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= Niger women 's national football team =
The Niger women 's national football team is a FIFA @-@ recognised team representing Niger in international association football matches . The team has played in two FIFA recognised matches , both of which were losses to Burkina Faso women 's national football team in 2007 . There is an under @-@ 20 women 's national team who were supposed to participate in the 2002 African Women U @-@ 19 Championship but withdrew before playing a game . There are problems that impact the development of the women 's game in Africa that effect Niger .
= = Background and development = =
Early development of the women 's game at the time colonial powers brought football to the continent was limited as colonial powers in the region tended to take male concepts of patriarchy and women 's participation in sport with them to local cultures that had similar concepts already embedded in them . The lack of later development of the national team on a wider international level symptomatic of all African teams is a result of several factors , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality present in the society that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . When quality female football players are developed , they tend to leave for greater opportunities abroad . Continent wide , funding is also an issue , with most development money coming from FIFA , not the national football association . Future , success for women 's football in Africa is dependent on improved facilities and access by women to these facilities . Attempting to commercialise the game and make it commercially viable is not the solution , as demonstrated by the current existence of many youth and women 's football camps held throughout the continent .
Niger Football Federation was founded in 1967 and became a FIFA affiliate that same year . The FIFA trigramme is NIG . The national association does not have a full @-@ time staffer dedicated to women , and there are no organisational or constitutional provisions specifically pertaining to the women 's game .
No organised women 's football programme existed in the country despite football being one of the most popular sports in the country by 2009 . For women though , basketball is the most popular participation sport . In 2006 , there were zero registered female players and zero registered football clubs for women only . Rights to broadcast the 2011 Women 's World Cup in the country were bought by the African Union of Broadcasting and Supersport International .
= = Team = =
In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team including Niger who officially had no women 's national senior A team before 2006 and only had their first FIFA recognised international in 2007 when they competed at the Tournoi de Cinq Nations held in Ouagadougou . On 2 September , they lost to Burkina Faso 0 @-@ 10 . On 6 September , they lost to Burkina Faso 0 @-@ 5 . The country did not have a team competing in the 2010 African Women 's Championships during the preliminary rounds or the 2011 All Africa Games . In June 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA . The country has never been ranked by FIFA .
The country has had a Niger women 's national under @-@ 19 team who have competed in the 2002 African Women U @-@ 19 Championship , the first edition of the competition to be held . They had a bye in the first round . In the quarterfinals , they were supposed to play Morocco but Niger withdrew from the competition .
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= IB Diploma Programme =
The International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme ( IBDP ) is a two @-@ year educational programme primarily aimed at students aged 16 – 19 . The program provides an internationally accepted qualification for entry into higher education and is recognised by many universities worldwide . It was developed in the early to mid @-@ 1960s in Geneva , Switzerland , by a group of international educators . After a six @-@ year pilot programme ended in 1975 , a bilingual diploma was established .
Administered by the International Baccalaureate ( IB ) , the IBDP is taught in schools in over 140 countries , in one of three languages : English , French , or Spanish . In order to participate , students must attend an IB school . IBDP students complete assessments in six subjects , one from each subject group , and three core requirements . Students are evaluated using both internal and external assessments , and courses finish with an externally assessed series of examinations , usually consisting of two or three timed written tests . Internal assessment varies by subject : there may be oral presentations , practical work , or written work . In most cases , these are initially graded by the classroom teacher , whose grades are then verified or modified , as necessary , by an appointed external moderator .
Generally , the IBDP has been well received . It has been commended for introducing interdisciplinary thinking to students . In the United Kingdom , The Guardian newspaper claims that the IBDP is " more academically challenging and broader than three or four A @-@ levels " . However , a pledge to allow children in all areas to participate in the programme was shelved amid concerns that a " two @-@ tier " education system was emerging , because the growth in IB was driven by private schools and sixth form colleges . British students who take the IB with its six subjects , Extended Essay ( EE ) , Theory of Knowledge ( TOK ) , and Creativity , Action and Service ( CAS ) receive differently structured university offers to those who sit three A @-@ levels , with universities working carefully to construct appropriate equivalent offer conditions .
= = History and background = =
In 1948 the " Conference of Internationally @-@ minded Schools " asked the International School of Geneva ( Ecolint ) to create an international schools program . When he became director of Ecolint 's English division , Desmond Cole @-@ Baker began to develop the idea , and in 1962 , his colleague Robert Leach organised a conference in Geneva , at which the term " International Baccalaureate " was first mentioned . An American social studies teacher , Leach organized the conference — with a $ 2500 grant from UNESCO — which was attended by observers from European schools and UNESCO . Writing about the genesis of the International Baccalaureate in Schools Across Frontiers , Alec Peterson credits Leach as " the original promoter of the International Baccalaureate . " At the end of the conference , Unesco funded the International School Association with an additional $ 10 @,@ 000 , which was inadequate to do more than produce a few papers , or bring teachers together for meetings .
By 1964 , international educators such as Alec Peterson ( director of the Department of Education at Oxford University ) , Harlan Hanson ( director of the College Board Advanced Placement Program ) , Desmond Cole ( director of United Nations International School in New York ) and Desmond Cole @-@ Baker ( head of the International School of Geneva ) founded the International Schools Examination Syndicate ( ISES ) . Cole and Hanson brought experience with college entrance examinations in the United States , and Hanson , in particular , brought his experience from a long relationship with the College Board . According to Peterson , " the breakthrough in the history of the IB " came in 1965 with a grant from the Twentieth Century Fund , which commissioned Martin Mayer , author of The Schools , to produce a report on the feasibility of establishing a common curriculum and examination for international schools that would be acceptable for entry to universities worldwide . This led to conferences involving Ecolint , the United World College of the Atlantic ( Atlantic College ) , and others in the spring and fall of 1965 , at which details about the curriculum for the Diploma Programme were discussed and agreed upon .
The Ford Foundation grant , secured in 1966 , funded Peterson 's study at Oxford University , which focused on three issues : a comparative analysis of " secondary educational programmes in European countries ... in cooperation with the Council of Europe " ; university expectations for secondary students intending to enter university ; and a " statistical comparison of IB pilot examination results with ... national school leaving examinations such as British A Levels and US College Board ( AP ) Tests " . As a result of the study and the curriculum model developed at Atlantic College , Peterson initiated the pattern of combining " general education with specialization " , which melded with the curricula of the United States and Canada , and became the " curriculum framework " proposed at the UNESCO conference in Geneva in 1967 . Late in 1967 , ISES was restructured and renamed the IB Council of Foundation , and John Goormaghtigh became the first president in January 1968 . In 1967 , the group , which by then also included Ralph Tyler , identified eight schools to be used for the experimentation of the curriculum .
In 1968 , the IB headquarters were officially established in Geneva for the development and maintenance of the IBDP . Alec Peterson became IBO 's first director general , and in 1968 , twelve schools in twelve countries participated in the IBDP , including Atlantic College and UNIS of New York . The aim was to " provide an internationally acceptable university admissions qualification suitable for the growing mobile population of young people whose parents were part of the world of diplomacy , international and multi @-@ national organizations . "
The first six years of the IB Diploma Programme , with a limited number of students , are referred to as the " experimental period " . Each school was to be inspected by ISES or IBO and had to be approved by their government . The experimental period ended in 1975 , and in that year , the International Baccalaureate North America ( IBNA ) was established as a separate entity , allowing the funding for implementation of the IBDP to remain in the country rather than being sent to Geneva . The first official guide to the programme containing its syllabus and official assessment information was published in 1970 and included the theory of knowledge course . The extended essay was introduced in 1978 , but creativity , action , service ( CAS ) , although mentioned in guides beforehand , was not specifically identified in the guide until 1989 .
In 1980 , responding to criticism that the " internationalism " was Eurocentric , the IB hosted a seminar in Singapore with the goal of incorporating Asian culture and education into the IB curriculum . In 1982 , the Standing Conference of Heads of IB Schools took steps to modify the Eurocentrism in the curriculum . The same year , the Japanese government hosted a science conference for IBO " as a token of Japanese interest in the various dimensions of the IB " .
From the start , all subjects of the IB Diploma Programme were available in English and French , and it was mandatory for all students to study both a first and a second language . In 1974 , bilingual diplomas were introduced that allowed students to take one or more of their humanities or science subjects in a language other than their first . The IB Diploma Programme subjects became available in Spanish in 1983 .
= = Core requirements and subject groups = =
To be awarded an IB diploma , a candidate must fulfill three core requirements , in addition to passing his or her subject examinations :
Extended essay ( EE ) . Candidates must write an independent research essay of up to 4 @,@ 000 words in a subject from the list of approved EE subjects . The candidate may choose to investigate a topic within a subject they are currently studying , although this is not required . The EE may not be written on an interdisciplinary topic .
Theory of knowledge ( TOK ) . This course introduces students to theories about the nature and limitations of knowledge ( basic epistemology ) and provides practice in determining the meaning and validity of knowledge ( critical thinking ) . It is claimed to be a " flagship element " of the Diploma Programme , and is the one course that all diploma candidates are required to take . TOK requires 100 hours of instruction , the completion of an externally assessed essay of 1600 words ( from a choice of six titles prescribed by the IB worth 67 % ) , and an internally assessed presentation ( worth 33 % ) on the candidate 's chosen topic .
Creativity , activity , service ( CAS ) . CAS aims to provide students with opportunities for personal growth , self @-@ reflection , intellectual , physical and creative challenges , and awareness of themselves as responsible members of their communities through participation in social or community work ( service ) , athletics or other physical activities ( activity ) , and creative activities ( creativity ) . The guideline for the minimum amount of CAS activity over the two @-@ year programme is approximately 3 – 4 hours per week , though " hour counting ” is not encouraged . Previously , there was a requirement that 150 CAS hours be completed , but this was abolished in 2010 . However , some schools still require these hours .
Subject groups
Students who pursue the IB diploma must take six subjects : one each from Groups 1 – 5 , and either one from Group 6 or a permitted substitute from one of the other groups , as described below . Three or four subjects must be taken at Higher level ( HL ) and the rest at Standard level ( SL ) . The IB recommends a minimum of 240 hours of instructional time for HL courses and 150 hours for SL courses .
While the IB encourages students to pursue the full IB diploma , the " substantial workload require a great deal of commitment , organization , and initiative " . Students may instead choose to register for one or more individual IB subjects , without the core requirements . Such students will not receive the full diploma .
The six IBDP subject groups and course offerings are summarised below . More information about the subject groups and individual courses can be found at the respective subject group articles :
Group 1 : Studies in language and literature . Taken at either SL or HL , this is generally the student 's native language , with over 80 languages available . As of courses starting in summer 2011 , there are two options for Language A ( previously A1 ) : Literature , which is very similar to the old course , and Language and Literature , a slightly more challenging adaptation of the former Group 2 Language A2 subjects , which have been withdrawn . The interdisciplinary subject Literature and Performance can also be taken at SL .
Group 2 : Language acquisition . An additional language , taken at the following levels : Language B ( SL or HL ) , or Language ab initio ( SL only ) . Latin and Classical Greek are also offered and may be taken at SL or HL . Following the replacement of the Language A2 option with the Group 1 Language and Literature offering for courses starting in summer 2011 , the Language B syllabus was changed : the coursework is now more rigorous , and at HL , there is the compulsory study of two works of literature ( although this is for comprehension rather than analysis and is only assessed through coursework ) . In addition , B SL students can study one of the texts as a replacement for the optional topics .
Group 3 : Individuals and societies . Humanities and social sciences courses offered at both SL and HL : Business and Management , Economics , Geography , History , Information Technology in a Global Society ( ITGS ) , Philosophy , Psychology , and Social and Cultural Anthropology . The course World Religions , the interdisciplinary course Environmental Systems and Societies , and the pilot course Global Politics are also offered at SL only .
Group 4 : Experimental sciences . Five courses are offered at both SL and HL : Chemistry , Biology , Physics , Design Technology and Computer Science . The course Sport , Exercise and Health Science and the interdisciplinary course Environmental Systems and Societies are offered at SL only .
Group 5 : Mathematics . In order of increasing difficulty , the courses offered are Mathematical Studies SL , Mathematics SL and HL , and Further Mathematics SL and HL . The computer science elective courses were moved to Group 4 as a full course from first examinations in 2014 .
Group 6 : The arts . Courses offered at both SL and HL : Dance , foreign languages , Music , Theatre , Visual Arts , and Film . In lieu of taking a Group 6 course , students may choose to take an additional course from Groups 1 – 4 or either Further Mathematics HL ( if already studying Mathematics HL ) a Computer science course from Group 4 , or a school @-@ based syllabus course approved by IB . The interdisciplinary subject Literature and Performance is also offered , although currently only at SL .
Environmental systems and societies SL is an interdisciplinary course designed to meet the diploma requirements for groups 3 and 4 , while Literature and Performance SL meets the requirements of Groups 1 and 6 .
Online Diploma Programme and pilot courses
The IB is developing a pilot online version of the IBDP and currently offers several online courses to IBDP students . Eventually , it expects to offer online courses to any student who wishes to register . Additionally , the IB has developed pilot courses that include World Religions ; Sports , Exercise and Health Sciences , Dance , and a transdisciplinary pilot course , Literature and Performance . These pilot courses have now become part of the mainstream courses . Currently , Global Politics is a pilot course that is intended to become mainstream in September 2015 .
= = Assessment and awards = =
All subjects ( with the exception of CAS ) are evaluated using both internal and external assessors . The externally assessed examinations are given worldwide in May ( usually for Northern Hemisphere schools ) and in November ( usually for Southern Hemisphere schools ) . Each exam usually consists of two or three papers , generally written on the same or successive weekdays . The different papers may have different forms of questions , or they may focus on different areas of the subject syllabus . For example , in Chemistry SL , paper 1 has multiple choice questions , paper 2 has extended response questions and data analysis , and paper 3 focuses on the " Option ( s ) " selected by the teacher . The grading of all external assessments is done by independent examiners appointed by the IB .
The nature of the internal assessment ( IA ) varies by subject . There may be oral presentations ( used in languages ) , practical work ( in experimental sciences and performing arts ) , or written work . Internal assessment accounts for 20 to 50 percent of the mark awarded for each subject and is marked by a teacher in the school . A sample of at least five per subject at each level from a school will also be graded by a moderator appointed by the IB , in a process called external moderation of internal assessment . Based on this moderation , the grades of the whole subject from that school will change .
Points are awarded from 1 to 7 , with 7 being equal to A * , 6 equal to A , and so on . Up to three additional points are awarded depending on the grades achieved in the extended essay and theory of knowledge , so the maximum possible point total in the IBDP is 45 . The global pass rate for the IB diploma is approximately 80 % . In order to receive an IB diploma , candidates must receive a minimum of 24 points or an average of four ( or C ) out of a possible seven points for six subjects . Candidates must also receive a minimum of 12 points from their Higher Level subjects and a minimum of 9 points from their Standard Level subjects . Additionally , candidates must complete all of the requirements for the EE , CAS and TOK . Failing conditions that will prevent a student from being awarded a diploma , regardless of points received , are non @-@ completion of CAS , more than three scores of 3 or below , not meeting the specific points required for Higher Level or Standard Level subjects , or plagiarism .
Candidates who successfully complete all the requirements of the IB Diploma Programme and one or more of the following combinations are eligible to receive a bilingual diploma : two Group 1 subjects ( of different languages ) , a Group 3 or 4 subject taken in a language other than the candidate 's Group 1 language , or an Extended Essay in a Group 3 or Group 4 subject written in a language other than the candidate 's Group 1 language . IB certificates are issued to indicate completion of diploma courses and exams for non @-@ diploma candidate students .
Special circumstances
Where standard assessment conditions could put a student with special educational needs at a disadvantage , special arrangements may be allowed . The Candidates with Special Assessment Needs publication contains information regarding procedures and arrangements for students with special needs .
= = Application and authorization = =
To offer the IB Diploma Programme , an institution must go through an application process , and during that period the teachers are trained in the IB . At the end of the application process , IB conducts an authorisation visit . Once a school is authorised to offer the programme , an annual fee ensures ongoing support from the IB , legal authorisation to display the IB logo , and access to the Online Curriculum Centre ( OCC ) and the IB Information System ( IBIS ) . The OCC provides information , resources , and support for IB teachers and coordinators . IBIS is a database employed by IB coordinators . Other IB fees also include student registration and individual diploma subject examination fees .
= = University recognition = =
The IB diploma is accepted in 75 countries at over 2 @,@ 000 universities , and the IB has a search directory on its website , although it advises students to check recognition policies directly with each university . The IB also maintains a list of universities offering scholarships to IBDP graduates under conditions specified by each institution , including 58 colleges and universities in the United States . The following is an overview of university recognition policies in various countries .
For the purposes of university admissions in Austria , the IB diploma is considered a foreign secondary school leaving certificate , even if the school issuing the diploma is in the country . Admission decisions are at the discretion of higher education institutions .
In Finland , the IB diploma gives the same qualification for matriculation as the national matriculation examination . The core requirements differ very little , although the Finnish degree has more electives and languages are a larger part of the final grading .
In France , the IBDP is one of the foreign diplomas that allow students access into French universities .
Germany sets certain conditions for the IB diploma to be accepted ( a foreign language at minimum A2 Standard Level ; mathematics Standard Level minimum ; economics , geography , or history as the Group 3 subject ; and at least one science or mathematics course at Higher Level ) . German International Baccalaureate students in some schools are able to earn a " bilingual diploma " that gains them access to German universities ; half of the classes in this programme are held in German .
The Italian Ministry of Education recognises the IB diploma as academically equivalent to the national diploma , provided the curriculum includes the Italian language and the particular IB programme is accepted for H.E.D. matriculation in Italy .
Spain considers the IB diploma academically equivalent to the " Título de bachillerato español " . As of 1 June 2008 , IB diploma holders no longer need to pass the University Entrance Examination to be admitted to Spanish universities .
Turkish universities accept the IB diploma , but all applicants are required by law to take the university entrance examinations .
According to the IB , there are two universities in Russia that officially recognise the IB diploma subject to certain guidelines . The Russian Ministry of Education considers the IB diploma issued by state @-@ accredited IB schools in Russia equivalent to the certificate of secondary ( complete ) general education ( attestat ) .
In the United Kingdom , UCAS publishes a university entrance tariff table that converts IB and other qualifications into standardised " tariff points " , but these are not binding , so institutions are free to set minimum entry requirements for IB candidates that are not the same as those for A level candidates . Most universities in the UK require IB students to take more courses than A @-@ level students — requiring , for instance , four As and two Bs from an IB student , whereas an A @-@ level student will only need an ABB — because each subject taken as a part of the IB gives a less broad coverage of a similar subject taken at A @-@ level .
Although every university in Australia accepts the IB diploma , entry criteria differ from university to university . Some universities accept students on their IB point count , whereas others require the points to be converted . In most states , this is based on the Australian Tertiary Admission Rank ( ATAR ) . In Queensland , IBDP scores are converted to a QTAC scale to determine selection rank .
In the United States , institutions of higher education set their own admission and credit policies for IB diploma recognition . Colorado and Texas have legislation requiring universities to adopt and implement policy which awards college credit to students who have successfully completed the IBDP .
In Canada , IB North America publishes a IB Recognition Policy Summary for Canadian Universities . Peruvian universities do not officially accept the IB diploma . However , the Ministry of Education may grant partial equivalence to national diploma for students who have satisfactorily completed the fourth year of high school in the country .
In Hong Kong , IB diploma students may apply to universities as non @-@ JUPAS ( Joint University Programmes Admissions System ) .
The People 's Republic of China does not formally accept the IB diploma for university qualification .
In the 2008 – 2009 prospectus in Singapore , the National University of Singapore ( NUS ) accepts the IBDP as a high school qualification for Singapore universities . University requirements are as follows : three HL subjects with scores of 5 or better , two SL subjects with scores of 4 or better , and a grade of 4 or better in English A , Standard Level .
In India , the Association of Indian Universities recognises the IBDP as an entry qualification to all universities , provided that the applicants include a document from the IB detailing percentage equivalency and that specific course requirements for admission to medical and engineering programs are satisfied .
= = Reception = =
The IBDP was described as " a rigorous , off @-@ the @-@ shelf curriculum recognized by universities around the world ” in the December 10 , 2006 , edition of Time magazine , in an article titled " How to bring our schools out of the 20th century " . It was also featured in the summer 2002 edition of American Educator , where Robert Rothman described it as " a good example of an effective , instructionally sound , exam @-@ based system " . Howard Gardner , a professor of educational psychology at Harvard University , said that the IBDP curriculum is " less parochial than most American efforts " and helps students " think critically , synthesize knowledge , reflect on their own thought processes and get their feet wet in interdisciplinary thinking " . An admissions officer at Brown University claims the IBDP garners widespread respect .
In the United Kingdom , the IBDP is " regarded as more academically challenging but broader than three or four A @-@ levels " , according to an article in the Guardian . In 2006 , government ministers provided funding so that " every local authority in England could have at least one centre offering sixth @-@ formers the chance to do the IB " . In 2008 , Children 's Secretary Ed Balls abandoned a " flagship Tony Blair pledge to allow children in all areas to study IB " . Fears of a " two @-@ tier " education system further dividing education between the rich and the poor emerged as the growth in IB is driven by private schools and sixth @-@ form colleges .
In the United States , criticism of the IBDP has centered on the claim that it is anti @-@ American , according to The New York Times . Early funding from UNESCO , and the organization 's ties to the United Nations are cited as objectionable . The cost of the program is also considered to be too high . In 2012 , the school board in Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho , voted to eliminate all IB programmes in the district because of low participation and high costs .
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= Andrew III of Hungary =
Andrew III the Venetian ( Hungarian : III . Velencei András , Croatian : Andrija III . Mlečanin , Slovak : Ondrej III . ; c . 1265 – 14 January 1301 ) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1290 and 1301 . His father , Stephen the Posthumous , was the posthumous son of Andrew II of Hungary although Stephen 's brothers considered him a bastard . Andrew grew up in Venice , and first arrived in Hungary upon the invitation of a rebellious baron , Ivan Kőszegi , in 1278 . Kőszegi tried to play Andrew off against Ladislaus IV of Hungary , but the conspiracy collapsed and Andrew returned to Venice .
Being the last male member of the House of Árpád , Andrew was elected king after the death of King Ladislaus IV in 1290 . He was the first Hungarian monarch to issue a coronation diploma confirming the privileges of the noblemen and the clergy . At least three pretenders — Albert of Austria , Mary of Hungary , and an adventurer — challenged his claim to the throne . Andrew expelled the adventurer from Hungary and forced Albert of Austria to conclude a peace within a year , but Mary of Hungary and her descendants did not renounce their claim . The Hungarian bishops and Andrew 's maternal family from Venice were his principal supporters , but the leading Croatian and Slavonian lords were opposed to his rule .
Hungary was in a state of constant anarchy during Andrew 's reign . The Kőszegis , the Csáks , and other powerful families autonomously governed their domains , rising up nearly every year in open rebellion against Andrew . With Andrew 's death , the House of Árpád became extinct . A civil war ensued which lasted for more than two decades and ended with the victory of Mary of Hungary 's grandson , Charles Robert .
= = Childhood ( c . 1265 – 1278 ) = =
Andrew was the son of Stephen the Posthumous , the self @-@ styled Duke of Slavonia , and his second wife , Tomasina Morosini . Andrew 's father was born to Beatrice D 'Este , the third wife of Andrew II of Hungary , after the king 's death . However , Andrew II 's two elder sons , Béla IV of Hungary and Coloman of Halych , accused Beatrice D 'Este of adultery and refused to acknowledge Stephen the Posthumous as their legitimate brother . Andrew 's mother , Tomasina Morosini , was the daughter of wealthy Venetian patrician Michele Morosini .
The exact date of Andrew 's birth is unknown . According to historians Tibor Almási , Gyula Kristó , and Attila Zsoldos , he was born in about 1265 . Stephen the Posthumous nominated his wife 's two kinsmen , including her brother Alberto Morosini , as Andrew 's guardians before his death in 1272 .
= = Pretender ( 1278 – 1290 ) = =
Andrew came to Hungary for the first time in 1278 at the invitation of a powerful lord , Ivan Kőszegi . Kőszegi wanted to play Andrew off against Ladislaus IV of Hungary . Andrew , who was the only male member of the royal family besides the king , adopted the title of " Duke of Slavonia , Dalmatia and Croatia " and marched as far as Lake Balaton . Andrew achieved nothing , however , and went back to Venice in autumn .
Andrew returned to Hungary at the beginning of 1290 . On this occasion , Lodomer , Archbishop of Esztergom , also urged him to come , since the archbishop wanted to dethrone the excommunicated Ladislaus IV with the assistance of Ivan Kőszegi . Before Andrew was successful , Arnold Hahót , an enemy of the Kőszegis , invited him to the fort of Štrigova and captured him . Hahót sent Andrew to Vienna , where Albert I , Duke of Austria , held him in captivity .
Three Cuman assassins murdered Ladislaus IV on 10 July 1290 , and Archbishop Lodomer subsequently dispatched two monks to Vienna to inform Andrew of the king 's death . With the monks ' assistance , Andrew left his prison in disguise and hastened to Hungary .
= = Reign = =
= = = Coronation and pretenders ( 1290 – 1293 ) = = =
Upon Andrew 's arrival , his opponents tried to bribe Theodor , Prior of the Székesfehérvár Chapter , not to hand over the Holy Crown of Hungary to the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ king , but the prior refused them . Archbishop Lodomer crowned Andrew king in Székesfehérvár on 23 July . The lords and prelates swore loyalty to Andrew only after he issued a charter promising the restoration of internal peace and respect for the privileges of the nobility and the clergymen . He then appointed the most powerful noblemen , who had for years administered their domains independently of the monarch , to the highest offices . Amadeus Aba , who dominated the northeastern parts of the kingdom , was made palatine , Ivan Kőszegi , the lord of the western parts of Transdanubia , became master of the treasury , and Roland Borsa remained the voivode of Transylvania . Andrew held a diet before 1 September . To put an end to anarchy , the " prelates , barons and noblemen " ordered the destruction of castles which had been erected without royal permission and the restoration of estates that had been unlawfully seized to their rightful owners . Andrew promised that he would hold a diet each year during his reign .
There were several other challengers to Andrew 's claim to the throne . Rudolf I of Germany claimed that Hungary escheated to him after Ladislaus IV 's childless death , because Ladislaus IV 's grandfather , Béla IV of Hungary , had sworn fidelity to Frederick II , Holy Roman Emperor during the Mongol invasion of Hungary . Although Pope Innocent IV had years before freed Béla IV of his oath , Rudolf I of Germany attempted to bestow Hungary on his own son , Albert of Austria , on 31 August . The self @-@ declared " Andrew , Duke of Slavonia " — an adventurer who claimed to be identical to Ladislaus IV 's dead younger brother — also challenged King Andrew 's right to the crown and stormed into Hungary from Poland . He was shortly thereafter forced to return to Poland , where he was murdered .
Andrew married Fenenna , the daughter of Ziemomysł of Kuyavia , before the end of 1290 . Andrew then held a general assembly for the barons and the noblemen of five counties to the east of the river Tisza — Bihar , Kraszna , Szabolcs , Szatmár , and Szolnok — at Nagyvárad ( now Oradea in Romania ) in early 1291 . The assembly outlawed Stephen Balogsemjén , a staunch supporter of the late Ladislaus IV , for major trespass . From the assembly , Andrew went to Gyulafehérvár ( now Alba Iulia in Romania ) . Here he issued the decrees of his 1290 diet at the assembly of the local noblemen , Saxons , Székelys and Romanians , in February or March . Around the same time , Andrew dismissed Amadeus Aba and made Iván Kőszegi palatine .
Ladislaus IV 's sister Mary , wife of Charles II of Naples , announced her claim to the throne in April 1291 . The Babonići , Frankopans , Šubići , and other leading Croatian and Slavonian noble families accepted her as the lawful monarch . Andrew 's main concern , however , was Albert of Austria 's claim . He invaded Austria , forcing Albert to withdraw his garrisons from the towns and fortresses — including Pressburg ( now Bratislava in Slovakia ) and Sopron — that he had captured years before , many of which were held by the Kőszegis before their conquest . The Peace of Hainburg , which concluded the war , was signed on 26 August , and three days later Andrew and Albert of Austria confirmed it at their meeting in Köpcsény ( now Kopčany in Slovakia ) . The peace treaty prescribed the destruction of the fortresses that Albert of Austria had seized from the Kőszegis . The Kőszegis rose up in open rebellion against Andrew in spring 1292 , acknowledging Mary 's son , Charles Martel , as King of Hungary . The royal troops subdued the rebellion by July , but the Kőszegis captured and imprisoned Andrew during his journey to Slavonia in August . Andrew was liberated within four months , after his supporters sent their relatives as hostages to the Kőszegis .
= = = Rebellions and attempts to consolidate ( 1293 – 1298 ) = = =
Upon Andrew 's request , his mother , Tomasina , moved to Hungary in 1293 . Andrew appointed her to administer Croatia , Dalmatia , and Slavonia . Due to her activities , the Babonići , Šubići , and the Dalmatian towns , acknowledged Andrew 's rule . Andrew visited the northern parts of Hungary and ordered the revision of former land grants in February . After his return to Buda , he again made Amadeus Aba palatine . In August , Andrew arranged a marriage between his niece , Constance Morosini , and Vladislav , son of Stefan Dragutin of Serbia , who had earlier acknowledged Charles Martel 's claim to Hungary .
Roland Borsa besieged and captured Benedict , Bishop of Várad 's fortress at Fenes ( now Finiș in Romania ) on 23 May 1294 . Andrew held a general assembly and outlawed Borsa . According to historian Attila Zsoldos , he made Nicholas Kőszegi palatine on this occasion . Andrew laid siege to Borsa 's fort at Adorján ( now Adrian in Romania ) . The siege lasted three months before the fort fell to Andrew in October . Andrew replaced Roland Borsa with Ladislaus III Kán as voivode of Transylvania , but the former preserved all his domains in the lands east of the Tisza .
