ) pool .
= = = Overfishing = = =
Overfishing is a major threat to edible fish such as cod and tuna . Overfishing eventually causes population ( known as stock ) collapse because the survivors cannot produce enough young to replace those removed . Such commercial extinction does not mean that the species is extinct , merely that it can no longer sustain a fishery .
One well @-@ studied example of fishery collapse is the Pacific sardine Sadinops sagax caerulues fishery off the California coast . From a 1937 peak of 790 @,@ 000 long tons ( 800 @,@ 000 t ) the catch steadily declined to only 24 @,@ 000 long tons ( 24 @,@ 000 t ) in 1968 , after which the fishery was no longer economically viable .
The main tension between fisheries science and the fishing industry is that the two groups have different views on the resiliency of fisheries to intensive fishing . In places such as Scotland , Newfoundland , and Alaska the fishing industry is a major employer , so governments are predisposed to support it . On the other hand , scientists and conservationists push for stringent protection , warning that many stocks could be wiped out within fifty years .
= = = Habitat destruction = = =
A key stress on both freshwater and marine ecosystems is habitat degradation including water pollution , the building of dams , removal of water for use by humans , and the introduction of exotic species . An example of a fish that has become endangered because of habitat change is the pallid sturgeon , a North American freshwater fish that lives in rivers damaged by human activity .
= = = Exotic species = = =
Introduction of non @-@ native species has occurred in many habitats . One of the best studied examples is the introduction of Nile perch into Lake Victoria in the 1960s . Nile perch gradually exterminated the lake 's 500 endemic cichlid species . Some of them survive now in captive breeding programmes , but others are probably extinct . Carp , snakeheads , tilapia , European perch , brown trout , rainbow trout , and sea lampreys are other examples of fish that have caused problems by being introduced into alien environments .
= = Importance to humans = =
= = = Economic importance = = =
Throughout history , humans have utilized fish as a food source . Historically and today , most fish protein has come by means of catching wild fish . However , aquaculture , or fish farming , which has been practiced since about 3 @,@ 500 BCE. in China , is becoming increasingly important in many nations . Overall , about one @-@ sixth of the world 's protein is estimated to be provided by fish . That proportion is considerably elevated in some developing nations and regions heavily dependent on the sea . In a similar manner , fish have been tied to trade .
Catching fish for the purpose of food or sport is known as fishing , while the organized effort by humans to catch fish is called a fishery . Fisheries are a huge global business and provide income for millions of people . The annual yield from all fisheries worldwide is about 154 million tons , with popular species including herring , cod , anchovy , tuna , flounder , and salmon . However , the term fishery is broadly applied , and includes more organisms than just fish , such as mollusks and crustaceans , which are often called " fish " when used as food .
= = = Recreation = = =
Fish have been recognized as a source of beauty for almost as long as used for food , appearing in cave art , being raised as ornamental fish in ponds , and displayed in aquariums in homes , offices , or public settings .
Recreational fishing is fishing for pleasure or competition ; it can be contrasted with commercial fishing , which is fishing for profit . The most common form of recreational fishing is done with a rod , reel , line , hooks and any one of a wide range of baits . Angling is a method of fishing , specifically the practice of catching fish by means of an " angle " ( hook ) . Anglers must select the right hook , cast accurately , and retrieve at the right speed while considering water and weather conditions , species , fish response , time of the day , and other factors .
= = = Culture = = =
Fish feature prominently in art and literature , in movies such as Finding Nemo and books such as The Old Man and the Sea . Large fish , particularly sharks , have frequently been the subject of horror movies and thrillers , most notably the novel Jaws , which spawned a series of films of the same name that in turn inspired similar films or parodies such as Shark Tale and Snakehead Terror . Piranhas are shown in a similar light to sharks in films such as Piranha ; however , contrary to popular belief , the red @-@ bellied piranha is actually a generally timid scavenger species that is unlikely to harm humans . In the Book of Jonah a " great fish " swallowed Jonah the Prophet . Legends of half @-@ human , half @-@ fish mermaids have featured in folklore , like the stories of Hans Christian Andersen .
Fish themes have symbolic significance in many religions . The fish is used often as a symbol by Christians to represent Jesus , or Christianity in general ; the gospels also refer to " fishers of men " and feeding the multitude . In the dhamma of Buddhism the fish symbolize happiness as they have complete freedom of movement in the water . Often drawn in the form of carp which are regarded in the Orient as sacred on account of their elegant beauty , size and life @-@ span . Among the deities said to take the form of a fish are Ika @-@ Roa of the Polynesians , Dagon of various ancient Semitic peoples , the shark @-@ gods of Hawaiʻi and Matsya of the Hindus .
The astrological symbol Pisces is based on a constellation of the same name , but there is also a second fish constellation in the night sky , Piscis Austrinus .
= = Terminology = =
= = = Shoal or school = = =
A random assemblage of fish merely using some localised resource such as food or nesting sites is known simply as an aggregation . When fish come together in an interactive , social grouping , then they may be forming either a shoal or a school depending on the degree of organisation . A shoal is a loosely organised group where each fish swims and forages independently but is attracted to other members of the group and adjusts its behaviour , such as swimming speed , so that it remains close to the other members of the group . Schools of fish are much more tightly organised , synchronising their swimming so that all fish move at the same speed and in the same direction . Shoaling and schooling behaviour is believed to provide a variety of advantages .
Examples :
Cichlids congregating at lekking sites form an aggregation .
Many minnows and characins form shoals .
Anchovies , herrings and silversides are classic examples of schooling fish .
While the words " school " and " shoal " have different meanings within biology , they are often treated as synonyms by non @-@ specialists , with speakers of British English using " shoal " to describe any grouping of fish , and speakers of American English often using " school " just as loosely .
= = = Fish or fishes = = =
Though often used interchangeably , in biology these words have different meanings . Fish is used as a singular noun , or as a plural to describe multiple individuals from a single species . Fishes is used to describe different species or species groups . Thus a pond that contained a single species might be said to contain 120 fish . But if the pond contained a total of 120 fish from three different species , it would be said to contain three fishes . The distinction is similar to that between people and peoples .
= = = Finfish = = =
In biology , the term fish is most strictly used to describe any animal with a backbone that has gills throughout life and has limbs , if any , in the shape of fins . Many types of aquatic animals with common names ending in " fish " are not fish in this sense ; examples include shellfish , cuttlefish , starfish , crayfish and jellyfish . In earlier times , even biologists did not make a distinction — sixteenth century natural historians classified also seals , whales , amphibians , crocodiles , even hippopotamuses , as well as a host of aquatic invertebrates , as fish .
In fisheries , the term fish is used as a collective term , and includes mollusks , crustaceans and any aquatic animal which is harvested .
The strict biological definition of a fish , above , is sometimes called a true fish . True fish are also referred to as finfish or fin fish to distinguish them from other aquatic life harvested in fisheries or aquaculture .
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= Peter Heywood =
Peter Heywood ( 6 June 1772 – 10 February 1831 ) was a British naval officer who was on board HMS Bounty during the mutiny of 28 April 1789 . He was later captured in Tahiti , tried and condemned to death as a mutineer , but subsequently pardoned . He resumed his naval career and eventually retired with the rank of post @-@ captain , after 29 years of honourable service .
The son of a prominent Isle of Man family with strong naval connections , Heywood joined Bounty under Lieutenant William Bligh at the age of 15 and , although unranked was given the privileges of a junior officer . Bounty left England in 1787 on a mission to collect and transport breadfruit from the Pacific , and arrived in Tahiti late in 1788 . Relations between Bligh and certain of his officers , notably Fletcher Christian , became strained , and worsened during the five months that Bounty remained in Tahiti .
Shortly after the ship began its homeward voyage Christian and his discontented followers seized Bligh and took control of the vessel . Bligh and 18 loyalists were set adrift in an open boat ; Heywood was among those who remained with Bounty . Later , he and 15 others left the ship and settled in Tahiti , while Bounty sailed on , ending its voyage at Pitcairn Island . Bligh , after an epic open @-@ boat journey , eventually reached England , where he implicated Heywood as one of the mutiny 's prime instigators . In 1791 Heywood and his companions were captured in Tahiti by the search vessel HMS Pandora , and held in irons for transportation to England . The subsequent journey was prolonged and eventful ; Pandora was wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef , four of Heywood 's fellow prisoners were drowned , and Heywood himself was fortunate to survive .
In September 1792 Heywood was court @-@ martialed and with five others was sentenced to hang . However , the court recommended mercy for Heywood , and King George III pardoned him . In a rapid change of fortune he found himself favoured by senior officers , and after the resumption of his career received a series of promotions that gave him his first command at the age of 27 and made him a post @-@ captain at 31 . He remained in the navy until 1816 , building a respectable career as a hydrographer , and then enjoyed a long and peaceful retirement . The extent of Heywood 's true guilt in the mutiny has been clouded by contradictory statements and possible false testimony . During his trial powerful family connections worked on his behalf , and he later benefited from the Christian family 's generally fruitful efforts to demean Bligh 's character and present the mutiny as an understandable reaction to an unbearable tyranny . Contemporary press reports , and more recent commentators , have contrasted Heywood 's pardon with the fate of his fellow prisoners who were hanged , all lower @-@ deck sailors without wealth or family influence .
= = Family background and early life = =
Peter Heywood was born in 1772 at The Nunnery , in Douglas , Isle of Man . He was the fifth of the 11 children ( six boys and five girls ) of Peter John Heywood and his wife Elizabeth Spedding . The Heywood ancestry can be traced back to the 12th century ; a prominent forebear was Peter " Powderplot " Heywood , who arrested Guy Fawkes after the 1605 plot to blow up the English parliament . On his mother 's side Peter was distantly related to Fletcher Christian 's family , which had been established on the Isle of Man for centuries . In 1773 , when Peter was a year old , Peter John Heywood was forced by a financial crisis to sell The Nunnery and leave the island . The family lived for several years on the British mainland in Whitehaven before the father 's appointment as agent for the Duke of Atholl 's Manx properties brought them back to Douglas .
There was a tradition in the family of naval and military service , and in 1786 , when he was 14 , Heywood left St Bees School on the mainland to join HMS Powerful , a harbour @-@ bound training vessel at Plymouth . In August 1787 Heywood was offered a berth on the Bounty , for an extended cruise to the Pacific Ocean under the command of Lieutenant William Bligh . Heywood 's recommendation came from Richard Betham , a family friend who was also Bligh 's father @-@ in @-@ law . The Heywood family at this time was in deep financial trouble , Peter John Heywood having been dismissed by the Duke for gross mismanagement and embezzlement of funds . Betham wrote to Bligh : " his Family have fallen into a great deal of Distress on account of their father losing the Duke of Atholl 's business " , and urged Bligh not to desert them in their adversity . Bligh was happy to oblige his father @-@ in @-@ law , and invited the young Heywood to stay with him in Deptford while the ship was prepared for the forthcoming voyage .
= = On HMS Bounty = =
= = = Outward journey = = =
Bounty 's mission was to collect breadfruit plants from Tahiti , for transportation to the West Indies as a new source of food for the slave plantations . Bligh , a skilled navigator , had travelled to Tahiti in 1776 , as Captain James Cook 's sailing master during the explorer 's final voyage . Bounty was a small vessel , 91 feet ( 28 m ) in overall length , with a complement of 46 men crammed into limited accommodation . Heywood was one of several " young gentlemen " aboard ship who were mustered as able seamen but ate and slept with their social equals in the cockpit . His distant kinsman Fletcher Christian served as master 's mate on the voyage . Bligh 's orders were to enter the Pacific by rounding Cape Horn . After collecting sufficient breadfruit plants from the Tahitian islands he was to sail westward , through the Endeavour Strait and across the Indian Ocean . Entering the Atlantic he would continue on to the West Indies , incidentally completing a circumnavigation .
Bounty left London on 15 October 1787 , and after being held at Spithead awaiting final sailing orders was further delayed by bad weather ; it was 23 December before the ship was finally away . This long hiatus caused Bounty to arrive at Cape Horn much later in the season than planned and to encounter very severe weather . Unable to make progress against westerly gales and enormous seas , Bligh finally turned the ship and headed east . He would now have to take the alternative , much longer route to the Pacific , sailing first to Cape Town and then south of Australia and New Zealand , before working northwards to Tahiti .
Following its new route , Bounty reached Cape Town on 24 May 1788 . Here , Heywood wrote a long letter to his family describing the voyage to date , with vivid descriptions of life at sea . Initially , Heywood relates , sailing had been " in the most pleasurable weather imaginable " . In describing the attempts to round Cape Horn he writes : " I suppose there never were seas , in any part of the known world , to compare with those we met ... for height , and length of swell ; the oldest seamen on board never saw anything to equal that ... " Bligh 's decision to turn east was , Heywood records , " to the great joy of everyone on board " . Historian Greg Dening records a story , unmentioned in Heywood 's letter , that at the height of the Cape Horn storms Bligh had punished Heywood for some minor wrongdoing by ordering him to climb the mast and to " stay there beyond the point of all endurance " ; this , Dening concedes , was possibly a later fabrication to discredit Bligh .
= = = In Tahiti = = =
Bounty sailed from Cape Town on 1 July , reached Tasmania on 19 August , and arrived at Matavai Bay , Tahiti , on 26 October . The latter stages of this voyage , however , saw signs of trouble between Bligh and his officers and crew ; rows and disagreements grew steadily more frequent . On arrival , Heywood and Christian were assigned to a shore camp which would act as a nursery for the breadfruit plants . They would live here throughout the Tahiti sojourn , a " situation of comfort and privilege " which , according to historian Richard Hough , was much envied by those required to spend their nights on the ship . Whether crew were ashore or on board , however , duties during Bounty 's five months ' stay in Tahiti were relatively light . Some men took regular partners from the native women , while others led promiscuous lives ; both Christian and Heywood are listed among the officers and men treated for venereal infections .
Despite the relaxed atmosphere , relations between Bligh and his men , and particularly between Bligh and Christian , continued to deteriorate . Christian was routinely humiliated by the captain — often in front of the crew and the native Tahitians — for real or imagined slackness , while severe punishments were handed out to men whose carelessness had led to the loss or theft of equipment . Floggings , rarely administered during the outward voyage , now became a common occurrence ; as a consequence , three men deserted the ship . They were quickly recaptured , and a search of their belongings revealed a list of names which included those of Christian and Heywood . Bligh confronted the pair and accused them of complicity in the desertion plot , which they strenuously denied ; without further corroboration Bligh could not act against them .
As the date for departure from Tahiti grew closer , Bligh 's outbursts against his officers became more frequent . One witness reported that " Whatever fault was found , Mr Christian was sure to bear the brunt . " Tensions rose among the men , who faced the prospect of a long and dangerous voyage that would take them through the uncharted Endeavour Strait , followed by many months of hard sailing . Bligh was impatient to be away , but in Hough 's words he " failed to anticipate how his company would react to the severity and austerity of life at sea ... after five dissolute , hedonistic months at Tahiti " . On 5 April , Bounty finally weighed anchor and made for the open sea .
= = Mutiny = =
= = = Seizure of Bounty = = =
For three weeks , Bounty sailed westward , and early on 28 April was lying off the island of Tofua in the Friendly Islands ( Tonga ) . Christian was officer of the watch ; Bligh 's behaviour towards him had grown increasingly hostile , and Christian was now prepared to take over the ship , with the help of a group of armed seamen who were willing to follow him . Shortly after 5 : 15 am Bligh was seized and brought on deck , naked from the waist down , wearing only his nightshirt , and with his hands bound . There followed hours of confusion as the majority of the crew sought to grasp the situation and decide how they should react . Finally , at about 10 am , Bligh and 18 loyalists were placed in the ship 's launch , a 23 @-@ foot ( 7 m ) open boat , with minimal supplies and navigation instruments , and cast adrift . Heywood was among those who remained on board .
Not all the 25 men who remained on Bounty were mutineers ; Bligh 's launch was overloaded , and some who stayed with the ship did so under duress . " Never fear , lads , I 'll do you justice if ever I reach England " , Bligh is reported as saying . With regard to Heywood , however , Bligh was convinced that the young man was as guilty as Christian . Bligh 's first detailed comments on the mutiny are in a letter to his wife Betsy , in which he names Heywood as " one of the ringleaders " , adding : " I have now reason to curse the day I ever knew a Christian or a Heywood or indeed a Manks [ sic ] man . Bligh 's later official account to the Admiralty lists Heywood with Christian , Edward Young and George Stewart as the mutiny 's leaders , describing Heywood as a young man of abilities for whom he had felt a particular regard . To the Heywood family Bligh wrote : " His baseness is beyond all description . "
Members of the crew would later provide conflicting accounts of Heywood 's actions during the mutiny . Boatswain William Cole testified that Heywood had been detained on the ship against his will . Ship 's carpenter William Purcell thought that Heywood 's ambiguous behaviour during the critical hours — he had been seen briefly holding a cutlass — was due to his youth and the excitement of the moment , and that he had no hand in the uprising itself . On the other hand , Midshipman John Hallett reported that Bligh , with a bayonet at his breast and his hands tied , had addressed a remark to Heywood who had " laughed , turned round and walked away " . Another midshipman , Thomas Hayward , claimed he had asked Heywood his intentions and been told by the latter that he would remain with the ship , from which Hayward assumed that his messmate had sided with the mutineers .
After the departure of Bligh 's launch , Christian turned Bounty eastward in search of a remote haven on which he and the mutineers could settle . He had in mind the island of Tubuai , 300 miles south of Tahiti , partly mapped by Cook . Christian intended to pick up women , male servants and livestock from Tahiti , to help establish the settlement . As Bounty sailed slowly towards Tubuai , Bligh 's launch , overcoming many dangers and hardships , made its way steadily towards civilisation and reached Coupang ( now Kupang ) , on Timor , on 14 June 1789 . Here Bligh gave his first report of the mutiny , while awaiting a ship to take him back to England .
= = = Fugitive = = =
A month 's sailing brought Bounty to Tubuai on 28 May 1789 . Despite a hostile reception from the island 's natives Christian spent several days surveying the land and selecting a site for a fort before taking Bounty on to Tahiti . When they reached Matavai Bay Christian concocted a story that he , Bligh and Captain Cook were founding a new settlement at Aitutaki . Cook 's name ensured generous gifts of livestock and other goods , and on 16 June the well @-@ provisioned Bounty sailed back to Tubuai with nearly 30 Tahitians , some of whom had been taken aboard by deception . The attempt to establish a colony on Tubuai was unsuccessful ; the repeated raids by the mutineers for " wives " and the near @-@ mutinous dissatisfaction of the duped Tahitians wrecked Christian 's plans . On 18 September Bounty sailed back to Matavai Bay for the final time . Heywood and 15 others now decided that they would remain in Tahiti and risk the consequences of discovery , while Christian , with eight mutineers and a number of Tahitian men and women , took off in Bounty for an unrevealed destination . Before departing , Christian left messages for his family with Heywood , recounting the story of the mutiny and emphasising that he alone was responsible .
On Tahiti Heywood and his companions set about organising their lives . The largest group , led by James Morrison , began building a schooner , to be named Resolution after Cook 's ship . Matthew Thompson and former master @-@ at @-@ arms Charles Churchill chose to lead drunken and generally dissolute lives which ended in the violent deaths of both . Heywood preferred quiet domesticity in a small house with a Tahitian wife , studying the Tahitian language and fathering a daughter . Over a period of 18 months he gradually adopted native manners of dress , and was heavily tattooed around the body . Heywood later explained : " I was tattooed not to gratify my own desires , but theirs " , adding that in Tahiti a man without tattoos was an outcast . " I always made it a maxim when I was in Rome to act as Rome did . "
What Dening describes as an " arcadian existence " ended on 23 March 1791 , with the arrival of the search ship HMS Pandora . Heywood 's first reaction to the ship 's appearance was , he later wrote , " the utmost joy " . As the ship anchored he rode out in a canoe to identify himself . However , his reception , like that of the others who came aboard voluntarily , was frosty . Captain Edward Edwards , Pandora 's commander , made no distinctions among the former Bounty men ; all became prisoners , and were manacled and taken below .
= = Prisoner = =
= = = Pandora voyage = = =
Within a few days all the 14 surviving fugitives in Tahiti had surrendered or been captured . Among Pandora 's officers was former Bounty midshipman Thomas Hayward . Heywood 's hopes that his former shipmate would verify his innocence were quickly dashed . Hayward , " ... like all worldlings raised a little in life , received us very coolly , and pretended ignorance of our affairs . " Pandora remained at Tahiti for five weeks while Captain Edwards tried without success to obtain information on Bounty 's whereabouts . A cell was built on Pandora 's quarterdeck , a structure known as " Pandora 's Box " where the prisoners , legs in irons and wrists in handcuffs , were to be confined for almost five months . Heywood wrote : " The heat ... was so intense that the sweat frequently ran in streams to the scuppers , and produced maggots in a short time ... and the two necessary tubs which were constantly kept in place helped to render our situation truly disagreeable . "
Pandora left Tahiti on 8 May 1791 to search for Christian and the Bounty among the thousands of southern Pacific islands . Apart from a few spars — which had probably floated from Tubuai — discovered at Palmerston Island ( Avarau ) , no traces of the ship could be found . Physical attacks from natives were frequent ; early in August Edwards abandoned the search and headed for the Dutch East Indies via the Torres Strait . Knowledge of these waters and the surrounding reefs was minimal ; on 29 August the ship ran aground on the outer Great Barrier Reef and began to fill with water . Three of the prisoners in " Pandora 's Box " were let out and ordered to assist the crew at the pumps . In the subsequent struggle to save the ship the rest of the men in " Pandora 's Box " were ignored as the regular crew went about their efforts to prevent the ship from foundering . At dawn it was clear that their efforts were in vain ; the officers agreed that the vessel could not be saved and orders were then given to abandon ship . The armourer was ordered into the " box " to knock off the remaining prisoners ' leg irons and shackles ; however , the ship sank before he had finished . Heywood , stripped naked , was one of the last to get out of the cell ; four prisoners , including Heywood 's best friend George Stewart , were drowned , as were 31 of the regular crew . The 99 survivors , including ten prisoners , recovered on a nearby island where they stayed for two nights before embarking on an open @-@ boat journey which largely followed Bligh 's course of two years earlier . The prisoners were mostly kept bound hand and foot on the slow passage to Coupang , which they reached on 17 September .
Throughout this long ordeal Heywood somehow managed to hang on to his prayer book , and used it to jot down details of dates , places and events during his captivity . He recorded that at Coupang he and his fellow @-@ prisoners were placed in the stocks and confined in the fortress before being sent to Batavia ( now Jakarta ) on the first leg of the voyage back to England . During a seven @-@ week stay in Batavia confined aboard a Dutch East India Company ship , most of the prisoners , including Heywood , were allowed on deck only twice . On 25 December 1791 they were taken aboard a Dutch ship , Vreedenberg , for passage to Europe via Cape Town . Still in the charge of Captain Edwards , the prisoners were kept in irons for most of the way . At the Cape they were eventually transferred to a British warship , HMS Gorgon , which set sail for England on 5 April 1792 . On 19 June the ship arrived in Portsmouth where the prisoners were moved to the guardship HMS Hector .
= = = Portsmouth = = =
Bligh had landed in England on 14 March 1790 to public acclaim , and was quickly promoted to post @-@ captain . In the following months he wrote his account of the mutiny , and on 22 October was honourably acquitted at court martial of responsibility for the Bounty 's loss . Early in 1791 he was appointed to command a new breadfruit expedition , which left London on 3 August of that year , before any news of the capture of Heywood and the others had reached London . Bligh would be gone for more than two years , and would thus be absent from the court martial proceedings that awaited the returned mutineers .
Following Heywood 's arrival in Portsmouth his family sought help from their wide circle of influential friends , and set out to secure the best available legal counsel . Most active on Heywood 's behalf was his older sister Hester ( " Nessy " ) , who gave her brother unqualified support , writing to him on 3 June : " If the transactions of that day were as Mr. Bligh represented them , such is my conviction of your worth and honor that I will without hesitation stake my life on your innocence . If on the contrary you were concerned in such a conspiracy against your commander , I shall be firmly convinced that his conduct was the occasion of it . " Heywood sent his personal narrative of the mutiny to the Earl of Chatham , who was First Lord of the Admiralty and brother to the prime minister , William Pitt . This was a step Heywood subsequently regretted ; he had not consulted his lawyers , and his narrative contained statements that Heywood later rescinded on the grounds that they were " the errors of an imperfect recollection " . On 8 June Nessy was advised by her and Heywood 's uncle , Captain Thomas Pasley , that on the basis of information from the returned Pandora crew " ... your brother appears by all account to be the greatest culprit of all , Christian alone excepted ... I have no hope of his not being condemned . " Later , however , Pasley was able to offer some comfort ; Captain Montagu of Hector , where Heywood was held , was Pasley 's " particular friend " . By chance another Heywood naval relative by marriage , Captain Albemarle Bertie , was in Portsmouth Harbour with his ship HMS Edgar , moored alongside Hector . Mrs Bertie , and Edgar 's officers , were frequent visitors to Heywood , bringing gifts of food , clothing and other comforts .
Pasley secured the services of Aaron Graham , an experienced and clever advocate , to direct Heywood 's legal strategy . Between June and September Heywood and his sister exchanged a stream of letters and ardent poems ; Nessy 's final letter , just before the court martial , exhorted : " May the Almighty Providence , whose tender care has hitherto preserved you , be still your bountiful Protector ! May he instil into the hearts of your judges every sentiment of justice , generosity and compassion ... and may you at length be restored to us . "
= = = Court martial = = =
The court martial opened on 12 September 1792 aboard HMS Duke in Portsmouth Harbour . Accused with Heywood were Joseph Coleman , Thomas McIntosh and Charles Norman , all of whom had been exonerated in Bligh 's account and could confidently expect acquittal , as could Michael Byrne , the nearly blind ship 's fiddler . The other accused were James Morrison , Thomas Burkitt , Thomas Ellison , John Millward and William Muspratt . The court martial board was presided over by Lord Hood , naval commander @-@ in @-@ chief at Portsmouth , and included Pasley 's friend George Montagu and Heywood 's relative by marriage , Albemarle Bertie .
The testimonies of the boatswain Cole , the carpenter Purcell , and the sailing master John Fryer were not unfavourable towards Heywood . However , Thomas Hayward 's declared belief that Heywood was with the mutineers was damaging , as was the evidence of John Hallett concerning Heywood 's alleged insolence in laughing and turning away from the captive Bligh — though Hallett had previously written to Nessy Heywood professing total ignorance of the part Heywood had played in the mutiny .
Heywood opened his defence on 17 September with a long prepared statement read by one of his lawyers . It began with a frank acknowledgement of his predicament : to be even accused of mutiny was to " appear at once the object of unpardonable guilt and exemplary vengeance " . His case rested on a series of arguments which , as historian Caroline Alexander points out , are not wholly consistent . First , Heywood pleaded his " extreme youth and inexperience " as the cause of his failure to join Bligh and the loyalists in the open boat , insisting that " ... I was influenced in my Conduct by the Example of my Messmates , Mr. Hallet and Mr. Hayward ... the latter , tho ' he had been many years at Sea , yet , when Christian ordered him into the Boat he was ... so much overcome by the harsh Command , that he actually shed tears . " Heywood then cited a different reason for staying aboard Bounty : Bligh 's launch was overloaded , and its destruction would be assured " by the least addition to their Number " . Finally , Heywood maintained he had intended to join Bligh but had been stopped : " ... on hearing it suggested that I should be deem 'd Guilty if I staid in the Ship , I went down directly , and in passing Mr. Cole told him in a low tone of voice that I would fetch a few necessaries in a Bag and follow him into the Boat , which at that time I meant to do but was afterwards prevented . "
Under further questioning , Cole confirmed his belief that Heywood had been detained against his will . William Peckover , Bounty 's gunnery officer , affirmed that if he had stayed aboard the ship in the hope of retaking her , he would have looked to Heywood for assistance . Witnesses from the Pandora attested that Heywood had surrendered himself voluntarily , and that he had been fully cooperative in providing information . On the issue of his alleged laughing at Bligh 's predicament , Heywood managed to cast doubts on Hallett 's testimony , asking how Hallett had managed " to particularise the muscles of a man 's countenance " at some distance and during the hurly @-@ burly of a mutiny . Heywood concluded his defence with what Alexander terms an " audacious " assertion that had Bligh been present in court he would have " exculpated me from the least disrespect " .
= = = Verdict and sentences = = =
On 18 September Lord Hood announced the court 's verdicts . As expected , Coleman , McIntosh , Norman and Byrne were acquitted . Heywood and the other five were found guilty of the charge of mutiny , and were ordered to suffer death by hanging . Lord Hood added that " in consideration of various circumstances , the court did humbly and most earnestly recommend the said Peter Heywood and James Morrison to His Majesty 's Royal Mercy . " Heywood 's family were quickly reassured by the lawyer Aaron Graham that the young man 's life was safe and that he would soon be free .
As the weeks passed , Heywood calmly occupied himself by resuming his studies of the Tahitian language . Meanwhile the family — Nessy in particular — busied itself on his behalf , and another plea was made to the Earl of Chatham , in heart @-@ rending terms . Shortly afterwards came the first indication that a royal pardon was in the offing , and on 26 October , on Hector 's quarterdeck , this was formally read to Heywood and Morrison by Captain Montagu . Heywood responded with a short statement that ended : " I receive with gratitude my Sovereign 's mercy , for which my future life will be faithfully devoted to his service . " According to a Dutch newspaper which reported the case , his contrition was accompanied by a " flood of tears " . William Muspratt , the only other of the accused to employ legal counsel , was reprieved on a legal technicality and pardoned in February 1793 .
Three days later , aboard HMS Brunswick , Millward , Burkitt and Ellison were hanged from the yardarms . Dening calls them " a humble remnant on which to wreak vengeance " . There was some unease expressed in the press , a suspicion that " money had bought the lives of some , and others fell sacrifice to their poverty . " A report that Heywood was heir to a large fortune was unfounded ; nevertheless , Dening asserts that " in the end it was class or relations or patronage that made the difference . " Some accounts claim that the condemned trio continued to protest their innocence until the last moment , while others speak of their " manly firmness that ... was the admiration of all " .
= = = Aftermath = = =
On the specific recommendation of Lord Hood , who had offered the young man his personal patronage , Heywood resumed his naval career as a midshipman aboard his uncle Thomas Pasley 's ship HMS Bellerophon . In September 1793 he was summoned by Lord Howe , commander of the Channel Fleet , to serve on HMS Queen Charlotte , the fleet 's flagship . Hough observes that a pardon , followed by promotion , for one of Bligh 's chief targets was " a public rebuke to the absent captain , and everyone recognised it as such " . Although Bligh had departed on his second breadfruit expedition in August 1791 as a national hero , the court martial had revealed damaging evidence of his erratic and overbearing behaviour . The families of Heywood and Christian , noting the leniency that had acquitted four and pardoned three of the ten accused , began their own campaigns for vindication , and for revenge on Bligh . When Bligh returned in August 1793 he found that opinion had turned sharply against him . Lord Chatham , at the Admiralty , refused to receive his report or even see him — although Nathaniel Portlock , Bligh 's lieutenant , was given a meeting . Bligh was then left unemployed , on half @-@ pay , for 19 months before his next assignment .
Shortly after his release , Heywood had written to Edward Christian , Fletcher 's older brother , that he would " endeavour to prove that your brother was not that vile wretch , void of all gratitude ... but , on the contrary , a most worthy character ... beloved by all ( except one , whose ill report is his greatest praise ) " . This statement , published immediately after Heywood 's pardon in a local Whitehaven newspaper as an open letter to Edward Christian , contradicted the respect Heywood had accorded Bligh in the courtroom , and , in turn , it led to the publication in late 1794 of Edward Christian 's Appendix to the court martial proceedings . Presented as an account of the " real causes and circumstances of that Unhappy Transaction " , the Appendix was said by the press to " palliate the behaviour of Christian and the Mutineers , and to criminate Captain Bligh " . In the controversy that followed , Bligh 's rebuttals could not silence doubts as to his own conduct , and his position was further undermined when William Peckover , a Bligh loyalist , confirmed that the allegations in the Appendix were substantially accurate .
= = Subsequent career = =
= = = Early stages = = =
Heywood served on Queen Charlotte until March 1795 , and was aboard her when the French fleet was defeated at Ushant on 1 June 1794 , the occasion known as the " Glorious First of June " . In August 1794 he was promoted acting lieutenant . In March 1795 , doubts about his eligibility as a convicted mutineer for further promotion were set aside and his advancement to full lieutenant 's rank was approved , despite his lacking the stated minimum of six years ' service at sea . Among those who supported the promotion was Captain Hugh Cloberry Christian , a relative of Fletcher Christian .
In January 1796 Heywood was appointed third lieutenant to HMS Fox and sailed with her to the East Indies . He was to remain in this station for nine years . By the end of 1796 he was Fox 's first lieutenant , and remained so until mid @-@ 1798 when he transferred to HMS Suffolk . On 17 May 1799 Heywood was given his first command , HMS Amboyna , a brig @-@ of @-@ war . In August 1800 Heywood was appointed commander of a bomb ship , the Vulcan , in which he visited Coupang where he had been held prisoner eight years earlier . At this time he began the hydrographic work that would mark the remainder of his naval career .
= = = Hydrographer = = =
In 1803 , after a succession of commands , Heywood was promoted to post @-@ captain . In command of HMS Leopard , Heywood conducted a series of surveys of the eastern coasts of Ceylon and India , areas that had not been studied previously , and produced what Alexander describes as " beautifully drafted charts " . In later years he was to produce similar charts for the north coast of Morocco , the River Plate area of South America , parts of the coasts of Sumatra and north @-@ west Australia , and other channels and coastlines . His skill in this area may well have developed from Bligh 's tutelage in the earlier stages of the Bounty voyage . Bligh , an accomplished draughtsman , had written of Christian and Heywood : " These two had been objects of my particular regard and attention , and I had taken great pains to instruct them . " James Horsburgh , who was hydrographer to the East India Company , wrote that Heywood 's work had " essentially contributed to making my Sailing Directory for the Indian navigation much more perfect than it would otherwise have been . " The extent of Heywood 's professional reputation was demonstrated when the position of Admiralty Hydrographer was offered to him in 1818 , after he had retired from the sea . He declined , and the appointment went to Francis Beaufort on Heywood 's recommendation .
= = = Later service = = =
After a brief period ashore in 1805 – 6 Heywood was appointed flag captain to Rear @-@ Admiral Sir George Murray , aboard HMS Polyphemus . In March 1802 Murray 's squadron was employed in the transportation of troops from the Cape of Good Hope to South America , in support of a failed British attempt to capture Buenos Aires from the Spanish , who were allied to the French during the Napoleonic wars . Polyphemus remained in the River Plate area , carrying out surveying and merchant vessel protection duties . 1808 saw Heywood back in England , in command of HMS Donegal , which in the following year was part of a squadron that attacked and destroyed three French frigates in the Bay of Biscay , an action for which he received the Admiralty 's thanks . After taking command of HMS Nereus in May 1809 , Heywood served briefly in the Mediterranean under Admiral Lord Collingwood ; after Collingwood 's death in March 1810 Heywood brought his commander 's body back to England . He then took Nereus to South America where he remained for three years , earning the gratitude of the British merchants in that region for his work in protecting trade routes . Heywood 's last command was HMS Montagu , in which he acted as escort to King Louis XVIII on the latter 's return to France in May 1814 . He remained with Montagu for the rest of his naval service .
Alexander suggests that throughout his later career Heywood suffered a sense of guilt over his pardon , knowing that he had " perjured himself " in saying that he was kept below and therefore prevented from joining Bligh . She believes that Pasley and Graham may have bribed William Cole to testify that Heywood had been held against his will , echoing Thomas Bond , Bligh 's nephew , who had asserted in 1792 that " Heywood 's friends have bribed through thick and thin to save him " . John Adams , the last survivor of Christian 's Bounty party that sailed to Pitcairn Island , was discovered in 1808 . In 1825 , interviewed by Captain Edward Belcher , Adams maintained that Heywood was on the gangway , not below , and " might have gone [ in the open boat ] if he pleased . "
= = = Retirement and death = = =
On 16 July 1816 Montagu was paid off in Chatham and Heywood finally retired from the sea . Two weeks later he married Frances Joliffe , a widow whom he had met ten years earlier , and settled with her at Highgate , near London . The couple had no children but , apart from his daughter in Tahiti , there is a suggestion in a will which he signed in 1810 that Heywood had also fathered a British child — the will makes provision for one Mary Gray , " an infant under my care and protection " .
In May 1818 Heywood declined command of the Canadian Lakes with the rank of commodore . As he had become content with shore life , he said he would only accept another appointment in the event of war . In retirement Heywood published his dictionary of the Tahitian language , wrote papers relating to his profession , and corresponded widely . He enjoyed a circle of acquaintances which included the writer Charles Lamb , and was a particular friend of the hydrographer Francis Beaufort . He destroyed much of his writing shortly before his death , but a document from 1829 survives , in which he expresses his views on the unfitness for self @-@ government of Greeks , Turks , Spaniards and Portuguese , the iniquities of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches , and the doubtful benefits of Catholic emancipation in Ireland . Of strong religious convictions , Heywood was increasingly interested in spiritual matters during the last years of his life . His health began to fail in 1828 , and he died after suffering a stroke , aged 58 , in February 1831 . He was interred in the vault of Highgate School chapel , where a memorial plaque was dedicated on 8 December 2008 .
Nessy Heywood had died on 25 August 1793 , less than a year after Heywood 's pardon . Heywood 's adversaries John Hallett and Thomas Hayward both died at sea within three years of the court martial . William Bligh served in the battles of Camperdown and Copenhagen before , in 1806 , he was appointed Governor of New South Wales . He returned to London in 1810 having suffered a further mutiny by corrupt local army officers who had taken exception to Bligh 's attempts to reform local practices that were highly lucrative for them , but detrimental to the colonial treasury . On his retirement he was promoted to rear admiral ; he died in 1817 . Fletcher Christian , who had taken the Bounty to Pitcairn Island and founded a colony there with a group of hard core mutineers and conscripted Tahitians , was killed in September 1793 during a feud . Christian 's last recorded words , supposedly , were " Oh , dear ! "
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= Nuclear Strike ( Spooks ) =
" Nuclear Strike " is the series seven finale and 64th episode of the British espionage television series Spooks . It was originally broadcast on BBC One on 8 December 2008 . The episode was written by Neil Cross , and directed by Sam Miller . In the episode , Tiresias , the Russian equivalent of Sugarhorse , awakens a sleeper agent to detonate a nuclear suitcase bomb in central London . The Section D team use Connie James ( Gemma Jones ) , an FSB mole who helped set up Tiresias , to help them stop the bomb . However , the team find themselves targeted by an FSB kill squad , who are unaware of the bomb threat .
The idea behind the episode came from an earlier series three episode about a series of Russian weapons caches throughout the United Kingdom set up during the Cold War . Cross also felt it gratifying to kill off Connie , a character he created in the sixth series . Filming took place during the summer of 2008 , with much of it taking place in disused tunnels of the London Underground . The series seven finale was seen by six million viewers and a quarter of the television audience , a large increase of 900 @,@ 000 viewers and four share points from the previous week . Critics reacted to the episode with near universal acclaim , for being a " superb season closer , " " exciting " and " thrilling . "
= = Plot = =
In Faversham , Kent , Walter Crane ( Kevin Fuller ) receives the message " rain from heaven " in Russian from a numbers station . Upon hearing this , Crane unburies a cache . Section D , having heard " Tiresias wakes 3 pm tomorrow " the previous episode , work on what the message means . Lucas North ( Richard Armitage ) and Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) discover Tiresias is the Russian equivalent of Sugarhorse , but " bigger and better ; " while Sugarhorse placed pro @-@ western Russians to infiltrate its government , Tiresias does the opposite ; recruit spies to infiltrate the British Government . Ros Myers ( Hermione Norris ) believes Connie James ( Gemma Jones ) , a mole from the FSB , might know what Tiresias is planning . Ros and Lucas release Connie from custody by posing as masked Russian agents . Later , it is revealed that FSB officers have been assigned to assassinate her . FSB head Viktor Sarkisiian ( Peter Sullivan ) orders a kill squad to search every MI5 safehouse , provided by Connie , to kill her and the Section D team who are harbouring her .
At the safe house " Ottawa Bravo " , Connie reveals she helped set up Tiresias over two decades ago and will give all sleeper agents and operations in exchange for safe passage to New Zealand . After listening to the numbers station broadcast , she reveals Tiresias has awakened a sleeper agent to a specific task ; detonating a nuclear suitcase bomb in central London by 3 pm . The only way to know where it would detonate is a locker at London Bridge station , which contain all Tiresias members and codes . When they start their journey however , they encounter the kill squad . They and Lucas engage in a shootout , and after evading them , the team decide to split up and regroup in Catherine Wheel Alley , while Harry returns to Thames House .
After returning , Harry warns Home Secretary Nicholas Blake ( Robert Glenister ) of the threat and tells him that if he receives a call from MI5 at 2 : 45 pm , he should order the evacuation of Parliament . Lucas , Ros and Connie regroup and head towards a London Underground station , but Lucas is wounded by a sniper ; though not seriously wounded , the kill squad could follow Lucas ' blood trail . To slow them down , Lucas sets up rudimentary traps and the three venture through empty tunnels towards the station . Later , the kill squad send in a runner to find the three ; Lucas is able to trip and kill him . Back in Thames House , Harry believes the FSB are not aware of the bomb threat , and decides to meet with Sarkisiian face @-@ to @-@ face . In order to get there alive , Harry uses the emergency " handshake protocols " and reasons with Sarkisiian that he would turn himself into the FSB if he stops the kill squad . Meanwhile , Lucas attempts to draw off the squad by splitting up , but at the confrontation , his gun jams and is cornered . Before he can be killed , Sarkisiian calls the team off and orders them to help stop the bomb .
Ros and Connie find the locker with the bomber 's name and location , Grosvenor Square . An FSB sniper kills Crane , and at Connie 's request , the bomb is sent to her , as she is the only person with the expertise to disarm it . Connie defuses the bomb , but by doing so a secondary countdown is initiated . She removes the nuclear material , but the bomb will still detonate . In her last words , Connie admits that she set up Lucas in Moscow eight years ago , which resulted in his imprisonment . Lucas and Ros then run to safety as the bomb detonates , killing Connie . With disaster averted , Lucas calls Harry , but receives no answer . In the end , it is revealed Sarkisiian has him locked up in the boot of his car .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by Neil Cross . Before he started writing Cross did not know Connie was the mole from the previous episode , so he included it to help with the storyline . The character was originally intended to be killed by the end of the last episode , but Cross kept her alive until the end of the finale . He wanted her killed off at this episode , as he was the one who created Connie in the sixth series , and felt it gratifying to kill off a character he created . In writing the plot , Cross was inspired by the Rupert Walters script for " Frequently Asked Questions " from the third series , which revealed a series of weapons caches throughout the United Kingdom set up by the Russians during the Cold War ; Cross wanted to use that as a way to introduce the nuclear suitcase bomb . The bombs design from the episode was based from actual designs , but invented its failsafes .
The producers also intended to tease the audience that after the brutal killing of Ben Kaplan ( Alex Lanipekun ) from the previous episode , they would think that things could not get worse for the team , until the nuclear threat in the finale . The scene where the team breaks Connie out was intended to show the audience that the protagonists are willing to go to extreme measures to stop serious threats . Cross wanted to make it a very pure Spooks episode by setting up the entire plot in one scene , and then include a chase throughout London between FSB officers and the main characters . Cross enjoyed creating the FSB team featured in the episode , especially as he created them as a Russian version of the Spooks protagonists , but also make their base much more lit with windows . The bomb defusal scene was originally set at a graveyard , but the producers decided it would be best to set it underground . Though it took several rewrites , the script remained " fundamentally the same " throughout the writing process .
The part where Connie asks for safe passage to New Zealand was a " sly personal reference " to Cross , as the writer himself resides in the country . In one scene , Lucas can be seen breaking into a car and getting his hands on various items that would be useful to help set up traps against the FSB officers . Throughout the episode 's development , the items kept changing . There were also staff discussions about what they could get away with in terms of the protagonists killing FSB officers . The most prominent discussions included Harry strangling one officer with his necktie , and Lucas shooting another in the head in cold blood despite being unarmed and subdued .
= = = Casting = = =
Kevin Fuller was cast as Walter Crane , the man with the bomb . The character did not say a word throughout the entirety of the episode , yet had such a strong presence , which the producers felt was unique for a guest star in the series . Fuller did " a lot of getting into the part , " director Sam Miller felt that Fuller was one of the most influential actors he ever worked with . Elsewhere , Peter Sullivan , who plays Sarkisiian , never spoke Russian before . Since most of his dialogue would be in Russian , Sullivan was trained how to speak it phonetically before he would play the part .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was filmed sometime during Summer 2008 . Miller wanted to style the filming as if the cameras are following the team like in a documentary . The first day was spent in the " Ottawa Bravo " safe house set , where Connie reveals the threat . Throughout the shoot , Gemma Jones had hip problems . Concerned , the producers set up a body double on hand . However , Jones insisted she could do everything herself , and in the end the double was not used . During the first shootout scene in the episode , Miller wanted to make the sequence as real as possible by having the camera film as if it was under attack . Richard Armitage recalled the shootout sequence ; " There was a shoot @-@ out in the final episode where I surprised myself about the amount of rounds I could pull off and how quickly . It 's a weird thing . I 'm not a violent person but when you put a gun in somebody 's hands something strange happens . It 's like a little animal comes out of you that wants to fire the gun again . "
Filming did face some disruptions . The sequence where Lucas breaks into a car for some supplies was filmed at a street near Hyde Park . On one end of the street was an event in the park , while on the other end a wedding took place . Elsewhere , Fuller carried a mock @-@ suitcase bomb to film in Grosvenor Square . However , because the American Embassy is situated next to the square , shortly after Fuller and the filming crew arrived , they found themselves surrounded by five armed American security officers who believed Fuller was about to commit an attack . Fortunately , location manager Patrick Stuart was able to " sweet @-@ talk " the American officials , and they were allowed to film in the area .
Five days of filming were spent at the London Underground tunnels . Filming took place on actual tube tunnels , albeit disused ones . As the crew were scouting the disused Aldwych tunnels , they found the ex @-@ Northern line 1972 stock train stabled in the tunnel for maintenance , training , and filming purposes . When Sam Miller called Cross about the development , the writer included it as a last minute addition to the script , and the sequence was shot the next day . As a way to scare the audience , Cross included a homeless woman living in the train . The filming crew present disliked filming the Underground sequences because while filmed during the summer , it became hot locations to work in . The crew were prohibited from bringing food or drink into the tunnels , as it would attract rats . Furthermore , break times had to be longer than usual because it would take a while for a crew member to leave the tunnels , have a break and then return . The FSB base was filmed in the London Docklands , near the ExCeL London .
= = Cultural references = =
Though the series in general does not note many cultural references , Neil Cross decided to include some into this particular episode . The phrases " rain from heaven " and " it is twice blest " from the numbers station was taken from " The Quality of Mercy " speech from the William Shakespeare play The Merchant of Venice . The speech begins ; " The quality of mercy is not strain 'd , it droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven . Upon the place beneath : it is twice blest ; it blesseth him that gives and him that takes ... " Later in the episode , Lucas tells Connie about Bridget Driscoll , the first person in the United Kingdom to be run over and killed by a car , which , while big news back in her time , becomes forgotten over time and is now only " a single moment , " much like Connie 's contributions to her country during the Cold War . When Jo asks Malcolm to evacuate his mother , he explains she is busy watching A Place in the Sun , a television programme about Britons buying property abroad , followed by Countdown , a game show on Channel 4 .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode was originally broadcast on BBC One , during the 9 pm to 10 pm time slot on Monday , 8 December 2008 . However , it was held back to 10 : 40 pm in Northern Ireland , and did not broadcast in Scotland on the day all together . The finale attracted 6 million viewers on its original broadcast , earning a 25 % audience share . Ratings were up by 900 @,@ 000 viewers and four share points from the previous episode which aired against I 'm a Celebrity , Get , Me Out of Here ! on ITV1 . On the next week , the Spooks finale beat Taggart on ITV1 in the same time slot . " Nuclear Strike " ended being the ninth most seen broadcast on BBC One , and the 24th most seen broadcast overall the week it aired .
The episode attracted near universal acclaim . The Spooks producers regard " Nuclear Strike " as one of their favourites in the series . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian reacted positively to the episode , stating " it 's nice to see MI5 locking horns with the Russians again . Maybe the Spooks people just got bored with Islamic terrorism , so they did what they had to do : they restarted the cold war . A bold move , but an admirable one . " Gerard O 'Donovan of The Daily Telegraph placed the episode as a " critic 's choice , " calling it a " superb season closer , " and " all terrifically exciting . " O 'Donovan also said of the episode 's settings ; " the streets and Underground tunnels of London have rarely been used to such climactic effect – with great performances from everyone involved . " He also complimented it for setting up a " great cliffhanger ending that will leave fans absolutely gagging for the next series . "
Andrew Billen of The Times however , felt the finale was " not [ a ] very exciting episode , " and " conducted with a minimum of acting . " Mof Gimmers of TV Scoop praised the episode , saying " Neil Cross knows a thing or two about ratcheting up the tension , and in the finale of the seventh series of Spooks he used both of them . And then , from somewhere , he found a third thing . And a fourth , " and " pressure piled on pressure relentlessly throughout this brilliant finale as each new success only led to the next , even bigger problem . " Gimmers called the chase sequence in the episode " one of the most thrilling traditional chase sequences ever seen on British TV , " the interplay between the characters " was handled expertly , " and ended with " already I can 't wait for the next series ! "
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= Lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture =
The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture ( Cathartes burrovianus ) also known as the savannah vulture , is a species of bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae . It was considered to be the same species as the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture until they were split in 1964 . It is found in Mexico , Central America , and South America in seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland , swamps , and heavily degraded former forest . It is a large bird , with a wingspan of 150 – 165 centimetres ( 59 – 65 in ) . The body plumage is black , and the head and neck , which are featherless , are pale orange with red or blue areas . It lacks a syrinx , so therefore its vocalizations are limited to grunts or low hisses .
The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture feeds on carrion and locates carcasses by sight and by smell , an ability which is rare in birds . It is dependent on larger vultures , such as the king vulture , to open the hides of larger animal carcasses as its bill is not strong enough to do this . Like other New World vultures , the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture utilizes thermals to stay aloft with minimal effort . It lays its eggs on flat surfaces , such as the floors of caves , or in the hollows of stumps . It feeds its young by regurgitation .
= = Taxonomy = =
The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture was first described in 1845 by John Cassin . It is sometimes recognized as having two subspecies . The first , Cathartes burrovianus urubitinga , described by Austrian ornithologist August von Pelzeln in 1851 , is the larger of the two and is found from Argentina north to Colombia , while the nominate subspecies , Cathartes burrovianus burrovianus , is smaller and found from northwestern South America through Central America to Mexico . The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture 's genus , Cathartes , means " purifier " and is from the Latinized form of the Greek kathartēs / καθαρτης . The common name , vulture , is derived from the Latin word vulturus , which means " tearer " and is a reference to its feeding habits .
The exact taxonomic placement of the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Although both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles , the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world . Just how different the two are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible . Like other New World vultures , the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80 .
= = Description = =
The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture is 53 – 66 cm ( 21 – 26 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 150 – 165 cm ( 59 – 65 in ) and a tail length of 19 – 24 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 4 in ) . Its weight ranges from 0 @.@ 95 to 1 @.@ 55 kg ( 2 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 4 lb ) . Its plumage is black with a green sheen . The throat and the sides of the head are featherless . The head and neck are bare of feathers , and the skin is yellow , with a reddish forehead and nape and a gray @-@ blue crown . The irises of its eyes are red , its legs are white , and its beak is flesh @-@ colored . The eye has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid . The tail is rounded and relatively short for a vulture ; the tip of the closed wing extends beyond the tail . Immature lesser yellow @-@ headed vultures have browner plumage , a dusky head , and a white nape .
The beak is thick , rounded , and hooked at the tip . The front toes are long with small webs at their bases and are not adapted to grasping . The opening of the nostril is longitudinal , and the nostrils lack a septum . Like all New World vultures , the lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture lacks a syrinx , and is therefore unable to make any sound other than a low hiss .
It differs in appearance from the similar greater yellow @-@ headed vulture in several ways . It is smaller and is less heavily built than the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture and has a shorter , thinner tail . The plumage is browner than the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture 's dark , glossy black plumage . Its legs are lighter in color , and its head is more orange @-@ tinged than the more yellow head of the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture . Its flight is also less steady than that of the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture . The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture also prefers to live in savannas , as opposed to the preferred forest habitat of the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture .
Besides the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture , it is similar to the turkey vulture .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
It is found in Argentina , Belize , Bolivia , Brazil , Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , Ecuador , El Salvador , French Guiana , Guatemala , Guyana , Honduras , Mexico , Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay , Peru , Suriname , Uruguay , and Venezuela . Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland , swamps , mangroves , and heavily degraded former forest . It may wander over dry fields and clearings . It is not generally found in high @-@ altitude regions .
This bird with its somehow crow @-@ like aspect gave foot to the naming of the Quebrada de los Cuervos ( Crows Ravine ) in Uruguay , where they dwell together with the black vulture and the turkey vulture .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture flies solitarily , with wings held in a dihedral position . It glides at a low altitude over wetlands while locating food , and perches on fence posts or on other low perches . When flying , it travels alone and is rarely found in groups . The flight of the lesser yellow @-@ headed is an example of static soaring flight , which uses thermals to maintain altitude without the need to flap its wings . This vulture rarely soars high in the air , preferring low altitudes . This bird is believed to be somewhat migratory in response to the changes in water level where it lives . The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture , like other New World vultures , has the unusual habit of urohidrosis , in which it urinates or defecates on its legs to cool them by evaporation .
= = = Diet = = =
The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture is a scavenger and subsists almost entirely on carrion . It will eat roadkill or the carcass of any animal , but is also known to hunt for food , especially small aquatic animals in marshes . It prefers fresh meat , but often cannot make the first cut into the carcass of a larger animal because its beak is not strong enough to tear into the tough hide . The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture will no longer feed on a piece of carrion once the meat is in a state of extreme decay , as it becomes contaminated with microbial toxins . Like other vultures , it plays an important role in its ecosystem by disposing of carrion which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease .
The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture forages using its keen eyesight to locate carrion on the ground , but also uses its sense of smell , an ability which is uncommon in the avian world . It locates carrion by detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan , a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals . The olfactory lobe of its brain responsible for processing smells is particularly large compared to other animals . This characteristic of New World vultures has been used by humans : ethyl mercaptan is injected into pipelines , and engineers looking for leaks then follow the foraging vultures .
King vultures , which lack the ability to smell carrion , follow the lesser yellow @-@ headed vultures to carcasses , where the king vulture tears open the skin of the dead animal . This allows the smaller lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture access to food , as it does not have a bill strong enough to tear the hide of larger animals . This is an example of mutual dependence between species . It is generally displaced from carcasses by both turkey vultures and king vultures , due to their larger size .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Lesser yellow @-@ headed vultures do not build nests , but rather lay eggs on the ground , cliff ledges , the floors of caves , or in the hollow of a tree . Eggs are cream colored and heavily blotched with brown and gray spots , particularly around the larger end . Two eggs are generally laid . The chicks are altricial — they are blind , naked and relatively immobile upon hatching . The chicks do not grow their down feathers until later . The parents feed their young by regurgitating pre @-@ digested food into their beak , where the chicks then drink it . Young fledge after two to three months .
= = Conservation = =
The lesser yellow @-@ headed vulture is a bird of Least Concern according to the IUCN , with an estimated global range of 7 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and a population of between 100 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 individuals . Its population trend appears to be stable .
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= California State Route 47 =
State Route 47 ( SR 47 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California , connecting Terminal Island to the mainland in the Los Angeles area . From its south end at I @-@ 110 in San Pedro , it heads east across the Vincent Thomas Bridge to the island and the end of state maintenance . The state highway begins again at the junction with I @-@ 710 on Terminal Island , crossing the Schuyler Heim Bridge north to the mainland and the second terminus , where SR 103 begins . Signage continues along a locally maintained route , mainly Alameda Street , to the Gardena Freeway ( SR 91 ) in Compton , and an unconstructed alignment follows the same corridor to the Santa Monica Freeway ( I @-@ 10 ) near downtown Los Angeles .