The Croatian lord Paul Šubić again turned against Andrew and joined the camp of Charles Martel in early 1295 , but Charles died in August . Within two months , the Babonići also rebelled against Andrew . Early the next year , the recently widowed King Andrew visited Vienna and arranged a marriage with Duke Albert 's daughter Agnes . The Kőszegis soon rose up in open rebellion . Andrew declared war on the rebels , and Archbishop Lodomer excommunicated them . Andrew and Albert jointly seized the Kőszegis ' main fort at Kőszeg in October , but could not subdue them . Andrew 's mother seems to have died at the end of the year because references to her activities disappear from the contemporaneous documents .
Matthew III Csák , whom Andrew had made palatine in 1296 , turned against Andrew at the end of 1297 . Andrew 's staunch supporter , Archbishop Lodomer , died around the same time . In early February of 1298 , Andrew visited Albert of Austria in Vienna and promised to support him against Adolf of Nassau , King of Germany . Andrew sent an auxiliary troop , and Albert of Austria routed King Adolf in the Battle of Göllheim on 2 July .
= = = Last years ( 1298 – 1301 ) = = =
Andrew held an assembly of the prelates , noblemen , Saxons , Székelys , and Cumans in Pest in the summer of 1298 . The preamble to the decrees that were passed at the diet mentioned " the laxity of the lord king " . The decrees authorized Andrew to destroy forts built without permission and ordered the punishment of those who had seized landed property with force , but also threatened Andrew with excommunication if he did not apply the decrees . At the gathering , he appointed his uncle , Albertino Morosini , Duke of Slavonia . After the close of the diet , Andrew entered into a formal alliance with five influential noblemen , including Amadeus Aba , who stated that they were willing to support him against the Pope and the bishops . Gregory Bicskei , the Archbishop @-@ elect and Apostolic Administrator of Esztergom , forbade the prelates to participate at a new diet which was held in 1299 . The prelates ignored the archbishop 's order and Andrew deprived him of Esztergom County .
A group of powerful lords — including the Šubići , Kőszegis and Csáks — urged Charles IΙ of Naples to send his grandson , the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Charles Robert , to Hungary in order to become king . The young Charles Robert disembarked in Split in August 1300 . Most Croatian and Slavonian lords and all Dalmatian towns but Trogir recognized him as king before he marched to Zagreb . The Kőszegis and Matthew Csák , however , were shortly reconciled with Andrew , preventing Charles ' success . Andrew 's envoy to the Holy See noted that Pope Boniface VIII did not support Charles Robert 's adventure , either . Andrew , who had been in poor health for a while , was planning to capture his opponent , but he died in Buda Castle on 14 January 1301 . According to historians Attila Zsoldos and Gyula Kristó , the contemporaneous gossip suggesting that Andrew was poisoned cannot be proved .
Andrew was buried in the Franciscan church in Buda . Years later , Palatine Stephen Ákos referred to Andrew as the " last golden branch " of the tree of King Saint Stephen 's family , because with Andrew 's death the House of Árpád , the first royal dynasty of Hungary , ended . A civil war between various claimants to the throne — Charles Robert , Wenceslaus of Bohemia , and Otto of Bavaria — followed Andrew 's death and lasted for seven years . The civil war ended with Charles Robert 's victory , but he was forced to continue fighting against the Kőszegis , the Abas , Matthew Csák , and other powerful lords up to the early 1320s .
= = Family = =
Andrew 's first wife , Fenenna of Kuyavia , gave birth to a daughter , Elizabeth , in 1291 or 1292 , but died in 1295 . Elizabeth became engaged to Wenceslaus , the heir to Wenceslaus II of Bohemia , in 1298 , but the betrothal was broken in 1305 . She joined the Dominican convent at Töss where she died a nun on 5 May 1338 . She is now venerated as Blessed Elizabeth of Töss . Andrew 's second wife , Agnes of Austria , was born in 1280 . She survived her husband , but did not marry again ; she died in the Königsfelden Monastery of the Poor Clares in 1364 .
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= White Zombie ( film ) =
White Zombie is a 1932 American Pre @-@ Code horror film directed and independently produced by Victor and Edward Halperin . The screenplay by Garnett Weston , based on The Magic Island by William Seabrook , tells the story of a young woman 's transformation into a zombie at the hands of an evil voodoo master . Béla Lugosi stars as the antagonist , Murder Legendre , with Madge Bellamy appearing as his victim . Other cast members included Robert W. Frazer , John Harron and Joseph Cawthorn .
Large portions of White Zombie were shot on the Universal Studios lot , borrowing many props and scenery from other horror films of the era . White Zombie opened in New York to negative reception , with reviewers criticizing the film 's over @-@ the @-@ top story and weak acting performances . While the film made a substantial financial profit as an independent feature , it proved to be less popular than other horror films of the time .
White Zombie is considered the first feature length zombie film . A sequel to the film , titled Revolt of the Zombies , opened in 1936 . Modern reception to White Zombie has been more positive than its initial release . Some critics have praised the atmosphere of the film , comparing it to the 1940s horror film productions of Val Lewton , while others still have an unfavorable opinion on the quality of the acting .
= = Plot summary = =
On arrival in Haiti , Madeleine Short reunites with her fiancé Neil Parker , with imminent plans to be married . On the way to their lodging , the couple 's coach passes Murder Legendre , an evil voodoo master , who observes them with interest and manages to grab Madeleine 's scarf . Neil and Madeleine arrive at the home of the wealthy plantation owner , Charles Beaumont . Charles 's love of Madeleine prompts him to meet Murder secretly in Murder 's sugarcane mill , operated entirely by zombies . Charles wants to convince Madeleine to marry him and solicits Murder 's supernatural assistance . Murder states that the only way to help Charles is to transform Madeleine into a zombie with a potion . Beaumont agrees and surreptitiously gives the potion to Madeleine . Shortly after Madeleine and Neil 's wedding ceremony , the potion takes effect on Madeleine and she appears to die . After her funeral , Murder and Charles enter Madeleine 's tomb at night and Murder revives her as a zombie . Drunk and depressed , Neil imagines ghostly apparitions of Madeleine and goes to her tomb . Finding it empty , Neil seeks assistance from the local missionary , Dr. Bruner , who recounts how Murder turned many of his rivals into zombies , who now guard his estate . The two men journey to Murder 's cliffside castle to rescue Madeleine .
At the castle , Charles has begun to regret Madeleine 's transformation and begs Murder to return her to life , but Murder refuses . Charles discovers he has been tainted by Murder 's voodoo and is transforming into a zombie . As Neil enters the fortress , Murder senses his presence and silently orders Madeleine to kill Neil . She approaches Neil with a knife , but Bruner stops her . Neil follows Madeleine to an escarpment , where Murder commands his zombie guardians to kill Neil . Bruner approaches Murder and knocks him out , breaking Murder 's mental control over his zombies . Undirected , the zombies topple off the cliff . Murder awakens and eludes Neil and Bruner , but Charles pushes Murder off the cliff . Charles loses his balance and also falls to his death . Murder 's death releases Madeleine from her zombie trance , and she awakens to embrace Neil .
= = Cast = =
Béla Lugosi as ' Murder ' Legendre , a white Haitian voodoo master who commands a crew of zombies .
Madge Bellamy as Madeleine Short Parker , the fiancée of Neil who is turned into a zombie by Murder Legendre .
John Harron as Neil Parker , a bank employee .
Robert Frazer as Charles Beaumont , a plantation owner who is in love with Madeleine .
Clarence Muse as the coach driver , who leaving Madeleine and Neil in Haiti .
Joseph Cawthorn as Dr. Bruner : a missionary who later helps Neil Parker save Madeleine .
Brandon Hurst as Silver , Beaumont 's butler .
George Burr Macannan as Von Gelder , a formerly rich man who has fallen under Legendre 's spell to become a zombie .
Frederick Peters as Chauvin , a former executioner who has become a zombie under Legendre 's control .
Annette Stone as Maid .
John Printz as Ledot , a zombie .
Dan Crimmins as Pierre , a witch doctor .
Claude Morgan as zombie .
John Fergusson as zombie .
Velma Gresham as Tall Maid .
= = Production = =
White Zombie went into development in early 1932 . The Halperins leased office space from Universal Studios to get their film ( then titled Zombie ) underway . The film 's zombie theme was inspired by the Broadway play by Kenneth Webb titled Zombie . The screenplay for White Zombie was written by Garnett Weston . Weston 's screenplay focuses more on action than dialog . To aid the Halperins , producer Phil Goldstone helped secure funds for White Zombie as he had for other independent films at the time .
White Zombie was filmed in eleven days in March 1932 and was shot at the Universal Studios lot and Bronson Canyon on such a small budget that it had to film at night . Other than Béla Lugosi and Joseph Cawthorn , the majority of the cast in White Zombie were actors whose fame had diminished since the silent film era . By the time Lugosi appeared in White Zombie , he was already popular with contemporary audiences after his starring role in the hit 1931 film , Dracula . Sources vary about Lugosi 's salary for White Zombie . Claims range between US $ 500 to $ 900 . Richard Sheffield , who was his close friend in the 1950s , reported a payment of $ 5 @,@ 000 for White Zombie on Lugosi 's tax returns . The cast and crew 's reaction to Lugosi on the set was mixed . Madge Bellamy recalled her collaboration with Lugosi positively , stating that he was very pleasant and that he used to kiss her hand in the morning when they would come on to the set . In contrast , assistant cameraman Enzo Martinelli remarked that " Lugosi wasn 't really a friendly type " on set .
Phil Goldstone had previously worked with Bellamy and offered her the role of Madeleine Short for a salary of $ 5 @,@ 000 . For the role of Dr. Bruner , the Halperins looked for an actor with name value and decided to cast Joseph Cawthorn , who was then known to audiences only as comic relief in stage and film roles . Set designer Ralph Berger utilized the rented sets of previous Universal Studios films . These sets included the great halls from Dracula , pillars and a hanging balcony from The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1923 ) , the dark corridors from Frankenstein ( 1931 ) and chairs from The Cat and the Canary ( 1927 ) . In addition to Berger , assistant director William Cody and sound director L.E. " Pete " Clark earned their first film credit by working on White Zombie . Jack Pierce , Lugosi 's make @-@ up artist on White Zombie , had been responsible for the make @-@ up of several other famous horror films of the era including Frankenstein , The Wolf Man , and The Mummy ( 1932 ) .
The music of White Zombie was supervised by Abe Meyer . Instead of using pre @-@ recorded music , Meyer had orchestras record new versions of compositions for each specific film he was involved in . The music in White Zombie draws from works including Mussorgsky 's " Pictures at an Exhibition " , Gaston Borch 's " Incidental Symphonies " , and Hugo Riesenfeld 's " Death of the Great Chief " . Other pieces on the White Zombie soundtrack include music written by Richard Wagner , H. Maurice Jacquet , Leo Kempenski , and Franz Liszt . The film begins with " Chant " , a composition of wordless vocals and drumming , created by Universal Studios employee Guy Bevier Williams , a specialist in ethnic music .
= = Release = =
White Zombie experienced distribution problems from the beginning , and went through several film studios including Columbia Studios and Educational Pictures before its initial release . United Artists had been distributing several independent and foreign films that year and bought the rights to release White Zombie . A preview of White Zombie 's first cut was shown on June 16 , 1932 , in New York City . This print of White Zombie had a running time of 74 minutes , whereas the regular distribution prints ran for only 69 minutes .
= = = Critical response = = =
Most critical reviews focused on the poor acting and over @-@ the @-@ top storyline . William Boehnel of the New York World @-@ Telegram stated : " The plot ... is really ridiculous , but not so startlingly so as the acting . " Thornton Delehaney of the New York Evening Post wrote , " [ T ] he story tries to out @-@ Frankenstein Frankenstein , and so earnest is it in its attempt to be thrilling that it overreaches its mark all along the line and resolves into an unintentional and often hilarious comedy . " Irene Thirer of the New York Daily News wrote , " Many fantastic and eerie scenes are evolved , but most of them border on ludicrous " . Industry trade reviews were more positive . The Film Daily wrote : " It rates with the best of this type of film [ ... ] Bela Lugosi is very impressive and makes the picture worthwhile " . Harrison 's Reports wrote , " [ The film ] is certainly not up to the standards of Dracula or Frankenstein , but the types of audience that go for horror pictures will enjoy it " .
National media outlet reviewers were generally negative . Frederic Smith of Commonweal opined , " [ The film is ] interesting only in measure of its complete failure " . Liberty wrote , " If you do not get a shock out of this thriller , you will get one out of the acting " . In Vanity Fair 's " Worst Movie of 1932 " article , Pare Lorentz wrote about a " Terrific deadlock with Blonde Venus holding a slight lead over White Zombie , Bring ' Em Back Alive , and Murders in the Rue Morgue " . In the United Kingdom , press was mixed . The Kinematograph Weekly thought the film was " quite well acted , and has good atmosphere " but thought , too , it was " not for the squeamish or the highly intelligent " . The Cinema News and Property Gazette thought the film was for the " less sophisticated " and that the " exaggerated treatment of the subject achieves reverse effect to thrill or conviction " . Years after the film 's release , Victor Halperin expressed a distaste for his horror films : " I don 't believe in fear , violence , and horror , so why traffic in them ? "
Modern critical reception has been mixed , with critics praising the film 's atmosphere while deprecating the acting . Time Out London wrote , " Halperin shoots this poetic melodrama as trance ... The unique result constitutes a virtual bridge between classic Universal horror and the later Val Lewton productions . " TV Guide gave the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , comparing the film 's atmosphere to Carl Dreyer 's film Vampyr . However , the magazine described the acting as " woefully inadequate " , with the exception of Lugosi . Edward G. Bansk , a Val Lewton biographer , identified several flaws in White Zombie , including poor acting , bad timing and other " haphazard and sloppy " film aspects . Bansk wrote , " Although White Zombie is a film with courage , a film difficult not to admire , its ambitions overstep competence of its principal players . "
= = = Box office = = =
White Zombie premiered on July 28 , 1932 , in New York City 's Rivoli Theatre . The film received a mixed box office reception upon its initial release , but was a great financial success for an independent film at the time . In 1933 and 1934 , the film experienced positive box @-@ office numbers in small towns in the United States , as well as in Germany under the title Flucht von der Teufelsinsel . White Zombie was one of the few American horror films to be approved by the Nazis . The popularity of the film led Victor Halperin to a contract with Paramount Studios .
Opening on July 29 , 1932 , in Providence , Rhode Island and Indianapolis , Indiana , the film grossed $ 9 @,@ 900 and $ 5 @,@ 000 , respectively , following one @-@ week engagements . Frankenstein and other contemporary horror films had grossed more in Providence , and the Indianapolis theater " wasn 't too happy with White Zombie , but what audiences saw it were pleased enough . " In Cleveland , Ohio , White Zombie sold a record 16 @,@ 728 tickets its first weekend on its initial release in August . In Montreal , Canada , the film opened August 3 at the Princess Theatre . The facade had been transformed into a " House of the Living Dead " and " zombies " walked atop the marquee . The film failed to gross its estimated $ 8 @,@ 000 and earned only $ 6 @,@ 500 following a one @-@ week run at the Princess Theatre . In comparison , Dracula had grossed $ 14 @,@ 000 at Montreal 's Palace Theatre during its first week in March 1931 .
= = = Home video = = =
White Zombie was transferred from poor quality prints to VHS and Betamax in the 1980s . The film has been released on DVD from several companies – including K @-@ Tel and Alpha Video — with varying image quality . The book Zombie Movies : The Ultimate Guide described the Roan 's later DVD release of the title as the best available . The online film database Allmovie features a positive review of the Roan Group 's transfer , stating the film " has never looked better " . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray on January 29 , 2013 , from Kino Video .
= = Aftermath and influence = =
White Zombie is considered to be the first feature length zombie film and has been described as the archetype and model of all zombie movies . Not many early horror films followed White Zombie 's Haitian origins style . Other horror films from the 1930s borrowed themes from White Zombie , such as people returning from the dead and other elements of zombie mythology . These films include : The Ghost Breakers ( 1940 ) , King of the Zombies ( 1941 ) , I Walked with a Zombie ( 1943 ) , and The Plague of the Zombies ( 1966 ) . These films all contain elements from White Zombie including the blank @-@ eyed stares , the voodoo drums , and zombies performing manual labor .
Victor Halperin directed a White Zombie sequel , Revolt of the Zombies , which was released in 1936 . Béla Lugosi was considered for the role of villain Armand Louque , but the part went to Dean Jagger . Cinematographer Arthur Martinelli and producer Edward Halperin returned for the sequel . Modern critical response to Revolt of the Zombies is generally unfavorable . In a review from Zombie Movies : The Ultimate Guide , the review declares that " [ T ] here 's no experimentation here , only dull composition shots and flatly lit shots of yakking characters in a by @-@ the @-@ numbers plot . " Allmovie rated White Zombie three stars out of five , while it gave Revolt of the Zombies only one star and deemed it far inferior to the original .
Scenes from White Zombie have appeared in other films including Curtis Hanson 's The Hand That Rocks the Cradle , Michael Almereyda 's Nadja , and Tim Burton 's Ed Wood . The heavy metal band White Zombie appropriated their name from the film . The group 's vocalist Rob Zombie said of the film , " [ It 's ] a great film that not a lot of people know about ... It amazes me that a film that is so readily available can be so lost . " In 1997 , the Janus company released a model kit based on the Murder Legendre character .
In 2009 , it was announced that Tobe Hooper would direct a remake of White Zombie . Screenwriter Jared Rivet worked on a script in 2007 with Hooper . The project was halted due to rights issues . Rivet explained that White Zombie " is clearly public domain , but there were question marks about uncredited source material . "
In 2013 , Walkabout Publishing released Stephen D. Sullivan 's adaptation of White Zombie . No stranger to adaptations , Sullivan told Monster Kid Radio , " Waitaminute , there are movies in the public that I can do an adaptation of , the same way I did Iron Man ... and White Zombie was right at the top of the list of public domain films that I thought would be a good adaptation . "
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= Keen Johnson =
Keen Johnson ( January 12 , 1896 – February 7 , 1970 ) was the 45th Governor of Kentucky , serving from 1939 to 1943 ; being the only journalist to have held that office . After serving in World War I , Johnson purchased and edited the Elizabethtown Mirror newspaper . He revived the struggling paper , sold it to a competitor and used the profits to obtain his journalism degree from the University of Kentucky in 1922 . After graduation , he became editor of The Anderson News , and in 1925 , he accepted an offer to co @-@ publish and edit the Richmond Daily Register .
In 1935 , Johnson was chosen as the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor . He was elected and served under Governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler from 1935 to 1939 . He had already secured the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in 1939 when Chandler resigned and elevated Johnson to governor so that Johnson could appoint Chandler to the U.S. Senate seat vacated by the death of M. M. Logan . He went on to win a full gubernatorial term in the general election , defeating Republican King Swope . Johnson 's desire to expand the state 's social services was hampered by the financial strain imposed on the state by the outbreak of World War II . Nevertheless , he ran a fiscally conservative administration and took the state from being $ 7 million in debt to having a surplus of $ 10 million by the end of his term .
Following his term as governor , Johnson joined Reynolds Metals as a special assistant to the president . He continued his employment with Reynolds until 1961 . He took a year @-@ long leave of absence in 1946 to accept President Harry S. Truman 's appointment as the first U.S. Undersecretary of Labor , serving under Lewis B. Schwellenbach . He unsuccessfully ran for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1960 , losing to incumbent Republican John Sherman Cooper . He died February 7 , 1970 , and was buried in Richmond Cemetery in Richmond , Kentucky .
= = Early life = =
Keen Johnson was born in a two @-@ room cabin at Brandon 's Chapel in Lyon County , Kentucky , on January 12 , 1896 . He was the only son of Reverend Robert and Mattie ( Holloway ) Johnson . His parents named him in honor of John S. Keen , a family friend from Adair County . The Johnsons also had two daughters — Catherine ( Keturah ) and Christine . Robert Johnson was a Methodist minister , and the family moved often as a result of his occupation .
After completing his elementary education in the public schools , Johnson attended Vanderbilt Preparatory School for Boys , a Methodist institution in Elkton , Kentucky . He finished his preparatory coursework in 1914 and matriculated to Central Methodist College in Fayette , Missouri . He had intended to continue his studies at the University of Missouri School of Journalism , but he interrupted his studies to enlist in the U.S. Army for service in World War I.
After basic training , Johnson entered officer training at Fort Riley on May 15 , 1917 . In August 1917 , he was appointed second lieutenant and assigned to the 354th Infantry , 89th Division of the American Expeditionary Forces at Camp Funston . He was promoted to first lieutenant on March 29 , 1918 , and on June 4 , 1918 , he was deployed to France , where he studied logistical communications at the Army School of the Line and Staff College . He remained in Europe with the American Expeditionary Force until April 1919 and was honorably discharged from the Army on October 31 , 1919 .
On June 23 , 1917 , while still completing his military training , Johnson married Eunice Nichols . Their only child , a daughter named Judith , was born May 19 , 1927 . Upon his return from military service , Johnson purchased the Elizabethtown Mirror with financial assistance from his father . He built the struggling paper almost from the ground up , and a competitor soon bought him out for a profit . Johnson used the profit from the sale of the Mirror to continue his education at the University of Kentucky . While a student , he worked as a reporter for the Lexington Herald . He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in journalism in 1922 . The university awarded him an honorary Doctor of Laws degree in 1940 .
After graduation , Johnson purchased half @-@ ownership of The Anderson News and served as the paper 's editor and publisher . In 1925 , Shelton M. Saufley asked Johnson to enter into a joint venture to purchase the Richmond Daily Register . Lured by the idea of publishing a daily paper , Johnson accepted . As a result of one of his editorials , Johnson was named executive secretary of the State Democratic Central Committee in 1932 . He continued to hold this position and publish the Register through 1939 .
= = Political career = =
In 1935 , Johnson was one of three contenders for the Democratic nomination for lieutenant governor . In the primary , he received more votes than his opponents , J. E. Wise and B. F. Wright , but a newly enacted election law required a runoff if no candidate received a majority . On September 7 , Johnson defeated Wise in the runoff .
In the gubernatorial primary , A. B. " Happy " Chandler defeated Tom Rhea , the candidate favored by sitting governor Ruby Laffoon . Johnson had also favored Rhea , and had backed Robert T. Crowe over J. C. W. Beckham , Chandler 's choice in the 1927 Democratic primary . Nevertheless , the two put aside their differences and won the general election . Chandler defeated Republican King Swope by over 95 @,@ 000 votes , and Johnson defeated J. J. Kavanaugh by over 100 @,@ 000 votes .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
The division between Chandler and Laffoon led to factionalism within the state Democratic Party . When no strong gubernatorial candidate emerged from the Chandler faction in 1939 , Chandler threw his support behind Johnson . John Y. Brown , Sr. announced he would challenge Johnson in the primary . This solidified the Chandler faction 's support , as Brown was an outspoken critic of the Chandler administration . Brown gained the support of Chandler critics , notably former governor Ruby Laffoon , Tom Rhea , Earle C. Clements , and Alben Barkley . He further garnered the support of the United Mine Workers and labor boss John L. Lewis . It was to no avail , as Johnson defeated Brown in the primary by over 33 @,@ 000 votes to secure the Democratic gubernatorial nomination .
The Republicans chose King Swope , the loser in the 1935 gubernatorial election , to oppose Johnson . In the middle of the campaign , however , Johnson was elevated to governor . United States Senator M. M. Logan died in October 1939 , and Governor Chandler resigned so that Johnson — thus elevated to governor — could appoint him to the vacant seat . In the general election on November 17 , Johnson defeated Swope 460 @,@ 834 to 354 @,@ 704 , securing a full term as governor .
In his inaugural address , Johnson promised to be " a saving , thrifty , frugal governor " . His policies helped him eliminate the state 's debt of $ 7 million and left the treasury with a surplus of $ 10 million by the end of his term . It was the first time the state had had a surplus since the administration of J. C. W. Beckham in 1903 . Johnson achieved the surplus without enacting any tax increases . Not all in Johnson 's party were happy with his approach to governing ; one critic noted , " Old Keen frugaled here and frugaled there till he damn near frugaled us to death . "
Louisville Courier @-@ Journal reporter Howard Henderson wrote several stories exposing corruption in Johnson 's administration , including a significant one dealing with laundry contracts . Hubert Meredith , Johnson 's politically ambitious attorney general , freely aired his concerns about the administration , gaining recognition for himself from the publicity generated . Historian James C. Klotter opined " It is doubtful whether Johnson 's administration had any more political scandal than others , but the publicity made it seem that way . "
In the 1940 legislative session , Johnson successfully lobbied the General Assembly to allocate money to a teacher retirement system that had previously been authorized but left unfunded . Despite his fiscally conservative nature , he increased funds to programs to assist the elderly by $ 1 million per year . Other accomplishments of the session included the provision of pensions for justices on the Kentucky Court of Appeals , creation of soil conservation districts in the state , and banning the sale of marijuana .
Johnson 's primary interest lay in improving the state 's mental and penal institutions . These improvements began under Governor Chandler , and while Johnson stated that the mental hospitals and prisons were in their best condition in forty years by the end of his term , he was disappointed that he was not able to do more . In light of the financial obligations brought about by World War II , he had to curb state construction .
In the 1941 legislative session , Johnson vetoed a measure allowing the sale of alcoholic beverages to surrounding states , even those with laws forbidding alcohol sales . The bill was very popular , and was supported by many of the state 's powerful special interests . It had passed the Kentucky House of Representatives by a vote of 84 – 0 and the Kentucky Senate by a vote of 31 – 3 . After Johnson 's veto , the House reversed itself , voting 86 – 3 to sustain the veto .
In the 1942 legislative session , Johnson stressed the importance of allowing Kentucky cities to purchase and distribute power from the Tennessee Valley Authority . In an address to the Assembly , Johnson declared , " I have never had a stronger conviction on a question of public policy ... The principle involved is as correct as the Ten Commandments . " The Assembly passed the necessary legislation as Johnson requested .
A major accomplishment of the Johnson administration was the passage of a legislative redistricting bill . Despite the fact that the U.S. Constitution requires redistricting after every decennial census , Kentucky 's legislative districts had remained virtually unchanged between 1893 and 1941 . He asked the 1942 legislative session to adjourn early so he could call a special session for the sole purpose of considering a redistricting bill . The legislators obliged , and passed a bill by the end of the special session .
Johnson took an active part in the Democratic gubernatorial primary in 1943 . Among the candidates were Ben Kilgore , Rodes K. Myers , and J. Lyter Donaldson . Myers was Johnson 's lieutenant governor , but he had turned on the administration . Johnson called him a carpetbagger from North Carolina , " a political adventurer " , and " a phony farmer " . He also ridiculed Kilgore , who had strong support from the Louisville Courier @-@ Journal , the Rural Electric Association , and the Farm Bureau , by calling him a " Casanova " . Donaldson , Johnson 's former campaign manager , secured his support and the Democratic nomination . He was defeated in the general election by Republican Simeon Willis .
= = Later life and death = =
Beginning in 1940 , Johnson was a member of the State Democratic National Committee , serving until 1948 . On June 6 , 1942 , he was named to the board of regents of Eastern State College ( now Eastern Kentucky University or EKU ) , a position he held for eight years . EKU 's Keen Johnson Building , a 1939 Works Progress Administration project , was named in honor of him . The building and its clock tower is one of the most recognizable landmarks on the university 's campus .
On January 1 , 1944 , he was named a special assistant to the president of Reynolds Metals , advising him on postwar unemployment problems . He became vice @-@ president of public relations for the company in 1945 .
Johnson developed a strong rapport with union leaders and in 1946 , President Harry S. Truman and Kentucky Senator Alben Barkley asked him to accept an appointment to the newly created post of Undersecretary of Labor . In August 1946 , Johnson took a leave of absence from Reynolds and accepted the appointment . He frequently attended President Truman 's cabinet meetings due to the illness of Secretary Lewis B. Schwellenbach .
In mid @-@ 1947 , Johnson returned to Reynolds . In 1950 , he became a member of the company 's board of directors . In this capacity , he organized meetings of sales executives and traveled extensively to promote the company 's aluminum products . He retired from Reynolds in January 1961 .
In 1960 , Johnson sought a seat in the U.S. Senate . He defeated John Y. Brown , Sr. in the Democratic primary , but was unable to unseat Republican incumbent John Sherman Cooper in the general election . In 1961 and 1964 , he was appointed to the state board of education . He served as a delegate to an assembly to revise the state constitution in 1964 . In 1965 , the University of Kentucky honored him with a Centennial Award and inducted him into its Hall of Distinguished Alumni . He died February 7 , 1970 in Richmond , Kentucky , and is buried in Richmond Cemetery .
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= Susanna Clarke =
Susanna Mary Clarke ( born 1 November 1959 ) is an English author best known for her debut novel Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell ( 2004 ) , a Hugo Award @-@ winning alternative history . Clarke began Jonathan Strange in 1993 and worked on it during her spare time . For the next decade , she published short stories from the Strange universe , but it was not until 2003 that Bloomsbury bought her manuscript and began work on its publication . The novel became a best @-@ seller .
Two years later , she published a collection of her short stories , The Ladies of Grace Adieu and Other Stories ( 2006 ) . Both Clarke 's novel and her short stories are set in a magical England and written in a pastiche of the styles of 19th @-@ century writers such as Jane Austen and Charles Dickens . While Strange focuses on the relationship of two men , Jonathan Strange and Gilbert Norrell , the stories in Ladies focus on the power women gain through magic .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Clarke was born on 1 November 1959 in Nottingham , England , the eldest daughter of a Methodist minister and his wife . Due to her father 's posts , she spent her childhood in various towns across Northern England and Scotland , and enjoyed reading the works of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Charles Dickens , and Jane Austen . She received a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy , politics , and economics from St Hilda 's College , Oxford in 1981 .
For eight years , she worked in publishing at Quarto and Gordon Fraser . She spent two years teaching English as a foreign language in Turin , Italy and Bilbao , Spain . She returned to England in 1992 and spent the rest of that year in County Durham , in a house that looked out over the North Sea . There she began working on her first novel , Jonathan Strange and Mr Norrell . In 1993 , she was hired by Simon & Schuster in Cambridge to edit cookbooks , a job she kept for the next ten years .
= = = Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell = = =
Clarke first developed the idea for Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell while she was teaching in Bilbao : " I had a kind of waking dream ... about a man in 18th @-@ century clothes in a place rather like Venice , talking to some English tourists . And I felt strongly that he had some sort of magical background – he 'd been dabbling in magic , and something had gone badly wrong . " She had also recently reread J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings and afterward was inspired to " [ try ] writing a novel of magic and fantasy " .
After she returned from Spain in 1993 , Clarke began to think seriously about writing her novel . She signed up for a five @-@ day fantasy and science @-@ fiction writing workshop , co @-@ taught by science fiction and fantasy writers Colin Greenland and Geoff Ryman . The students were expected to prepare a short story before attending , but Clarke only had " bundles " of material for her novel . From this she extracted " The Ladies of Grace Adieu " , a fairy tale about three women secretly practising magic who are discovered by the famous Jonathan Strange . Greenland was so impressed with the story that , without Clarke 's knowledge , he sent an excerpt to his friend , the fantasy writer Neil Gaiman . Gaiman later said , " It was terrifying from my point of view to read this first short story that had so much assurance ... It was like watching someone sit down to play the piano for the first time and she plays a sonata . " Gaiman showed the story to his friend , science @-@ fiction writer and editor Patrick Nielsen Hayden . Clarke learned of these events when Nielsen Hayden called and offered to publish her story in his anthology Starlight 1 ( 1996 ) , which featured pieces by well @-@ regarded science @-@ fiction and fantasy writers . She accepted , and the book won the World Fantasy Award for best anthology in 1997 .
Clarke spent the next ten years working on the novel in her spare time . She also published stories in Starlight 2 ( 1998 ) and Starlight 3 ( 2001 ) ; according to the New York Times Magazine , her work was known and appreciated by a small group of fantasy fans and critics on the internet . Overall , she published seven short stories in anthologies . " Mr Simonelli , or The Fairy Widower " was shortlisted for a World Fantasy Award in 2001 .
Clarke was never sure if she would finish her novel or if it would be published . Clarke tried to write for three hours each day , beginning at 5 : 30 am , but struggled to keep this schedule . Rather than writing the novel from beginning to end , she wrote in fragments and attempted to stitch them together . Clarke , admitting that the project was for herself and not for the reader , " clung to this method " " because I felt that if I went back and started at the beginning , [ the novel ] would lack depth , and I would just be skimming the surface of what I could do . But if I had known it was going to take me ten years , I would never have begun . I was buoyed up by thinking that I would finish it next year , or the year after next . " Clarke and Greenland fell in love while she was writing the novel and moved in together .
Around 2001 , Clarke " had begun to despair " , and started looking for someone to help her finish and sell the book . Giles Gordon became her first literary agent and sold the unfinished manuscript to Bloomsbury in early 2003 , after two publishers rejected it as unmarketable . Bloomsbury were so sure the novel would be a success that they offered Clarke a £ 1 million advance . They printed 250 @,@ 000 hardcover copies simultaneously in the United States , Britain , and Germany . Seventeen translations were begun before the first English publication was released on 8 September 2004 in the United States and on 30 September in the United Kingdom .
Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell is an alternative history set in 19th @-@ century England during the Napoleonic Wars . It is based on the premise that magic once existed in England and has returned with two men : Gilbert Norrell and Jonathan Strange . Centring on the relationship between these two men , the novel investigates the nature of " Englishness " and the boundary between reason and madness . It has been described as a fantasy novel , an alternative history , and an historical novel and draws on various Romantic literary traditions , such as the comedy of manners , the Gothic tale , and the Byronic hero . Clarke 's style has frequently been described as a pastiche , particularly of 19th @-@ century British writers such as Charles Dickens , Jane Austen , and George Meredith . The supernatural is contrasted with and highlighted by mundane details and Clarke 's tone combines arch wit with antiquarian quaintness . The text is supplemented with almost 200 footnotes , outlining the backstory and an entire fictional corpus of magical scholarship . The novel was well received by critics and reached number three on the New York Times best @-@ seller list , remaining on the list for eleven weeks .
= = = The Ladies of Grace Adieu and Other Stories = = =
In 2006 , Clarke published a collection of eight fairy tales presented as the work of several different writers , seven of which had been previously anthologised . The volume 's focus on " female mastery of the dark arts " is reflected in the ladies of Grace Adieu 's magical abilities and the prominent role needlework plays in saving the Duke of Wellington and Mary , Queen of Scots . The collection is a " sly , frequently comical , feminist revision " of Jonathan Strange . In tone , the stories are similar to the novel — " nearly every one of them is told in a lucid , frequently deadpan , bedtime @-@ story voice strikingly similar to the voice that narrates the novel . "
The title story , " The Ladies of Grace Adieu " , is set in early 19th century Gloucestershire and concerns the friendship of three young women , Cassandra Parbringer , Miss Tobias , and Mrs. Fields . Though the events of the story do not actually appear in Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell , they are referenced in a footnote in Chapter 43 . Clarke has said , " For a long time it was my hope that these three ladies should eventually find a place in ... the novel ... I decided there was no place for them ... I deliberately kept women to the domestic sphere in the interests of authenticity ... it was important that real and alternate history appeared to have converged . This meant that I needed to write the women and the servants , as far as possible , as they would have been written in a 19th @-@ century novel . " Reviewers highlighted this tale , one calling it " the most striking story " of the collection and " a staunchly feminist take on power relations " . In her review of the volume in Strange Horizons , Victoria Hoyle writes that " there is something incredibly precise , clean , and cold about Clarke 's portrayal of ' women 's magic ' in this story ( and throughout the collection ) — it is urgent and desperate , but it is also natural and in the course of things . "
The collection received many positive reviews , though some critics compared the short stories unfavourably with the highly acclaimed and more substantial Jonathan Strange and Mr Norrell . Hoyle wrote in her review that " the stories ... are consistently subtle and enchanting , and as charismatic as any reader could wish , but , while the collection has the panache of the novel , it lacks its glorious self @-@ possession . "
= = = Current = = =
Clarke currently resides in Cambridge with her partner , the science fiction novelist and reviewer Colin Greenland . She was , in 2004 , working on a book that begins a few years after Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell ends and which will centre around characters who , as Clarke says , are " a bit lower down the social scale " . She commented in 2005 that progress on the book had been slowed by her ill health .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = List of works = =
Clarke has published her short stories in multiple publications . This list contains the first publication of each as well as her collection The Ladies of Grace Adieu and Other Stories .
" The Ladies of Grace Adieu " . Starlight 1 . Ed . Patrick Nielsen Hayden . New York : Tor , 1996 .
" Stopp 't @-@ Clock Yard " . The Sandman : Book of Dreams . Eds . Ed Kramer and Neil Gaiman . New York : Harper Prism , 1996 .
" On Lickerish Hill " . Black Swan , White Raven . Eds . Ellen Datlow and Terri Windling . New York : Avon , 1997 .
" Mrs Mabb " . Starlight 2 . Ed . Patrick Nielsen Hayden . New York : Tor , 1998 .
" The Duke of Wellington Misplaces His Horse " . A Fall of Stardust . Ed . Charles Vess . Green Man Press , 1999 .
" Mr. Simonelli or the Fairy Widower " . Black Heart , Ivory Bones . Eds . Ellen Datlow and Terri Windling . New York : Avon , 2000 .
" Tom Brightwind , or , How the Fairy Bridge Was Built at Thoresby " . Starlight 3 . Ed . Patrick Nielsen Hayden . New York : Tor , 2001 .
Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell . New York and London : Bloomsbury , 2004 .
" Antickes and Frets " . The New York Times . 31 October 2004 .
" John Uskglass and the Cumbrian Charcoal Burner " . The Ladies of Grace Adieu and Other Stories . New York and London : Bloomsbury , 2006 .
The Ladies of Grace Adieu and Other Stories . New York and London : Bloomsbury , 2006 .
The Dweller in High Places . BBC . 26 February 2007 .
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= Honky Tonk Heroes =
Honky Tonk Heroes is a country music album by Waylon Jennings , released in 1973 on RCA Victor . With the exception of " We Had It All " , all of the songs on the album were written or co @-@ written by Billy Joe Shaver . The album is considered an important piece in the development of the outlaw subgenre in country music as it helped revive the honky tonk music of Nashville by injecting a rock and roll attitude .
= = Background = =
Jennings and manager Neil Reshen had renegotiated the singer 's contract with RCA Records in 1972 , which gave him creative control over his work . By 1973 , Atlantic Records was attempting to sign Jennings who , with fellow country singer Willie Nelson , had become dissatisfied with RCA because of the company 's conservative influence upon their music . Nelson , who had signed with Atlantic , was becoming more popular , and this persuaded RCA to renegotiate with Jennings before it lost another potential success . Jennings ' music had already evolved from his early recordings with the label , especially on his previous three LPs Good Hearted Woman ( 1972 ) , Ladies Love Outlaws ( 1972 ) , and especially Lonesome , On 'ry and Mean ( 1973 ) . This evolution was spurred by the singer trying to capture the dynamics of his live sound on record ( often by using his backing band the Waylors rather than studio musicians ) and his choice of material , which often included songs composed by writers outside the Nashville mainstream .
= = Recording and composition = =
Jennings had invited the then unknown Billy Joe Shaver to Nashville to write the songs for his next album after hearing him sing " Willy the Wandering Gypsy and Me " just before the 1972 Dripping Springs Reunion . When Shaver got to Nashville he spent six months unsuccessfully trying to speak with Jennings , who had apparently forgotten the invite ; eventually , with the help of local D.J. Roger " Captain Midnight " Schutt , Shaver turned up at a RCA recording session Jennings was doing with producer Chet Atkins , and tried to confront the singer , who merely offered Shaver $ 100 . Shaver refused the money and told Jennings that he was willing to fight him if he would not listen to his songs . In the 2003 documentary Beyond Nashville , Shaver recalls :
" Finally I caught him in Studio A of RCA . He came out of the control booth and he had a couple of bikers - bikers hung around with him a lot , some pretty tough looking customers - and I 'd had enough . I just said , ' Hey Waylon ! ' And he turned . I said , ' I got these songs that you claimed you was gonna listen to , and if you don 't listen to ' em I 'm gonna whip your ass right here in front of everybody . ' And boy , whew . Man ! Everything got quiet and them old boys started formin ' and Waylon stopped ' em . He said , ' Hoss , you don 't know how close you come to gettin ' killed . ' I said , ' Well , I 've had enough . You done told me you was gonna do this . Now I 'm full of songs and I want you to listen to ' em . "
Jennings offered to record " Willy the Wandering Gypsy and Me " and told Shaver to sing another song – if Jennings liked it he would record it and Shaver could sing another ; but if he did not like it , Shaver would have to leave . Shaver sang " Ain 't No God in Mexico " , followed by " Honky Tonk Heroes " and " Old Five and Dimers and Me " . Jennings was so taken with Shaver 's tunes that he decided he would record an album consisting solely of Texan 's songs . RCA producer Chet Atkins was reluctant to record the material of an unknown writer , but since he had creative control , Jennings decided to record the album anyway , although the executives of RCA Records delayed its release . Jennings was also spending more of his time at Tompall Glaser 's " Hillbilly Central " studio at 916 Nineteenth Avenue South in Nashville , attracted by the laid back , communal atmosphere that was the antitheses of the traditional setup that Jennings had endured at RCA since 1966 . Jennings brought Glaser back with him to RCA Victor Studios to co @-@ produce Honky Tonk Heroes . " Tompall and I were best friends , " Jennings reminisced in the audio version of his autobiography Waylon . " We met at about the time he broke up with his brothers , and I kind of took their place in his life . " Jennings and Shaver worked on the songs for several weeks , with Shaver believing that Jennings was not closely following the phrasing of the tunes , and in some cases he played the songs repeatedly so that Jennings would understand them . The title cut was especially problematic , with Jennings and Shaver - both temperamental personalities - clashing over the arrangement . In Michael Striessguth 's book Outlaw : Waylon , Willie , Kris , and the Renegades of Nashville , Jennings drummer Richie Albright recalls :
" We were doing the album and Billy Joe was around , and we began ' Honky Tonk Heroes , ' so we cut the first part of the song and we stopped , and Waylon said , ' This is the way we 're going to do it . ' And Billy Joe had been sitting in the back and he come walking up , saying , ' What are you doing ? You 're fucking up my song . That ain 't the way it goes . ' Pretty soon Waylon and Billy Joe are just hollering at one another . Billy Joe didn 't understand the way we were putting it together ... then we put it together and he said , ' Yeah . That 's good . That 's the way it goes . ' "
The album that resulted is what many call the outlaw movement 's first true record and Jennings ' artistic zenith . Almost all of the songs on Honky Tonk Heroes contain a defiant , restless longing for and celebration of the road ( " Moving is the closest thing to being free ... " ) and a rock and roll swagger that was entirely new in Nashville circles . Although concept albums were not new in country music , with stars like Johnny Cash , Marty Robbins , and Porter Wagoner all having recorded LPs with unifying themes , Honky Tonk Heroes offered a more progressive take on the enterprise , resembling the albums Mickey Newbury had recently recorded and the blockbuster Red Headed Stranger album that Willie Nelson would release two years later . In addition to Shaver 's brooding compositions , Jennings rounded out the collection with the tender ballad " We Had It All , " written by Kris Kristofferson keyboardist " Funky " Donnie Fritts . According to Michael Striessguth 's book Outlaw , RCA had asked Waylon to tack on one more song to augment the Shaver songs , in hopes of landing a hit single , and after considering Steve Young 's " Seven Bridges Road , " Jimmie Rodgers ' " T for Texas , " and Shel Silverstein 's " The Leaving Coming On , " Jennings opted for the Fritts tune , which would go on to be recorded and performed by Rod Stewart , Ray Charles , Bob Dylan , the Rolling Stones . Released as a single , " We Had it All " , peaked at number 28 in Billboard 's Country Singles . Jennings and Shaver also collaborated on the hit single " You Asked Me To , " which spent fifteen weeks on the Billboard country singles charts , reaching a peak of number eight . In the liner notes to The Essential Waylon Jennings , Wade Jessen quotes the singer : " We wrote this one night in the dark over at Bobby Bare 's office across the street from a Burger Boy where we 'd been playing pinball . Shaver said , ' I 've got it started . Let 's finish it . ' We wrote it pretty well in the dark . " Shaver recorded his own version in 1977 for the album Gypsy Boy , with special guest Willie Nelson on guitar and vocals . " You Asked Me To " also appeared as the closing song on Elvis Presley 's 1975 album Promised Land .
Two songs , " Low Down Freedom " and " Black Rose , " were produced by Ronny Light . " We Had It All " was produced by Jennings and Ken Mansfield . Like the music within , the album cover was also at odds with the elaborate , often overwrought cover designs from Music Row , featuring an unpretentious shot of a smiling Jennings and his unkempt friends sat around a studio laughing and drinking . In a 2008 interview with Dan MacIntosh , Shaver said of the LP , " Oh , it was great , because the songs were bigger than me . And I couldn 't possibly sing as good as Waylon . And at the time , Waylon was just great , so great , and I knew something was gonna happen good for him , and sure enough it helped me and it helped him , too , and that 's a pretty good trade . "
= = Release and critical reception = =
Initially , the executives of RCA Records , and Chet Atkins , tried to avoid releasing the album , which finally came out in May 1973 . It got a mixed reception from critics , although it is now regarded as one of the most important albums in the history of country music and is listed in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . It reached # 14 in Billboard 's Top Country Albums and # 185 in the Billboard 200 @.@ while " You Ask Me To " peaked at number 8 . It received praise from magazines that did not often cover country music , like counterculture bible Rolling Stone , which raved , " After many years of overproduction on record , Waylon Jennings ' new album offers an opportunity to hear the crisp , robust no @-@ nonsense sound which has been his trademark since his early days with Buddy Holly 's Crickets . " The Music Journal described the album as " certainly brash , lively and down @-@ to @-@ earth . Thoroughly infectious too . " Regarding the composition of the songs , Stereo Review wrote : " Billy Joe Shaver songs have [ Jennings ] in a corral if not in a box ... This is like picking Kris Kristofferson up by the literary ankles , shaking him vigorously , and using every damn nugget that tumbles out . "
= = Legacy = =
Honky Tonk Heroes helped add to the outlaw image of Jennings , and the album is considered an important piece in the development of the outlaw subgenre in country music . Shaver , who is regarded as helping push forward outlaw country , feels that the album was " the touchstone of the Outlaw movement " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine in a retrospective review in Allmusic felt that Jennings had been looking for a musical approach which had roots in country and rock , and Shaver 's songs – " sketching an outlaw stance with near defiance and borrowing rock attitude to create the hardest country tunes imaginable " – provided that common ground . Erlewine believed that the album arrived at the right moment to revive the honky tonk music of Nashville by injecting a rock and roll attitude that would produce outlaw country . Kenneth Burns , in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , says that Honky Tonk Heroes is " one of country music 's landmark albums " , and points out Jennings ' rock and roll roots as bass player for Buddy Holly . In 2013 author Michael Streissguth wrote , " The album christened country music 's outlaw era ... and bathed in risk , having gambled on the work of an untested songwriter . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Billy Joe Shaver , except where noted .
All songs written and composed by Billy Joe Shaver , except where noted .
Bonus tracks
" Slow Rollin ' Low " – 2 : 44
" You Asked Me To " ( Billy Joe Shaver , Waylon Jennings ) – 2 : 38
= = Personnel = =
Bass – Henry Strzelecki
Bass [ The Waylors ] – Bee Spears
Bass , Bass [ String ] – Joe Allen
Cello – Byron Bach , Martha McCrory
Drums – Buddy Harman , Willie Ackerman
Drums [ The Waylors ] – Richie Albright
Electric Guitar – Billy Sanford , Dale Sellers , Reggie Young
Engineer [ Recording Engineer ] – Al Pachucki , Tom Pick
Fiddle – Tommy Williams
Harmonica [ The Waylors ] – Don Brooks
Liner Notes – Roger " Capt. Midnite " Schutt
Organ – Andy McMahon
Piano – David Briggs
Rhythm Guitar – Billy Reynolds , Dave Kirby , Eddie Hinton , Randy Scruggs , Steve Young , Waylon Jennings
Rhythm Guitar [ The Waylors ] – Jerry Gropp , Larry Whitmore
Steel Guitar [ The Waylors ] – Ralph Mooney
Technician [ Recording Technician ] – Chuck Seitz , Mike Shockley , Ray Butts , Roy Shockley
Viola – Marvin Chantry
Violin – Brenton Banks , Lawrence Herzberg , Lennie Haight , Sheldon Kurland , Stephanie Woolf , Steven Maxwell Smith
= = Chart positions = =
Album
Singles
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= Alex + Ada =
Alex + Ada is an American comic book series created by Jonathan Luna and Sarah Vaughn . The duo began work on the series in January 2013 , before publishing 15 issues through Image Comics between November 2013 and June 2015 . The series has since been collected into three trade paperbacks .
Alex + Ada centers upon the relationship between a lonely man and an intelligent android . The series received positive reviews from critics who compared it to other popular science fiction stories , although Luna 's artwork was sometimes criticized for being simplistic .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Development = = =
Jonathan Luna had previously created comics with his brother Joshua , but was exhausted after six straight years of work . Inspired by a TED Talk , he decided to take a break from working . During his two years away from comics , he painted Star Bright and the Looking Glass , a fairy tale picture book that was proofread by his friend Sarah Vaughn and published in 2012 .
While working on the picture book , Luna realized he missed telling a story panel by panel and decided to return to comics . He and his brother had decided to work on separate projects , so Luna pitched the idea of a young man who falls in love with a female android to Vaughn over dinner . Vaughn , who began writing and drawing romance comics in her youth , jumped at the opportunity .
After initializing the concept in January 2013 , the two discussed the project for three or four months before creating an outline for the whole story . The original outline was for 12 issues , but it left room for improvisation and a few points were removed as the story progressed . They looked at past and present rights movements for inspiration for how one would progress and how people might respond to a movement for android rights . Luna wrote the first draft of issue one , then the two worked together to rewrite it .
Luna began drawing around April . Alex + Ada is the first comic Luna drew completely digitally . Because Luna needed to focus on art , Vaughn wrote the first draft of the remaining issues . She and Luna would discuss the draft , then she would rewrite it .
= = = Publication = = =
The first issue of Alex + Ada was released November 6 , 2013 , and was Vaughn 's first published comic work . It was the 141st best selling issue of the month with estimated sales around 15 @,@ 000 , which was more than any book Luna had done previously . During the course of publication , the series length was increased from 12 issues to 15 issues . Each issue was released approximately six weeks apart , with the final issue available June 18 , 2015 . Issue 15 was the 206th best selling issue of the month with estimated orders around 8 @,@ 250 . The series has been collected into three trade paperbacks , each containing five issues .
= = Plot = =
Alex is a young man who is depressed after his fiancée breaks up with him . Tired of seeing him unhappy , Alex 's grandmother sends him Ada , a Tanaka X @-@ 5 android which is capable of intelligent human interaction . The robot is initially incapable of self @-@ awareness , as each android has a program that blocks any potential free thought or consciousness .
Alex decides to remove this program and grant Ada her own mental freedom , as he is uninterested in a partner who cannot truly interact with him . Because removing the program is illegal and carries harsh consequences for both Ada and Alex , they have to pretend Ada is not self @-@ aware . When a jealous love @-@ interest of Alex reports Ada as sentient to the FBI , Alex and Ada attempt to flee the country . When they are intercepted by the FBI , Ada gets shot by the police and Alex is arrested . He is convicted and sentenced to 25 years in prison , but Ada is not found to be sentient .
During his time in prison , rights are granted to sentient robots . On Alex 's release , Ada is returned to him . She appears to be non @-@ sentient , but Alex discovers she locked her consciousness to protect him . He restores her freedom and is re @-@ united with her .
= = Reception = =
According to review aggregator Comic Book Round Up , critics gave the first issue an average 8 @.@ 0 / 10 and the series as a whole 8 @.@ 5 / 10 . During its publication , Alex + Ada appeared on many " best of " lists created by comic news websites .
Reviewing for Bleeding Cool , Zac Thompson and David Dissanayake made favorable comparisons to the 1982 film Blade Runner and the 2013 film Her . Dissanayake also noted the entertaining realism , as it " feels like our world , full of technologies that ... will [ exist ] very soon . " Comic Book Resources ' Sonia Harris also praised the series for its realism , writing the " metaphor of artificially intelligent beings living out their secret lives , unsafe and insecure , yet potentially stronger and smarter than humans is potent . " Dean Stell , a reviewer for Weekly Comic Book Review , said Luna and Vaughn created " a wonderful and classically @-@ themed science @-@ fiction story . " Writing for Bloody Disgusting , Lonnie Nadler said Luna 's work on facial expressions was the " major highlight " of his illustrations .
Luna 's simplistic artwork is a frequent point of criticism among reviewers , although some call it appropriate for the setting . In addition to Luna 's " painfully plain " illustrations , Newsarama 's David Pepose also criticized the story 's pace .
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= Malcolm Mercer =
Major @-@ General Malcolm Smith Mercer , CB ( 17 September 1859 – 3 June 1916 ) was a Canadian general , barrister and art patron who practiced law in Toronto and led the 3rd Canadian Division during the first two years of the First World War before he was killed in action at Mount Sorrel in Belgium . Mercer was an experienced militia commander and had demonstrated a great flair with training and organising the raw Canadian recruits during the opening months of the war . He also demonstrated courage under fire , visiting the front lines on numerous occasions at the height of battle and personally directing his forces in the face of poison gas attacks and heavy shellfire .
Mercer remains the most senior Canadian officer ever to die in combat and was unfortunate to be killed at the opening engagement of the largest battle of his career , when he was trapped by shellfire during a front line reconnaissance and overrun during the subsequent German attack . The division Mercer created and trained remained one of the best units of the Canadian army under his successor Louis Lipsett and Mercer was remembered by the men under his command , many of whom attended his funeral in the aftermath of the Battle of Mount Sorrel .
= = Early years = =
Mercer was born in September 1859 in Etobicoke , a small town to the west of Toronto in Ontario , Canada . He was the third of nine children to Thomas and Mary Mercer and was raised in Delmer and St Catharines . During his childhood he was educated at local schools and worked on the family farm before enrolling at the University of Toronto in 1881 to study philosophy . He graduated in 1885 and turned his attention to law , being called to the bar three years later . He established a practice in Toronto and had several partners , forming a highly successful but discreet firm which he managed until 1914 . Mercer never married or had children and reportedly he was " quiet and unobtrusive . He avoided publicity , moved little in society and in his legal practice preferred to keep his clients out of court , if he could . "
During his years in the law , Mercer used his substantial income to support the arts and amassed a large art collection including many pieces by Carl Ahrens , of whom Mercer was a close friend and admirer . This art collection was auctioned off in 1925 and was found to contain a selection of art , porcelain , sculpture and antique furniture from around the globe . Mercer was also a keen amateur painter himself and was also an excellent sportsman who represented Canada and the Canadian Army in shooting contests both at home and in Britain .
= = Military service = =
Mercer 's greatest passion however was reserved for the Canadian militia , which he joined as a student in 1881 . Posted to The Queen 's Own Rifles of Canada as a private soldier , Mercer devoted much time and energy to the unit and became an excellent soldier and first @-@ rate shot . Mercer rose steadily through the ranks of the militia , being made an officer in 1885 and a captain in 1891 . In 1903 as a brevet major , Mercer led a company to Sault Ste . Marie to calm a riot by striking dock workers , his only deployment before 1914 . In 1911 , Mercer was promoted to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Commandant of the regiment and in 1913 , Mercer was aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Defence Minister Sam Hughes during a military tour of Europe , during which he inspected the German army first @-@ hand and became convinced that war was imminent .
= = = Outbreak of World War = = =
At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , Mercer was amongst those immediately called upon by Hughes to establish and build a Canadian Expeditionary Force . Ordered to take his regiment to Camp Valcartier near Quebec City at 12 @.@ 30 on the 4 August , Mercer worked in his law office until 12 @.@ 00 before arriving on time at the barracks in uniform . Within days he had been promoted to Temporary Brigadier @-@ General in command of the 1st Canadian Infantry Brigade which consisted of the first four battalions of the Expeditionary Force recruited in Ontario . Amongst these men his militiamen were dispersed , intended to spread experience and morale amongst the raw recruits . At the end of September , after just under two months training , the brigade departed on the 20 @-@ day sea voyage to Britain as the first installment of the Canadian Expeditionary Force .
On arrival at Plymouth a British officer took overall command of the " Canadian Contingent " as the Expeditionary Force was then known and Mercer was despatched to Camp Bustard on Salisbury Plain , where he oversaw the training and organising of the Canadian Force to ready it for fighting in Belgium and Northern France . Mercer performed well at this task and an inspection of his camp on the 4 November by King George V , Queen Mary , Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener drew the compliment " No finer physique in the British Army . A fine brigade . Splendid . " Mercer 's fellow brigadiers in the Expeditionary force , Richard Turner , VC and Arthur Currie commanded similar training camps and together the officers prepared their men for departure to France on 9 February 1915 .
= = = Second battle of Ypres = = =
Dispatched for the Western Front , the Canadian Contingent was initially deployed near the Belgian town of Ypres where on the 22 April Mercer 's men became embroiled in the Second Battle of Ypres . A German attack on French lines had caused massive casualties through the use of poison gas and Mercer 's brigade was fed piecemeal into the battle as reinforcements by poorly coordinated staff officers . In a confused and bloody encounter the untested Canadian forces held back the Germans despite being forced to wrap urine @-@ soaked cloths around their faces to counteract the chlorine gas . The next day , Mercer 's men were directed to attack an escarpment named Mauser Ridge , an operation which failed because French troops ordered to support the Canadian line did not arrive . Mercer himself travelled to the front line to witness the battle and came under fire for the first time before retiring in order to remonstrate with the French officers intended to support him . The Canadian Contingent took very heavy casualties in the battle and subsequently all three Canadian brigadiers were made Companions of the Order of the Bath for their courage and generalship in the action .
During the year the Canadian Contingent was involved in further fighting , assaulting German lines in the unsuccessful battles of Festubert and Givenchy . In the aftermath of these engagements , the Canadian Contingent was reorganised into the Canadian Corps , consisting of two divisions led by Turner and Currie who were under the overall command of British Lieutenant @-@ General Edwin Alderson . Mercer was detached from his Brigade and placed in charge of coordinating the mass of small and independent Canadian units which were steadily arriving from Canada . During the autumn of 1915 Mercer was able to shape this force ( which included dismounted cavalry regiments and British Indian artillery ) into an effective infantry unit and in January 1916 he was confirmed as Major @-@ General in command of the 3rd Canadian Division , as this disparate force became .
= = = Death at Mount Sorrel = = =
In early June 1916 , the Canadian Corps was again posted to trenches around the Belgian town of Ypres . The new commander of the Canadian Corps , Julian Byng , was inspecting the Corps positions in front of a German @-@ held rise named Mount Sorrel and noted that the Canadian troops were overlooked by German positions and under constant danger of enemy fire . The Germans also seemed to be digging new sap trenches which implied that an assault was intended . Byng ordered Mercer to make a reconnaissance of the front line and draw up a plan to overrun the more dangerous German positions in a local attack . Mercer complied on the 2 June , conducting a standard inspection of front line Canadian trenches at 08 : 30 .
Shortly after Mercer had arrived in the trenches , a massive German artillery bombardment began , heavy calibre shells destroying trenches and caving in dugouts , killing many Canadian soldiers . Mercer was trapped in a dugout and then stunned by a huge shell burst which wounded most of his staff and the officers of the battalion he was inspecting . The more badly wounded among the officers were transported to an underground field hospital but Mercer was left behind with wounded aide Captain Lynam Gooderham , and so was not present when the hospital was buried by the explosion of four mines which preceded a large @-@ scale German attack . In the confused situation , Mercer and Gooderham attempted to escape the advancing enemy but inadvertently ran into crossfire , where Mercer 's leg was broken by a bullet .