The entire route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , and both constructed segments are freeways , officially known as parts of the Seaside Freeway ( which continues to SR 1 via I @-@ 710 ) and Terminal Island Freeway ( which continues to SR 1 via SR 103 ) . However , there are several at @-@ grade intersections along the gap on Terminal Island , and Alameda Street is a surface roadway , albeit one with few intersections , as it runs alongside the Alameda Corridor rail line .
= = Route description = =
State Route 47 begins at the south end of the Harbor Freeway ( I @-@ 110 ) in the Los Angeles neighborhood of San Pedro and heads east to the Vincent Thomas Bridge , with only one interchange - at Harbor Boulevard - before the 1963 suspension bridge over the main channel of Los Angeles Harbor . After coming back to ground level on Terminal Island , SR 47 becomes the locally @-@ maintained Seaside Avenue at the interchange with Ferry Street , where there was a toll plaza until 2000 . The freeway ends just beyond at Navy Way , after which the road enters Long Beach and becomes Ocean Boulevard , which was rebuilt as a freeway in 2007 . However , SR 47 must exit the freeway onto its frontage roads , intersecting Henry Ford Avenue before turning north onto the Terminal Island Freeway . Ocean Boulevard leads east over the Gerald Desmond Bridge and becomes Interstate 710 , with access to downtown Long Beach .
State maintenance begins again on the Terminal Island Freeway , which is also signed as State Route 103 . After a partial interchange with New Dock Street , only allowing access to and from the north , SR 47 crosses the Cerritos Channel on the Schuyler Heim Bridge , a lift bridge opened in 1948 . Just beyond the bridge , SR 47 leaves the freeway , which continues northeast as SR 103 , onto Henry Ford Avenue , and state maintenance ends . The remainder of what is signed as SR 47 , along Henry Ford Avenue and Alameda Street to the Redondo Beach Freeway ( SR 91 ) , is locally maintained . Henry Ford Avenue quickly crosses the Dominguez Channel and Anaheim Street , and merges with Alameda Street , which continues southwest into Wilmington as a local street .
= = = Alameda Street = = =
The part of Alameda Street rebuilt during the Alameda Corridor project begins here , and the roadway passes under all cross streets - Pacific Coast Highway ( SR 1 ) , Sepulveda Boulevard , 223rd Street ( at the San Diego Freeway / I @-@ 405 interchange ) , Carson Street , Del Amo Boulevard , and Artesia Boulevard ( at the Redondo Beach Freeway / SR 91 interchange ) - with two @-@ way connector ramps . The one major at @-@ grade intersection here is the split with Santa Fe Avenue north of Del Amo Boulevard , just south of the underpass where Alameda Street moves from the east to the west side of the rail line . ( Before the corridor was built , the crossover was further south , at Dominguez Street , halfway between Carson Street and Del Amo Boulevard . )
North of Artesia Boulevard , the rail line descends into the 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) Mid @-@ Corridor Trench , with two streets straddling it at ground level : Alameda Street to the west and a local frontage road to the east . All cross streets are thus grade @-@ separated from the rail line while intersecting the streets at grade , except for Rosecrans Avenue , which bridges over all three . Crossings along this segment include the Century Freeway ( I @-@ 105 , no access ) , Imperial Highway , Firestone Boulevard ( former SR 42 ) , and Slauson Avenue . Just south of 25th Street , the rail line curves northeast out of the trench , and the two roadways join to become a single Alameda Street , which soon interchanges with the Santa Monica Freeway ( I @-@ 10 ) , at the north end of what is legislated as Route 47 . The street continues north through the east side of downtown Los Angeles , crossing the Santa Ana Freeway ( US 101 ) just west of Union Station , and ending soon after at Elmyra Street , where it becomes Spring Street .
= = History = =
The Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors decided in mid @-@ 1916 , at the urging of the Harbor Truck Highway Association ( formed mid @-@ 1914 ) , to build a Harbor Truck Boulevard stretching about 10 miles ( 15 km ) between Los Angeles and Compton , intended to be used by trucks to the Port of Los Angeles at San Pedro . After that portion was completed , an extension to Wilmington was opened on February 2 , 1924 , resulting in a completely independent truck route to the port . This roadway , which lay about halfway between Wilmington Avenue and Long Beach Boulevard , extended the existing Alameda Street , which ran along — to Slauson Avenue — and then west of the Southern Pacific Railroad 's San Pedro Branch to Oris Street , the north limit of Compton . The truck boulevard continued along the west side to Dominguez Street ( lying between the SP 's San Pedro Branch and Pacific Electric Railway 's Dominguez Line beyond Dominguez Junction ) , and crossed there to the east side for the rest of the route to Anaheim Street in Wilmington . There trucks could turn east and south to Terminal Island via Henry Ford Avenue , or continue southwest through Wilmington to San Pedro . The highway soon came to be known as Alameda Street all the way to Wilmington . It did not become a state highway ; instead the state took over Figueroa Street ( SR 11 ) to the west and Atlantic Avenue ( SR 15 ) to the east .
Plans for freeways in Los Angeles County evolved from a 1937 Automobile Club of Southern California plan , which was modified by the city 's Transportation Engineering Board ( TEB ) in 1939 . The former included a single freeway connecting Los Angeles to Long Beach , beginning at Pasadena and heading south @-@ southwest to Lynwood , then paralleling Long Beach Boulevard to Long Beach . The TEB 's plan shifted this route farther east to near the present Long Beach Freeway , while keeping the route near Long Beach Boulevard as a second freeway leaving the Ramona Parkway ( San Bernardino Freeway ) east of downtown and heading south near Alameda Street and Long Beach Boulevard to Long Beach . This second freeway came to be known as the Long Beach Parkway or Alamitos Parkway , and connected in north Long Beach with a Terminal Island Freeway southwest to Terminal Island . Because the Long Beach Naval Shipyard was located on the island , the U.S. Navy paid for the construction of the $ 14 million freeway from the island to Willow Street , including the $ 5 @.@ 3 million Schuyler Heim Lift Bridge . Construction began in early 1946 , and the completed link was dedicated on January 10 , 1948 , replacing the older Henry Ford Bridge .
Early plans also included a north – south freeway on each side of the Los Angeles Central Business District , splitting at the merge of the Harbor Parkway ( Harbor Freeway ) and Venice Parkway northeast of the University of Southern California , and rejoining at the split between the Arroyo Seco Parkway ( Pasadena Freeway ) and Riverside Parkway south of Dodger Stadium . Initially known as the East By @-@ Pass and West By @-@ Pass , the latter later became part of the Harbor Parkway , while the former remained as a separate route roughly along Main Street . The state legislature added the East By @-@ Pass to the state highway system in 1947 as Route 222 . The Los Angeles City Planning Commission approved a revised master plan in mid @-@ 1955 , based on various studied that had been made . A new Industrial Freeway replaced the Terminal Island Freeway and Alamitos Parkway between Terminal Island and downtown Los Angeles , where it then continued north along the former East By @-@ Pass ( which was not kept south of the Santa Monica Freeway ) and the southern part of the Riverside Parkway to the interchange of the Glendale Freeway and Golden State Freeway ( which had replaced the rest of the Riverside Parkway ) . The Industrial Freeway south of the Santa Monica Freeway became Route 270 in 1959 , but the ex @-@ Riverside Parkway piece north of the Arroyo Seco Parkway never became a state highway .
In the 1964 renumbering , the Industrial Freeway became Route 47 , and the former East By @-@ Pass became Route 241 . The latter was deleted the next year , and the former was extended west from its south end on Terminal Island to San Pedro , replacing part of SR 7 , which was truncated to SR 1 in Long Beach at the same time . ( I @-@ 710 , which later replaced SR 7 , has since been re @-@ extended to SR 47 on Terminal Island . ) This extension , which had been added to the state highway system in 1949 as part of Route 231 , included the 1963 Vincent Thomas Bridge . Construction on the $ 5 @.@ 8 million freeway link from that bridge west to the Harbor Freeway in San Pedro — officially the Seaside Freeway , but called an extension of the Harbor Freeway by the media — began in March 1968 , and it was dedicated on July 9 , 1970 . The two parts of SR 47 were , and still are , connected by the Los Angeles @-@ maintained Seaside Avenue and Long Beach @-@ maintained Ocean Boulevard . ( A freeway upgrade of the latter was completed in June 2007 , but traffic signals remain on the former and on the ramps connecting Ocean Boulevard with the Terminal Island Freeway . )
Early maps show that the Terminal Island Freeway was to extend north to the Long Beach Freeway ( I @-@ 710 ) near the San Diego Freeway ( I @-@ 405 ) , but the location for SR 47 adopted by the California Highway Commission on January 22 , 1969 led northwest from the Terminal Island Freeway 's end at Carson Street to I @-@ 405 near Alameda Street , and then paralleled that street into Los Angeles . A 1982 state law specified that SR 47 shall use Henry Ford Avenue and Alameda Street between the Heim Bridge and the Redondo Beach Freeway ( SR 91 ) , rather than the adopted alignment to the east , and in 1984 the legislature created State Route 103 to replace the former alignment on the Terminal Island Freeway between SR 47 and the Pacific Coast Highway ( SR 1 ) . Due to the cancellation of the Industrial Freeway and planned port expansions , the Alameda Corridor project was created , including an improved rail line and a widening of Alameda Street from four to six lanes south of SR 91 . Alameda Street was rebuilt for the project , with grade separations at most major streets south of SR 91 , and is now signed as part of SR 47 there , but remains mostly four lanes . As part of a project to replace the Heim Bridge , Caltrans and the Alameda Corridor Transportation Authority plan to improve the connection near the south end of Alameda Street , possibly by building a new expressway replacement for SR 47 south of SR 1 , or by extending SR 103 northwest via the originally @-@ planned alignment to Alameda Street south of I @-@ 405 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Los Angeles County .
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= Resident Evil : Afterlife =
Resident Evil : Afterlife is a 2010 3D science fiction action horror film written and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson . It stars Milla Jovovich , Ali Larter , Kim Coates , Shawn Roberts , Spencer Locke , Boris Kodjoe , and Wentworth Miller . The film marks Anderson 's second time to direct in the series , the first being the first installment . It is the first to be shot in 3D and fourth installment in the Resident Evil film series , which is based on the Capcom survival horror video game series of the same name .
The film follows Alice searching for and rescuing the remaining survivors in Los Angeles after the T @-@ virus outbreak , and teaming up against Albert Wesker , the head of the Umbrella Corporation . Chris Redfield , a primary character from the video games , was featured for the first time in the film franchise . Other characters from the games and films who returned are : Claire Redfield , Chris 's sister who has lost her memory prior to the film 's events ; Albert Wesker , the film 's main antagonist ; and Jill Valentine , who made a cameo appearance .
In May 2005 , producers mentioned the possibility of following Extinction with a sequel titled Afterlife . Extinction was released in 2007 and was a box office success prompting Afterlife to begin development in June 2008 , with the script being written by Anderson that December . Elements from the video game Resident Evil 5 ( 2009 ) were incorporated into the film . Filming took place in Toronto from September to December 2009 using the 3D Fusion Camera System .
The film was released in 3D and IMAX 3D theaters on September 10 , 2010 . The film grossed $ 60 million in the United States and Canada on an estimated $ 60 million budget , and made $ 236 million in other markets surpassing the previous film 's overseas total in the second week of release . Grossing a worldwide total of $ 296 million , Resident Evil : Afterlife became the highest @-@ grossing entry of the series with the overseas total almost equaling the previous films ' overseas total combined . Resident Evil : Afterlife was released to DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and Blu @-@ ray 3D on December 28 , 2010 in the United States .
= = Plot = =
The Alice clones ( Milla Jovovich ) attack Umbrella HQ , Tokyo , slaying the entire branch except for Albert Wesker ( Shawn Roberts ) , who escapes in a tiltrotor plane and detonates a bomb that leaves a massive sinkhole ; however , the real Alice boarded beforehand . Wesker injects her with Anti @-@ Virus before the autopilot crashes the plane . Only Alice survives .
Months later , Alice travels to Alaska in an airplane , tracking broadcasts from a safe haven called Arcadia ; however , she only finds abandoned planes , and is attacked by feral Claire Redfield ( Ali Larter ) . Alice destroys a spider @-@ like device on Claire 's chest , giving her amnesia and pacifying her . They travel to the ruins of L.A. , where they find survivors living in a prison surrounded by infected . They meet Luther West ( Boris Kodjoe ) , Wendell ( Fulvio Cecere ) , Crystal Waters ( Kacey Barnfield ) , Bennett ( Kim Coates ) , Kim Yong ( Norman Yeung ) , and Angel Ortiz ( Sergio Peris @-@ Mencheta ) . With their help , Alice lands on the prison 's roof and learns Arcadia isn 't a fixed place , but a cargo tanker traveling along the coast . However , though the ship hasn 't moved , no @-@ one from it has responded to the group 's rescue flares . Luther takes Alice to the last inmate , Chris ( Wentworth Miller ) , who insists he 's falsely imprisoned , and will reveal an escape route for freedom . Alice goes to the showers to wash up , but catches Wendell attempting to peep . They are attacked by a group of infected that dug into the prison , and take Wendell ; she manages to kill them .
Desperate , they free Chris , who reveals Claire 's his sister , and the prison has an armored car they can use to escape . However , a giant axe @-@ wielding monster begins breaking down the gate . Alice , Chris and Crystal go to the basement armory to get more guns ; however , zombies kill Crystal en route . Luther and Claire reinforce the gate . Angel informs Bennett and Yong the car is missing its engine and it would take a week to fix . Bennett shoots Angel and heads for Arcadia in Alice 's airplane . The Axeman breaks down the gate , allowing the zombies into the prison . The group decides to use the zombie @-@ dug tunnels to escape into the sewers . Yong is slashed in half by the Axeman , whom Alice and Claire kill . Unfortunately , Luther is dragged back into the tunnels by a zombie ,
Alice and the Redfields board the Arcadia , discovering it functional but abandoned . Claire then remembers Arcadia is an Umbrella trap to get test subjects ; they release the survivors , among them K @-@ Mart ( Spencer Locke ) . Alice follows a trail of blood deeper into the ship , where she finds Wesker . The T @-@ virus revived him , but it battles Wesker for control , something he believes fresh human DNA can pacify ; the Umbrella staff fled when he began eating test subjects . Alice 's DNA is superior to his , since she retained control despite bonding with the virus at a cellular level ; he believes eating her will give him back control .
The Redfields fight Wesker while Alice battles Bennett , now working for Wesker . Wesker easily overpowers Chris and Claire , but Alice is able to defeat both Bennett and Wesker with help from K @-@ Mart . They lock Bennett in the room with Wesker 's corpse . Bennett is devoured by Wesker when he revives . Wesker then escapes in an aircraft , activating a bomb on the Arcadia ; the plane explodes instead as Alice placed the bomb there beforehand . Unbeknownst to them , Wesker parachutes away from the explosion , while Luther emerges from the sewers , battered but alive . Alice resolves to turn Arcadia into a real haven and broadcasts a new message for any other survivors . As Alice , Claire and Chris watch over from Arcadia , it is approached by a military squadron of Umbrella aircraft .
During the post @-@ credits scene in one of the aircraft , Jill Valentine ( Sienna Guillory ) , who went missing after Resident Evil : Apocalypse , is dictating the attack wearing the same mind control device used on Claire .
= = Cast = =
Milla Jovovich as Alice ; a former Umbrella Corporation security officer whose exposure to the T @-@ virus granted her superhuman abilities .
Ali Larter as Claire Redfield ; Chris 's younger sister who led a convoy of survivors who encountered Alice in the previous film .
Wentworth Miller as Chris Redfield ; Claire 's older brother who was serving with the United States Military combating the infected .
Shawn Roberts as Albert Wesker ; the Chairman of the Umbrella Corporation who possesses superhuman strength , speed , and regenerative capabilities .
Boris Kodjoe as Luther West ; a former professional basketball player and the leader of the survivors of Los Angeles .
Kim Coates as Bennett Sinclair ; a former film producer and one of the survivors of Los Angeles
Spencer Locke as K @-@ Mart ; a young girl named after the department store where she was discovered hiding , and a member of Claire 's convoy of survivors in the previous film .
Sergio Peris @-@ Mencheta as Angel Ortiz , a survivor in Los Angeles .
Kacey Barnfield as Crystal Waters ; a junior champ in swimming in her high school days , she came to Los Angeles to work as an actress and is one of the survivors .
Norman Yeung as Kim Yong ; Bennett 's former intern before the virus outbreak .
Mika Nakashima as J @-@ Pop Girl ; Japan 's patient zero , first infected person there .
Ray Olubowale as the Axeman ; a monster taken from the game Resident Evil 5 ( known as The Executioner ) .
Sienna Guillory as Jill Valentine ; a former S.T.A.R.S. operative who assisted Alice and escaped Raccoon City in Resident Evil : Apocalypse .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In May 2005 , producers mentioned the possibility of following Extinction with a sequel entitled Afterlife , to be shot and set in Tokyo , Japan and Alaska . Despite Resident Evil : Extinction being billed on the official website and elsewhere as the final installment of the Resident Evil film series ; on September 23 , 2007 , Rory Bruer , Sony 's head of distribution explained , " It absolutely would not surprise me considering the success of the franchise that they find a way to come up with another . It 's a real possibility . " Producer Jeremy Bolt also stated that while there was no intention of making a fourth film , that the third had been particularly well done and that Paul Anderson was talking with Sony about the possibility . In June 2008 , Anderson noted that negotiations were underway with Sony for creating the film . In December 2008 , Anderson stated that he was working on the script . The following year , it was announced that Sony was aiming to release Resident Evil : Afterlife by August 27 , 2010 .
= = = Casting = = =
In September 2006 , reports indicated that casting for the fourth film had begun , with Jensen Ackles being considered for the role of Leon S. Kennedy . Ali Larter missed seven episodes of filming the television show Heroes in order to appear in the film . Before Wentworth Miller was cast as Chris Redfield , actor Johnny Messner auditioned for the role . Having never played the Resident Evil video games , Miller began preparing for the role by searching the internet for images of Chris Redfield . Much to his surprise , he noticed how muscular the character was ; with only three weeks to prep before shooting , he knew it was impossible to increase his muscle mass to that extent . He was shown video footage of the games and saw how he was visually different , especially in the first game . He did cardio to build up endurance . Miller described his interpretation on the character from the video game as , " He 's definitely capable and heroic , but there 's also something quite innocent . He was still freshly scrubbed , in a way , at the beginning of this horrifying journey . " He described his take as the character in the film , " My Chris has been walking down this particular road for quite some time . The edges are sharper , and they ’ re way more jagged . "
Shawn Roberts was originally going to audition for Chris Redfield before Miller accepted the role . He went to audition for the role of Albert Wesker , a role previously played by Jason O 'Mara . Describing the character Roberts said , " [ He 's the ] Chairman of the Umbrella Corporation . He is in a position of power . He pretty much runs the world , and Alice is an annoyance . It 's a whole process : I get to set and wardrobe gives me this big , long black jacket , and props comes over and gives me the dark glasses and the gloves . By the time you are all dressed you stand a little straighter , you walk a little differently . He 's got everything going for him — he 's super fast , super strong , has the ability to regenerate — it 's all the elements from the game . That was one thing we all agreed on from the start : this character has to be for the fans . " Sienna Guillory reprises her role as Jill Valentine , who was last seen in Resident Evil : Apocalypse . She is featured briefly in a scene shown during the credits , setting up the sequel .
= = = Cinematography and set design = = =
Anderson was shown footage of James Cameron 's Avatar which sold him on the idea to shoot Resident Evil : Afterlife in digital 3D . He shot in high @-@ definition with an aspect ratio of 2 @.@ 35 : 1 using Cameron 's Fusion Camera System , or more specifically a Sony F35 camera . The crew spent two weeks in pre @-@ production learning the 3D camera system . With a budget of about $ 60 million , principal photography took place for 55 days from September 29 , 2009 to December . Filming in 3D added 20 % to the budget . Roberts began filming his scenes on October 10 , 2009 . The final showdown scene was filmed for about six days . During production Jovovich accidentally shot out a $ 100 @,@ 000 camera .
For slow motion scenes like with bullets and drops of water , twin Phantom high @-@ speed cameras were used which filmed 200 frames per second . A fight scene with Wesker and Chris in the Resident Evil 5 game was recreated shot @-@ by @-@ shot for the film and the Phantom cameras were used to create Wesker 's superhuman speed which took about two days to film . The added size and weight of the 3D cameras meant the filmmakers were not able to use existing equipment such as Steadicam rigs . Instead the camera operator worked on a Segway to achieve the look of a Steadicam shot . Much of the action scenes were shot in front of a green screen . A 1983 Yak @-@ 52 was used throughout the film by Jovovich and Larter . Stunt pilot Martin Mattes was dressed like Jovovich and flew the plane for the camera .
The 3D cameras were unable to pick up anything shiny , such as stainless steel , due to a flare . Set decorator Cal Loucks said that most items that looked metal were actually painted silver with special paint to remove its reflective quality . The saturation of colors also had to be changed to accustom the 3D cameras , which are " slow to pick up information " . Loucks said , " It 's a very restrictive color palette . For example , in this warehouse scene , we saturated the floors in a dark , dark charcoal , and we thought that was enough , but then the cameras showed them as still being too light . So we had to add more and more black . The reason I say it 's too light is because we are putting more light onto these sets than we ever have before . "
= = = Filming locations = = =
Principal photography was done mostly at Cinespace Film Studios in Toronto , Ontario . Toronto police received hundreds of calls from concerned neighbors after a scene involving a burning plane crashed . For the underwater scenes , cargo shipping containers were cut and welded to make a giant tank on stage . The opening scene was filmed at the Shibuya Crossing in Shibuya , Tokyo . Interior scenes of Umbrella Corporation 's subterranean lair were filmed at the Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy . Robarts Library was used to portray exterior shots of a Los Angeles prison due to its resemblance to a prison , and other scenes were shot at University of Toronto Scarborough . Scenes portraying an Alaskan aircraft boneyard were actually filmed at Oshawa Airport . A location depicting an Alaskan beach was filmed at Sandbanks Provincial Park . Second unit was sent to Alaska to capture establishing shots of the scenery .
= = = Visual and special effects = = =
Visual effects were done by Rocket Science VFX and Mr. X Inc . Paul Jones served as the special effects creator , who previously designed the Nemesis character in Resident Evil : Apocalypse . The production team planned to use extras to portray 300 zombies at once , but time restraints prevented that . Around 150 zombies were eventually used and Mr. X Inc 's visual effects supervisor , Dennis Berardi , added more in post @-@ production . For Alice 's clones they shot motion control photography for multiple passes of Jovovich . For the wide shots they took digital photo doubles . Visual effects production manager Eric Robertson described the look of the film , " interesting contrasts , pure whites , which is a staggering look . It 's so clean and tight along with some real darkness too that may evoke a bit of a feel of Silent Hill . So we 've got the extremes , but it 's definitely a unique look for this incarnation and it 's been fun to see those looks . " A burned cityscape with ash and smoke in the sky was created to depict a postapocalyptic Los Angeles , in which most of the film is set . Bolt described this approach as , " In a world that has gone to hell in a handbasket , there 's no control and no fire service , so clearly , what 's going to happen to LA is it 's going to get burned . "
The infected Dobermans from the games and previous films return , but are more advanced . The dogs wore a costume with prosthetics . Anderson wanted to make the dogs in this film look " absolutely terrible " . Computer effects were used to make the dog 's jaw flare open , with tentacles coming out of their mouths similar to the dogs from the fourth and fifth video games . Other creatures borrowed from the fifth video game are the " Majini " who are more intelligent and have mandibles and tentacles coming out of their mouths , and " The Executioner " ( named the Axeman in the film ) .
= = Release = =
In August 2009 it was announced that the film would be released on August 27 , 2010 , but that December it was set back to January 14 , 2011 . In January 2010 , it was announced that the release date was moved to September 10 , 2010 . Screen Gems paid Constantin Film , Davis Films and Impact Pictures $ 52 million for the rights to distribute the film in North American and " most key foreign markets " .
On April 3 , 2010 , Anderson , Jovovich and Larter attended WonderCon for a Resident Evil : Afterlife panel answering fan questions . On July 24 , 2010 , they attended the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International to promote the film .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The Resident Evil : Afterlife : Music from the Motion Picture was composed by Tomandandy and released on September 28 , 2010 by Milan Records .
In addition to the original soundtrack , " The Outsider " ( Apocalypse Remix ) by alternative rock group A Perfect Circle was used for the marketing the film , along with a short segment of it being played during the confrontation between Alice and Wesker , as well as playing over the end credits .
= = = Home media = = =
Resident Evil : Afterlife was released to DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and Blu @-@ ray 3D on December 28 , 2010 in the United States . Special features on the DVD includes a filmmaker commentary and two featurettes . The Blu @-@ ray releases includes the same and also with deleted and extended scenes , additional featurettes and outtakes .
In 2013 , Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released a two @-@ disc set containing the first four films in the series . It was called The 4 Movie Resident Evil Collection .
= = Box office = =
= = = United States and Canada = = =
Resident Evil : Afterlife opened on approximately 4 @,@ 700 screens in 3 @,@ 203 locations , with 2 @,@ 062 of the locations showing on 3D @-@ equipped screens and 141 in IMAX 3D , ranking as one of the largest 3D releases at the time . In Canada the film opened in an additional 250 theaters through Alliance Films . The film opened at number one and took in $ 10 @.@ 7 million on its opening day and $ 26 @.@ 6 million on its opening weekend . By its second weekend the film had dropped to fourth place with new release The Town taking its first place spot . It grossed $ 10 million , a 63 % decrease in ticket sales from its opening weekend . It fell to seventh place by its third weekend , grossing $ 4 @.@ 9 million and was removed from 567 theaters . On its fourth weekend , Resident Evil : Afterlife moved to eleventh place with the new release Case 39 at number one , while grossing $ 2 @.@ 7 million and being dropped from 735 theaters . For the film 's fifth weekend it made $ 1 @.@ 2 million , a 54 % decrease from the previous weekend and was removed from an additional 895 theaters . For its sixth , seventh and eight weekends it had dropped to $ 347 @,@ 264 , $ 137 @,@ 502 and $ 70 @,@ 474 , respectively and was playing in 140 theaters by its eight and final weekend . The film closed out of theaters on November 4 , 2010 after 56 days of release .
= = = Other countries = = =
On September 15 , Resident Evil : Afterlife opened in 30 countries , bumping Inception from first place and grossing $ 42 @.@ 3 million from 3 @,@ 559 screens with 3D screenings accounting for 81 % of total earnings , thereby becoming the most successful overseas debut of the entire series . More than one @-@ third of the total came from a $ 15 @.@ 5 million three @-@ day launch in Japan . Additionally , the film grossed $ 6 @.@ 4 million in Russia , $ 3 @.@ 3 million in Spain , $ 2 @.@ 95 million in Taiwan and $ 2 @.@ 6 million in the UK . By September 19 it had passed Resident Evil : Extinction 's $ 97 @.@ 1 million overseas total . The following day it had surpassed Extinction 's total of $ 103 @.@ 2 million overseas , 148 @.@ 8 million worldwide , to become the highest @-@ grossing entry of the series .
During its second week the film grossed $ 40 million , with $ 5 @.@ 3 million of it in Germany , $ 3 @.@ 2 million in Mexico , $ 3 @.@ 1 million in South Korea and $ 2 @.@ 9 million in Brazil . Japanese ticket sales grossed $ 5 @.@ 1 million with Russia adding another $ 4 @.@ 2 million . By its third weekend it was still at number one , grossing $ 24 @.@ 3 million , with an opening in France adding $ 3 @.@ 5 million of it . Hong Kong added another $ 768 @,@ 324 . The film remained at # 1 for its fourth weekend grossing $ 15 @.@ 6 million . On its fifth weekend it grossed $ 8 million , dropping to fifth place , being replaced by Eat Pray Love at number one . By its eleventh weekend ticket sales had dropped to $ 9 @.@ 1 million gross , with fully $ 9 million of that coming from its opening in China . Overall Resident Evil : Afterlife only missed by about $ 1 @.@ 5 million the total the three previous films in the series had made combined .
= = = Worldwide overview = = =
The film grossed $ 60 million in the US and Canada with $ 236 million in other markets for a worldwide total of $ 296 million . In the United States , the high box office gross was attributed to the ticket price inflation of the 3D presentation , but the film had the lowest opening weekend attendance of the film series . On November 23 , 2010 Resident Evil : Afterlife , became the most successful production in Canadian feature film history , as well as the highest grossing zombie film . It is also the highest grossing film to be released by Screen Gems . Worldwide , it is the fourth highest @-@ grossing video game film of all @-@ time , behind Warcraft ( $ 433 million ) , The Angry Birds Movie ( $ 344 @.@ 4 million ) and Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time ( $ 336 @.@ 4 million ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Resident Evil : Afterlife was not screened in advance for critics . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 23 % based on reviews 95 critics , with a rating average of 4 @.@ 1 out of 10 . Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 37 based on 14 reviews . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a " B- " on an A + to F scale .
Michael Ordoña of the Los Angeles Times gave it a positive review , noting the slower cut of the film and saying " the action is easier to read than in most films of the genre , and therefore more enjoyable . Anderson makes particular use of sets and locations to wring out more bang for the stereoscopic buck " . Phelim O 'Neill of The Guardian gave the film two stars out of five praising the use of 3D , while stating that the Resident Evil films " always look good and have well @-@ staged action , but they don 't have one iota of originality or imagination " . Chicago Reader 's Andrea Gronvall described the plot as " nearly indiscernible " but did call the film the " sleekest so far , thanks to 3D and star Milla Jovovich 's body @-@ hugging catsuit " .
Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times gave the film a negative review , saying " Cannibalizing John Carpenter 's Thing and much of the sci @-@ fi @-@ horror canon , Afterlife is more moribund than its thronging undead " . David Edwards of the Daily Mirror compared it to Resident Evil : Extinction , stating that the " results are even less impressive , which is saying quite something " and " only fans of the series will care with the film looking suspiciously like a series of barely connected action scenes and unimpressive 3D welded to a who @-@ the @-@ hell @-@ cares ? plot " . Spill.com critics Corey Koleman and Co @-@ Host 3000 gave the film a " Some ol ' bullshit " , the site 's second lowest rating . They criticized the film 's overuse of slow motion , lack of explanation of certain plot elements and long lapses in between action , but gave the film points for its cinematography , small bits of action , 3D and the special effects of the Axeman . Andrew Barker of Variety compared the film to the previous installment as " equally moribund , and perhaps even more shamelessly derivative " . He compared Roberts ' Wesker to Hugo Weaving 's Agent Smith from The Matrix , calling it a " slipshod impression " . A particularly scathing review came from Brian Orndorf of Dark Horizons , who commented : " Perhaps the first 3D motion picture to simulate the experience of watching paint dry , Resident Evil : Afterlife is a dreadful bore that only occasionally comes to life . "
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Shelton Benjamin =
Shelton James Benjamin ( born July 9 , 1975 ) is an American professional wrestler , and former amateur wrestler , perhaps best known for his tenure in WWE . Benjamin also wrestled for Ring of Honor ( ROH ) for two years and New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) . He currently works for Pro Wrestling Noah under the ring name Shelton X Benjamin . Prior to becoming a professional wrestler , he was a two @-@ sport athlete in college . Benjamin won an NJCAA championship in both track and field and collegiate wrestling . After attending junior college , he completed his degree from the University of Minnesota .
Benjamin started his professional wrestling career in WWE 's developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , where he held the Southern Tag Team Championship four times with Brock Lesnar ( three times ) and Rodney Mack ( one time ) . WWE then moved him to the main roster in 2003 where he formed an alliance , with Kurt Angle and Charlie Haas , known as Team Angle ( and later the World 's Greatest Tag Team with Haas ) . During his tenure with the company , he won the Intercontinental Championship three times , the United States Championship once , and the WWE Tag Team Championship twice with Haas .
= = Amateur wrestling = =
Benjamin was born and raised in Orangeburg , South Carolina . He began wrestling his sophomore year at Orangeburg @-@ Wilkinson High School . Benjamin recorded an 122 – 10 overall win @-@ loss record in his high school career and was a two @-@ time South Carolina state high school heavyweight wrestling champion ( 1993 @-@ 1994 ) . Benjamin then attended Lassen Community College in Susanville , California and became a National Junior College Athletic Association ( NJCAA ) track and field champion in the 100 meter as well as a NJCAA collegiate wrestling champion . He then transferred to the University of Minnesota on a wrestling scholarship for his junior and senior years of college where he achieved a 36 – 6 overall win @-@ loss record . After graduation , he served as an assistant wrestling coach at his alma mater and trained with future Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) tag team partner Brock Lesnar . Benjamin thought about trying to qualify for the 2000 Summer Olympics but decided instead to pursue a professional wrestling career .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2000 – 2002 ) = = = =
In 2000 , Benjamin signed a contract with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) and was placed in its developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) . There , he formed a tag team with Brock Lesnar , where he was wrestling Brock 's wrestling coach at the University of Minnesota . Together , they were known as the " Minnesota Stretching Crew , " and they held the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship on three occasions . The first two reigns occurred during February and July 2001 . They won the title for a third time from Rico Constantino and The Prototype on October 29 , 2001 . After Lesnar was called up to the main roster in November 2001 , Benjamin formed a tag team with Redd Dogg Begnaud called " The Dogg Pound " and once again won the OVW Southern Tag Team Title on July 17 , 2002 . Benjamin then wrestled at several house shows for the main WWE roster and eventually made his WWE television debut on Sunday Night Heat as a face character .
= = = = The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = = =
He joined WWE 's SmackDown brand as a villain on January 2 , 2003 , forming an alliance with Charlie Haas and Olympic gold @-@ medalist Kurt Angle as their on @-@ screen mentor known as " Team Angle " . Their first official match together in WWE was on the January 2 , 2003 episode of SmackDown against Edge and Chris Benoit .
They continued their storyline feud with Benoit until No Way Out , when Benoit teamed with Brock Lesnar to defeat Team Angle . The duo were scripted to win their first WWE Tag Team Championship just a month after their debut by defeating the champions , Los Guerreros ( Eddie and Chavo Guerrero ) on February 6 , 2003 . The two then went on to compete in their first WrestleMania match at WrestleMania XIX , retaining their tag title in a Triple Threat match against Los Guerreros , and Chris Benoit and Rhyno . Team Angle later lost the title to Eddie Guerrero and his new partner Tajiri at Judgment Day in a ladder match . The storyline concluded on the June 12 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , when Angle confronted Benjamin and Haas and fired them from Team Angle . They then began referring to themselves as " The World 's Greatest Tag Team " and won the tag titles back on the July 3 episode of Smackdown . They lost the title on September 18 , after Benjamin suffered a legitimate knee injury during a match against Los Guerreros . Benjamin was sidelined for approximately one month , but the pair competed together again , taking part in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match at WrestleMania XX .
= = = = Intercontinental Champion ( 2004 – 2007 ) = = = =
On March 22 , 2004 , Benjamin was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2004 WWE draft . After arriving , Benjamin quickly became a face when he scored an upset pinfall victory over Triple H. Benjamin then feuded with Triple H , beating him three times in total : once by pinfall , once by count @-@ out , and once by disqualification . As part of the storyline , Benjamin then feuded with the other members of Triple H 's stable Evolution . Benjamin defeated Ric Flair at Backlash and lost to Randy Orton in an Intercontinental Championship match at Bad Blood .
During a match with Garrison Cade on Heat , Benjamin punched Cade 's knee brace , legitimately breaking his hand in the process and briefly taking him out of action . Benjamin returned in the fall of 2004 helping Randy Orton fight off Evolution and was later chosen by the fans to compete for the Intercontinental Championship in a match against then @-@ champion Chris Jericho at Taboo Tuesday . Benjamin was scripted to win the match , giving him his first singles title in the company . During his reign as Intercontinental Champion , Benjamin retained the title against challengers such as Christian at Survivor Series , Maven at New Year 's Revolution , and Chris Jericho at Backlash . Benjamin lost the title to Carlito when he debuted on Raw ( Carlito used the ropes during the pinfall . ) during the June 20 , 2005 episode , ending the longest Intercontinental Championship reign of the decade .
Benjamin 's next storyline began on the December 5 , 2005 episode of Raw , when Shawn Michaels was scripted to give Benjamin a speech to get him " psyched " for their tag match together later in the night . As a part of the scripted ending to the match , Michaels was preparing to finish the match when Benjamin tagged himself in and missed a crossbody , allowing Carlito to pin Benjamin . Benjamin was then depicted as having a " losing streak " over the next several weeks , which led to Benjamin 's noisy , scolding , and domineering " Momma " ( played by comedian / actress Thea Vidale ) coming to Raw to confront Benjamin . Momma slapped and yelled at Benjamin every time he lost a match . Before long , she assisted Benjamin in his matches , often interfering on his behalf . This led to Benjamin once again becoming a villain for the first time since 2004 . In 2006 , Benjamin had a staged on @-@ screen rivalry with then @-@ Intercontinental Champion Ric Flair . On the February 20 episode of Raw , Benjamin defeated Flair to regain the Intercontinental Championship after Momma faked a heart problem , causing enough of a distraction to allow Benjamin to cheat and win the title . Benjamin continued to feud with Flair , but Momma no longer accompanied him to ringside . As part of the scripted events , Benjamin stated that she was undergoing heart surgery in the hospital and that he held Flair responsible .
Benjamin competed in the second Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 22 . Benjamin then had an on @-@ screen rivalry with the winner of that match , Rob Van Dam , in an attempt to take Van Dam 's Money in the Bank contract . During this time , Benjamin emphasized his new heel persona with a new gimmick : wearing shades , jewelry , and occasional colored shirts while entering the ring . At one point , Benjamin was defeated by his former tag team partner , the returning Charlie Haas , during an episode of Raw . A predetermined stipulation added to this loss meant that Benjamin had to defend the Intercontinental Title in the same match as his shot at Van Dam 's contract , meaning at Backlash it would be a " Winner Takes All " match . Rob Van Dam won at Backlash and became Intercontinental Champion . Benjamin regained the title from Rob Van Dam in a Tornado Tag Team match , pitting Benjamin , Triple H and Chris Masters against Van Dam and WWE Champion John Cena ; both the WWE Championship and WWE Intercontinental Championship could be won by whoever pinned the appropriate champion . After Triple H Pedigreed Van Dam , he turned his attention to John Cena and went for the pin on the WWE Champion . Benjamin got to Van Dam first , picking up the pin and his third Intercontinental Championship . Subsequently , Benjamin feuded with Carlito and others for his Intercontinental Championship before losing the title to Johnny Nitro in a Triple Threat match also involving Carlito at Vengeance .
During December 2006 , Benjamin 's former tag team partner Charlie Haas came out to celebrate with Benjamin after he defeated Super Crazy . The World 's Greatest Tag Team was officially reunited when they defeated The Highlanders on the December 11 , 2006 episode of Raw . The duo feuded with Cryme Tyme and competed mainly on Heat .
= = = = The Gold Standard ( 2007 – 2010 ) = = = =
On the November 20 , 2007 airing of ECW , Elijah Burke introduced Benjamin as the newest ECW superstar . Benjamin , who had dyed his hair blond before leaving Raw , began wearing gold wrestling attire and referring to himself as " The Gold Standard " . On ECW , Benjamin began once again receiving more airtime and higher profile matches , defeating Tommy Dreamer in his debut . Benjamin then qualified for the Royal Rumble match and won an over the top rope preview . Benjamin appeared in the Rumble match , entering at number 17 , but was eliminated by Shawn Michaels . He suffered his first loss since coming to ECW to Kane by count @-@ out , on the January 29 , 2008 episode of ECW on Sci Fi . On the February 22 episode of SmackDown ! , Benjamin defeated Jimmy Wang Yang in a qualifying match for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXIV , which was won by CM Punk . After WrestleMania , Benjamin briefly feuded with Punk , before he began an on @-@ screen rivalry with Kofi Kingston , who defeated Benjamin on the April 22 episode of ECW . On ECW 's 100th episode , however , Benjamin defeated Kingston , thus ending the latter 's undefeated streak . To end the feud , Kingston then defeated Benjamin in an ECW Extreme Rules match .
As part of the 2008 Supplemental Draft , Benjamin was drafted to the SmackDown ! brand . On the July 11 , 2008 airing of SmackDown ! , Benjamin defeated United States Champion Matt Hardy in a non @-@ title match , earning himself a future title shot . At The Great American Bash , Benjamin once again defeated Hardy to win the United States Championship . Throughout his reign as champion , he retained the title several times against competitors such as R @-@ Truth and Hurricane Helms . On the 500th episode of SmackDown ! , on March 20 , 2009 Benjamin lost his United States Championship to Montel Vontavious Porter , ending Benjamin 's reign at 240 days . Benjamin then participated in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXV , but failed to win as CM Punk won the match for the second year in a row . On June 29 , 2009 , Benjamin was traded back to the ECW brand . The following night , Benjamin returned to the brand in a losing effort to the debuting Yoshi Tatsu . He defeated Tatsu in a rematch the following week on ECW . After a tag team match , Benjamin abandoned his partner Zack Ryder during a tag team match , turning Benjamin face once again for the first time since 2006 . He would soon feud with Ryder and Sheamus over the following weeks . Benjamin and Sheamus began feuding with and traded wins against each other on ECW and Superstars and the feud lasted until Sheamus was moved to the Raw brand on October 26 . The next night on ECW , Benjamin lost to Sheamus in Sheamus ' final match on the brand . Benjamin wrestled Christian at TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs for the ECW Championship in a Ladder Match , but came up on the losing end . On the final episode of ECW on Syfy , Benjamin formed an alliance with Vladimir Kozlov . Together , they defeated three members of the ECW roster : Vance Archer , Caylen Croft and Trent Barreta . On the February 26th episode of Smackdown , Benjamin once again qualified for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXVI , beating CM Punk . However Benjamin failed to win the Ladder match . He defeated the returning Joey Mercury in his last match at the SmackDown tapings on April 20 in a dark match . On April 22 , 2010 , Benjamin was released from his WWE contract , along with Jimmy Wang Yang , Kung Fu Naki , Slam Master J , Mickie James and Katie Lea Burchill .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2010 – present ) = = =
Benjamin made his independent circuit return on July 24 , 2010 , in San Diego , California against Scorpio Sky . On July 31 , 2010 , during the World Wrestling Council 's " La Revolución " show in Puerto Rico , Benjamin defeated Ray González to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship . At Crossfire on November 27 , Benjamin lost the Universal Heavyweight Championship to Carlito .
In November 2010 , Benjamin competed for American Wrestling Rampage . He made his debut on November 10 with Haas facing La Résistance . During his tour with AWR he defeated Shawn Daivari in a steel cage match . He also had tag team matches with Haas taking on Booker T and Scott Steiner . On March 8 , 2011 , Benjamin wrestled in a dark match prior to the SmackDown tapings in Houston , Texas , defeating Curt Hawkins . On March 9 , 2011 , Benjamin won the MWF Heavyweight Championship and lost it on June 4 .
At JAPW 18th Anniversary Show , Haas , Benjamin and Angle reunited for the first time in 11 years . In the main event , Benjamin and Haas defeated Chris Sabin and Teddy Hart .
On May 15 , 2015 , Global Force Wrestling ( GFW ) announced Benjamin as part of their roster . He made his debut for the promotion on June 20 , defeating Chris Mordetzky in a main event singles match . Benjamin participated in Global Force Wrestling 's inaugural tournament to crown their very first GFW Global Champion , which served as the company 's world heavyweight championship . After gaining a victory in the quarter @-@ finals , he forfeited his next match @-@ up to Bobby Roode due to a storyline concussion .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
On September 11 , 2010 , at Glory By Honor IX , Benjamin and Charlie Haas made their Ring of Honor debuts in a match , where they were defeated by The Kings of Wrestling ( Chris Hero and Claudio Castagnoli ) .
Benjamin and Haas returned to ROH at the Ring of Honor Wrestling television tapings on December 9 , where they defeated the Bravado Brothers ( Harlem and Lance ) . The following day , at the second set of television tapings , they defeated the All @-@ Night Express of Kenny King and Rhett Titus , and participated in an eight @-@ man tag team match , teaming with the Briscoe Brothers against the Kings of Wrestling and the All @-@ Night Xpress , which ended in a no contest . On December 18 at the Final Battle 2010 pay @-@ per @-@ view Benjamin and Haas announced that in 2011 they would be wrestling regularly for Ring of Honor . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , 9th Anniversary Show , on February 26 , 2011 , Benjamin and Haas defeated the Briscoe Brothers in the main event of the evening to earn another shot at the Kings of Wrestling and the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On April 1 at Honor Takes Center Stage , Benjamin and Haas defeated the Kings of Wrestling for the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On June 26 at Best in the World 2011 , Benjamin and Haas successfully defended the ROH World Tag Team Championship in a four @-@ way match against the Briscoe Brothers , the Kings of Wrestling and the All Night Express . The following day ROH announced that both Benjamin and Haas had signed contracts with the promotion . On December 23 , at Final Battle 2011 , Wrestling 's Greatest Tag Team lost the ROH World Tag Team Championship to the Briscoe Brothers . On May 12 , 2012 , at Border Wars , Benjamin and Haas regained the ROH World Tag Team Championship from the Briscoe Brothers . On June 24 at Best in the World 2012 , Benjamin and Haas lost the title to Kenny King and Rhett Titus .
In early August , ROH , in storyline , suspended Benjamin for attacking Titus and several ROH officials with a steel chair . The suspension was used to explain Benjamin 's absence from ROH , while he was working in Japan . Benjamin returned on September 15 at Death Before Dishonor X : State of Emergency , accompanying Charlie Haas and Rhett Titus during their tag team championship tournament matches . On December 16 at Final Battle 2012 : Doomsday , Benjamin and Haas defeated Titus and B.J. Whitmer in a Street Fight . The following day it was reported that Benjamin had requested and received a release from his ROH contract . Benjamin made one more appearance for ROH on February 2 , 2013 , when Haas turned on him during an ROH World Tag Team Championship match against the Briscoe Brothers . Benjamin was scheduled to face Haas on April 5 at Supercard of Honor VII , but after Haas had parted ways with the promotion , he was replaced by Mike Bennett , who went on to defeat Benjamin .
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2012 – 2015 ) = = =
On December 9 , 2011 , New Japan Pro Wrestling announced that Benjamin would be joining MVP for a tag match against Masato Tanaka and Yujiro Takahashi at Wrestle Kingdom VI in Tokyo Dome on January 4 , 2012 . Benjamin and MVP were victorious in the match , after MVP submitted Takahashi . Benjamin returned to New Japan on June 16 at Dominion 6 @.@ 16 , where he and MVP defeated Karl Anderson and Tama Tonga in a tag team match , with Benjamin pinning Tonga for the win . On July 8 , New Japan announced Benjamin as a participant in the 2012 G1 Climax tournament . Benjamin returned to the promotion on July 29 at Last Rebellion , where he , Karl Anderson , MVP and Rush defeated Suzuki @-@ gun ( Minoru Suzuki , Lance Archer , Taichi and Taka Michinoku ) in an eight @-@ man tag team match , with Benjamin pinning Taichi for the win . In the following month 's G1 Climax tournament , Benjamin ended up winning four out of his eight matches , failing to advance to the finals . On November 11 , New Japan announced that Benjamin would return to take part in the 2012 World Tag League , where he would be teaming with MVP under the tag team name " Black Dynamite " . Benjamin and MVP finished their tournament on December 1 with a record of three wins , one over the reigning IWGP Tag Team Champions K.E.S. ( Davey Boy Smith , Jr. and Lance Archer ) , and three losses , failing to advance from their block . On December 2 , the final day of the tournament , Benjamin got into a brawl with Masato Tanaka , which led to New Japan the naming him the number one contender to Tanaka 's NEVER Openweight Championship the following day . On January 4 , 2013 , at Wrestle Kingdom 7 in Tokyo Dome , Benjamin unsuccessfully challenged Tanaka for his title .
Benjamin returned to New Japan on April 20 , now working as a member of the villainous Suzuki @-@ gun , teaming with the stable 's leader Minoru Suzuki in a main event tag team match , where they defeated Kazuchika Okada and Shinsuke Nakamura . On the following tour , Benjamin worked under the ring name " Shelton X Benjamin " , playing off the fact that prior to him being revealed as the newest member of Suzuki @-@ gun , Suzuki 's partner had been billed simply as " X " . On May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2013 , Benjamin unsuccessfully challenged Nakamura for the IWGP Intercontinental Championship . Benjamin returned to New Japan on June 22 at Dominion 6 @.@ 22 , where he and Minoru Suzuki defeated Shinsuke Nakamura and Tomohiro Ishii in a tag team match , with Benjamin pinning Nakamura for the win . From August 1 to 11 , Benjamin took part in the 2013 G1 Climax , where he finished with a record of five wins and four losses , narrowly missing advancement from his block . On September 29 at Destruction , Benjamin received another shot at the IWGP Intercontinental Championship , but was again defeated by Shinsuke Nakamura . From November 24 to December 7 , Benjamin and Suzuki took part in the 2013 World Tag League , where they finished with a record of three wins and three losses , with a loss against Takashi Iizuka and Toru Yano on the final day costing them a spot in the semifinals . Benjamin returned to New Japan on January 4 , 2014 , at Wrestle Kingdom 8 in Tokyo Dome , where he and Suzuki were defeated by The Great Muta and Toru Yano in a tag team match . On March 15 , Benjamin entered the 2014 New Japan Cup , defeating Yujiro Takahashi in his first round match . On March 22 , Benjamin defeated Katsuyori Shibata to advance to the semifinals of the tournament . The following day , Benjamin was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Bad Luck Fale . From July 21 to August 8 , Benjamin took part in the 2014 G1 Climax , where he finished fifth in his block with a record of five wins and five losses .
Benjamin returned to New Japan on January 4 , 2015 , at Wrestle Kingdom 9 in Tokyo Dome , where he , Davey Boy Smith , Jr . , Lance Archer and Takashi Iizuka were defeated by Naomichi Marufuji , Toru Yano and TMDK ( Mikey Nicholls and Shane Haste ) in an eight @-@ man tag team match .
= = = Pro Wrestling Noah ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On January 10 , 2015 , Benjamin , along with the rest of Suzuki @-@ gun , took part in a major storyline , where the stable invaded a Pro Wrestling Noah show , attacking Marufuji and TMDK . Benjamin made his in @-@ ring debut for Noah on January 12 , when he , Suzuki , Taichi and Michinoku defeated Marufuji , Atsushi Kotoge , Muhammad Yone and Taiji Ishimori in an eight @-@ man tag team match . Over the next few weeks , Benjamin worked all Noah events , while starting a feud with Takashi Sugiura due to him also having a background in amateur wrestling . Benjamin and Sugiura finally met in a grudge match on July 18 , where Sugiura was victorious . In November , Benjamin made it to the finals of Noah 's premier singles tournament , the Global League Tournament , but was defeated there by Naomichi Marufuji . On June 12 , 2016 , Benjamin unsuccessfully challenged Go Shiozaki for Noah 's top title , the GHC Heavyweight Championship .
= = Personal life = =
Benjamin has a bachelor 's degree in sports management .
Benjamin is a fan of video games . He won WWE 's THQ Superstar Challenge , a video game tournament that takes place every year during WrestleMania weekend , four years in a row before retiring from the event in 2007 . He has the Guinness World Record for " wrestler who won the most WWE THQ Superstar Challenges " . Benjamin is also avidly interested in art . He once wanted a career in the comic book art field . Benjamin is also the godfather to Charlie Haas 's oldest daughter .
Benjamin , along with Candice Michelle , Dave Batista and Josh Mathews , represented WWE at the 2008 Democratic National Convention in an effort to encourage fans to register to vote in the 2008 Presidential election .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
450 ° splash – 2000 – 2002
Ankle lock , sometimes while grapevining the opponent 's leg – 2013 – present
Cutter
Dragon whip / Money Clip / Shell Shocka – 2002 @-@ 2003 ; used as a signature move from 2004 – present
Paydirt ( Leaping reverse STO ) – 2007 – present
Superkick – 2002 – 2003 ; used as a signature move from 2004 – present
T @-@ Bone Suplex ( Exploder suplex lifted and dropped into a modified scoop powerslam ) – 2003 – present
Signature moves
Arm trap backbreaker
Crucifix powerbomb
Diving clothesline
Hammerlock front powerslam
Multiple suplex variations
Belly @-@ to @-@ belly
German
Northern Lights
Pull back clothesline
Samoan drop
Springboard bulldog
Springboard neckbreaker
Stinger splash
With Charlie Haas
Double team finishing moves
Double powerbomb
Inverted atomic drop ( Haas ) followed by a superkick ( Benjamin ) followed by a jackknife pin ( Haas )
Double team signature moves
Aided leapfrog body guillotine
With MVP
Double team finishing moves
Fade to Black ( Double powerbomb )
Manager
Momma
Taka Michinoku
Nicknames
" The Gold Standard " ( WWE / NJPW )
" Shinrya Ku Sha X " ( Japanese for " Invader X " ) ( NJPW )
Entrance themes
" Medal " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; used while a part of Team Angle )
" Heroes " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; used while teaming with Charlie Haas )
" Ain 't No Stoppin ' Me " by Lou $ tar ( WWE ; 2004 – 2008 )
" Ain 't No Stoppin ' Me " by Axel ( WWE ; 2008 – 2010 )
" T.N.T. " by AC / DC ( ROH ; used while teaming with Charlie Haas )
" Mess You Up " by Maurice Davis ( ROH ; used while teaming with Charlie Haas )
" Hot Stakes " by Crushpile ( ROH ; used while teaming with Charlie Haas )
" The Countdown " by Team RnB ( ROH )
" Gold Standard " by Yonosuke Kitamura ( NJPW ; 2012 – 2013 )
" X " by Yonosuke Kitamura ( NJPW ; 2013 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
= = = Track and field = = =
National Junior College Athletic Association
Junior College 100 meter Champion
= = = Amateur wrestling = = =
National Junior College Athletic Association
Junior College National Wrestling Champion
= = = Professional wrestling = = =
Millennium Wrestling Federation
MWF Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with Brock Lesnar ( 3 ) and Redd Dogg ( 1 )
Danny Davis Invitational Tag Team Tournament ( 2015 ) – with Charlie Haas
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Tag Team of the Year ( 2003 ) with Charlie Haas
PWI ranked him # 9 of the 500 best singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2005
Ring of Honor
ROH World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Charlie Haas
World Wrestling Council
WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE United States Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Intercontinental Championship ( 3 times )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Charlie Haas
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Most Underrated Wrestler ( 2005 – 2007 )
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= George I of Greece =
George I ( Greek : Γεώργιος Αʹ , Βασιλεύς των Ελλήνων , Geórgios Αʹ , Vasiléfs ton Ellínon ; born Prince William of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg ; 24 December 1845 – 18 March 1913 ) was King of Greece from 1863 until his assassination in 1913 .
Originally a Danish prince , George was born in Copenhagen , and seemed destined for a career in the Royal Danish Navy . He was only 17 years old when he was elected king by the Greek National Assembly , which had deposed the unpopular former king Otto . His nomination was both suggested and supported by the Great Powers : the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , the Second French Empire and the Russian Empire . He married the Russian grand duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia , and became the first monarch of a new Greek dynasty . Two of his sisters , Alexandra and Dagmar , married into the British and Russian royal families . King Edward VII and Tsar Alexander III were his brothers @-@ in @-@ law and King George V and Tsar Nicholas II were his nephews .
George 's reign of almost 50 years ( the longest in modern Greek history ) was characterized by territorial gains as Greece established its place in pre @-@ World War I Europe . Britain ceded the Ionian Islands peacefully , while Thessaly was annexed from the Ottoman Empire after the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1877 – 1878 ) . Greece was not always successful in its expansionist ambitions ; it was defeated in the Greco @-@ Turkish War ( 1897 ) . During the First Balkan War , after Greek troops had occupied much of Greek Macedonia , George was assassinated in Thessaloniki . Compared to his own long tenure , the reigns of his successors Constantine , Alexander , and George proved short and insecure .
= = Family and early life = =
George was born at the Yellow Palace , an 18th @-@ century town house at 18 Amaliegade , right next to the Amalienborg Palace complex in Copenhagen . He was the second son of Prince Christian of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg and Louise of Hesse @-@ Kassel . Although his full name was Prince Christian Vilhelm Ferdinand Adolf Georg of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg , until his accession in Greece , he was known as Prince Vilhelm ( William ) , the namesake of his paternal and maternal grandfathers , William , Duke of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg , and Prince William of Hesse @-@ Kassel .
Although he was of royal blood , his family was relatively obscure and lived a comparatively normal life by royal standards . In 1852 , however , George 's father was designated the heir presumptive to the childless King Frederick VII of Denmark , and the family became princes and princesses of Denmark . George 's siblings were Frederick ( who succeeded their father as King of Denmark ) , Alexandra ( who became queen consort of Edward VII of the United Kingdom and the mother of King George V ) , Dagmar ( who , as Empress Maria Feodorovna , was consort of Alexander III of Russia and the mother of Tsar Nicholas II ) , Thyra ( who married Prince Ernest Augustus , 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale ) and Valdemar .
George 's mother tongue was Danish , with English as a second language . He was also taught French and German . He embarked on a career in the Royal Danish Navy , and enrolled as a naval cadet along with his elder brother Frederick . While Frederick was described as " quiet and extremely well @-@ behaved " , George was " lively and full of pranks " .
= = King of the Hellenes = =
Following the overthrow of the Bavarian @-@ born King Otto of Greece in October 1862 , the Greek people had rejected Otto 's brother and designated successor Leopold , although they still favored a monarchy rather than a republic . Many Greeks , seeking closer ties to the pre @-@ eminent world power , Great Britain , rallied around Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh , second son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . British Foreign Minister Lord Palmerston believed that the Greeks were " panting for increase in territory " , hoping for a gift of the Ionian Islands , which were then a British protectorate . The London Conference of 1832 , however , prohibited any of the Great Powers ' ruling families from accepting the crown , and in any event , Queen Victoria was adamantly opposed to the idea . The Greeks nevertheless insisted on holding a plebiscite in which Prince Alfred received over 95 % of the 240 @,@ 000 votes . There were 93 votes for a Republic and 6 for a Greek . King Otto received one vote .
With Prince Alfred 's exclusion , the search began for an alternative candidate . The French favored Henri d 'Orléans , duc d 'Aumale , while the British proposed Queen Victoria 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Ernest II , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg , her nephew Prince Leiningen , and Archduke Maximilian of Austria , among others . Eventually , the Greeks and Great Powers winnowed their choice to Prince William of Denmark , who had received 6 votes in the plebiscite . Aged only 17 , he was elected King of the Hellenes on 30 March [ O.S. 18 March ] 1863 by the Greek National Assembly under the regnal name of George I. Paradoxically , he ascended a royal throne before his father , who became King of Denmark on 15 November the same year . There were two significant differences between George 's elevation and that of his predecessor , Otto . First , he was acclaimed unanimously by the Greek Assembly , rather than imposed on the people by foreign powers . Second , he was proclaimed " King of the Hellenes " instead of " King of Greece " , which had been Otto 's style .
His ceremonial enthronement in Copenhagen on 6 June was attended by a delegation of Greeks led by First Admiral and Prime Minister Constantine Kanaris . Frederick VII awarded George the Order of the Elephant , and it was announced that the British government would cede the Ionian Islands to Greece in honor of the new monarch .
= = Early reign = =
The new 17 @-@ year @-@ old king toured Saint Petersburg , London and Paris before departing for Greece from the French port of Toulon on 22 October aboard the Greek flagship Hellas . He arrived in Athens on 30 October [ O.S. 18 October ] 1863 , after docking at Piraeus the previous day . He was determined not to make the mistakes of his predecessor , so he quickly learned Greek . The new king was seen frequently and informally in the streets of Athens , where his predecessor had only appeared in pomp . King George found the palace in a state of disarray , after the hasty departure of King Otto , and took to putting it right by mending and updating the 40 @-@ year @-@ old building . He also sought to ensure that he was not seen as too influenced by his Danish advisers , ultimately sending his uncle , Prince Julius , back to Denmark with the words , " I will not allow any interference with the conduct of my government " . Another adviser , Count Wilhelm Sponneck , became unpopular for advocating a policy of disarmament and tactlessly questioning the descent of modern Greeks from classical antecedents . Like Julius , he was dispatched back to Denmark .
From May 1864 , George undertook a tour of the Peloponnese , through Corinth , Argos , Tripolitsa , Sparta , and Kalamata , where he embarked on the frigate Hellas . Proceeding northwards along the coast accompanied by British , French and Russian naval vessels , the Hellas reached Corfu on 6 June , for the ceremonial handover of the Ionian Islands by the British High Commissioner , Sir Henry Storks .
Politically , the new king took steps to conclude the protracted constitutional deliberations of the Assembly . On 19 October 1864 , he sent the Assembly a demand , countersigned by Constantine Kanaris , explaining that he had accepted the crown on the understanding that a new constitution would be finalized , and that if it was not he would feel himself at " perfect liberty to adopt such measures as the disappointment of my hopes may suggest " . It was unclear from the wording whether he meant to return to Denmark or impose a constitution , but as either event was undesirable the Assembly soon came to an agreement .
On 28 November 1864 , he took the oath to defend the new constitution , which created a unicameral assembly ( Vouli ) with representatives elected by direct , secret , universal male suffrage , a first in modern Europe . A constitutional monarchy was set up with George deferring to the legitimate authority of the elected officials , although he was aware of the corruption present in elections and the difficulty of ruling a mostly illiterate population . Between 1864 and 1910 , there were 21 general elections and 70 different governments .
Internationally , George maintained a strong relationship with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Albert Edward , Prince of Wales ( eventually King Edward VII of the United Kingdom ) , and sought his help in defusing the recurring and contentious issue of Crete , an overwhelmingly Greek island that remained under Ottoman Turk control . Since the reign of Otto , the Greek desire to unite Greek lands in one nation had been a sore spot with the United Kingdom and France , which had embarrassed Otto by occupying the main Greek port Piraeus to dissuade Greek irredentism during the Crimean War . During the Cretan Revolt ( 1866 – 1869 ) , the Prince of Wales sought the support of British Foreign Secretary Lord Derby to intervene in Crete on behalf of Greece . Ultimately , the Great Powers did not intervene and the Ottomans put down the rebellion .
= = Marriage and children = =
George first met Grand Duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia in 1863 , when she was 12 years old , on a visit to the court of Tsar Alexander II between his election to the Greek throne and his arrival in Athens . They met for a second time in April 1867 , when George went to the Russian Empire to visit his sister Dagmar , who had married into the Russian imperial family . While George was a Lutheran , the Romanovs were Orthodox Christians like the majority of Greeks , and George thought a marriage with a Russian grand duchess would re @-@ assure his subjects on the question of his future children 's religion . Olga was just 16 years old when she married George in Saint Petersburg on 27 October 1867 . After a honeymoon at Tsarskoye Selo , the couple left Russia for Greece on 9 November . Over the next twenty years , they had eight children :
Constantine ( 1868 – 1923 ) , who married Princess Sophia of Prussia ;
George ( 1869 – 1957 ) , who married Princess Marie Bonaparte ;
Alexandra ( 1870 – 1891 ) , who married Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia ;
Nicholas ( 1872 – 1938 ) , who married Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia ;
Maria ( 1876 – 1940 ) , who married firstly Grand Duke George Mikhailovich of Russia and secondly Admiral Perikles Ioannidis ;
Olga ( 1880 ) , who died aged seven months ;
Andrew ( 1882 – 1944 ) , who married Princess Alice of Battenberg and was the father of Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh ; and
Christopher ( 1888 – 1940 ) , who married firstly American widow Nancy Stewart Worthington Leeds and secondly Princess Françoise of Orléans .
As a marriage gift , the Tsar gave George a group of islands in the Petalioi Gulf , which the family visited on the royal yacht Amphitrite . George later purchased a country estate , Tatoi , north of Athens , and on Corfu he built a summer villa called Mon Repos . George developed Tatoi , building roads and planting grapes for making his own wine , Chateau Décélie . Intent on not letting his subjects know that he missed Denmark , he discreetly maintained a dairy at his palace at Tatoi , which was managed by native Danes and served as a bucolic reminder of his homeland . Queen Olga was far less careful in hiding her nostalgia for her native Russia , often visiting Russian ships at Piraeus two or three times before they weighed anchor . When alone with his wife , George usually conversed in German . Their children were taught English by their nannies , and when talking with his children he therefore spoke mainly English .
The King was related by marriage to the rulers of Great Britain , Russia and Prussia , maintaining a particularly strong attachment to the Prince and Princess of Wales , who visited Athens in 1869 . Their visit occurred despite continued lawlessness which culminated in the kidnap of a party of British and Italian tourists , including Lord and Lady Muncaster . Two female hostages , a child and Lord Muncaster were released , but four of the others : British diplomat E. H. C. Herbert ( the first cousin of Lord Carnarvon ) , Frederick Vyner ( the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Lord Ripon , Lord President of the Council ) , Italian diplomat Count Boyl di Putifigari , and Mr. Lloyd ( an engineer ) were murdered . George 's relationships with other ruling houses assisted him and his small country but also often put them at the center of national political struggles in Europe .
From 1864 to 1874 , Greece had 21 governments , the longest of which lasted a year and a half . In July 1874 , Charilaos Trikoupis , a member of the Greek Parliament , wrote an anonymous article in the newspaper Kairoi blaming King George and his advisors for the continuing political crisis caused by the lack of stable governments . In the article , he accused the King of acting like an absolute monarch by imposing minority governments on the people . If the King insisted , he argued , that only a politician commanding a majority in the Vouli could be appointed prime minister , then politicians would be forced to work together more harmoniously in order to construct a coalition government . Such a plan , he wrote , would end the political instability and reduce the large number of smaller parties . Trikoupis admitted to writing the article after a man supposed by the authorities to be the author was arrested , whereupon he was taken into custody himself . After a public outcry , he was released and subsequently acquitted of the charge of " undermining the constitutional order " . The following year , the King asked Trikoupis to form a government ( without a majority ) and then read a speech from the throne declaring that in future the leader of the majority party in parliament would be appointed prime minister .
= = Territorial expansion = =
Throughout the 1870s , Greece kept pressure on the Ottoman Empire , seeking territorial expansion into Epirus and Thessaly . The Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 1878 provided the first potential alliance for the Greek kingdom . George 's sister Dagmar was the daughter @-@ in @-@ law of Alexander II of Russia , and she sought to have Greece join the war . The French and British refused to countenance such an act , and Greece remained neutral . At the Congress of Berlin convened in 1878 to determine peace terms for the Russo @-@ Turkish War , Greece staked a claim to Crete , Epirus and Thessaly .
The borders were still not finalized in June 1880 when a proposal very favorable to Greece that included Mount Olympus and Ioannina was offered by the British and French . When the Ottoman Turks strenuously objected , Prime Minister Trikoupis made the mistake of threatening a mobilization of the Hellenic Army . A coincident change of government in France , the resignation of Charles de Freycinet and his replacement with Jules Ferry , led to disputes among the Great Powers and , despite British support for a more pro @-@ Greek settlement , the Turks subsequently granted Greece all of Thessaly but only the part of Epirus around Arta . When the government of Trikoupis fell , the new prime minister , Alexandros Koumoundouros , reluctantly accepted the new boundaries .
While Trikoupis followed a policy of retrenchment within the established borders of the Greek state , having learned a valuable lesson about the vicissitudes of the Great Powers , his main opponents , the Nationalist Party led by Theodoros Deligiannis , sought to inflame the anti @-@ Turkish feelings of the Greeks at every opportunity . The next opportunity arose in 1885 when Bulgarians rose in revolt in Eastern Rumelia and united the province with Bulgaria . Deligiannis rode to victory over Trikoupis in elections that year saying that if the Bulgarians could defy the Treaty of Berlin , so should the Greeks .
Deligiannis mobilized the Hellenic Army , and the British Royal Navy blockaded Greece . The admiral in charge of the blockade was Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh , who had been the first choice of the Greeks to be their king in 1863 , and the First Lord of the Admiralty at the time was Lord Ripon , whose brother @-@ in @-@ law had been murdered in Greece 16 years before . This was not the last time that King George discovered that his family ties were not always to his advantage . Deligiannis was forced to demobilize and Trikoupis regained the premiership . Between 1882 and 1897 , Trikoupis and Deligiannis alternated the premiership as their fortunes rose and fell .
= = National progress = =
George 's silver jubilee in 1888 was celebrated throughout the Hellenic world , and Athens was decorated with garlands for the anniversary of his accession on 30 October . Visitors included the Crown Prince of Denmark , the Prince and Princess of Wales , the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh , Grand Dukes Sergei and Paul of Russia , and Djevad Pasha from the Ottoman Empire , who presented the King with two Arabian horses as gifts . Jubilee events in the week of 30 October included balls , galas , parades , a thanksgiving service at the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens , and a lunch for 500 invited guests in a blue and white tent on the Acropolis .
Greece in the last decades of the 19th century was increasingly prosperous and was developing a sense of its role on the European stage . In 1893 , the Corinth Canal was built by a French company cutting the sea journey from the Adriatic Sea to Piraeus by 150 miles ( 241 km ) . In 1896 , the Olympic Games were revived in Athens , and the Opening Ceremony of the 1896 Summer Olympics was presided over by the King . When Spiridon Louis , a shepherd from just outside Athens , ran into the Panathinaiko Stadium to win the Marathon event , the Crown Prince ran down onto the field to run the last thousand yards beside the Greek gold medalist , while the King stood and applauded .
The popular desire to unite all Greeks within a single territory ( Megali Idea ) was never far below the surface and another revolt against Turkish rule erupted in Crete . In February 1897 , King George sent his son , Prince George , to take possession of the island . The Greeks refused an Ottoman offer of an autonomous administration , and Deligiannis mobilized for war . The Great Powers refused to allow the expansion of Greece , and on 25 February 1897 announced that Crete would be under an autonomous administration and ordered the Greek and Ottoman Turk militias to withdraw .
The Turks agreed , but Prime Minister Deligiannis refused and dispatched 1400 troops to Crete under the command of Colonel Timoleon Vassos . While the Great Powers announced a blockade , Greek troops crossed the Macedonian border and Abdul Hamid II declared war . The announcement that Greece was finally at war with the Turks was greeted by delirious displays of patriotism and spontaneous parades in honor of the King in Athens . Volunteers by the thousands streamed north to join the forces under the command of Crown Prince Constantine .
The war went badly for the ill @-@ prepared Greeks ; the only saving grace was the swiftness with which the Hellenic Army was overrun . By the end of April 1897 , the war was lost . The worst consequences of defeat for the Greeks were mitigated by the intervention of the King 's relations in Britain and Russia ; nevertheless , the Greeks were forced to give up Crete to international administration , and agree to minor territorial concessions in favor of the Turks and an indemnity of 4 million Turkish pounds .
The jubilation with which Greeks had hailed their king at the beginning of the war was reversed in defeat . For a time , he considered abdication . It was not until the King faced down an assassination attempt on 27 February 1898 with great bravery that his subjects again held their monarch in high esteem . Returning from a trip to the beach at Phaleron in an open carriage , George and his daughter Maria were shot at by two riflemen . The King tried to shield his daughter ; both were unhurt though the coachman and a horse were wounded . The gunmen ( an Athens clerk called Karditzis and his assistant ) fled into the Hymettus hills but they were spotted and arrested . Both were beheaded at Nauplia .
Later that year , after continued unrest in Crete , which included the murder of the British vice @-@ consul , Prince George of Greece was made the Governor @-@ General of Crete under the suzerainty of the Sultan , after the proposal was put forward by the Great Powers . Greece was effectively in day @-@ to @-@ day control of Crete for the first time in modern history .
= = Later reign and assassination = =
The death of Britain 's Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901 left King George as the second @-@ longest @-@ reigning monarch in Europe . His always cordial relations with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , the new King Edward VII , continued to tie Greece to Britain . This was abundantly important in Britain 's support of King George 's son Prince George as Governor @-@ General of Crete . Nevertheless , Prince George resigned in 1906 after a leader in the Cretan Assembly , Eleftherios Venizelos , campaigned to have him removed .
As a response to the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 , Venizelos 's power base was further strengthened , and on 8 October 1908 the Cretan Assembly passed a resolution in favor of union despite both the reservations of the Athens government under Georgios Theotokis and the objections of the Great Powers . The muted reaction of the Athens Government to the news from Crete led to an unsettled state of affairs on the mainland .
A group of military officers formed a military league , Stratiotikos Syndesmos , that demanded that the royal family be stripped of their military commissions . To save the King the embarrassment of removing his sons from their commissions , they resigned them . The military league attempted a coup d 'état called the Goudi Pronunciamento , and the King insisted on supporting the duly elected Hellenic Parliament in response . Eventually , the military league joined forces with Venizelos in calling for a National Assembly to revise the constitution . King George gave way , and new elections to the revising assembly were held . After some political maneuvering , Venizelos became prime minister of a minority government . Just a month later , Venizelos called new elections at which he won a colossal majority after most of the opposition parties declined to take part .
Venizelos and the King were united in their belief that the nation required a strong army to repair the damage of the humiliating defeat of 1897 . Crown Prince Constantine was reinstated as Inspector @-@ General of the Army , and later Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . Under his and Venizelos 's close supervision the military was retrained and equipped with French and British help , and new ships were ordered for the Hellenic Navy . Meanwhile , through diplomatic means , Venizelos had united the Christian countries of the Balkans in opposition to the ailing Ottoman Empire .
When Montenegro declared war on Turkey on 8 October 1912 , it was joined quickly by Serbia , Bulgaria , and Greece in what is known as the First Balkan War . George was on vacation in Denmark , so he immediately returned to Greece via Vienna , arriving in Athens to be met by a large and enthusiastic crowd on the evening of 9 October . The results of this campaign differed radically from the Greek experience at the hands of the Turks in 1897 . The well @-@ trained Greek forces , 200 @,@ 000 strong , won victory after victory . On 9 November 1912 , Greek forces commanded by Crown Prince Constantine rode into Thessaloniki , just a few hours ahead of a Bulgarian division . Three days later King George rode in triumph through the streets of Thessaloniki , the second @-@ largest Greek city , accompanied by the Crown Prince and Venizelos .
As he approached the fiftieth anniversary of his accession , the King made plans to abdicate in favor of his son Constantine immediately after the celebration of his golden jubilee in October 1913 . Just as he did in Athens , George went about Thessaloniki without any meaningful protection force . While out on an afternoon walk near the White Tower on 18 March 1913 , he was shot at close range in the back by Alexandros Schinas , who was " said to belong to a Socialist organization " and " declared when arrested that he had killed the King because he refused to give him money " . George died instantly , the bullet having penetrated his heart . The Greek government denied any political motive for the assassination , saying that Schinas was an alcoholic vagrant . Schinas was tortured in prison and six weeks later fell to his death from a police station window .
The King 's body was taken to Athens on the Amphitrite , escorted by a flotilla of naval vessels . For three days the coffin of the King , draped in the Danish and Greek flags , lay in the Metropolis in Athens before his body was committed to a tomb at his palace in Tatoi . Unlike his father , the new king , Constantine , was to prove less willing to accept the advice of ministers , or that of the three protecting powers ( Britain , France and Russia ) .
= = Titles , styles and arms = =
= = = Titles from birth to death = = =
1845 – 1852 : His Highness Prince William of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg
1852 – 1858 : His Highness Prince William of Denmark
1858 – 1863 : His Royal Highness Prince William of Denmark
1863 – 1913 : His Majesty The King of the Hellenes
= = = Arms = = =
The distinctive Greek flag of blue and white cross was first hoisted during the Greek War of Independence in March 1822 . This was later modified so that the shade of blue matched that of the Bavarian coat of arms of the first King of Greece , Otto . The shield is emblazoned with the coat of arms of the Danish Royal Family , and the supporters on either side are also adapted from the Danish royal arms . Beneath the shield is the motto in Greek , Ἰσχύς μου ἡ αγάπη του λαου ( " The people 's love is my strength " ) . Beneath the motto dangles the Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer , Greece 's premier decoration of honor .
= = Ancestry = =
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= James Planché =
James Robinson Planché ( 27 February 1796 – 30 May 1880 ) was a British dramatist , antiquary and officer of arms . Over a period of approximately 60 years he wrote , adapted , or collaborated on 176 plays in a wide range of genres including extravaganza , farce , comedy , burletta , melodrama and opera . Planché was responsible for introducing historically accurate costume into nineteenth century British theatre , and subsequently became an acknowledged expert on historical costume , publishing a number of works on the topic .
Planché 's interest in historical costume led to other antiquarian research , including heraldry and genealogy . He was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1829 , and was influential in the foundation of the British Archaeological Association in 1843 . Appointed Rouge Croix Pursuivant in 1854 and promoted to Somerset Herald in 1866 , Planché undertook heraldic and ceremonial duties as a member of the College of Arms . These included proclaiming peace at the end of the Crimean War and investing foreign monarchs with the Order of the Garter .
= = Early and personal life = =
James Robinson Planché was born in Old Burlington St , Piccadilly , London in 1796 to Jacques Planché and Catherine Emily Planché . His parents were first cousins and descendants of Huguenot refugees who had fled to England in 1685 following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes . Jacques Planché was a moderately prosperous watchmaker , a trade he had learned in Geneva , and was personally known to King George III . His name was pronounced " plank " or " planky " for the beginning of his life , but he added , or rather re @-@ added , the accent to his name , restoring the French pronunciation . However , after doing this , editors would sometimes jab at Planché writing " that a particular work of ' Mr. Plank ' was ' wooden ' " .
Planché was educated at home until the age of eight by his mother ( who had written a treatise on education ) . He was then sent to boarding school where , in his words : " I was imperfected , and untaught the French I spoke fluently as a child . " In 1808 he was apprenticed to a French landscape painter , Monsieur de Court , however this was curtailed by the latter 's death two years later . Planché was then articled as an apprentice to a bookseller , with the hope that this would also give him the opportunity to sell some of his own writings .
During this period he joined an amateur theatre company , in which he acted and wrote plays . The manuscript of one of these early plays , Amoroso , King of Little Britain , was by chance seen by the comic actor John Pritt Harley , who , recognising its potential , brought about ( and acted in ) its performance at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . Its favourable reception launched Planché on his theatrical career .
= = Marriage and family = =
On 26 April 1821 , Planché married Elizabeth St George , a playwright . She wrote The Welsh Girl for the Olympic Theatre shortly after its opening in 1831 and , emboldened by its successful reception , continued to write for the stage . Among her more successful plays were A Handsome Husband and A Pleasant Neighbour , both at the Olympic , and The Sledge Driver and The Ransom , both produced at the Haymarket Theatre . From viewing their plays , it 's thought that they collaborated , as he excelled in " playful dialog " , and she excelled in " sentimental and melodramatic scenes " . Elizabeth Planché died in 1846 after a long illness . The couple had two daughters , Katherine Frances , born in 1823 , and Matilda Anne , born in 1825 . Katherine married William Curteis Whelan of Heronden Hall , Tenterden , Kent in 1851 .
Matilda achieved success as an author of children 's books ( using the pen name Susie Sunbeam ) , beginning in 1849 with A Trap to Catch a Sunbeam , which subsequently went through 42 editions . She married the Rev. Henry Mackarness in 1852 , and with him had eleven children , four of whom did not survive infancy . Taking after her father in terms of writing output , Matilda Mackarness produced an average of one book a year until her death , most of them under her married name . Her husband 's death in 1868 left her with little means of supporting her family , as the books did not produce much income . She and her children moved in with her father .
= = Life = =
Despite his large number of successful plays , Planché was never particularly wealthy , and he felt pressure from needing to support his grandchildren . Circumstances improved when in 1871 he was awarded a civil list pension of £ 100 per annum ' in recognition of his literary services ' . Planché died at his home in Chelsea on 30 May 1880 at the age of 84 . His wealth at the time of his death was under £ 1000 .
Planché " greatly enjoyed moving in society and meeting the well @-@ known " . He was a regular attender at conversaziones , breakfasts and soireés where he " met and was introduced to most of the notabilities then living in London " . In 1831 he was a founding member of the Garrick Club . His autobiography contains many anecdotes of his acquaintances in theatrical and literary circles . Planché was also much esteemed in private life .
= = Theatrical career = =
= = = Early career and libretti = = =
Planché 's career as a playwright began , as already mentioned , in 1818 when Amoroso , King of Little Britain , a play he had written for an amateur performance at a private theatre , was seen by John Pritt Harley and subsequently performed at Drury Lane . The play was a success and Harley , along with Stephen Kemble and Robert William Elliston , encouraged Planché to take up play @-@ writing full @-@ time . Planché did so ; his next play to be performed was a pantomime at Christmas of that same year . A further six of his plays were performed in 1819 , the same number in 1820 , and eleven in 1821 , most of these at the Adelphi Theatre , but also including some at the Lyceum , the Olympic and Sadler 's Wells . Planché 's early works were " generally unremarkable " , one exception in this period being The Vampire , or , The Bride of the Isles , produced at the Lyceum in August 1820 , an adaptation of Charles Nodier 's Le Vampire ( this was a dramatisation of John Polidori 's novel The Vampyre ) . The play featured the innovative " vampire trap " , a trapdoor in the stage which allowed an actor to disappear ( or appear ) almost instantly . Kenilworth Castle , or , the Days of Queen Bess , produced 8 February 1821 , was also very successful . Planché wrote a total of 176 plays .
Planché held the position of stock author ( in @-@ house writer ) at the Adelphi for a short period in 1821 , before moving to a similar position at the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden . In 1822 he wrote the libretto ( and some of the music ) for his first full @-@ scale opera , Maid Marian ; or , the Huntress of Arlingford . In 1826 he wrote the libretto for another opera , Oberon , or the Elf @-@ King 's Oath , the final work of composer Carl Maria von Weber , who died a few months after its completion . While this opera was a commercial success and received a favourable critical response at the time , subsequent critics have not appreciated Planché 's libretto .
In 1838 Planché was to collaborate on an opera with another notable composer , Felix Mendelssohn . Mendelssohn originally approved of Planché 's choice of topic , Edward III 's siege of Calais in the Hundred Years War , and responded positively to the first two acts of the libretto . But , after Mendelssohn received the final act , he expressed doubts about the subject , asked Planché to start work on a completely new libretto , and eventually stopped replying to Planché 's letters . The opera was never realised .
= = = Historical costume , dramatic copyright , tableaux vivants = = =
In August 1823 , in an issue of The Album , he published an article saying that more attention should be paid to the time period of Shakespeare 's plays , especially when it comes to costumes . In the same year , a casual conversation led to one of Planché 's more lasting effects on British theatre . He observed to Charles Kemble , the manager of Covent Garden , that " while a thousand pounds were frequently lavished upon a Christmas pantomime or an Easter spectacle , the plays of Shakespeare were put upon the stage with makeshift scenery , and , at the best , a new dress or two for the principal characters " . Kemble " saw the possible advantage of correct appliances catching the taste of the town " , and agreed to give Planché control of the costuming for the upcoming production of King John , if he would carry out the research , design the costumes and superintend the production . Planché had little experience in this area and sought the help of antiquaries such as Francis Douce and Sir Samuel Meyrick . The research involved sparked Planché 's latent antiquarian interests ; these came to occupy an increasing amount of his time later in life .
Despite the actors ' reservations , King John was a success and led to a number of similarly @-@ costumed Shakespeare productions by Kemble and Planché ( Henry IV , Part I , As You Like It , Othello , Cymbeline , Julius Caesar ) . The designs and renderings of King John , Henry IV , As You Like It , Othello , Hamlet and Merchant of Venice were published , though there is no evidence that Hamlet and Merchant of Venice were ever produced with Planché 's historically accurate costume designs . Planché also wrote a number of plays or adaptations which were staged with historically accurate costumes ( Cortez , The Woman Never Vext , The Merchant 's Wedding , Charles XII , The Partisans , The Brigand Chief , and Hofer ) . After 1830 , although he still used period costume , he no longer claimed historical accuracy for his work in plays . His work in King John had brought about a " revolution in nineteenth @-@ century stage practice " , which lasted for almost a century .
In 1828 Planché left Covent Garden and went to work for Stephen Price at Drury Lane . His first play during this period , Charles XII , was staged in December of that year and was a great success . Prior to its publication ( which would have allowed any theatre to produce it without charge ) , Planché received an enquiry from Murray , the manager of the Theatre Royal , Edinburgh who wished to stage the piece . Planché named a " modest sum " of £ 10 for the privilege which Murray said he could not pay , citing the poor financial situation of his theatre . But he acquired a manuscript copy of the play and staged it without permission .
This prompted Planché to begin campaigning for copyright to be extended to dramatic works . He gathered a group of dramatists ( including John Poole , James Kenney , Joseph Lunn and Richard Brinsley Peak ) who prevailed upon writer and MP George Lamb to introduce a bill in Parliament ; but the bill did not pass its third reading . In 1832 Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton , a novelist and MP , was successful in getting a select committee set up to consider dramatic copyright , as well as theatrical censorship and the monopoly of the patent theatres on drama . Planché gave evidence before the select committee ; the following year the Dramatic Copyright Act 1833 ( 3 Will IV c . 15 ) was passed .
In the production of his The Brigand , Planché created tableaux vivants of three recent paintings by Charles Eastlake : An Italian Brigand Chief Reposing , The Wife of a Brigand Chief Watching the Result of a Battle , and The Dying Brigand . This feature was a success and widely copied . Paintings inspired his work in a number of other plays . For The Golden Branch ( 1847 ) and Love and Fortune ( 1859 ) , he created costumes based on the paintings of Watteau . The latter play , which was subtitled A Dramatic Tableau ( in Watteau Colours ) , also included a tableau from Watteau 's Noces de Village .
= = = Extravaganzas and revues = = =
After a brief period as acting @-@ manager of the Adelphi Theatre , Planché moved to the Olympic Theatre when Lucia Vestris took over the management in 1831 . He provided the first play which she produced , Olympic Revels , or , Prometheus and Pandora . This began a professional relationship which lasted over two decades . Planché went with Vestris and her husband , Charles Mathews , when they took over management of Covent Garden in 1839 , then with them to Drury Lane in 1842 . From 1843 he spent four years at the Haymarket with Benjamin Webster , before returning to Vestris and Matthews at the Lyceum , where he stayed until leaving London in 1852 . During his time with Vestris , he undertook the roles of " playwright , librettist , general advisor and superintendent of the decorative departments " .
Olympic Revels was Planché 's first example of " that form of travestie which is commonly described as ' classical ' — which deals with the characteristics and adventures of gods and goddesses , heroes and heroines , of the Greek and Latin mythology and fable " , a genre of which he was later credited as originator . Planché used costume for comedic effect , not by the costumes being comic , but by the incongruity of realistic historical dress being juxtaposed with the actions of the actors . For example , Olympic Revels opens with the gods of Olympus in classical Greek dress playing whist . By 1836 these classical burlesques had become so popular that other writers were copying them .
Feeling the need to do something different , Planché turned to a translation of the féerie folie ( French : fairy tale ) Riquet à la Houppe , which he had written some years earlier . The play was a success , and became the first of 23 " fairy extravaganzas " , most of which were based on the fairy tales of Madame d 'Aulnoy . Planché 's fascination with her work led the press to refer to him as Madame d 'Aulnoy 's " preux chevalier " ( French : devoted knight ) and similar epithets . Planché 's coined the term " extravaganza " , defining it as " the whimsical treatment of a poetical subject " .
In 1879 two of his friends published his extravaganzas , together with some of his other works , as a five @-@ volume set , entitled The Extravaganzas of J. R. Planché , esq . , ( Somerset Herald ) 1825 – 1871 . The fairy tales were not originally children 's stories , but sophisticated works intended for an adult audience . Planché 's scholarly approach was exhibited in this area as well ; he " translated two volumes of fairy tales by Mme D 'Aulnoy , Perrault , and others , which were for the first time given in their integrity with biographical and historical notes and dissertations . "
Borrowing from the French again , Planché introduced the revue ( or review ) to British theatre , as a commentary on recent events , particularly events in the theatre . His first revue , Success ; or , a hit if you like it , was produced in 1825 . He wrote another seven over the next 30 years , a peak of four in the years 1853 – 1855 .
= = = Retirement and legacy = = =
Planché semi @-@ retired from the theatre in 1852 and went to live in Kent with his younger daughter ( although he returned to London two years later on his appointment as Rouge Croix Pursuivant ) . He continued to write occasionally for the theatre , but only produced 16 more pieces between 1852 and 1871 .
Critics writing at the end of the nineteenth century praised Planché with sentiments such as " [ Planché ] raised theatrical extravaganza and burlesque to the dignity of a fine art , and wrote verses to be sung on the stage which could be read with pleasure in the study . " and " I am quite certain that such masters of lyrical writing as W. S. Gilbert ... would confirm me in my opinion that the songs and lyrics in the extravaganzas of Planché were as faultless in tone , tact and taste as they were rhythmically perfect " . ( The converse was also true ; Planché approved of , and strongly influenced Gilbert 's works ) Planché 's dramatic reputation was already fading before his death , and continued to do so in the twentieth century . He is still remembered for his influence on and contributions to British theatre over a long career .
= = Antiquarian career = =
Planché 's research to determine historically accurate costume for the 1823 production of King John led to his developing a strong interest in the subject . When he published his first major work in 1834 , History of British Costume from the Earliest Period to the Close of the 18th Century , Planché described it as " the result of ten years ' diligent devotion to its study of every leisure hour left me by my professional engagements " . Prior to this Planché had published his costume designs for King John and the other Shakespeare plays , with " biographical , critical and explanatory notices " . After travelling twice to the Continent , he wrote about his journeys in Lays and Legends of the Rhine ( 1826 ) and Descent of the Danube ( 1827 ) .
Planché 's scholarship was recognised by his appointment in 1829 as a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London . He was a regular attendee at the Society 's meetings and contributed to the Society 's journal , Archaeologia . He became dissatisfied with the Society 's management , complaining of " the lethargy into which the Society of Antiquaries had fallen , the dreariness of its meetings , the want of interest in its communications and the reluctance of its council to listen to any suggestions for its improvement " . In 1843 – 4 Planché was involved in the foundation of the British Archaeological Association , of which he was later Vice @-@ President , and for more than twenty years the Secretary . Planché resigned his membership of the Society of Antiquaries in 1852 , in which year he also moved to Kent to live with his younger daughter .
Besides his History of British Costume , Planché contributed to a number of other works on costume . He wrote an article on " The History of Stage Costume " in The Book of Table Talk , edited by Charles MacFarlane , in 1836 . He also provided the chapters on costume and furniture for The Pictorial History of England by MacFarlane and George Craik , as well as an introduction on costume for most of the plays in The Pictorial Edition of the Works of Shakespeare by Charles Knight . In 1842 – 3 Planché edited Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England and A Complete View of the Dresses and Habits of the People of England by Joseph Strutt . In 1848 he contributed " Remarks on some of his sketches for Masques and dramas " to Peter Cunningham 's Inigo Jones : A Life of the Architect . In 1879 Planché completed his most ambitious work on costume history , A Cyclopedia of Costume , or , Dictionary of Dress , two volumes totalling almost 1000 pages .
Planché 's expertise in historical dress was not only of interest to his fellow antiquarians . During her reign Queen Victoria held a number of bals costumés at which the attendees had to wear costume of a specified era . Planché 's advice was much in demand in the periods leading up to these balls as invited guests had costumes made .
His antiquarian interests also included armour . In 1834 he published A Catalogue of the Collection of Ancient Arms and Armour , the property of Bernard Brocas , with a prefatory notice . In 1857 Planché was invited to arrange the collection of armour formerly belonging to his friend Sir Samuel Meyrick for the Art Treasures Exhibition in Manchester , a task which he repeated in South Kensington in 1868 . Concerned by the state of the armour in the Tower of London , Planché wrote several reports on the subject between 1855 and 1869 . In that year , the War Office invited him to rearrange the collection in chronological order , which was one of the things for which he had been campaigning .
Among his works on other topics were two with royal connections — Regal Records , or a Chronicle of the Coronation of the Queens Regnant of England , prompted by the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1837 , and The Conqueror and his Companions , written in 1874 .
Planché 's personal life inspired two works . In 1864 he published A Corner of Kent , or some account of the parish of Ash @-@ next @-@ Sandwich , the result of three years ' work on what was originally intended as a short guidebook to antiquities within the parish of his son @-@ in @-@ law , the Rev. Henry Mackarness . In 1872 he published his autobiography , a two @-@ volume work entitled The Recollections and Reflections of J.R. Planché ( Somerset herald ) : a professional biography , containing many anecdotes of his life in the theatre .
In addition , Planché produced over 100 papers and articles on a wide range of topics . His obituary in the Journal of the British Archaeological Association mentions in passing such topics as the following :
Naval uniforms of Great Britain , early armorial bearings , processional weapons , horn @-@ shaped headdresses of the thirteenth , fourteenth and fifteenth centuries , the clarion , the Stanley crest , ancient and medieval tapestries , armorials of Ferres and Peverel , the Cokayne monuments at Ashbourne , the tilting and other helmets , the family of Giffard , the Earls of Strigul ( the Lords of Chepstow ) , relics of Charles I , the Earls and Dukes of Somerset , the statuary of the west front of Wells Cathedral , various effigies , brasses and portraits , the first Earl of Norfolk , the family of Fettiplace , monuments in Shrewsbury Abbey , the Neville monuments , the Earls of Sussex , of Gloucester and of Hereford , and the Fairford windows .
= = Heraldic career = =
His antiquarian studies led Planché to take an interest in heraldry . He had published several papers on heraldic topics in the Journal of the British Archaeological Association before publishing in 1852 The Pursuivant of Arms , or , Heraldry founded upon facts . As indicated by the subtitle , Planché was concerned with verifiable facts , as opposed to the unfounded theories perpetuated by many earlier heraldic writers . In the view of eminent herald Sir Anthony Wagner , Planché rewrote the early history of heraldry .
Two years later a vacancy occurred at the College of Arms , the office responsible for administering English heraldic affairs . Planché was offered , and accepted , the position of Rouge Croix Pursuivant , one of the four junior @-@ most officers of arms . Some years previously he had indicated his interest in becoming an officer of arms , should a vacancy arise , to the Duke of Norfolk , who as Earl Marshal is responsible for the College of Arms . Planché was also an acquaintance of Charles Young , Garter King of Arms , the principal officer of arms at the College .
Planché moved back to London on becoming Rouge Croix . For three years from the end of 1856 , he focused on the duties of his new office and his scholarly pursuits . Planché 's new office also carried with it ceremonial duties . On four occasions he was part of diplomatic missions to invest foreign monarchs with the Order of the Garter : to King Pedro V of Portugal in 1858 , and his successor King Luis in 1865 , to Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria in 1867 and to King Umberto I of Italy in 1878 . Planché also participated in state ceremonial within England ; in 1856 he and other officers of arms proclaimed peace following the conclusion of the Crimean War . This was supposed to take place " according to precedent " , but the ' stage management ' of the event left something to be desired ; among other things the gates at Temple Bar , where the officers of arms customarily demand entry to the City of London , were left open .
In 1866 Planché was promoted to the office of Somerset Herald . For most of that year he was engaged in editing Clarke 's Introduction to Heraldry . During his heraldic duties , Planché came across a hitherto @-@ neglected manuscript in the collections of the College of Arms ; this became known as " Planché 's Roll " , since he was the first to draw attention to it . He also left another heraldic legacy ; Ursula Cull , the wife of future Garter King of Arms Sir George Bellew , was a descendent of Planché 's daughter Matilda .
= = = Coat of arms = = =
Planché was granted arms in 1857 , a few years after his appointment as Rouge Croix pursuivant . These are blazoned :
( Arms ) Vert a Tower Proper between three Roundels Argent each charged with a Cross Gules .
( Crest ) A Demi @-@ Lion rampant guardant Argent billetty Gules holding between the paws a silver Roundel charged as in the arms
( Motto ) En poursuivant la vérité
The Roundels Argent charged with a Cross Gules ( white circles with a red cross ) allude to the badge of office of Rouge Croix . Planché used his coat of arms on his bookplate , and the crest alone on his writing paper . When he was promoted to Somerset Herald , Planché surrounded the crest on his writing paper with a collar of Esses . While he was entitled to the collar by his appointment as herald , its inclusion in his armorial bearings was considered somewhat unusual .
= = Works = =
Costumes of Shakespeare 's King John , & c . , by J. K. Meadows and G. Scharf , with biographical , critical , and explanatory notices , 1823 – 5 , 5 parts .
Shere Afkun , the first husband of Nourmahal , a legend of Hindoostan , 1823 .
Lays and Legends of the Rhine , 1827
Descent of the Danube from Ratisbon to Vienna , 1828 .
A Catalogue of the Collection of Ancient Arms and Armour , the property of Bernard Brocas , with a prefatory notice , 1834 .
History of British Costume from the Earliest Period to the Close of the 18th Century , 1834 .
Regal Records , or a Chronicle of the Coronation of the Queens Regnant of England , 1838 .
The Pursuivant of Arms , or Heraldry founded upon Facts , 1852 .
King Nut Cracker , a fairy tale from the German of A. H. Hoffmann , translated 1853 .
Fairy Tales by the Countess d 'Aulnoy , translated 1855 , 2nd edit . 1888 .
Four @-@ and @-@ twenty Fairy Tales selected from those of Perrault and other popular writers , 1858 .
A Corner of Kent , or some account of the parish of Ash @-@ next @-@ Sandwich , 1864 .
An Introduction to Heraldry by H. Clark , edited 1866 .
Pieces of Pleasantry for private performance during the Christmas Holidays , 1868 .
The Recollections and Reflections of J.R. Planché ( Somerset herald ) : a professional biography ; in two volumes 1872 .
William with the Ring , a romance in rhyme , 1873 .
The Conqueror and his Companions , 1874 , 2 vols .
A Cyclopaedia of Costume , or Dictionary of Dress , 1876 – 9 , 2 vols .
Suggestions for establishing an English Art Theatre , 1879 .
The Extravaganzas of J. R. Planché , esq . , ( Somerset herald ) 1825 – 1871 1879 , 5 vols .
Songs and Poems , 1881 .
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= 1954 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1954 Atlantic hurricane season resulted in over $ 750 million in damage , the most of any season at the time . The season officially began on June 15 , and nine days later the first named storm developed . Hurricane Alice developed in the Gulf of Mexico and moved inland along the Rio Grande , producing significant precipitation and record flooding that killed 55 people . Activity was slow until late August ; only Barbara , a minimal tropical storm , developed in July . In the span of two weeks , hurricanes Carol and Edna followed similar paths before both striking New England as major hurricanes . The latter became the costliest hurricane in Maine 's history .
In late September , Tropical Storm Gilda killed 29 people after drenching northern Honduras . A tropical depression in early October was captured by a high @-@ altitude photograph on a rocket , thus producing the first large @-@ scale image of a tropical cyclone . The strongest and deadliest hurricane of the season was Hurricane Hazel , which killed thousands in Haiti before striking near the North Carolina / South Carolina border in October . It caused heavy damage in the United States before becoming extratropical and affecting Ontario . Intense rainfall affected Toronto with severe flooding , leaving significant damage . The season officially ended on November 15 , although another hurricane named Alice developed on December 30 to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles ; it lasted until January 6 of the following year . In total , there were 16 tropical storms , 7 hurricanes , and 3 major hurricanes .
= = Season summary = =
= = Storms = =
The hurricane season officially began on June 15 , when the United States Weather Bureau in Miami , Florida began 24 ‑ hour operations . The agency , under the direction of Grady Norton had access to 43 other weather stations across the Atlantic basin . Norton died during the season from a stroke while tracking Hurricane Hazel . Additionally , a group of Hurricane Hunters planes were put on standby for the season , able to be flown out into storms and collect data . During the season , there were eight named storms , as well as an unnamed hurricane and a tropical depression . The season officially ended on November 15 , although an unnamed tropical storm formed a day later . In addition , Tropical Storm Alice developed on December 31 , the latest a tropical cyclone has developed in the calendar year .
Cumulatively , tropical cyclones left 193 deaths and $ 756 million in damage , becoming the costliest hurricane season at the time . The season was one of six to have three major hurricanes strike the country , along with 2005 ( which had four ) , 1893 , 1909 , 1933 , and 2004 . Two of the major hurricanes – Carol and Edna – struck New England ; this occurred despite an average of only 5 – 10 New England hurricanes per century . Carol struck Connecticut as a hurricane and left widespread heavy damage . Only ten days later , Edna became the costliest hurricane in Maine 's history . The third major hurricane , Hazel , was the strongest hurricane of the season , attaining winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Unusually , no tropical cyclones affected Florida .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 113 , which is categorized as being " above normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
A broad trough developed over the eastern Gulf of Mexico on May 26 . A frontal disturbance formed over Florida along the trough , spawning an area of broad cyclonic turning . After emerging into the western Atlantic Ocean , a closed circulation developed within the system , and it is estimated that a tropical depression formed on May 28 about 100 mi ( 160 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . Ship observations in the region suggested that the depression intensified into a tropical storm by late on May 28 . The system was small , and was not discovered to have been a tropical cyclone until a reanalysis of data in 2015 . The storm moved to the northeast ahead of an approaching trough , bypassing the Carolinas to the east ; rainfall brushed the coast of North Carolina . On May 29 , ship observations suggested peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . On the next day , the storm became associated with a warm front , indicating that it became extratropical to the southeast of New England . Continuing to the northeast , the former storm crossed over the southeastern coast of Newfoundland before being absorbed by another nontropical low to the northwest on May 31 .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
A trough formed over southern Florida on June 17 . Early the next day , a circulation formed , signaling that a tropical depression also developed over the Everglades . The system moved slowly north @-@ northeastward , emerging into the western Atlantic Ocean at 06 : 00 UTC on June 20 . Shortly thereafter , the depression intensified into a tropical storm , although the structure was broad and asymmetric due to association with a nearby upper @-@ level low , signaling that the system was possibly a subtropical cyclone . Ship reports in the region indicate that the storm continued to intensify . On June 22 , the structure became much more symmetrical while passing just off the Outer Banks , bringing winds of 33 mph ( 54 km / h ) to Wilmington , North Carolina . That day , the Hurricane Hunters estimated winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , and is possible that the storm briefly attained hurricane status . The peak winds were estimated at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , due to a pressure reading of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . The storm accelerated northeastward due to an approaching cold front . On June 24 , the storm became extratropical , and shortly thereafter made landfall along southwestern Nova Scotia . The system dissipated the next day over the northern Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
= = = Hurricane Alice ( June ) = = =
On June 24 , a tropical storm and later hurricane rapidly developed in the western Gulf of Mexico , giving the citizens of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico little time to prepare . Hurricane Alice rapidly intensified to at least a strong Category 2 storm ( similar to 2010 's Hurricane Alex , moved ashore in northeastern Mexico and quickly weakened , producing minor damage and killing one person due to a fallen power line .
On June 26 , Alice dissipated , although the system dropped torrential rainfall across southern Texas and northeastern Mexico . The maximum rainfall officially peaked at 24 @.@ 07 in ( 611 mm ) near Pandale , Texas , concentrated in an area around the Pecos River . High precipitation accumulations occurred in areas that had seen little rains in three years . This led to significant flooding along the Pecos River that produced " probably the greatest rate of runoff for a watershed of [ that ] size in the United States " , as reported by the International Boundary and Water Commission . Ozona , Texas sustained the most impact , estimated at $ 2 million in damage . Downstream , the Rio Grande rose to the highest level since 1865 , which flooded seven towns on either side of the border ; Eagle Pass , Texas was flooded with 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of water . Overall there were at least 55 deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
A dissipating cold front stalled over the southeastern United States from Arkansas to North Carolina on July 9 . On the next day , a low pressure area developed along the coast of Georgia . Soon after , the front dissipated , and by 12 : 00 UTC on July 10 , the system developed into a tropical storm . Observations from a coastal lighthouse and a nearby ship indicated that the storm attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) while moving slowly east @-@ northeastward , just offshore the Carolinas . The storm began weakening on July 13 , and dissipated the next day when it was absorbed by a larger extratropical storm that was developing to the north .
= = = Tropical Storm Barbara = = =
On July 27 , a tropical depression developed in the northern Gulf of Mexico , about 100 mi ( 160 km ) south of Grand Isle , Louisiana . A map of the low pressure areas forming in July 1954 indicated that the system originated near the Mississippi Delta and tracked southward . After forming , the depression tracked northwestward , intensifying into Tropical Storm Barbara early on July 28 . Maximum sustained winds reached 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , although a tanker offshore named the Henry M. Dawes reported wind gusts of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . Officials at the United States Weather Bureau posted a storm warning from Cameron to Burrwood , Louisiana , and also advised small craft to remain at port along the entire northern Gulf Coast . Without intensifying further , Barbara made landfall near Vermilion Bay , Louisiana on July 29 , dissipating the next day over Texas . The storm dropped heavy rainfall along its path , including over 2 in ( 51 mm ) in New Orleans . The rains caused flooding as well as some damage to the rice crop . However , the Monthly Weather Review yearly summary described the precipitation as " far more beneficial than damaging " . There was no wind damage .
= = = Hurricane Carol = = =
Carol developed from a tropical wave near the Bahamas on August 25 . It quickly intensified as it tracked generally to the north , becoming a hurricane on August 27 . Moving parallel to the coastline of the southeastern United States , Carol passed just east of Cape Hatteras with winds estimated at 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . It intensified further as it accelerated , striking eastern Long Island as Category 3 hurricane . Carol made its final landfall on Old Saybrook , Connecticut late on August 31 . Within a few hours , the hurricane became extratropical over New Hampshire , which later dissipated over Quebec .
In North Carolina , hurricane @-@ force winds left minor damage to houses , estimated around $ 228 @,@ 000 . Rains from Carol alleviated drought conditions in the Washington , D.C. area . On Long Island , the storm surge flooded the Montauk Highway with 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water about a mile across . High winds left 275 @,@ 000 homes without power , and damage totaled $ 3 million on the island .
The hurricane moved ashore in Connecticut shortly after high tide , producing a storm surge of 10 – 15 ft ( 3 – 4 @.@ 5 m ) from New London eastward . The surge in Narragansett Bay reached 14 @.@ 4 ft ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) , which surpassed that of the 1938 New England hurricane , which flooded downtown Providence with 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) of water . In New London , rainfall peaked around 6 in ( 150 mm ) . The hurricane produced winds of over 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) in Connecticut and Rhode Island , including a record @-@ high gust of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) at Block Island . Widespread areas were left without power from eastern Connecticut to southern Massachusetts . Further north in Maine , Hurricane Carol downed hundreds of trees , as well as destroying widespread apple groves and corn fields . It became the costliest natural disaster in the state 's history , only to be surpassed by Hurricane Edna ten days later . Across New England , the hurricane destroyed about 4 @,@ 000 homes , 3 @,@ 500 cars , and 3 @,@ 000 boats . Damage totaled $ 460 million , and there were 60 deaths . In neighboring Canada , high rains caused flooding while strong winds downed trees and power lines .
= = = Hurricane Dolly = = =
A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression on August 31 to the northwest of Puerto Rico . It moved rapidly north @-@ northwestward , intensifying into Tropical Storm Dolly later that day and into a hurricane early on September 1 . Early in the storm 's duration , the U.S. Weather Bureau noted the potential for Dolly to affect the same areas of New England that Hurricane Carol struck just days prior . However , the hurricane turned to the north away from land . The Hurricane Hunters estimated maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) on September 2 after the storm passed about halfway between the Outer Banks and Bermuda . Dolly turned to the northeast on September 2 and became extratropical later that day to the south of Nova Scotia . It was tracked until September 4 , until it was last located to the north of the Azores . There was no reported damage .
= = = Hurricane Edna = = =
As Dolly became extratropical , the tropical depression that later became Hurricane Edna developed east of the Lesser Antilles on September 2 . It moved northwestward , dropping heavy rainfall on Puerto Rico as it passed north of the island . On September 7 Edna became a hurricane , and the next day reached peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . It turned to the north and northeast , bypassing the Outer Banks and skirting Cape Cod . On September 11 , Edna struck Massachusetts as a strong Category 2 hurricane . The hurricane later moved ashore near the border between Maine and New Brunswick around the time it became extratropical . The remnants persisted a few more days before dissipating south of Greenland .
Early in its duration , Edna produced high seas and gale force winds in the Bahamas , but there was no damage there . Hurricane force winds occurred in the Outer Banks , although damage was minor . As it passed New England , Edna produced a 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) storm surge during a high tide , which caused severe flooding in Martha 's Vineyard , Nantucket , and Cape Cod . Wind gusts peaked at 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) on Martha 's Vineyard , and the strong winds across the region left widespread power outages . The hurricane dropped additional heavy rainfall to areas affected by Carol , resulting in flooding in Massachusetts and Rhode Island . In Long Island and New England , the hurricane left over $ 42 million in damage and 20 deaths , only 11 days after Carol affected the same area . About a third of the damage occurred in Maine , becoming the costliest hurricane on record in the state . Hurricane force winds extended into Canada , causing $ 6 million in damage ( 1954 CAD ) , mostly from crop damage . There was one death in Nova Scotia .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
A surface trough persisted across the central Atlantic Ocean on September 2 . Over the next few days , the system moved slowly northeastward , independent of any frontal systems . On September 6 , nearby ships indicated that the a closed circulation had developed , marking the genesis of the system as a tropical depression . Accelerating to the northeast , the storm reached peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) on September 7 . By the next day , the system became extratropical , and soon after was absorbed by a larger extratropical storm to the north .
= = = Tropical Storm Florence = = =
A tropical storm formed in the Bay of Campeche on September 11 . Given the name Florence , the storm moved generally west @-@ southwestward with a small radius of maximum winds . Hurricane Hunters reported winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , although winds were initially ( before reanalysis confirmed it was a tropical storm ) estimated to have reached minimal hurricane force , or 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Before the storm moved ashore , officials in Veracruz evacuated residents from low @-@ lying areas , and overall about 90 @,@ 000 people left their homes . On September 12 , Florence moved ashore between Tuxpan , and Nautla , Veracruz and quickly dissipated . The hurricane flooded coastal cities with up to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water , cutting off communications throughout the state . Damage was heaviest around Poza Rica , primarily from the destruction of banana plantations . Monetary damage was estimated around $ 1 @.@ 5 million , and there were five reported deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =
A low pressure area was present north of the Yucatán Peninsula on September 14 . Nearby ship observations indicated that a tropical depression developed the next day in the central Gulf of Mexico , although the system 's large structure meant it could have been a subtropical cyclone . The system moved slowly westward , bringing winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) to the coast of Louisiana . It is estimated that the storm reached peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) on September 16 , based on reports from ships and the Hurricane Hunters . On the next day , the system began weakening over water , dissipating on September 18 without moving ashore .
= = = Tropical Storm Gilda = = =
On September 24 , Tropical Storm Gilda developed in the central Caribbean Sea about halfway between Jamaica and Colombia . A small storm , it moved westward throughout its duration . On September 26 , Gilda attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while nearing northeastern Honduras . The storm paralleled the coastline a short distance offshore , maintaining its intensity before hitting and later weakening over Belize on September 27 . It re @-@ emerged in the Gulf of Mexico before making another landfall near Tampico as a tropical depression on September 29 . While moving just offshore the coast of Honduras , Gilda dropped intense rainfall , which flooding about 680 mi2 ( 1760 km2 ) of land along the Chamelecón and Ulúa rivers . The waters caused the widespread destruction of banana plantations and houses , leaving about 3 @,@ 000 people homeless . Honduras President Juan Manuel Gálvez appealed for aid from the United States . In response , U.S. Air Force planes flew food , medicine , rafts , and water purification tablets to the most affected regions . A total of 29 people were killed in Honduras . When Gilda made its landfall in Belize , it left little property damage and no deaths .
= = = Hurricane Thirteen = = =
A tropical depression formed in the Central Atlantic on September 25 . It drifted east @-@ northeastward , eventually becoming a tropical storm on September 29 . The storm curved to the west and west @-@ southwest , becoming a hurricane on October 2 . It turned to the northeast on October 3 , and reached a peak of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) winds about halfway between Bermuda and the Azores . By that point it began accelerating , and late on October 6 the hurricane became extratropical over the Northeastern Atlantic . Early the next day it was last observed to the south of Iceland . The hurricane was not named due to its presence in the eastern Atlantic and not being a threat to land .
= = = Unnumbered Tropical Depression = = =
On October 2 , a tropical depression moved westward from the coast of Cuba into the Gulf of Mexico . It moved westward without intensifying beyond winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , moving ashore about 40 mi ( 65 km ) north of Brownsville , Texas . The depression weakened as it moved across southern Texas and dropped heavy rainfall . Brownsville recorded over 3 in ( 75 mm ) in a 45 minute period , as well as about 6 in ( 150 mm ) in six hours . The rainfall rates of about an inch per hour was the heaviest since June 1950 . The depression also moved ashore with high waves and tides .