Mercer and Gooderham sheltered from the continued artillery bombardment in a battered trench , both suffering from the effects of their wounds , until 01 : 00 on the 3 June . By this stage of the battle an artillery duel had begun between the armies who were still mixed together , Mercer and Gooderham trapped in between . At approximately 02 : 00 a shrapnel shell exploded in the trench in which they were hiding , further wounding Gooderham and killing Mercer instantly with shrapnel wounds to the heart . Gooderham stayed with his commanding officer 's body until captured by advancing German troops who buried the general 's corpse in a shallow grave at Gooderham 's request . The buried field hospital was also captured by the advancing Germans and as a result nobody who knew of the general 's whereabouts on the day returned to Allied lines . A staff officer later claimed that the shell which killed Mercer was British in origin , although it is unclear how this conclusion was reached .
Believing Mercer to have been captured , General Currie assumed command of the battle and with the use of saturation bombardment was able to retake the lost trenches and drive the Germans back to Mount Sorrel despite heavy casualties . On the 21 June a Canadian burial party found 30 bodies in a sector of trench , amongst them General Mercer 's remains , only recognisable by his uniform decoration . Mercer was buried in a military grave at Lijssenthoek Military Cemetery , later surmounted with a Commonwealth War Grave headstone . Mercer 's funeral was attended by many men of his Division and from his old regiments as well as numerous Canadian and British officers who had worked alongside him . Mercer was posthumously mentioned in dispatches for his courage under fire , the third time he had been so mentioned , and his division was taken over by Major @-@ General Louis Lipsett who was himself killed in action two years later . Mercer is remembered as an efficient and capable organiser who never got the opportunity to demonstrate the tactical nous he had shown in training and exercises . He also remains the highest ranking Canadian officer to ever be killed in combat .
= = Legacy = =
General Mercer Public School in Toronto , originally built in 1923 , was named after Mercer .
Malcolm Mercer was also an active Freemason . Following the Armistice with Germany in 1918 steps were taken to create new Masonic Lodges in Toronto to accommodate returning soldiers looking to join Freemasonry , including a new Lodge in the West Toronto Junction neighbourhood of Toronto , which was instituted in 1919 and named The General Mercer Lodge in honour of Malcolm Mercer . The General Mercer Lodge remains active to this day , meeting at the same Masonic Temple in West Toronto where Mercer attended Lodge prior to the war .
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= Mount Cayley volcanic field =
The Mount Cayley volcanic field is a remote volcanic zone on the South Coast of British Columbia , Canada , stretching 31 km ( 19 mi ) from the Pemberton Icefield to the Squamish River . It forms a segment of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt , the Canadian portion of the Cascade Volcanic Arc , which extends from Northern California to southwestern British Columbia . Most of the Cayley volcanoes were formed during periods of volcanism under sheets of glacial ice throughout the last glacial period . These subglacial eruptions formed steep , flat @-@ topped volcanoes and subglacial lava domes , most of which have been entirely exposed by deglaciation . However , at least two volcanoes predate the last glacial period and both are highly eroded . The field gets its name from Mount Cayley , the largest and most persistent volcano , located at the southern end of the Powder Mountain Icefield . This icefield covers much of the central portion of the volcanic field and is one of the several glacial fields in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains .
Eruptions along the length of the field began between 1 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 3 million years ago . At least 23 eruptions have occurred throughout its eruptive history . This volcanic activity ranged from effusive to explosive , with magma compositions ranging from basaltic to rhyolitic . Because the Mount Cayley volcanic field has a high elevation and consists of a cluster of mostly high altitude , non @-@ overlapping volcanoes , subglacial activity is likely to have occurred under less than 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) of glacial ice . The style of this glaciation promoted meltwater escape during eruptions . The steep profile of the volcanic field and its subglacial landforms support this hypothesis . As a result , volcanic features in the field that interacted with glacial ice lack rocks that display evidence of abundant water during eruption , such as hyaloclastite and pillow lava .
Of the entire volcanic field , the southern portion has the most known volcanoes . Here , at least 11 of them are situated on top of a long narrow mountain ridge and in adjacent river valleys . The central portion contains at least five volcanoes situated at the Powder Mountain Icefield . To the north , two volcanoes form a sparse area of volcanism . Many of these volcanoes were formed between 0 @.@ 01 and 1 @.@ 6 million years ago , some of which show evidence of volcanic activity in the past 10 @,@ 000 years .
= = Geology = =
= = = Formation = = =
The Mount Cayley volcanic field formed as a result of the ongoing subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone along the British Columbia Coast . This is a 1 @,@ 094 km ( 680 mi ) long fault zone running 80 km ( 50 mi ) off the Pacific Northwest from Northern California to southwestern British Columbia . The plates move at a relative rate of over 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) per year at an oblique angle to the subduction zone . Because of the very large fault area , the Cascadia subduction zone can produce large earthquakes of magnitude 7 @.@ 0 or greater . The interface between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates remains locked for periods of roughly 500 years . During these periods , stress builds up on the interface between the plates and causes uplift of the North American margin . When the plate finally slips , the 500 years of stored energy are released in a massive earthquake .
Unlike most subduction zones worldwide , there is no deep oceanic trench present along the continental margin in Cascadia . The reason is that the mouth of the Columbia River empties directly into the subduction zone and deposits silt at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean , burying this large depression . Massive floods from prehistoric Glacial Lake Missoula during the Late Pleistocene also deposited large amounts of sediment into the trench . However , in common with other subduction zones , the outer margin is slowly being compressed , similar to a giant spring . When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals , the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large earthquakes , such as the magnitude 9 @.@ 0 Cascadia earthquake on January 26 , 1700 . However , earthquakes along the Cascadia subduction zone are less common than expected and there is evidence of a decline in volcanic activity over the past few million years . The probable explanation lies in the rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates . These two tectonic plates currently converge 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) per year . This is only about half the rate of convergence from seven million years ago .
Scientists have estimated that there have been at least 13 significant earthquakes along the Cascadia subduction zone in the past 6 @,@ 000 years . The most recent , the 1700 Cascadia earthquake , was recorded in the oral traditions of the First Nations people on Vancouver Island . It caused considerable tremors and a massive tsunami that traveled across the Pacific Ocean . The significant shaking associated with this earthquake demolished houses of the Cowichan Tribes on Vancouver Island and caused several landslides . Shaking due to this earthquake made it too difficult for the Cowichan people to stand , and the tremors were so lengthy that they were sickened . The tsunami created by the earthquake ultimately devastated a winter village at Pachena Bay , killing all the people that lived there . The 1700 Cascadia earthquake caused near @-@ shore subsidence , submerging marshes and forests on the coast that were later buried under more recent debris .
= = = Subglacial volcanoes = = =
Lying in the middle of the Mount Cayley volcanic field is a subglacial volcano named Slag Hill . At least two geological units compose the edifice . Slag Hill proper consists of andesite lava flows and small amounts of pyroclastic rock . Lying on the western portion of Slag Hill is a lava flow that likely erupted less than 10 @,@ 000 years ago due to the lack of features indicating volcano @-@ ice interactions . The Slag Hill flow @-@ dominated tuya 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) northeast of Slag Hill proper consists of a flat @-@ topped , steep @-@ sided pile of andesite . It protrudes through remnants of volcanic material erupted from Slag Hill proper , but it represents a separate volcanic vent due to its geographical appearance . This small subglacial volcano possibly formed between 25 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago throughout the waning stages of the Fraser Glaciation .
Cauldron Dome , a subglacial volcano north of Mount Cayley , lies west of the Powder Mountain Icefield . Like Slag Hill , it is composed of two geological units . Upper Cauldron Dome is a flat @-@ topped , oval @-@ shaped pile of at least five andesite lava flows that resembles a tuya . The five andesite flows are columnar jointed and were likely extruded through glacial ice . The latest volcanic activity might have occurred between 10 @,@ 000 and 25 @,@ 000 years ago when this area was still influenced by glacial ice of the Fraser Glaciation . Lower Cauldron Dome , the youngest unit comprising the entire Cauldron Dome subglacial volcano , consists of a flat @-@ topped , steep @-@ sided pile of andesite lava flows 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) long and a maximum thickness of 220 m ( 720 ft ) . These volcanics were extruded about 10 @,@ 000 years ago during the waning stages of the Fraser Glaciation from a vent adjacent to upper Cauldron Dome that is currently buried under glacial ice .
Ring Mountain , a flow @-@ dominated tuya lying at the northern portion of the Mount Cayley volcanic field , consists of a pile of at least five andesite lava flows lying on a mountain ridge . Its steep @-@ sided flanks reach heights of 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) and are composed of volcanic rubble . This makes it impossible to measure its exact base elevation or how many lava flows constitute the edifice . With a summit elevation of 2 @,@ 192 m ( 7 @,@ 192 ft ) , Ring Mountain had its last volcanic activity between 25 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago when the Fraser Glaciation was close to its maximum . Northwest of Ring Mountain lies a minor andesite lava flow . Its chemistry is somewhat unlike other andesite flows comprising Ring Mountain , but it probably erupted from a volcanic vent adjacent to or at Ring Mountain . The part of it that lies higher in elevation contains some features that indicate lava @-@ ice interactions , while the lower @-@ elevation portion of it does not . Therefore , this minor lava flow was likely extruded after Ring Mountain formed but when glacial ice covered a broader area than it does to this day , and that the lava flowed beyond the region in which glacial ice existed at that time .
To the north lies Little Ring Mountain , another flow @-@ dominated tuya lying at the northern portion of the Mount Cayley volcanic field . It consists of a pile of at least three andesite lava flows lying on a mountain ridge . Its steep @-@ sided flanks reach heights of 240 m ( 790 ft ) and are composed of volcanic rubble . This makes it impossible to measure its exact base elevation or how many lava flows comprise the edifice . With a summit elevation of 2 @,@ 147 m ( 7 @,@ 044 ft ) , Little Ring Mountain had its last volcanic activity between 25 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago when the Fraser Glaciation was close to its maximum .
Ember Ridge , a mountain ridge between Tricouni Peak and Mount Fee , consists of at least eight lava domes composed of andesite . They were likely formed between 25 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago when lava erupted beneath glacial ice of the Fraser Glaciation . Their current structures are comparable to their original forms due to the minimal degree of erosion . As a result , the domes display the shapes and columnar joints typical of subglacial volcanoes . The random shapes of the Ember Ridge domes are the result of erupted lava taking advantage of former ice pockets , eruptions taking place on uneven surfaces , subsidence of the domes during volcanic activity to create rubble and separation of older columnar units during more recent eruptions . The northern dome , known as Ember Ridge North , covers the summit and eastern flank of the mountain ridge . It comprises at least one lava flow that reaches a thickness of 100 m ( 330 ft ) , as well as the thinnest columnar units in the Mount Cayley volcanic field . The small size of the columnar joints indicates that the erupted lava was cooled immediately and are mainly located on the dome 's summit . Ember Ridge Northeast , the smallest subglacial dome of Ember Ridge , comprises one lava flow that has a thickness no more than 40 m ( 130 ft ) . Ember Ridge Northwest , the most roughly circular subglacial dome , comprises at least one lava flow . Ember Ridge Southeast is the most complex of the Ember Ridge domes , consisting of a series of lava flows with a thickness of 60 m ( 200 ft ) . It is also the only Ember Ridge dome that contains large amounts of rubble . Ember Ridge Southwest comprises at least one lava flow that reaches a thickness of 80 m ( 260 ft ) . It is the only subglacial dome of Ember Ridge that contains hyaloclastite . Ember Ridge West comprises only one lava flow that reaches a thickness of 60 m ( 200 ft ) .
Mount Brew , 18 km ( 11 mi ) southwest of the resort town of Whistler , is a 1 @,@ 757 m ( 5 @,@ 764 ft ) high lava dome composed of andesite or dacite that probably formed subglacially between 25 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . It contains two masses of rock that might resemble ice @-@ marginal lava flows . These edifices have not been studied in detail but they could have formed during the same period as the Ember Ridge subglacial domes due to their structures , columnar joints and compositions .
= = = Eroded edifices = = =
The Mount Cayley massif , 2 @,@ 385 m ( 7 @,@ 825 ft ) in elevation , is the largest and most persistent volcano in the Mount Cayley volcanic field . It is a highly eroded stratovolcano composed of dacite and rhyodacite lava that was deposited during three phases of volcanic activity . The first eruptive phase started about four million years ago with the eruption of dacite lava flows and pyroclastic rock . This resulted in the creation of the Mount Cayley proper . Subsequent volcanism during this volcanic phase constructed a significant lava dome . This acts like a volcanic plug and composes the lava spines that currently form pinnacles on Cayley 's rugged summit . After the Mount Cayley proper was constructed , lava flows , tephra and welded dacite rubble was erupted . This second phase of activity 2 @.@ 7 ± 0 @.@ 7 million years ago resulted in the creation of the Vulcan 's Thumb , a craggy volcanic ridge on the southern flank of the Mount Cayley proper . Lengthy dissection from an extended period of erosion demolished much of the original stratovolcano . Volcanic activity after this prolonged period of erosion produced thick dacite lava flows from parasitic vents 300 @,@ 000 years ago that extended into the Turbid and Shovelnose Creek valleys near the Squamish River . This subsequently created two minor parasitic lava domes 200 @,@ 000 years ago . These three volcanic events in contrast to several others around Cayley in that they do not show signs of interaction with glacial ice .
Immediately southeast of Mount Cayley lies Mount Fee , an extensively eroded volcano containing a north @-@ south trending ridge . It has an elevation of 2 @,@ 162 m ( 7 @,@ 093 ft ) and is one of the older volcanic features in the Mount Cayley volcanic field . Its volcanics are undated , but its large amount of dissection and evidence of glacial ice overriding the volcano indicates that it formed more than 75 @,@ 000 years ago before the Wisconsinan Glaciation . Therefore , volcanism at Mount Fee does not display evidence of interaction with glacial ice . The remaining products from Fee 's earliest volcanic activity is a minor portion of pyroclastic rock . This is evidence of explosive volcanism from Fee 's eruptive history , as well as its first volcanic event . The second volcanic event produced a sequence of lavas and breccias on the eastern flank of the main ridge . These volcanics were likely deposited when a sequence of lava flows and broken lava fragments erupted from a volcanic vent and moved down the flanks during the construction of a large volcano . Following extensive dissection , renewed volcanism produced a viscous series of lava flows forming its narrow , flat @-@ topped , steep @-@ sided northern limit and the northern end of the main ridge . The conduit for which these lava flows originated from was likely vertical in structure and intruded through older volcanics deposited during Fee 's earlier volcanic events . This volcanic event was also followed by a period of erosion , and likely one or more glacial periods . Extensive erosion following the last volcanic event at Mount Fee has created the rugged north @-@ south trending ridge that currently forms a prominent landmark .
Pali Dome , located north and northeast of Mount Cayley , is an eroded volcano in the central Mount Cayley volcanic field . Like Cauldron Dome , it consists of two geological units . Pail Dome East is composed of a mass of andesite lava flows and small amounts of pyroclastic material . It lies on the eastern portion of the Powder Mountain Icefield . Much of the lava flows form gentle topography at high elevations but terminate in finely jointed vertical cliffs at low elevations . The first volcanic activity likely occurred about 25 @,@ 000 years ago , but it could also be significantly older . The most recent volcanic activity produced a series of lava flows that were erupted when the vent area was not covered by glacial ice . However , the flows show evidence of interaction with glacial ice in their lower units . This indicates that the lavas were erupted about 10 @,@ 000 years ago during the waning stages of the Fraser Glaciation . The ice @-@ marginal lava flows reach thicknesses of up to 100 m ( 330 ft ) . Pali Dome West consists of at least three andesite lava flows and small amounts of pyroclastic material ; its vent is presently buried under glacial ice . At least three eruptions have occurred at Pali Dome East . The age of the first volcanic eruption is unknown , but it could have occurred in the past 10 @,@ 000 years . The second eruption produced a lava flow that was erupted when the vent area was not buried under glacial ice . However , the flow does show evidence of interaction with glacial ice at its lower unit . This indicates that the lavas were erupted during the waning stages of the Fraser Glaciation . The third and most recent eruption produced another lava flow that was largely erupted above glacial ice , but was probably constrained on its northern margin by a small glacier . Unlike the lava flow that was erupted during the second eruption , this lava flow was not impounded by glacial ice at its lower unit . This suggests that it erupted less than 10 @,@ 000 years ago when the regional Fraser Glaciation retreated .
= = = Lava flows = = =
At least two sequences of basaltic andesite lava flows are deposited south of Tricouni Peak . One of these sequences , known as Tricouni Southwest , creates a cliff on the eastern side of a north @-@ south trending channel with a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) adjacent to the High Falls Creek mouth . The eastern flank of the lava flow , outside the High Falls Creek channel , has a more constant structure . Several fine @-@ scale columnar joints and the overall structure of the lava flow suggest that its western portion , along the length of the channel , ponded against glacial ice . Near its southern unit , lava oozed into cracks in the glacial ice . This has been identified by the existence of spire @-@ like cooling formations , although many of these edifices have been destroyed by erosional processes . Other features that indicate the lava ponded against glacial ice include its unusually thick structure and its steep cliffs . Therefore , the Tricouni Southwest lava flow was erupted about 10 @,@ 000 years ago when the regional Fraser Glaciation was retreating . The explanation for the western portion displaying ice @-@ contact features while the eastern portion does not is likely because its western flank lies in a north @-@ south trending channel , which would have been able to maintain smaller amounts of solar heat than its unsheltered eastern flank . As a result , the western portion of the lava flow records glaciation during a period when the eastern slopes were free from glacial ice .
Tricouni Southeast , another volcanic sequence south of Tricouni Peak , consists of at least four andesite or dacite lava flows that outcrop as several small cliffs and bluffs on extensively vegetated flanks . They reach thicknesses of 100 m ( 330 ft ) and contain small amounts of hyaloclastite . The feeder of their origins has not been discovered but is likely located at the summit of the mound . These lavas form ice @-@ marginal edifies , suggesting that every lava flow was erupted about 10 @,@ 000 years ago when the vast Cordilleran Ice Sheet was retreating and remains of glacial ice was sparse .
Exposed along the Cheakamus River and its tributaries are the Cheakamus Valley basalts . Although not necessarily mapped as part of the Cayley field , this sequence of basaltic lava flows is geologically similar and comparable in age to volcanic features that are part of this volcanic field . At least four basaltic flows comprise the sequence and were deposited during periods of volcanic activity from an unknown vent between 0 @.@ 01 and 1 @.@ 6 million years ago . Pillow lava is abundant along the bases the flows , some of which are underlain by hyaloclastite breccia . In 1958 , Canadian volcanologist Bill Mathews suggested that the lava flows were erupted during periods of subglacial activity and traveled through trenches or tunnels melted in glacial ice of the Fraser Glaciation . Mathews based this on the age of the underlying till , the existence of pillow lava close to the bottom of some lavas , indicating subaqueous volcanism , the columnar jointing at the edges of the lavas , indicating rapid cooling , and the absence of apparent palaeogeography .
= = = Petrography = = =
The andesite lava of Ember Ridge comprises 55 % brownish @-@ green volcanic glass with a trachytic matrix of plagioclase . About 35 % of Ember Ridge andesite contains phenocrysts of hornblende , augite , plagioclase and orthopyroxene and exist as isolated crystals and clots . A feature south of Ember Ridge , unofficially known as Betty 's Bump , comprises andesite with phenocrysts of plagioclase , augite and olivine . Dark brown volcanic glass composes the Betty 's Bump andesite as much as 20 % . The relationship of Betty 's Bump with Ember Ridge is unclear but it likely represents a separate volcanic feature due to its topographic isolation .
Little Ring Mountain at the northern end of the field contains at least 70 % brown volcanic glass with isolated phenocrysts of plagioclase . Vesicular textures are up to 5 % , suggesting that the lava erupted subaerially . Probable xenocrysts of quartz have been identified at the volcano . At least one xenolith fragment has been found in loose rubble at the volcano and included several quartz xenocrysts and polycrystalline quartz xenoliths in a glassy matrix with trachytic plagioclase .
The dacite volcanics composing Mount Fee contain brown volcanic glass as much as 70 % and vesicular textures as much as 15 % . About 25 % of the volcanics contain crystal content , including plagioclase , hornblende , orthopyroxene , orthoclase and sporadic quartz . The orthoclase crystals are interpreted to represent rock fragments that became enveloped during hardening of the dacitic lavas . A portion of the southwestern flank of Mount Fee comprises no volcanic glass , but rather composed of an abnormal cryptocrystalline matrix . This indicates that it might have developed as part of a subvolcanic intrusion .
At Ring Mountain , andesite comprises 70 % brown volcanic glass and vesicular textures as much as 15 % . The plagioclastic matrix is trachytic . Augite , biotite , plagioclase and hornblende occur as microphenocrysts and comprise 1 % to 7 % of the andesite . Small qualities of quartz are common and occur as microxenocrysts . Microxenocrysts of orthoclase likely exist in andesite at Ring Mountain .
Andesite at Slag Hill consists of 70 % dark brown volcanic glass with varied degrees of trachytic texture in the plagioclastic matrix and less than 5 % of the andesite comprises vesicular textures . Plagioclase , hornblende and augite are mostly in form as phenocrysts and comprise 1 % to 10 % of the andesite . Orthoclase crystals are found occasionally and they likely represent xenocrysts .
= = = Geothermal and seismic activity = = =
At least four seismic events have occurred at Mount Cayley since 1985 and is the only volcano that has recorded seismic activity in the field . This suggests that the volcano still contains an active magma system , indicating the possibility of future eruptive activity . Although the available data does not allow a clear conclusion , this observation indicates that some volcanoes in the Mount Cayley field may be active , with significant potential hazards . This seismic activity correlates both with some of Canada 's most youthful volcanoes and with long @-@ lived volcanoes with a history of significant explosive activity , such as Mount Cayley . Recent seismic imaging from Natural Resources Canada employees supported lithoprobe studies in the region of Mount Cayley that created a large reflector interpreted to be a pool of molten rock roughly 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) below the surface . It is estimated to be 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) long and 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) wide with a thickness of less than 1 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) . The reflector is understood to be a sill complex associated with the formation of Mount Cayley . However , the available data does not rule out the probability of it being a body of molten rock created by dehydrating of the subducted Juan de Fuca Plate . It is located just beneath the weak lithosphere like those found under subduction zone volcanoes in Japan .
At least five hot springs exist in valleys near Mount Cayley , providing more evidence for magmatic activity . This includes springs found at Shovelnose Creek and Turbid Creek on the southern flank of Mount Cayley and Brandywine Creek on the eastern flank of the volcanic field . They are generally found in areas of volcanic activity that are geologically young . As the regional surface water percolates downward through rocks below the Mount Cayley field , it reaches areas of high temperatures surrounding an active or recently solidified magma reservoir . Here , the water is heated , becomes less dense and rises back to the surface along fissures or cracks . These features are sometimes referred to as dying volcanoes because they seem to represent the last stage of volcanic activity as the magma at depth cools and hardens .
= = Human history = =
= = = Occupation = = =
Several volcanic features in the Mount Cayley field were illustrated by volcanologist Jack Souther in 1980 , including Mount Cayley , Cauldron Dome , Slag Hill , Mount Fee , Ember Ridge and Ring Mountain , which was titled Crucible Dome at the time . This resulted in the creation of a geologic map that showed the regional terrain and locations of the volcanoes . The most detailed study of Mount Cayley took place during this period . Little Ring Mountain at the northernmost end of the field had not been studied at the time and was not included on Souther 's 1980 map . Ember Ridge at the southern end of the field was originally mapped as a cluster of five lava domes . The sixth lava dome , Ember Ridge Northeast , was discovered by Ph.D. student Melanie Kelman during a period of research in 2001 .
The hot springs adjacent to Mount Cayley have made the volcanic field a target for geothermal exploration . At least 16 geothermal sites have been identified in British Columbia , Mount Cayley being one of the six areas most capable for commercial development . Others include Meager Creek and Pebble Creek near Pemberton , Lakelse Hot Springs near Terrace , Mount Edziza on the Tahltan Highland and the Lillooet Fault Zone between Harrison Lake and the community of Lillooet . Temperatures of 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) to more than 100 ° C ( 212 ° F ) have been measured in shallow boreholes on the southwestern flank of Mount Cayley . However , its severe terrain makes it challenging to develop a proposed 100 megawatt power station in the area .
= = = Early impressions = = =
The line of volcanoes has been the subject of myths and legends by First Nations . To the Squamish Nation , Mount Cayley is called tak 'takmu 'yin tl 'a in7in 'axa7en . In their language it means " Landing Place of the Thunderbird " . The Thunderbird is a legendary creature in North American indigenous peoples ' history and culture . When the bird flaps its wings , thunder is created , and lightning originates from its eyes . The rocks that make up Mount Cayley were said to have been burnt black by the Thunderbird 's lightning . This mountain , like others in the area , is considered sacred because it plays an important part of their history . The Black Tusk , a pinnacle of black volcanic rock on the north shore of Garibaldi Lake to the southeast , sustains the same name . Cultural ceremonial use , hunting , trapping and plant gathering occur around the Mount Garibaldi area , but the most important resources was a lithic material called obsidian . Obsidian is a black volcanic glass used to make knives , chisels , adzes and other sharp tools in pre @-@ contact times . Glassy rhyodacite was also collected from a number of minor outcrops on the flanks of Mount Fee , Mount Callaghan and Mount Cayley . This material appears in goat hunting sites and at the Elaho rockshelter , collectively dated from about 8 @,@ 000 to 100 years old .
A number of volcanic peaks in the Mount Cayley field were named by mountaineers that explored the area in the early 20th century . Mount Fee was named in September 1928 by British mountaineer Tom Fyles after Charles Fee ( 1865 – 1927 ) , who was a member of the British Columbia Mountaineering Club in Vancouver at the time . To the northwest , Mount Cayley was named in September 1928 by Tom Fyles after Beverley Cochrane Cayley during a climbing expedition with the Alpine Club of Canada . Cayley was a friend of those in the climbing expedition and had died in Vancouver on June 8 , 1928 at the age of 29 . Photographs of Mount Cayley were taken by Fyles during the 1928 expedition and were published in the 1931 Canadian Alpine Journal Vol XX .
= = = Protection and monitoring = = =
At least one feature in the Mount Cayley volcanic field is protected as a provincial park . Brandywine Falls Provincial Park at the southeastern end of the field was established to protect Brandywine Falls , a 70 m ( 230 ft ) high waterfall on Brandywine Creek . It is composed of at least four lava flows of the Cheakamus Valley basalts . They are exposed in cliffs compassing the falls with a narrow sequence of gravel lying above the oldest lava unit . These lava flows are interpreted to have been exposed by erosion during a period of catastrophic flooding and the valley these lavas are located in is significantly larger than the river within it . The massive flooding that shaped the valley has been a subject of geological studies by Catherine Hickson and Andree Blais @-@ Stevens . It has been proposed that there could have been significant floods during the waning stages of the last glacial period as drainage in a valley further north was blocked with remnants of glacial ice . Another possible explanation is subglacial eruptions created large amounts of glacial meltwater that scoured the surface of the exposed lava flows .
Like other volcanic zones in the Garibaldi Belt , volcanoes in the Mount Cayley field are not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active their magma systems are . This is partly because the field is located in a remote region and no major eruptions have occurred in Canada in the past few hundred years . As a result , volcano monitoring is less important than dealing with other natural processes , including tsunamis , earthquakes and landslides . However , with the existence of earthquakes , further volcanism is expected and would probably have considerable effects , particularly in a region like southwestern British Columbia where the Garibaldi Belt is located in a highly populated area . Because of these concerns , significant support from Canadian university scientists have resulted in the construction of a baseline of knowledge on the state of the Garibaldi volcanoes . This improvement is continuous and will support the understanding to monitor volcanoes in the Mount Cayley field for future volcanism .
= = Volcanic hazards = =
The Mount Cayley field is one of the largest volcanic zones in the Garibaldi Belt . Smaller zones include the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field surrounding Garibaldi Lake and the Bridge River Cones on the northern flank of the upper Bridge River . These areas are adjacent to Canada 's populated southwest corner where the population of British Columbia is the greatest .
A large volcanic eruption from any volcanoes in the Mount Cayley field would have major effects on the Sea @-@ to @-@ Sky Highway and municipalities such as Squamish , Whistler , Pemberton and probably Vancouver . Because of these concerns , the Geological Survey of Canada is planning to create hazard maps and emergency plans for Mount Cayley , as well as Mount Meager north of the volcanic field , which experienced a major volcanic eruption 2 @,@ 350 years ago similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens .
= = = Landslides = = =
Like many other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt , Mount Cayley has been the source for several large landslides . To date , most geological studies of the Mount Cayley field have focused on landslide hazards along with geothermal potential . A major debris avalanche about 4 @,@ 800 years ago dumped 8 km2 ( 3 @.@ 1 sq mi ) of volcanic material into the adjacent Squamish valley . This blocked the Squamish River for a long period of time . Evans ( 1990 ) has indicated that a number of landslides and debris flows at Mount Cayley in the past 10 @,@ 000 years might have been caused by volcanic activity . Since the large debris avalanche 4 @,@ 800 years ago , a number of more minor landslides have occurred at it , including one 1 @,@ 100 years ago and another event 500 years ago . Both landslides ultimately blocked the Squamish River and created lakes upstream that lasted for a limited amount of time . In 1968 and 1983 , a series of landslides took place that caused considerable damage to logging roads and forest stands , but did not result in any casualties . Future landslides from Mount Cayley and potential damming of the Squamish River are significant geological hazards to the general public , as well as to the economic development in the Squamish valley .