When the system reached the Big Bend region on October 5 it reintensified slightly . Around that time , the United States Navy conducted a rocket test from White Sands , New Mexico ; this was despite that such tests were rarely performed when the skies were cloudy . The rocket took an unintended photograph of the depression from an altitude of about 100 miles ( 160 km ) , which became the first such large @-@ scale image of a tropical cyclone . The depression later moved into New Mexico and dropped additional rainfall , interacting with an approaching cold front . Flooding was reported around Roswell , as well as along the Pecos River system . Rainfall in the state peaked at 9 @.@ 8 in ( 250 mm ) in Canton , New Mexico . The system dissipated on October 7 .
= = = Hurricane Hazel = = =
Hurricane Hazel was the deadliest and costliest hurricane of the season . The storm killed as many as 1 @,@ 000 people in Haiti before striking the United States near the border between North and South Carolina , as a Category 4 hurricane . After causing 95 fatalities in the U.S. , Hazel struck Canada as an extratropical storm , raising the death toll by 81 people , mostly in Toronto .
Hazel formed on October 5 just east of the Windward Islands and intensified into a Category 1 hurricane while crossing the southeastern Caribbean Sea . After making a hard turn northward ( similar to 2012 's Hurricane Sandy ) , it rapidly intensified as it approached Haiti , reaching Category 3 intensity before landfall . In Haiti , Hazel destroyed 40 % of the coffee trees and 50 % of the cacao crop , affecting the economy for several years to come . It fluctuated in intensity before making landfall as a Category 4 hurricane in the Carolinas , which destroyed most waterfront dwellings near its point of impact . It affected several more states , including Delaware , Maryland , New Jersey , New York , Pennsylvania , Virginia , and West Virginia , bringing gusts near 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and causing $ 308 million in damage .
When Hazel arrived in Ontario , rivers and streams passing through the Greater Toronto Area overflowed their banks , causing severe flooding . As a result , many residential areas located in floodplains , such as the Raymore Drive area , were subsequently converted to parkland . In Canada alone , over C $ 135 million ( 2009 : $ 1 @.@ 1 billion ) of damage was incurred . Hazel was particularly destructive in Toronto , as a result of a combination of a lack of experience in dealing with tropical storms and the storm 's unexpected retention of power . Hazel had traveled 680 mi ( 1 @,@ 090 km ) over land , but while approaching Canada , it had merged with an existing powerful cold front . The storm stalled over the Greater Toronto Area , and although it was now extratropical , it remained as powerful as a category 1 hurricane . To help with the cleanup , 800 members of the military were summoned , and a Hurricane Relief Fund was established that distributed $ 5 @.@ 1 million ( 2009 : $ 41 @.@ 7 million ) in aid .
= = = Tropical Storm Fifteen = = =
On November 16 , a tropical depression developed about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and the Azores . It moved to the west , intensifying into a tropical storm and reaching peak winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) ( however , due to limited data , it is possible that the storm remained a tropical depression ) . The storm maintained that intensity on November 21 when it began weakening , dissipating later that day .
= = = Hurricane Alice ( December ) = = =
The final storm of the season , Alice , developed on December 30 from a trough of low pressure in the central Atlantic Ocean in an area of unusually favorable conditions . The storm moved southwestward and gradually strengthened to reach hurricane status . It persisted into the following calendar year , passing through the Leeward Islands on January 2 . Alice reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) before encountering cold air and turning to the southeast . It dissipated on January 6 over the southeastern Caribbean Sea .
Alice produced heavy rainfall and moderately strong winds across several islands along its path . Saba and Anguilla were affected the most , with total damage amounting to $ 623 @,@ 500 ( 1955 USD ) . Operationally , lack of definitive data prevented the U.S. Weather Bureau from declaring the system a hurricane until January 2 . It received the name Alice in early 1955 , though re @-@ analysis of the data supported extending its track to the previous year , resulting in two tropical cyclones of the same name in one season . It was one of only two storms to span two calendar years , along with Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 @-@ 06 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1954 . The list was the same as 1953 with the exception of Gilda , which replaced Gail due to the name 's confusion with the term gale . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
The name Carol was re @-@ used in the 1965 season , but was retroactively retired when the modern naming system was introduced . Edna was reused in 1968 and retired . Hazel was not re @-@ used and was retired .
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= Dolebury Warren =
Dolebury Warren ( also known as Dolebury Camp ) is a 90 @.@ 6 hectares ( 224 acres ) biological Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) and ancient monument near the villages of Churchill and Rowberrow in North Somerset , part of South West England . It is owned by the National Trust , who acquired the freehold in 1983 , and managed by the Avon Wildlife Trust .
Standing on a limestone ridge on the northern edge of the Mendip Hills , it was made into a hill fort during the Iron Age and was occupied into the Roman period . The extensive fort covers 9 @.@ 1 hectares ( 22 acres ) with single or double defensive ramparts around it . The name Dolebury Warren comes from its use during the medieval or post medieval periods as a rabbit warren . The topography and differing soil types provide a habitat for an unusually wide range of plants , attracting a variety of insects , including several species of butterfly .
= = Geology and location = =
The site is at the top of a Carboniferous Limestone ridge on the northern edge of the Mendip Hills . It forms part of the Black Down Pericline where the limestone has been exposed because of erosion of the overlying Triassic Dolomitic Conglomerate . The soil depth varies considerably , owing to the slope within the site and the effects of its exposure to the wind .
Dolebury Warren overlooks the villages of Churchill and Rowberrow and provides good visibility across the surrounding lower lying areas as far as the Bristol Channel . The highest point , at the eastern end of the site is 183 metres ( 600 ft ) OD , with the hillfort being up to 50 metres ( 160 ft ) below this . It is the starting point for the Limestone Link , a 36 miles ( 58 km ) long @-@ distance footpath which ends at Cold Ashton in Gloucestershire .
= = Description = =
The fort covers an area of 9 @.@ 1 hectares ( 22 acres ) and commands views over the surrounding countryside . The hill fort is bivallate on three sides and a single rampart on the southern side which is protected by a steep slope . It is almost rectangular with the longest axis from east to west being 487 metres ( 1 @,@ 598 ft ) long and 200 metres ( 660 ft ) from north to south , surrounded by a rampart which is around 4 metres ( 13 ft ) high and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) wide . It was protected by a limestone rampart with a ditch and counterscarp on all sides but the South . There is an inturned entrance on the West and an annexe of 0 @.@ 4 hectares ( 0 @.@ 99 acres ) protecting the easier Eastern approach .
= = History = =
= = = Etymology = = =
The name Dolebury means the idol hill from the Old English dwol and beorg .
= = = Early = = =
Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age , roughly the start of the first millennium BC . The reason for their emergence in Britain , and their purpose , has been a subject of debate . It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe , sites built by invaders , or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture . The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain . Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze , and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status . Power passed into the hands of a new group of people . Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated " [ the forts ] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [ of an increasing population ] burst out into open warfare . But I wouldn 't see them as having been built because there was a state of war . They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed , but this was not the only , or even the most significant , factor in their construction " .
Various artefacts have been uncovered representing the long period of occupation of the site at Dolebury Warren . These include flintwork from the Palaeolithic , bronze spearheads , Bronze Age pottery , and Roman pottery and coins . There is evidence of occupation of the site during the Iron Age . The defences and Celtic field systems there date back to the 7th century − 3rd century BCE , though they might mask earlier developments . The hillfort was occupied until approximately 100BC , though it is possible that it was reoccupied in the Roman and post @-@ Roman periods . The archeological consultant Peter Leach has suggested there may even have been a Roman Temple built within the hillfort , while aerial photographs suggest the probable remains of an Iron Age or Roman coaxial field system . Local historian Robin Atthill also suggests that Dolebury may have re @-@ emerged as an important centre of population in the 5th century .
= = = Medieval = = =
In the medieval or post @-@ medieval period , the remains of the hillfort were used as a rabbit warren which was used to breed rabbits , providing valuable meat and fur . Many warrens were surrounded by banks or walls to prevent the rabbits from escaping ; escaped rabbits caused damage to nearby farmland and meant a loss in profit . The warren at Dolebury is completely enclosed by the substantial ramparts of the Iron Age hill fort and thus provided an ideal location to breed rabbits . The presence of pillow mounds and vermin traps demonstrate man 's management of the site for husbandry . Ridge and furrow agriculture has also been identified , from aerial photographs , within the fort . Some of these structures , along with earlier Iron Age features , have been damaged by subsequent quarrying which may have been for lead , ochre or calamine . The site was described by John Leland in the 16th century . A three @-@ storey building , believed to be the warrener 's house and possibly a watch tower , surrounded by a garden , was in ruins by 1830 .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
The site was visited in the early 19th century by John Skinner and surveyed in 1872 by Charles William Dymond . In 1906 the Mendip Lodge Estate , which included Dolebury Warren , was sold . It was first scheduled as an ancient monument in 1929 . In 1935 Dolebury Camp was bought by Miss V. Wills of the W.D. & H.O. Wills tobacco company to prevent development . Dolebury Warren was notified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1952 . The freehold of 92 @.@ 657 hectares ( 228 @.@ 96 acres ) was acquired by the National Trust in 1983 from A. G. Gosling , D. F. Gosling and J. M. Kent , and is managed by the Avon Wildlife Trust .
= = Ecology = =
The site of the fort and warren is now grassy slopes which attract a wide range of wild flowers and butterflies . The differing soil types provide suitable habitats for both acid- and lime @-@ loving plants . Kidney vetch ( Anthyllis vulneraria ) , harebell ( Campanula rotundifolia ) and woolly thistle ( Cirsium eriophorum ) thrive on the dry stony soils . Heath bedstraw ( Galium saxatile ) and wood sage ( Teucrium scorodonia ) are found in more acidic areas . The higher areas support bell heather ( Erica cinerea ) , western gorse ( Ulex gallii ) and common heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) . Trees and shrubs include the wayfaring tree ( Viburnum lantana ) , guelder rose ( Viburnum opulus ) , whitebeam ( Sorbus aria ) , privet ( Ligustrum vulgare ) and dogwood ( Cornus sanguinea ) .
Scarce plants found at the warren include knotted pearlwort ( Sagina nodosa ) , and slender bedstraw ( Galium pumilum ) . Butterflies recorded here include the small blue ( Cupido minimus ) , marbled white ( Melanargia galathea ) , dingy skipper ( Erynnis tages ) , grizzled skipper ( Pyrgus malvae ) , small pearl @-@ bordered fritillary ( Boloria selene ) , and wall brown ( Lasiommata megera ) .
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= Ray Funnell =
Air Marshal Raymond George ( Ray ) Funnell , AC ( born 1 March 1935 ) is a retired senior commander of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He served as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) from 1987 until 1992 . A graduate of RAAF College , he began his career flying CAC Sabre jet fighters in Australia and South East Asia in the 1950s and 1960s . From 1972 to 1975 he commanded No. 6 Squadron , during which time the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber entered Australian service . He held senior staff posts in the early 1980s . In 1986 , he was promoted to air marshal and became the inaugural Vice Chief of the Defence Force . Appointed CAS in July 1987 , Funnell was closely involved in the development and dissemination of air power doctrine . He retired from the RAAF in October 1992 following his term as CAS , and was founding Principal of the Australian College of Defence and Strategic Studies from 1994 to 1998 . Since then he has served on various Federal Government committees on immigration and detention .
= = Early career and rise to senior command = =
Raymond George ( Ray ) Funnell was born on 1 March 1935 in Brisbane , Queensland , and educated at Brisbane State High School . He joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Air Training Corps in January 1949 , and received a flying training scholarship . In 1951 , aged 16 , he learnt to fly with the Royal Queensland Aero Club . In January 1953 he entered RAAF College as an air cadet , graduating with distinction in 1956 . He married his wife Suzanne in 1958 ; the couple had two sons . Funnell spent much of his early career flying CAC Sabre jet fighters at RAAF Bases Williamtown , New South Wales , and Butterworth , Malaysia , as well as Ubon , Thailand , and Labuan , East Malaysia . As a flight lieutenant in the early 1960s , he instructed on the de Havilland Vampire with No. 1 Applied Flying Training School at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia . In 1966 he served as commanding officer of No. 79 Squadron at Ubon .
Squadron Leader Funnell attended RAAF Staff College , Canberra , from January to December 1967 . He subsequently served in various staff positions with the RAAF and on exchange with the United States Air Force . In 1971 he became the first RAAF officer to attend the US Air War College , and received a master 's degree in political science from Auburn University . Promoted to wing commander , from 1972 to 1975 he was commanding officer of No. 6 Squadron at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . His tenure witnessed the introduction of the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber to Australian service . On 8 / 9 April 1974 , Funnell flew an F @-@ 111 around Australia to commemorate the 1924 circumnavigation of the continent by Wing Commander Stanley Goble and Flight Lieutenant Ivor McIntyre in a Fairey III seaplane . From 1975 to 1978 he was head of the Military Planning Staff for the Australian Defence Force Academy project . He also served as honorary aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Governor @-@ General Sir John Kerr . Funnell was awarded the National Medal for long service in 1977 , and a clasp the following year .
= = Senior command = =
Promoted to air commodore , Funnell was appointed Chief of Staff at Headquarters Operational Command in Glenbrook , New South Wales , in 1979 . He attended the Royal College of Defence Studies , London , in 1981 and the following year was appointed Director @-@ General of the Military Staff Branch in the Department of Defence , Canberra . In November 1983 he was promoted air vice marshal and became Chief of Air Force Operations and Plans . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia ( AO ) on 10 June 1985 . The same year , he took up the position of Assistant Chief of the Defence Force ( Policy ) . On 6 June 1986 , he was promoted to air marshal and appointed the first Vice Chief of the Defence Force ; the role made him responsible for Australian Defence Force policy and planning , as well as operations .
On 3 July 1987 , Funnell succeeded Air Marshal Jake Newham as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , becoming the first graduate of RAAF College to attain the position ; he was also the first incumbent to possess a master 's degree . Known for his intellectual curiosity and commitment to the study of air warfare , Funnell ordered the establishment in 1989 of a permanent think @-@ tank and educational institution , the Air Power Studies Centre ( later the Air Power Development Centre ) , and donated the R.G. Funnell library to RAAF Staff College . The Air Power Manual , the RAAF 's first self @-@ produced treatise on aerial war fighting , was completed by a development team sponsored by Funnell , and published in 1990 . Funnell also championed the publication of The Decisive Factor , based on the writings of Air Vice Marshal Henry Wrigley , who was credited with laying the foundations for the RAAF 's modern air power doctrine .
As CAS , Funnell focused on turning the RAAF into the " air power element of a cohesive , integrated defence force " . His tenure saw the continuation of a shift in the RAAF 's ' centre of gravity ' from the south to the north of Australia . RAAF Base Curtin , in North Western Australia , and RAAF Base Tindal , in the Northern Territory , were opened and development proceeded on RAAF Base Scherger in Far North Queensland . At the same time , bases in the south , including Point Cook , Laverton and support units in capital cities , were rationalised . The Air Force was in the process of re @-@ equipping its Mirage III fighter squadrons with the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet when Funnell became CAS , and he had to contend with a shortage of pilots that was exacerbated by the extra training time required for the new aircraft . In September 1988 , he flew one of the RAAF 's recently acquired Pilatus PC @-@ 9 turboprop trainers in the Bicentenary Round Australia Air Race . He considered it fitting that the CAS should make the journey , as Stanley Goble had held the same position when he circumnavigated Australia for the first time in 1924 . His term coincided with the 1990 – 91 Gulf War ; the RAAF 's contribution included transporting Australian hostages and medical staff from the Middle East . Funnell was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia ( AC ) on 12 June 1989 for his service as CAS , and awarded the US Commander of the Legion of Merit in 1991 .
= = Later life = =
Funnell retired from the RAAF following completion of his term as CAS on 1 October 1992 , and was succeeded by Air Marshal Barry Gration , one of his classmates from the 1953 intake at RAAF College . Funnell 's five @-@ year term as CAS was the longest since that of Air Marshal George Jones , who served ten years in the post from 1942 to 1952 . In 1993 , Funnell became Director of the National Defence College project . From 1994 until 1998 , he served as the inaugural Principal of the Australian College of Defence and Strategic Studies , which subsequently evolved into the Australian Defence College . He became a consultant in 1999 , and was awarded the Centenary Medal for " humanitarian and defence services " on 1 January 2001 . From 2001 to 2009 , he was a member of the Minister 's Advisory Council on People Smuggling , and the Immigration Detention Advisory Group ( IDAG ) . He publicly disavowed the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq but , once battle was joined , opposed the withdrawal of troops and cautioned against anti @-@ war demonstrations . Funnell served as Deputy Chair of the Council for Immigration Services and Status Resolution ( CISSR ) from 2009 to 2011 , and became Deputy Chair of the Federal Minister 's Council on Asylum Seekers and Detention ( MCASD ) in 2012 . His recreational activities include motorcycling , photography , walking and bicycling .
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= Catherine de ' Medici 's court festivals =
Catherine de ' Medici 's court festivals were a series of lavish and spectacular entertainments , sometimes called magnificences , laid on by Catherine de ' Medici , the queen consort of France from 1547 to 1559 and queen mother from 1559 until her death in 1589 . As queen consort of Henry II of France , Catherine showed interest in the arts and theatre , but it was not until she attained real political and financial power as queen mother that she began the series of tournaments and entertainments that dazzled her contemporaries and continue to fascinate scholars . Biographer Leonie Frieda suggests that " Catherine , more than anyone , inaugurated the fantastic entertainments for which later French monarchs also became renowned " .
For Catherine , these entertainments served a political purpose that made them worth their colossal expense . She presided over the royal government at a time when the French monarchy was in steep decline . With three of her sons on the throne in succession and the country torn by religious civil war , Catherine set out to show not only the French people but foreign courts that the Valois monarchy was as prestigious and magnificent as it had been during the reigns of Francis I and her husband Henry II . At the same time , she believed these elaborate entertainments and sumptuous court rituals , which incorporated martial sports and tournaments of many kinds , would occupy her feuding nobles and distract them from fighting against each other to the detriment of the country and the royal authority .
It is clear , however , that Catherine regarded these festivals as more than political and pragmatic exercises : she revelled in them as a vehicle for her creative gifts . A highly talented and artistic woman , Catherine took the lead in devising and planning her own musical @-@ mythological shows . Though they were ephemeral , her " magnificences " — as the contemporary commentator Pierre de Bourdeille , seigneur de Brantôme , called them — are studied by modern scholars as works of art . Historian Frances Yates has called Catherine " a great creative artist in festivals " . She employed the leading artists and architects of the day to create the necessary dramas , music , and scenic effects for these events , which were usually dedicated to the ideal of peace and based on mythological themes .
It is difficult for scholars to piece together the exact form of the entertainments , but clues have been gleaned from the written accounts , scripts , artworks , and tapestries that derived from these famous occasions . Though such sources must be treated with caution , since they contain demonstrable inaccuracies and contradictions , they provide evidence of the richness and scale of Catherine de ' Medici 's court festivals .
= = Entertainments = =
Catherine de ' Medici 's investment in magnificent entertainments was part of a conscious political programme . She recalled the belief of her father @-@ in @-@ law , King Francis I , that the court needed to be physically active and constantly entertained . She also declared her intention to imitate the Roman emperors , who kept their subjects from mischief by occupying them with games and amusements . She therefore adopted a policy of distracting her nobles from fighting among themselves by laying on irresistible entertainments and sports for them at court .
Catherine also maintained about eighty alluring ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting at court , whom she allegedly used as tools to seduce courtiers for political ends . These women became known as her " flying squadron " . Catherine did not hesitate to use the charms of her ladies as an attraction of the court . In 1577 , for example , she threw a banquet at which the food was served by topless women . In 1572 , the Huguenot Jeanne d ’ Albret , Queen of Navarre , wrote from the court to warn her son Henry that Catherine presided over a " vicious and corrupt " atmosphere , in which the women made the sexual advances and not the men . In fact , Charlotte de Sauve , one of the most notorious members of the " flying squadron " , first seduced and then became a mistress of Henry of Navarre on Catherine 's orders . On the other hand , Brantôme , in his Memoirs , praised Catherine ’ s court as " a school of all honesty and virtue " .
In the tradition of sixteenth @-@ century royal festivals , Catherine de ' Medici 's magnificences took place over several days , with a different entertainment each day . Often individual nobles or members of the royal family were responsible for preparing one particular entertainment . Spectators and participants , including those involved in martial sports , would dress up in costumes representing mythological or romantic themes . Catherine gradually introduced changes to the traditional form of these entertainments . She forbade heavy tilting of the sort that led to the death of her husband in 1559 ; and she developed and increased the prominence of dance in the shows that climaxed each series of entertainments . As a result , the ballets de cour , a distinctive new art form , emerged from the creative advances in court entertainment devised by Catherine de ' Medici .
= = = Fontainebleau = = =
In January 1564 , Catherine and the young Charles IX embarked on a royal progress that was to last nearly two and a half years . They were accompanied by what has been described as a city on the move , including the King ’ s Council and foreign ambassadors who Catherine hoped would report to their governments on the splendour of the train , offsetting any idea that the French monarchy was on the verge of bankruptcy . The royal household included Catherine ’ s courtiers and " flying squadron " , as well as her musicians and nine essential dwarves who travelled in their own miniature coaches . The party carried with it all the equipment and paraphernalia required for the festivals , feasts , masques , and joyeuses entrées planned to take place along the route . These included portable triumphal arches and the royal barges .
Catherine had ordered that at the Château de Fontainebleau , each important noble should host a ball . She herself held a banquet in a meadow at the château 's dairy , where her courtiers dressed as shepherds and shepherdesses . That evening , the court watched a comedy in the great ballroom , which was followed by a ball where 300 " beauties dressed in gold and silver cloth " performed a choreographed dance .
At Fontainebleau , Catherine arranged entertainments that lasted for several days , including fancy @-@ dress jousting and chivalrous events in allegorical settings . On Mardi Gras , the day after the banquet in the meadow , knights dressed as Greeks and Trojans fought over scantily clad damsels trapped by a giant and a dwarf in a tower on an enchanted island . The fighting climaxed with the tower losing its magical properties and bursting into flames . In another spectacle , singing sirens swam past the king , and Neptune floated by in a chariot drawn by seahorses .
= = = Bayonne = = =
As the high point of the royal progress , Catherine scheduled a meeting with her daughter Elisabeth , the third wife of Philip II of Spain . Catherine was so determined to make a magnificent impression on the Spanish court that she indulged in a spending spree that was extravagant even by her own standards . To help pay for the planned pageantry and entertainments , she borrowed 700 @,@ 000 écus from the Gondi bank . Catherine had assumed she would also be meeting King Philip himself , but early in the tour , he sent word that he would not be attending . He was outraged that Catherine , whom he called " Madame La Serpente " , had received an embassy from the Sultan of Turkey . He also objected to her Edict of Amboise ( 1563 ) , which had offered concessions to the Huguenots . In short , French religious policy disgusted him . In his place he sent " the severe and ferocious " Duke of Alba , with orders to convince Catherine that persecuting , imprisoning , and torturing Huguenots was the way to deal with heretics , not making treaties with them . In the event , Catherine left Alba befuddled by her darting mind . He found her far more interested in discussing marriage alliances and in showing him what the French court could lay on in the way of fabulous entertainments .
Elisabeth and her Spanish entourage had arrived at the Bidasoa river on the Spanish border with a huge escort of French Catholic nobles on 14 June 1565 . She then rode into Saint @-@ Jean de Luz , where Catherine greeted her tearfully with embraces and kisses . During the reception ceremonies , ten of Catherine ’ s soldiers dropped dead from standing too long in the heat in their armour . The next day , Elisabeth made a dazzling entry into Bayonne on a horse whose harness was studded with gems worth 400 @,@ 000 ducats .
The encounter between the two courts was marked by ritual exchanges of costly gifts and a sustained display of ballets , jousts , mock battles , and decorative arts . Several accounts of the Bayonne entertainments survive . One spectacle , mounted on the Bidasoa river , is a particularly famous example of Catherine ’ s entertainments as ephemeral works of art . The entertainments began with a banquet on the Île d ’ Aguineau . As guests were ferried on decorated boats to the island , they passed , among other spectacles , Arion riding two dolphins , harpoonists spearing an artificial whale that spouted red wine , and six tritons sitting on a giant turtle , blowing conch shells . Charles IX was transported on a barge dressed to look like a floating fortress . The banquet was followed by a ballet of nymphs and satyrs . Brantôme reported that the " magnificence was such in everything that the Spaniards who are very contemptuous of all others save their own swore that they had never seen anything finer " .
The next day , King Charles and his brother Henry took part in a tournament , leading teams dressed as British and Irish knights . The theme of the tournament , " virtue and love " , was represented by two chariots , one containing ladies dressed as the five virtues , the other carrying Venus and Cupid and many mini @-@ cupids . In the tournament itself , little balls of fire were lobbed among the horses as they crossed . The royal grandstand was hung with gold @-@ and @-@ silk tapestries illustrating the triumph of Scipio , which Giulio Romano had designed for Francis I. Brantôme recalled in his memoirs that " the Spanish lords and ladies greatly admired it , never having seen anything like it in the possession of their king " . Another French spectator recorded , " Strangers of all nations were now forced to recognise that in these things France had surpassed , with these parades , bravado , glories and magnificences , all other nations and even herself " .
Catherine believed she had showed Spain that the French monarchy , far from being financially ruined and at war with its nobles , remained a glorious force to be reckoned with , capable of financing displays on a stunning scale , backed by a unified court . The point was lost on the grim Duke of Alba , however . His letters reveal his frustration that Catherine ’ s spectacles kept interrupting the serious business of discussing how to make war on the Protestants . In the end , the Spanish decided the whole meeting been a waste of time , since Catherine had refused to change her policy towards the Huguenots in the slightest . The Huguenots , however , believed that their banishment from the talks between the two negotiating teams meant that Catherine had struck a secret deal with the Spanish to persecute them .
= = = Royal wedding = = =
The celebrations following the marriage of Catherine ’ s daughter Marguerite to the Protestant Henry of Navarre in Paris on 18 August 1572 , were based on Huguenot themes . The match was controversial because Marguerite was marrying a Huguenot . The pope refused to grant a dispensation for the marriage , and the different faiths of the bridal couple made for an unusual wedding service . After a nuptial lunch , four days of balls , masques and banquets ensued .
Despite the tension between Catholic and Huguenot forces in the city , the festivities proceeded in a good @-@ natured fashion , though the themes of the entertainments may seem " very near to the bone " , in retrospect . The night after the wedding , a magnificent masked ball was held , which included the performance of a pantomime tournoi , called the " paradise of love " . King Charles and his two brothers defended twelve angelic nymphs against the Huguenots . They despatched the Huguenots , led by Henry of Navarre , into a hell where , according to an observer , " a great number of devils and imps were making infinite follery and noise " . The nymphs then danced a ballet . There followed combat between knights , accompanied by explosions of gunpowder . The king and his brothers climaxed proceedings by rescuing the Huguenots from hell , which was separated from paradise by a river on which floated the ferryman Charon in his boat .
The remaining festivities were called off after an assassination attempt on the Huguenot leader Admiral Coligny , who was shot from a house by an arquebusier on 22 August and wounded in the elbow and hand . The day before , the king and his brothers had dressed as Amazons to fight Navarre and his friends , who wore turbans and golden robes in the role of Turks . Fighting broke out for real between the Catholics and Huguenots in the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre , which began on 24 August when Charles IX ordered the slaughter of all the Huguenot leaders in Paris , provoking massacres of Huguenots throughout France . Henry of Navarre was given the choice of death , life imprisonment , or conversion to Catholicism . He chose Catholicism and was spared .
= = = Tuileries = = =
A year after the massacre , in August 1573 , Catherine hosted another lavish set of entertainments , this time for the Polish ambassadors who had arrived to offer the throne of Poland to her son , Henry , Duke of Anjou . Sports were laid on , including tournaments , mock combats , tilting at the quintain , and running at the ring . Catherine held a grand ball or " festin " at the Tuileries palace , which Jean Dorat described in his illustrated Magnificentissimi spectaculi . Sixteen nymphs , representing each of the French provinces , danced an intricate ballet , distributing devices to the spectators in the process . Brantôme called this performance " the finest ballet that was ever given in this world " and praised Catherine for bringing France so much prestige with " all these inventions " . The chronicler Agrippa d 'Aubigné recorded that the Poles marvelled at the ballet . Frances Yates has pointed out that the Italian influence on the French ballet de cour owed much to Catherine :
It was invented in the context of the chivalrous pastimes of the court , by an Italian , and a Medici , the Queen Mother . Many poets , artists , musicians , choreographers , contributed to the result , but it was she who was the inventor , one might perhaps say , the producer ; she who had the ladies of her court trained to perform these ballets in settings of her devising .
= = = Joyeuse magnificences = = =
A spectacular fête was held during the reign of Catherine ’ s son Henry III to celebrate the marriage of his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Marguerite of Lorraine , to his favourite , Anne , Duke of Joyeuse , on 24 September 1581 . Entertainments were laid on almost every day for two weeks after the wedding , in what art historian Roy Strong has called " the climax of Valois festival art " . The chief artist employed to design the magnificences was Antoine Caron , who was aided by the sculptor Germain Pilon . Among the writers were Dorat , Ronsard , and Philippe Desportes ; and the music was written by Claude Le Jeune and the Sieur de Beaulieu , among others . A programme for an entertainment with a sun – moon theme announced that " twelve torch bearers will be men and women disguised as trees ... the golden fruits of which will carry lamps and torches " . The visual decorations included two arcades , one shining as a sun , to represent the king , the other as a moon , to represent the newlyweds . The arcades were linked to an amphitheatre overhung with artificial heavens of planets and constellations , and allusions to Catherine ’ s personal emblem , the rainbow . Into this amphitheatre , the king was to enter in a chariot , dressed as the sun .
Another of the Joyeuse magnificences was the Ballet Comique de la Reine , devised and presented by Queen Louise , who directed her own team of writers and musicians . The text was by Nicolas de La Chesnaye , the music by the Sieur de Beaulieu , the sets by Jacques Patin , and the overall director was Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx .
The theme of the entertainment was an invocation of cosmic forces to come to the aid of the monarchy , which at that time was threatened by the rebellion not only of Huguenots but of many Catholic nobles . Men were shown as reduced to beasts by Circe , who held court in a garden at one end of the hall . Louise and her ladies danced ballets , and the Four Cardinal Virtues appealed to the gods to descend to earth and defeat the powers of Circe . With a thunderclap , Jupiter descended sitting on an eagle , accompanied by " the most learned and excellent music that had ever been sung or heard " . Jupiter transferred Circe ’ s power to the royal family , protected France from the horrors of civil war , and blessed King Henry with the wisdom to govern . At the end of the show , Catherine de ' Medici made Queen Louise give Henry a gold medal depicting a dolphin . The gesture expressed Catherine 's desire that the couple would have a male heir ( a dauphin ) to continue the dynasty .
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= Tekno Team 2000 =
Tekno Team 2000 was a professional wrestling tag team that competed in the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) from 1995 to 1996 . The team was composed of Travis and Troy . Although the team started off with a strong push from the WWF , they did not continue their initial success . Tekno Team 2000 also left the WWF temporarily to make several appearances in the United States Wrestling Association ( USWA ) . After returning to the WWF , the team continued to lose matches and was eventually disbanded .
= = History = =
Originally Chad Fortune and Erik Watts were football teammates for the University of Louisville . In 1994 , they reunited and began wrestling as a tag team . They would debut in Minnesota for the AWA losing to Wayne Bloom and Mike Enos .
= = = World Wrestling Federation = = =
Wearing " futuristic " silver and maroon ring outfits , they debuted in the WWF as a babyface tag team that was " ahead of its time " . As part of the " New Generation " of the WWF , they were said to be " determined to bring the New Generation into the 21st Century " . Building on their youthful appearance , Troy and Travis were featured in pin @-@ up pictures in the World Wrestling Federation Magazine .
Tekno Team 2000 made their WWF debut during a house show at Madison Square Garden on March 19 , 1995 . They defeated The Heavenly Bodies ( Tom Prichard and Jimmy Del Ray ) and repeated the result the following night at Boston Garden . Their WWF television debut took place on the May 27 , 1995 episode of WWF Superstars ; they defeated Barry Horowitz and the Brooklyn Brawler . They were booked to appear in a series of matches against The Heavenly Bodies . Del Ray was not able to appear in several of the matches , so he was replaced by Mantaur and Barry Horowitz in several of the matches . Tekno Team 2000 won all of the matches in this series . The WWF teased a storyline in which Tekno Team 2000 was being scouted by Ted DiBiase to join the Million Dollar Corporation , but they did not join the group . Their success led Pro Wrestling Illustrated to rank them among the top ten tag teams in the world .
On July 2 , Troy and Travis served as lumberjacks in the lumberjack match between Diesel and Sid at In Your House 2 : The Lumberjacks . During the match , Sid attacked Troy and Travis . While he was distracted , other wrestlers attacked Sid and helped Diesel to win the match .
= = = USWA Tennessee = = =
Watts has stated that the WWF intended to have Tekno Team 2000 win the WWF Tag Team Championship after two months in the promotion . After Watts ' father , Bill Watts , began booking matches , the team was later sent to developmental territories to improve their skills . They returned to USWA in Tennessee , where they had wrestled a tag team match together in April 1995 under their real names . Competing as Tekno Team 2000 , they defeated PG @-@ 13 on September 18 . They began losing matches , however , while facing PG @-@ 13 , The Heavenly Bodies , and The Bushwhackers . On October 30 , Troy and Travis reversed their fortunes and defeated King Cobra and Spellbinder .
= = = Return to World Wrestling Federation = = =
In 1996 , Troy and Travis resumed competition in the WWF . They lost to The Bodydonnas on the May 6 episode of Monday Night Raw . During Tekno Team 2000 's return , however , the WWF instructed The Bodydonnas to help make Troy and Travis look good to the fans . Five days later , Tekno Team 2000 lost to The Smoking Gunns on WWF Superstars . Their final appearance came in a loss to The Godwinns on the June 3 episode of Monday Night Raw . Watts and Fortune were released from their WWF contracts in the summer of 1996 .
= = = Legacy = = =
After disbanding the team , Watts and Fortune competed for independent promotions . They later formed a team while wrestling in Japan . In 2001 , they reunited in Dusty Rhodes ' Turnbuckle Championship Wrestling , teaming together under their real names . Watts later found work with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling , and Fortune retired from wrestling to drive monster trucks . Tekno Team 2000 was included during a video montage of poor gimmicks during the tenth anniversary of Monday Night Raw in January 2003 .
= = In wrestling = =
Double @-@ team finishing moves
Simultaneous vertical suplex / diving crossbody combination
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= Separate Vocations =
" Separate Vocations " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 27 , 1992 . In the episode , the Springfield Elementary School makes the students take career aptitude tests . When Lisa discovers that she is best suited to become a homemaker , her dreams of becoming a professional musician are shattered and , as a result , she becomes a troublemaker in school . Meanwhile , Bart discovers that he is best suited to become a policeman ; this significantly improves his grades and behavior and he is chosen to be the school 's new hall monitor .
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . American actor and television personality Steve Allen guest starred in the episode as the electronically altered voice of Bart in a fantasy sequence . The episode features cultural references to films such as Bullitt , The Wild One , and Beverly Hills Cop , and the television series The Streets of San Francisco . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen Rating of 14 @.@ 8 and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . Nancy Cartwright received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for her performance as Bart in the episode .
= = Plot = =
After taking career aptitude tests ( scored by a malfunctioning computer ) , Lisa discovers that the occupation she is best suited for is homemaker , while Bart 's test shows that he should be a policeman . Lisa is heartbroken over the result and is determined to prove the test wrong . She consults a music teacher for his opinion , but he tells her that , having inherited her father 's stubby fingers , she can never be a professional saxophone player . Lisa is therefore required by the test to spend the day doing chores with her mother Marge , while Bart goes on a ride @-@ along with the police .
Lisa hates her role as a homemaker and , realizing that her future dreams have been shattered , loses interest in being a good student . Bart enjoys spending time with the police , and he even ends up stopping Snake Jailbird during a car chase . When Principal Skinner discovers Bart 's new interest in law enforcement , he enlists him as a hall monitor . Bart starts handing out demerits to his classmates for minor infractions and has order restored to the school . Meanwhile , Lisa becomes a sulky , rebellious student with no interest in school . She hangs out with the bad girls in the bathroom , makes snippy comments at Miss Hoover , gets disciplined by Skinner , and her grades drop as a result . The girls are impressed with Lisa 's recent bad behavior and offer her a cigarette . Though hesitant to accept , she takes it and tells them that she will smoke it in class .
One day , while she is in detention for another snippy comment , Lisa secretly steals all of the Teachers ' Editions of the schoolbooks and reveals the teachers ' incompetence . When the books turn up missing , it is up to Bart to find out who stole them . He finds the books in Lisa 's locker and realizes she is the culprit . Closing her locker , Lisa confesses to the crime and reveals she stole them because she was rebelling against her chosen occupation as a homemaker . She also tells Bart that before he became a hall monitor , he used to enjoy the simple freedom of rebellion . He admits so , but also tells Lisa that even he had his limits and that she could face expulsion for her actions . When Skinner finds the books , he is overjoyed , but then asks who stole them . Bart takes the blame and returns to his life as a bad student and detention hall regular .
When Milhouse takes him to Skinner 's office for punishment , Lisa asks Bart why he took the blame for her and not let her take the fall . He tells Lisa he did not want her ruining her future as she had the brains and talent to do what she wanted . Bart encourages her to keep pursuing her future dreams as a professional saxophone player and promises to be there for her when she needs his help again ( as well as borrowing money from her ) . Lisa is touched by Bart 's deeds and returns to her old life as a good student . As he spends his time in detention , Lisa plays her saxophone outside his classroom to comfort him . While hearing her play her sax , Bart makes encouraging comments that Lisa has a great future as a professional saxophone player regardless of what anyone else says .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . Mike Reiss , show runner of The Simpsons with Al Jean at the time , said Meyer wrote most of the episode by himself without help from the show 's other writers . Few changes were made to the first draft that he pitched to the producers ; it was near identical to the final script . The episode was inspired by the vocational tests taken by several members of the show 's staff when they went to school ; Reiss , for example , said he was told he would become a librarian . Jean said " one of the first things that sold us on doing the episode " was the idea of Bart becoming a policeman . He said it was " a funny , realistic depiction of what a kid like Bart might wind up to become , and it wasn 't something you would immediately think of . " Jean said the episode deals with the emotion that many adults feel when they grow older and realize that they are not going to achieve the dreams they once had . " [ It 's about ] how people in life cope with that problem . Maybe Lisa , at eight years old , is a little bit young to worry about that , but that 's what we were trying to explore here . "
In one sequence where Bart imagines himself testifying in court , with his voice electronically altered . The altered voice was provided by American actor and television personality Steve Allen . Series creator Matt Groening said that he and some of the writers who were old enough to remember Allen 's TV show from the 1950s – 60s were thrilled to have him guest @-@ star , especially John Swartzwelder . It took nine takes for Allen to pronounce Bart 's catchphrase " ¡ Ay , caramba ! " correctly , to the point where the staff began to get slightly frustrated with him . There was a discussion amongst the writing team of whether the episode should end with a joke or have a " sweet " ending . Reiss said " With the better angels in our nature , we went with the sweet ending [ of Lisa playing her saxophone for Bart ] . "
= = Cultural references = =
The music school that Lisa visits has a sign out front with a picture of a diapered baby Ludwig van Beethoven on it . When Principal Skinner is questioning Lisa about her newfound sense of irresponsibility , he asks " What are you rebelling against ? " She responds " Whaddaya got ? " , like Marlon Brando 's character Johnny Strabler did in the film The Wild One . She also has a toothpick in her mouth , like Johnny had in the film . The fifth graders that Lisa talks to in the school washroom are smoking Laramie cigarettes .
The car chase scene with Snake is a reference to the car chase scene in the 1968 film Bullitt . Music similar to the soundtrack of the television series The Streets of San Francisco is heard in the scene . Alf Clausen , a composer on The Simpsons who had previously worked on several police shows , wrote the music for the scene . In another reference to The Streets of San Francisco and other Quinn Martin productions , a voice @-@ over and caption proclaims the name of act two of the episode , " Act II - Death Drives a Stick " , after the episode 's first act break in the middle of the Snake car chase . In the sequence where Bart imagines himself testifying in court , his face is obscured with a blue dot ; this is a references to the television coverage of the rape trial of William Kennedy Smith , in which the woman who accused Smith of raping her was obscured with a blue dot over her face . The way the scene changes from Bart and Skinner talking in Skinner 's office to them searching through the lockers is a reference to the same style of scene change used in the 1960s Batman television series , in which a close @-@ up of Batman 's face with dramatic music in the background is shown for a brief moment before the scene changes . The song heard when Bart and Skinner search through the lockers for the Teachers ' Editions is a variation of Harold Faltermeyer ’ s " Axel F " from the film Beverly Hills Cop .
= = Analysis = =
In the last scene of the episode , Bart is seen writing " I will not expose the ignorance of the faculty " on the blackboard as a punishment for exposing the ignorance of the teachers by removing the Teachers ' Editions . In his book The Small Screen : How Television Equips Us to Live in the Information Age , Brian L. Ott describes this scene as one of the " key ways The Simpsons appeals to audience , which tends to be younger , by critiquing authority figures , and in particular educators . " Toby Daspit and John Weaver write in their book Popular Culture and Critical Pedagogy : Reading , Constructing , Connecting that the writers of The Simpsons are " particularly interested " in questions about authority and the abuses of powers in school . Another scene from the episode sees Ms. Hoover telling the students to stare at the blackboard for ten minutes until class is over . Daspit and Weaver write that it is " the absolute power that teachers have over students ' every action that allows for the image to be presented on The Simpsons . It would be comforting to tell ourselves that this is simply parody run amok , that the writers are stretching reality to make a point , but the discussants in the study [ of The Simpsons in this book ] had memories of a reality very much like the one presented in this program . " One of the discussants said she believes everyone has experienced similar situations in their school years , and she thinks the thought that " an educator could ever do something so useless and pointless with the children 's time " is " frightening " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Separate Vocations " finished 29th in the ratings for the week of February 24 – March 1 , 1992 , with a Nielsen Rating of 14 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Bart 's voice actor , Nancy Cartwright , received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 for her performance in the episode .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought the episode displayed The Simpsons " at its best – not only hilarious but daringly outspoken on a whole range of issues – the failures of the education system , police abuses of power , the stifling of children 's creativity . " Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict said " Separate Vocations " represent The Simpsons " at its apex as a well tuned talent machine grinding out the good stuff with surprising accuracy and skill . " Gibron added that the episode shows that " even in territory they 're not used to ( Bart as a safety patrol , Lisa as a cursing class cut up ) , the Simpsons ' kids are funny and inventive . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a four out of five rating and commented that the script 's " departure from the traditional roles assigned to Bart and Lisa makes for a fresh experience with many laughs . " Meyers thought the highlight of the episode was Bart 's ride in the police car . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought the theme of the episode was unoriginal , but commented that Bart 's " rapid embrace of fascism " and Lisa 's " descent into hooliganism " provide " a number of funny opportunities , and ' Separate Vocations ' exploits them well . Though it ’ s not one of the year ’ s best shows , it seems like a good one for the most part . "
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= Jochen Rindt =
Karl Jochen Rindt ( [ kaʁl ˈjɔχn ̩ ʀɪnt ] ; 18 April 1942 – 5 September 1970 ) was a German @-@ born racing driver who represented Austria during his career . In 1970 , he became the only driver to posthumously win the Formula One World Drivers ' Championship , after being killed in practice for the Italian Grand Prix .
Rindt started motor racing in 1961 , switching to single @-@ seaters in 1963 , earning success in both Formula Junior and Formula Two . In 1964 , Rindt made his debut in Formula One at the Austrian Grand Prix , before securing a full drive with Cooper for 1965 . After mixed success with the team , he moved to Brabham for 1968 and then Lotus in 1969 . It was at Lotus where Rindt found a competitive car , although he was often concerned about the security of the notoriously unreliable Lotus vehicles . He won his first Formula One race at the 1969 United States Grand Prix .
In 1970 , Rindt took five victories before his fatal accident , earning enough points to win the Drivers ' World Championship . Overall , he competed in 62 Grands Prix , winning six and achieving 13 podium finishes . He was also successful in sports car racing , winning the 1965 24 Hours of Le Mans , paired with Masten Gregory in a Ferrari 250LM .
= = Early life and family = =
Jochen Rindt was born on 18 April 1942 in Mainz , Germany , to an Austrian mother and German father . His parents were killed in a bombing raid in Hamburg during the Second World War when he was one year old . He was thus raised by his grandparents in Graz , Austria , where he grew up . Rindt 's mother had been a successful tennis player in her youth and later studied law , like her father , who was a lawyer . His parents owned a spice mill in Mainz , which was inherited by Rindt . His grandfather opted for Rindt to maintain German citizenship , but Rindt drove his entire career under an Austrian racing licence . In an interview , he described his heritage as a " terrible mixture " and , when asked if he felt more Austrian or German , said that he felt " like a European " . Rindt had one half @-@ brother , Uwe , through his mother .
The young Rindt has been described by his brother and friends as a " laddish child " , often performing tricks for his friends . While on a skiing holiday , he broke his femoral neck , leading to several surgeries that left one leg 4 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) shorter than the other . As a result of this , Rindt limped slightly for the rest of his life . When Rindt was sixteen years old , he got a moped and started racing his friends on motocross tracks . His time in school was troubled and he got excluded from schools more than once . He said :
In the end I got thrown out and went to England to learn English . I learned to drive while I was in England but I was too young to get a licence . When I went back home I broke my leg skiing but I decided I was more than capable of driving myself – even though I had one leg in plaster . I actually drove without a licence for 18 months and then got caught the day before I was eligible to collect it .
Obtaining a licence was put into further jeopardy because he had collected eight recorded misdoings with the police during his youth . In 1960 , he received his first car , a Volkswagen Beetle , through his parents ' spice mill company in Mainz . His interest in motorsport was really sparked when he visited the 1961 German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring with school friends , including fellow future Formula One driver Helmut Marko . In the same year , Rindt 's idol , the German Wolfgang von Trips , died in an accident at the 1961 Italian Grand Prix . However , Rindt still opted to go into the sport and started racing touring cars around that time .
= = Racing career = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Rindt drove his first race at the Flugplatzrennen in 1961 , in an Abarth Simca 2000 . After missing the official application period , he only entered after prominent intervention from a friend from Graz . During the race , he was black flagged for his dangerous driving style , signalling his disqualification . He did not immediately come into the pits however , since he was unaware of the regulations . Rindt entered several rallies with his Simca , but was unable to score good results , until he was provided with a race @-@ prepared Alfa Romeo GT 1300 at cost price and with free servicing , by a local dealer in which he achieved eight victories , almost all the races he entered .
In 1963 , he switched to Formula Junior with the assistance of Kurt Bardi @-@ Barry , a wealthy owner of a travelling agency and one of Austria 's leading drivers at the time . Barry handed his one year old Cooper T67 to Rindt and the two formed a partnership , driving to races together . He was fastest in practice for his first race in Vallelunga , a race that Barry won , but took victory in only his second attempt at Cesenatico . In the race , Rindt had taken advantage of an accident in the early stages . While most drivers slowed for the incoming ambulance , he raced ahead between straw bales and the ambulance to take the lead . He was notorious for his dangerous style , almost crashing into the crowd of spectators at a race in the streets of Budapest .
= = = Formula Two = = =
Rindt was highly successful in Formula Two racing , amassing a total of 29 victories . He once again entered the series in partnership with Barry , driving Brabham cars . With engines provided from Cosworth that were notoriously different in performance , Rindt reacted to getting a slower engine by declaring : " Then I just brake two metres later . " He entered his first F2 race in April 1964 at the Preis von Wien at Aspern , retiring from both heats . The international motor racing world first took notice of him on 18 May 1964 , when Rindt won the London Trophy race at the Crystal Palace circuit in a Brabham BT10 ahead of Graham Hill .
Like many other drivers at the time , Rindt continued to race in Formula Two races next to his duties in Formula One , with his last F2 appearance being the Festspielpreis der Salzburg in August 1970 . In 1967 , he dominated Formula Two , winning nine races in his Brabham BT23 . However , as a graded driver , his results did not count towards the championship , handing the title to Jacky Ickx . Still , his performances led him to be called " king of Formula 2 " by the racing press . He had a long @-@ standing relationship with Roy Winkelmann , with whose team he drove until it closed at the end of 1969 .
= = = Sports cars = = =
Next to single @-@ seater racing , Rindt also took up sports car racing in the mid @-@ 1960s . His greatest result came at the 1965 24 Hours of Le Mans . Sharing the drive of a Ferrari 250LM with American Masten Gregory for the North American Racing Team , Rindt won the event . Both drivers had not been delighted to run the race in a seemingly uncompetitive car . As Motor Sport magazine put it in an 1998 article , both did not appear to show much interest in the race , and instead " more a case of ' hope it breaks soon ' so they could draw their money and split " . At the start , when the drivers had to run to their cars , Rindt entered his vehicle with a forward roll that allowed him to get his foot on the throttle instantly , taking an early lead . However , the pair experienced considerable trouble in the early part of the race , with the car not starting again during Gregory 's first pit stop . Later , the engine failed partially and Gregory brought the car into the pits on only six of twelve cylinders . At this point , Rindt had already changed back into his civilian clothes , expecting the race to be over for them . However , after thirty minutes of repairs , the car restarted and Rindt and Gregory agreed to drive the rest of the event " flat out " , with full speed and risk . Rindt drove most of the night , advancing from 18th to third position by the dawn of morning . Gregory persuaded Rindt to let him drive the closing part of the race , suspecting that his young teammate might not drive moderately enough to nurse the car to the finish , losing a potential victory . Jacky Ickx later recalled that the two had indeed driven " like maniacs " . However , the car survived , handing the pair what Ickx called an " unexpected victory " .
Later the same year , Rindt drove , again in a Ferrari 250LM , at the 500 kilometre race at Zeltweg . He was able to win ahead of the better powered Ferrari of Mike Parkes due to a special lever that manually activated the brake lights . Using the tool shortly before his actual braking point , Rindt was able to force Parkes to brake earlier than him and allowed himself to stay ahead .
Rindt started at Le Mans a total of four times . Apart from his 1965 victory , he never finished the race . At his debut in 1964 , sharing a Ferrari 250LM with David Piper , the car retired too early for Rindt even to take the wheel . In 1966 , his Ford GT40 ( shared with Innes Ireland ) suffered an engine failure . A year later , he drove a Porsche 907 with Gerhard Mitter until their camshaft failed .
= = = Formula One = = =
= = = = Cooper and Brabham ( 1964 – 1968 ) = = = =
Rindt got his Formula One debut at his home race , the 1964 Austrian Grand Prix , in a loaned Brabham BT11 supplied by the Rob Walker Racing Team . He retired on the 58th lap with a broken steering column in what was to be his only Grand Prix of the season .
For the 1965 Formula One season , Rindt got a permanent drive with Cooper , paired with Bruce McLaren . He did not have immediate success , as the former top team was struggling at the time . In his first race with the team , in South Africa , he suffered a broken wire to the transistor . The damage was repaired only to break again , leaving Rindt to retire on track . His best result was a fourth place at the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring . He ended the season with four points , 13th in the championship .
For 1966 , Cooper introduced the T81 chassis and used nine year old Maserati V12 engines , which were powerful but overweight . The car was still competitive as many teams struggled with the new 3 @-@ litre engine formula . Rindt became team leader as McLaren left , at least until 1964 world champion John Surtees joined from Ferrari . At the second race of the year , the Belgian Grand Prix , Rindt overcame an engine failure in practice to qualify second , next to Surtees on the front row of the grid . In a race marred by heavy rain , he overtook Surtees for the lead on lap four . He spun multiple times on the wet track and suffered from a limited @-@ slip differential , but held onto the lead until lap 21 , when Surtees repassed him and won . It was Rindt 's first ever podium finish in Formula One however , in what Motor Sport magazine called a " very courageous " drive . Overall , he achieved three podium positions , handing him third place in the championship at the end of the year .
1967 was less successful , as Rindt only finished two races , the Belgian and Italian Grands Prix , both in fourth place . Six points meant that he ended the season in 13th place in the championship .
In 1968 , Rindt , who had received offers from all teams except for Lotus and Honda , moved to Brabham , who had been world champions in the two previous seasons . However , his season was not what he had hoped for because of technical problems . Brabham 's Repco V8 engine was not competitive against the now widely used Cosworth DFV and Rindt finished just two races , both in third place . At the season opener in South Africa on New Year 's Day , Rindt placed third , being elevated by a late retirement from Jackie Stewart and closing on second placed Graham Hill towards the end . It was the last race and victory for Jim Clark , a close friend of Rindt 's , who died three months later at a Formula Two race at Hockenheim . Rindt was deeply affected by the loss of Clark , telling Austrian journalist Heinz Prüller : " If Jim Clark is not safe , what can happen to us ? " His second podium finish came under treacherous conditions of heavy rain and fog at the Nürburgring at the German Grand Prix , a race dominated by Stewart , who finished four minutes ahead of second placed Hill . Rindt had closed on Hill in the latter stages of the race after the Englishman had spun , and finished just four seconds behind after a close battle during the last lap . His eight points placed him twelfth in the championship at the end of the season .
During these years , he also raced in the Indianapolis 500 in both 1967 and 1968 , but finished no better than 24th . In an interview in 2014 , Heinz Prüller recalled Rindt speaking about Indianapolis in 1967 : " In Indianapolis , I always feel like I am on my way to my own funeral . " At another occasion , he said about the track : " It is catastrophic , I only drive there because of the money . "
= = = = Team Lotus ( 1969 – 1970 ) = = = =
For the 1969 season , Rindt again switched teams , joining 1968 world champions Lotus , pairing up with defending drivers ' champion Graham Hill . Rindt had not felt comfortable with the move , citing the Lotus cars ' notorious unreliability . In fact , in a twenty @-@ month period between 1967 and 1969 , the team had incurred 31 accidents . Hill alone was involved in nine crashes between 1968 and 1970 , which led him to joke : " Every time I am being overtaken by my own wheel , I know I am in a Lotus . " On signing with Lotus and their team owner Colin Chapman , Rindt 's friend and de facto manager Bernie Ecclestone , who had negotiated the deal , commented that although they knew that perhaps a better proposition would have been to drive for Brabham , they were always concerned about the fact that they knew Lotus were going to be quick , and Rindt wanted to win the championship . Rindt 's hesitation about Lotus is underlined by the often repeated quotation : " At Lotus , I can either be world champion or die . " Because of his doubts , Rindt did not sign the contract with Lotus until shortly before the 1969 Spanish Grand Prix .
Rindt 's scepticism about Lotus appeared to be right when both he and Hill suffered high speed crashes at the Spanish Grand Prix at Montjuïc . In both instances , the high , suspension mounted wings broke off , causing accidents that many felt could have killed either driver . The effect of the failure lifted Rindt off the track and into the barriers , crashing into the stationary car of Hill , who had his accident at the same spot . Although he walked away from the scene with only a broken nose , one marshal lost an eye and another suffered a broken foot . Rindt was furious with Chapman over the failure , and told a reporter after the accident : " I place the blame on him [ Chapman ] and rightfully so , because he should have calculated that the wing would break . " In an interview on Austrian television one day later , he was even more articulate : " These wings are insanity [ ein Wahnsinn ] in my eyes and should not be allowed on racing cars . [ ... ] But to get any wisdom into Colin Chapman 's head is impossible . " Asked whether he had lost trust in Lotus after the accident , he replied : " I never had any trust in Lotus " , going on to describe his relationship with the team as " purely business " . His accident left him sidelined for the Monaco Grand Prix , a race that Hill won .
Jackie Stewart later described Rindt 's 1969 season as the year that he " came of age " . At the end of the year , Motor Sport magazine called him " [ t ] he only driver to challenge Stewart seriously throughout the season " , albeit placing only fourth in the championship . He suffered from the poor reliability of the Lotus 49B , retiring from seven races , second only to Jackie Oliver . At the British Grand Prix , Rindt fought a close battle with Stewart for the lead , both being 90 seconds ahead of third @-@ placed Jacky Ickx . The race was decided in Stewart 's favour only when Rindt had to go into the pits because part of his bodywork had started to rub on his tyre . He would finish fourth . Rindt took his first ever Grand Prix win at the penultimate race of the season at Watkins Glen , winning the highest ever prize money in Formula One at the time : $ 50 @,@ 000 . His victory was however overshadowed by a serious accident of his teammate Hill , who crashed when one of his tyres punctured at high speed , suffering major leg injuries .
For 1970 , Rindt was partnered at Lotus by John Miles , as Graham Hill left the team to drive for Rob Walker 's costumer franchise , establishing Rindt as the clear team leader . At the first Grand Prix of the season in South Africa , he qualified on the second row in fourth , but eventually retired with an engine failure after being entangled in a first lap incident with Chris Amon and Jack Brabham , who would go on to win his last ever Grand Prix . At the following race , the Spanish Grand Prix , Lotus introduced their new Lotus 72 , a revolutionary design . Instead of the conventional front radiator , it featured two radiators at each side of the driver 's cockpit . Further innovations included torsion bar brakes in place of the widely used coil @-@ springs , with all four brakes now mounted inboard . During its first ever practice session , the left semi @-@ axis of the car broke , sending Rindt into a spin . In addition , the car proved ineffective in the race , with Rindt retiring after nine laps .
With the Lotus 72 " not as good as we had imagined it " , the car was sent back to the factory to be re @-@ built and Rindt used the old Lotus 49 for the next race in Monaco . However , the 49 needed to be used with the new 72 @-@ type tyres , causing the car to be unstable . Seemingly unaffected by this , Rindt produced what his race engineer Herbie Blash called " the race of his life " . From eighth on the grid , he worked his way through the field on a track notorious for lack of overtaking opportunities . In the closing stages , he was second , steadily closing the gap on leader Jack Brabham . On the very last lap , at Gasometer hairpin , the final corner of the circuit , Brabham made a mistake : he braked too late , touched the kerbstone and went straight ahead into the straw balls , allowing Rindt through to take his first victory of the season . Rindt used the Lotus 49 one last time at the Belgian Grand Prix , a race at which he heavily criticised the organisers for installing guardrails that had several metre gaps in between them . He had originally started practice in the remodelled 72 , but the car came to a halt early in the session with a broken lower wishbone , forcing Rindt to switch cars once more . Even with engine troubles during the rest of practice , he still managed to qualify on the front row , but later retired with another engine failure .
At the Dutch Grand Prix , Rindt eventually used the new Lotus 72 , better sorted after anti @-@ dive and anti @-@ squat had been removed . After being only tenth in first practice , he set pole position in the second session . He suffered another accident however , when he braked too late , misjudging his new brake discs , crashing head @-@ on into the barriers , forcing his mechanics to repair the car overnight . Rindt went on to take his maiden victory in the Lotus 72 , but it was not a joyful occasion for him : On lap 23 , his close friend Piers Courage , with whom he had eaten dinner just the night before , died in a fiery crash . Rindt was heavily shaken by the loss of yet another fellow driver and contemplated retirement .
After the success of Zandvoort , Rindt gained confidence in the new Lotus 72 , describing it as " the best racing car that exists at the moment " . Yet , bad luck continued to follow him . During practice for the French Grand Prix , Rindt had opted to drop his new all @-@ enveloping Bell @-@ Star crash helmet , finding it too hot . He went back to using his open @-@ front helmet , only to be hit in the face by a stone from another car , causing a deep cut on his right cheek . Furthermore , he suffered a steering failure on his car . Furious over yet another mechanical problem , he stormed into the Lotus pits and yelled at Colin Chapman : " If this happens again and I survive , I will kill all of you ! " Still , Rindt was able to win the race , taking the lead in the championship . The next race was the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch . Jacky Ickx established an early lead ahead of Brabham and Rindt , but when Ickx 's transmission failed , Rindt seized the opportunity to pass Brabham for the lead . Brabham was then able to regain the top spot on lap 69 as Rindt missed a gear and looked the certain winner , only to repeat his misfortune of Monaco : On the last lap , he ran out of fuel , allowing Rindt to take his third win in a row . His victory was cast into doubt however shortly after the race when Chief Scrutineer Cecil Mitchell found the rear aerofoil not at the regulated height . Rindt was provisionally disqualified , only to be reinstated as winner after three hours of deliberation .
The German Grand Prix was originally set to take place at its traditional venue , the Nürburgring . The Grand Prix Drivers ' Association ( GPDA ) , represented by Rindt and Graham Hill , demanded changes made to the circuit to increase safety , including Armco barriers along the entire 22 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 2 mi ) of the Nordschleife . No agreement was reached and the Grand Prix moved to Hockenheim , where Rindt took his fourth victory in succession . The race was another classic two @-@ way fight , this time between Rindt and Ickx , who exchanged the lead several times . This meant that he could have secured the drivers ' title at his home event at the Austrian Grand Prix . To the delight of the crowd , he set the Lotus 72 on pole position , but retired from the race with an engine failure . The title decision was therefore postponed to the next race in Monza .
= = = = Death and legacy = = = =
The paddock next moved to the Italian Grand Prix at Monza , a track known for being very fast with cars often using the slipstream of drivers in front to achieve faster speeds . Because of this many teams opted to drop the rear wings mounted on the cars in order to increase their pace . Lotus and Rindt followed the lead of Stewart in the Tyrrell run March and Denny Hulme of McLaren in an attempt to reduce drag . The more powerful flat @-@ 12 Ferraris of Jacky Ickx and Clay Regazzoni had been up to 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) faster than the Lotus at the previous race in Austria . Rindt 's team mate John Miles was unhappy with the wingless setup in Friday practice , reporting that the car " wouldn 't run straight " . Rindt reported no such problems , and Chapman recalled that Rindt reported the car to be " almost 800 rpm faster on the straight " without wings .
On the following day , Rindt ran with higher gear ratios fitted to his car to take advantage of the reduced drag , increasing the car 's potential top speed to 205 mph ( 330 km / h ) . On his fifth lap , he crashed heavily at the approach to the Parabolica corner . Hulme , who was following Rindt at the time , described the accident as follows :
Jochen was following me for several laps and slowly catching me up and I didn 't go through the second Lesmo corner very quick so I pulled to the one side and let Jochen past me and then I followed him down into the Parabolica , [ ... ] we were going very fast and he waited until about the 200 metres to put on the brakes . The car just sort of went to the right and then it turned to the left and turned out to the right again and then suddenly just went very quickly left into the guardrail .
Upon impact , a joint in the crash barrier parted , the suspension dug in under the barrier , and the car hit a stanchion head @-@ on . The front end of the car was destroyed . Although the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Rindt was rushed to hospital , he was pronounced dead . Rindt was in the habit of using only four points on the five point harness then available and did not wear the crotch straps , as he wanted to be able to get out of the car quickly in the event of fire . As a result , upon impact he slid under the belts and suffered fatal throat injuries . Later investigations found that the accident was initiated by a failure of the car 's right front brake shaft , but that Rindt 's death was caused by poorly installed crash barriers . Rindt was pronounced dead on the way to hospital and Lotus withdrew all cars from the race , including the Lotus 72 entered by Rob Walker . The Grand Prix went ahead and Clay Regazzoni took his maiden victory , but celebrations were muted . Incidentally , Rindt was killed at the same spot at which his idol Wolfgang von Trips had died nine years earlier . There was a lengthy investigation into Rindt 's death in Italy , leading to a trial against Colin Chapman . However , he was cleared of all charges in 1976 . The destroyed Lotus 72 remained in Italy after the trial , going to a scrapyard near Monza . In 1985 , a real estate agent found the wreckage and bought it from the authorities , later trading it in 1993 for a Lola Formula 3 car . Since then , the car rests in a garage near Milan .
Rindt was buried at the central cemetery ( Zentralfriedhof ) in Graz on 11 September 1970 . At his funeral , Joakim Bonnier held the eulogy , saying :
To die doing something that you loved to do , is to die happy . And Jochen has the admiration and the respect of all of us . The only way you can admire and respect a great driver and friend . Regardless what happens in the remaining Grands Prix this year , to all of us , Jochen is the World Champion .
At the time he died Rindt had won five of that year 's ten Grands Prix , which meant that he had a strong lead in the Drivers ' Championship . After winning the next race in Canada , Jacky Ickx moved within 17 points of Rindt in the Championship , giving him a chance to win the title given he won the two remaining races . However , at the United States Grand Prix , a race won by Rindt 's replacement at Lotus , Emerson Fittipaldi , Ickx placed only fourth , making Rindt motor racing 's only posthumous world champion . The championship trophy was handed to his widow Nina from the hands of Jackie Stewart on 18 November 1970 in a ceremony near the Place de la Concorde in Paris .
The memory of Rindt was held up in many ways . The early season BARC 200 Formula Two race was renamed the Jochen Rindt Memorial Trophy for as long as the series existed . In 2000 , on the 30th anniversary of his death , the city of Graz unveiled a bronze plate in remembrance of Rindt , with wife Nina and daughter Natasha present . The penultimate corner at the Red Bull Ring in Austria is named after Rindt .
= = Personal life = =
In March 1967 , Rindt married Nina Lincoln , a Finnish model and daughter of racing driver Curt Lincoln , whom he had raced against in the early part of his career . After becoming engaged , Lincoln had originally broken up with Rindt and sent the engagement ring back . Rindt then put it back into the box with a note telling her to keep it until she changed her mind , which she did upon receiving the package , later explaining : " I like men who know what they want . " The couple moved to Switzerland , near Begnins , where they built a house together . The Rindts had one daughter , Natasha , who was two years old at the time of her father 's death . Nina Rindt married two more times after Rindt 's death , first Philip Martyn , with whom she had another daughter , and then Alexander Hood , 4th Viscount Bridport , making her Lady Nina Hood Bridport . The couple had a son , Anthony . Their daughter Natasha later worked with Bernie Ecclestone for several years after he had taken over the commercial rights of Formula One .
Rindt had met Bernie Ecclestone during his time at Cooper and the two became friends . Noticing his commercial talent , Rindt allowed Ecclestone to manage his professional contracts , without ever officially employing him as a manager . Ecclestone said of the relationship : " I was never his manager , we were good friends . I helped him with any help he ever needed . " After Rindt 's accident , it was Ecclestone who carried his bloody helmet back to the pit lane .
In Formula One , Rindt had several friendly relationships with other drivers , most notably Jackie Stewart . The two first met at a Formula Two event in 1964 and soon became friends , often going on holiday together and living close to one another in Switzerland . Until his death , they were sometimes accompanied by Jim Clark . Rindt got involved in Stewart 's fight for increased safety in Formula One racing , being one of the leading figures of the GPDA . For his role in the safety campaign , Rindt was antagonised by fellow drivers and the press alike , with reporters derogatively calling Stewart , Rindt and Joakim Bonnier the " Geneva connection " , due to their residence in Switzerland . Stewart said that it took Rindt some time to understand the graveness of the situation but after that , he was a " good ally " . After Rindt 's death , his wife Nina stayed close with the Stewarts and can be seen visiting them at the 1971 Monaco Grand Prix in the Roman Polanski produced film Weekend of a Champion .
Privately , Rindt was known to family and friends as an often reckless driver when on public roads . During the early years of his career , he would take his Jaguar E @-@ Type out to the streets of Vienna , where he lived , and drift through the streets . He sparked public criticism in 1968 when he flipped over a Mini Cooper during a demonstration run at an Autocross event in Großhöflein , while his then pregnant wife was on board .
His success in racing highly popularised motorsport in Austria , with Helmut Zwickl calling him " the driving instructor of the nation " . In 1965 , Rindt put together the first exhibition of racing cars in Austria , the Jochen @-@ Rindt @-@ Show in Vienna . It was an immediate success , with 30 @,@ 000 visitors on the first weekend alone . Using his connections , he brought in his friend Joakim Bonnier and former Mercedes Grand Prix manager Alfred Neubauer as opening speakers , with other drivers such as Jackie Stewart attending . The show soon became an annual event and later moved to the German city of Essen in 1970 , shortly after Rindt 's death , and remains there as the Essen Motor Show . Rindt , with the help of Ecclestone , was able to successfully promote himself , including lucrative sponsorship and advertising contracts . Following his ascent in racing , two race tracks were built in Austria , the Österreichring ( now Red Bull Ring ) , for whom Rindt worked as a consultant , and the Salzburgring . Rindt 's popularity was further increased through the TV show Motorama , which he hosted . The monthly programme focussed on both tips for driving on public roads as well as reports from Grands Prix , with Rindt interviewing fellow drivers himself .
= = Racing record = =
= = = Complete Formula One World Championship results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ; races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Non @-@ Championship Formula One results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) ( Races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= = = Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results = = =
= = = Complete Indianapolis 500 results = = =
= = = Film sources = = =
Reuß , Eberhard ( Director ) ( 2010 ) . Jochen Rindts letzter Sommer [ Jochen Rindt 's Last Summer ] ( Documentary ) ( in German ) . SWR .
Giesser , Christian ( Director ) ( 2010 ) . Jochen Rindt lebt [ Jochen Rindt Lives ] ( Documentary ) ( in German ) . Cinecraft .
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= Kevin Bieksa =
Kevin Francesco Bieksa ( born June 16 , 1981 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman for the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . After a three @-@ year career in the Ontario Junior Hockey League ( OPJHL ) with the Burlington Cougars , Bieksa was awarded a scholarship to Bowling Green State University . He was a one @-@ time All @-@ CCHA honourable mention during his four @-@ year tenure with the Falcons of the Central Collegiate Hockey Association ( CCHA ) . He graduated from the university with a bachelor 's degree ( B.A. ) in finance , and was a two @-@ time CCHA All @-@ Academic honourable mention in 2003 and 2004 .
Following his freshman year , Bieksa was selected 151st overall by the Canucks in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft and joined their minor league affiliate , the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , upon graduating . He earned AHL All @-@ Rookie Team honours in his first and only full season with the Moose , before joining the Canucks as a regular member in 2005 – 06 . He is known as a physical and aggressive defenceman .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor hockey = = =
Bieksa grew up in Grimsby playing minor hockey for the local Jr . Kings program of the OMHA 's Niagara District BB @-@ E league before graduating to the Stoney Creek Warriors of the OMHA South Central AAA League . He played part of the 1997 – 98 season with the Stoney Creek Warriors of the OHA Golden Horseshoe Jr.B and the Jr.A Burlington Cougars before being drafted by Don Cherry and the Mississauga IceDogs in the 19th round of the 1998 OHL Draft . Bieksa wasn 't signed by the Ice Dogs and pursued an NCAA scholarship three years later .
= = = Junior and university = = =
Bieksa began a three @-@ year Junior A career with the Burlington Cougars of the Ontario Junior Hockey League ( OJHL ) in 1997 – 98 . He recorded 37 points over 48 games in his second season with the Cougars and 33 points in his third . Bieksa was drafted into the major junior Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) by the Mississauga IceDogs , but opted to play college hockey in the NCAA instead .
In 2000 – 01 , Bieksa joined the Bowling Green Falcons of the Central Collegiate Hockey Association ( CCHA ) . After a 13 @-@ point regular season in 35 games as a freshman , he helped the Falcons become the lowest @-@ seeded team in League history ( ninth ) to advance to the CCHA semifinals . He scored his team 's lone goal in a 2 – 1 defeat to Michigan State University before the Falcons were eliminated .
In the 2001 off @-@ season , Bieksa was drafted by the Vancouver Canucks with the 151st pick in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft . He returned to Bowling Green to complete his four @-@ year college career after being drafted , recording 15 points in 2001 – 02 . Bieksa was named an alternate captain to D 'Arcy McConvey prior to his third season and subsequently improved to a college career @-@ high eight goals and 25 points in 2002 – 03 . Bieksa was chosen by Falcons fans as the recipient of the W. G. Grinder 's Grinder Award and was a co @-@ recipient of the team 's Jim Ruehl Award as the best defensive player with Jordan Sigalet . He was also given his first of two consecutive honourable mentions as a CCHA All @-@ Academic .
Playing in his fourth and final college season in 2003 – 04 , he scored seven goals and 22 points in 38 games , while leading his team in shots on goal . He earned an honourable mention to the All @-@ CCHA Team and received the Falcons ' Howard Brown Award as the coaches ' selection for best player .
= = = Manitoba Moose = = =
Following his college career , Bieksa signed an amateur tryout contract with the Manitoba Moose , the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , on March 24 , 2004 . During his tryout , he was involved in an off @-@ ice incident with teammate Fedor Fedorov . According to then @-@ Canucks General Manager Brian Burke , several Moose players had gone out together when Bieksa accidentally spilled Fedorov 's beer . While Bieksa apologized and offered to buy him another beer , Fedorov challenged him to a fight outside of the establishment , resulting in Bieksa knocking him down with one punch . In recounting the story , Burke has recalled wanting to sign him the next day upon hearing of the incident . Bieksa went on to appear in four games with the Moose to close out the 2003 – 04 season , notching two assists . He remained with the Moose in 2004 – 05 and scored his first professional goal on the powerplay in a 3 – 2 shootout victory against the Cleveland Barons on November 11 , 2004 . Bieksa finished his first full professional season with 12 goals and 39 points in 80 games . He was chosen as the AHL Rookie of the Month for March after recording two goals , 11 points and a + 11 rating in 13 games and was named to the AHL All @-@ Rookie Team after his first full professional season . His 39 points broke Kirill Koltsov 's team mark of 32 for points by a defenceman , set the previous season . Canucks Assistant General Manager Steve Tambellini lauded Bieksa for his quick adjustment and development from college hockey to the AHL . During the campaign , he was given the nickname " Juice " by Moose goaltender Alex Auld , a moniker that continued into his NHL career with the Canucks . Bieksa described the origin of the nickname as a " funny story that 's been escalated to the point where it 's bigger than it should be " and was based around him " drinking juice . "
Bieksa entered the Canucks ' 2005 – 06 training camp as a projected competitor to be the team 's sixth defenceman . However , three days into prospects camp , he suffered a high ankle sprain after colliding into the boards with another defenceman . He was reassigned to the Moose on October 3 , 2005 , and missed the first month and a half of the 2005 – 06 season . While sidelined , Bieksa was named an alternate captain to Mike Keane by Moose Head Coach Alain Vigneault on October 29 . He made his return to the lineup on November 11 against the Rochester Americans . In his second game back , he notched two goals and an assist on November 15 against the Grand Rapids Griffins in a 6 – 5 shootout loss .
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
With 16 points through 20 games with the Moose , Bieksa was called up by the Canucks and played his first NHL game on December 19 , 2005 , against the Los Angeles Kings . He was called for a roughing penalty ten seconds into his first shift and played 10 minutes and 45 seconds total in a 4 – 3 shootout loss to the Kings . The following month , he notched his first NHL point , an assist to Markus Näslund , in a 3 – 2 win against the Chicago Blackhawks on January 5 , 2006 . He remained with the Canucks until near the end of the season , as he was reassigned to the Moose on April 8 to make room for the return of Ed Jovanovski from injury . Bieksa finished the season with six assists in 39 games for the Canucks , averaging 16 minutes of ice @-@ time per game . On August 17 , 2006 , he was re @-@ signed by the Canucks to a two @-@ year , one @-@ way , $ 1 @.@ 05 million contract .
Early in the 2006 – 07 season , he scored his first NHL goal on October 13 , 2006 , against Vesa Toskala in a loss to the San Jose Sharks . Bieksa rapidly developed into one of the Canucks ' top blueliners and finished the season leading all team defencemen with 30 assists , 42 points and 134 penalty minutes , while also tallying a career @-@ high 12 goals . Paired with stay @-@ at @-@ home defenceman Willie Mitchell , he was also regularly given a shutdown role against opposing teams ' top forwards . At the end of his first full NHL season , he was awarded the Canucks ' Babe Pratt Trophy as best defenceman and Fred J. Hume Award as the unsung hero . Bieksa went pointless over nine games in his first Stanley Cup playoffs in 2007 . He suffered two stomach oblique muscle tears during Game 6 of the opening round against the Dallas Stars , sidelining him for five games , before the Canucks were eliminated by the Anaheim Ducks in the second round .
The Canucks acknowledged Bieksa 's breakout season , signing him to a three @-@ year , $ 11 @.@ 25 million contract extension , on July 9 , 2007 . The first year of the deal , in 2008 – 09 , saw Bieksa make $ 4 @.@ 25 million , while the remaining two years were set at $ 3 @.@ 5 million . He had one more season left on his original contract at $ 550 @,@ 000 .
A relative unknown in his first couple of seasons in the NHL , his last name , which is pronounced phonetically ( Bee @-@ ek @-@ sa ) , was frequently mispronounced by sports newscasters and hockey broadcasters such as Bob Cole and Harry Neale of Hockey Night in Canada . It has even been misspelled on scoreboards .
A month into the 2007 – 08 season , Bieksa suffered a severe calf laceration in a game against the Nashville Predators on November 1 , 2007 . After battling with forward Vernon Fiddler against the boards , Fiddler 's skate slashed Bieksa across the back of his right calf . Bieksa was helped to the bench , leaving a trail of blood behind him on the ice . Although originally expected to miss two months , he ended up missing more than half the season with 47 games . Before returning to the lineup , he was assigned to the Moose for a one @-@ game conditioning stint . Bieksa managed 12 points in 34 games with a team @-@ worst – 11 rating .
He continued rehabilitating his calf in the off @-@ season , after the Canucks failed to qualify for the playoffs , admitting that his leg had not fully recovered upon his return . However , injury troubles continued early in 2008 – 09 , as just two games into the season , Bieksa injured his knee while attempting to hit Wayne Primeau in an October 11 , 2008 , game against the Calgary Flames ; he was out of the lineup for a week . On November 4 , he was re @-@ injured after taking a puck off his skate against the Nashville Predators . Bieksa played through the injury for two games before learning that he had suffered a bone fracture in his left foot . He returned to the lineup after missing seven games . Despite missing ten games in total , Bieksa established a career @-@ high 32 assists and 43 points , first among team defencemen .
Without a no @-@ trade clause in his contract with the Canucks and seen as an emerging offensive defencemen throughout the NHL , Bieksa was routinely the subject of trade rumours . In the 2009 off @-@ season , one such trade rumour was central in a feud between general managers Mike Gillis of Vancouver and Brian Burke of the Toronto Maple Leafs . On a Leafs TV documentary on the 2009 NHL Entry Draft that aired in September 2009 , a segment involves Burke speculating that the Canucks had offered Bieksa to the Tampa Bay Lightning in a package that included forward Alexandre Burrows and a first @-@ round draft @-@ choice in exchange for Tampa Bay 's second @-@ overall selection . The documentary was immediately pulled from airing again and the Maple Leafs received a warning from the League .
Bieksa suffered the second serious cut to his leg in three seasons in 2009 – 10 . During a game against the Phoenix Coyotes on December 29 , 2009 , he bodychecked opposing forward Petr Průcha , whose skate cut into his left leg , above the ankle . It was revealed six days later that Bieksa sustained severed tendons in his ankle . He was sidelined for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , missing 27 games . The injury marked the second time in three years that he missed significant time due to a skate cut on his leg . As a result , he was limited to 55 games , notching three goals and 22 points . On the last game of the regular season , he scored his first two @-@ goal game in the NHL in a 7 – 3 win against the Calgary Flames on April 10 , 2010 . Playing the sixth @-@ seeded Los Angeles Kings in the opening round of the 2010 playoffs , Bieksa scored his first NHL post @-@ season goal in the series ' sixth and deciding game . His goal against Kings goaltender Jonathan Quick tied the score at 2 – 2 in the third period , en route to a 4 – 2 Canucks win . The Canucks were then eliminated by the Chicago Blackhawks the following round for the second consecutive year . Bieksa finished the playoffs with three goals and eight points in 12 games to lead team defencemen in scoring .
Following the defensive acquisitions of Keith Ballard and Dan Hamhuis in the off @-@ season , Bieksa was once again involved in trade rumours . Despite being several million dollars over the salary cap , General Manager Mike Gillis asserted after signing Hamhuis that the Canucks were " keeping Bieksa . " Regardless , in order to get under the salary cap , Bieksa seemed the strongest candidate to be traded . He was among six defencemen with a salary over $ 3 million , was set to become an unrestricted free agent after the subsequent season , had seemingly fallen out of favour with Head Coach Alain Vigneault and did not have a no @-@ trade clause in his contract . On a July 2010 airing of TSN 's Off the Record , Bieksa conceded that he expected to be shopped around by the Canucks , stating " I can put two and two together . The Province newspaper at one time reported that up to 10 teams were in talks with Vancouver for acquiring Bieksa . The situation changed later in July after Canucks defenceman Sami Salo suffered a torn achilles tendon while playing floorball in his native Finland ; the injury put the Canucks back under the salary cap and speculation about a Bieksa trade quieted .
During the 2010 – 11 season , Bieksa 's offensive production decreased , but he was lauded by the media and Head Coach Alain Vigneault for improving his defensive game . He had often been criticized in the past for making high @-@ risk plays that resulted in scoring chances for the opposing team , but his play improved to become more responsible in the defensive zone . In February 2011 , he suffered a fractured bone in his foot . Playing in a game against the Minnesota Wild , Bieksa sustained the injury while blocking a shot . While he finished the game and initial x @-@ rays came back negative , a subsequent CT @-@ scan revealed the fracture . He became the sixth Canucks defenceman injured at the time . After missing 15 games , he returned to the lineup in late @-@ March . Playing on a shutdown defensive pairing with Dan Hamhuis , his season @-@ ending + 32 plus @-@ minus established a personal best by 31 points ( his previous career @-@ high was a + 1 in 2006 – 07 ) and ranked second in the NHL , one point behind Boston Bruins defenceman Zdeno Chára . Complementing his strong defensive play , he recorded six goals and 22 points in 66 games .
With the Canucks winning the Presidents ' Trophy for the first time in franchise history , the team entered the 2011 playoffs as the first seed in the West . After helping Vancouver advance past the Chicago Blackhawks and Nashville Predators in the first two rounds , Bieksa scored a double @-@ overtime winner in Game 5 of the third round against the San Jose Sharks to send the Canucks to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time since 1994 . The goal came after fellow Canucks defenceman Alexander Edler 's dump @-@ in had bounced off a stanchion along the boards . With Sharks goaltender Antti Niemi unaware of the puck 's location , Bieksa took a slapshot from the blueline to win the game . Facing the Boston Bruins in the Finals , the Canucks were defeated in seven games . Bieksa finished the playoffs with 10 points over 25 games . His five goals led all playoff defencemen , while his average ice time of 25 minutes and 40 seconds per game was first among Canucks players . It was revealed after the Canucks ' elimination that several players had been playing with injuries , including Bieksa , who had suffered a bruised medial collateral ligament .
Having played the final year of his existing contract , Bieksa addressed his pending unrestricted free agency by telling the media he was ready to re @-@ sign for less than market value in order to remain with the Canucks . Shortly thereafter , on June 27 , 2011 , Bieksa signed a five @-@ year , $ 23 million contract extension . The deal came with a no @-@ trade clause and was reported to be front @-@ loaded , with Bieksa making $ 7 million in his first year , followed by $ 4 @.@ 5 million , $ 5 million , $ 4 million and $ 2 @.@ 5 million annual salaries .
= = = Anaheim Ducks = = =
On June 30 , 2015 , the Vancouver Canucks traded Bieksa to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for a second @-@ round pick in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft .
= = Playing style = =
Bieksa is known as a two @-@ way defenceman with the Canucks , capable of playing in all situations . Throughout his NHL career , he has been placed on shutdown pairing with such defensive partners as Willie Mitchell and Dan Hamhuis . Offensively , he regularly jumps into the rush and has led the Canucks in defensive scoring in 2006 – 07 and 2008 – 09 . His play is characterized by aggressive and competitive components . He also earned a reputation as a fighter early in his career in the AHL .
= = Personal life = =
Bieksa was born in Grimsby , Ontario , on June 16 , 1981 , to Al Bieksa and Angela Lombardo . He has two brothers , Marty and Bryan , two stepsisters , Terri Lynn and Jennifer , and a stepmother , Lori . His father works in the Ontario Federation of Labour and coached his three sons during minor hockey . Bieksa began playing minor hockey in Grimsby before joining AAA teams from Stoney Creek , Ontario . After attending Blessed Trinity Secondary School in his hometown , he graduated from Bowling Green State University in 2004 with a bachelor 's degree in finance and a 3 @.@ 42 grade point average ( GPA ) .
During Bieksa 's tenure with both the Manitoba Moose and Vancouver Canucks , he became close friends with teammate Rick Rypien , who committed suicide in August 2011 after years of clinical depression . Bieksa was the first Canucks teammate that Rypien confided in regarding his mental health ; when Rypien took his first personal leave of absence from the Canucks in the 2008 – 09 NHL season , Bieksa took him into his home to live with his family . Having a close relationship with Rypien , Bieksa was involved in many of the ceremonies following his death . He was a pall bearer for Rypien 's casket at his funeral in Alberta and he later presented Rypien 's family with one of the forward 's game @-@ worn Canucks jerseys during the team 's pre @-@ game ceremony in Rypien 's honour in October 2011 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = CCHA = = =
= = = Bowling Green Falcons team awards = = =
= = = AHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks team awards = = =
= = Records = =
Manitoba Moose franchise record ; most points by a rookie defenceman - 39 in 2004 – 05 ( surpassed Kirill Koltsov , 32 in 2003 – 04 )
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= Thomas Ellison =
Thomas Rangiwahia Ellison , also known as Tom Ellison or Tamati Erihana ( c . 1867 – 2 October 1904 ) was a New Zealand rugby union player and lawyer . He led the first New Zealand representative rugby team organised by the New Zealand Rugby Football Union ( NZRFU ) on their 1893 tour of Australia . Ellison also played in the 1888 – 89 New Zealand Native football team on their epic 107 @-@ match tour , scoring 113 points , and 43 tries with the side .
Born in Otakou , Otago Heads , Ellison was educated at Te Aute College , where he was introduced to rugby . After moving to Wellington , Ellison played for the Poneke Football Club , and was selected to play for Wellington province . He was recruited into Joe Warbrick 's privately organised Native football team in 1888 , and continued to play for both Poneke and Wellington on his return from that tour . In 1892 , he started to refine and popularise the wing @-@ forward system of play , which was a vital element of New Zealand rugby 's success until 1932 . At the first NZRFU annual general meeting in 1893 , he proposed that the playing colours of the New Zealand side should be predominantly black with a silver fern — a playing strip that would give the team their famous name of All Blacks . He retired from playing rugby after captaining the 1893 New Zealand side to New South Wales and Queensland , but continued in the sport as a coach and administrator . Ellison was the author of a coaching manual , The Art of Rugby Football , published in 1902 .
As well as being one of the first Māori admitted to the bar , practising as a solicitor , and later as a barrister , Ellison also stood unsuccessfully for the Southern Maori parliamentary seat several times . After contracting tuberculosis in 1904 , he was briefly institutionalised before dying later that year .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Rangiwahia Ellison was born in Otakou at Otago Heads , to Raniera Taheke Ellison and Nani Weller , sometime between 1866 and 1868 . He was named after his paternal grandfather , and his middle name , Rangiwahia , was given in honour of his great @-@ uncle . Ellison was Māori : of Ngāi Tahu and Kāti Mamoe tribal heritage through his mother , and of Te Āti Awa heritage through his father . Introduced to rugby at the age of around 14 by his cousins at Otakou , Ellison later wrote of his first game :
... we were all there for a game , and immediately started on that poor , unprotected ball ( which , by the way , consisted of the bladder only ) . What our main object was I cannot say , but mine was to see more of that ball , and to know more about football , and , before the game was over , which did not last long , I did see more of the ball , as I ripped it in the first scrum ; but my other object remained unsatisfied .
After completing his education at Otakou Native School , Ellison was awarded a scholarship in 1882 to attend the famous Māori secondary school Te Aute College in the Hawke 's Bay . He started playing organised rugby there , and during his final two years played in the school team that won the Hawke 's Bay senior club championship . Later in life Ellison claimed that at Te Aute he learned , " nearly all I ever knew of forward play " .
After moving to Wellington , Ellison joined the Poneke Football Club in 1885 . The Poneke team played junior club rugby at the time , but were promoted to the senior competition after winning all their matches that year . Following their promotion the side won the Wellington club championship each year from 1886 to 1889 . Ellison was selected to play for the Wellington provincial team in 1885 , and continued to be selected for Wellington until 1892 . He eventually earned 23 caps — a large number for the time . Initially Ellison played as a forward or on the wing , but later played half @-@ back .
= = New Zealand Native football team = =
In early 1888 Joe Warbrick attempted to organise a private party of Māori players to tour Great Britain — later known as the New Zealand Native football team . A cousin of Ellison 's , Jack Taiaroa , who had toured with the New Zealand team that travelled to New South Wales in 1884 , helped Warbrick recruit players for his proposed tour . It was most likely because of Taiaroa that Ellison was persuaded to join Warbrick 's Natives team . Warbrick eventually assembled a side that included both Māori and non @-@ Māori New Zealand @-@ born players , and several players born overseas . The final team consisted of 26 players , and toured New Zealand before departing to Melbourne . They then toured Great Britain , Australia , and finally New Zealand again — the trip lasted 14 months . Ellison played mostly as a forward throughout the tour , and played at least 83 of the team 's 107 matches ; including a minimum of 58 in Britain .
Ellison played all of the Natives ' three internationals — against Ireland , Wales , and England . The Ireland match was the first international of the tour , two months after their arrival in the British Isles . The fixture was played at Lansdowne Road , Dublin , on 1 December 1888 , with Ellison in the forwards . Ireland led 3 – 0 at half @-@ time , but the Natives improved considerably in the second @-@ half , scoring four tries . The third try scored was by Ellison after a counter @-@ attack by George Williams . The try was not converted , but the strong finish from the New Zealanders gave the team a 13 – 4 victory . The Irish press were surprised by the loss and strongly criticised their team , but Ireland went on to defeat Wales later that season . The match against Wales was later that month , 22 December , in Swansea . Again Ellison played in the forwards , and the Natives dominated for significant periods of the match . Ellison made several strong runs , and at one point crossed the try @-@ line only to be carried back into play . They failed to score , however , and Wales were victorious 5 – 0 ( one conversion and two tries to nil ) .
One of the most notable events of the Natives ' tour occurred during the match against England at Blackheath . Owing to a dispute over the formation of the International Rugby Football Board , England had not played an international in nearly two years . This contributed to at least twelve of their team lacking international experience — however many of their players were from strong club and county sides . The match was notable for a dispute between the New Zealanders and the match referee — Rowland Hill . Early in the second half Ellison attempted to tackle the English player Andrew Stoddart , and in the process managed to rip his shorts off . The Natives ' players promptly formed a circle around Stoddart to allow him to replace his clothing without being exposed to the gazes of the crowd . While this was happening one of the English players , Frank Evershed , picked up the ball and scored a try . The New Zealanders protested , believing that play had stopped after claiming Stoddart had called " dead ball " . Hill awarded the try however , causing several of the Native players to leave the field in protest . The aggrieved players were eventually persuaded to return , but not before Hill had restarted play . Ellison was very critical of Hill ; particularly because Hill was also Secretary of England 's Rugby Football Union . Writing after the tour , Ellison said of the incident : " gross as these errors were , they were insignificant when compared with another that Mr Hill committed at the outset of the game , viz , refereeing at all in that game " .
The team was generally very well received outside London , and especially in north , where rugby was dominated by the working @-@ class . Reaction to the team in the south , where the public school establishment controlled the game , was less positive , and the sportsmanship of the team was criticised . Despite this , Ellison clearly enjoyed the experience of touring with the team , and in 1902 he wrote — " I shall never forget the trip , notwithstanding the extremely heavy programme of fixtures we had to go through . Perhaps the most delightful part of our experiences was tasted not so much on the field of play as off it " .
Thomas Eyton , one of the promoters of the tour , said of Ellison 's contribution — " His knowledge of the finer points of the game , his weight , strength and activity rendered his services invaluable . " Ellison participated in most of the Natives ' matches , scoring 113 points , and 43 tries on tour ; this included 23 tries in Britain and Ireland , four in New South Wales , five in Queensland , and ten in New Zealand .
= = Wing @-@ forward = =
After completion of the tour , Ellison continued to play for Poneke and Wellington . While playing with his club , Ellison implemented the use of a wing @-@ forward and seven @-@ man scrum positional system . It is not known exactly who invented the position of wing @-@ forward , but Ellison claimed in The Art of Rugby Football that he had developed it ; historian Greg Ryan claims the position was developed in northern England , and that Ellison only refined it after discovering it during the Natives ' tour . The distinctive feature of wing @-@ forward play was their role of feeding the ball into the scrum , and subsequently holding onto one of the hookers while the ball progressed through the scrum to the half @-@ back . With the wing @-@ forward bound to the side of the scrum , the opposing half @-@ back would then have to manoeuvre past them to tackle the player with the ball ; this would increase the amount of time the half @-@ back would have in possession of the ball before their opposite could tackle them . Ellison claimed that he devised the position while playing for Poneke after he " ... found it impossible for the smartest of referees to detect and amply penalize off @-@ side interferences of opponents bent on spoiling my passes ... " .
Regardless of the origins of the position , Ellison was instrumental in promoting its adoption throughout New Zealand . Although it is unclear whether the wing @-@ forward was used during the 1893 tour of Australia , by the time of the All Blacks ' first Test match , played during their 1903 Australian tour , the position was engrained within the New Zealand style of play . The use of a wing @-@ forward provoked controversy both in New Zealand , and later in the British Isles after the All Blacks toured there in 1905 ; wing @-@ forwards were often accused of off @-@ side obstruction of the opposition half @-@ back . According to Ellison however , if the position was implemented properly , then there would be no cause for complaint . The wing @-@ forward continued as a vital component of New Zealand rugby until long @-@ standing complaints from the unions of the Home Nations resulted in the position being outlawed by the International Rugby Football Board in 1932 .
= = Later rugby career = =
In 1892 , the New Zealand Rugby Football Union ( NZRFU — later renamed New Zealand Rugby Union ) was formed by the majority of New Zealand 's provincial rugby unions . Ellison was a Wellington provincial administrator , and in 1893 at the inaugural NZRFU annual general meeting proposed the playing strip for the first officially sanctioned New Zealand side — black cap , black jersey with white fern , white knickerbockers and black stockings . The white knickerbockers were eventually replaced with black shorts , and the uniform itself was based upon that worn by the Native team Ellison had toured with . The black uniform inspired the moniker All Blacks — a name which has been adopted by the New Zealand national team since their 1905 – 06 Northern Hemisphere tour .
The first NZRFU sanctioned New Zealand team was formed to tour New South Wales and Queensland in 1893 , and Ellison was selected as their captain . Three other members of the New Zealand Natives ' team were also selected for the side . Ellison played seven matches on the tour , including matches against New South Wales and Queensland . The team won ten of their eleven matches — the one loss being to New South Wales in Sydney . In addition to scoring two tries , Ellison kicked six conversions and a goal from a mark to give him 23 points for the tour — the second highest of any player . The tour was the end of his participation in the sport as a player .
Ellison 's complete playing record comprised 117 matches , 68 of which were first @-@ class games . He scored a total of 160 career points , including 51 tries . Ellison continued involvement with rugby as a provincial administrator , provincial referee , and manager . As an administrator , he proposed that players be financially compensated for wages missed while on long tours ; this was in 1898 — nearly a century before rugby relinquished its amateur status . This proposal applied specifically to tours that travelled outside New Zealand ; writing at the time regarding the amateur regulations , Ellison said " I think that these laws were never intended to apply to extended tours abroad . " In 1902 he published The Art of Rugby Football , a coaching manual on rugby that also included accounts of his experiences as a player . According to journalist Hayden Meikle the book was one of rugby 's " pioneering texts " , while Greg Ryan wrote that the book " remains a classic work on early rugby strategy . "
= = Professional and personal life = =
Outside of his involvement in rugby , Ellison was a lawyer , and was one of the first Māori admitted to the bar . He practised as an interpreter for the Land Courts and as a solicitor ; later , he worked as a barrister in the practices of Brandon & Hislop in Wellingon . Ellison was also involved in politics , and stood unsuccessfully for the Southern Maori parliamentary seat several times against Tame Parata , as well as working for government consideration of Ngāi Tahu land claims . He married Ethel May Howell , a daughter of John Howell , on 22 March 1899 ; the couple had three children , only one of whom survived infancy , daughter Hinemura who died in 1989 . In 1904 Ellison was struck down with tuberculosis , and was admitted to Porirua Lunatic Asylum before dying on 2 October that same year . Ellison was buried in Otakou , Otago Heads , following the original plan of a burial at Karori . Representatives of Ellison 's parents intercepted the body in Porirua , and his wife and Public Trustee then agreed for him to be buried at Otakou . There his gravestone reads " One of the greatest rugby footballers New Zealand ever possessed " .
Ellison 's influence on New Zealand rugby is such that Māori researcher Malcolm Mulholland stated he was " arguably the player who contributed the most to New Zealand rugby " . In 1916 , when discussing the question of the greatest player New Zealand had produced , the pseudonymous " Touchline " wrote : " I am prepared to say that the late T. R. Ellison ... was the greatest of them all . " He went on to say :
When occasion demanded , T R. Ellison could take a place among the backs — half or three @-@ quarter — and was a fine coach . He could not only plan out great , deep , wily , and pretty schemes , but personally carry them through to triumphant execution . He could take his place in the front of a scrummage , and hook the ball with the best of them ; his tremendous strength enabled him to burst through a pack , and then , when he was clear of the wreckage , and was well in the open , he was a perfect demon .
Ellison has been inducted into the Māori Sports Hall of Fame , and in 2005 was listed as one of New Zealand 's Top 100 History Makers . The New Zealand Native Football team was inducted into the International Rugby Board Hall of Fame in 2008 , the first side awarded the honour .
= = = Books and articles = = =
= = = News = = =
= = = Web = = =
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= Joyce Kilmer =
Joyce Kilmer ( born as Alfred Joyce Kilmer ; December 6 , 1886 – July 30 , 1918 ) was an American writer and poet mainly remembered for a short poem titled " Trees " ( 1913 ) , which was published in the collection Trees and Other Poems in 1914 . Though a prolific poet whose works celebrated the common beauty of the natural world as well as his Roman Catholic religious faith , Kilmer was also a journalist , literary critic , lecturer , and editor . While most of his works are largely unknown , a select few of his poems remain popular and are published frequently in anthologies . Several critics — including both Kilmer 's contemporaries and modern scholars — have disparaged Kilmer 's work as being too simple and overly sentimental , and suggested that his style was far too traditional , even archaic . Many writers , including notably Ogden Nash , have parodied Kilmer 's work and style — as attested by the many parodies of " Trees " .
At the time of his deployment to Europe during World War I , Kilmer was considered the leading American Roman Catholic poet and lecturer of his generation , whom critics often compared to British contemporaries G. K. Chesterton ( 1874 – 1936 ) and Hilaire Belloc ( 1870 – 1953 ) . He enlisted in the New York National Guard and was deployed to France with the 69th Infantry Regiment ( the famous " Fighting 69th " ) in 1917 . He was killed by a sniper 's bullet at the Second Battle of the Marne in 1918 at the age of 31 . He was married to Aline Murray , also an accomplished poet and author , with whom he had five children .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years and education : 1886 – 1908 = = =
Kilmer was born December 6 , 1886 in New Brunswick , New Jersey , the fourth and youngest child , of Annie Ellen Kilburn ( 1849 – 1932 ) , a minor writer and composer , and Dr. Frederick Barnett Kilmer ( 1851 – 1934 ) , a physician and analytical chemist employed by the Johnson and Johnson Company and inventor of the company 's baby powder . He was named Alfred Joyce Kilmer after two priests at Christ Church in New Brunswick : Alfred R. Taylor , the curate ; and the Rev. Dr. Elisha Brooks Joyce ( 1857 – 1926 ) , the rector . Christ Church is the oldest Episcopal parish in New Brunswick and the Kilmer family were parishioners . Rector Joyce , who served the parish from 1883 to 1916 , baptised the young Kilmer , who remained an Episcopalian until his 1913 conversion to Catholicism . Kilmer 's birthplace in New Brunswick , where the Kilmer family lived from 1886 to 1892 , is still standing , and houses a small museum to Kilmer , as well as a few Middlesex County government offices .
Kilmer entered Rutgers College Grammar School ( now Rutgers Preparatory School ) in 1895 at the age of 8 . During his years at the Grammar School , Kilmer was editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the school 's paper , the Argo , and loved the classics but had difficulty with Greek . He won the first Lane Classical Prize , for oratory , and obtained a scholarship to Rutgers College which he would attend the following year . Despite his difficulties with Greek and mathematics , he stood at the head of his class in preparatory school .
After graduating from Rutgers College Grammar School in 1904 , he continued his education at Rutgers College ( now Rutgers University ) from 1904 to 1906 . At Rutgers , Kilmer was associate editor of the Targum , the campus newspaper , and a member of the Delta Upsilon fraternity . However , he was unable to complete the curriculum 's rigorous mathematics requirement and was asked to repeat his sophomore year . Under pressure from his mother , Kilmer transferred to Columbia University in New York City .
At Columbia , Kilmer was vice @-@ president of the Philolexian Society ( a literary society ) , associate editor of Columbia Spectator ( the campus newspaper ) , and member of the Debating Union . He completed his Bachelor of Arts ( A.B. ) degree and graduated from Columbia on May 23 , 1908 . Shortly after graduation , on June 9 , 1908 , he married Aline Murray ( 1888 – 1941 ) , a fellow poet to whom he had been engaged since his sophomore year at Rutgers . The Kilmers had five children : Kenton Sinclair Kilmer ( 1909 – 1995 ) ; Michael Barry Kilmer ( 1916 – 1927 ) ; Deborah ( " Sister Michael " ) Clanton Kilmer ( 1914 – 1999 ) who was a Catholic nun at the Saint Benedict ’ s Monastery ; Rose Kilburn Kilmer ( 1912 – 1917 ) ; and Christopher Kilmer ( 1917 – 1984 ) .
= = = Years of writing and faith : 1909 – 1917 = = =
In the autumn of 1908 , Kilmer was employed teaching Latin at Morristown High School in Morristown , New Jersey . At this time , he began to submit essays to Red Cross Notes ( including his first published piece , an essay on the " Psychology of Advertising " ) and his early poems to literary periodicals . Kilmer also wrote book reviews for The Literary Digest , Town & Country , The Nation , and The New York Times . By June 1909 , Kilmer had abandoned any aspirations to continue teaching and relocated to New York City , where he focused solely on developing a career as a writer .
From 1909 to 1912 , Kilmer was employed by Funk and Wagnalls , which was preparing an edition of The Standard Dictionary that would be published in 1912 . According to Hillis , Kilmer 's job " was to define ordinary words assigned to him at five cents for each word defined . This was a job at which one would ordinarily earn ten to twelve dollars a week , but Kilmer attacked the task with such vigor and speed that it was soon thought wisest to put him on a regular salary . "
In 1911 , Kilmer 's first book of verse was published , entitled Summer of Love . Kilmer would later write that " ... some of the poems in it , those inspired by genuine love , are not things of which to be ashamed , and you , understanding , would not be offended by the others . "
In 1912 , Kilmer became a special writer for the New York Times Review of Books and the New York Times Sunday Magazine and was often engaged in lecturing . He moved to Mahwah , New Jersey , where he resided until his service and death in World War I. By this time he had become established as a published poet and as a popular lecturer . According to Robert Holliday , Kilmer " frequently neglected to make any preparation for his speeches , not even choosing a subject until the beginning of the dinner which was to culminate in a specimen of his oratory . His constant research for the dictionary , and , later on , for his New York Times articles , must have given him a store of knowledge at his fingertips to be produced at a moment 's notice for these emergencies . "
When the Kilmers ' daughter Rose ( 1912 – 1917 ) was stricken with poliomyelitis ( also known as infantile paralysis ) shortly after birth , they turned to their religious faith for comfort . A series of correspondence between Kilmer and Father James J. Daly led the Kilmers to convert to Roman Catholicism , and they were received in the church in 1913 . In one of these letters Kilmer writes that he " believed in the Catholic position , the Catholic view of ethics and aesthetics , for a long time , " and he " wanted something not intellectual , some conviction not mental – in fact I wanted Faith . " Kilmer would stop " every morning for months " on his way " to the office and prayed for faith , " claiming that when " faith did come , it came , I think , by way of my little paralyzed daughter . Her lifeless hands led me ; I think her tiny feet know beautiful paths . You understand this and it gives me a selfish pleasure to write it down . "
With the publication of " Trees " in the magazine Poetry in August 1913 , Kilmer gained immense popularity as a poet across the United States . He had established himself as a successful lecturer — particularly one seeking to reach a Catholic audience . His close friend and editor Robert Holliday wrote that it " is not an unsupported assertion to say that he was in his time and place the laureate of the Catholic Church . " Trees and Other Poems ( 1914 ) was published the following year . Over the next few years , Kilmer was prolific in his output , managing an intense schedule of lectures , publishing a large number of essays and literary criticism , and writing poetry . In 1915 he became poetry editor of Current Literature and contributing editor of Warner 's Library of the World 's Best Literature . In 1916 and 1917 , before the American entry into World War I , Kilmer would publish four books : The Circus and Other Essays ( 1916 ) , a series of interviews with literary personages entitled Literature in the Making ( 1917 ) , Main Street and Other Poems ( 1917 ) , and Dreams and Images : An Anthology of Catholic Poets ( 1917 ) .
= = = War years : 1917 – 1918 = = =
In April 1917 , a few days after the United States entered World War I , Kilmer enlisted in the Seventh Regiment of the New York National Guard . In August , Kilmer was assigned as a statistician with the U.S. 69th Infantry Regiment ( better known as the " Fighting 69th " and later re @-@ designated the 165th Infantry Regiment ) , of the 42nd " Rainbow " Division , and quickly rose to the rank of sergeant . Though he was eligible for commission as an officer and often recommended for such posts during the course of the war , Kilmer refused , stating that he would rather be a sergeant in the Fighting 69th than an officer in any other regiment .
Shortly before his deployment to Europe , the Kilmers ' daughter Rose had died , and twelve days later , their son Christopher was born . Before his departure , Kilmer had contracted with publishers to write a book about the war , deciding upon the title Here and There with the Fighting Sixty @-@ Ninth . The regiment arrived in France in November 1917 , and Kilmer wrote to his wife that he had not written " anything in prose or verse since I got here — except statistics — but I 've stored up a lot of memories to turn into copy when I get a chance . " Kilmer did not write such a book ; however , toward the end of the year , he did find time to write prose sketches and poetry . The most notable of his poems during this period was " Rouge Bouquet " ( 1918 ) which commemorated the deaths of two dozen members of his regiment in a German artillery barrage on American trench positions in the Rouge Bouquet forest north @-@ east of the French village of Baccarat . At the time , this was a relatively quiet sector of the front , but the first battalion was struck by a German heavy artillery bombardment on the afternoon of March 7 , 1918 that buried 21 men of the unit , killing 19 ( of which 14 remained entombed ) .
Kilmer sought more hazardous duty and was transferred to the military intelligence section of his regiment , in April 1918 . In a letter to his wife , Aline , he remarked : " Now I 'm doing work I love – and work you may be proud of . None of the drudgery of soldiering , but a double share of glory and thrills . " According to Hillis , Kilmer 's fellow soldiers had accorded him much respect for his battlefield demeanour — " He was worshipped by the men about him . I have heard them speak with awe of his coolness and his nerve in scouting patrols in no man 's land . This coolness and his habit of choosing , with typical enthusiasm , the most dangerous and difficult missions , led to his death . "
= = = Death and burial = = =
During the Second Battle of Marne there was heavy fighting throughout the last days of July 1918 . On July 30 , 1918 , Kilmer volunteered to accompany Major " Wild Bill " Donovan ( later , in World War II , the founder of the Office of Strategic Services , forerunner to the Central Intelligence Agency ) when Donovan 's battalion ( 1 – 165th Infantry ) was sent to lead the day 's attack .
During the course of the day , Kilmer led a scouting party to find the position of a German machine gun . When his comrades found him , some time later , they thought at first that he was peering over the edge of a little hill , where he had crawled for a better view . When he did not answer their call , they ran to him and found him dead . According to Father Francis P. Duffy : “ A bullet had pierced his brain . His body was carried in and buried by the side of Ames . God rest his dear and gallant soul . ” A sniper 's bullet likely killed him immediately . According to military records , Kilmer died on the battlefield near Muercy Farm , beside the Ourcq River near the village of Seringes @-@ et @-@ Nesles , in France , on July 30 , 1918 at the age of 31 . For his valor , Kilmer was posthumously awarded the Croix de Guerre ( War Cross ) by the French Republic .
Kilmer was buried in the Oise @-@ Aisne American Cemetery and Memorial , near Fere @-@ en @-@ Tardenois , Aisne , Picardy , France . A cenotaph erected to his memory is located on the Kilmer family plot in Elmwood Cemetery , in New Brunswick , New Jersey . A Memorial Mass was celebrated at St. Patrick 's Cathedral in Manhattan on October 14 , 1918 .
= = Criticism and influence = =
= = = " Trees " = = =
Joyce Kilmer 's reputation as a poet is staked largely on the widespread popularity of one poem — " Trees " ( 1913 ) . It was first published in the August 1913 issue of Poetry : A Magazine of Verse which had begun publishing the year before in Chicago , Illinois and was included as the title poem in a collection of poems Trees and Other Poems ( 1914 ) . According to Kilmer 's oldest son , Kenton , the poem was written on February 2 , 1913 when the family resided in Mahwah , New Jersey .
It was written in the afternoon in the intervals of some other writing . The desk was in an upstairs room , by a window looking down a wooded hill . It was written in a little notebook in which his father and mother wrote out copies of several of their poems , and , in most cases , added the date of composition . On one page the first two lines of ' Trees ' appear , with the date , February 2 , 1913 , and on another page , further on in the book , is the full text of the poem . It was dedicated to his wife 's mother , Mrs. Henry Mills Alden , who was endeared to all her family .
Many locations including Rutgers University ( where Kilmer attended for two years ) , University of Notre Dame , as well as historians in Mahwah , New Jersey and in other places , have boasted that a specific tree was the inspiration for Kilmer 's poem . However , Kenton Kilmer refutes these claims , remarking that ,
Mother and I agreed , when we talked about it , that Dad never meant his poem to apply to one particular tree , or to the trees of any special region . Just any trees or all trees that might be rained on or snowed on , and that would be suitable nesting places for robins . I guess they 'd have to have upward @-@ reaching branches , too , for the line about ' lifting leafy arms to pray . ' Rule out weeping willows . "
The popular appeal of this simple poem is likely the source of its endurance despite the continuing negative opinion of the poem 's merits from scholars and critics . According to Robert Holliday , Kilmer 's friend and editor , " Trees " speaks " with authentic song to the simplest of hearts " and that " ( t ) he exquisite title poem now so universally known , made his reputation more than all the rest he had written put together . That impeccable lyric which made for immediate widespread popularity . " Its popularity has also led to parodies of the poem — some by noted poets and writers . The pattern of its first lines ( I think that I shall never see / A poem lovely as a tree . ) is of seemingly simple rhyme and meter and easy to mimic along with the poem 's choice of metaphors . One of the best known parodies is " Song of the Open Road " by American humorist and poet Ogden Nash ( 1902 – 1971 ) :
I think that I shall never see
A billboard lovely as a tree .
Indeed , unless the billboards fall ,
I 'll never see a tree at all .
= = = Influences upon Kilmer 's verse = = =
Kilmer 's early works were inspired by , and were imitative of , the poetry of Algernon Charles Swinburne , Gerard Manley Hopkins , Ernest Dowson , Aubrey Beardsley , and William Butler Yeats ( and the Celtic Revival ) . It was later through the influence of works by Coventry Patmore , Francis Thompson , and those of Alice Meynell and her children Viola Meynell and Francis Meynell , that Kilmer seems to have become interested in Catholicism . Kilmer wrote of his influences :
I have come to regard them with intense admiration . Patmore seems to me to be a greater poet than Francis Thompson . He has not the rich vocabulary , the decorative erudition , the Shelleyan enthusiasm , which distinguish the Sister Songs and the Hound of Heaven , but he has a classical simplicity , a restraint and sincerity which make his poems satisfying .
Because he was initially raised Episcopalian ( or Anglican ) , Kilmer became literary editor of the Anglican weekly , The Churchman , before his conversion to Catholicism . During this time he did considerable research into 16th and 17th century Anglican poets as well as metaphysical , or mystic poets of that time , including George Herbert , Thomas Traherne , Robert Herrick , Bishop Coxe , and Robert Stephen Hawker ( the eccentric vicar of the Church of Saint Morwenna and Saint John the Baptist at Morwenstow in Cornwall ) — the latter whom he referred to as " a coast life @-@ guard in a cassock . " These poets also had an influence on Kilmer 's writings .
Critics compared Kilmer to British Catholic writers Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton — suggesting that his reputation might have risen to the level where he would have been considered their American counterpart if not for his untimely death .