= = = Eruptions = = =
Eruptive activity in the Mount Cayley volcanic field is typical of past volcanism elsewhere in the Garibaldi Belt . Large earthquakes would occur under the volcanic field weeks to years in advance as molten rock intrudes through the Earth 's rocky lithosphere . The extent of earthquakes and the local seismographs in this region would warn the Geological Survey of Canada and possibly cause an upgrade in monitoring . While molten rock breaks through the crust , the size of the volcano vulnerable to an eruption would probably swell and the area would rupture , creating much more hydrothermal activity at the regional hot springs and the formation of new springs or fumaroles . Small and probably significant rock avalanches may result and could dam the nearby Squamish River for a limited amount of time , such as those that occurred in the past without seismic activity and deformation related to magmatic activity . At some point the subsurface magma will produce phreatic eruptions and lahars . At this time Highway 99 would be out of service and the residents of Squamish would have to travel away from the eruptive zone .
While molten rock comes closer to the surface it would most likely cause more fragmentation , triggering an explosive eruption that could produce an eruption column with an elevation of 20 km ( 12 mi ) and may be sustained for 12 hours . A well @-@ documented explosive eruption in the Garibaldi Belt with such force is the eruption of Mount Meager 2 @,@ 350 years ago , which deposed ash as far east as Alberta . This would endanger air traffic and would have to take another route away from the eruptive zone . Every airport buried under pyroclastic fall would be out of service , including those in Vancouver , Victoria , Kamloops , Prince George and Seattle . The tephra would destroy power transmission lines , satellite dishes , computers and other equipment that operates on electricity . Therefore , telephones , radios and cell phones would be disconnected . Structures not built for holding heavy material would likely demolish under the weight of the tephra . Ash from the eruption plume would subside above the vent area to create pyroclastic flows and would travel east and west down the nearby Cheakamus and Squamish river valleys . These would likely have significant impacts on salmon in the associated rivers and would cause considerable melting of glacial ice to produce debris flows that may extend into Daisy Lake and Squamish to cause significant damage . The eruption column would then travel eastward and extract air travel throughout Canada from Alberta to Newfoundland and Labrador .
Explosive eruptions may decrease and be followed by the eruption of viscous lava to form a lava dome in the newly formed crater . Precipitation would frequently trigger lahars and these would continuously create problems in the Squamish and Cheakamus river valleys . If the lava dome continues to grow , it would eventually rise above the crater rim . The lava would be cooling and expanding then may produce landslides to create a massive zone of blocky talus in the Squamish river valley . While the dome of lava grows , it would frequently subside to create large pyroclastic flows that would again travel down the adjacent Squamish and Cheakamus river valleys . Tephra swept away from the pyroclastic flows would create ash columns with elevations of at least 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) , repeatedly depositing tephra on the communities of Whistler and Pemberton and again disrupting regional air traffic . Lava of the unstable dome may occasionally create minor pyroclastic flows , explosions and eruption columns . The community of Squamish would be abandoned , Highway 99 would be out of service and destroyed , and traffic adjacent to Vancouver , Pemberton and Whistler would remain forced to travel along a route to the east that is more lengthy than Highway 99 .
Eruptions would likely continue for a period of time , followed by years of decreasing secondary activity . The solidifying lava would occasionally collapse portions of the volcano to create pyroclastic flows . Rubble on the flanks of the volcano and in valleys would occasionally be released to form debris flows . Major construction would be needed to repair the community of Squamish and Highway 99 .
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= Luminous Studio =
Luminous Studio ( ルミナス ・ スタジオ , Ruminasu Sutajio ) is a multi @-@ platform game engine developed and used internally by Square Enix . The engine was developed for and targeted at eighth @-@ generation hardware and DirectX 11 @-@ compatible platforms , such as Xbox One , the PlayStation 4 , and versions of Microsoft Windows . It was conceived during the development of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 to be compatible with next generation consoles that their existing platform , Crystal Tools , could not handle .
The engine powered the Agni 's Philosophy and Witch Chapter 0 tech demos and now centers on Final Fantasy XV , a title in the Final Fantasy series for eighth @-@ generation consoles . Critics praised the engine 's two tech demos , citing their graphics and real time rendering and declaring the engine as representative of the future of gaming .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
According to Julien Merceron , the Worldwide Technology Director for Square Enix in the early 2010 's , the concept for the new engine was born in 2011 while he was in the final stages of working on Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . This was a difficult period for Square Enix : the project then known as Final Fantasy Versus XIII was hitting technical barriers as it transitioned to open world environments its original Crystal Tools engine could not handle , and Final Fantasy XIV had met with a disastrous launch due to development and technical problems . Faced with these issues , Square Enix decided to bring in former developers from Sega to create new engines for their products , including Luminous Studio . Talking about sharing the engine , Merceron said that he advised the company to avoid sharing between companies or internally between games until the engine had been finalized with the released game : this resulted in Luminous Studio being restricted to what would become Final Fantasy XV during development , while other major next @-@ generation titles would use other outsourced engines .
The construction of Luminous was similar in concept to Epic Games ' Unreal Engine or the Unity engine from Unity Technologies in that it incorporated all the development tools needed from asset editing onward , as well as being " high quality , easy to use , flexible , high speed , compact , and supporting both manual and automatic [ game development methods ] . " The development team drew inspiration for this concept and approach from Unreal Engine and CryTek 's CryEngine . The name " Luminous " was chosen to reflect the crystal theme of the Final Fantasy series . There were many major factors that the team considered while building the engine , as they wanted to insure the highest possible quality for high @-@ end games . Some of the environmental factors included lighting , shading and modeling . A core feature of the gameplay was the artificial intelligence ( AI ) , which had previous been liable to become unstable or poor under certain conditions or with poor programming due to the large amount of individual codes needed . For Luminous , the team created a single unifying flexible framework to control the scale of the AI while also making it intuitive . It was intended to be used in @-@ house rather than licensed out to other developers , but that western subsidiaries of the company would have access to it . In addition , they also built in the ability to blend graphical assets designed for CG scenery with highly advanced real @-@ time animation , making the two graphically similar . Luminous Studio was publicly revealed in 2011 .
The head of the project was Yoshihisa Hashimoto , Square Enix 's Chief Technology Officer , who had moved over to the company from Sonic Team in 2009 and became involved with development in 2011 . Other key Square Enix staff members working on Luminous Studio include Takeshi Nozue , Akira Iwata and Hiroshi Iwasaki . While ground work was being laid for Luminous , members of the team traveled to look at engine technology being developed by IO Interactive , Crystal Dynamics and Eidos Montreal , western video game developers who became subsidiaries after the company bought out Eidos Interactive . Square Enix 's western subsidiaries shared information about game engine development from their experience developing the CDC and Glacier 2 game engines and shared their source code with the Luminous Studio team . During 2012 , one third of the final development team was from western subsidiaries of the company . Luminous was developed based on high @-@ end DirectX 11 technology . While designed for eighth @-@ generation video games , it was said to also be compatible with any console and hardware that could handle shaders , such as PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . Its compatibility with Nintendo 's seventh @-@ gen hardware such as the Wii and Nintendo 3DS was doubted , as those consoles did not support shaders . During this early stage , they were looking into the possibility of adjusting the engine for use on Wii U. The company were hoping to promote Luminous as a kind of brand , showing off the logo and tech demo when they were ready .
= = = Agni 's Philosophy = = =
Agni 's Philosophy is a tech demo created by Square Enix to show off the capacities of Luminous Studio . The demo was a collaboration between the cinematic Visual Works division -- a section of the company generally associated with CGI movie production for the company 's video games -- and Square Enix 's R & D department , Advanced Technology Division , with a goal to create a real @-@ time graphics tech demo that has a quality coming as close as possible to pre @-@ rendered CGI . Development of the demo took approximately half a year . Unlike previous technology demos created by the company , which were based on pre @-@ existing games , Square Enix decided to create something completely original . The demo was themed around the Final Fantasy series : during discussions , the team asked the question " What is Final Fantasy ? " , broke down its basic components and used them , along with added unusual elements , in the demo . A focus during the demo 's development was the creation of Agni , the central character . For the demo , as it was a work @-@ in @-@ progress , they optimized it for graphical performance . While the story and themes were created by the Japanese staff , many of the character designs were done by staff from their western subsidiaries . The technology to create the demo was all sourced from then @-@ existing high @-@ end PCs . An initial mock up of Agni 's hair was created using a mannequin and wig styled by a professional make @-@ up artist . Each character 's face was constructed around mo @-@ capped footage of live actors , then tweaked and expanded in post @-@ production . The entire development process , from conception through development , took approximately a year . Agni 's Philosophy was first shown at E3 2012 as part of a special presentation by Square Enix . As part of the presentation , guest speakers paused the demo and adjusted elements of the characters on the fly to show off the engine 's customization features . It was also shown at SIGGRAPH 2012 .
The Agni 's Philosophy tech demo was running at 60 frames per second , used 1 @.@ 8 GB of texture data per frame , and pushed ten million polygons per frame , with approximately 300 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 polygons for each character model . The entire city in the demo was tessellated . There is a scene where 100 @,@ 000 illuminated firefly @-@ like insects appear on screen , each one a full polygon mesh model with body and wings , which proceed to merge to generate a summoned monster . Production for the demo began in June 2011 , and was initially produced as pre @-@ rendered CGI animation by Visual Works before Square Enix attempted to reproduce it entirely in real @-@ time with the Luminous Studio engine , using the same assets as the CGI version .
= = = Final Fantasy XV = = =
Prior to its rebranding and full move onto eight @-@ generation consoles , Final Fantasy XV ( then called Final Fantasy Versus XIII ) , used lighting technology from Luminous along with a purpose @-@ built proprietary gameplay engine . For its E3 2013 re @-@ reveal under its new title , the company used a specially @-@ created engine environment named Ebony . In July 2014 , Hashimoto left the company , citing personal reasons . While still working as an advisor for Luminous Studio , his position as project leader was filled by Remi Driancourt , a senior engineer who had worked with games featuring Luminous technology . The version of XV shown off at Tokyo Game Show and Jump Festa that year ran on Luminous 1 @.@ 4 , which combined Luminous with components created for Ebony . The Episode Duscae game demo is planned to run on 1 @.@ 5 . The developers are planning for the final game to run on version 2 @.@ 0 .
With Luminous Studio , real @-@ time scenes in XV have five million polygons per frame , with character models made up of about 100 @,@ 000 polygons each . Character models for XV were constructed with 600 bones , estimated as roughly 10 @-@ 12 times more than seventh generation hardware . About 150 bones are used for the face , 300 for the hair and clothes , and 150 for the body . For the characters ' hair , the team used the same technique as with the characters in Agni 's Philosophy . The inner hair for each character uses about 20 @,@ 000 polygons , five times more than seventh generation hardware . The data capacity for textures is also much greater than before . Each character uses 30 MB of texture data , and ten levels of detail . While seventh @-@ generation games used 50 to 100 MB of texture data for a scene , Final Fantasy XV can use about sixteen times this amount on the PlayStation 4 console . 2048 × 2048 and 4096 × 4096 texels are used for the HD textures .
= = = Witch Chapter 0 = = =
In April 2015 , Square Enix announced that the engine will support DirectX 12 , and Nvidia revealed a new real @-@ time tech demo developed by Square Enix for the engine , called Witch Chapter 0 [ cry ] , featuring the character Agni from the earlier Agni 's Philosophy demo . The demo renders over 63 million polygons per frame , uses " 8K by 8K " resolution textures , and her hair is rendered with over 50 shaders , with each strand of hair rendered as a polygon . It also portrays human crying with a high level of detail , and the quality of the real @-@ time graphics have been compared to pre @-@ rendered CGI animation . The tech demo took a year to produce , and was running on a PC with four GeForce GTX Titan X graphics cards .
= = Features = =
= = Reception = =
The existence of the gaming engine surprised many critics when it was unveiled in E3 2012 . Kotaku described the graphics of the game engine preview as " jaw dropping " and " stunning " , and called it a real competitor to Unreal Engine 4 . VG24 / 7 called the graphics " drop dead gorgeous " . IGN cited the technology as a " hurdling leap into the future " , and other reviews emphasised realistic 3D modeling of the human eye and real time rendering of graphics .
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= Stavne – Leangen Line =
The Stavne – Leangen Line ( Norwegian : Stavne – Leangenbanen ) is a 5 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 6 mi ) railway line between Stavne and Leangen in Trondheim , Norway . The line provides an alternative connection between the Dovre Line and Nordland Line , allowing trains to bypass Trondheim Central Station . The line includes the Stavne Bridge over the river of Nidelva , Lerkendal Station and the 2 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) long Tyholt Tunnel . Construction of the line started during the Second World War by the Wehrmacht , the German military occupying Norway , in an attempt to make the railway in Trondheim resistant to sabotage . Because of the long construction time of the tunnel , tracks were laid in the city streets , but neither route was completed before the end of the war . Construction was placed on hold and the Stavne – Leangen Line did not open until 2 June 1957 . At first it was primarily used by freight trains , but since 1988 , passenger services have been provided .
= = Route = =
The Stavne – Leangen Line is 5 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 6 mi ) and acts as a connection between the Dovre Line and the Nordland Line ( formerly the Meråker Line ) in Trondheim . It is single track and standard gauge , is not electrified and has no passing loops . It is equipped with centralized traffic control ( CTC ) , has eight bridges , two tunnels and no level crossings . The line is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration .
To the southwest , the line connects to the Dovre Line at Stavne . There are two forks , laid triangularly , one each from the north and south . On the Dovre Line 's side of the triangle is the closed Stavne Station . The track from the north branches off just after passing Marienborg Station . The station is built in such a way that trains on the Dovre Line use the one track and trains on the Stavne – Leangen Line use the other track . The Stavne – Leangen Line 's northern switch is located 547 @.@ 82 kilometers ( 340 @.@ 40 mi ) from Oslo Central Station , and 2 @.@ 82 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 75 mi ) from Trondheim Central Station . The southern fork merges with the northern fork 1 @.@ 79 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 11 mi ) after the northern fork branches from the mainline .
At 80 meters ( 260 ft ) after the merger , the line crosses Nidelva on the 186 @-@ meter ( 610 ft ) long Stavne Bridge before crossing European Road E6 on a 25 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 83 ft ) long concrete bridge . The line then reaches Lerkendal Station , which is located 2 @.@ 55 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 58 mi ) from Marienborg . It serves the Gløshaugen campus of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology , and Lerkendal Stadion , the home ground of Rosenborg BK . The line continues through the 2 @,@ 785 @-@ meter ( 9 @,@ 137 ft ) long Tyholt Tunnel , which starts 270 meters ( 890 ft ) after Lerkendal Station . The line merges with the Nordland Line at Leangen Station , which is located 3 @.@ 49 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 17 mi ) from Trondheim Central Station .
= = History = =
During the German occupation of Norway as part of the Second World War , the Wehrmacht wanted a railway route past Trondheim which was guarded against sabotage . They decided that the best way to do this was to build a tunnel under the neighborhood of Tyholt . However , construction of the tunnel took much longer than expected , so instead Wehrmach started laying railway tracks in the streets in Trondheim . They planned that the railway would branch from the Dovre Line at Skansen Station and then follow Sandgata and Olav Tryggvasons gate , cross Nidelva on Bakke Bridge and then run up Innherredsveien before reaching the Meråker Line at Lademoen Station . However , by German capitulation on 8 May 1945 , construction of the railway had only reached Søndre gate .
The Norwegian State Railways regained interest in the line during the 1950s and resumed construction . The line was officially opened on 1 June 1957 and revenue traffic started the following day . The line was originally only used for freight trains , although it was occasionally used by passenger trains , especially when there was maintenance work on bridges . The line received CTC on 11 January 1976 . Lerkendal Station was opened on 1 December 1988 , and with the establishment of the Trøndelag Commuter Rail in 1993 , the station started being used for scheduled commuter rail services . Ownership of the line passed to the Norwegian National Rail Administration from 1 December 1996 . Marienborg Station opened in 1999 , and from 2001 , all commuter trains operating to and from Steinkjer had Lerkendal Station as their southern terminus .
In 2002 , NSB launched a now abandoned proposal to establish an urban train service in Trondheim . According to the proposal , trains would have operated along the Dovre Line from Melhus Station and then run to Lerkendal before continuing onwards to Lademoen and running in a loop back to the central station . The services was proposed to be operated as part of the commuter rail system . It would have required investments of 120 million Norwegian krone , including a connection for trains to be able to run from the east end of the line and westwards on the Nordland Line , and investments to noise insulate the Tyholt Tunnel . In a 2005 report , SINTEF recommended that if such a service should be introduced , it should have four services per hour and operated with light rail rolling stock as a circle line with a tail southwards to Heimdal or Melhus . The report further commented that the new connection at Lademoen would have a 3 @.@ 6 @-@ percent gradient , which would be too steep for mainline trains .
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= Nikola Žigić =
Nikola Žigić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Никола Жигић , IPA : [ nǐkola ʒǐːɡit ͡ ɕ ] ; born 25 September 1980 ) is a Serbian international footballer who played as a centre forward .
Žigić was born in Bačka Topola , in what was then SFR Yugoslavia . He began playing football as a youngster with AIK Bačka Topola , and scored 68 goals from 76 first @-@ team matches over a three @-@ year period in the third tier of Yugoslav football . Military service took him to Bar in 2001 , where he was able to continue his goalscoring career with the local second @-@ level club Mornar . A brief spell back in the third tier with Kolubara preceded his turning professional with First League side Red Star Belgrade in 2002 . He spent time on loan at third @-@ tier Spartak Subotica before making his Red Star debut in 2003 . Despite suggestions that his height , of 2 @.@ 02 m ( 6 ft 7 1 ⁄ 2 in ) , made him better suited to sports other than football , Žigić ended the season as First League top scorer , domestic player of the year , league champion and scorer of the winning goal in the cup final . He won a second league – cup double in 2005 – 06 , a second player of the year award , and finished his three @-@ year Red Star career with 70 goals from 109 appearances in all competitions .
In August 2006 , Žigić signed for Spanish club Racing Santander ; his goals and his partnership with Pedro Munitis helped them achieve a mid @-@ table finish in La Liga . He then moved to Valencia , but was unable to establish himself as a regular in the starting eleven . He spent the second half of the 2008 – 09 La Liga season back with Racing on loan , for whom he scored 13 goals in just 19 matches . Žigić joined Birmingham City of the Premier League in 2010 , and in his first season , he scored in their League Cup win . Even after relegation to the Championship , and despite increasing efforts to remove his large salary from the financially struggling club 's wage bill , he remained with Birmingham for the full four years of his contract . Having been without a club for a few months , he rejoined Birmingham for the second half of the 2014 – 15 season .
Žigić made his senior international debut for Serbia and Montenegro in March 2004 , and following the breakup of Serbia and Montenegro in 2006 , he played internationally for Serbia until 2011 . He won 57 caps for his country and scored 20 goals . He was a member of the 2006 and 2010 World Cup squads , and briefly captained his country in 2011 .
= = Personal life = =
Žigić was born in Bačka Topola , in what was then SFR Yugoslavia , the son of Jovan , a former footballer , and his wife Milica , who had been a basketball player . He completed his secondary education at the mechanical engineering school in Bačka Topola . His brother Branko , 15 months his junior , also became a footballer , as a central defender with clubs including Cement Beočin and Serbian First League club Proleter Novi Sad . During the Yugoslav Wars in 1999 , Žigić 's hometown was beneath the flight @-@ path of NATO bombers heading for Belgrade ; for much of that part of the conflict , the family home was without electricity or running water .
Žigić is married to Sanja ; the couple have two daughters .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
He joined his hometown football club , AIK Bačka Topola , as a youngster , and graduated to the senior side in 1998 – 99 . He began as a centre back , but soon realised he preferred scoring goals to defending . Žigić 's parents did not want him to take football seriously until he completed his education , and he remained with AIK Bačka Topola until 2001 , scoring 68 goals in 76 matches in the Serbian League Vojvodina , the third level of Yugoslav football . When military service took him to Bar , he was able to play for the local club , Mornar , for whom he scored 15 goals from 23 appearances in the 2001 – 02 Second League of FR Yugoslavia . After trials in France with Saint @-@ Étienne and Créteil came to nothing , Žigić returned home where he played 8 matches for third @-@ tier club Kolubara , scoring 3 goals .
Žigić then signed his first professional contract , with Red Star Belgrade , one of the biggest clubs in the country . Because he was not considered ready for first @-@ team football at that level , he spent the latter part of the 2002 – 03 season on loan at Spartak Subotica , another third @-@ tier side , for whom his goalscoring rate was even higher : 14 goals from just 11 league games .
= = = Red Star = = =
Returning head coach Slavoljub Muslin brought Žigić into Red Star 's senior squad for the 2003 – 04 First League season , and gave him his debut in the starting eleven on the opening day . That first game ended in defeat , and Žigić 's physical appearance – a growth spurt from the age of 16 had brought his height to 2 @.@ 02 m ( 6 ft 7 1 ⁄ 2 in ) – provoked suggestions that he might be better suited to basketball . He scored the second goal as they beat Hajduk Kula 2 – 0 in the next league match . In between , he produced a hat @-@ trick against Nistru in the 2003 – 04 UEFA Cup qualifying round , and went on to contribute a further three goals as Red Star beat Odense 6 – 5 on aggregate in the first round . He scored twice in the 3 – 0 win in the Eternal Derby against Partizan , and celebrated by miming a basketball shot . By the mid @-@ season break , he had 12 league goals as well as the 6 in the UEFA Cup , and was named Player of the Year for 2003 , both by the captains of the First League teams voting via the Večernje novosti newspaper and by the Football Association . He finished the season as the league 's top scorer , with 18 , as Red Star won their 23rd title , and scored the winning goal in the cup final .
Resuming the partnership with Marko Pantelić begun in the second half of 2003 – 04 , Žigić continued to score freely in the new season . With Red Star two goals and a man down in the first leg of the Champions League qualifier against Young Boys , he netted twice in the last 12 minutes to give his team an away draw . Domestically , Pantelić top @-@ scored with 21 league goals and Žigić contributed 15 as Red Star finished in second place , behind Partizan . Žigić scored against Partizan to help Red Star reach the cup final , but was one of five regular starters unavailable for that match through injury or suspension , and his team lost to a last @-@ minute goal to ten @-@ man Železnik .
In September 2005 , Žigić signed a one @-@ year extension to his contract , which had been due to expire at the end of the season . He helped his team progress through the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Cup , and accrding to Reuters ' correspondent , " capped a brilliant individual performance with two goals " as well as providing the cross for Milan Purović as Red Star beat Roma 3 – 1 in the third match of the group stage . His first goal , a header , appeared to have been scored from an offside position , but for the second , in the 86th minute , he dispossessed Philippe Mexès , evaded two more opponents , and bent the ball into the top corner from 25 m ( 27 yd ) with his weaker left foot . He said afterwards , " I 've never scored a goal like that in my entire career . I was going to pass the ball but there was no one ahead of me so I just decided to go for it and see what happens " . The win left Red Star needing to win their last group match to stand a chance of qualifying for the knockout rounds , but they failed to do so .
For the second time in three years , Žigić was chosen as domestic player of the year in the captains ' poll , and was also honoured by the Red Star Sport Association as best male athlete of 2005 , an award open to athletes representing the club in any sport , not just in football . After Pantelić 's departure for Hertha BSC , Red Star 's goals were spread more evenly among the remaining forward players . In the league , Žigić and Boško Janković were joint @-@ top scorers with 12 , and Purović contributed one fewer , as the club won their 24th title . They completed the double with a defeat of city rivals OFK in the cup final , coming back from 2 – 0 down via Žigić 's 67th @-@ minute free kick under the defensive wall and Purović 's equaliser to take the match into extra time , during which Žigić gave Red Star the lead with a header and Dušan Basta made the final score 4 – 2 . After the match , Žigić refused to answer questions about his Red Star future .
= = = Racing Santander = = =
Žigić began the season with Red Star , but on 29 August 2006 , he signed a four @-@ year contract with La Liga club Racing Santander . The fee , officially undisclosed , was variously reported at anything from € 4.5M to € 7M . Although better offers had been rejected , those offers had arrived at the wrong time : the pressure on Red Star to win the domestic title meant they were unlikely to dispose of a major player in mid @-@ season . The player felt he was more likely to start matches with a club at Racing 's level . Partnering the diminutive Pedro Munitis , he contributed 11 goals – including a hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 4 win over Athletic Bilbao – four assists and five penalties won in league competition over the season as Racing finished tenth . The efficacy of the pair earned them the nickname of Dúo Sacapuntos ( the Two Point @-@ getters ) ; ahead of the coming season , new coach Marcelino García Toral recalled how " we all know how many points Racing picked up when Žigić and Munitis weren 't there . Without them , Racing didn 't add points " . His performances earned him the captains ' vote as best player based abroad for 2006 , and contributed to his 2007 Football Association of Serbia Golden Ball award .
= = = Valencia = = =
Žigić signed for Valencia in August 2007 . The fee was unconfirmed , but suggestions appeared in the media of € 15M , € 18M , and around € 20M , a figure possibly including the player 's wages over the five years of his contract . He had been linked with numerous other moves , and Fenerbahçe made an offer that was better financially for both Racing and the player , but Žigić preferred to stay in " the best league in Europe " in a country where he was accustomed to the language and culture . He was suffering from an ankle injury when he arrived – which delayed his integration into the first @-@ team group and , according to Mundo Deportivo , undermined the coaching staff 's confidence in him – then aggravated the injury by playing in a Euro 2008 qualifier in September , and did not appear for Valencia until October .
He made his debut as a second @-@ half substitute in Valencia 's Champions League group @-@ stage defeat at home to Chelsea , and started the next league match , another home defeat against Espanyol , but was selected only infrequently either by Quique Flores , who had signed him , or by successor Ronald Koeman . With the transfer window approaching , Koeman had given Žigić two weeks to convince him he was worth keeping . Prior to the Copa del Rey on 19 December , Valencia had not scored for six matches , and they were soon 1 – 0 down to third @-@ tier opponents Real Union . Žigić came on and scored twice to turn the match around , and followed up with another goal three days later as Valencia came from behind to secure a 2 – 2 draw at Real Zaragoza . A mooted loan to English club Portsmouth fell through when Koeman changed his mind about the player leaving , but he made only nine league appearances ( two starts ) in what remained of the season , and was sent off in the first of those .
Speculation regarding moves to the Premier League came to nothing . By October , Žigić had appeared just once for Valencia , in the UEFA Cup , and an opportunity arose to join his former club , Racing Santander , on an emergency loan . This depended on the league allowing Racing to release Luis Fernández on medical grounds , because of a degenerative condition of his knee , thus freeing up a space in the first @-@ team squad . The LFP 's medical committee decided that the condition was not yet clearly career @-@ ending , so any agreement with Žigić had to be held over until the January 2009 transfer window . In the meantime , he played in four more cup matches for Valencia , two domestic and two UEFA , and scored in three of them , but took no part in the league campaign .
The loan agreement was duly revived , and Žigić returned to the club and the city that " feel like home " . Racing were to pay his wages and write off the debt outstanding from the sale of Mario Regueiro , and there was no option to purchase . Resuming his partnership with Munitis in the first game of his second spell , Žigić scored the only goal of the visit to Real Valladolid , repeated the feat at Getafe two weeks later , and scored again in the next match , a 2 – 0 win away at Sevilla . He finished the season as Racing 's top scorer , with 13 goals from only 19 games .
In the 2009 close season , there were rumours linking Žigić with moves to clubs including Sunderland , Monaco , and Bordeaux , but the player insisted his intention was and always had been to be successful with Valencia . He made 26 appearances for the club in 2009 – 10 in all competitions , more than in the previous two seasons combined , but only 5 were league starts . Within four minutes of replacing the injured David Villa in the league match against Racing in October , he took advantage of a defensive error to score the only goal of the game ; out of respect for his former club , he did not celebrate . On 2 January 2010 , his 93rd @-@ minute header against Espanyol took Valencia third in the table , and his double against Deportivo La Coruña in the 2009 – 10 Copa del Rey put Valencia 2 – 0 up at half @-@ time ; the game finished 2 – 2 and Valencia lost 4 – 3 on aggregate . With four minutes left of the Europa League quarter @-@ final second leg , Valencia were denied a penalty when an Atlético Madrid defender pulled Žigić to the ground so forcefully that a large hole was torn in the front of his shirt , apparently unnoticed by referee or goalline official ; the tie ended goalless , so Atlético progressed on away goals from the first leg and went on to win the competition . Away to Espanyol on 1 May , again as a substitute for Villa , he scored both goals in a 2 – 0 win that secured Valencia a place in the next season 's Champions League .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
On 25 May 2010 , Žigić signed a four @-@ year contract with Premier League club Birmingham City for an undisclosed fee , which media speculation suggested to be in the region of £ 6 million . He made his debut on the opening day of the season away at Sunderland : replacing Garry O 'Connor in the 58th minute , he came close to scoring from outside the penalty area and " injected a note of panic hitherto undetected " in the home team 's defence as Birmingham came back from 2 – 0 down to secure a draw . Žigić 's first goal for the club came as Birmingham beat Milton Keynes Dons 3 – 1 in the League Cup on 21 September . He scored his first Premier League goal on 16 October , opening the scoring at Arsenal with a header from Keith Fahey 's cross , but Birmingham lost the game 2 – 1 .
In a hostile League Cup quarter @-@ final against local rivals Aston Villa , Žigić had an apparently valid goal disallowed for offside against another player , and with the scores level after 86 minutes , was about to be substituted when he produced a " mis @-@ hit , deflected , scruffy late goal " that secured the win . He opened the scoring against favourites Arsenal in the final with a short @-@ range header , and with one minute of normal time remaining , he flicked on a long clearance , Arsenal 's goalkeeper and central defender got in each other 's way , and the ball fell to Obafemi Martins to tap in the winning goal . Football manager turned commentator David Pleat wrote that " Birmingham earned their victory through terrific teamwork and astute deployment of Žigić 's strengths . " Because of " niggling " hip and groin injuries , he made only two more substitute appearances . His absence deprived the team of what the Birmingham Mail 's reporter called their " most effective style : getting the ball forward early , pressing up the pitch and playing off him " , as they were relegated to the Championship .