= = = Criticism of Kilmer 's work = = =
Kilmer 's death at age 31 removed from him the opportunity to develop into a more mature poet . Because " Trees " is often dismissed by modern critics and scholars as simple verse , much of Kilmer 's work ( especially his literary criticism ) has slipped into obscurity . Only a very few of his poems have appeared in anthologies , and with the exception of " Trees " — and to a much lesser extent " Rouge Bouquet " ( 1917 – 1918 ) — almost none have obtained lasting widespread popularity .
The entire corpus of Kilmer 's work was produced between 1909 and 1918 when Romanticism and sentimental lyric poetry fell out of favor and Modernism took root — especially with the influence of the Lost Generation . In the years after Kilmer 's death , poetry went in drastically different directions , as is seen especially in the work of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound . Kilmer 's verse is conservative and traditional , and does not break the formal rules of poetics — he can be considered as one of the last poets of the Romantic era . His style has been criticized for not breaking free of traditional modes of rhyme , meter , and theme , and for being too sentimental to be taken seriously .
= = Works = =
1911 : Summer of Love ( poetry )
1914 : Trees and Other Poems ( poetry )
1916 : The Circus and Other Essays ( essays )
1917 : Main Street and Other Poems . ( poetry )
1917 : The Courage of Enlightenment : An address delivered in Campion College , Prairie du Chien , Wisconsin , to the members of the graduating class , June 15 , 1917 .
1917 : Dreams and Images : An Anthology of Catholic Poets . ( poetry anthology , edited by Kilmer )
1917 : Literature in the Making by some of its Makers ( criticism )
1918 : Poems , Essays and Letters in Two Volumes Volume One : Memoir and Poems , Volume Two : prose works ( collected works ) ( published posthumously , edited by Robert Cortes Holliday ) .
1919 : Kilmer 's unfinished history of the Fighting 69th ( 165th Infantry ) is posthumously printed in Father Duffy 's Story by Francis P. Duffy ( New York : Doran , 1919 ) .
1921 : The Circus and Other Essays and Fugitive Pieces ( published posthumously )
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= Hurricane Norbert ( 1984 ) =
Hurricane Norbert marked the first time a core of a hurricane was fully mapped in three @-@ dimensions . First forming on September 14 , 1984 west of the Mexican coast , Norbert gradually intensified , reaching hurricane intensity two days after formation . On September 22 , Norbert peaked in strength as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . While intensifying , Norbert meandered . It moved east , then north , then west , then south , then back towards the east , and finally towards the northeast . After fluctuating in intensity for two more days , Norbert rapidly weakened . It turned towards the northwest and made landfall in southern Baja California Norte as a tropical storm . The combination of Norbert and several other storms left thousands homeless throughout Mexico . The remnants of Hurricane Norbert produced moderate rain over Arizona .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical depression first developed on September 14 over the Pacific Ocean west of the Mexican coast . Six hours later , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Norbert . Gradually strengthening , Norbert meandered in the weak steering currents for several days . The rate of intensification accelerated early on September 16 , and shortly thereafter Norbert became a hurricane .
On September 17 , Norbert turned from the east to the north , and upon attaining Category 2 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale at 1800 UTC the next day , Norbert began to turn back to the west . Several hours later , Norbert was upgraded to a major hurricane ( Category 3 or higher ) . While maintaining its intensity for two and a half days , Norbert then turned to the south and after slight strengthening , back to the east . At 0000 UTC , September 21 , Norbert reached its peak intensity of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) . Meanwhile , a deep layer ridge over the Rocky Mountains was replaced by an upper @-@ level trough , which extended south of Cabo San Lucas . This change in the steering patterns caused Hurricane Norbert to eventually turn to the northwest .
Norbert fluctuated in intensity ; six hours after its peak Norbert weakened back into a Category 3 hurricane , only to regain Category 4 strength on three separate occasions during the next 48 hours . On September 23 , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft was flown into Norbert and measured a 9 @.@ 9 mi ( 15 @.@ 9 km ) eye and a closed eyewall . On September 24 , while located 300 mi ( 480 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Norbert re @-@ intensified into a Category 4 hurricane for the fourth time . Another aircraft reconnaissance flew into the hurricane and observed that the heaviest precipitation was located east of the center of circulation . It also had an asymmetrical wind field . Repeated penetrations were made into the eyewall , and scientists mapped the storm 's three @-@ dimensional ( 3 @-@ D ) wind field . This marked the first time that the core of a hurricane was completely mapped in 3 @-@ D. The aircraft was also equipped with Doppler weather radar .
Although the hurricane 's motion accelerated , by 0000 UTC September 25 , Norbert was only a mid @-@ level Category 2 hurricane . Later that day , the third and final Hurricane Hunter aircraft flew into Hurricane Norbert , finding a larger eye than the first flight , with a diameter of 16 mi ( 26 km ) . After weakening back into a tropical storm early on September 26 , the system moved ashore near Point Abreojos in the central portion of the Baja California Peninsula while a high @-@ end tropical storm . While the Monthly Weather Review suggests that the cyclone dissipated on September 27 over the peninsula , it was last noted as a tropical depression over Arizona thus becoming one of the eight tropical cyclones to survive into the state .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Hurricane Norbert was described as " big and ugly " by meteorologists . Planes were advised to use caution while navigating in the area . The Mazatlan government marine operator warned shipping to exercise extreme caution from Jalisco to Baja California Sur . The Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center noted the possibility of heavy rains and flooding across portions of the Baja California Peninsula . Throughout Mexico , a combination of Norbert and several other storms left many people without a home and hotels nearly empty . Scattered and light rainfall fell across portions of Baja California Norte and Sonora , with rainfalls totals of 2 @.@ 38 in ( 60 mm ) and 2 @.@ 44 in ( 62 mm ) at Bento Juarez and Denchiva @-@ San Pendro respectively . In all , rainfall data was reported at 284 locations across Mexico . Upon entering Arizona , sustained winds of 20 to 30 mph ( 30 to 50 km / h ) were recorded in the Tucson metropolitan area . Due to its rapid motion , only moderate rainfall occurred throughout south @-@ central to northeast Arizona , with most locations reporting between 1 to 2 in ( 25 to 51 mm ) of rain . However , Kitt Peak reported a 30 @-@ hour storm rainfall total of 4 @.@ 15 in ( 105 mm ) . Lower than normal pressures were also recorded . Across New Mexico , flash flood warnings were posted due to heavy rainfall .
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= Average Joe =
The terms average Joe , ordinary Joe , Joe Sixpack , Joe Lunchbucket ( for males ) and ordinary , average , or plain Jane ( for females ) , are used primarily in North America to refer to a completely average person , typically an average American . It can be used both to give the image of a hypothetical " completely average person " or to describe an existing person . Parallel terms in other languages for local equivalents exist worldwide .
Today , statistics by the United States Department of Commerce provide information regarding the societal attributes of those who may be referred to as being " average " . While some individual attributes are easily identified as being average , such as the median income , other characteristics , such as family arrangements may not be identified as being average .
In 2001 , for example no single household arrangement constituted more than 30 % of total households . Married couples with no children were the most common constituting 28 @.@ 7 % of households . It would nonetheless be inaccurate to state that the average American lives in a childless couple arrangement as 71 @.@ 3 % do not . Other " average " characteristics are easier to identify .
In terms of social class , the average American may be described as either being middle or working class . As social classes lack distinct boundaries the average American may have a status in the area where the lower middle and upper working class overlap . Overall the average American , age 25 or older , made roughly $ 32 @,@ 000 per year , does not have a college degree , has been , is , or will be married as well as divorced at least once during his or her lifetime , lives in his or her own home in a suburban setting , and holds a white @-@ collar office job .
" Average Joes " are common fodder for characters in television or movies , comics , novels or radio dramas . On television , examples of " average Joes " include Doug Heffernan ( King of Queens ) , Alan Harper ( Two and a Half Men ) and Homer Simpson ( The Simpsons ) . In the film Dodgeball : A True Underdog Story , the protagonist , Peter , owns a gym for those who don 't want an intensive workout , and the patrons of the gym are all somewhat overweight . The gym is named Average Joe 's Gymnasium .
In real life , as chronicled in his bestseller The Average American : The Extraordinary Search for the Nation 's Most Ordinary Citizen , Kevin O 'Keefe successfully completed a nationwide search for the person who was the most statistically average in the United States during a multi @-@ year span starting in 2000 . Newsweek proclaimed of the book , " The journey toward run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill has never been so remarkable . "
= = Families = =
As the United States is a highly diverse nation , it should not be surprising that there is no single prevalent household arrangement . While the " nuclear family " consisting of a married couple with their own children is often seen as the average American family , such households constitute less than a quarter of all households . Married couples without children are currently the plurality constituting 28 @.@ 7 % of households , compared to 24 @.@ 1 % for nuclear families .
Another 25 @.@ 5 % of households consisted of single persons residing alone . Recent trends have shown the numbers of nuclear families as well as childless married couples decrease . In 1970 , 40 @.@ 3 % of US households consisted of nuclear families with childless couples making up 30 @.@ 3 % of households and 10 @.@ 6 % of households being arranged in " Other family types . "
By 2000 the percentage of nuclear families had decreased by 40 % , while the number of other family types had increased by 51 % . The percentage of single households has also steadily increased . In 1970 , only 17 % of households consisted of singles . In 2000 that figure had increased by 50 % with singles constituting 25 @.@ 5 % of households . The most drastic increase was among the percentage of households made up of single males , which nearly doubled from 5 @.@ 6 % in 1970 to 10 @.@ 7 % in 2000 .
Today , one can no longer refer to the nuclear family as the average American household , neither can one identify the current plurality of married couples without children as " the average . " Recent statistics indeed indicate that there is no average American family arrangement , but that American society is home to a wide and diverse variety of family arrangements . The one thing the data does indicate is that the average Joe most likely does not reside in a nuclear 4 @-@ person family .
" The nuclear family ... is the idealized version of what most people think of when they think of " family ... " The old definition of what a family is ... the nuclear family- no longer seems adequate to cover the wide diversity of household arrangements we see today , according to many social scientists ( Edwards 1991 ; Stacey 1996 ) . Thus has arisen the term postmodern family , which is meant to describe the great variability in family forms , including single @-@ parent families and child @-@ free couples . " - Brian K. Williams , Stacey C. Sawyer , Carl M. Wahlstrom , Marriages , Families & Intimate Relationships , 2005 .
A statement that can be made , however , is that most Americans will marry at least once in their lifetime with the first marriage most commonly ending in divorce . Today a little over half ( 52 @.@ 3 % ) of US household include a married couple , showing a significant decrease since 1970 when 70 @.@ 6 % of households included a married couple . Current trends indicate that people in the US are marrying later and less often with higher divorce rates .
Despite the declining prevalence of marriage , more than three @-@ quarters of Americans will marry at least once in their lifetime . The average age for marriage for a male was 26 @.@ 8 and 25 @.@ 1 for a female . Americans are also likely to remarry after their first divorce . In 1990 , 40 % of all marriages were remarriages . All together one can conclude that while there is no prevalent average household arrangement , most Americans ( the average Joe ) will get married and divorced once with a considerable number of Americans remarrying at least once .
= = Income = =
Income in the United States is most commonly measured either by individual or household . In 2005 the median personal income , the amount earned by the average Joe or average Jane , is largely determined by who is or who is not included in the statistics . Personal income statistics are given in accordance to a variety of demographic characteristics . The median income for all 233 million persons over the age of 15 was $ 28 @,@ 567 .
By only including those above age 25 , the vast majority of students and all working adolescents are excluded . The median income for the people above the age 25 was $ 32 @,@ 140 in 2005 . Of those with incomes , over the age of 25 , almost three quarters , 73 @.@ 31 % , the median income was clocked at $ 39 @,@ 336 in 2005 . This figure excludes those employed part @-@ time , students , working teenagers , retirees and the unemployed . Depending on whether or not those working part @-@ time are included , the average American makes between $ 32 @,@ 000 and $ 39 @,@ 000 .
In 2005 , 42 % of all households and 76 % of households in the top quintile had two or more income earners . As a result , there was a considerable discrepancy between household and personal income . Recent studies , such as the one conducted by Harvard professor Elizabeth Warren , have shown that the average American household needs two incomes in order to live what is commonly perceived as a middle @-@ class lifestyle .
The median income per household member was clocked at $ 24 @,@ 672 in 2005 . This means that the average Joe earns roughly $ 32 @,@ 000 a year , lives in a household with an income of $ 46 @,@ 000 with $ 24 @,@ 000 of gross annual income per member . Personal income changes considerably over the life @-@ time of the average American , from $ 28 @,@ 000 at age 25 to about $ 42 @,@ 000 at the age of 65 . Yet , very young and old persons would commonly not be considered to be average Americans .
SOURCE : US Census Bureau , 2006
= = = Income at a glance = = =
= = Education = =
The US population seems almost equally divided between those who have and those who have not attended college . While only a minority of Americans , 27 @.@ 6 % , have graduated from college with a Bachelor 's degree or more , a slight majority , 53 % , of Americans had " some college " education . As only 36 @.@ 2 % had an Associates degree or more , with only roughly 9 % having a graduate degree . On the other end of the strata , 14 @.@ 8 % of persons did not graduate from high school .
It is fair to assume that the average Joe / Jane is neither a college graduate nor a high school drop @-@ out . It is , however , difficult to determine whether or not the average American has some college education as the population is split between those who did and did not attend college . Over the past half century the educational attainment of the US population has significantly increased .
The income of an individual with some college education was also similar to the overall mean personal income . The mean personal income for someone with some college education was $ 31 @,@ 054 , compared to $ 32 @,@ 140 for the overall population , age 25 or older with earnings . The mean income for a high school graduate , on the other hand , was considerably below the national mean personal income estimated at $ 26 @,@ 505 .
Overall , despite a slight decrease in the percentage of high school graduates and significantly slower growth of college graduate , the average American is more educated today than ever before , having graduated from high school and likely , though not necessarily , attended college .
SOURCE : US Census Bureau , 2005
= = Social class = =
In terms of social class the average American may be referred to as being either a member of the middle or working class . The discrepancy is largely the result of differing class models and definitions of what constitutes a member of the middle class . Currently the vast majority of Americans self @-@ identify themselves as middle class , yet some experts in the field such Michael Zweig of Stony Brook University or Dennis Gilbert of Cornell University have brought forth different theories . As most Americans are neither professionals nor managers and lack college degrees the average American may be described as being either or both , lower middle and working class .
" Everyone wants to believe they are middle class . For people on the bottom and the top of the wage scale the phrase connotes a certain Regular Joe cachet . But this eagerness to be part of the group has led the definition to be stretched like a bungee cord " - Dante Chinni , the Christian Science Monitor
Occupational autonomy is a key factor in regards to class positions . Professionals and managers who are exclusively labeled as middle class and often as upper middle class , conceptualize , create and consult in their jobs . Due to their great expertise they enjoy a high degree of autonomy in the work place .
The American economy , however , does not require a labor force consisting solely of professionals . Instead it requires a greatly diverse and specialized labor force . Thus the majority of Americans complete assigned tasks with considerably less autonomy and creative freedom than professionals , leading to theory that they may better be described as being members of the working class .
= = Occupation = =
Most Americans today are white collar salaried employees who work in varied environments , including offices , retail outlets , and hospitals . Roughly one quarter ( 23 @.@ 4 % ) of Americans were employed in the traditional blue collar fields that require hard physical labor with another 14 % employed in the service industry . Office administrators or more colloquial , secretaries , were the largest single occupation in the United States . In 2004 there were 4 @.@ 1 million secretaries with a median income of $ 34 @,@ 970 , near the national median of $ 32 @,@ 000 .
Overall those employed in office administrative and support , service and sales occupations constituted 38 @.@ 6 % of the labor force . Those employed in business and professional as well as professional support occupations ( e.g. nurses ) made up 38 @.@ 0 % of the labor force . Combined white collar employees including service workers such as restaurant serves and hotel maids constituted 76 @.@ 6 % of the labor force . If service workers are excluded 62 @.@ 8 % were employed in white collar occupations .
Educational attainment varied greatly depending on occupational field with 68 % of those in the professional and professional support fields having a bachelor 's degree or higher , compared to only 31 @.@ 6 % of those employed in sales and 11 @.@ 6 % of those in the service sector . Considering the fact that the average American does not have a bachelor 's degree , he or she is most likely employed in the service , sales , and office support fields with many working in the professional support and business fields as well . All together the American economy and labor force have changed greatly since the middle of the 20th. century with most workers today being employed in office and service occupations .
= = Homeownership = =
According to US Department of Commerce data the vast majority , 67 % of housing units in the United States were owner occupied , had three or fewer bedrooms with one or less occupant per room ( including kitchen , dining room , living room , etc ... ) and were mortgaged . The overwhelming majority , 85 % , of all housing units had three or fewer bedrooms while 15 % of all housing had 4 or more bedrooms . The plurality of housing units , 40 % , had three bedrooms . The vast majority , 67 % , of housing units were mortgaged with 52 % households spending 25 % or less of their annual income on mortgage payments .
The median value of a housing unit in the US was $ 167 @,@ 500 in 2005 with the median mortgage payment being clocked at $ 1 @,@ 295 . The average size of a household was 2 @.@ 5 persons with almost all housing units , 97 % , having 1 or fewer occupants per room . However , the term " room " does not exclusively refer to bedrooms , but includes the kitchen , dining room , family room , bath rooms and any other rooms a house might have . While 85 % of American homes had 3 or fewer bedrooms the median number of total rooms per housing units was 5 @.@ 3 in 2005 . Considering these statistics one can conclude that the average American resides in his or her own home , pays roughly $ 1 @,@ 000 per month in mortgage payments for a three or less bedroom house with no more than one occupant per room .
US Census Bureau data from 2002 identified a series of housing characteristics for units owner @-@ occupied units inhabited by households with average incomes , ranging from $ 40 @,@ 000 to $ 60 @,@ 000 . The median square footage for homes occupied by middle income households was 1 @,@ 700 with 52 % of such homes having two or more bathrooms . The median value of these homes was $ 112 @,@ 000 with the median year of construction being 1970 . Middle income households tended to spend roughly 18 % of their monthly income on housing . Considering these statistics it is likely that many average Americans reside in 1 @,@ 700 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 160 m2 ) homes , priced slightly above $ 100 @,@ 000 with two or more bathrooms that were built in the late 1960s and early 1970s . However , the taken income is slightly above average .
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= Geology of the Grand Canyon area =
The geology of the Grand Canyon area includes one of the most complete and studied sequences of rock on Earth . The nearly 40 major sedimentary rock layers exposed in the Grand Canyon and in the Grand Canyon National Park area range in age from about 200 million to nearly 2 billion years old . Most were deposited in warm , shallow seas and near ancient , long @-@ gone sea shores in western North America . Both marine and terrestrial sediments are represented , including fossilized sand dunes from an extinct desert . There are at least 14 known unconformities in the geologic record found in the Grand Canyon .
Uplift of the region started about 75 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny ; a mountain @-@ building event that is largely responsible for creating the Rocky Mountains to the east . In total , the Colorado Plateau was uplifted an estimated 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . The adjacent Basin and Range province to the west started to form about 18 million years ago as the result of crustal stretching . A drainage system that flowed through what is today the eastern Grand Canyon emptied into the now lower Basin and Range province . Opening of the Gulf of California around 6 million years ago enabled a large river to cut its way northeast from the gulf . The new river captured the older drainage to form the ancestral Colorado River , which in turn started to form the Grand Canyon .
Wetter climates brought upon by ice ages starting 2 million years ago greatly increased excavation of the Grand Canyon , which was nearly as deep as it is now by 1 @.@ 2 million years ago . Volcanic activity deposited lava over the area 1 @.@ 8 million to 500 @,@ 000 years ago . At least 13 lava dams blocked the Colorado River , forming lakes that were up to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) deep . The end of the last ice age and subsequent human activity has greatly reduced the ability of the Colorado River to excavate the canyon . Dams in particular have upset patterns of sediment transport and deposition . Controlled floods from Glen Canyon Dam upstream have been conducted to see if they have a restorative effect . Earthquakes and mass wasting erosive events still affect the region .
= = Deposition of sediments = =
= = = Vishnu Basement Rocks = = =
At about 2 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 8 billion years ago in Precambrian time , sand , mud , silt , and ash were laid down in a marine basin adjacent to an orogenic belt . From 1 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 billion years ago at least two island arcs collided with the proto @-@ North American continent . This process of plate tectonics compressed and grafted the marine sediments in the basin onto the mainland and uplifted them out of the sea . Later , these rocks were buried 12 miles ( 19 km ) under the surface and pressure @-@ cooked into metamorphic rock . The resulting Granite Gorge Metamorphic Suite , which is part of the Vishnu Basement Rocks , consists of the metasedimentary Vishnu Schist and the metavolcanic Brahma and Rama Schists that were formed 1 @.@ 75 billion to 1 @.@ 73 billion years ago . This is the resistant rock now exposed at the bottom of the canyon in the Inner Gorge .
As the volcanic islands collided with the mainland around 1 @.@ 7 billion years ago , blobs of magma rose from the subduction zone and intruded the Granite Gorge Metamorphic Suite . These plutons slowly cooled to form the Zoroaster Granite ; part of which would later be metamorphosed into gneiss . This rock unit can be seen as light @-@ colored bands in the darker garnet @-@ studded Vishnu Schist ( see 1b in figure 1 ) . The intrusion of the granite occurred in three phases : two during the initial Vishnu metamorphism period , and a third around 1 @.@ 4 billion years ago . The third phase was accompanied by large @-@ scale faulting , particularly along north — south faults , leading to a partial rifting of the continent . The collision expanded the continent from the Wyoming – Colorado border into Mexico and almost doubled the crust 's thickness in the Grand Canyon region . Part of this thickening created the 5 @-@ to @-@ 6 @-@ mile ( 8 to 10 km ) high ancestral Mazatzal Mountains .
Subsequent erosion lasting 300 million years stripped much of the exposed sediments and the mountains away . This reduced the very high mountains to small hills a few tens to hundreds of feet ( tens of meters ) high . Geologist John Wesley Powell called this major gap in the geologic record , which is also seen in other parts of the world , the Great Unconformity . Other sediments may have been added but , if they ever existed , were completely removed by erosion . Such gaps in the geologic record are called unconformities by geologists . The Great Unconformity is one of the best examples of an exposed nonconformity , which is a type of unconformity that has bedded rock units above igneous or metamorphic rocks .
= = = Grand Canyon Supergroup = = =
In late Precambrian time , extension from a large tectonic plate or smaller plates moving away from Laurentia thinned its continental crust , forming large rift basins that would ultimately fail to split the continent . Eventually , this sunken region of Laurentia was flooded with a shallow seaway that extended from at least present @-@ day Lake Superior to Glacier National Park in Montana to the Grand Canyon and the Uinta Mountains . The resulting Grand Canyon Supergroup of sedimentary units is composed of nine varied geologic formations that were laid down from 1 @.@ 2 billion and 740 million years ago in this sea . Good exposures of the supergroup can be seen in eastern Grand Canyon in the Inner Gorge and from Desert View , Lipan Point and Moran point .
The oldest section of the supergroup is the Unkar Group . It accumulated in a variety of fluvial , deltaic , tidal , nearshore marine , and offshore marine environments . The first formation to be laid down in the Unkar Group was the Bass Formation . Fluvial gravels initially accumulated in shallow river valleys . They later lithified into a basal conglomerate that is known as the Hotauta Member of the Bass Formation . The Bass Formation was deposited in a shallow sea near the coast as a mix of limestone , sandstone , and shale . Diagenesis later altered the bulk of the limestone into dolomite . It is 120 to 340 feet ( 37 to 100 m ) thick and grayish in color . Averaging 1250 million years old , this is the oldest layer exposed in the Grand Canyon that contains fossils — stromatolites . Hakatai Shale is made of thin beds of marginal @-@ marine @-@ derived mudstones , sandstones , and shale that , together , are 445 to 985 feet ( 136 to 300 m ) thick . This formation indicates a short @-@ lived regression ( retreat ) of the seashore in the area that left mud flats . Today it is very bright orange @-@ red and gives the Red Canyon its name . Shinumo Quartzite is a resistant marine sedimentary quartzite that was eroded to form monadnocks that later became islands in Cambrian time . Those islands withstood wave action long enough to become re @-@ buried by other sediments in the Cambrian Period . Dox Formation is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) thick and is made of sandstone with some interbedded shale beds and mudstone that were deposited in fluvial and tidal environments . Ripple marks and other features indicate it was close to the shore . Outcrops of this red to orange formation can be seen in the eastern parts of the canyon . Fossils of stromatolites and algae are found in this layer . At 1070 ± 70 million years old , the Cardenas Basalt is the youngest formation in the Unkar Group . It is made of layers of dark brown basaltic rocks that flowed as lava up to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) thick .
Nankoweap Formation is around 1050 million years old and is not part of a group . This rock unit is made of coarse @-@ grained sandstone , and was deposited in a shallow sea on top of the eroded surface of the Cardenas Basalt . The Nankoweap is only exposed in the eastern part of the canyon . A gap in the geologic record , an unconformity , follows the Nankoweap .
All formations in the Chuar Group were deposited in coastal and shallow sea environments about 1000 to 700 million years ago . The Galeros Formation is a mainly greenish formation composed of interbedded sandstone , limestone , and shale . Fossilized stromatolites are found in the Galeros . The Kwagunt Formation consists of black shale and red to purple mudstone with some limestone . Isolated pockets of reddish sandstone are also found around Carbon Butte . Stromatolites are found in this layer . The Sixtymile Formation is made of tan @-@ colored sandstone with some small sections of shale .
About 800 million years ago the supergroup was tilted 15 ° and block faulted in the Grand Canyon Orogeny . Some of the block units moved down and others moved up while fault movement created north — south @-@ trending fault @-@ block mountain ranges . About 100 million years of erosion took place that washed most of the Chuar Group away along with part of the Unkar Group ( exposing the Shinumo Quartzite as previously explained ) . The mountain ranges were reduced to hills , and in some places , the whole 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) of the supergroup were removed entirely , exposing the basement rocks below . Any rocks that were deposited on top of the Grand Canyon Supergroup in the Precambrian were completely removed . This created a major unconformity that represents 460 million years of lost geologic history in the area .
= = = Tonto Group = = =
During the Paleozoic era , the western part of what would become North America was near the equator and on a passive margin . The Cambrian Explosion of life took place over about 15 million years in this part of the world . Climate was warm and invertebrates , such as the trilobites , were abundant . An ocean started to return to the Grand Canyon area from the west about 550 million years ago . As its shoreline moved east , the ocean began to concurrently deposit the three formations of the Tonto Group .
Tapeats Sandstone averages 525 million years old and is made of medium- to coarse @-@ grained sand and conglomerate that was deposited on an ancient shore ( see 3a in figure 1 ) . Ripple marks are common in the upper members of this dark brown thin @-@ bedded layer . Fossils and imprint trails of trilobites and brachiopods have also been found in the Tapeats . Today it is a cliff @-@ former that is 100 to 325 feet ( 30 to 100 m ) thick . Bright Angel Shale averages 515 million years old and is made of mudstone @-@ derived shale that is interbedded with small sections of sandstone and shaly limestone with a few thin beds of dolomite . It was mostly deposited as mud just offshore and contains brachiopod , trilobite , and worm fossils ( see 3b in figure 1 ) . The color of this formation is mostly various shades of green with some brownish @-@ tan to gray parts . It is a slope @-@ former and is 270 to 450 feet ( 82 to 137 m ) thick . Glauconite is responsible for the green coloration of the Bright Angel . Muav Limestone averages 505 million years old and is made of gray , thin @-@ bedded limestone that was deposited farther offshore from calcium carbonate precipitates ( see 3c in figure 1 ) . The western part of the canyon has a much thicker sequence of Muav than the eastern part . The Muav is a cliff @-@ former , 136 to 827 feet ( 41 to 252 m ) thick .
These three formations were laid down over a period of 30 million years from early @-@ to @-@ middle Cambrian time . Trilobites followed by brachiopods are the most commonly reported fossils in this group but well @-@ preserved fossils are relatively rare . We know that the shoreline was transgressing ( advancing onto land ) because finer grade material was deposited on top of coarser @-@ grained sediment . Today , the Tonto Group makes up the Tonto Platform seen above and following the Colorado River ; the Tapeats Sandstone and Muav Limestone form the platform 's cliffs and the Bright Angel Shale forms its slopes . Unlike the Proterozoic units below it , the Tonto Group 's beds basically lie in their original horizontal position . The Bright Angel Shale in the group forms an aquiclude ( barrier to groundwater seeping down ) , and thus collects and directs water through the overlying Muav Limestone to feed springs in the Inner Gorge .
= = = Temple Butte , Redwall , and Surprise Canyon = = =
The next two periods of geologic history , the Ordovician and the Silurian , are missing from the Grand Canyon sequence . Geologists do not know if sediments were deposited in these periods and were later removed by erosion or if they were never deposited in the first place . Either way , this break in the geologic history of the area spans about 65 million years . A type of unconformity called a disconformity was formed . Disconformities show erosional features such as valleys , hills and cliffs that are later covered by younger sediments .
Geologists do know that deep channels were carved on the top of the Muav Limestone during this time . Streams were the likely cause , but marine scour may be to blame . Either way , these depressions were filled with freshwater limestone about 385 million years ago in the Middle Devonian in a formation that geologists call the Temple Butte Limestone ( see 4a in figure 1 ) . Marble Canyon in the eastern part of the park displays these filled purplish @-@ colored channels well . Temple Butte Limestone is a cliff @-@ former in the western part of the park where it is gray to cream @-@ colored dolomite . Fossils of animals with backbones are found in this formation ; bony plates from freshwater fish in the eastern part and numerous marine fish fossils in the western part . Temple Butte is 100 to 450 feet ( 30 to 137 m ) thick ; thinner near Grand Canyon Village and thicker in western Grand Canyon . An unconformity representing 40 to 50 million years of lost geologic history marks the top of this formation .
The next formation in the Grand Canyon geologic column is the cliff @-@ forming Redwall Limestone , which is 400 to 800 feet ( 120 to 240 m ) thick ( see 4b in figure 1 ) . Redwall is composed of thick @-@ bedded , dark brown to bluish gray limestone and dolomite with white chert nodules mixed in . It was laid down in a retreating shallow tropical sea near the equator during 40 million years of the early @-@ to @-@ middle Mississippian . Many fossilized crinoids , brachiopods , bryozoans , horn corals , nautiloids , and sponges , along with other marine organisms such as large and complex trilobites have been found in the Redwall . In late Mississippian time , the Grand Canyon region was slowly uplifted and the Redwall was partly eroded away . A Karst topography consisting of caves , sinkholes , and subterranean river channels resulted but were later filled with more limestone . The exposed surface of Redwall gets its characteristic color from rainwater dripping from the iron @-@ rich redbeds of the Supai and Hermit shale that lie above .
Surprise Canyon Formation is a sedimentary layer of purplish @-@ red shale that was laid down in discontinuous beds of sand and lime above the Redwall ( see 4c in figure 1 ) . It was created in very late Mississippian and possibly in very earliest Pennsylvanian time as the land subsided and tidal estuaries filled river valleys with sediment . This formation only exists in isolated lenses that are 50 to 400 feet ( 15 to 122 m ) thick . Surprise Canyon was unknown to science until 1973 and can be reached only by helicopter . Fossil logs , other plant material and marine shells are found in this formation . An unconformity marks the top of the Surprise Canyon Formation and in most places this unconformity has entirely removed the Surprise Canyon and exposed the underlying Redwall .
= = = Supai Group = = =
An unconformity of 15 to 20 million years separates the Supai Group from the previously deposited Redwall Formation . Supai Group was deposited in late Mississippian , through the Pennsylvanian and into the early Permian time , some 320 million to 270 million years ago . Both marine and non @-@ marine deposits of mud , silt , sand and calcareous sediments were laid down on a broad coastal plain similar to the Texas Gulf Coast of today . Around this time , the Ancestral Rocky Mountains rose in Colorado and New Mexico and streams brought eroded sediment from them to the Grand Canyon area .
Supai Group formations in the western part of the canyon contain limestone , indicative of a warm , shallow sea , while the eastern part was probably a muddy river delta . This formation consists of red siltstones and shale capped by tan @-@ colored sandstone beds that together reach a thickness of 600 to 700 ft ( around 200 m ) . Shale in the early Permian formations in this group were oxidized to a bright red color . Fossils of amphibian footprints , reptiles , and plentiful plant material are found in the eastern part and increasing numbers of marine fossils are found in the western part .
Formations of the Supai Group are from oldest to youngest ( an unconformity is present at the top of each ) : Watahomigi ( see 5a in figure 1 ) is a slope @-@ forming gray limestone with some red chert bands , sandstone , and purple siltstone that is 100 to 300 feet ( 30 to 90 m ) thick . Manakacha ( see 5b in figure 1 ) is a cliff- and slope @-@ forming pale red sandstone and red shale that averages 300 feet ( 90 m ) thick in Grand Canyon . Wescogame ( see 5c in figure 1 ) is a ledge- and slope @-@ forming pale red sandstone and siltstone that is 100 to 200 feet ( 30 to 60 m ) thick . Esplanade ( see 5d in figure 1 ) is a ledge- and cliff @-@ forming pale red sandstone and siltstone that is 200 to 800 feet ( 60 to 200 m ) thick . An unconformity marks the top of the Supai Group .
= = = Hermit , Coconino , Toroweap , and Kaibab = = =
Like the Supai Group below it , the Permian @-@ aged Hermit Formation was probably deposited on a broad coastal plain ( see 6a in figure 1 ) . The alternating thin @-@ bedded iron oxide , mud and silt were deposited via freshwater streams in a semiarid environment around 280 million years ago . Fossils of winged insects , cone @-@ bearing plants , and ferns are found in this formation as well as tracks of vertebrate animals . It is a soft , deep red shale and mudstone slope @-@ former that is approximately 100 to 900 feet ( 30 to 274 m ) thick . Slope development will periodically undermine the formations above and car- to house @-@ sized blocks of that rock will cascade down onto the Tonto Platform . An unconformity marks the top of this formation .
Coconino Sandstone formed about 275 million years ago as the area dried out and sand dunes made of quartz sand invaded a growing desert ( see 6b in figure 1 ) . Some Coconino fills deep mudcracks in the underlying Hermit Shale and the desert that created the Coconino lasted for 5 to 10 million years . Today , the Coconino is a 57 to 600 feet ( 17 to 183 m ) thick golden white to cream @-@ colored cliff @-@ former near the canyon 's rim . Cross bedding patterns of the frosted , fine @-@ grained , well @-@ sorted and rounded quartz grains seen in its cliffs is compatible with an eolian environment . Also fossilized are tracks from lizard @-@ like creatures and what look like tracks from millipedes and scorpions . An unconformity marks the top of this formation .
Next in the geologic column is the 200 @-@ foot ( 60 m ) -thick Toroweap Formation ( see 6c in figure 1 ) . It consists of red and yellow sandstone and shaly gray limestone interbedded with gypsum . The formation was deposited in a warm , shallow sea as the shoreline transgressed ( invaded ) and regressed ( retreated ) over the land . The average age of the rock is about 273 million years . In modern times it is a ledge- and slope @-@ former that contains fossils of brachiopods , corals , and mollusks along with other animals and various terrestrial plants . The Toroweap is divided into the following three members : Seligman is a slope @-@ forming yellowish to reddish sandstone and siltstone . Brady Canyon is a cliff @-@ forming gray limestone with some chert . Wood Ranch is a slope @-@ forming pale red and gray siltstone and dolomitic sandstone . An unconformity marks the top of this formation .
One of the highest , and therefore youngest , formations seen in the Grand Canyon area is the Kaibab Limestone ( see 6d in figure 1 ) . It erodes into ledgy cliffs that are 300 to 400 feet ( 90 to 100 m ) thick and was laid down in latest early Permian time , about 270 million years ago , by an advancing warm , shallow sea . The formation is typically made of sandy limestone sitting on top of a layer of sandstone . This is the cream to grayish @-@ white rock that park visitors stand on while viewing the canyon from both rims . It is also the surface rock covering much of the Kaibab Plateau just north of the canyon and the Coconino Plateau immediately south . Shark teeth have been found in this formation as well as abundant fossils of marine invertebrates such as brachiopods , corals , mollusks , sea lilies , and worms . An unconformity marks the top of this formation .
= = = Mesozoic deposition = = =
Uplift marked the start of the Mesozoic and streams started to incise the newly dry land . Streams flowing through broad low valleys in Triassic time deposited sediment eroded from nearby uplands , creating the once 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) -thick Moenkopi Formation . The formation is made from sandstone and shale with gypsum layers in between . Moenkopi outcrops are found along the Colorado River in Marble Canyon , on Cedar Mountain ( a mesa near the southeastern park border ) , and in Red Butte ( located south of Grand Canyon Village ) . Remnants of the Shinarump Conglomerate , itself a member of the Chinle Formation , are above the Moenkopi Formation near the top of Red Butte but below a much younger lava flow .
Formations totaling over 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 500 m ) in thickness were deposited in the region in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic but were almost entirely removed from the Grand Canyon sequence by subsequent erosion . The geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area and the geology of the Bryce Canyon area records some of these formations . All these rock units together form a super sequence of rock known as the Grand Staircase .
= = Cenozoic regional uplift and erosion of the canyon = =
= = = Uplift and nearby extension = = =
The Laramide orogeny affected all of western North America by helping to build the American cordillera . The Kaibab Uplift , Monument Upwarp , the Uinta Mountains , San Rafael Swell , and the Rocky Mountains were uplifted , at least in part , by the Laramide orogeny . This major mountain @-@ building event started near the end of the Mesozoic , around 75 million years ago , and continued into the Eocene period of the Cenozoic . It was caused by subduction off the western coast of North America . Major faults that trend north – south and cross the canyon area were reactivated by this uplift . Many of these faults are Precambrian in age and are still active today . Streams draining the Rocky Mountains in early Miocene time terminated in landlocked basins in Utah , Arizona and Nevada but there is no evidence for a major river .
Around 18 million years ago , tensional forces started to thin and drop the region to the west , creating the Basin and Range province . Basins ( grabens ) dropped down and mountain ranges ( horsts ) rose up between old and new north – south – trending faults . However , for reasons poorly understood , the beds of the Colorado Plateaus remained mostly horizontal through both events even as they were uplifted about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in two pulses . The extreme western part of the canyon ends at one of the Basin and Range faults , the Grand Wash , which also marks the boundary between the two provinces .
Uplift from the Laramide orogeny and the creation of the Basin and Range province worked together to steepen the gradient of streams flowing west on the Colorado Plateau . These streams cut deep , eastward @-@ growing , channels into the western edge of the Colorado Plateau and deposited their sediment in the widening Basin and Range region .
According to a 2012 study , there is evidence that the western Grand Canyon could be as old as 70 million years .
= = = Colorado River : origin and development = = =
Rifting started to create the Gulf of California far to the south 6 to 10 million years ago . Around the same time , the western edge of the Colorado Plateau may have sagged slightly . Both events changed the direction of many streams toward the sagging region and the increased gradient caused them to downcut much faster . From 5 @.@ 5 million to 5 million years ago , headward erosion to the north and east consolidated these streams into one major river and associated tributary channels . This river , the ancestral Lower Colorado River , started to fill the northern arm of the gulf , which extended nearly to the site of Hoover Dam , with estuary deposits .
At the same time , streams flowed from highlands in central Arizona north and across what is today the western Grand Canyon , possibly feeding a larger river . The mechanism by which the ancestral Lower Colorado River captured this drainage and the drainage from much of the rest of the Colorado Plateau is not known . Possible explanations include headward erosion or a broken natural dam of a lake or river . Whatever the cause , the Lower Colorado probably captured the landlocked Upper Colorado somewhere west of the Kaibab Uplift . The much larger drainage area and yet steeper stream gradient helped to further accelerate downcutting .
Ice ages during the Pleistocene brought a cooler and wetter pluvial climate to the region starting 2 to 3 million years ago . The added precipitation increased runoff and the erosive ability of streams ( especially from spring melt water and flash floods in summer ) . With a greatly increased flow volume the Colorado cut faster than ever before and started to quickly excavate the Grand Canyon 2 million years before present , almost reaching the modern depth by 1 @.@ 2 million years ago .
The resulting Grand Canyon of the Colorado River trends roughly east to west for 278 miles ( 447 km ) between Lake Powell and Lake Mead . In that distance , the Colorado River drops 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) and has excavated an estimated 1 @,@ 000 cubic miles ( 4 @,@ 200 km3 ) of sediment to form the canyon . This part of the river bisects the 9 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) -high Kaibab Uplift and passes seven plateaus ( the Kaibab , Kanab , and Shivwits plateaus bound the northern part of the canyon and the Coconino bounds the southern part ) . Each of these plateaus are bounded by north to south trending faults and monoclines created or reactivated during the Laramide orogeny . Streams flowing into the Colorado River have since exploited these faults to excavate their own tributary canyons , such as Bright Angel Canyon .
= = = Volcanic activity in the western canyon = = =
Volcanic activity started in Uinkaret volcanic field ( in the western Grand Canyon ) about 3 million years ago . Over 150 flows of basaltic lava dammed the Colorado River at least 13 times from 725 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years ago . The dams typically formed in weeks , were 12 to 86 miles ( 19 to 138 km ) long , 150 to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 46 to 610 m ) high ( thicker upstream and thinner downstream ) and had volumes of 0 @.@ 03 to 1 @.@ 2 cubic miles ( 0 @.@ 13 to 5 @.@ 00 km3 ) .
The longevity of the dams and their ability to hold Colorado River water in large lakes has been debated . In one hypothesis water from the Colorado River backed up behind the dams in large lakes that extended as far as Moab , Utah . Dams were overtopped in short time ; those that were 150 to 400 feet ( 46 to 122 m ) high were overtopped by their lakes in 2 to 17 days . At the same time , sediment filled the lakes behind the dams . Sediment would fill a lake behind a 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) -high dam in 10 @.@ 33 months , filled a lake behind an 1 @,@ 150 @-@ foot ( 350 m ) -high dam in 345 years , and filled the lake behind the tallest dam in 3000 years . Cascades of water flowed over a dam while waterfalls migrated up @-@ river along it . Most lava dams lasted for around 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 years . However others have proposed that the lava dams were much more ephemeral and failed catastrophically before overtopping . In this model dams would fail due to fluid flow through fractures in the dams and around dam abutments , through permeable river deposits and alluvium .
Since the demise of these dams the Colorado River has carved a maximum of about 160 feet ( 49 m ) into the rocks of the Colorado Plateau
= = Ongoing geology and human impact = =
The end of the Pleistocene ice ages and the start of the Holocene began to change the area 's climate from a cool , wet pluvial one to dryer semi @-@ arid conditions similar to that of today . With less water to cut , the erosive ability of the Colorado was greatly reduced . Mass wasting processes thus began to become relatively more important than they were before . Steeper cliffs and further widening the Grand Canyon and its tributary canyon system occurred . An average of two debris flows per year reach the Colorado River from tributary canyons to form or expand rapids . This type of mass wasting is the main way the smaller and steeper side canyons transport sediment but it also plays a major role in excavating the larger canyons .
In 1963 Glen Canyon Dam and other dams farther upstream started to regulate the flow of the Colorado River through Grand Canyon . Pre @-@ dam but still historic flows of the Colorado through Grand Canyon ranged from 700 to 100 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 20 to 2 @,@ 832 m3 ) per second with at least one late 19th century flood of 300 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 8 @,@ 500 m3 ) per second . Discharge from Glen Canyon Dam exceeds 48 @,@ 200 cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 360 m3 ) per second only when there is danger of overtopping the dam or when the level of Lake Powell otherwise needs to be lowered . An interim conservation measure since 1991 has held maximum flows at 20 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 570 m3 ) per second even though the dam 's power plant can handle 13 @,@ 200 cubic feet ( 370 m3 ) per second more flow .
Controlling river flow by use of dams has diminished the river 's ability to scour rocks by substantially reducing the amount of sediment it carries . Dams on the Colorado River have also changed the character of the river water . Once both muddy and warm , the river is now clear and averages a 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) temperature year @-@ round . Experimental floods approaching the 48 @,@ 200 cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 360 m3 ) per second level mentioned above have been carried out in 1996 and 2004 to study the effects on sediment erosion and deposition .
Grand Canyon lies on the southern end of the Intermountain West seismic belt . At least 35 earthquakes larger than 3 @.@ 0 on the Richter Scale occurred in the Grand Canyon region in the 20th century . Of these , five registered over 5 @.@ 0 on the Richter Scale and the largest was a 6 @.@ 2 quake that occurred in January 1906 . Major roughly north — south trending faults that cross the canyon are ( from west to east ) , the Grand Wash , Hurricane and Toroweap . Major northeast @-@ trending fracture systems of normal faults that intersect the canyon include the West Kaibab and Bright Angel while northwest @-@ trending systems include the Grandview — Phantom . Most earthquakes in the region occur in a narrow northwest @-@ trending band between the Mesa Butte and West Kaibab fracture systems . These events are probably the result of eastward @-@ migrating crustal stretching that may eventually move past the Grand Canyon area .
= = Trail of Time and Yavapai Geology Museum = =
The Trail of Time is an outdoor geology exhibit and nature trail on the South Rim of Grand Canyon National Park . Each meter walked on the trail represents one million years of Grand Canyon 's geologic history . Bronze markers on the trail mark your location in time . The trail begins at Yavapai Geology Museum at 2 billion years ago , and ends at Verkamp 's Visitor Center . Along the way are samples of the Canyon 's rocks , as you would encounter them going from the river up to the rim , and displays explaining the geologic history of the Canyon . The trail opened in late 2010 .
The Yavapai Geology Museum include three @-@ dimensional models , photographs , and exhibits which allow park visitors to see and understand the complicated geologic story of the area . The museum building , the historic Yavapai Observation Station ( built 1928 ) , located one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Market Plaza , features expansive canyon views . A bookstore offers a variety of materials about the area .
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= Gary Roberts ( ice hockey ) =
Gary R. Roberts ( born May 23 , 1966 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player who played 21 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Calgary Flames , Carolina Hurricanes , Toronto Maple Leafs , Florida Panthers , Pittsburgh Penguins and Tampa Bay Lightning . Renowned for his physical fitness during his career , Roberts has become a high performance trainer for players at all levels of the sport .
Roberts was member of Memorial Cup and Minto Cup winning teams as Canadian junior hockey and box lacrosse champions , respectively . He was a first round selection of the Calgary Flames , 12th overall , at the 1984 NHL Entry Draft and played ten seasons in Calgary . Roberts was a member of the Flames ' 1989 Stanley Cup championship team and made two of his three NHL All @-@ Star Game appearances as a representative of the team . A serious neck injury forced him to miss the majority of two seasons , and while his return earned him the 1996 Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for perseverance and dedication to the game , he was forced into retirement following the 1995 – 96 season .
After sitting out a full season , Roberts successfully returned to the NHL in 1997 as a member of the Carolina Hurricanes , with whom he played three seasons . Stints in Toronto , Florida and Pittsburgh followed , and Roberts ended his career in 2009 as a member of the Tampa Bay Lightning . He played 11 seasons following his comeback , finishing with 1 @,@ 224 games played , 438 goals and 910 points .
= = Early life = =
Roberts was born on May 23 , 1966 , in Toronto , Ontario , but grew up in Whitby . His best friend growing up was future NHL teammate Joe Nieuwendyk ; the pair played minor hockey together in the winter , and box lacrosse in the summer . Roberts played Junior A lacrosse with the Whitby Warriors in the mid @-@ 1980s , with whom he won a Minto Cup , the Canadian junior championship .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
In junior hockey , Roberts was drafted into the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . He joined the Ottawa 67 's in 1982 – 83 and scored 20 points in 53 games . Roberts improved to 57 points in his second season and added 17 points in 13 playoff games . The 67 's reached the OHL final and defeated the Kitchener Rangers to win the J. Ross Robertson Cup . The victory advanced the 67 's to the 1984 Memorial Cup tournament where Ottawa reached the final . They again faced Kitchener , who were the tournament hosts , and won the national championship with a 7 – 2 victory . Following the season , the Calgary Flames selected Roberts with their first round selection , 12th overall , at the 1984 NHL Entry Draft .
Returned by the Flames to Ottawa for his third junior season in 1984 – 85 , Roberts served as the team 's captain . He recorded 106 points , including 44 goals , and was named to the OHL 's second All @-@ Star Team . Entering a rebuilding phase , the 67 's were quickly eliminated from the playoffs , after which the Flames assigned Roberts to their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Moncton Golden Flames . In his first professional stint , Roberts scored four goals and added two assists in seven games . Roberts returned to Ottawa for a final junior season in 1985 – 86 , a season in which he played with the Canadian junior team at the 1986 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . Roberts finished second on the team with six goals for the silver medal @-@ winning Canadians . In the OHL , he split the season between the last place 67 's and , following a trade , the Guelph Platers . Roberts finished with 84 points combined between the two teams , and helped the Platers record a 15 – 3 – 2 record in the playoffs and lead Guelph past the Belleville Bulls to win the OHL championship . He scored four goals in four games at the 1986 Memorial Cup , and the Platers defeated the Hull Olympiques , 6 – 2 in the final . Roberts ended his junior career as a two @-@ time Memorial Cup champion .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
In his first professional season , 1986 – 87 , Roberts shuttled between Calgary and Moncton . He was recalled to the Flames three times during the season and scored his first NHL goal in his NHL debut on November 11 , 1986 , against the Vancouver Canucks . He recorded 15 points in 32 games with Calgary and added 38 points in 38 AHL games with Moncton . In his first full season in Calgary , 1987 – 88 , Roberts improved to 28 points in 74 NHL games , while his 282 penalty minutes were ultimately the highest total of his career , and the first of five consecutive seasons which he recorded over 200 minutes in penalties . Roberts joined the Flames as a grinder ; He played a physical style and frequently engaged opponents in fights , but credited Nieuwendyk with helping him establish his place as a power forward and offensive threat with the team . Playing on a line with Nieuwendyk and Håkan Loob , Roberts scored 22 goals in 1988 – 89 . He added 12 points in the 1989 Stanley Cup Playoffs , including two goals in the Flames ' 5 – 3 victory in the fourth game of the Smythe Division final that eliminated the Los Angeles Kings . Roberts and the Flames went on to defeat the Montreal Canadiens in the final to earn the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship .
Developing into an offensive leader , Roberts scored more goals ( 39 ) in 1989 – 90 than he had points ( 38 ) the previous season . He scored his first career hat trick in a 6 – 2 win over the Edmonton Oilers on March 30 , 1990 . After regressing to 22 goals and 53 points in 1990 – 91 , Roberts set career highs in 1991 – 92 with 53 goals and 90 points . Both totals led the Flames and 53 goals remains the second highest single @-@ season total in Flames history , behind Lanny McDonald 's 66 goals in 1982 – 83 . He played in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game in 1992 , and became one of the first two players in NHL history to score 50 goals and record 200 penalty minutes in the same season ( along with Kevin Stevens of the Pittsburgh Penguins ) .
Roberts tied a Flames franchise record with goals in eight consecutive games in 1992 – 93 , a streak that came to an end when he suffered a quadriceps injury that caused him to miss 25 games . He finished the season with 79 points in 58 games , and appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game . Healthy for most of the 1993 – 94 season , Roberts led the Flames with 41 goals . He missed the final two weeks due to damage to nerves in his neck , an injury he had experienced previously in his career . The injury worsened in the lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season as he appeared in only eight games . Degeneration of the nerves in his neck left Roberts unable to lift a 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) dumbbell above his shoulder with his left arm .
The injury was considered career threatening and required two surgeries , in March and October 1995 , to repair . After missing the first half of the 1995 – 96 season , Roberts made his return on January 10 , 1996 , against the Hartford Whalers . The fans greeted him with a standing ovation and he responded by scoring a goal and throwing several bodychecks in the game . Although he played only 35 games , Roberts scored 22 goals and had 42 points . His return and performance earned him the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for perseverance and dedication to the game . The problems with his neck failed to abate however , and on June 17 , 1996 , Roberts elected to retire from the NHL at the age of 30 .
= = = Carolina and Toronto = = =
Several months after retiring , Roberts was put in touch with Dr. Michael Leahy , a chiropractor from Colorado , whose " active release technique " of physiotherapy led to an immediate improvement in his mobility . Determined to try and resume his career , Roberts then spent most of the next year with a physical therapist learning a new training regimen . After sitting out the entire 1996 – 97 season , Roberts announced his return to the NHL . He remained a member of the Flames , but the team agreed to trade him to an Eastern team to reduce strain due to travel . The Flames dealt Roberts , along with goaltender Trevor Kidd , to the Carolina Hurricanes on August 25 , 1997 , in exchange for Andrew Cassels and Jean @-@ Sebastien Giguere .
In his return season of 1997 – 98 , Roberts recorded 49 points in 61 games . He dropped to 42 points in 1998 – 99 , but finished fifth in team scoring to help Carolina win a Southeast Division championship . He scored his first playoff goal in five years in Carolina 's first round series against the Boston Bruins , though the Hurricanes ultimately lost the series in six games . Roberts scored 53 points in 1999 – 2000 before leaving Carolina as a free agent .
Returning to Canada , Roberts signed a three @-@ year contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs worth $ 8 million . He chose his hometown Maple Leafs because he felt they had a better opportunity to win the Stanley Cup than Carolina did . He recorded 53 points in 2000 – 01 and his 29 goals led the team . A 48 @-@ point season followed in 2001 – 02 and he assumed leadership of the Maple Leafs during the 2002 Stanley Cup Playoffs after team captain Mats Sundin suffered a season @-@ ending injury . Roberts led Toronto past their first round opponent , the New York Islanders , in an occasionally violent seven game series . The Maple Leafs reached the Eastern Conference final , where they ultimately lost to Carolina . Roberts led Toronto in playoff scoring with 19 points in 19 games .
Playing a physical style again took its toll on Roberts ' upper body , and he required surgery on both shoulders following the season . As a result , he missed the first four and a half months of the 2002 – 03 season ; he appeared in only 14 games for Toronto . The Maple Leafs signed him to a one @-@ year contract extension shortly after he returned from the injury . Roberts reached a career milestone midway through the 2003 – 04 season , as he played his 1,000th NHL game on January 13 , 2004 , a 4 – 1 victory over the Calgary Flames . He finished the season with 48 points in 72 games and played in his third All @-@ Star Game .
= = = Florida , Pittsburgh and Tampa Bay = = =
While the NHL was shut down due to a labour dispute in 2004 – 05 , the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) ' s Calgary Roughnecks selected Roberts in the sixth round of the 2004 NLL Draft , partially as a public relations stunt . He declined the chance to play professional lacrosse . When NHL play resumed in 2005 – 06 , Roberts and Nieuwendyk each signed a two @-@ year deal with the Florida Panthers . The pair , who were teammates in Toronto as well as Calgary , hoped to end their careers together in Florida . It did not happen , as chronic back pain forced Nieuwendyk 's retirement in December 2006 .
Roberts did not last much longer in Florida as , following a 40 @-@ point season in 2005 – 06 , the Panthers sought to trade him to the Pittsburgh Penguins late in the 2006 – 07 season . Several members of the Penguins , including Mario Lemieux and general manager Ray Shero , sought to convince Roberts to agree to the deal as he was initially unsure about leaving Florida but ultimately agreed to the trade . The deal was completed at the February 27 , 2007 , trade deadline as Pittsburgh sent prospect Noah Welch to Florida in exchange for Roberts . He was brought in to add a leadership presence to a young Penguins team . He finished the regular season with 13 points in 19 games in Pittsburgh and helped the Penguins reach the playoffs for the first time in six years .
Injuries again hampered Roberts in 2007 – 08 . He missed time early in the season due to a viral infection , then broke his left fibula in a game against the Buffalo Sabres . He was praised for skating off the ice without assistance despite the injury , but missed over two months of action while his leg healed . Appearing in only 38 games during the regular season , Roberts returned from the injury in time to score two goals and lead Pittsburgh to a victory in the first game of its opening round playoff series against the Ottawa Senators . At 41 years , 322 days old , he became the oldest player in NHL history to score more than one goal in a post @-@ season game . He added two assists in ten additional playoff games for the Penguins .
Pittsburgh opted not to re @-@ sign Roberts to a new contract following the season and traded both he and Ryan Malone – who was also a pending free agent – to the Tampa Bay Lightning in exchange for a third round draft pick on June 28 , 2008 . The deal gave Tampa Bay a brief window in which they had exclusive rights to negotiate a contract . He agreed to a one @-@ year contract with the Lightning . Another injury , to his elbow , caused Roberts to miss 33 games of the 2008 – 09 season . He played only 30 games and recorded seven points . The Lightning placed him on waivers as the 2009 trade deadline approached , but no team claimed him . Nine days after playing his final NHL game , an 8 – 6 win in Calgary where he recorded an assist , Roberts announced his retirement on March 10 , 2009 .
= = Fitness and training = =
Roberts entered his first NHL training camp with the Flames in 1984 believing his summer lacrosse schedule was enough to keep him in proper hockey game shape . Coach Bob Johnson disagreed and hauled him in front of his peers as an example of someone who had not committed to being a hockey player . He was initially upset , but grew to realize that Johnson was correct , particularly in that he was not particularly focused on his fitness . The criticism inspired Roberts to dedicate himself to personal training , and carried a reputation for being obsessed with nutrition and physical fitness throughout his career . He credited his fitness and nutrition regimen with helping him extend his career another 13 years after his first retirement .
As a player , Roberts helped train his peers during off @-@ seasons . He was a member of the Dallas Stars ' staff as the team 's player development consultant during the 2010 – 11 NHL season . One of Roberts ' early disciples , Tampa 's Steven Stamkos , developed into a 50 goal player in his first season after training with Roberts and led to numerous players seeking to train with him . His growing reputation as a personal trainer led to the creation of the Gary Roberts High Performance Centre and Fitness Institute in North York , Ontario where he trains junior and professional players , including several in the NHL .
= = Personal life = =
Roberts has been married twice and has three children . He and his first wife Tamra have a daughter , Jordan , though the couple were divorced while Roberts played in Toronto . With his second wife , Michelle , he has two sons and a daughter : Noah , Sam , and Sydney Michelle assists her husband at the training centre . Roberts hosts an annual charity golf tournament in Uxbridge , Ontario , in support of Canadian Tire 's Jumpstart program , which helps young people get involved in sports . He is an honoured member of the Whitby Sports Hall of Fame , inducted in 2010 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Globalization and women in China =
The study of the impact of globalization on women in China examines the role and status of Chinese women relative to the political and cultural changes that have taken place in the 20th century as a consequence of globalization . Globalization refers to the interaction and integration of people , products , cultures and governments between various nations around the globe ; this is fostered by trade , investment , and information technology . Globalization affected women 's rights and the gender hierarchy in China , in aspects of domestic life such as marriage and primogeniture , as well as in the workplace . These changes altered the quality of life and the availability of opportunities to women at different junctures throughout the modern globalization process .
The dynamics of gender inequity are correlated with the ideological principles held by the ruling political regime . The imperial era was dominated by the social paradigm of Confucianism , which was a pervasive philosophy throughout the Orient . Confucian ideals emphasized morality , character , social relationship , and the status quo . Confucius preached jen ( humanity ) and the equality and educability of all people ; Neo @-@ Confucianists and Imperial leaders used his beliefs in social hierarchy , particularly in the family setting , for the physical and social oppression of women . As the Chinese government began to re @-@ assimilate themselves into the global community in the late 19th to early 20th century , it shifted away from conventional Confucian ideals and women ’ s role in society changed as well . After Mao Zedong established the People ’ s Republic of China in 1949 , a change in traditional gender roles came about . Mao ’ s death marked the beginning of the current communist administration and an influx of international communications in the areas of commerce , politics and social ideals . Since the 1980s , under the new communist party , the women ’ s rights movement has gained momentum and has become a national issue and a sign of modernization .
In rural areas , women traditionally work alongside their family to produce crops like tea and rice . In urban areas , women work in factories , living away from home . Most of these factory workers are young girls that send their income to their families . To help maintain the rights of women in factories , labor unions and organizations were built . In their homes , women take care of their children and cook .
= = Western bias = =
Western scholarship has historically used ideas of subordinance and victimization to characterize traditional Chinese womanhood . These beliefs were largely constructed on the basis of ideological and political agendas , and were widely accepted despite their ethnocentrism . Early European writings pertaining to Chinese women were produced by missionaries and ethnologists at the conclusion of the 19th century . The goal of the missionaries was to “ civilize China , ” and highlighting weakness and victimization provided for the continuance of their work . This belief prompted scholars to use female subordination as a means to validate Western ideas about Chinese culture and Confucian principles .
In the 1970s , as the feminist movements were forming , they began to affect the literature surrounding women in China . Studies on Chinese women from this period were concerned with women ’ s liberation , and were sympathetic to the feminist movement . This sentiment largely influenced the topics and methodology of the research . With this shift in perspective , the focus of discourse remained on subordination , patriarchal oppression , and victimization . These studies examined such issues as foot binding and the chastity of widows . Literature formulated by feminist writers did nothing to dispel the myth of the weak , subservient woman . These works provided a new bias that had not before been articulated . Feminists believed that Chinese women were a part of a “ universally subordinated womanhood " . This line of thinking illustrates the cultural superiority inherently felt by Western women . Writings on Chinese woman rarely account for differences in time , ethnicity , class , region or age , preferring to describe the status of women as a static , unitary fixture of Chinese culture , despite the political and geographic boundaries that defined different regions and the economic and social changes that occurred throughout history .
= = History of female oppression = =
= = = Traditional roles and Confucianism = = =
From the Han Dynasty ( 206 BC @-@ 220 CE ) until the modern period ( 1840 – 1919 ) , scholars and rulers developed a male @-@ dominated patriarchal society in China . Confucianism was at the root of the development of the patriarchal society in China , and emphasized the distinctions between the sexes and the roles they have within the family . These ideologies continued through the Tang dynasty ( 618 @-@ 907 ) , and girls were taught from a very young age to be submissive to their fathers , then to their husbands , and later to their sons . During the Song Dynasty ( 960 @-@ 1297 ) , Confucian scholars further developed the patriarchal tradition with more restrictions for females , including foot binding for girls at a very young age .
= = = Married life = = =
The traditional Chinese marriage system is organized by the parents of the groom and bride in order to obtain alliances between the two families to ensure the continuance of the family line . There were three types of marriages that emerged in the late Chou Dynasty ( 951 @-@ 960 ) . In these three marriages , the Chinese woman 's main function was to produce children . The first marriage was called a capture marriage , in which the groom would go to his prospective bride 's house at dusk to " kidnap " her . The second type of marriage was called a purchase marriage , in which women were paid for by their husbands . Once women were purchased , they became their husband 's possession and could be traded or sold . The third type of marriage was the arranged marriage , which was accomplished by a matchmaker who acted as a go @-@ between for both families . If there was not a matchmaker , the marriage could be deemed unacceptable and the husband had the right to dissolve the marriage . The married woman 's role at home depended upon the social rank of her spouse , but the prime mission of married women , regardless of their social status , was to bear a son in order to carry on the family name . In addition , a married woman was to be obedient to her in @-@ laws as if they were her own parents .
The marriage law of 1950 was issued after the founding of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 . It declared the abolition of the feudal marriage system characterized by arranged and forced marriage , male superiority , and the disregard for the interests of children . This law also asserted the rights of adults to divorce , which embraced the free @-@ choice marriage , and helped transfer power from the older to the younger generations .
= = = May Fourth Movement = = =
The " New Culture " movement began in China around 1916 following the unsuccessful activities of the 1911 Revolution to establish a republican government , and continued through the 1920s . The May Fourth Movement , which took place on May 4 , 1919 , was a demonstration led by students at the National Peking University against the government , in which they protested the abolition of Confucianism and changes in the traditional value system . Many believed that the solution to China 's problems would be to adopt Western notions of equality and democracy . Since the movement stressed group efforts and propaganda , women were involved in numerous collective tasks such as publication , drama production , and fund raising , which helped them gain more social contact with men and win respect .
= = Domestic life of a Chinese woman = =
= = = Foot binding = = =
Foot binding is the process in which the arch of a woman 's feet is broken and the toes are wrapped up against the foot to create a smaller looking foot with an acute arch . These " fists of flesh " were seen as attractive and arousing for men and the practice was passed down as a prerequisite to marriage from mother to daughter across generations . Special shoes were made to accentuate the small size of the women 's feet . This process was painful and often confined women to their rooms . Few lower class women were able to have their feet bound because they needed to be able to walk normally to accomplish house work . Bound feet came to be an indication of high class and wealth for women . Chinese male reformers during the imperialism period recognized the liberation of the Chinese women as something necessary for their own sake . The humiliation that China had gone through on an international level was turned on the Chinese “ women ” . Naturally , the foot binding was recognized as “ national shame , ” and people found it as a serious problem to be disappeared , thus raging anti @-@ footbinding campaigns in the 1890s to the 1900s . Moreover , the new government that came in after the 1911 revolution banned foot binding practice . Thus , it started to disappear in the coastal areas in 1900 to 1920 . However , the practice was still popular within the interior areas of China till the 1930s and even in the 1950s . The practice has been outlawed multiple times since its inception in the 13th century . It was finally banned as the Communists came to power around 1949 .
= = = Trafficking of women = = =
Women are sold through gangs of women traffickers who kidnap and transport young women and girls across large distances from their homes . Their papers and documentation are taken from them . These women are purchased by men who bar them from leaving the home for fear of the women escaping . Some of these women feel a sense of duty to the family once they have committed to them and had children . They also have no means of escape . This practice has been banned by the government since Mao Zedong and the Communists came to power . Men who buy wives are subject to time in jail , and those convicted for trafficking women face execution .
= = = Confucianism and Communism = = =
Under Confucianism the typical family was patriarchal because men have the capability to pass on the family name and carry on the lineage of the ancestors ; women were expected to be subservient . As the Communist regime changed the structure of Chinese society through economic reform , the structure of the Chinese family was altered . " The Four Olds " ( sijiu ) - old ideas , old habits , old customs , old cultures - were discouraged and were replaced by Communist ideology particularly during the Cultural Revolution . The economy was shifted to total government control with few chances to own private property and communal property . Collectivization destroyed " clan @-@ based " systems and had a great effect on motivation of workers and family loyalties .
The traditional social structure was further degraded by the Cultural Revolution . The Red Guards turned members of a family against one another as they sought out " class enemies " to be sent for " re @-@ education , " ultimately resulting in a loss of family ties . Women were elevated to equal status as men through a series of laws which prohibited practices such as arranged marriages , concubinages , dowries , and child betrothals . Under these marriage laws , women enjoyed joint property in marriage and could file for a divorce .
As a result of Communist rule in China , the social status of women improved greatly . Women were empowered to work outside the home . Communist rule also brought about the end of practices such as foot binding , child marriages , prostitution , and arranged marriages . China has seen a decrease in domestic violence due to government @-@ supported grassroots programs to counter these practices . Women in rural areas remain largely uneducated .
= = = Population control = = =
During the reform period , the Communist regime in China regulated birth control . The party legalized abortion in 1953 and then created public birth control study groups in 1954 . There was a push for a limit on childbirth in 1956 , which had no immediate effect on the population . In 1979 , the One Child Policy was implemented and is still in effect today .
Another instance of population control is the prevalence of female infanticide . Due to the One Child Policy , most families want a boy rather than a girl . Since the 1980s , roughly 200 @,@ 000 female infants would be killed per year because of the preference for male children and the advancement in technologies such as ultrasound , which help to find out the sex of the fetus . In addition to female infanticide , girls are being unregistered or are abandoned by their families , which stops them from receiving education and legal benefits the government offered . These methods of controlling population have resulted in a huge gender gap in China .
= = Chinese women in the workplace = =
= = = History of working women = = =
In the imperial era , women were prohibited from having official positions . It was unimaginable for women to hold these positions because during this time women underwent foot bindings , which prevented them from doing any sorts of physical labor . They held jobs that required minimal physical activity like domestic chores and producing textiles to sell or use .
During Mao 's rule ( 1949 – 1976 ) , Chinese women were needed for their manual labor for farming and for urban industrialization . To compensate for their hard work , they were provided access to education and politics . The Chinese government supported women 's education . The percentage of girls attending school was 96 @.@ 2 % compared to below 20 % before the People 's Republic ( 1949 ) . The Chinese government has tried to decrease the amount of women illiterates while promoting adult and vocational schools . The amount of illiterates has gone down from 90 % in 1949 and 32 % from 1993 . In the first 30 years of Communist rule women 's discrimination was decreasing , but they did not have jobs that had real decision @-@ making power .
Now in the present day , there are more employed Chinese women . They receive the same amount of money for the same amount of work that they do . The Chinese government has made great efforts to achieve a high level of economic status for women . Since 1949 , with the founding of the People ' Republic , the rate for employed women has risen . Chinese women account for 44 % of the work force and 34 @.@ 5 % account for the women 's work force in the world .
= = = Rural areas = = =
The key role women have in farming is to maintain ownership of the main sources of production in rural areas . In traditional China. women were not allowed to own land . Land was inherited through the sons , and if there was no son in the family , it was taken by a close male relative . In less populated areas , women do more agricultural work than men because of shifting cultivation . In more populated areas , men do more work than women because extensive plough cultivation is used . During the busy periods of planting , transporting , and harvesting , women are brought onto the field to work rather than working in the house . Female involvement is high in the double @-@ cropping rice area . Women also play a role in tea cultivation . Other types of work women perform in the countryside include pig and poultry rearing , spinning , weaving , basket @-@ making , and other handicrafts . This type of work supplements agricultural income .
= = = Urban areas = = =
China 's economic policies laid the basis of the industrialization drive in export @-@ oriented development , and its reliance on low @-@ wage manufacturing to produce consumer goods for the world market . Young migrant women left their homes in rural settings to work in urban industrial areas . Work included export @-@ oriented industrialization , manufacturing in electronics and toy assembly , sewing in garment production , and mixed assembly and sewing in the footwear industry . Hong Kong and Shenzhen were cities established as centers of export @-@ oriented industrialization , and migrant women workers have made up 70 % of Shenzhen 's three million people .
Private sector employers are reluctant to hire women because Chinese law requires that the employer cover maternity leave and childbirth costs .
= = = = Reasons for migrant labor = = = =
A recent phenomenon , the migration of rural Chinese workers began in 1984 when the Regulations of Permanent Residence Registration became less punitive and allowed people to move to find employment . People left rural areas to escape poverty , and females left due to the lack of local opportunities for women . In the cities , women could find new , low @-@ paid factory @-@ based jobs that did not require highly skilled workers . According to national statistics , the ratio of male to female migrant workers averages 2 : 1 , and an estimated 30 @-@ 40 million of the migrant women work in the cities , namely Hong Kong and Shenzhen .
In 2003 , 70 % of the 5 @.@ 5 million migrant workers were females in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone . In the Nanshan district of Shenzhen , females comprised 80 % of the workforce with the average age of 23 . Young female workers are preferred over older females or males for several reasons . First , as married women are less mobile , female migrant workers are younger and more likely to be single than their male counterparts . Young rural women are preferred for these jobs primarily because they are less likely to get pregnant , and are able and willing to withstand longer working hours , have “ nimble fingers , and will be less experienced in asking for their statutory rights . In many cases , migrant women sign contracts stating that they will not get pregnant within their period of employment . ”
In the interest of the family , rural females are sent to find urban employment over male counterparts , mainly to supplement familial income at home and to support the males , who are more likely to attend college . The male standard of education in China is higher ; particularly when a family is under financial stress , females are more likely to drop out of school to generate income for the family . Because females have lesser impact on the family ’ s long @-@ term financial stability , their rights for opportunities development are consequently unequal .
This new system allowed rural residents to migrate , it did not allow them to change their residence or accept any benefits in the cities . This resulted in a growing population of migrant laborers without the minimal benefits of residency including medical care , housing , or education . Many migrants , particularly less educated , younger women are unaware of their rights . Today , up to 90 % of migrants work without contracts , in violation of the Chinese labour law .
= = = = Degradation = = = =
Women factory workers are known as " dagongmei " ( working girls ) . They are traditionally young women migrants who experience a segmented labor market in informal and low @-@ wage employment sectors . Workers in export @-@ oriented factories receive minimum wage and minimum overtime pay , they pay for meals and lodging at the factory , and they pay fines for breaking factory rules . The average daily wage , for a 12 @-@ hour day in a toy factory , in the mid @-@ 1990s was $ 1 @.@ 10 USD for migrant women workers in Shenzhen .
These conditions create " maximum surplus appropriation " ; workers ' daily lives revolve around factory production and are dependent on the regional economy . The state disallows local unionization and has the All @-@ China Federation of Trade Unions ( ACFTU ) as the legitimate forum of worker representation . Without the right to form unions and with the state sanctioned ACFTU , migrant women workers find it hard to effectively gain suitable rights and treatment from the factory management . The 2003 statistics from the People 's University show 90 % of migrants work without contracts , directly violating the Chinese Labour Law . According to the ACFTU , migrant workers are owed over 100 billion Yuan in back wages .
Organizations are now attempting to assist and empower female migrant workers through training and education on their labor @-@ related rights . Legal clinics have begun to assist female migrants in filing claims against employers and local labor bureaus . One case of female worker exploitation in the Hua Yi garment factory in Beijing resulted in mistreatment by management as well as withholding pay for at least 24 women . After filing complaints , in collaboration with the Center for Women 's Law Studies and Legal Services of Beijing University , the women received 170 @,@ 000 Yuan in back wages and compensation .
Relations between workers and employers represent both the immediate need of manufacturing plants for large quantities of low wage laborers , and the insecurities young workers face in relocating long distances to life in factory dormitories . Hiring single young women serve needs of management . The employment of young females allow management to exhibit maximum control and authority over the labor force . Compared to older women and male workers , young single women are susceptible to the authority and demands of management . The common manipulation of " factory as family " by owners and managers suggests how workers hold a subliminal status within the factory environment . Uneven power relations inside the factory result in demands from management for personal services from women workers , from hair washing to sex .
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= Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball =
The Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team is the intercollegiate men 's basketball program representing the University of Michigan . The school competes in the Big Ten Conference in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . The Wolverines play home basketball games at the Crisler Center in Ann Arbor , Michigan on the university campus . Michigan has won an NCAA Championship — under coach Steve Fisher — as well as two National Invitation Tournaments ( NIT ) and 14 Big Ten Conference championships . In addition , it has won an NIT tournament and a Big Ten Conference Tournament that was vacated due to NCAA sanctions . The team is currently coached by John Beilein .
During the 1990s Michigan endured an NCAA violations scandal , described as involving one of the largest amounts of illicit money in NCAA history , when Ed Martin loaned Chris Webber , Robert Traylor , Louis Bullock , and Maurice Taylor a reported total of $ 616 @,@ 000 . Due to NCAA sanctions , records from the 1992 Final Four , the 1992 – 93 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98 , and 1998 – 99 seasons have been vacated . This includes a total of 113 victories and 4 losses , of which 49 wins occurred in conference games . It also includes the following postseason records NCAA : 7 – 4 , NIT : 5 – 0 , and Big Ten : 4 – 1 . This reflects vacating games played in the 1992 Final Four ; the 1997 NIT championship ; the 1993 , 1996 , and 1998 NCAA Tournament appearances ; and the 1998 Big Ten Tournament championship . Throughout this article asterisks denote awards , records and honors that have been vacated .
Michigan has had 26 All @-@ Americans selected 33 times . Eight of these have been consensus All @-@ Americans : Cazzie Russell ( two @-@ times ) , Rickey Green , Gary Grant , Chris Webber , Trey Burke , as well as Harry Kipke , Richard Doyle and Bennie Oosterbaan ( two @-@ times ) who were retroactively selected by the Helms Foundation . Four All @-@ Americans have been at least two @-@ time honorees : Bennie Oosterbaan , Bill Buntin , Russell , and Henry Wilmore . Russell was a three @-@ time All @-@ American .
Michigan basketball players have been successful in professional basketball . Fifty @-@ five have been drafted into the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) ; twenty @-@ five of those were first round draft picks , including both Cazzie Russell and Chris Webber who were drafted first overall . The 1990 NBA Draft in which Rumeal Robinson was selected 10th , Loy Vaught was selected 13th , and Terry Mills was selected 16th made Michigan the third of only ten schools that have ever had three or more players selected in the first round of the same draft . Five players have gone on to become NBA champions for a total of 9 times and eight players have become NBA All @-@ Stars a total of 18 times . Rudy Tomjanovich coached both the 1994 and 1995 NBA Finals Champions . Not only has Glen Rice won both an NBA and NCAA championship , he is also one of only nine basketball players to have won a state high school championship , NCAA title and NBA championship .
= = Michigan 's history = =
= = = Early years ( 1908 – 19 ) = = =
As a result of public and alumni demand for a basketball team , Michigan fielded a team of members of the then @-@ current student body and achieved a 1 – 4 record for the 1908 – 09 season . However , after three years of demanding a basketball program , the student body did not attend the games and the program was terminated due to low attendance . Basketball returned in 1917 in what was considered the inaugural season of varsity basketball . The team was coached by Elmer Mitchell who instituted the intramural sports program at Michigan . The team finished 6 – 12 overall ( 0 – 10 , Big Ten ) . The following year Mitchell led the team to a 16 – 8 ( 5 – 5 ) record .
= = = Mather era ( 1919 – 28 ) = = =
E. J. Mather coached the team to three Big Ten titles in his nine seasons as coach . After inheriting Mitchell 's team , which he led to a 10 – 13 overall ( 3 – 9 , Big Ten ) record during the 1919 – 20 season , he led the team to an 18 – 4 overall ( 8 – 4 , Big Ten ) record during the 1920 – 21 season . This 1921 team won its first eight and last eight games to tie the Wisconsin Badgers and Purdue Boilermakers for the Big Ten title . The team won back @-@ to @-@ back championships in 1925 – 26 and 1926 – 27 . The 1926 squad , which was captained by Richard Doyle who became the team 's first All @-@ American , tied with Purdue , the Iowa Hawkeyes and Indiana Hoosiers for the conference championship . The 1927 team had a new All @-@ American , Bennie Oosterbaan , and won the school 's first back @-@ to @-@ back championships and first outright championship with a 14 – 3 overall ( 10 – 2 , Big Ten ) record . Mather died after a lengthy battle with cancer in August 1928 .
= = = Veenker era ( 1928 – 31 ) = = =
George F. Veenker compiled the highest overall and highest Big Ten winning percentages of any coach in school history during his three years as coach . He earned 1st ( tied ) , 3rd and 2nd ( tied ) finishes during his three seasons , which included the 1928 – 29 conference championship . During Veenker 's first season his team compiled a 13 – 3 overall ( 10 – 2 , Big Ten ) record to win the conference , and Veenker continues to be the only coach in school history to win a conference championship in his first season . The championship team , which finished tied with Wisconsin , was captained by the schools third All @-@ American Ernie McCoy . Veenker resigned to become the Iowa State Cyclones football head coach .
= = = Cappon era ( 1931 – 38 ) = = =
Franklin Cappon had a long history of association with Michigan athletics starting with his service as a four @-@ time letterman in football and basketball from 1919 to 1923 . In 1928 , he became assistant football and basketball coach and in 1929 he served as Fielding H. Yost 's assistant Athletic Director . Although the highlight of Cappon 's tenure as coach was a 16 – 4 ( 9 – 3 ) third place 1936 – 37 Big Ten finish , he coached John Townsend who in his 1937 – 38 senior season became last All @-@ American for at least 10 years . The team finished third in two other seasons with less impressive records of 10 – 8 overall ( 8 – 4 , Big Ten ) in 1932 – 33 and 15 – 5 overall ( 7 – 5 , Big Ten ) 1935 – 36 , and Cappon 's overall record was 78 – 57 overall ( 44 – 40 , Big Ten ) . A notable captain during the Cappon era was 1933 – 34 captain Ted Petoskey , a two @-@ time football All @-@ American end and eventual Major League Baseball player .
= = = Oosterbaan era ( 1938 – 46 ) = = =
In 1938 Michigan coaching duties were assumed by one of its greatest athletes . Bennie Oosterbaan had been an All @-@ American in both football and basketball and held various coaching positions at Michigan in both of those sports as well as baseball . In basketball , he implemented a fast @-@ paced attack as coach , and his teams ' best overall record was 13 – 7 in 1939 – 40 . That season he tied with his final season for his best Big Ten record at 6 – 6 . He resigned after eight seasons to concentrate on his football coaching duties .
= = = Cowles era ( 1946 – 48 ) = = =
Under Ozzie Cowles , during the 1947 – 48 season , Michigan ended the longest ( 19 years ) consecutive year period without a conference championship in school history . They also became the first contestants in the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament during Cowles second of two seasons . The 1947 – 48 team posted a 16 – 6 overall ( 10 – 2 , Big Ten ) record . This team also posted the first undefeated home performance in school history with a 9 – 0 overall ( 6 – 0 , Big Ten ) record .
= = = McCoy era ( 1948 – 52 ) = = =
Ernie McCoy became the second former All @-@ American Wolverine player to coach the team . Like Oosterbaan before him , he became a football and baseball coach at Michigan . He also served as assistant Athletic Director under Fritz Crisler . During his four seasons as basketball coach , Michigan 's best finish was during the 1948 – 49 season when they finished 15 – 6 overall ( 7 – 5 , Big Ten ) and earned a third place Big Ten Conference finish . He coached Michigan 's first All @-@ Big Ten basketball players that season in Pete Elliot and captain Bob Harrison who were both selected to the first team . Harrison returned the following season as the first repeat first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten basketball player and Elliot was a second @-@ team honoree . McCoy served as a football scout at the same time .
= = = Perigo era ( 1952 – 60 ) = = =
Bill Perigo took over the Michigan coaching job after having served three seasons as Western Michigan basketball coach . Despite previous success as a conference basketball champion coach at Western and subsequent success as a Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) champion basketball coach , his Michigan teams endured several mediocre seasons . His best Big Ten records came in 1956 – 57 and 1958 – 59 when his teams compiled 8 – 6 conference records . The latter team was tied for second in the conference and was 15 – 7 overall ( 8 – 6 , Big Ten ) . It also had Perigo 's only first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten athlete in M. C. Burton . Team captain and two @-@ time football consensus All @-@ American Ron Kramer was third @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten in 1957 after being second @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten in both 1955 and 1956 .
= = = Strack era ( 1960 – 68 ) = = =
Dave Strack , a former team 1945 – 46 captain , had become the freshman basketball team coach in 1948 and later had become a variety assistant to Perigo . He led the team to three consecutive Big Ten Championships from 1963 – 66 and a third @-@ place finish in the 1964 NCAA tournament . During 1964 – 65 the team compiled a 24 – 4 overall ( 13 – 1 , Big Ten ) record while completing an undefeated 11 – 0 overall ( 7 – 0 , Big Ten ) home season . Strack earned United Press International ( UPI ) National Coach of the Year honors . The team ended the season listed number one in both the UPI and Associated Press ( AP ) national rankings . He recruited All @-@ Americans Russell and Buntin to anchor his mid @-@ 1960s teams . Tomjanovich also became a Wolverine at the end of Strack 's career and became second team All @-@ Big Ten in 1968 subsequent later stardom . The 1964 team , which went 23 – 5 overall ( 11 – 3 , Big Ten ) , tied with Ohio State with sophomore Russell and junior Buntin . In 1965 , Buntin became the first Wolverine to be drafted by the NBA . In 1966 , Russell led the team to its third straight conference championship and NCAA selection on his way to National Player of the Year honors .
= = = Orr era ( 1968 – 80 ) = = =
In Johnny Orr 's twelve seasons , he twice ( 1973 – 74 and 1976 – 77 ) earned Big Ten Coach of the Year honors with Big Ten championships . His teams earned four consecutive NCAA selections from 1974 – 77 . The 25 – 7 overall ( 14 – 4 , Big Ten ) 1976 team lost to an undefeated Indiana team in the NCAA championship game , and Orr earned National Association of Basketball Coaches Coach of the Year honors that season . The 26 – 4 overall ( 16 – 2 , Big Ten ) 1977 team finished first in both the AP and UPI national rankings , and Orr won Basketball Weekly National Coach of the Year honors . During Orr 's tenure , six players earned a total of seven All @-@ American recognitions , which is the most of any Michigan coach . Steve Grote became Michigan 's only three @-@ time first @-@ team Academic All @-@ American from 1975 – 77 and with a second team All Big Ten as well as three honorable mentions was the first four @-@ time All @-@ Big Ten honoree .
= = = Frieder era ( 1980 – 89 ) = = =
Bill Frieder , who had been an assistant coach for seven years , took over from Orr in 1980 . He coached the school 's first post @-@ season basketball champions during the 1983 – 84 season and the following two teams were back @-@ to @-@ back conference champions . The 1983 – 84 team compiled a 24 – 9 overall ( 11 – 7 , Big Ten ) record on their way to a NIT championship victory over Notre Dame . The 1984 – 85 team went 26 – 4 overall ( 16 – 2 , Big Ten ) , which earned Frieder Big Ten and AP National Coach of the Year honors . The 1985 – 86 team , which finished 28 – 5 overall ( 14 – 4 , Big Ten ) , started the season with sixteen victories to make a total of thirty @-@ three consecutive regular season victories . Frieder earned five of Michigan 's six consecutive NCAA births from 1985 – 90 , currently the longest streak in program history . Roy Tarpley led the 1985 team as Big Ten MVP . Frieder resigned , upon request , immediately prior to the 1989 NCAA tournament to assume the coaching job for the Arizona State Sun Devils men 's basketball team .
= = = Fisher era ( 1989 – 97 ) = = =
Steve Fisher assumed the coaching position immediately before the 1989 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament from Frieder after having served and led the team to six straight victories and the championship . Fisher also signed the most famous recruiting class known as the Fab Five ( Chris Webber , Juwan Howard , Jalen Rose , Jimmy King and Ray Jackson ) . He would take these players to the NCAA championship game as Freshmen and Sophomores . In their sophomore 1992 – 93 season they compiled a 31 – 5 overall ( 15 – 3 , Big Ten ) record , which has since been vacated . Fisher also won the 1997 NIT tournament with a team that compiled a 25 – 9 overall ( 11 – 5 ) record . Many of Fisher 's accomplishments were tarnished by NCAA sanctions . He left the job due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal .
= = = Ellerbe era ( 1997 – 2001 ) = = =
Brian Ellerbe assumed the title of interim coach less than five months after becoming an assistant coach . He was named full @-@ time coach following the 25 – 9 ( 11 – 5 ) 1997 – 98 season in which he led the team to victories over Iowa , Minnesota and Purdue to capture the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament championship . His subsequent teams never finished better than seventh in the conference .
= = = Amaker era ( 2001 – 07 ) = = =
Tommy Amaker inherited a team that imposed sanctions on itself after his first year at the helm of the program . Nonetheless , he coached the team to the postseason three times including both an NIT championship in 2004 and a runner @-@ up finish in 2006 . During the 2005 – 06 , when the team compiled a 22 – 11 overall ( 8 – 8 , Big Ten ) record , he led them to their first national ranking in eight years when they reached the # 20 position . Despite his successes , the team never won a Big Ten Championship and never made the NCAA tournament , which led to his firing after six seasons .
= = = Beilein era ( 2007 – present ) = = =
John Beilein 's 10 – 22 overall ( 5 – 13 , Big Ten ) inaugural season featured the most losses in Michigan 's history and ended with a March 14 , 2008 performance that was the Big Ten Conference Tournament 's lowest scoring output until 2011 . However , in Beilein 's second season , the team posted impressive non @-@ conference victories over top @-@ five ranked opponents UCLA and Duke . Beilein led Michigan to the 2009 NCAA Tournament , its first appearance since 1998 and the first that was not vacated since 1995 . After upsetting Clemson in the first round , the Wolverines were eliminated by Oklahoma in Round 2 by a final score of 73 – 63 . Following a disappointing 15 – 17 season in 2009 – 10 , the Wolverines bounced back to return to the NCAA Tournament in 2011 , advancing to the round of 32 before losing to top @-@ seeded Duke , 73 – 71 . The 2010 – 11 Wolverines , who swept rival Michigan State for the first time since 1997 , finished the season 21 – 14 . In the 2011 – 12 season Michigan split the season series with both Ohio State and Michigan State and went on to be co @-@ Big Ten champs along with the Buckeyes and Spartans . It was the first Big Ten title for Michigan since 1986 . The Wolverines finished the regular season 23 – 8 ( 13 – 5 ) . Michigan was ranked 5th in both the AP Top 25 and USA Today Coaches Poll to begin the 2012 – 13 season . For the first time since November 30 , 1992 , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll on Monday , January 28 , 2013 . Michigan had been in the top 10 in both the AP and USA Today Coaches Poll for the entire season , holding each place at least once . The team also made program history for best season start at 21 – 2 . Coach Beilein is 189 – 123 overall in his tenure with the Wolverines . On March 31 , 2013 , The Wolverines defeated Florida by a score of 79 – 59 to make their first Final Four appearance since the 1992 – 93 season . The Wolverines then defeated Syracuse by a score of 61 – 56 in the Final Four . In the 2013 National Championship game , the Wolverines lost against Louisville by the score of 82 – 76 .
= = Championships = =
= = = NCAA National Championships = = =
= = = Big Ten Regular Season Championships = = =
§ – Conference Co @-@ champions
= = = Big Ten Tournament Championships = = =
= = Rivalries = =
Duke – Michigan basketball rivalry
Michigan – Michigan State basketball rivalry
Michigan – Ohio State basketball rivalry
= = = Record against Big Ten opponents = = =
Totals through March 12 , 2016
= = Fab Five = =
The Fab Five , the 1991 recruiting class of five freshman starters , were Chris Webber , Juwan Howard , Jalen Rose , Jimmy King , and Ray Jackson . They were notable for having gone to the championship game of the 1992 and 1993 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament as freshmen and sophomores , for having started the trend of wearing baggy gym shorts , which was later popularized by Michael Jordan , and for wearing black athletic socks . Due to the Ed Martin scandal , the records from their 1992 Final Four appearance and the entire following season have been forfeited . Although Webber was the only member of the Fab Five officially implicated with the scandal , the reputation of the whole group has been tarnished . Webber ( 1993 ) , Howard ( 1994 ) and Rose ( 1992 , 1994 ) were college basketball All @-@ Americans. and both King ( 1995 3rd team and 1993 & 1994 honorable mention ) and Jackson ( 1995 2nd team & 1994 honorable mention ) achieved All @-@ Big Ten honors . All but Jackson played in the NBA . They were the subject of Mitch Albom 's book entitled Fab Five : Basketball , Trash Talk , the American Dream , which at one point was under development by Fox Television as a made @-@ for @-@ television movie . In March 2011 ESPN broadcast a documentary , Fab Five , that was the network 's highest @-@ rated in its history .
= = Ed Martin scandal = =
During the University of Michigan basketball scandal the Big Ten Conference , National Collegiate Athletic Association , Federal Bureau of Investigation , Internal Revenue Service , and United States Department of Justice investigated the relationship between the University of Michigan , its men 's basketball teams and basketball team booster Ed Martin . The program was punished for NCAA rules violations , principally involving payments booster Martin made to several players to launder money from an illegal gambling operation . It is one of the largest incidents involving payments to college athletes in American collegiate history . It was described as one of the three or four worst violations of NCAA bylaws in history up to that time by the NCAA infractions committee chairman and the largest athlete payment scandal ever by ESPN .
The case began when the investigation of an automobile rollover accident during Mateen Cleaves ' 1996 Michigan Wolverines recruiting trip revealed a curious relationship between Martin and the team . Several Michigan basketball players were implicated over the next few years and by 1999 several were called before a federal grand jury . Four eventual professional basketball players ( Chris Webber , Maurice Taylor , Robert Traylor and Louis Bullock ) were discovered to have borrowed a total of $ 616 @,@ 000 from Martin . During the investigation , Webber claimed not to have had any financial relationship with Martin . Eventually he confessed to having accepted some of the money he was charged with having borrowed . For his perjury during a federal grand jury investigation , he was both fined in the legal system and briefly suspended by National Basketball Association after performing public service .
In 2002 , the University punished itself when it became apparent that its players were guilty by declaring itself ineligible for post season play immediately , returning post season play monetary rewards , vacating five seasons of games , removing commemorative banners , and placing itself on a two @-@ year probation . The following year , the NCAA accepted these punishments , doubled both the probation period and the post @-@ season ineligibility , penalized the school one scholarship for four seasons , and ordered disassociation from the four guilty players until 2012 . The disasociation formally ended on May 8 , 2013 . The additional year of post @-@ season ineligibility was overturned on appeal .
The punishment cost the 17 – 13 2002 – 03 team its post @-@ season eligibility , cost past teams the 1997 National Invitation Tournament and the 1998 Big Ten Tournament championships as well as 1992 and 1993 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament Final Four recognition . It cost Traylor his MVP awards in the 1997 NIT and 1998 Big Ten Tournament , as well as Bullock 's standing as the school 's third all @-@ time leading scorer and all @-@ time leader in 3 @-@ point field goals . Steve Fisher lost his job as Michigan head coach as a result of the scandal .
= = Coaching records = =
= = Honored players and coaches = =
Below are lists of important players and coaches in the history of Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball . It includes lists of major awards and retired numbers . The honors include : Helms Foundation Player of the Year , UPI Player of the Year , Sporting News Player of the Year , Naismith Trophy , Wooden Award , Associated Press Player of the Year , NABC Player of the Year , Oscar Robertson Trophy , NCAA Final Four MOP , National Invitation Tournament MVP , Big Ten Tournament MVP , Chicago Tribune Silver Basketball , Big Ten Player of the Year , All @-@ America , Wayman Tisdale Award , Bob Cousy Award , UPI Coach of the Year , Henry Iba Award , NABC Coach of the Year , AP Coach of the Year .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
= = = Awards = = =
= = Postseason = =
= = = NCAA Tournament results = = =
The University of Michigan has an all @-@ time 52 – 24 * ( 45 – 21 ) record overall and 1 – 5 * ( 1 – 3 ) championship game record in the NCAA Tournaments in 26 * ( 22 ) appearances . Glen Rice holds the NCAA single @-@ tournament scoring record with 184 points in 1989 . The 1992 Final Four and all 1993 , 1996 , & 1998 games have been forfeited due to NCAA sanctions . Michigan has been the NCAA tournament runner @-@ up more times ( 5 ) than any other team .
= = = NCAA Tournament seeding history = = =
The NCAA began seeding the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament with the 1979 edition . The 64 @-@ team field started in 1985 , which guaranteed that a championship team had to win six games .
= = = NCAA Tournament round history = = =
= = = NIT results = = =
In 10 * ( 9 ) National Invitation Tournament appearances , Michigan is 25 * – 7 ( 20 – 7 ) overall all @-@ time and 3 * – 1 ( 2 – 1 ) in the championship game . 16 * – 0 ( 14 – 0 ) at Crisler Arena and 8 * – 2 ( 6 – 2 ) at Madison Square Garden . The 1997 tournament was forfeited due to NCAA sanctions .
= = Statistics = =
National records
Most different players to make a Three @-@ point field goal in game : 9 vs. Eastern Michigan , December 13 , 2008 ( tied Dartmouth , 1993 )
Combined team rebounds : 152 , Michigan ( 57 ) vs. Indiana ( 95 ) March 11 , 1961
NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Tournament records
Single @-@ game rebounds ( Since 1973 ) : 26 — Phil Hubbard , Michigan vs. Detroit , RSF , 3 @-@ 17 @-@ 1977
Single @-@ year points 184 — Glen Rice , Michigan , 1989 ( 6 games )
Single @-@ year field goals made 75 — Glen Rice , Michigan , 1989 ( 6 games )
Single @-@ year three @-@ point field goals made 27 — Glen Rice , Michigan , 1989 ( 6 games )
Career three @-@ point field goals percentage ( Minimum 30 made ) 56 @.@ 5 % ( 35 @-@ 62 ) — Glen Rice , Michigan , 1986 @-@ 89 ( 13 games )
Single @-@ game points , Both Teams 264 — Loyola Marymount ( 149 ) vs. Michigan ( 115 ) , 2nd R , 3 @-@ 18 @-@ 1990
Fewest single @-@ game three point field goals made , team ( in a final four ) : 0 , * Michigan vs. Kentucky , NSF , 4 @-@ 3 @-@ 1993 ( ot )
Fewest single @-@ game three point field goals attempted , team ( final four ) : 4 , * Michigan vs. Kentucky , NSF , 4 @-@ 3 @-@ 1993 ( ot )
Single @-@ game assists ( in a championship game ) : 11 , Rumeal Robinson , Michigan vs. Seton Hall , 4 @-@ 3 @-@ 1989 ( ot )
Fewest single @-@ game three point field goals made , team ( championship game ) : 1 , * Michigan vs. Duke , CH , 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 1992
Fewest single @-@ game free throws made ( in a win ) , team : 0 , * Michigan vs. Tennessee , 3 @-@ 18 @-@ 2011
Lowest single @-@ game three point field goal percentage , team ( championship game ) : 9 @.@ 1 % ( 1 @-@ 11 ) , * Michigan vs. Duke , CH , 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 1992
Biggest margin of victory in 8 vs. 9 match @-@ up : 30 , * Michigan vs. Tennessee , 3 @-@ 18 @-@ 2011
Single @-@ year two @-@ game assists ( final four ) : 23 , Rumeal Robinson , Michigan , 1989
Selected former NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Tournament records
Single @-@ game free throws made ( final four ) : 15 , Bill Buntin , Michigan vs. Kansas State , N3d , 3 @-@ 21 @-@ 1964 ( broken 3 @-@ 20 @-@ 1965 )
Fewest single @-@ game three point field goals made , team ( final four ) : 1 , * Michigan vs. Duke , CH , 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 1992 ( broken 4 @-@ 3 @-@ 1993 )
Lowest single @-@ game three point field goal percentage , team ( final four ) : 9 @.@ 1 % ( 1 @-@ 11 ) , * Michigan vs. Duke , CH , 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 1992 ( broken 4 @-@ 1 @-@ 2006 )
Most single @-@ game players disqualified , team ( championship game ) : 3 , Michigan vs. UCLA , 3 @-@ 20 @-@ 1965 ( broken 3 @-@ 31 @-@ 1997 )
Single @-@ year two @-@ game assists , team ( final four ) : 42 , Michigan , 1989 ( broken 1990 )
National statistical champions
Team field goal percentage : 54 @.@ 6 % ( 1198 of 2196 ) , 1988 ; 56 @.@ 6 % ( 1325 of 2341 ) , 1989
Selected notable statistics
30 @-@ win seasons : 2013 ( 31 ) , 1993 * ( 31 ) , 1989 ( 30 )
1989 team continues to rank second in single @-@ season team field goal percentage : 56 @.@ 6 % ( 1325 of 2341 ) .
Current Big Ten records
Career field goals attempted : Mike McGee ( 2077 , 1978 – 81 )
Career three point field goals made : Louis Bullock ( 339 * , 1996 – 99 )
Single @-@ game three point field goals percentage ( 100 % most made ) : Glen Rice ( 7 of 7 , vs. Wisconsin 2 / 25 / 1989 )
Single @-@ season points , team : ( 3393 , 1988 – 89 )
Single @-@ game field goals made , team : ( 55 , vs. Iowa 3 / 10 / 1990 )
Single @-@ season field goals made , team : ( 1325 , 1988 – 89 )
Single @-@ season field goals attempted , team : ( 2341 , 1988 – 89 )
Single @-@ season field goal percentage , team : ( .566 , 1 @,@ 325 of 2 @,@ 341 , 1988 – 89 )
Single @-@ season field goal percentage , team ( conference games only ) : ( .561 , 606 of 1 @,@ 080 , 1988 – 89 )
Single @-@ game three point field goals attempted , team : ( 42 , vs. Florida Gulf Coast 12 / 22 / 2008 )
Single @-@ game three point field goals attempted , team ( conference games only ) : ( 40 , at Indiana 1 / 7 / 09 )
Single @-@ season three point field goals attempted , team : ( 912 , 2008 – 09 )
Single @-@ season three point field goals attempted , team ( conference games only ) : ( 471 , 2008 – 09 )
Single @-@ season rebounds , team : ( 1521 , 1964 – 65 )
Single @-@ game assists , team : ( 37 , vs. Western Michigan 12 / 7 / 1987 and vs. Eastern Michigan 12 / 12 / 1987 )
Single @-@ game assists , team ( conference games only ) : ( 36 , vs. Iowa 2 / 3 / 1988 )
Single @-@ season assists , team : ( 745 , 1988 – 89 )
Single @-@ game blocked shots , team : ( 18 , vs. Florida Southern 12 / 7 / 1985 )
Single @-@ season free throw percentage ( conference games only ) : Daniel Horton ( .978 ( 89 of 91 ) , 2006 )
Single @-@ season personal fouls , team : ( 456 , 1953 )
Single @-@ season overtime games : ( 6 , 1981 )
Selected former Big Ten records
Career points : Mike McGee ( 2439 , 1977 – 81 , broken in 1989 ) , Glen Rice ( 2442 , 1985 – 89 , broken in 1993 )
Career points ( conference games only ) : McGee ( 1503 , 1977 – 81 , broken in 1995 )
Single @-@ game field goals made : John Tidwell ( 20 , vs. Minnesota 3 / 4 / 1961 , broken 2 / 16 / 1963 )
Single @-@ season field goals made : Cazzie Russell ( 308 , 1965 – 66 , broken 1981 ) , McGee ( 309 , 1980 – 81 , broken in 1986 )
Career field goals made : Russell ( 839 , 1964 – 66 , broken 1970 ) , McGee ( 1010 , 1978 – 81 , broken in 1993 )
Single @-@ game three point field goals made : Garde Thompson ( 9 , vs. Navy 3 / 12 / 1987 , broken 2 / 23 / 2003 )
Single @-@ game points , team : 128 ( vs. Purdue 2 / 19 / 1966 , broken 12 / 30 / 2006 )
Single @-@ game field goals made , team : ( 52 , vs. Purdue 2 / 19 / 1966 , broken 12 / 19 / 1972 )
Single @-@ season field goals made , team : ( 1198 , 1987 – 88 , broken 1989 )
Single @-@ season assists , team : ( 694 , 1987 – 88 , broken 1989 )
Single @-@ season blocked shots , team : ( 193 , 1992 @-@ 93 * , surpassed 2000 )
Single @-@ season field goals made per game ( conference games only ) : Russell ( 13 @.@ 0 ( 182 in 14 ) , 1966 , broken 1969 )
Single @-@ season rebounds ( total and per game ) ( conference games only ) : M. C. Burton ( 249 in 14 games , 1959 , broken 1960 )
Single @-@ season points per game , team ( conference games only ) : 92 @.@ 9 ( 1965 ( 1 @,@ 300 in 14 ) , broken 1966 )
Single @-@ season points per game , team ( conference games only ) : 95 @.@ 4 ( 1966 ( 1 @,@ 336 in 14 ) , broken 1969 )
Single @-@ season three point field goals attempted , team ( conference games only ) : ( 434 , 2007 – 08 )
Single @-@ game three point field goal percentage , team ( conference games only ) : .875 ( 7 of 8 , vs. Iowa 2 / 3 / 1988 , broken 2 / 4 / 1988 )
Big Ten statistical champions ( individual )
Scoring ( Conference games only until 1990 ) : 1928 Bennie Oosterbaan 129 ; 1959 M.C. Burton 22 @.@ 6 ; 1966 Cazzie Russell 33 @.@ 2 ; 1974 Campy Russell 24 @.@ 0 ; 1988 Glen Rice 22 @.@ 9 ; 1989 Rice 24 @.@ 8
Field goal Percentage ( Conference games only until 1990 ) : 1966 Cazzie Russell .542 ; 1967 Dave McClellan .588 ; 1971 Ken Brady .617 ; 1975 John Robinson .603 ; 1979 Marty Bodnar .603 ; 1989 Loy Vaught .677 ; 2001 Chris Young .640 ( all games ) ; 2006 Courtney Sims .633 ( all games )
Three point field goals : 1989 Glen Rice 55 ( conference games ) ; 1991 Demetrius Calip 48 ( conference games ) ; 1998 Louis Bullock 51 * ( conference games ) ; 1999 Robbie Reid 49 ( conference games ) ; 1997 Louis Bullock 101 * ( all games ) ; 1998 Louis Bullock 93 * ( all games )
Three point field goal percentage : 1998 Louis Bullock .481 * ( conference games ) ; 1999 Robbie Reid .458 ( conference games ) ; 2003 LaVell Blanchard .433 ( conference games )
Free throw percentage : 1975 C.J. Kupec .880 ( conference games ) ; 1997 Louis Bullock .893 * ( conference games ) ; 2006 Daniel Horton .978 ( conference games ) ; 2007 Dion Harris .873 ( conference games ) ; 1998 Louis Bullock .911 * ( all games ) ; 1999 Louis Bullock .864 * ( all games ) ; 2006 Daniel Horton .901 ( all games )
Rebounds : 1959 M.C. Burton 17 @.@ 8 ( conference games ) ; 1963 Bill Buntin 15 @.@ 4 ( conference games ) ; 1969 Rudy Tomjanovich 12 @.@ 8 ( conference games ) ; 1970 Rudy Tomjanovich 16 @.@ 2 ( conference games ) ; 1985 Roy Tarpley 9 @.@ 9 ( conference games ) ; 1990 Loy Vaught 10 @.@ 7 ( conference games ) ; 1992 Chris Webber @-@ FR 9 @.@ 8 * ( conference games ) ; 1993 Chris Webber 9 @.@ 7 * ( conference games ) ; 1990 Loy Vaught 11 @.@ 2 ; 1992 Chris Webber @-@ FR 10 @.@ 0 * ; 1993 Chris Webber 10 @.@ 1 *
Assists : 1988 Gary Grant 6 @.@ 5 ( conference games ) ; 1990 Rumeal Robinson 6 @.@ 1 ( all games ) ; 2013 Trey Burke 6 @.@ 7 ( all games )
Steals : 1987 Gary Grant 2 @.@ 67 ( conference games ) ; 1988 Gary Grant 2 @.@ 72 ( conference games )
Blocked shots : 1986 Roy Tarpley 2 @.@ 50 ( conference games ) ; 1989 Terry Mills 1 @.@ 22 ( conference games ) ; 2008 Ekpe Udoh 2 @.@ 67 ( conference games ) ; 2004 Courtney Sims 2 @.@ 00 ( all games ) ; 2008 Ekpe Udoh 2 @.@ 88 ( all games )
Big Ten statistical champions ( team , conference games only )
Scoring offense : 1946 55 @.@ 1 , 1965 92 @.@ 9 , 1966 95 @.@ 4 , 1971 88 @.@ 4 , 1972 81 @.@ 8 , 1976 85 @.@ 8 , 1977 83 @.@ 2 , 1987 86 @.@ 7 , 1989 87 @.@ 8 , 1997 * 73 @.@ 3 @,@
Scoring defense : 1948 46 @.@ 3 , 1952 56 @.@ 2 , 1964 75 @.@ 5
Scoring margin : 1948 7 @.@ 6 , 1964 10 @.@ 3 , 1965 12 @.@ 2 , 1966 9 @.@ 9 , 1977 9 @.@ 4 , 1985 8 @.@ 8 , 1986 10 @.@ 6 , 1989 10 @.@ 3
Field goal percentage offense : 1966 48 @.@ 9 , 1972 45 @.@ 3 , 1976 52 @.@ 1 , 1989 56 @.@ 1 , 2013 46 @.@ 9
Field goal percentage defense : 1995 39 @.@ 4
Three point field goals : 1987 89 , 1989 103 , 1991 118 , 1998 * 121 , 2009 151
Three point field goal percentage : 1998 40 @.@ 1 , 2003 37 @.@ 5
Free throw percentage : 1958 73 @.@ 4 , 1975 75 @.@ 8
Rebounds : 1963 49 @.@ 0 , 1965 49 @.@ 5 , 1972 51 @.@ 6 , 1983 34 @.@ 4 , 1986 35 @.@ 1 , 1992 38 @.@ 2 , 1993 * 40 @.@ 9
Rebounding margin : 1986 5 @.@ 8 , 1992 5 @.@ 8 , 1993 * 7 @.@ 6 , 2004 3 @.@ 4
Steals : 1986 8 @.@ 61
Blocked shots : 1986 3 @.@ 94 , 1993 * 5 @.@ 0 , 2004 4 @.@ 31 , 2008 4 @.@ 28
Turnover margin : never
= = Rankings = =
Michigan teams have spent a total of 22 weeks ranked number 1 with the last time occurring in 2013 . Entering the 2013 – 14 season this ranked 13th and third in the Big Ten behind Indiana ( 54 ) and Ohio State ( 37 ) . Two Michigan teams ( Dec. 14 , 1964 87 – 85 over Wichita State at Detroit and Dec. 13 , 1997 81 – 73 over Duke at home ) have defeated the number one ranked team .
The following table summarizes Michigan history in the AP Poll :
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= Sully Historic Site =
Sully Historic Site , more commonly known as Sully Plantation , is listed in the National Register of Historic Places , and is a Virginia landmark in Chantilly , Virginia . Possessed by the Lee family of Virginia from 1725 to 1839 , Richard Bland Lee built the main house in 1794 .
Following the purchase by William Swartwort in 1838 , Sully was used as a home , a working farm , or both by a series of private owners . Then in 1958 , Sully was acquired by the federal government as a part of the area to be used for the construction of Dulles Airport . One year later , Sully became a national historic site . Today the Fairfax County Park Authority operates the site with a specific focus on the Lee family .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ Lee period = = =
The land that would become part of Sully was likely controlled by several groups before the Doeg claimed the area . English settlers encountered Algonquian language speaking members of the Doeg tribe in modern @-@ day Northern Virginia . The Doeg are most well known for their raid in July of 1675 that became a part of Bacon 's Rebellion . English colonists settling in modern Northern Virginia came into conflict with the Doeg from 1661 to 1664 . When diplomatic attempts failed , the governor sent the Rappahannock County militia in June of 1666 . The specifics of that military action are unclear , but later land grants to English settlers are not disputed , suggesting the English gained control of the area . The English presumptively took control after a violent conflict with the Doeg in 1666 . Little is recorded about the disposition of this land from the time when the English gained control of it until the land is patented by the Lee family of Virginia .
= = = Lee period = = =
Originally acquired in 1725 by Richard Bland Lee 's grandfather , Henry Lee I , Sully was inherited by Richard 's father Henry Lee II of " Leesylvania " . At his death in 1787 , the land was divided between Richard and his younger brother Theodorick Lee . Being the older of the two , Richard was given the more alluvial northern half , having resided there as manager of the property since approximately 1781 . During this period the predominant crop grown was tobacco .
= = = = Richard Bland Lee = = = =
Richard severely curtailed tobacco production in favor of more sustainable crops , including wheat , corn , rye , and barley . This reduced the soil depletion inherent to tobacco production , and allowed for the practice of crop rotation . He also planted fruit orchards , including peach and apple trees , which he used to produce spirits . In 1801 Richard constructed a dairy , which ran primarily under the supervision of his wife Elizabeth Collins Lee .
After his election to the United States Congress in 1789 , and for most of the next five years , Richard turned day @-@ to @-@ day management of his estate over to his brother Theodorick , who supervised spring planting and fall harvest . Theodorick also managed the collection of rent from tenant farmers and the construction of the large house Richard had planned for the estate , on which construction had begun in 1794 . Before he left for Congress in 1789 , Richard had chosen the name " Sully " for his estate .
By 1811 , having been drawn into heavy debt trying to aid his brothers , Henry Lee III and Charles Lee , extricate themselves from severe financial difficulties , Richard Bland Lee decided he could no longer sustain ownership of Sully . Accordingly , he decided to sell the plantation to raise cash to pay some of the debt . He sold Sully for $ 18 @,@ 000 to his second cousin , Francis Lightfoot Lee II , son of Richard Henry Lee .
= = = = Francis Lightfoot Lee II = = = =
For several years after his purchase of Sully , Francis Lightfoot Lee II ( called F. L. by his family ) was able to realize an annual profit of $ 1 @,@ 500 to $ 2 @,@ 500 . At least part of that success was due to the " judicious system of husbandry " employed by F. L. ' s wife Jane Fitzgerald Lee . Then in 1816 , due to complications during the delivery of their fifth child Frances Ann Lee , Jane Fitzgerald Lee died . Four years later in 1820 , F. L. had either a nervous breakdown or stroke . Unable to care for himself , he was committed to the Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia in 1825 .