Despite his agent Milan Ćalasan 's insistence that his client would not be playing in the lower divisions , Žigić underwent groin surgery in the close season and resumed his Birmingham career in September . He told the Mail that he would be happy to stay and that any move would depend on the club , which was in increasing financial difficulty , wanting to sell . His first Championship goal gave Birmingham a 1 – 0 win against Leeds United . Early in the Europa League group match at Braga , Birmingham were awarded a penalty . In the absence of regular penalty @-@ taker Marlon King , Žigić took on the responsibility . His attempt was saved , Braga won the match 1 – 0 , and Birmingham finished the group one point behind them and Club Brugge so failed to qualify for the knockout rounds . Away to Leeds , Žigić scored all four in a 4 – 1 win , and he finished the season with eleven in the league and one in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final as Birmingham lost on aggregate to Blackpool .
Ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , Žigić was close to a return to Spain with Real Mallorca . Birmingham were prepared to give him a free transfer to reduce the wage bill by his reported £ 50 @,@ 000 a week , but the deal fell through when board and agent could not agree a payoff for the player , who earlier in the summer had expressed his intention to see out the two years left on his contract . He began the playing season on the bench , coming off it after 85 minutes to produce a 94th @-@ minute equaliser at home to Charlton Athletic on the opening day , and was used more as substitute than starter by new manager Lee Clark , who preferred Peter Løvenkrands or Leroy Lita . On the eve of the January transfer window , chief executive Peter Pannu confirmed that player sales were necessary to stave off the risk of administration . Even if the club could raise as much as £ 6M from the sale of England goalkeeper Jack Butland , Žigić 's wages were more than the club could afford , and the player needed " to go out and showcase himself . " The club had failed to include a clause in his contract to reduce his wages in the event of relegation , and it emerged later that they had agreed to substantial annual increments .
He did not leave , and in February , Clark publicly criticised him for producing " possibly the worst training session in terms of a professional footballer I have ever come across " , despite knowing he was due to start the upcoming game against Watford . Up until this incident , he had scored six league goals at a rate of one every 165 minutes , and been sent off twice . Clark said that Žigić would not be involved against Watford , but that it was " in his hands " as to whether he would prepare properly for the Sheffield Wednesday fixture three days later . His response must have been acceptable , because he played the whole of the goalless draw against Wednesday , started all the remaining matches – the longest run of starts of his Birmingham career – and ended the season with nine league goals , second only to King .
Žigić missed the first few weeks of the 2013 – 14 season with a back problem , and once fit , played regularly throughout the season , as one of a small number of senior players in an inexperienced and youthful team with numerous short @-@ term loanees . The team struggled , and reached the last day of the season needing at least a draw away at Bolton Wanderers and for other results to favour them to avoid relegation to League One . Two goals down with 12 minutes left , Žigić scored , and three minutes into stoppage time , his close @-@ range header was cleared off the line to Paul Caddis , who headed home to preserve Birmingham 's second @-@ tier status . Birmingham were reported to be " quietly confident " of retaining his services for another season , at a much reduced salary , especially as he was believed to be keen on applying for British citizenship , which required five years ' residence , but he left at the end of his contract . He was the last remaining member of the League Cup @-@ winning team .
Having been without a club since his departure , Žigić began training with Birmingham again in November 2014 . After a successful appeal to be granted a work permit , for which he did not qualify automatically , he signed a contract on 4 December to expire at the end of the season . He made his second debut as a late substitute in the Championship match at home to Reading on 13 December , with Birmingham already 6 – 1 ahead . He played only infrequently – nine substitute appearances in the league and two FA Cup matches – and the club confirmed he would be released when his contract expired .
= = International career = =
Coach Ilija Petković gave Žigić his international debut for Serbia and Montenegro on 31 March 2004 , as an 84th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 friendly defeat against Norway in Belgrade . His next appearance and first start came some 14 months later ; in a friendly against Italy in Canada , he ran onto a through ball and went round the goalkeeper to open the scoring and also hit the post in a 1 – 1 draw .
He also scored in his next match , against Poland in another friendly , and established himself as a regular selection , but it was his substitute appearance in a crucial World Cup qualifier against Spain in Madrid in September 2005 that brought him wider international recognition . After a poor first @-@ half – Petković said they " were lucky to be only a goal down at half @-@ time " – Žigić was introduced , and the tactic of " putting him in the centre of the opposition defence and playing long high balls to him ... was remarkably successful " . He pressured the goalkeeper into missing a cross which dropped for Dejan Stanković to set up Mateja Kežman 's equaliser , and 12 minutes later , his pass left Kežman clear on goal but he mis @-@ hit what might have been a winning shot . The result left Serbia @-@ Montenegro top of the group , and they confirmed their qualification at home to Bosnia and Herzegovina when Žigić 's assist gave Kežman a tap @-@ in for the only goal of the game .
Žigić 's only start at the 2006 World Cup came in the last fixture , when his team had already been eliminated after losing the first two group matches . He scored early in the first half off a long ball from Stanković against Côte d 'Ivoire – the goal was Serbia @-@ Montenegro 's first of the tournament – but the match ended in a 3 – 2 defeat .
Still an automatic choice under new national manager Javier Clemente , Žigić scored the only goal in Serbia 's first competitive match as a separate country , a Euro 2008 qualifier at home to Azerbaijan in September 2006 . He scored once , missed two more good chances and was then sent off for elbowing an opponent in stoppage time of the March 2007 qualifying defeat in Kazakhstan , so missed the next , a home draw with Portugal , and also missed the Finland fixture in June after surgery on a facial injury . He still scored seven goals as Serbia failed to qualify .
Žigić played regularly through the 2010 World Cup qualifying campaign under the management of Radomir Antić , contributing three goals and partnering former Red Star teammate Marko Pantelić as Serbia qualified for a major tournament for the first time as an independent nation . Ahead of the tournament proper , he spoke in positive terms of his development since 2006 : " I went to Germany as player with no reputation or real experience to speak of . Tactically , I have learned a lot and I 'm in much better condition , both physically and psychologically . This is my World Cup , I think I can play a lead role and I want to show I 'm a player that can do it in big games . " After losing to Ghana in the opening group match , Serbia went on to face Germany . Within two minutes of Miroslav Klose 's first @-@ half dismissal , Žigić headed a cross down to Milan Jovanović who scored what proved to be the only goal of the game ; Lukas Podolski 's second @-@ half penalty was saved , and Antić dedicated the victory to the Serbian people . In a game of missed chances against Australia , Serbia lost 2 – 1 and finished bottom of the group .
Goals in four of Serbia 's five internationals in the latter part of 2010 brought his total to 20 . He was not selected to start the other match , a Euro 2012 qualifier in Italy that was abandoned after six minutes because of crowd trouble ; UEFA awarded the match to the hosts as a 3 – 0 win . After Serbia failed to qualify for the tournament , both Stanković and Nemanja Vidić retired from international football , and Žigić was appointed captain of the national team . He captained the team in friendly defeats to Mexico and Honduras in 2011 , his 56th and 57th appearances for his country , which proved to be his last .
= = Style of play = =
Žigić 's extreme height predisposes him to an aerial game . He is dangerous from set pieces , scoring many headed goals and knocking the ball down for others : when he joined Red Star , the coach set out the team in a 4 – 3 – 3 formation , with Žigić at centre @-@ forward and two wingers to feed those strengths . He tried to use his physical presence to disrupt opposing defences , both for his own benefit and to draw their attentions away from others . Pep Guardiola said in 2009 that Žigić was not easy to defend against , " almost unstoppable " in the air , but the best way would be to keep him as far as possible away from the penalty area . Speaking in 2010 , Radovan Ćurčić , then assistant manager of the Serbia national team , described him as " the king of air play , he is the finest there is in Europe . He possesses the sense of space and movement without the ball and can assist his teammates with headers and set up goal @-@ scoring opportunities . "
As exemplified on his debut for Racing , a performance in which he demonstrated his aerial power , he is capable of playing with his back to goal , and his height was not incompatible with agility . He prefers to play not as a lone striker but in partnership with a shorter , speedier , teammate . Racing 's fitness coach , Javier Miñano , was surprised that Žigić was " well coordinated , to the extent that he doesn 't seem so tall when I see him in training . "
He prefers to receive the ball in the air , because he can always beat smaller players in the air but they can take advantage of better acceleration and quicker reactions on the ground . According to David Pleat , a major factor in Birmingham 's 2011 League Cup win was " telling him to do what he does best and flick the ball on with his head from direct diagonal balls played from both wings " . Nevertheless , he is technically competent , scoring goals with his feet and providing assists for others . A 2009 feature in Mundo Deportivo assessed Žigić as one of those few tall players with a good touch on the ball , and in 2010 , German international defender Per Mertesacker described him as " technically a good player and very smart tactically " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of end of 2014 – 15 season
= = = International = = =
= = = = International goals = = = =
Score and result columns list Serbia 's score first . Source :
= = Honours = =
Red Star
Serbia and Montenegro League : 2003 – 04 , 2005 – 06
Serbia and Montenegro Cup : 2003 – 04 , 2005 – 06
Valencia
Copa del Rey : 2007 – 08
Birmingham City
Football League Cup : 2010 – 11
Individual
Serbia and Montenegro League : top scorer 2003 – 04
Serbian Footballer of the Year : 2003 , 2007
Večernje novosti captains ' pollDomestic player of the year : 2003 , 2005
Prva zvezda ( Player of the year based abroad ) : 2006
Red Star Sport Association Best Male Athlete : 2005
|
= Stan McCabe =
Stanley Joseph " Stan " McCabe ( 16 July 1910 – 25 August 1968 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 39 Test matches for Australia from 1930 to 1938 . A short , stocky right @-@ hander , McCabe was described by Wisden as " one of Australia 's greatest and most enterprising batsmen " and by his captain Don Bradman as one of the great batsmen of the game . He was never dropped from the Australian Test team and was known for his footwork , mastery of fast bowling and the hook shot against the Bodyline strategy . He also regularly bowled medium @-@ pace and often opened the bowling at a time when Australia lacked fast bowlers , using an off cutter . He was one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1935 .
At the age of 19 , McCabe was called up for the 1930 tour of England despite being yet to score his maiden first @-@ class century as the selectors chose the youngest ever team to leave Australia . McCabe made his first century in a warm @-@ up match but struggled in his month in England , scoring only 51 runs . His performance began to improve after adjusting his technique and he played in all five Tests , although he continued to have problems converting starts into large scores , failing to make a century during the tour . McCabe managed to maintain his position over the next two home seasons , playing in all ten Tests , but failed to make a century , and after 15 Tests , his average was below 35 although he had become increasingly successful at first @-@ class level .
In 1932 – 33 , McCabe made his breakthrough at international level in the First Test of the infamous Bodyline series , scoring an unbeaten 187 at the Sydney Cricket Ground in only four hours as his teammates fell around him . McCabe attacked the bowling vigorously , hooking relentlessly . He ended the series as the only Australian other than Bradman to score a century . McCabe missed most of the next season due to illness , but was retained for the 1934 tour of England despite his interrupted preparation . He scored 2 @,@ 078 runs and eight centuries for the tour , including his maiden Test century in England . Following the retirement of captain Bill Woodfull at the end of the tour , McCabe became Australia ’ s vice @-@ captain and held the post for the rest of his career .
After missing most of the 1934 – 35 domestic season due to injury , McCabe scored an unbeaten 189 in the Second Test of the 1935 – 36 tour of South Africa , including a century in one session , taking Australia to the brink of a world record @-@ breaking victory on a difficult final @-@ day pitch in poor light before the match was called off . It was one of two Test centuries McCabe made on the tour . The following season , he made five fifties in the first four Tests before scoring a century to help Australia win the deciding final Test against the touring Englishmen . In the First Test of the 1938 tour of England , McCabe played what was regarded as his greatest innings , scoring 232 in four hours , including his last 72 in 28 minutes . Bradman regarded the innings as the greatest batting he ever saw . However , none of McCabe ’ s three most famous innings resulted in an Australian victory ; he has a reputation of being at his best when Australia was in difficulty .
During the 1938 tour , McCabe had been generally unproductive and he missed much of the subsequent Australian season due to illness and only played sporadically thereafter before cricket was cancelled due to World War II . He served in the military in a clerical position for a year before he was discharged due to a chronic feet problems . McCabe was plagued by poor health in his middle age , and was hospitalised for a liver ailment shortly before his death . He died at the age of 58 after falling off a cliff adjacent to his home in Mosman . There was innuendo that it was a suicide , but the coroner ruled that it was an accident .
= = Early years = =
McCabe 's paternal grandparents settled in Grenfell , New South Wales in the 1850s ; his grandfather Constable Edward James McCabe was an Irish policeman who immigrated to Australia and served in the Victorian Police . Edward left the constabulary and moved from Melbourne to Grenfell after reports of a gold rush . Edward 's wife Catherine was ambushed by bushrangers during her relocation to the town with her children three weeks later , but was unharmed . The bushrangers scoured the family ’ s possessions , but left after finding nothing of value . Her obituary described her as " one of the greatest of the pioneer women of the Australian bush , possessing all the qualities of self @-@ sacrifice , resourcefulness , industry , determination , and courage that left their mark on the Australian race and laid the foundation of the nation " . Her grandson , one of 37 grandchildren , was likewise known for his fearless and courageous play on the cricket field against the most intimidating bowlers of his time .
The son of local barber William " Bill " , McCabe was the third of four brothers , who grew up playing local cricket in his hometown . The siblings played with rudimentary equipment ; a lump of wood was substituted for a bat and cork wrapped in socks improvised as cricket balls . The boys settled their differences in the traditional manner of boxing bouts , and they took their primary education at a Catholic convent staffed by nuns .
At the age of 14 , McCabe won a scholarship to the Catholic St. Joseph 's College , Hunters Hill in Sydney due to his sporting ability . Run by the Marist Brothers , the large school ’ s centerpiece stone castle @-@ like building overlooks Sydney Harbour . After a month in the Second XI , McCabe was promoted to the Senior First XI at 14 as an all @-@ rounder . He did not make a good start , registering a duck in his first innings . However , he impressed observers with his ability to hit the ball precisely . McCabe was always short , and playing against boys three years his senior , he could not rely on brute force . Aside from playing cricket , he was also full @-@ back in the school 's championship winning Rugby union team in 1926 . During his time at St Joseph ’ s McCabe grew larger and batted more powerfully , and his exploits were regularly featured in the yearbook . In 1925 , he struck his maiden century against Sydney Boys High School and score two more the following year . Such was his power that the backyard fence at the home of a friend had to be reinforced — McCabe ’ s powerful square drives had been dislodging it . McCabe did not receive special coaching attention from the school 's staff , who merely encouraged him to hit the ball hard and along the ground . In his later years at school , he was selected for Combined Great Public Schools of Sydney — a combined team from Sydney 's private schools — for the state schoolboys ' carnival . McCabe studied hard and placed first in the class in each of his three years at St Joseph ’ s . At the end of 1926 , he earned his Intermediate Certificate with five As and two Bs . McCabe then left school and became an accountant ’ s assistant .
He returned to Grenfell at the end of the 1926 , and spent two years playing for the Grenfell Juniors , alongside his brothers . During this time Grenfell were undefeated for two years , and McCabe regularly scored centuries against outclassed bowling , including one score of 260 .
In 1927 , McCabe ’ s cricket came to high @-@ level attention for the first time . Charlie Macartney , who had just retired from Test cricket , brought a team that included six internationals , to Grenfell . McCabe scored 17 and took 5 / 84 against them . Then state and future Australian selector Chappie Dwyer , who led a team of Sydney Grade Cricketers to play in the country town . The McCabe brothers defeated them , Stan scoring 19 . Later , the Test leg spinner Arthur Mailey led a team that also included Test player Tommy Andrews to Grenfell , and McCabe scored 62 , 35 and 62 not out in three innings against them . In the 1927 – 28 season , McCabe played for the Southern Districts against other regional sides within the state . He made 92 not out in one match , but failed to pass 12 in six other innings . Dwyer returned in 1927 – 28 and McCabe scored 70 against his team . Dwyer convinced McCabe 's parents to allow their son to move to Sydney to further his cricket career .
At the start of the following season , McCabe appeared with the New South Wales Colts team in one match against Queensland , before being selected for the New South Wales Second XI to play their Victorian counterparts . McCabe scored 60 not out in the second innings and took a total of 6 / 100 for the match . He was selected to represent New South Wales in his first @-@ class debut against Queensland in the 1928 – 29 Sheffield Shield season while the Test players competed against England . He made 60 and 34 , and bowled 17 overs without success , but was later omitted when the Test players returned from international duty . In four first @-@ class matches in his debut season , McCabe scored 197 runs at 32 @.@ 83 and took a total of 1 / 111 . McCabe played twice against the touring England cricket team led by Percy Chapman , once in a match at Goulburn for the Southern Districts of New South Wales , and the other time for his state , but managed only 24 runs in three innings .
McCabe settled in Sydney permanently in 1929 , representing Mosman Cricket Club in Sydney Grade Cricket . His parents only allowed him to settle there permanently if Dwyer could help find him a job and lodgings , and McCabe subsequently began work in the accounting division of Colonial Mutual Insurance Company . Dwyer could only support one player and hard a hard decision in eventually turning down the second McCabe brother Les . Both Stan and Les were similar in batting ability but the former could also bowl .
During the 1929 – 30 season , McCabe totalled 844 runs at 56 @.@ 27 , making him the second @-@ highest runscorer behind Bradman , as New South Wales won the Sheffield Shield . Despite his consistency , McCabe had difficulty capitalising on his starts . He passed 50 on eight occasions in the first eight matches of the season , and reached 29 in ten of his 12 innings , but failed to make a century , falling seven times between 60 and 90 .
= = International debut = =
Nevertheless , McCabe was selected to tour England in 1930 under Bill Woodfull 's Australian cricket team . The team was the then @-@ youngest to have left Australian shores , and only four had previous experience on English soil . As a result , the team was dubbed " Woodfull 's kindergarten " . In the traditional warm @-@ up matches before the team sailed for England , McCabe struck 103 against Tasmania , his maiden first @-@ class century . One of the reasons that McCabe was chosen despite his lack of centuries was his medium pace bowling . At the time , Australia lacked fast bowlers and McCabe was seen as a makeshift opening bowler ; he had taken 17 wickets at 30 @.@ 82 for the season , including a career best of 5 / 36 against Queensland .
On his first overseas trip , McCabe struggled badly in his first four weeks in England . In six matches in that time , he scored only 51 runs at 7 @.@ 28 and failed to take a wicket after being asked to bowl only 18 overs . After being dismissed in the last of these matches , McCabe came off the field and despondently said that he was going to retire . Team @-@ mate Clarrie Grimmett suggested that McCabe play with a fuller face of the bat , advice that the batsman accepted . McCabe 's fortunes changed in the next match against Oxford University ; he scored 91 and took 1 / 5 in an innings win . He added 65 in the next match against Hampshire and starred with both bat and ball against Cambridge University , the final tour match before the First Test . McCabe scored 96 before being run out , and took 4 / 25 and 4 / 60 , which would remain his career best match bowling figures , as Australia completed a commanding innings victory .
He made his Test debut in the first match of the Ashes series at Trent Bridge , Nottingham . He took match figures of 2 / 65 , his first wicket being Jack Hobbs , and in his first Test innings as a batsman , he hit the first ball for a boundary but was dismissed off the next ball , before scoring 49 in the second innings as Australia chased 428 for victory . McCabe and Don Bradman were scoring quickly and had taken the score to 3 / 229 when McCabe lofted Maurice Tate towards mid @-@ on . Syd Copley , a member of the ground staff who was acting as a substitute fielder dived forward and took a difficult catch . McCabe 's dismissal sparked a collapse of 7 / 104 as England took a 93 @-@ run win . McCabe scored 44 and an unbeaten 25 as Australia squared the series with a seven @-@ wicket triumph in the Second Test at Lords . McCabe made 30 in a rain @-@ affected draw in the Third Test , before scoring four and taking 4 / 41 in the Fourth Test at Old Trafford , removing Ranjitsinhji , Maurice Leyland , Maurice Tate and Ian Peebles to reduce England to 8 / 251 in another wash out . With the series locked at 1 – 1 , the Fifth and final Test at The Oval was a timeless Test . McCabe scored his first Test half @-@ century of 54 as Australia piled on 695 to win by an innings and reclaim the Ashes 2 – 1 . McCabe took one wicket in the deciding match , bowling leading English batsman Wally Hammond for 13 . In all , McCabe scored 210 runs at 35 @.@ 00 and took eight wickets at 27 @.@ 62 in the Tests , and aggregated 1012 runs at 32 @.@ 64 and took 26 wickets at 27 @.@ 80 for the whole tour . This made him the fifth highest run @-@ scorer for the tour . However , he was unable to register a century on tour , his highest score being 96 . He continued his habit of failing to convert his starts into centuries in the tour matches after the start of the Tests . In one stretch of eight county innings , he registered scores between 34 and 79 seven times , and he ended with seven fifties for the tour . Nevertheless , Wisden praised his attacking ability to disrupt the length of opposition bowlers . On two occasions , McCabe took more than two wickets in an innings .
Upon his return to Australia , McCabe played all five Tests against the West Indies in 1930 – 31 . He scored 90 in the First Test at the Adelaide Oval as Australia took victory by ten wickets . However , he struggled thereafter , scoring 31 , eight and two as Australia won the next three matches by an innings . He managed 21 and 44 as the tourists took their only Test victory of their first Test tour to Australia . McCabe totalled 196 runs at 32 @.@ 66 and took three wickets at 42 @.@ 00 . However , he managed a century against the West Indies for New South Wales in the latter part of the season and scored 161 and 53 in a match against Queensland . He took 4 / 46 in a Shield match against Victoria , removing Test players Hunter Hendry , Keith Rigg , Len Darling and Ted a 'Beckett . Overall , McCabe finished the season with 705 runs at 41 @.@ 47 and 16 wickets at 35 @.@ 00 .
The following year , McCabe scored centuries in all of his three Sheffield Shield innings , scoring 229 * Queensland at Brisbane and 106 and 103 * in one match against Victoria in Sydney , yielding a Shield season average of 438 @.@ 00 . His innings against Queensland was particularly lauded , showcasing his ability against the most hostile of fast bowling . Queensland 's attack was led by Eddie Gilbert , an indigenous paceman who was the fastest in Australia and whom Bradman said was the fastest that he had ever faced . On one occasion , a particularly fast Gilbert delivery supposedly evaded both the batsman and wicket @-@ keeper , travelled more than 60 metres and crashed through a fence before hitting and killing a dog on the other side . On this day , Gilbert knocked the bat out of Bradman 's hand before removing him for a duck . Gilbert cut down the New South Wales top order with a spell of 3 / 12 and forced Alan Kippax to retire hurt after hitting him in the upper body . This left New South Wales at effectively 4 / 21 . Undeterred , McCabe came in and bravely counterattacked in a display that featured many aggressive hook and cut shots . The visitors made 432 before McCabe took a total of 3 / 27 to help his state take an innings win as the hosts were bowled out for 109 and 85 . In the match against arch @-@ rivals and defending champions Victoria , McCabe added 3 / 57 and 1 / 18 with the ball as New South Wales won by 239 runs , and went on to claim the title , despite McCabe not being able to contribute in final match of the season ; he injured himself while in the field and was unable to bat in a 132 @-@ run defeat at the hands of South Australia .
McCabe was unable to translate the success into the Test arena , where McCabe struggled despite his team 's 5 – 0 sweep over South Africa . McCabe warmed up for the series by scoring 37 and 79 not out and totalling 3 / 108 in a state match against the tourists . After managing only 27 in an innings victory in the First Test , McCabe saved his most productive Test of the summer for his home crowd for the Second Test at Sydney . He took 4 / 13 in the first innings , bowling or trapping all of his victims leg before wicket , and then compiled 79 as Australia cruised to another innings win . McCabe scored 22 and 71 and took two wickets in the Third Test win in Melbourne , but managed only two runs and three wickets in the last two Tests , which Australia won by an innings . McCabe ended the series with 201 runs at 33 @.@ 50 and nine wickets at 22 @.@ 77 . McCabe ended the season with 783 runs at 87 @.@ 00 and 19 wickets at 23 @.@ 94 .
During the Australian winter of 1932 , former Test leg spinner Arthur Mailey organised and managed a tour of prominent Australian players , of whom McCabe was one , to North America . They played 51 matches in 100 days , none of which were first @-@ class ; most were one @-@ day matches , although not limited overs . McCabe played in 48 of the matches ; he scored eight centuries and averaged 54 with the bat . He took seven or more wickets in an innings 12 times including 12 in one innings , and totalled 189 wickets at an average of six .
= = Bodyline = =
McCabe made his breakthrough in the following Australian season in 1932 – 33 , which went down in history due to England 's use of the controversial Bodyline tactics . In the lead @-@ up to the Tests , McCabe scored 43 , 67 and 19 in two tour matches against the Englishmen .
In the First Test in Sydney , with England captain Douglas Jardine again employed Bodyline . This involved constant intimidatory short @-@ pitched leg @-@ side bowling with a leg @-@ cordon to catch balls fended off by the batsman , in an attempt to curtail Donald Bradman , generally regarded as the best batsman ever , from scoring . McCabe came to the wicket on the first day , the score at 3 / 82 with Bill Woodfull , Bill Ponsford and Jack Fingleton already dismissed , and Bradman not playing due to illness . Having warned his parents , who were watching him in Test cricket for the only time , not to jump the fence if he was hit , McCabe took guard . Jardine had deployed seven men on the leg @-@ side , usually with five close catchers and two men patrolling the boundary for hook shots . McCabe hooked the first ball he received from Bodyline spearhead Harold Larwood for a boundary . After Kippax fell with the score at 87 , McCabe and Vic Richardson added 129 before Richardson fell . McCabe reached stumps at 127 not out with the total 6 / 290 . His innings was marked by dangerous cutting and compulsive hooking of short @-@ pitched deliveries in front of his face , unfazed by the repeated body blows which hit his team @-@ mates .
McCabe 's attack forced Jardine to abandon his Bodyline approach . Jardine removed Larwood from the attack and brought on Gubby Allen . Under the professional @-@ amateur divide of the time , England 's captain was always an amateur , and professionals , such as Larwood , were obliged to obey the captain 's orders . Allen was an amateur who refused to bowl Bodyline . McCabe struck three consecutive fours from Allen 's conventional fast bowling , prompting Jardine to call for Bodyline field placings . Allen refused , so Jardine was forced to drop his Bodyline attack and resort to the spin bowling of Hedley Verity and Wally Hammond . The crowd responded to his instinctive aggression with wild cheering . McCabe said that " it was really an impulsive , senseless innings , a gamble that should not have been made but came off against all the odds " .
McCabe scored 60 of the 70 runs that Australia added on the second day to finish 187 not out from 233 balls as Australia were bowled out for 360 . McCabe added the runs in just one hour of batting and ended with 25 boundaries in his innings , which lasted a little over four hours . He was particularly effectively in farming the strike while batting with his tail end partners ; in his last wicket stand of 55 with Tim Wall , he scored 50 of the runs in just half an hour .
He was praised by Larwood , who spearheaded the Bodyline attack and totalled 10 / 128 for the match , which ended in a decisive 10 @-@ wicket victory for England . Wisden reported that McCabe " scored off Larwood 's bowling in a style which for daring and brilliance was not approached by any other Australian during the tour " . Richard Whitington wrote in the 1970s that McCabe 's innings " still warms the blood of the dwindling number of Australians who watched it " . McCabe received a thunderous standing ovation from the 46 @,@ 000 spectators . Immediately after the innings , McCabe told his teammates that he would never be able to replicate the feat because it was too difficult to hook the ball consistently without hitting it up into the air and giving away catching opportunities .
Umpire George Hele , who officiated the match said :
Stan gave Voce all he was bargaining for . He and Vic Richardson took all the English bowlers could hurl at them . This innings stamped Stan as one of the world 's greatest batsmen . He stepped into the [ trajectory of the ] bowling , he hooked , he pulled , and did what he liked with it . The faster they bowled the more he seemed to enjoy it .
Australia 's captain Woodfull refused to retaliate and England made 524 in reply , McCabe having Jardine caught behind for 27 to end with 1 / 42 . McCabe was one of the few Australians to make any impact in the second innings , making 32 as Australia fell for 164 .
McCabe was unable to repeat his performances in the later Tests . He made 32 and a duck as Australia gained its only victory in the Second Test in Melbourne , before managing only 57 runs in the next four innings as Australia suffered consecutive defeats . He scored 73 in the first innings of the Fifth Test in Sydney as Australia compiled 435 , but scored only four in a second innings collapse , leaving England with an eight @-@ wicket victory . He had persisted with his strategy of standing his ground attacking the Bodyline bowling , but was unsuccessful .
McCabe totalled 385 runs at 42 @.@ 78 for the series and was the only Australian batsman other than Bradman to score a century , as the English decisively won the series 4 – 1 . He took three wickets at 71 @.@ 66 , and opened the bowling in some of the matches due to Australia 's lack of fast bowling . It was a far cry from the intimidation that Bodyline provided .
Away from the tumult of Bodyline , McCabe played in five of New South Wales ' six Sheffield Shield matches , and he scored 348 runs at 49 @.@ 71 with four fifties and took 11 wickets at 17 @.@ 54 . New South Wales won four of these matches and drew the other to retain their title . His most prominent effort was a 91 and a match total of 5 / 41 in an innings win over Queensland .
The 1933 – 34 season started well for McCabe . He started the season with scores of 20 , 82 , 110 and 8 in three matches in November , the century coming against the Rest of Australia . However , he was hampered by illness , which forced him to have an operation , which sidelined him for more than three months . The selectors nevertheless chose him for the 1934 tour of England , and McCabe returned to make 119 and 27 in two matches for the touring party against Tasmania before they departed for the northern hemisphere .
= = 1934 tour of England = =
Returning to England in 1934 , McCabe scored 2 @,@ 078 runs at 69 @.@ 28 including eight centuries on the tour , more than any of his team @-@ mates . In the second match of the tour against Leicestershire , McCabe scored the century that had eluded him four years earlier , finishing 108 not out . He then scored 192 against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's , combining with Ponsford in a record partnership for the third wicket of 389 , in what was effectively a dress rehearsal for the Tests ; the MCC fielded almost a full @-@ strength England team . McCabe put in an all round performance against Hampshire , scoring 79 and taking 4 / 79 in the first innings . In the next match , he scored 240 , the highest of his career , against Surrey at The Oval . In the next match , the last fixture before the Tests , McCabe made 142 against Lancashire .
In the First Test at Trent Bridge , McCabe made 65 in the first innings before scoring 88 in the second innings to extend Australia 's first innings lead from 106 to a target of 380 . The hosts fell short by 238 runs . Between Tests , McCabe registered his fifth century of the season , making an unbeaten 105 in the second innings as Australia defeated the Gentlemen of England by eight wickets . McCabe then scored 34 and 19 as England struck back with an innings victory at Lord 's . Between Tests , he took 4 / 24 in a six @-@ wicket win over Surrey . He then scored his first Test century on English soil during the high @-@ scoring draw in the Third Test at Old Trafford , compiling 137 and 33 not out . The hosts gave McCabe a taste of his own medicine , and he had to bowl 45 overs for a match total of 1 / 133 , as England 's batsmen totalled 10 / 750 for the match .
McCabe made 27 in the rain @-@ affected draw in the Fourth Test , the culmination of a quiet fortnight in which he failed to pass 30 . He then scored fifties in three consecutive tour matches before the Fifth Test , which was timeless as the series was tied 1 – 1 . McCabe scored 10 and 70 and took 2 / 5 in the second innings as Australia won the match by 562 runs to regain the Ashes 2 – 1 . McCabe aggregated 483 runs at 60 @.@ 37 and took four wickets in the Tests . At the time , Wisden said of him : " He blossomed forth as an almost completely equipped batsman of the forcing type and was probably the best exponent — Bradman himself scarcely excluded — of the art of hitting the ball tremendously hard and safely . " Wisden said that McCabe had made " immense strides " in his batting technique . It said " In 1930 he gave the impression of still having a good deal to learn ; he was inclined to be somewhat slapdash in his methods . The intervening years had clearly made a great difference in him . Losing nothing of his power , he displayed a wider and safer range of strokes . " McCabe finished the tour with 108 against Kent and 124 in an innings win over HDG Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI a took 21 wickets for the entire season .
McCabe spent most of the 1934 – 35 Australian season watching from the sidelines . The first match of the summer was a testimonial for retiring Australian captain Woodfull . McCabe was forced to retire hurt when on five , and he missed more than two months of cricket . He returned for only one match , scoring 92 and 53 as New South Wales were defeated by arch @-@ rivals Victoria .
= = 1935 – 36 South African tour = =
The following Australian season he became captain of New South Wales following the retirement of Kippax and the departure of Bradman to South Australia . However , with Australia touring South Africa in 1935 – 36 , McCabe did not represent his state . However , he was made vice @-@ captain to Vic Richardson for the tour , with Woodfull and Ponsford having retired , and Bradman ill . McCabe enjoyed more success , heading the Test batting figures with 420 runs at 84 @.@ 00 . After scoring 24 , 65 and 29 in three warm @-@ up matches , all of which were won by innings , McCabe hit 149 in the First Test at Durban , sharing a second @-@ wicket partnership of 161 with Bill Brown in gale @-@ force conditions which caused balls to make U @-@ turns in the headwind , forced the umpires to glue the bails to the wickets using chewing gum , to set up a nine @-@ wicket victory . In the following Test in Johannesburg , McCabe made 34 as Australia took a first innings lead of 93 . However , Dudley Nourse scored 235 to help the hosts to 491 ; McCabe removed Nourse and ended with 2 / 30 . Australia were set a Test world record target of 399 in the second innings to achieve victory on a turning wicket , and McCabe told captain Richardson that he would not be able to bat or run between wickets effectively because of altitude sickness . Regarding McCabe was his most important batsman , Richardson implored him to bat and told him to simply stand his ground and hit boundaries so that he would not have to run . McCabe joined Fingleton at 1 / 17 before taking the score to 1 / 85 by the end of the third day . The following morning in poor visibility on a wicket with irregular bounce and lateral deviation , McCabe resumed on 38 and scored a century in the morning session to reach lunch at 138 , after Fingleton was dismissed at 2 / 194 . The pair had put on 177 runs for the second wicket , and McCabe had done more than four fifths of the scoring . McCabe had reached his century in only 90 minutes , and continued on despite a storm that brought low dust clouds and hindered visibility , and increasingly irregular bounce and cut off the pitch . Midway through the afternoon , dark clouds gathered , along with thunderstorms and lightning , but this had no effect on the batsman . McCabe pushed the score to 2 / 274 , and with only 125 runs needed with half the day remaining , Australia were on course to meet the target , having already scored 189 in the first half . However , Herbie Wade , the South African captain made an unprecedented appeal against the light due fear " for the fieldsmen 's safety " in the face of McCabe 's aggressive batting . He finished unbeaten on 189 , an innings described by Fingleton as " bordering on miraculous " . McCabe struck 24 fours , and was productive square of the wicket , hitting numerous cut shots past point . Fingleton further added that “ McCabe never put a foot or his bat in a false position ” , and that he “ pulverized the South African attack into the dust ” . McCabe was unable to maintain such a standard of performance in the remaining three Tests ; he scored a duck , 40 and one , as Australia won each by an innings . He ended the series with three wickets at 45 @.@ 33 . However , he scored consecutive centuries in the tour matches , adding 115 and 112 against Border and Orange Free State .
= = Tension with Bradman ? = =
The following year , having been appointed Bradman 's vice @-@ captain , McCabe had a successful Ashes series in 1936 – 37 . McCabe scored 76 , 28 , 23 , 83 and 46 in the lead @-@ up , but started the series poorly ; he made 51 in the first innings but managed only seven as Australia was caught out on a sticky wicket on the final day and were bowled out for 58 to lose the First Test in Brisbane by 322 runs . He then made a duck as Australia was again caught on a sticky by a thunderstorm during the first innings of the Second Test in Sydney . He made 93 in the second innings but Australia was unable to overcome the first innings deficit of 346 after being forced to follow on and fell to an innings defeat .
After the Second Test , McCabe was involved in an infamous incident that has caused speculation ever since . His captain Bradman was known for his reserved personality , did not drink and often eschewed social activities with teammates , preferring to privately listen to music or read . Combined with his success , Bradman gained a reputation for cockiness . In the 1930s , Australia had been divided along sectarian lines , with a sizeable Irish Catholic minority that included McCabe often pitted against Anglicans and / or Protestants such as Bradman ( of Anglo @-@ Irish descent ) , particularly practitioners of Freemasonry , leading to speculation that the tension was fuelled by religion . Four of the five Catholics in the team , McCabe , leading bowler Bill O 'Reilly , along with Leo O 'Brien and Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith were summoned by the Board of Control to respond to allegations that they were undermining Bradman . Bradman denied having prior knowledge of the meeting , although the alleged infighting was reported in the press . Opening batsman Jack Fingleton was not invited , speculated to be due to his journalistic background , but Bradman later alleged that he was the ringleader . After that , Bradman 's relationship with O 'Reilly and Fingleton never recovered . During the meeting , players were variously accused of undermining Bradman 's authority , laziness , lack of attention to fitness , but the board refused to specifically accuse those summoned . The details were leaked to the media , but the board denied that the meeting had taken place . Bradman denied that he was anti @-@ Catholic , saying that O 'Reilly and Fingleton wanted to depose him from the captaincy and install McCabe in his place .
Australia were now 0 – 2 down and needed to win three Tests in a row to retain the Ashes . The pressure on McCabe increased when last @-@ minute injuries meant that he had to open the bowling . McCabe made 63 and 22 and took a wicket as Australia won their first match in the series . He then top @-@ scored with 88 in Australia 's first innings of 288 and made 55 in the second as Australia won by 148 runs in the Fourth Test in Adelaide to level the series . In the deciding Test at the MCG , McCabe scored 112 , one of three centuries as Australia amassed 604 , a record score in Ashes Tests in Australia . This laid the platform for the innings victory that retained the Ashes . McCabe aggregated 491 runs in five Tests at 54 @.@ 55 , with a century and five fifties in a consistent display .
McCabe assumed the New South Wales captaincy from the 1936 – 37 season onwards . Due to international commitments , McCabe was represented his state only three times , but they were undefeated , winning both of their matches against England . McCabe scored a fifty in each of the matches .
In 1937 – 38 , no international matches were scheduled , and McCabe played a full season with New South Wales , leading them to the Sheffield Shield title , with three wins and three draws . He started the Shield season with consecutive centuries against Queensland and South Australia , and finished with 83 and 122 in two warm @-@ up matches for Australia before they departed for England . McCabe totalled 720 runs at 45 @.@ 00 for the season , with three centuries and three fifties , and took eight wickets at 24 @.@ 62 .
= = International farewell = =
The 1938 Ashes Tour of England was McCabe 's last for Australia . He was again appointed vice @-@ captain for the tour . In the second tour match , McCabe scored 110 in an innings win over Oxford University . His 50 against Essex in the final match before the Tests was the only other fifty in the first nine matches , in which he scored 301 runs at 37 @.@ 62 . He took a total of 4 / 50 in an innings win over Northamptonshire . McCabe ’ s lean run with the bat was causing concern for the Australians , as the other batsmen had been productive .
McCabe 's most highly rated innings came in the First Test at Trent Bridge . England compiled 8 / 658 before declaring late on the second day , and McCabe had toiled for 21 overs without success . McCabe arrived at the crease with the dismissal of Bradman at 2 / 111 to join Brown , and after two unsuccessful appeals against the light , he was 19 at the close of play after 35 minutes of batting with the total at 3 / 138 , having seen Brown dismissed for 48 . McCabe had struck three boundaries by this stage , two cut shots and an on drive , and had survived a final spell from fast bowler Ken Farnes without a sightscreen , accompanied by nightwatchman Frank Ward .
The next morning , England 's bowlers continued to make regular inroads . Ward fell in the third over of the day , and the debutant Lindsay Hassett was dismissed soon after , leaving Australia at 5 / 150 . McCabe , who had hit two boundaries thus far in the morning , was joined by Jack Badcock . The former continued to score boundaries regularly , and hit Sinfield for four and three from a leg glance and late cut to reach his 50 in 90 minutes . He then hit Hammond for consecutive on @-@ driven fours before Badcock fell at 6 / 194 , having made only 9 of the 43 runs in their partnership . McCabe had struck 62 of the 83 runs added since he had come to the crease . With all the other specialist batsmen dismissed , McCabe was now batting with wicket @-@ keeper Ben Barnett and began to attack the English bowlers with powerful drives and hook shots . Hammond brought back Farnes to try and finish off the tail , but McCabe responded by hitting three fours in one over , forcing the English captain to remove his fast bowler after McCabe had hooked him for six .
Despite Hammond 's best attempts , McCabe was able to gain the strike and runs came quickly . McCabe reached his century in 140 minutes and England declined to take the new ball while he was batting . By lunch , he and Barnett had added 67 in only 50 minutes , although the latter had made only 20 of these ; the total was 6 / 261 , with McCabe on 105 . Having reached his century , McCabe lifted his scoring rate , scoring his last 132 runs in 95 minutes . Boundaries came much more readily and he took 44 runs from a three over spell by leg spinner Doug Wright . As he ran out of partners , he became more aggressive ; in the last ten overs of his innings , he took 80 % of the strike and hit 16 boundaries . He was the last man out , attempting to loft the spin of Verity , after a final wicket partnership with Leslie Fleetwood @-@ Smith of 77 in 28 minutes , of which he scored 72 . He finished with 232 from 235 minutes with 34 boundaries and one six , an innings in which Bradman summoned his players not to miss a ball , as " they would never see anything like it again . " Bradman later said that McCabe " held us all spellbound " , and it was reported that the Australian captain trembled while watching the innings . While McCabe was at the crease , his partners contributed a total of only 58 runs , meaning that he had outscored them by a ratio of 4 : 1 . Upon his return to the pavilion Bradman greeted him with the words : " If I could play an innings like that , I 'd be a proud man , Stan " . This has also been reported as Bradman saying " I wish I could bat like that " . Bradman later wrote that " Towards the end [ of McCabe 's innings ] I could scarcely watch the play . My eyes filled as I drank in the glory of his shots " . It was regarded by English captains Arthur Gilligan and Bob Wyatt to be the best innings that they had ever witnessed , as did former England bowler Sydney Barnes — regarded as one of the best of all time — who said that he would not have been able to stop McCabe . Neville Cardus said that the innings was one of the greatest in Test history . Wisden reported that McCabe played " an innings the equal of which has probably never been seen in the history of Test cricket ; for the best part of four hours he maintained a merciless punishment of the bowling " . McCabe ’ s biographer Jack McHarg said that the innings “ was a sort of encyclopedia of attacking batsmanship , a triumph of character , technique and judgement ” . Cardus said
Now came death and glory , brilliance wearing the dress of culture . McCabe demolished the English attack with aristocratic politeness , good taste and reserve . He cut and drove , upright and lissome ; his perfection of touch moved the aesthetic sense ; this was the cricket of felicity , power and no covetousness , strength and no brutality , assault and no battery , dazzling strokes and no rhetoric ; lovely brave batsmanship , giving joy to the connoisseur … One of the greatest innings ever seen anywhere in any period … he is in the line of Trumper and no other batsman today but McCabe has inherited Trumper ’ s sword and cloak .
The innings was not enough to avert the follow on , and in the second innings , McCabe made 39 as Australia made 6 / 427 and the match petered into a draw . After the Test , McCabe scored 79 and took a total of 4 / 20 in a victory over the Gentlemen of England .
McCabe followed his efforts at Trent Bridge with 38 and 21 in the drawn Second Test at Lord 's . He bowled heavily in the match , sending down 43 overs and taking a total of 2 / 144 as Bradman 's specialist bowlers struggled to make inroads . In the first two Tests , McCabe had taken a combined total of 2 / 208 from 64 overs . The Third Test at Old Trafford was abandoned before it started due to rain , and McCabe contributed only one and 15 as Australia scrambled to a five @-@ wicket win to retain the Ashes in the low @-@ scoring Fourth Test at Headingley after chasing a target of 105 on the third day . It was part of a three @-@ week run in which McCabe failed to pass 15 in six innings and did not take a wicket . McCabe made fifties in the two first @-@ class matches before the Fifth and final Test at The Oval , where Australia played an extra batsman , meaning that McCabe opened the bowling . He took 0 / 85 from 38 overs , and with Bradman and Fingleton injuring themselves during the match , McCabe was left in control of a nine @-@ man team . England piled on 7 / 903 declared in three days before defeating Australia by an innings and 579 runs , the largest winning margin in Test history . This included a world record score of 364 by Len Hutton , who was dropped by wicket @-@ keeper Ben Barnett from McCabe 's bowling before reaching 50 . Neither Bradman nor Fingleton were able to bat . McCabe made 14 and two , and finished the series with 362 runs at 45 @.@ 25 . McCabe scored 91 and 58 in tour matches against an England XI and the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI to finish the English summer .
McCabe 's Test career ended after the tour at just 28 years of age , due to a combination of chronic foot injuries and the intervention of World War II — England 's scheduled 1940 – 41 tour never materialised and international cricket did not resume until 1946 . McCabe had also been in poor form apart from his double century at Trent Bridge and there was speculation that he was in decline . His feet had high insteps that meant that when he stood normally , his toes would not touch the floor . Curiously , none of his three most celebrated innings at Trent Bridge , Johannesburg nor Sydney resulted in an Australian victory . O 'Reilly said that " All three of them were the greatest innings I have watched " .
Upon returning to Australia , McCabe continued to captain New South Wales , but only played in two matches during the 1938 – 39 season due to illness , scoring 141 runs at 47 @.@ 00 including one century . In the first match , to celebrate the centenary of the Melbourne Cricket Club , he struck 105 in only 140 minutes and timed the ball well , but made 35 and 1 in the first Shield match and then absented himself from the rest of the season . McCabe had always been susceptible to illness and was dogged for much of 1938 and 1939 . In his absence , New South Wales surrendered their title to South Australia , but they regained the mantle in 1939 – 40 upon the return of their captain . In his first match back , McCabe scored 98 to guide New South Wales to a three @-@ wicket win over Queensland . After losing their next two matches , McCabe 's men won their last three matches to take the title . The captain scored 59 and 55 and 49 and 114 in the last two matches against South Australia and Victoria respectively . A match between the Shield champions and the Rest of Australia was arranged and McCabe scored 72 and 96 , steering his team to a narrow two @-@ wicket win . He ended the season with 699 runs at 53 @.@ 76 from seven matches , with a century and six fifties .
The 1940 – 41 was to be McCabe 's last full season , although the Shield competition was not held and matches stood alone . This was unfortunate for McCabe and his men , as they won all five of their matches . McCabe scored 88 and 57 as New South Wales scraped past Queensland by 27 runs in the season opening match , before scoring 53 in the runchase as his team defeated a combined Queensland and Victorian team by only one wicket . McCabe added two further half @-@ centuries and ended the season with a win over arch @-@ rivals Victoria . He had scored 432 runs at 48 @.@ 00 . Due to the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939 , the scheduled England tour of Australia was cancelled .
In 1941 – 42 , McCabe played his final first @-@ class match . He scored 8 and 41 as Queensland took a 17 @-@ run win . Ten days later , the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , prompting the start of the war in the Pacific . With that , first @-@ class cricket was cancelled and did not resume until 1945 – 46 , ending McCabe 's career at the age of just 31 . He had 24 wins and four losses in 38 first @-@ class matches as captain for all teams . In his last three seasons , McCabe took only one wicket , from 18 overs of bowling .
= = Style and character = =
Australian team @-@ mate Clarrie Grimmett , regarded as one of the greatest spinners of all time , regarded McCabe as technically superior to Bradman , feeling that the latter 's success was largely due to his extreme concentration and determination . Fellow state and Australian batsman Bill Brown described McCabe as the " finest strokeplayer I ever saw " , further adding " When Stan was in command , he was so magnificent to watch , and he left everyone , including Bradman , for dead . Certainly Bradman scored more runs , but Stan was the batsman you most wanted to be . "
The leading English batsman Hutton said that McCabe had several qualities in his batsmanship that were superior to those of Bradman , concluding that " It would be harder to think of a greater Australian batsman " . The leading English cricket writer Neville Cardus said that " Genial , friendly , Stan was Australia ’ s most gallant and knightly batsman since Victor Trumper . In his brilliant strokeplay there was a certain courtliness . In his most aggressive innings , there was no brutality ; his bat was never used as a bludgeon . " E. W. Swanton said that McCabe was from " the heroic mould " and that " like those of Hobbs , Macartney and Woolley were essentially qualitative " and that McCabe " came as near as any player to one ’ s conception of the perfect cricketer " .
The leading Australian cricket writer of the time , Ray Robinson said that " In McCabe the cricketer , you saw McCabe the man — urbane , sociable , unpretentious , straightforward , incapable of anything mean @-@ spirited . In all the pre @-@ war Test series he was the best liked by both his own team and his opponents . "
= = Later years and family life = =
McCabe was briefly a member of the Australian Defence Force during the Second World War , joining in late 1942 . Due to his poor health and feet , he knew that his utility would be limited , and he also had a newborn son and fledgling business at the time , so he had not rushed to enlist at the start of the war . Due to McCabe ’ s incapacitation , he was given a clerical job at the Victoria Barracks . He stayed in the role for 12 months before his feet problems resulted in an early discharge . He was appointed to serve on the Sydney Sports Ground and Cricket Ground Trust and operated a sports store in George Street , Sydney from its opening until his death . McCabe often hired cricketing colleagues as salesmen ; his close friend O 'Reilly worked there in the late @-@ 1930s , as did paceman Ray Lindwall after the war , Lindwall opted to work for McCabe because he was offered leave to travel overseas for Test tours .
McCabe ran for an administrative position with his local club Mosman after his retirement , but was defeated , so he never had an opportunity to serve with the NSWCA . After the end of his first @-@ class career , McCabe became a keen recreational golfer , but stopped playing in the mid @-@ 1950s due to his foot problems and other health issues . In 1956 – 57 , McCabe and O 'Reilly were given a testimonial match by the New South Wales Cricket Association . The match was between Harvey 's XI and Lindwall 's XI and acted as a trial for the non @-@ Test tour of New Zealand . The match raised 7 @,@ 500 pounds , which was split between McCabe and O 'Reilly , and would have bought two average @-@ sized homes in Sydney at the time .
McCabe married Edna May Linton on 5 February 1935 at St Mary 's Cathedral , Sydney , and the couple had two children , a son and a daughter , born in 1939 and 1950 respectively . The devout McCabe sent both of his children to Catholic boarding schools even though the family home was nearby . Plagued by ill @-@ health in his middle age , McCabe ’ s fitness was further hindered by his feet , which prevented him from exercising . He thus gained a lot of weight , and heavy smoking wore down his body , as did the large amount of people who wanted to meet him . McCabe weakened significantly in the last two years of his life and was hospitalised for a period for liver problems . He was released from hospital soon before his death , but still aged 58 , was a very frail man who moved very tentatively .
= = Death and legacy = =
McCabe died of a skull fracture after falling from a cliff at his home in Mosman , New South Wales after attempting to dispose of a dead possum . He had earlier told Dwyer of his plan to clean out his backyard , and was told to rest , but did so anyway , falling down and rolling off the steep slope in his backyard and over the ledge of the cliff abutting the rear of his house . There was innuendo that McCabe had actually committed suicide , with O 'Reilly musing " He had despatched the possum , but had gone overboard with it ! " . However , the coroner ruled that the death was accidental and his family strongly denied that he had chosen to end his life . The coroner ’ s investigation noted that McCabe ’ s hands had tufts of ripped grass in them , indicating that he had tried to grab onto vegetation in a vain attempt to stop his fall .
News of McCabe ’ s death was made public while Australia and England were playing in the Fifth Test at The Oval . After the death was announced over the public address system , the crowd spontaneously stood up and took off their hats , and did the players , and they observed a self @-@ initiated moment of silence . However , McCabe ’ s friend and former teammate Fingleton , now a journalist , criticised the Australian team for not wearing black armbands .
McCabe was buried in Northern Suburbs cemetery . In 1977 , the Stan McCabe Sporting Complex was opened in Grenfell as part of the new high school , and the oval was named in his honour . The complex included grounds and facilities for a number of sports . He was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 2002 .
= = Test match performance = =
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= My Sister , My Sitter =
" My Sister , My Sitter " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 2 , 1997 . In the episode , Marge and Homer go to a party and leave Lisa to babysit Bart. Being unhappy with this , Bart does everything he can to annoy Lisa . Eventually , Bart becomes injured and Lisa must find him medical attention without losing her reputation as a good babysitter .
The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Jim Reardon . The script was written to focus on the relationship between Bart and Lisa and the episode has further been used to discuss the difficulties in letting children babysit themselves . The episode received mostly positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Inspired by " The Babysitter Twins " books , Lisa decides to become a babysitter . However , because of her age , no one takes her seriously . One day , Ned mentions that Maude has been taken hostage in Lebanon and he must leave to get her released , and he agrees to let Lisa babysit Rod and Todd . After a relatively uneventful night , Ned puts out the good word for Lisa , who experiences a business boom .
Meanwhile , the Springfield Squidport reopens and throws a gala . Marge and Homer decide to go and they leave Lisa to babysit Bart and Maggie . Bart is offended by the fact that his younger sister is going to be babysitting him . To complicate things further , Bart torments her by , among other things , ordering an oversized sub , hiring Krusty for a bachelor party , dialing 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 for a " sisterectomy " , and having Maggie eat coffee ice cream for dinner . Eventually , Lisa angrily attempts to jump at Bart , but misses , causing him to fall backwards down the stairs , dislocating his arm and getting a large bump on his head . Bart then realizes that if Lisa does not take him to a hospital , she will not be able to babysit anymore . To make his condition worse , Bart locks himself in his room and hits his head on the door " to make the lump bigger " , then falls unconscious .
Lisa tries to call for an ambulance , but the 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator refuses to assist her due to Bart 's earlier prank call . Lisa considers asking Dr. Hibbert , but thinks better of it when she realizes that her reputation as a good babysitter will be ruined . Ultimately , she takes the unconscious Bart to Dr. Nick Riviera 's clinic in a wheelbarrow , bringing Maggie along in a pet carrier . There is a long line in the waiting room , and Lisa fails to get an appointment . She then tries to wheel Bart to the hospital , but en route , Bart rolls down a cliff and into a muddy river right in front of the crowded Squidport . Everyone assumes that Lisa is on drugs , and that she has murdered Bart and is about to drown the caged Maggie . The scene then fades to the following day , when Bart , whose injuries have been treated , apologizes to Lisa for causing her trouble . She forgives him , but is still distraught that her reputation as a babysitter is now ruined . However , she soon receives babysitting requests from Dr. Hibbert and Ned due to their difficulty finding sitters , much to Lisa 's delight .
= = Production and themes = =
The episode was directed by Jim Reardon and written by Dan Greaney . Like numerous preceding episodes , " My Sister , My Sitter " deals with the relationship between Bart and Lisa . Greaney specializes in writing Bart and Lisa episodes from the perspective of a kid . Elaine E Sutherland , who is a member of the Law Society of Scotland 's Family Law Sub @-@ Committee and Professor of Child and Family Law at the Law School , Stirling University , used the episode to describe the potential problems of letting one of your kids babysit the rest . While one child may be mature enough to babysit , it is not certain that the other kids accept the babysitters authority . According to Alan S. Brown and Chris Logan , the writers of the book The Psychology of the Simpsons : D ’ oh ! , the episode is an example of how feminine anger rarely solves the problem on The Simpsons . “ Here , Lisa ’ s rage and ongoing frustration contribute to her difficulty in making good decisions about what to do with her emotion , ” they write . Keeping with the babysitter theme , there are cultural references to The Baby @-@ Sitters Club : Lisa reads book # 14 - The Formula Formula , while Janey is on book # 20 - The President 's Baby Is Missing .
The idea of revamping the waterfront came from cities like Baltimore , who were always trying to fix formerly horrible places . Chris Turner , the author of the book Planet Simpson , writes about the scene at the Squidport : " The " satirical " setting seems almost documentary " . The Squidport is a local revitalization project , which recast a historic industrial area as a pedestrian mall . He calls this an example of how “ hyper @-@ consumer culture of Springfield moves front and center ” On the waterfront , Rainier Wolfcastle opens a restaurant called " Planet Hype " . This is a parody of the international theme restaurant franchise Planet Hollywood . Wolfcastle is a parody of Arnold Schwarzenegger , who launched Planet Hollywood along with Sylvester Stallone , Bruce Willis , Demi Moore and Whoopi Goldberg in 1991 . According to Matt Groening , the show had written an entire episode around Planet Hollywood , which featured the voices of Schwarzenegger , Stallone , and Willis as The Three Stooges type of characters . The episode was never animated , because it turned out that it was only the publicist of Planet Hollywood 's idea and the actors did not want to participate .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " My Sister , My Sitter " finished 47th in ratings in a tie with Melrose Place for the week of February 24 - March 2 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " a clever episode , if a little disjointed — the two stories don 't gel as well as normal . " Tim Raynor of DVDTown.com said that the episode " is full of the usual , fun antics that you would expect from Bart or any of the other dumb Simpsons . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that " the segments in which Lisa babysits the various kids in town are a delight " and that the episode " mixes wacky moments with reality as it places Lisa in a logical position . Her conflict with Bart creates realism and also brings out the comedy . "
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's name is taken from the 1994 movie Sister My Sister . When Dr Hibbert accuses to Lisa is a reference to the chapter " The Music Box " ( 1977 ) , from Little House on the Prairie series .
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= Frank Worsley =
Frank Arthur Worsley DSO OBE RD ( 22 February 1872 – 1 February 1943 ) was a New Zealand sailor and explorer who served on Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition of 1914 – 1916 , as captain of the Endurance . He also served in the Royal Navy Reserve during the First World War .
Born in Akaroa , New Zealand , on 22 February 1872 , Worsley joined the New Zealand Shipping Company in 1888 . He served aboard several vessels running trade routes between New Zealand , England and the South Pacific . While on South Pacific service , he became renowned for his ability to navigate to tiny , remote islands . He joined the Royal Navy Reserve in 1902 and served on HMS Swiftsure for a year before returning to the Merchant Navy . In 1914 , he joined the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , which aimed to cross the Antarctic continent .
After the expedition 's ship Endurance was trapped in ice and wrecked , he and the rest of the expedition sailed three lifeboats to Elephant Island , off the Antarctic Peninsula . From here , he , along with Shackleton and four others , sailed the 22 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 9 m ) lifeboat James Caird some 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) across the stormy South Atlantic Ocean , eventually arriving at their intended destination , South Georgia . His navigation skills were crucial to the safe arrival of the James Caird . Shackleton , Worsley and seaman Tom Crean then hiked and climbed through snow and ice across mountainous South Georgia in a 36 @-@ hour march to fetch help from Stromness whaling station . He and Shackleton returned to Elephant Island aboard the Yelcho , a Chilean naval ship , to rescue the remaining members of the expedition , all of whom survived .
During the First World War , Worsley captained the Q @-@ ship PC.61. He was responsible for the sinking of a German U @-@ boat , UC @-@ 33 on 26 September 1917 by carrying out a skilful ramming manoeuvre . For his role in the sinking of the UC @-@ 33 , Worsley was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) . Later in the war he worked in transportation of supplies in Arctic Russia , and in the North Russia Intervention against the Bolsheviks , earning a bar to his DSO . He was later appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire . From 1921 to 1922 he served on Shackleton 's last expedition to the Antarctic as captain of the Quest . In between berths in the Merchant Navy he led an expedition to the Arctic Circle and participated in a treasure hunt on Cocos Island . He also wrote several books relating to his experiences in polar exploration and during his sailing career .
During the Second World War he initially served with the International Red Cross in France and Norway . In 1941 , he falsified his age so he could rejoin the Merchant Navy . When officials discovered his actual age , he was released from duty . He died from lung cancer in 1943 in England .