Following the breakdown , Sully was placed under the administrative care of F. L. ' s nephew Richard Henry Lee II . Richard Henry Lee II 's management was marked by negligence and apparent apathy towards the dishonesty of managers who were embezzling money from the estate :
" … mismanagement , having allowed an estate clear of debt , well stocked , well arranged under a good system as it had been for years ' according to ' the universal belief and opinion of all friends , connections and neighbors ' to be ' wasted and the debts lost . ' ... Colonel W.C.B. Butler replaced Richard Henry Lee as the ' Committee ' for the Estate on January 1 , 1827 , but Butler also proved unsatisfactory . On June 23 , 1830 the county court ordered his removal and , ' for the safekeeping and good management ' of the estate ... "
Control of Sully was next placed in the hands of Colonel George Washington Hunter in 1830 . Gamble claims , " in no hands ... would Sully fare as well as when it had been assiduously maintained by a single , devoted , industrious proprietor . "
After their father 's move to the Pennsylvania Hospital during the summer of 1825 , F. L. ' s children ( with the exception of Samuel Philips Lee who had entered the Navy ) , were under the care of William Brent , Jr. and Winifred Brent . The Brents were relatives who had moved to Sully to care for the Lee children and to start at Sully , a " select seminary " for boys and girls .
During subsequent years , as the Lee children grew older they began to leave Sully . Samuel Phillps Lee had entered the Navy , and John Lee went to West Point . Arthur Lee moved west to the Ohio country , while his oldest daughter Jane Elizabeth Lee married Henry Tazewell Harrison in a sunrise ceremony at Sully on February 6 , 1834 . With his brothers @-@ in @-@ law absent from the estate , Harrison took over representing their interests with the appointed administrator , Colonel Hunter , whom he replaced on July 18 , 1836 . Finally , in 1838 , after a bizarre period , in which the estate had ostensibly been sold to a buyer who was arrested in England prior to completing the purchase , Sully was sold to merchant William Swartwort .
= = = Post @-@ Lee period = = =
Following the purchase by William Swartwort in 1838 , Sully was used as a home , a working farm , or both by a series of private owners . Then in 1958 , the land including the main house was acquired by the Federal Government to make way for construction of Dulles Airport . A campaign to save the site began almost immediately afterwards . Those involved included previous owners of the property , Lee descendants , and a neighbor , Eddie Wagstaff , who later endowed the Sully Foundation that still provides support for the site . This campaign ended in 1959 when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed legislation making Sully a national historic site .
The Fairfax County Park Authority agreed to operate the site as a county historical park , and has since acquired an additional 60 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ; 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 sq ft ; 24 ha ) to bring the total size of Sully Historic Site to approximately 120 acres ( 490 @,@ 000 m2 ; 5 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 sq ft ; 49 ha ) . The site 's historic period of significance encompasses the ownership of Richard Bland Lee and Francis Lighfoot Lee ( 1787 – 1838 ) . Interpretation at the site reflects the ownership of its founder Richard Bland Lee , which explains the park authority decision to have Sully " completely furnished with antiquities from the Federal period . "
= = = Chain of ownership = = =
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= Endometrial cancer =
Endometrial cancer is a cancer that arises from the endometrium ( the lining of the uterus or womb ) . It is the result of the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body . The first sign is most often vaginal bleeding not associated with a menstrual period . Other symptoms include pain with urination or sexual intercourse , or pelvic pain . Endometrial cancer occurs most commonly after menopause .
Approximately 40 % of cases are related to obesity . Endometrial cancer is also associated with excessive estrogen exposure , high blood pressure and diabetes . Whereas taking estrogen alone increases the risk of endometrial cancer , taking both estrogen and progesterone in combination , as in most birth control pills , decreases the risk . Between two and five percent of cases are related to genes inherited from the parents . Endometrial cancer is sometimes loosely referred to as " uterine cancer " , although it is distinct from other forms of uterine cancer such as cervical cancer , uterine sarcoma , and trophoblastic disease . The most frequent type of endometrial cancer is endometrioid carcinoma , which accounts for more than 80 % of cases . Endometrial cancer is commonly diagnosed by endometrial biopsy or by taking samples during a procedure known as dilation and curettage . A pap smear is not typically sufficient to show endometrial cancer . Regular screening in those at normal risk is not called for .
The leading treatment option for endometrial cancer is abdominal hysterectomy ( the total removal by surgery of the uterus ) , together with removal of the fallopian tubes and ovaries on both sides , called a bilateral salpingo @-@ oophorectomy . In more advanced cases , radiation therapy , chemotherapy or hormone therapy may also be recommended . If the disease is diagnosed at an early stage , the outcome is favorable , and the overall five @-@ year survival rate in the United States is greater than 80 % .
In 2012 , endometrial cancers occurred in 320 @,@ 000 women and caused 76 @,@ 000 deaths . This makes it the third most common cause of death in cancers which only affect women , behind ovarian and cervical cancer . It is more common in the developed world and is the most common cancer of the female reproductive tract in developed countries . Rates of endometrial cancer have risen in a number of countries between the 1980s and 2010 . This is believed to be due to the increasing number of elderly people and increasing rates of obesity .
= = Classification = =
There are several types of endometrial cancer , including the most common endometrial carcinomas , which are divided into Type I and Type II subtypes . There are also rarer types including uterine papillary serous carcinoma , adenosquamous carcinoma , carcinomasarcoma and uterine clear @-@ cell carcinoma .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Vaginal bleeding or spotting in women after menopause occurs in 90 % of endometrial cancer . Bleeding is especially common with adenocarcinoma , occurring in two @-@ thirds of all cases . Abnormal menstrual cycles or extremely long , heavy , or frequent episodes of bleeding in women before menopause may also be a sign of endometrial cancer .
Symptoms other than bleeding are not common . Other symptoms include thin white or clear vaginal discharge in postmenopausal women . More advanced disease shows more obvious symptoms or signs that can be detected on a physical examination . The uterus may become enlarged or the cancer may spread , causing lower abdominal pain or pelvic cramping . Painful sexual intercourse or painful or difficult urination are less common signs of endometrial cancer . The uterus may also fill with pus ( pyometrea ) . Of women with these less common symptoms ( vaginal discharge , pelvic pain , and pus ) , 10 – 15 % have cancer .
= = Risk factors = =
Risk factors for endometrial cancer include obesity , diabetes mellitus , breast cancer , use of tamoxifen , never having had a child , late menopause , high levels of estrogen , and increasing age . Immigration studies ( migration studies ) , which examine the change in cancer risk in populations moving between countries with different rates of cancer , show that there is some environmental component to endometrial cancer . These environmental risk factors are not well characterized .
= = = Hormones = = =
Most of the risk factors for endometrial cancer involve high levels of estrogens . An estimated 40 % of cases are thought to be related to obesity . In obesity , the excess of adipose tissue increases conversion of androstenedione into estrone , an estrogen . Higher levels of estrone in the blood causes less or no ovulation and exposes the endometrium to continuously high levels of estrogens . Obesity also causes less estrogen to be removed from the blood . Polycystic ovary syndrome ( PCOS ) , which also causes irregular or no ovulation , is associated with higher rates of endometrial cancer for the same reasons as obesity . Specifically , obesity , type II diabetes , and insulin resistance are risk factors for Type I endometrial cancer . Obesity increases the risk for endometrial cancer by 300 – 400 % .
Estrogen replacement therapy during menopause when not balanced ( or " opposed " ) with progestin is another risk factor . Higher doses or longer periods of estrogen therapy have higher risks of endometrial cancer . Women of lower weight are at greater risk from unopposed estrogen . A longer period of fertility — either from an early first menstrual period or late menopause — is also a risk factor . Unopposed estrogen raises an individual 's risk of endometrial cancer by 2 – 10 fold , depending on weight and length of therapy . In trans men who take testosterone and have not had a hysterectomy , the conversion of testosterone into estrogen via androstenedione may lead to a higher risk of endometrial cancer .
= = = Genetics = = =
Genetic disorders can also cause endometrial cancer . Overall , genetic causes contribute to 2 – 10 % of endometrial cancer cases . Lynch syndrome , an autosomal dominant genetic disorder that mainly causes colorectal cancer , also causes endometrial cancer , especially before menopause . Women with Lynch syndrome have a 40 – 60 % risk of developing endometrial cancer , higher than their risk of developing colorectal ( bowel ) or ovarian cancer . Ovarian and endometrial cancer develop simultaneously in 20 % of people . Endometrial cancer nearly always develops before colon cancer , on average , 11 years before . Carcinogenesis in Lynch syndrome comes from a mutation in MLH1 and / or MLH2 : genes that participate in the process of mismatch repair , which allows a cell to correct mistakes in the DNA . Other genes mutated in Lynch syndrome include MSH2 , MSH6 , and PMS2 , which are also mismatch repair genes . Women with Lynch syndrome represent 2 – 3 % of endometrial cancer cases ; some sources place this as high as 5 % . Depending on the gene mutation , women with Lynch syndrome have different risks of endometrial cancer . With MLH1 mutations , the risk is 54 % ; with MSH2 , 21 % ; and with MSH6 , 16 % .
Women with a family history of endometrial cancer are at higher risk . Two genes most commonly associated with some other women 's cancers , BRCA1 and BRCA2 , do not cause endometrial cancer . There is an apparent link with these genes but it is attributable to the use of tamoxifen , a drug that itself can cause endometrial cancer , in breast and ovarian cancers . The inherited genetic condition Cowden syndrome can also cause endometrial cancer . Women with this disorder have a 5 – 10 % lifetime risk of developing endometrial cancer , compared to the 2 – 3 % risk for unaffected women .
= = = Other health problems = = =
Some therapies for other forms of cancer increase the lifetime risk of endometrial cancer , which is a baseline 2 – 3 % . Tamoxifen , a drug used to treat estrogen @-@ positive breast cancers , has been associated with endometrial cancer in approximately 0 @.@ 1 % of users , particularly older women , but the benefits for survival from tamoxifen generally outweigh the risk of endometrial cancer . A one to two @-@ year course of tamoxifen approximately doubles the risk of endometrial cancer , and a five @-@ year course of therapy quadruples that risk . Raloxifene , a similar drug , did not raise the risk of endometrial cancer . Previously having ovarian cancer is a risk factor for endometrial cancer , as is having had previous radiotherapy to the pelvis . Specifically , ovarian granulosa cell tumors and thecomas are tumors associated with endometrial cancer .
Low immune function has also been implicated in endometrial cancer . High blood pressure is also a risk factor , but this may be because of its association with obesity . Sitting regularly for prolonged periods is associated with higher mortality from endometrial cancer . The risk is not negated by regular exercise , though it is lowered .
= = = Protective factors = = =
Smoking and the use of progestin are both protective against endometrial cancer . Smoking provides protection by altering the metabolism of estrogen and promoting weight loss and early menopause . This protective effect lasts long after smoking is stopped . Progestin is present in the combined oral contraceptive pill and the hormonal intrauterine device ( IUD ) . Combined oral contraceptives reduce risk more the longer they are taken : by 56 % after four years , 67 % after eight years , and 72 % after twelve years . This risk reduction continues for at least fifteen years after contraceptive use has been stopped . Obese women may need higher doses of progestin to be protected . Having had more than five infants ( grand multiparity ) is also a protective factor , and having at least one child reduces the risk by 35 % . Breastfeeding for more than 18 months reduces risk by 23 % . Increased physical activity reduces an individual 's risk by 38 – 46 % . There is preliminary evidence that consumption of soy is protective .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Endometrial cancer forms when there are errors in normal endometrial cell growth . Usually , when cells grow old or get damaged , they die , and new cells take their place . Cancer starts when new cells form unneeded , and old or damaged cells do not die as they should . The buildup of extra cells often forms a mass of tissue called a growth or tumor . These abnormal cancer cells have many genetic abnormalities that cause them to grow excessively .
In 10 – 20 % of endometrial cancers , mostly Grade 3 ( the highest histologic grade ) , mutations are found in a tumor suppressor gene , commonly p53 or PTEN . In 20 % of endometrial hyperplasias and 50 % of endometrioid cancers , PTEN suffers a loss @-@ of @-@ function mutation or a null mutation , making it less effective or completely ineffective . Loss of PTEN function leads to up @-@ regulation of the PI3k / Akt / mTOR pathway , which causes cell growth . The p53 pathway can either be suppressed or highly activated in endometrial cancer . When a mutant version of p53 is overexpressed , the cancer tends to be particularly aggressive . P53 mutations and chromosome instability are associated with serous carcinomas , which tend to resemble ovarian and Fallopian carcinomas . Serous carcinomas are thought to develop from endometrial intraepithelial carcinoma .
PTEN and p27 loss of function mutations are associated with a good prognosis , particularly in obese women . The Her2 / neu oncogene , which indicates a poor prognosis , is expressed in 20 % of endometrioid and serous carcinomas . CTNNB1 ( beta @-@ catenin ; a transcription gene ) mutations are found in 14 – 44 % of endometrial cancers and may indicate a good prognosis , but the data is unclear . Beta @-@ catenin mutations are commonly found in endometrial cancers with squamous cells . FGFR2 mutations are found in approximately 10 % of endometrial cancers , and their prognostic significance is unclear . SPOP is another tumor suppressor gene found to be mutated in some cases of endometrial cancer : 9 % of clear cell endometrial carcinomas and 8 % of serous endometrial carcinomas have mutations in this gene .
Type I and Type II cancers ( explained below ) tend to have different mutations involved . ARID1A , which often carries a point mutation in Type I endometrial cancer , is also mutated in 26 % of clear cell carcinomas of the endometrium , and 18 % of serous carcinomas . Epigenetic silencing and point mutations of several genes are commonly found in Type I endometrial cancer . Mutations in tumor suppressor genes are common in Type II endometrial cancer . PIK3CA is commonly mutated in both Type I and Type II cancers . In women with Lynch syndrome @-@ associated endometrial cancer , microsatellite instability is common .
Development of an endometrial hyperplasia ( overgrowth of endometrial cells ) is a significant risk factor because hyperplasias can and often do develop into adenocarcinoma , though cancer can develop without the presence of a hyperplasia . Within ten years , 8 – 30 % of atypical endometrial hyperplasias develop into cancer , whereas 1 – 3 % of non @-@ atypical hyperplasias do so . An atypical hyperplasia is one with visible abnormalities in the nuclei . Pre @-@ cancerous endometrial hyperplasias are also referred to as endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia . Mutations in the KRAS gene can cause endometrial hyperplasia and therefore Type I endometrial cancer . Endometrial hyperplasia typically occurs after the age of 40 . Endometrial glandular dysplasia occurs with an overexpression of p53 , and develops into a serous carcinoma .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis of endometrial cancer is made first by a physical examination and dilation and curettage ( removal of endometrial tissue ; D & C ) . This tissue is then examined histologically for characteristics of cancer . If cancer is found , medical imaging may be done to see whether the cancer has spread or invaded tissue .
= = = Examination = = =
Routine screening of asymptomatic people is not indicated , since the disease is highly curable in its early , symptomatic stages . Instead , women , particularly menopausal women , should be aware of the symptoms and risk factors of endometrial cancer . A cervical screening test , such as a Pap smear , is not a useful diagnostic tool for endometrial cancer because the smear will be normal 50 % of the time . A Pap smear can detect disease that has spread to the cervix . Results from a pelvic examination are frequently normal , especially in the early stages of disease . Changes in the size , shape or consistency of the uterus and / or its surrounding , supporting structures may exist when the disease is more advanced . Cervical stenosis , the narrowing of the cervical opening , is a sign of endometrial cancer when pus or blood is found collected in the uterus ( pyometra or hematometra ) .
Women with Lynch syndrome should begin to have annual biopsy screening at the age of 35 . Some women with Lynch syndrome elect to have a prophylactic hysterectomy and salpingo @-@ oophorectomy to greatly reduce the risk of endometrial and ovarian cancer .
Transvaginal ultrasound to examine the endometrial thickness in women with postmenopausal bleeding is increasingly being used to aid in the diagnosis of endometrial cancer in the United States . In the United Kingdom , both an endometrial biopsy and a transvaginal ultrasound used in conjunction are the standard of care for diagnosing endometrial cancer . The homogeneity of the tissue visible on transvaginal ultrasound can help to indicate whether the thickness is cancerous . Ultrasound findings alone are not conclusive in cases of endometrial cancer , so another screening method ( for example endometrial biopsy ) must be used in conjunction . Other imaging studies are of limited use . CT scans are used for preoperative imaging of tumors that appear advanced on physical exam or have a high @-@ risk subtype ( at high risk of metastasis ) . They can also be used to investigate extrapelvic disease . An MRI can be of some use in determining if the cancer has spread to the cervix or if it is an endocervical adenocarcinoma . MRI is also useful for examining the nearby lymph nodes .
Dilation and curettage or an endometrial biopsy are used to obtain a tissue sample for histological examination . Endometrial biopsy is the less invasive option , but it may not give conclusive results every time . Hysteroscopy only shows the gross anatomy of the endometrium , which is often not indicative of cancer , and is therefore not used , unless in conjunction with a biopsy . Hysteroscopy can be used to confirm a diagnosis of cancer . New evidence shows that D & C has a higher false negative rate than endometrial biopsy .
Before treatment is begun , several other investigations are recommended . These include a chest x @-@ ray , liver function tests , kidney function tests , and a test for levels of CA @-@ 125 , a tumor marker that can be elevated in endometrial cancer .
= = = Types = = =
Endometrial cancer includes carcinomas , which are divided into Type I and Type II cancers and includes endometrioid adenocarcinoma , uterine papillary serous carcinoma , uterine clear @-@ cell carcinoma , and several other very rare forms .
= = = = Carcinoma = = = =
The vast majority of endometrial cancers are carcinomas ( usually adenocarcinomas ) , meaning that they originate from the single layer of epithelial cells that line the endometrium and form the endometrial glands . There are many microscopic subtypes of endometrial carcinoma , but they are broadly organized into two categories , Type I and Type II , based on clinical features and pathogenesis . The two subtypes are genetically distinct .
Type I endometrial carcinomas occur most commonly before and around the time of menopause . In the United States they are more common in whites , particularly those with a history of endometrial hyperplasia . Type I endometrial cancers are often low @-@ grade , minimally invasive into the underlying uterine wall ( myometrium ) , estrogen @-@ dependent , and have a good outcome with treatment . Type I carcinomas represent 75 – 90 % of endometrial cancer .
Type II endometrial carcinomas usually occur in older , post @-@ menopausal people , in the United States are more common in black women , and are not associated with increased exposure to estrogen or a history of endometrial hyperplasia . Type II endometrial cancers are often high @-@ grade , with deep invasion into the underlying uterine wall ( myometrium ) , are of the serous or clear cell type , and carry a poorer prognosis . They can appear to be epithelial ovarian cancer on evaluation of symptoms . They tend to present later than Type I tumors and are more aggressive , with a greater risk of relapse and / or metastasis .
= = = = = Endometrioid adenocarcinoma = = = = =
In endometrioid adenocarcinoma , the cancer cells grow in patterns reminiscent of normal endometrium , with many new glands formed from columnar epithelium with some abnormal nuclei . Low @-@ grade endometrioid adenocarcinomas have well differentiated cells , have not invaded the myometrium , and are seen alongside endometrial hyperplasia . The tumor 's glands form very close together , without the stromal tissue that normally separates them . Higher @-@ grade endometrioid adenocarcinomas have less well @-@ differentiated cells , have more solid sheets of tumor cells no longer organized into glands , and are associated with an atrophied endometrium . There are several subtypes of endometrioid adenocarcinoma with similar prognoses , including villoglandular , secretory , and ciliated cell variants . There is also a subtype characterized by squamous differentiation . Some endometrioid adenocarcinomas have foci of mucinous carcinoma .
The genetic mutations most commonly associated with endometrioid adenocarcinoma are in the genes PTEN , a tumor suppressor ; PIK3CA , a kinase ; KRAS , a GTPase that functions in signal transduction ; and CTNNB1 , involved in adhesion and cell signaling . The CTNNB1 ( beta @-@ catenin ) gene is most commonly mutated in the squamous subtype of endometrioid adenocarcinoma .
= = = = = Serous carcinoma = = = = =
Serous carcinoma is a Type II endometrial tumor that makes up 5 – 10 % of diagnosed endometrial cancer and is common in postmenopausal women with atrophied endometrium and black women . Serous endometrial carcinoma is aggressive and often invades the myometrium and metastasizes within the peritoneum ( seen as omental caking ) or the lymphatic system . Histologically , it appears with many atypical nuclei , papillary structures , and , in contrast to endometrioid adenocarcinomas , rounded cells instead of columnar cells . Roughly 30 % of endometrial serous carcinomas also have psammoma bodies . Serous carcinomas spread differently than most other endometrial cancers ; they can spread outside the uterus without invading the myometrium .
The genetic mutations seen in serous carcinoma are chromosomal instability and mutations in TP53 , an important tumor suppressor gene .
= = = = = Clear cell carcinoma = = = = =
Clear cell carcinoma is a Type II endometrial tumor that makes up less than 5 % of diagnosed endometrial cancer . Like serous cell carcinoma , it is usually aggressive and carries a poor prognosis . Histologically , it is characterized by the features common to all clear cells : the eponymous clear cytoplasm when H & E stained and visible , distinct cell membranes . The p53 cell signaling system is not active in endometrial clear cell carcinoma . This form of endometrial cancer is more common in postmenopausal women .
= = = = = Mucinous carcinoma = = = = =
Mucinous carcinomas are a rare form of endometrial cancer , making up less than 1 – 2 % of all diagnosed endometrial cancer . Mucinous endometrial carcinomas are most often stage I and grade I , giving them a good prognosis . They typically have well @-@ differentiated columnar cells organized into glands with the characteristic mucin in the cytoplasm . Mucinous carcinomas must be differentiated from cervical adenocarcinoma .
= = = = = Mixed or undifferentiated carcinoma = = = = =
Mixed carcinomas are those that have both Type I and Type II cells , with one making up at least 10 % of the tumor . These include the malignant mixed Müllerian tumor , which derives from endometrial epithelium and has a poor prognosis .
Undifferentiated endometrial carcinomas make up less than 1 – 2 % of diagnosed endometrial cancers . They have a worse prognosis than grade III tumors . Histologically , these tumors show sheets of identical epithelial cells with no identifiable pattern .
= = = = = Other carcinomas = = = = =
Non @-@ metastatic squamous cell carcinoma and transitional cell carcinoma are very rare in the endometrium . Squamous cell carcinoma of the endometrium has a poor prognosis . It has been reported fewer than 100 times in the medical literature since its characterization in 1892 . For primary squamous cell carcinoma of the endometrium ( PSCCE ) to be diagnosed , there must be no other primary cancer in the endometrium or cervix and it must not be connected to the cervical epithelium . Because of the rarity of this cancer , there are no guidelines for how it should be treated , nor any typical treatment . The common genetic causes remain uncharacterized . Primary transitional cell carcinomas of the endometrium are even more rare ; 16 cases had been reported as of 2008 . Its pathophysiology and treatments have not been characterized . Histologically , TCCE resembles endometrioid carcinoma and is distinct from other transitional cell carcinomas .
= = = = Sarcoma = = = =
In contrast to endometrial carcinomas , the uncommon endometrial stromal sarcomas are cancers that originate in the non @-@ glandular connective tissue of the endometrium . They are generally non @-@ aggressive and , if they recur , can take decades . Metastases to the lungs and pelvic or peritoneal cavities are the most frequent . They typically have estrogen and / or progesterone receptors . The prognosis for low @-@ grade endometrial stromal sarcoma is good , with 60 – 90 % five @-@ year survival . High @-@ grade undifferentiated endometrial sarcoma ( HGUS ) has a worse prognosis , with high rates of recurrence and 25 % five @-@ year survival . HGUS prognosis is dictated by whether or not the cancer has invaded the arteries and veins . Without vascular invasion , the five @-@ year survival is 83 % ; it drops to 17 % when vascular invasion is observed . Stage I ESS has the best prognosis , with five @-@ year survival of 98 % and ten @-@ year survival of 89 % . ESS makes up 0 @.@ 2 % of uterine cancers .
= = = Metastasis = = =
Endometrial cancer frequently metastasizes to the ovaries and Fallopian tubes when the cancer is located in the upper part of the uterus , and the cervix when the cancer is in the lower part of the uterus . The cancer usually first spreads into the myometrium and the serosa , then into other reproductive and pelvic structures . When the lymphatic system is involved , the pelvic and para @-@ aortic nodes are usually first to become involved , but in no specific pattern , unlike cervical cancer . More distant metastases are spread by the blood and often occur in the lungs , as well as the liver , brain , and bone . Endometrial cancer metastasizes to the lungs 20 – 25 % of the time , more than any other gynecologic cancer .
= = = Histopathology = = =
There is a three @-@ tiered system for histologically classifying endometrial cancers , ranging from cancers with well @-@ differentiated cells ( grade I ) , to very poorly @-@ differentiated cells ( grade III ) . Grade I cancers are the least aggressive and have the best prognosis , while grade III tumors are the most aggressive and likely to recur . Grade II cancers are intermediate between grades I and III in terms of cell differentiation and aggressiveness of disease .
The histopathology of endometrial cancers is highly diverse . The most common finding is a well @-@ differentiated endometrioid adenocarcinoma , which is composed of numerous , small , crowded glands with varying degrees of nuclear atypia , mitotic activity , and stratification . This often appears on a background of endometrial hyperplasia . Frank adenocarcinoma may be distinguished from atypical hyperplasia by the finding of clear stromal invasion , or " back @-@ to @-@ back " glands which represent nondestructive replacement of the endometrial stroma by the cancer . With progression of the disease , the myometrium is infiltrated .
= = = Staging = = =
Endometrial carcinoma is surgically staged using the FIGO cancer staging system . The 2009 FIGO staging system is as follows :
Myometrial invasion and involvement of the pelvic and para @-@ aortic lymph nodes are the most commonly seen patterns of spread . A Stage 0 is sometimes included , in this case it is referred to as " carcinoma in situ " . In 26 % of presumably early @-@ stage cancers , intraoperative staging revealed pelvic and distant metastases , making comprehensive surgical staging necessary .
= = Management = =
= = = Surgery = = =
The primary treatment for endometrial cancer is surgery ; 90 % of women with endometrial cancer are treated with some form of surgery . Surgical treatment typically consists of hysterectomy including a bilateral salpingo @-@ oophorectomy , which is the removal of the uterus , and both ovaries and Fallopian tubes . Lymphadenectomy , or removal of pelvic and para @-@ aortic lymph nodes , is performed for tumors of histologic grade II or above . Lymphadenectomy is routinely performed for all stages of endometrial cancer in the United States , but in the United Kingdom , the lymph nodes are typically only removed with disease of stage II or greater . The topic of lymphadenectomy and what survival benefit it offers in stage I disease is still being debated . In stage III and IV cancers , cytoreductive surgery is the norm , and a biopsy of the omentum may also be included . In stage IV disease , where there are distant metastases , surgery can be used as part of palliative therapy . Laparotomy , an open @-@ abdomen procedure , is the traditional surgical procedure ; however , laparoscopy ( keyhole surgery ) is associated with lower operative morbidity . The two procedures have no difference in overall survival . Removal of the uterus via the abdomen is recommended over removal of the uterus via the vagina because it gives the opportunity to examine and obtain washings of the abdominal cavity to detect any further evidence of cancer . Staging of the cancer is done during the surgery .
The few contraindications to surgery include inoperable tumor , massive obesity , a particularly high @-@ risk operation , or a desire to preserve fertility . These contraindications happen in about 5 – 10 % of cases . Women who wish to preserve their fertility and have low @-@ grade stage I cancer can be treated with progestins , with or without concurrent tamoxifen therapy . This therapy can be continued until the cancer does not respond to treatment or until childbearing is done . Uterine perforation may occur during a D & C or an endometrial biopsy . Side effects of surgery to remove endometrial cancer can specifically include sexual dysfunction , temporary incontinence , and lymphedema , along with more common side effects of any surgery , including constipation .
= = = Add @-@ on therapy = = =
There are a number of possible additional therapies . Surgery can be followed by radiation therapy and / or chemotherapy in cases of high @-@ risk or high @-@ grade cancers . This is called adjuvant therapy .
= = = = Chemotherapy = = = =
Adjuvant chemotherapy is a recent innovation , consisting of some combination of paclitaxel ( or other taxanes like docetaxel ) , doxorubicin ( and other anthracyclines ) , and platins ( particularly cisplatin and carboplatin ) . Adjuvant chemotherapy has been found to increase survival in stage III and IV cancer more than added radiotherapy . Mutations in mismatch repair genes , like those found in Lynch syndrome , can lead to resistance against platins , meaning that chemotherapy with platins is ineffective in people with these mutations . Side effects of chemotherapy are common . These include hair loss , low neutrophil levels in the blood , and gastrointestinal problems .
In cases where surgery is not indicated , palliative chemotherapy is an option ; higher @-@ dose chemotherapy is associated with longer survival . Palliative chemotherapy , particularly using capecitabine and gemcitabine , is also often used to treat recurrent endometrial cancer .
= = = = Radiotherapy = = = =
Adjuvant radiotherapy is commonly used in early @-@ stage ( stage I or II ) endometrial cancer . It can be delivered through vaginal brachytherapy ( VBT ) , which is becoming the preferred route due to its reduced toxicity , or external beam radiotherapy ( EBRT ) . Brachytherapy involves placing a radiation source in the organ affected ; in the case of endometrial cancer a radiation source is placed directly in the vagina . External beam radiotherapy involves a beam of radiation aimed at the affected area from outside the body . VBT is used to treat any remaining cancer solely in the vagina , whereas EBRT can be used to treat remaining cancer elsewhere in the pelvis following surgery . However , the benefits of adjuvant radiotherapy are controversial . Though EBRT significantly reduces the rate of relapse in the pelvis , overall survival and metastasis rates are not improved . VBT provides a better quality of life than EBRT .
Radiotherapy can also be used before surgery in certain cases . When pre @-@ operative imaging or clinical evaluation shows tumor invading the cervix , radiation can be given before a total hysterectomy is performed . Brachytherapy and EBRT can also be used , singly or in combination , when there is a contraindication for hysterectomy . Both delivery methods of radiotherapy are associated with side effects , particularly in the gastrointestinal tract .
= = = = Hormonal therapy = = = =
Hormonal therapy is only beneficial in certain types of endometrial cancer . It was once thought to be beneficial in most cases . If a tumor is well @-@ differentiated and known to have progesterone and estrogen receptors , progestins may be used in treatment . About 25 % of metastatic endometrioid cancers show a response to progestins . Also , endometrial stromal sarcomas can be treated with hormonal agents , including tamoxifen , 17 @-@ hydroxyprogesterone caproate , letrozole , megestrol acetate , and medroxyprogesterone . This treatment is effective in endometrial stromal sarcomas because they typically have estrogen and / or progestin receptors . Progestin receptors function as tumor suppressors in endometrial cancer cells . Preliminary research and clinical trials have shown these treatments to have a high rate of response even in metastatic disease .
= = = Monitoring = = =
The tumor marker CA @-@ 125 is frequently elevated in endometrial cancer and can be used to monitor response to treatment , particularly in serous cell cancer or advanced disease . Periodic MRIs or CT scans may be recommended in advanced disease and women with a history of endometrial cancer should receive more frequent pelvic examinations for the five years following treatment . Examinations conducted every three to four months are recommended for the first two years following treatment , and every six months for the next three years .
Women with endometrial cancer should not have routine surveillance imaging to monitor the cancer unless new symptoms appear or tumor markers begin rising . Imaging without these indications is discouraged because it is unlikely to detect a recurrence or improve survival , and because it has its own costs and side effects . If a recurrence is suspected , PET / CT scanning is recommended .
= = Prognosis = =
= = = Survival rates = = =
The five @-@ year survival rate for endometrial adenocarcinoma following appropriate treatment is 80 % . Most women , over 70 % , have FIGO stage I cancer , which has the best prognosis . Stage III and especially Stage IV cancers has a worse prognosis , but these are relatively rare , occurring in only 13 % of cases . The median survival time for stage III @-@ IV endometrial cancer is nine to ten months . Older age indicates a worse prognosis . In the United States , white women have a higher survival rate than black women , who tend to develop more aggressive forms of the disease by the time of their diagnosis . Tumors with high progesterone receptor expression have a good prognosis compared to tumors with low progesterone receptor expression ; 93 % of women with high progesterone receptor disease survived to three years , compared with 36 % of women with low progesterone receptor disease . Heart disease is the most common cause of death among those who survive endometrial cancer , with other obesity @-@ related health problems also being common .
= = = Recurrence rates = = =
Recurrence of early stage endometrial cancer ranges from 3 to 17 % , depending on primary and adjuvant treatment . Most recurrences ( 75 – 80 % ) occur outside of the pelvis , and most occur two to three years after treatment , 64 % after two years and 87 % after three years .
Higher @-@ staged cancers are more likely to recur , as are those that have invaded the myometrium or cervix , or that have metastasized into the lymphatic system . Papillary serous carcinoma , clear cell carcinoma , and endometrioid carcinoma are the subtypes at the highest risk of recurrence . High @-@ grade histological subtypes are also at elevated risk for recurrence .
The most common site of recurrence is in the vagina ; vaginal relapses of endometrial cancer have the best prognosis . If relapse occurs from a cancer that has not been treated with radiation , EBRT is the first @-@ line treatment and is often successful . If a cancer treated with radiation recurs , pelvic exenteration is the only option for curative treatment . Palliative chemotherapy , cytoreductive surgery , and radiation are also performed . Radiation therapy ( VBT and EBRT ) for a local vaginal recurrence has a 50 % five @-@ year survival rate . Pelvic recurrences are treated with surgery and radiation , and abdominal recurrences are treated with radiation and , if possible , chemotherapy . Other common recurrence sites are the pelvic lymph nodes , para @-@ aortic lymph nodes , peritoneum ( 28 % of recurrences ) , and lungs , though recurrences can also occur in the brain ( < 1 % ) , liver ( 7 % ) , adrenal glands ( 1 % ) , bones ( 4 – 7 % ; typically the axial skeleton ) , lymph nodes outside the abdomen ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 % ) , spleen , and muscle / soft tissue ( 2 – 6 % ) .
= = Epidemiology = =
As of 2014 , approximately 320 @,@ 000 women are diagnosed with endometrial cancer worldwide each year and 76 @,@ 000 die , making it the sixth most common cancer in women . It is more common in developed countries , where the lifetime risk of endometrial cancer in people born with uteri is 1 @.@ 6 % , compared to 0 @.@ 6 % in developing countries . It occurs in 12 @.@ 9 out of 100 @,@ 000 women annually in developed countries .
In the United States , endometrial cancer is the most frequently diagnosed gynecologic cancer and , in women , the fourth most common cancer overall , representing 6 % of all cancer cases in women . In that country , as of 2014 it was estimated that 52 @,@ 630 women were diagnosed yearly and 8 @,@ 590 would die from the disease . Northern Europe , Eastern Europe , and North America have the highest rates of endometrial cancer , whereas Africa and West Asia have the lowest rates . Asia saw 41 % of the world 's endometrial cancer diagnoses in 2012 , whereas Northern Europe , Eastern Europe , and North America together comprised 48 % of diagnoses . Unlike most cancers , the number of new cases has risen in recent years , including an increase of over 40 % in the United Kingdom between 1993 and 2013 . Some of this rise may be due to the increase in obesity rates in developed countries , increasing life expectancies , and lower birth rates . The average lifetime risk for endometrial cancer is approximately 2 – 3 % in people with uteruses . In the UK , approximately 7 @,@ 400 cases are diagnosed annually , and in the EU , approximately 88 @,@ 000 .
Endometrial cancer appears most frequently during perimenopause ( the period just before , just after , and during menopause ) , between the ages of 50 and 65 ; overall , 75 % of endometrial cancer occurs after menopause . Women younger than 40 make up 5 % of endometrial cancer cases and 10 – 15 % of cases occur in women under 50 years of age . This age group is at risk for developing ovarian cancer at the same time . The worldwide median age of diagnosis is 63 years of age ; in the United States , the average age of diagnosis is 60 years of age . White American women are at higher risk for endometrial cancer than black American women , with a 2 @.@ 88 % and 1 @.@ 69 % lifetime risk respectively . Japanese @-@ American women and American Latina women have a lower rates and Native Hawaiian women have higher rates .
= = Research = =
There are several experimental therapies for endometrial cancer under research , including immunologic , hormonal , and chemotherapeutic treatments . Trastuzumab ( Herceptin ) , an antibody against the Her2 protein , has been used in cancers known to be positive for the Her2 / neu oncogene , but research is still underway . Immunologic therapies are also under investigation , particularly in uterine papillary serous carcinoma .
Cancers can be analyzed using genetic techniques ( including DNA sequencing and immunohistochemistry ) to determine if certain therapies specific to mutated genes can be used to treat it . PARP inhibitors are used to treat endometrial cancer with PTEN mutations , specifically , mutations that lower the expression of PTEN . The PARP inhibitor shown to be active against endometrial cancer is olaparib . Research is ongoing in this area as of the 2010s .
Research is ongoing on the use of metformin , a diabetes medication , in obese women with endometrial cancer before surgery . Early research has shown it to be effective in slowing the rate of cancer cell proliferation . Preliminary research has shown that preoperative metformin administration can reduce expression of tumor markers . Long @-@ term use of metformin has not been shown to have a preventative effect against developing cancer , but may improve overall survival .
Temsirolimus , an mTOR inhibitor , is under investigation as a potential treatment . Research shows that mTOR inhibitors may be particularly effective for cancers with mutations in PTEN . Ridaforolimus ( deforolimus ) is also being researched as a treatment for people who have previously had chemotherapy . Preliminary research has been promising , and a stage II trial for ridaforolimus was completed by 2013 . There has also been research on combined ridaforolimus / progestin treatments for recurrent endometrial cancer . Bevacizumab and tyrosine kinase inhibitors , which inhibit angiogenesis , are being researched as potential treatments for endometrial cancers with high levels of vascular endothelial growth factor . Ixabepilone is being researched as a possible chemotherapy for advanced or recurrent endometrial cancer . Treatments for rare high @-@ grade undifferentiated endometrial sarcoma are being researched , as there is no established standard of care yet for this disease . Chemotherapies being researched include doxorubicin and ifosfamide .
There is also research in progress on more genes and biomarkers that may be linked to endometrial cancer . The protective effect of combined oral contraceptives and the IUD is being investigated . Preliminary research has shown that the levonorgestrel IUD placed for a year , combined with 6 monthly injections of gonadotropin @-@ releasing hormone , can stop or reverse the progress of endometrial cancer in young women . An experimental drug that combines a hormone with doxorubicin is also under investigation for greater efficacy in cancers with hormone receptors . Hormone therapy that is effective in treating breast cancer , including use of aromatase inhibitors , is also being investigated for use in endometrial cancer . One such drug is anastrozole , which is currently being researched in hormone @-@ positive recurrences after chemotherapy . Research into hormonal treatments for endometrial stromal sarcomas is ongoing as well . It includes trials of drugs like mifepristone , a progestin antagonist , and aminoglutethimide and letrozole , two aromatase inhibitors .
Research continues into the best imaging method for detecting and staging endometrial cancer . In surgery , research has shown that complete pelvic lymphadenectomy along with hysterectomy in stage 1 endometrial cancer does not improve survival and increases the risk of negative side effects , including lymphedema . Other research is exploring the potential of identifying the sentinel lymph nodes for biopsy by injecting the tumor with dye that shines under infrared light . Intensity modulated radiation therapy is currently under investigation , and already used in some centers , for application in endometrial cancer , to reduce side effects from traditional radiotherapy . Its risk of recurrence has not yet been quantified . Research on hyperbaric oxygen therapy to reduce side effects is also ongoing . The results of the PORTEC 3 trial assessing combining adjuvant radiotherapy with chemotherapy were awaited in late 2014 .
= = History and culture = =
Endometrial cancer is not widely known by the general populace , despite its frequency . There is low awareness of the symptoms , which can lead to later diagnosis and worse survival .
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= Crazy Taxi ( series ) =
Crazy Taxi is a series of score attack racing video games that was developed by Hitmaker and published by Sega . The first game appeared in arcades in 1999 and was very successful , prompting Sega to port the arcade version to their Dreamcast console in 2000 . It is the third best @-@ selling Dreamcast game in the United States , selling over a million copies . The game was later ported to the PlayStation 2 , Nintendo GameCube , and PC with sequels also appearing on the Xbox , Game Boy Advance , and PlayStation Portable systems .
Each game has the player assume the role of a taxi driver who must accumulate money by delivering passengers to their destinations in the fastest time possible , earning tips by performing " crazy stunts " before the time runs out . The franchise has been recognized for its innovative gameplay design which is easy to learn but difficult to master , its use of in @-@ game advertising , and its soundtrack music provided by the bands The Offspring and Bad Religion . The core gameplay mechanic has been patented by Sega , leading to at least one lawsuit over similar gameplay in The Simpsons : Road Rage , which has since been settled out of court .
= = Gameplay = =
Crazy Taxi and its sequels are score attack games that all employ the same fundamental rules and mechanics . The player controls one of several taxi drivers in a fictional city , looking for fares and then taking them to their destination in the fastest time possible . The player must perform this while time still remains on an overall gameplay clock . Passengers looking for rides are indicated by an overhead marker that is colored to represent the distance to their intended destination . The color marker ranges from red indicating short trips , to yellow for intermediate distances , and to green indicating long ones . When a passenger is picked up , the player is awarded additional time on the countdown time . Furthermore , a second countdown timer is started , representing how quickly the passenger needs to be at their destination . While a passenger is in the taxi , a large green arrow is shown on the player 's HUD that points in the general direction of the passenger 's destination to help guide the player through the map .
The player can use special " crazy stunt " moves such as drifts , jumps , and near @-@ misses , and consecutive combos of these , to earn extra money from the passenger during the trip . If the destination is reached in time , the player is paid based on distance driven with a possible time bonus based on how quickly the destination was reached . If the passenger 's countdown drops to zero , they will exit the taxi and the player will be required to look for another fare . The game continues in this mode as long as time remains on the clock . Once the clock reaches zero , the game is over , and the player is ranked and rated based on the total earned .
Unlike other arcade games , the player cannot continue from where the previous game ended . The game cannot be played indefinitely ; while there are hundreds of potential passengers to pick up and deliver , there are only a limited number of fares in the game . The various passengers scattered throughout the city will randomly appear and disappear throughout the game , but once one is picked up that passenger is unavailable for the rest of that game . The core gameplay in the series has been praised as being " deceptively complex " ; as stated by the IGN staff for their review of the Dreamcast version of Crazy Taxi :
As you progress through the game 's ratings scale by picking up and delivering passengers as quickly as possible , you will slowly but surely realize that there is much more to the game than getting from point a to b .
Starting with Crazy Taxi 2 , the gameplay included the ability to pick up a party of passengers , each having a different destination . The number of passengers in the car multiplies the tip bonuses earned from stunt driving , while the total fare can only be earned once the last passenger is dropped off in time . Additionally , Crazy Taxi 2 introduced a new stunt move called the " Crazy Hop " that allowed the player to make the taxi jump to clear some obstacles or reach higher drivable surfaces .
The console games have also featured a set of mini @-@ games that require the player to meet a certain objective using one or more of the various " crazy stunts " within the game . Some of these test the player 's handling of a taxi , while others are more exaggerated , such as taxi bowling or pool . Some mini @-@ games require the completion of others before they can be accessed .
Prior to each game session , the player can pick one of several drivers and their associated cars ; each car / driver has slightly different performance relating to factors such as speed and turning , that impact the game .
= = Development = =
The original arcade game was developed by Hitmaker as a variation from then @-@ current arcade titles . Crazy Taxi producer Kenji Kanno noted that the time extension on gameplay was a breakaway of the current " 100 yen for 3 minutes " that persisted at the time for arcade games , and rewarded players with longer playing times by performing well in the game . In addition to providing a game that could be played in short sessions , Kanno wanted a game to explore the " daily life and routine " of a taxi driver . In the development of the Dreamcast version of the original arcade game , the developers included a larger map in addition to the arcade one , as to create a feeling of " being lost " and allowing home console players to have fun " learning the town " . Mini @-@ games were developed for this version as to " let the player play longer if he improve [ d ] skill " by offering challenges that were both fun and educational . Over one hundred different ideas for mini @-@ games were developed by the team but then pared down for the Crazy Box mini @-@ game challenges for the game . The addition of the Crazy Hop in Crazy Taxi 2 came about because the development team noted that " ... in New York – where the basic landscape is quite flat – we had to create 3D space by letting the player drive on the buildings " and " We added the Crazy Hop to let the player hop around the roofs of buildings to make short cuts " .
Hitmaker had tried to develop an on @-@ line version of Crazy Taxi , to be called Crazy Taxi Next exclusively for the Xbox , which , besides multiplayer game modes , would have included night and day cycles , each with a different set of passengers and destinations , while reusing and graphically updating the maps from Crazy Taxi and Crazy Taxi 2 . Ultimately , both multiplayer and day / night cycles were dropped and work on Crazy Taxi Next was transferred to Crazy Taxi 3 : High Roller , which included some of the nighttime driving concepts suggested by Next .
Kenji Kanno has noted that the gameplay in the Crazy Taxi series has otherwise not " evolved " with each new game " because basically the whole point of the game is to have a lot of fun in a short period of time , and it 's a very concentrated game . So instead of trying to evolve the series necessarily , it 's more like taking that concept and putting it in different places – seeing how it works . " Kanno is considering bringing the title to newer consoles , but would want to be able to include multiplayer features and having a time cycle within the game that would affect passengers ' attitudes and the environment of the game .
= = = Setting = = =
Through the series , the cities used within the Crazy Taxi games have been influenced by real @-@ world cities , including San Francisco , Los Angeles , New York City , and Las Vegas . Certain versions of the Crazy Taxi game include in @-@ game counterparts of real @-@ world businesses , including Pizza Hut , Kentucky Fried Chicken , FILA , and Tower Records ; these were often destination targets for the passengers . Although this is one of the most prominent examples of product placement in video gaming history , it is generally looked upon relatively favorably amongst gamers , perhaps because it gives a sense of realism to the fictional cities in the game . These establishments have been replaced with generic businesses in later games due to licensing difficulties .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack of the Crazy Taxi series has typically been licensed hard rock and punk rock music . The arcade and initial home console versions include selections from punk rock bands The Offspring and Bad Religion , though these have been removed in both the Game Boy Advance and the PlayStation Portable remakes because of licensing issues . In the case of the Game Boy Advance Catch a Ride , the game uses instrumental music instead of recorded songs .
= = = Legalities = = =
Sega applied for and was awarded U.S. Patent 6 @,@ 200 @,@ 138 – " Game display method , moving direction indicating method , game apparatus and drive simulating apparatus " – in 2001 . The mechanics in the " 138 patent " describe an arcade cabinet similar to Sega 's previous arcade game Harley @-@ Davidson & L.A. Riders ( 1997 ) , but also describe the arrow navigation system and pedestrian avoidance aspects that were used in Crazy Taxi .
In 2001 , Electronic Arts and Fox Entertainment released The Simpsons : Road Rage , which has been labelled a rip @-@ off of the Crazy Taxi formula by game reviewers . In this game , the player controlled one of The Simpsons characters as they drive about Springfield , taking passengers to their destinations in the same manner as Crazy Taxi . Sega sued Fox Entertainment , Electronic Arts , and developer Radical Games Ltd. over infringement of the 138 patent . The case , Sega of America , Inc. v. Fox Interactive , et al . , was settled in private for an unknown amount . The 138 patent itself remains valid , and is considered to be one of the most important patents in video game development today .
= = Games = =
= = = Crazy Taxi ( arcade ) = = =
The arcade version of Crazy Taxi was released in 1999 , and featured only the San Francisco @-@ inspired map ( known as " Arcade " in the first console game , and later as " West Coast " in sequels ) . The " Standard Version " arcade cabinet included a cockpit seat , steering wheel , a gear shift lever ( for forward and reverse gear ) and a brake and acceleration pedal ; a more compact " Naomi Cabinet Version " also existed without the cockpit seat . The arcade game was one of the first to use the Sega NAOMI hardware processor , which is based on the Sega Dreamcast and was unveiled as part of Sega 's exhibition at the 1999 Amusement Operators Union exposition in Japan .
= = = Crazy Taxi ( console ) = = =
The console / home version of Crazy Taxi was released for the Dreamcast on January 24 , 2000 . The Dreamcast and the cabinet arcade version share nearly identical processing hardware , and porting the game to the home console was only made difficult due to the limited internal memory size on the Dreamcast . Sega used Crazy Taxi to show the power of the Dreamcast 's graphical processor , capable of maintaining 60 frame / s throughout play . In addition to the arcade map , this version included the San Francisco @-@ themed city ( entitled " Original " ) , as well as additional mini @-@ games ( " Crazy Box " ) that can be used to hone the player 's taxi handling skills . The new map , much larger than the arcade version , was designed to let the player experience the feeling of " being lost " and allow for exploration , something that could not be done on the arcade version , as well letting " the player enjoy all 3 dimensions . "
Once Sega left the hardware market , other companies began to take up some of the franchises , including Crazy Taxi . Acclaim brought the game to the PlayStation on May 21 , 2001 and GameCube on November 18 , 2001 , while Activision and Strangelite ported the game to the PC in 2002 ; only the PlayStation 2 port was more successful than the Dreamcast version , and the rest didn 't do as well . Currently , the Dreamcast version of Crazy Taxi can be played through emulation via Gametap on PC systems .
= = = Crazy Taxi 2 = = =
Crazy Taxi 2 was released for the Dreamcast on May 28 , 2001 . The game introduced four cab drivers as well as two new maps inspired based on New York City ( " Around Apple " and " Small Apple " ) , and added two gameplay features : the mechanics of collecting multiple passengers from a single spot , and the " Crazy Hop " , allowing the taxi to clear traffic and certain obstacles with short jumps . Additionally , the " Crazy Box " mode in the first game was expanded into a " Crazy Pyramid " mode .
= = = Crazy Taxi 3 : High Roller = = =
Crazy Taxi 3 : High Roller was released for the Xbox on July 23 , 2002 , and later released as a PC title in 2004 . The game reuses the original arcade map modified to allow the use of the " Crazy Hop " introduced in Crazy Taxi 2 , one of the maps from Crazy Taxi 2 , and a new map based on Las Vegas ( " Glitter Oasis " ) . The game adds an additional four characters to select from . The game allows the player to unlock other modes of transport besides the taxi , including a stroller , a pedal bike and a carriage . The mini @-@ games in Crazy Taxi 3 are featured in a " Crazy X " arrangement . An arcade version , entitled Crazy Taxi : High Roller was created in 2003 using the same three maps as the home console version .
= = = Crazy Taxi : Catch a Ride = = =
Crazy Taxi : Catch a Ride was ported to the Game Boy Advance by Graphics State and distributed by THQ , and released on April 8 , 2003 . This version is fundamentally the same as the Crazy Taxi console versions , featuring the San Francisco and Los Angeles @-@ themed maps but with a smaller selection of mini @-@ games , adapted to play on the portable device using the Graphics State " Rush " engine . Specifically , while the city and streets are rendered using 3D graphics , the taxi , passengers , and other traffic are represented by sprites in order to work on the limited GBA hardware . Richard Whittall , creative director for Graphics State , noted that Catch A Ride was " about the most technically challenging game you could do on a handheld machine " at the time of its release .
= = = Crazy Taxi : Fare Wars = = =
Crazy Taxi : Fare Wars was developed by Sniper Studios with support from members of the original Hitmaker Crazy Taxi design team in Japan and released for the PlayStation Portable on August 7 , 2007 . The game effectively is a port of both Crazy Taxi and Crazy Taxi 2 to this system without any changes to the gameplay , but lacking the in @-@ game advertising and the original soundtracks . While the game includes its own soundtrack , the player can use their own music stored on the PSP ; as noted by Jeff Hasson of Sniper Studios , " for those hard core fans that must have The Offspring playing , they have that option with the Custom Music Player . " The player can also record up to a minute of gameplay footage that can then be shared with friends . The game includes a multiplayer feature over the PSP 's ad @-@ hoc wireless system , allowing players to vie for fares within the same map , including the ability to steal passengers from another player . Multiplayer games such as time trials or " C @-@ R @-@ A @-@ Z @-@ Y " runs ( a variation of the game " Horse " ) can also be played sharing a common PSP , with each player taking turns within the game .
= = = Crazy Taxi City Rush = = =
Crazy Taxi City Rush was announced by Sega in March 2014 as a free @-@ to @-@ play mobile title for iOS and Android systems . City Rush is a game similar in concept to Temple Run , where the player does not have direct control of the speed of the taxi but can use touch motions to swerve in traffic and make turns .
= = Reception = =
The original Dreamcast version of Crazy Taxi was one of the best @-@ selling games for the console . The game was the second largest selling Dreamcast game in the United States in 2000 , selling nearly 750 @,@ 000 units , and is the third best @-@ selling Dreamcast game in the United States with over a million units sold . The game was praised for capturing the arcade flavor , and possibly exceeding it by making the controls and execution of the crazy stunts easier to perform . The game did suffer from " pop @-@ up " due to limited draw distances , and loss of frame rate when a large number of cars were on the screen . Critics noted the lack of depth given that it was a port of an arcade game , some difficulties with the destination arrow , and the poor " Wolfman Jack " impersonation of the in @-@ game announcer .
Crazy Taxi 2 was well received by reviewers with the new features helping to expand play from the original game , though some thought that more drastic changes could have been made in the sequel . Despite the addition of new maps , the lack of new gameplay elements caused Crazy Taxi 3 to be panned by reviewers . IGN noted in its review for Crazy Taxi 3 that " It 's clear that the creative vibrancy that first imagined the Taxi series has waned considerably . "
The ports of the original game to the PS2 and GameCube platforms are not considered as strong as the Dreamcast game . Both were noted to suffer from more " pop @-@ up " than the Dreamcast version , as well as poorer controls , despite having the same gameplay features . Graphic problems plagued the Crazy Taxi : Catch a Ride port to the Game Boy Advance ; as IGN stated , " it 's painfully obvious that the hardware just was never meant to push so much . " Both PC ports for Crazy Taxi and Crazy Taxi 3 also suffered from graphics problems .
The PSP ports of Crazy Taxi : Fare Wars have had a somewhat better reception than other ports . Reviews have complimented the game on the multiplayer additions and the ability to add a custom soundtrack – which led IGN to comment that " Including this should be a no @-@ brainer , but many PSP titles don 't " – but have noted some graphical glitches , the long loading times , and the lack of the original soundtracks for the games . The reviews of the controls of the game have mixed , with some praising the scheme on the PSP , while others have stated that the controls feel stiff and inconsistent . GameSpot 's review noted that the gameplay in Crazy Taxi does not hold up well compared to more recent racing games across various platforms .
A Crazy Taxi segment is featured in the " Sega Carnival " track in Sonic Riders , including a hidden shortcut allowing racers to receive a ride from taxi driver Axel ; a Crazy Taxi extreme gear can be unlocked as well . There is also a minigame based on Crazy Taxi in the EyeToy game , Sega Superstars , in which players move around and shout to call one of the taxi drivers . B.D. Joe , who has appeared in most games in the series , appears as a playable character in the cross @-@ series racing game , Sonic & Sega All @-@ Stars Racing . Sumo Digital 's Steve " S0L " Lycett had to get approval from SEGA AM3 in order to use B.D. Joe in the game . He also appeared in the sequel , Sonic & All @-@ Stars Racing Transformed .
= = Beyond video games = =
Sega has attempted to branch the Crazy Taxi franchise beyond the realm of video games , with varied results .
In addition to the video arcade games , Sega Enterprises , Inc . ( USA ) created a Crazy Taxi themed redemption game which was released in 2003 . The player had to roll their coin or token down the sloped playing surface past a moving taxi model in the center of the playing field in order to hit one of eight targets ( representing passengers ) at the far end . Passengers were worth different points , from which the operator would then set the amount of tickets to be won . The game incorporated music and sounds from the video games .
There have been two attempts to create a movie based on the Crazy Taxi franchise . In 2001 , Goodman @-@ Rosen Productions acquired the rights for the movie , with Richard Donner lined up to direct the film . Donner had stated " I loved playing ' Crazy Taxi , ' and I realized immediately that it had the potential to be a big summer event movie . " The movie would have been tied with other merchandise items such as T @-@ shirts and toys , according to Jane Thompson , director of licensing for Sega of America . However , this initial attempt stalled due to an " absence of plot elements " according to Movie Insider . After this option expired , Mindfire Entertainment acquired the rights to a Crazy Taxi movie based on the game franchise in 2002 , with an expected release date in mid @-@ 2003 . However , since then , no further news on the film has been forthcoming .
In 2003 , Sega entered a contract with DSI Toys to produce a remote controlled car in their " GearHead " line based on the Crazy Taxi franchise , but DSI filed for chapter 7 bankruptcy later that year . Sega has formed the production company Stories International and teaming up with Evan Cholfin for film and TV projects based on theirs games with Crazy Taxi as an animated project .
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