= = Early life = =
Frank Arthur Worsley was born on 22 February 1872 in Akaroa , New Zealand , one of three children of a farmer , Henry Worsley , and his wife Georgiana . His grandfather , Henry Francis Worsley ( 1806 – 1876 ) , had migrated from Rugby in England aboard the Cornwall to Lyttelton , where he arrived with his large family in December 1851 . The family lived in Grehan Valley , high up above Akaroa . Worsley 's mother died while he was a toddler . He was sent to school in Akaroa but when his father moved his family to take up work clearing bush from land at Peraki , he was homeschooled for a time . From age 10 , he helped with clearing land for sheep pasture and growing cocksfoot . When Frank was 11 , his older brother , Harry , left to join the New Zealand Shipping Company as an apprentice and at about the same time , his father moved his family , which was now just Frank and his 13 @-@ year @-@ old sister , to Christchurch . Frank attended Fendalton School and marked his final year of schooling by being made head boy .
Like his brother , Frank was interested in a career at sea . In 1887 , his application to join the New Zealand Shipping Company was declined because of his short stature , but he was successful six months later . He was signed on as a junior midshipman aboard the Wairoa , a three @-@ masted clipper which transported wool to London .
= = Maritime career = =
Worsley served on a number of sailing ships of the company , running the trade route between New Zealand and England for several years . He became a third mate by 1891 , and then a fifth officer the following year . In 1895 , when a third officer , he left the New Zealand Shipping Company to join the New Zealand Government Steamer Service ( NZGSS ) . His first posting was aboard the Tutanekai , a NZGSS steamer which served the Pacific Islands , as second mate . He was considered to be a good and experienced officer , but was not averse to mischief . On one voyage in 1899 , the Tutanekai was anchored in the harbour at Apia , the capital city of German Samoa . That night , Worsley went ashore and stole the ensign that was flown from the flagpole of the German consulate on the harbour front . On discovering the theft , the consul suspected the culprit was from the crew of the Tutanekai , the only merchant vessel in the harbour at the time . With a party of sailors from SMS Falke , also anchored in the harbour , the consul boarded the Tutanekai looking for the ensign , but they left empty @-@ handed after the ship 's captain protested . Even when the captain later found out Worsley was responsible , it did not affect his career prospects . He was posted to the Hinemoa , another NZGSS steamer , as chief officer .
In June 1900 , Worsley sat the examination for a foreign master 's certificate . He passed with good marks , and was one of two students commended for their efforts . He was now a qualified master and , as his first command , was given the Countess of Ranfurly . This was a three @-@ masted schooner of the NZGSS which sailed trade routes in the South Pacific , mainly around the Cook Islands and Niue , both of which were New Zealand dependencies .
= = = Royal Navy Reserve = = =
While in command of the Countess of Ranfurly , Worsley joined the Royal Navy Reserve ( RNR ) and on 1 January 1902 was appointed a sub @-@ lieutenant . In 1904 , Countess of Ranfurly was sold , and this left Worsley without a command . Rather than stay in the employ of the New Zealand Government Steamer Service , he decided to look abroad for work . He travelled to Sydney and found a berth as chief officer on HMS Sparrow , which was on its delivery voyage to New Zealand , having been recently purchased by the New Zealand Government . When the Sparrow arrived in Wellington in March 1905 , he was selected to command the ship while it was converted to a training vessel . The conversion was still incomplete when he left for England in early 1906 .
On arrival in England in March 1906 , Worsley presented himself for further training in the RNR . He was posted to HMS Psyche and received specialist training in torpedoes , gunnery and navigation . He was promoted to lieutenant the following May . He served on a number of Royal Navy ships , including 12 months on HMS Swiftsure , for the next two years . He then returned to the Merchant Navy and found a position with Allan Line Royal Mail Steamers , which sailed regularly from England to Canada and South America . He would intermittently be called up for service in the RNR over the next several years . This included a month in 1911 spent aboard HMS New Zealand .
= = Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition = =
In 1914 , the explorer Ernest Shackleton began preparing an expedition which had the goal of completing the first crossing of the Antarctic continent . The failure of Robert Falcon Scott to beat the Norwegian Roald Amundsen to the South Pole in 1911 was considered a blot on Britain 's reputation in polar exploration . Shackleton 's expedition was intended to return the country to the forefront of Antarctic endeavour . He set up his headquarters at Burlington Road in London , and was interviewing candidates for the expedition . One available position was that of captain for the expedition 's vessel , the Endurance .
Worsley , in London while awaiting a new berth , joined the expedition as a result of a dream , in which he was navigating a ship around icebergs drifting down Burlington Street . He took it as a premonition and the next day hurried down to Burlington Street , where he noticed a sign on a building advertising what Shackleton called the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition . He promptly entered the building whereupon he met Shackleton . After a few minutes of conversation , Shackleton offered him the captaincy of the Endurance , which Worsley accepted .
The Endurance left England on 8 August 1914 destined for Buenos Aires , where Shackleton , travelling separately , would join the expedition . The departure of the expedition was troubled ; the impending outbreak of the First World War prompted some members including Worsley , anticipating a call up to the RNR , to propose a postponement of the voyage . However , the Admiralty advised Shackleton to proceed with his plans even after Britain declared war on Imperial Germany on 4 August . Just prior to the departure of the Endurance Worsley approached the authorities and was advised that RNR personnel were not being called up at the time . While steaming to South America , fuel ran low and wood intended for planned buildings at the expedition 's base in Antarctica was used to keep the engine running . Worsley ran a relatively relaxed ship with little discipline or control of alcohol consumption . Four crew members got into a barroom brawl at a stopover in Madeira , a neutral port . While anchored in the harbour , a neighbouring German ship swung into the Endurance , damaging it . Worsley , enraged , boarded the German ship with some other members of the expedition and forced the crew to repair the damage caused .
Shackleton , briefed on Worsley 's handling of the voyage to date once he had caught up with the expedition at Buenos Aires , began to have concerns about his choice of captain . Worsley was to be in command of the resupply expedition for the party that was to winter over in Antarctica , but Shackleton began to doubt whether his leadership skills were sufficient to achieve this . After resupplying at Buenos Aires , the Endurance left for the remote island of South Georgia , in the South Atlantic , on 26 October . It duly arrived at Grytviken Station , a Norwegian whaling outpost , on 5 November . The Norwegians confirmed initial reports from Buenos Aires that the Antarctic pack ice was much further north than usual . Shackleton followed the Norwegians ' advice to delay departure until later in the summer , and it was not until 5 December that the Endurance steamed south for the Weddell Sea .
= = = Icebound = = =
The Endurance encountered the pack ice three days after leaving South Georgia , and Worsley began working the ship through the various bergs . On occasion it was necessary to ram a path through the ice . Progress was intermittent ; on some days little headway was made while on other days large stretches of open water allowed swift passage southwards . Worsley would often direct the helmsman from the crow 's nest , from where he could see any breaks in the ice . It was during this time that Shackleton realised that his temperament was less suited to giving orders than to following them , which he would do with the utmost determination .
On 18 January 1915 , the ship became iced in . Within a few days , it was apparent that the Endurance was held fast and was likely to remain so for the upcoming winter . Trapped , the ship slowly drifted westwards with the ice , and the expedition settled in for the winter . The original plan had been to leave a shore party on the Antarctic mainland while Worsley took the Endurance northwards . There had been no expectation that the entire expedition would live aboard the ship in the long term . Worsley relished the challenge ; he slept in the passageway rather than the cabins , and even in the depths of winter , would shock the rest of those aboard the ship by taking snow baths on the ice . With little to do since the Endurance became trapped , he occupied himself taking soundings of the ocean and collecting specimens . He later wrote a report entitled Biological , Soundings and Magnetic Record , Weddell Sea , 1914 – 1916 .
By July , it was becoming obvious that the ice was likely to crush the Endurance , which creaked and trembled under the pressure , and Shackleton instructed Worsley to be prepared to quickly abandon ship if the need arose . Worsley was initially incredulous , asking Shackleton : " You seriously mean to tell me that the ship is doomed ? " Shackleton responded " The ship can 't live in this , Skipper . " Finally , on 24 October , the pressure of the ice caused the stern post of the Endurance to twist and the ship began to quickly let in water . After desperate attempts to fix the leak and pump the ship dry , Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship three days later . Salvaging what essential supplies they could , the expedition set out on 30 October for Robertson Island , 200 miles ( 320 km ) to the northeast . After just three days , it was clear that the condition of the ice was too rough for sledging . Having travelled only a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from where the Endurance was sinking , they set up camp to wait for the ice to break up . Lumber and tents were salvaged from the crushed ship , which was still not fully submerged , and a reasonable camp , known as Ocean Camp , was established . The expedition stayed here for two months until 23 December , when they struck camp .
The conditions underfoot were slushy during the day , as the temperature warmed up . Shackleton resolved to do most of the trekking at night , sledging the three lifeboats of the Endurance behind them . The sledging was hard work and after little more than a week , Shackleton and his men were forced to camp once more . Underneath , the ice continued to move northwards , and by April 1916 , the floe they were on was nearly within sight of Elephant Island but beginning to break up . Shackleton ordered the expedition to the lifeboats , placing Worsley in charge of one of them , the Dudley Docker . It took a week to reach Elephant Island , the ice and currents inhibiting progress .
The first few nights involved camping on nearby ice floes with the constant risk of them breaking up , but the last four nights were in the boats , with Worsley spending most of it at the tiller and going without sleep for 90 hours straight . His experience with open boats came to the fore in his sound handling of the Dudley Docker , while his navigation was exemplary , guiding the fleet of lifeboats unerringly to Elephant Island once they found favourable wind conditions . On the final night at sea , with Elephant Island having been sighted earlier in the day , heavy seas separated his boat from the other two lifeboats . His boat taking on water and caught in a rip , Worsley steered the Dudley Docker all through the night . Relieved early in the morning , he promptly fell asleep and could only be awoken by kicks to the head . It was three years later that he eventually found out the method that was used by his companions to shake him from his deep sleep . The Dudley Docker made shore on 15 April , landing on the same shingle beach of Elephant Island as the other lifeboats . It was the expedition 's first landfall in almost 18 months .
= = = Voyage of the James Caird = = =
It quickly became apparent that Elephant Island , 20 miles ( 32 km ) of rock and ice with little shelter , was not a welcoming environment particularly with winter approaching and most of the expedition members weakened by their ordeal . Furthermore , the expedition could not be expected to be spotted by search parties or passing whalers . Within days of landing on Elephant Island , Shackleton decided to take a small party and sail the largest lifeboat , the James Caird , named for one of the expedition 's sponsors , to South Georgia , 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) away . From there he would obtain a ship and return for the remainder of his men . Worsley , whose navigational skills had impressed Shackleton , volunteered to accompany him . The James Caird , originally built to Worsley 's specifications , was about 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) long and the expedition 's carpenter , Harry McNish , immediately set about improving its seaworthiness . On 24 April , the weather dawned clear and after being provisioned with 30 days of supplies , the boat left Elephant Island . Worsley was faced with the task of navigating the Southern Ocean to South Georgia . There was no margin for error as the James Caird would sail into the South Atlantic if he missed the island ; this would mean almost certain death for those in the lifeboat but also those remaining on Elephant Island . Fortuitously , the weather was fine on the day of departure from the island and this allowed Worsley to obtain a sun sighting to ensure that his chronometer was rated .
Shortly after the start of the voyage , the James Caird which , in addition to Shackleton and Worsley , also carried McNish , sailors John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy , as well as the experienced Tom Crean , encountered the ice but Worsley found a way through and into the open ocean . The crew set up two watches for the journey , which eventually would take 16 days , in strong and heavy seas , to reach South Georgia . For most of the voyage , the weather proved to be stormy and so overcast Worsley was unable to take more than a few sightings with his sextant . He described one sighting as " ... cuddling the mast with one arm and swinging fore and aft round the mast , sextant and all ... " and he would " ... catch the sun when the boat leaped her highest on the crest of a sea ... " . At times the sea conditions were so rough he was braced by the other crew members when taking his sightings . On occasion , the temperature was bitter and each man would spend one minute shifts chipping away ice that coated the top surfaces of the James Caird , affecting its buoyancy . The heavy seas meant there was considerable risk that a man could go overboard .
After two weeks , Worsley began to worry about the lack of sightings and advised Shackleton he could not calculate their position to less than 10 miles ( 16 km ) accuracy . As a result , Shackleton opted to aim for the western side of South Georgia which meant , given the prevailing winds , that if they missed their target they would be carried onto the east coast of the island . The following day , they began to observe drifting seaweed and seabirds circulating overhead , indicating the presence of land ahead . On 8 May , through mists and squalls , the crew sighted South Georgia 's Cape Demidov , precisely in line with the course calculated by Worsley . He saw a " ... towering black crag , with a lacework of snow around its flanks . One glimpse , and it was hidden again . We looked at each other with cheerful , foolish grins . " Sea and wind conditions were such that they were unable to make their way to the Norwegian whaling stations , some 148 miles ( 238 km ) away , on the east coast ; instead they made for King Haakon Bay . Now out of drinking water , they were forced by the high seas to approach the rocky coast with care and heave to for the night . A gale blew strongly the following day and despite their best efforts , they stayed offshore for a further night . Conditions were much better on 10 May and after adverse winds caused failure of his first few attempts , Worsley carefully sailed the James Caird through a rocky reef guarding King Haakon Bay and onto the beach .
= = = Trek = = =
After slaking their thirst from a nearby stream , the crew unloaded the James Caird and spent the first night on South Georgia in a cave . The next day , Shackleton announced his intention to walk overland to the Norwegian whaling station at Stromness Bay , on the other side of the island . The crew were too exhausted , and the James Caird too battered , for Shackleton to consider sailing around the island . The trek to Stromness Bay was 22 miles ( 35 km ) and after resting for several days , he , along with Worsley and Tom Crean , set out on 19 May . The interior of South Georgia was mountainous and covered with glaciers . Their map of South Georgia showed only the coastline , and on several occasions , they were forced to backtrack when their route was found to be impassable . After a non @-@ stop trek of 36 hours , the trio reached Stromness Bay and were taken to the manager of the whaling station . He was unable to recognise Shackleton , whom he had met during the expedition 's stopover on the island nearly two years previously . After a hot bath and a large meal , Worsley set out on a whaler to collect the three men left behind at King Haakon Bay . That night a strong blizzard struck the island . Had it developed while Worsley and the others were on their trek , it would have likely killed them . They were fortunate the weather had been relatively good for their trek across the island . Later , all three trekkers would talk of a " fourth presence " that accompanied them . In his account of the walk , Worsley would write " ... I again find myself counting our party — Shackleton , Crean , and I and — who was the other ? Of course , there were only three , but it is strange that in mentally reviewing the crossing we should always think of a fourth , and then correct ourselves . "
The next day , McNish , McCarthy and Vincent were picked up . They were unable to recognise Worsley , freshly shaven , when he stepped ashore . The James Caird , which had been pulled up the beach and turned over to serve as a shelter , was also retrieved .
= = = Rescue = = =
Three days after McNish and the others were brought back to Stromness Bay , Shackleton , Crean and Worsley , along with a crew of volunteers from the whaling station , set out on a hired ship for Elephant Island . They got to within 60 miles ( 97 km ) of the island before ice prevented any further passage south . Unable to break a passage through the ice , they steamed to the Falkland Islands to obtain a more suitable vessel . By now news of the fate of the expedition had reached Britain . Despite messages of goodwill and support , the only British vessel that could be found was the RRS Discovery , Robert Falcon Scott 's old ship , but this would not be available until October . The war tied up all other available resources .
Waiting for October was not acceptable to Shackleton who , desperately concerned for the men on Elephant Island , continued to search for a ship . The British Foreign Office prevailed on the governments of Uruguay , Chile and Argentina for a suitable vessel . The Uruguayans came forward with a small survey ship , and this was sailed to within sight of Elephant Island before it too had to turn back . An effort with an Argentinean vessel which set sail on 12 July also failed after three weeks of atrocious weather . Chile offered the use of the Yelcho , and on this steel @-@ hulled steamer , Shackleton , Worsley and Crean set out with a crew on 25 August . Fortunately , in contrast to their previous attempt , the weather was mild and on 30 August , they reached Elephant Island where , to their great joy , they found all 22 men left behind alive . Within an hour all were retrieved and , not wanting to risk being trapped by ice , the Yelcho quickly departed for Punta Arenas , where it was greeted with great fanfare . Worsley later wrote : " ... I was always sorry for the twenty @-@ two men who lived in that horrible place for four months of misery while we were away on the boat journey , and the four attempts at rescue ending with their joyful relief . "
While Worsley had been retrieving McNish and others from King Haakon Bay , Shackleton was advised of the fate of his Ross Sea party which had been tasked with laying depots on Shackleton 's intended route across Antarctica . Ten men , forming a winter party , had set up a base at Hut Point , while their ship , the SY Aurora , owned by Shackleton , wintered at Cape Evans . In May 1915 , the ship broke free from its moorings and became trapped in the ice . Badly damaged , it drifted with the ice for over six months before it broke free and its captain , Joseph Stenhouse , was able to sail it to New Zealand in March 1916 . No one had heard from the stranded winter party at Hut Point for nearly two years . After journeying with the rest of the survivors of his own party to Argentina , Shackleton , along with Worsley , left for New Zealand . From here they hoped to find a ship to take them south to retrieve the Ross Sea party .
Shackleton had brought Worsley along intending to use his services in the retrieval of the winter party . However , after their arrival in New Zealand in December 1916 , they found themselves without a ship . They had expected to use the Aurora with Shackleton as its captain . In the meantime , the Australian , New Zealand and British governments had put forward funds for the rescue but influenced by the explorer Douglas Mawson , who disliked Shackleton , the Australian government appointed its own captain . After protracted negotiations , Shackleton sailed on board the Aurora as a supernumerary officer . Worsley was left behind but was placated with a paid passage to Britain . The seven surviving members of the winter party were duly rescued . Worsley was later awarded the Polar Medal for his service on the expedition .
= = First World War = =
Shortly after Shackleton returned to New Zealand from the Ross Sea , having picked up the survivors of the winter party , Worsley travelled to England aboard the RMS Makura . As an RNR officer , he wanted to join in the fight against Imperial Germany . After arriving in Liverpool , he made his way to London and was quickly assigned to HMS Pembroke , the shore station at Chatham . Here , for three months , he learned about fighting U @-@ boats , which were causing considerable damage to supply convoys crossing the Atlantic . Several tactics were deployed against the U @-@ boats . One of these involved the use of Q @-@ ships , small merchant vessels fitted out with hidden armament that could be deployed against any U @-@ boats which surfaced and approached the seemingly unarmed ship . Another tactic was the use of P @-@ boats , which were patrol boats that carried out convoy escort duties and anti @-@ submarine work . The P @-@ boats had a distinctive profile , and their effectiveness wore off as U @-@ boat commanders began to recognise and avoid them . The later built P @-@ boats were designed with a more conventional profile approximating that of a merchant ship , and thus were similar to Q @-@ ships .
In July 1917 , Worsley was appointed commander of the PC.61 , one of the later P @-@ boats , with Joseph Stenhouse as his first officer . The PC.61 , commissioned on 31 July 1917 , was equipped with a semi @-@ automatic 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) gun that was hidden by a tarpaulin suspended from crane derricks when not in use . She also had a ram at her bow . Shortly after its commissioning he took his new command to sea on patrol . Most patrols were uneventful but sometimes U @-@ boats were sighted and pursued but these invariably got away . Occasionally torpedoes were fired at his ship . Worsley felt the PC.61 was too easily identified as a Royal Navy vessel against which U @-@ boats were too cautious to make a surface attack . Instead , the submarine would use its torpedoes to attack the ship .
In late September 1917 , Worsley and the PC.61 were on patrol to the south of Ireland . On 26 September 1917 , a nearby tanker was struck by a torpedo from a U @-@ boat , UC @-@ 33 . Observing the explosion , Worsley gradually slowed his propellers , hoping to deceive the U @-@ boat 's crew into thinking his P @-@ boat was leaving the area and luring the submarine to the surface . The deception was successful and the UC @-@ 33 surfaced , intending to sink the tanker with its deck gun . Worsley immediately ordered full speed ahead and , realising that he would lose time in manoeuvring his ship into a position in which she could use her guns , set a collision course with the U @-@ boat , intending to ram the submarine . At high speeds the bow , to which the ram was fitted , of the PC.61 lifted out of the water considerably , and Worsley had to reduce speed at the right moment in order for it to be at the right height to strike the submarine . He timed the reduction of speed of the PC.61 perfectly and she struck the UC @-@ 33 midships as it was submerging . The submarine rapidly sunk with nearly all hands , the exception being the captain , who was rescued and later gifted Worsley a silver whistle . The damaged tanker was towed to Milford Haven in Wales , which took 12 hours in an area where other U @-@ boats were known to be lurking .
For his role in the sinking of the UC @-@ 33 , Worsley was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) and Shackleton sent him a telegraph congratulating him on his success . Worsley conducted patrols with the PC.61 for several more months . In September 1918 , he was given command of HMS Pangloss , a Q @-@ ship operating in the Mediterranean and which was formerly commanded by Commander Gordon Campbell . With the war nearly over , Worsley did not anticipate much excitement in his new posting .
= = = Northern Russia = = =
Passing through London en route to Gibraltar , where the Pangloss was based , Worsley met Shackleton , recently assigned by the War Office to the International Contingent destined for Northern Russia to aid the White movement in its fight against the Bolsheviks . Shackleton 's expertise in the polar regions had been recognised by the War Office , and with the temporary rank of major , he was preparing the contingent for a winter deployment to Murmansk . Shackleton had already recruited several veterans of the Endurance to serve with him and arranged for Worsley , keen for action , to be transferred to join the contingent . Worsley , by now a lieutenant commander , left for Murmansk the following month .
After he arrived in Russia , Worsley was selected to go to Archangel where he organised equipment and supplies for the British forces stationed there . He provided extensive advice , derived from his polar experience , to soldiers on how to best make use of their resources and trained them in the use of skis . He participated in several patrols and due to a shortage of officers , occasionally took command of platoons of British infantry . In April 1919 , he was posted back to Murmansk , where he took command of the gunboat HMS Cricket . He took her up the Dvinia River and targeted Bolshevik gunboats and villages along the river . He also provided support to British and White Russian units moving along the banks of the river in operations to seize ground lost to the Bolsheviks in the winter months .
Worsley commanded Cricket for two months before becoming the captain of HMS M24 , a monitor and tender to HMS Fox . His time in command was short as he managed to attach himself to the Hampshire Regiment . In August , he participated in a raid behind Bolshevik lines . The raiding party of 25 men obtained useful intelligence by tapping telegraph lines and ambushing a Bolshevik convoy but their presence soon became known and they were pursued by a force of over 200 Bolsheviks . When the captain commanding the party became lost in a forest , he deferred navigation to Worsley , who successfully led all 25 men back to safety . For his efforts , he was awarded a bar to his DSO . The citation for his award read :
In recognition of the gallantry displayed by him at Pocha in North Russia between the 2nd and 5th August 1919 . This officer formed one of a large patrol which in circumstances of great danger and difficulty penetrated many miles behind the enemy lines , and by his unfailingly cheery leadership he kept up the spirits of all under trying conditions . By his assistance in bridging an unfordable river behind the enemy lines , he greatly helped the success of the enterprise .
When the Allied forces left Murmansk and Archangel in late 1919 , Worsley returned to London . He was rewarded for his service in Russia by being appointed to the Order of St. Stanislaus . He was discharged from service on 2 January 1920 and placed on the RNR retired list . Later in the year , in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace , he was appointed to the Order of the British Empire for his services to Great Britain .
= = Quest = =
Worsley remained in near constant contact with Shackleton , who was attempting to put together an expedition to the Arctic , and was hopeful of securing a suitable position in the endeavour . However , the expedition was still some way off and in the meantime , Worsley set up a shipping company with his friend Stenhouse . The company , Stenhouse Worsley & Co , purchased a schooner , Annie , with the intention of trading with the Baltic states . This plan collapsed when the Baltic freight market fell on hard times and eventually , the company started shipping freight along the British coast . In late 1920 , Worsley and Stenhouse went on a trading voyage to Iceland . The Annie carried cargo on the outward trip but was nearly wrecked when sailing around the coast of Iceland to pick up cargo from a remote port for the return trip to England . Poor weather and sea conditions kept the Annie in Iceland until February 1921 , when Worsley was able to carry freight back to Britain . By then Shackleton was ready to proceed with his expedition and wanted Worsley as the captain of his ship , the Quest , an offer which he quickly accepted .
After the Canadian government withdrew promised financial support for the expedition , the delay in finding replacement funding ate into the Arctic sailing season . Shackleton , not wanting to delay departure any longer than he had to , decided to go south instead and attempt a circumnavigation of the Antarctic continent . The expedition , known as the Shackleton – Rowett Expedition ( John Rowett , an old friend of Shackleton 's , was the main sponsor ) , would also attempt to discover sub @-@ Antarctic islands and spend the southern winter in the Pacific islands . The expedition included several Endurance veterans in addition to Worsley ; Frank Wild was again second in command , and Leonard Hussey was the meteorologist . Worsley was the master of the Quest , but would also be the expedition 's hydrographer .
The Quest , a 111 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) two @-@ masted sealing ship sourced from Norway , set sail on 18 September 1921 . Problems soon arose ; the ship did not sail well and it leaked . There were also problems with the engine . A week was spent in Portugal undergoing repairs , and after crossing the Atlantic , the Quest spent a month in the docks of Rio de Janeiro . While in Brazil , Shackleton , whose health had been poor for some time , suffered a heart attack . After he declined treatment for his condition , the expedition left for South Georgia on 18 December . The island was sighted on 4 January 1922 and both Worsley and Shackleton were " like a pair of excitable kids " , pointing out landmarks from their walk across South Georgia back in 1916 . The following day , Shackleton suffered a fatal heart attack . Worsley described the loss of his friend as " ... a terribly sad blow . I have lost a dear pal , one of the whitest men , in spite of his faults , that ever lived . "
Despite this setback , the expedition continued with Wild in command while Hussey returned to England with Shackleton 's body . On 22 January , Worsley suffered a serious accident . Under sail , the Quest had been rolling heavily and ropes securing a lifeboat snapped . The lifeboat , full of stores , swung against the wheelhouse and crushed Worsley against the bridge . He broke several ribs and had to rest for several days . By the end of March , after being briefly trapped in ice in the Weddell Sea , the ship reached Elephant Island . The expedition then returned to South Georgia , where Hussey was waiting . Shackleton 's widow had directed that he be buried on South Georgia and Hussey had returned to the island in late February to fulfil her request .
Worsley and the rest of the expedition spent several weeks on South Georgia , and he assisted in the building of a memorial cairn to Shackleton in King Edward Cove . The expedition then sailed for Tristan da Cunha , where Worsley carried out some mapping work . Other stops were made at Cape Town , Ascension Island and Saint Helena before the expedition arrived back in England in September 1922 .
= = Arctic = =
The Atlantic shipping trade occupied Worsley after his return to England . He was master of the George Cochran for a time in 1923 , shipping rum to Montreal . The following year he was in command of the Kathleen Annie when it was wrecked in the Orkney Islands . He ensured the evacuation of his crew before leaving the stricken ship for the safety of the shore .
During his time in Canada , Worsley had made the acquaintance of a young Canadian , Grettir Algarsson , who was of Icelandic descent and was preparing a ship for a voyage to the Arctic . Algarsson 's voyage proved short @-@ lived , as his ship collided with floating wreckage while in the North Sea . Undeterred , he set about preparing an expedition for the following year and invited Worsley , who had provided advice for his previous voyage , to join him . The plan was to sail to Spitzbergen , in the Arctic Circle , and Algarsson was to fly from there to the North Pole where he would crash the plane , and , with his pilot , sledge back . Worsley was to captain the ship that Algarsson had purchased for the expedition , a 99 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) diesel @-@ engined brigatine called the Island . A lack of funds resulted in the cancellation of the planned flight as a suitable plane could not be found . However , the 15 @-@ man expedition , known as the Algarsson North Polar Expedition , went ahead with certain mapping and scientific objectives , among them a search for Gillis Land , northeast of Spitzbergen , which had not been sighted since 1707 , as well as sounding the continental shelf between Spitzbergen and Franz Josef Land . With the plane flight no longer viable , and the focus of the expedition now primarily on maritime matters , Algarsson offered Worsley co @-@ leadership of the expedition , which he accepted . The Island sailed on 21 June 1925 from Liverpool .
When sailing the western side of Spitzbergen , a blade of the propeller of the Island was damaged in a collision with an ice floe . When the engine was run , severe vibration was felt and this forced Worsley to continue northwards under sail , searching for Gillis Land until the ship reached the pack ice . While doing so , soundings were taken which confirmed the presence of a submarine plain between Spitzbergen and the island group of Franz Josef Land . Turning south and sailing along the northern coast of Spitzbergen , a previously uncharted harbour was found , which Algarsson named after Worsley . The ship then sailed north , still seeking Gillis Land , but became trapped in the ice . Worsley took the opportunity to create an ice dock to facilitate repairs to the rudder , which had become damaged . After two weeks beset in the ice , he used the engine to break free but the last blade of the propeller was lost in the process .
The Island was now effectively without an engine , a prospect that did not daunt Worsley as he sailed for Franz Josef Land . He described it as " sail 's last unaided battle with the polar pack [ pack ice ] " . In August he landed on Cape Barents , one of the southern islands of Franz Josef Land , and planted a Union Jack . Together with the ship 's engineer who was from Dunedin , he claimed to be the first New Zealander to set foot on Franz Josef Land . The expedition , which had been renamed the British Arctic Expedition with the consensus of the participants , made several attempts to find a way northwards through the pack ice , Worsley harbouring hopes of being the first sailing ship to sail through the island group to Gillis Land and then back to Spitzbergen , but was unsuccessful . In one attempt , the Island nearly collided with a large iceberg , but Worsley ordered a rowboat to take to the water and the ship was towed out of harm 's way .
Finally , on 14 September , what was thought to be Gillis Land was spotted several miles away . The Island was unable to sail close enough to confirm the sighting , but Worsley noted that it was to the west of its charted position . If it was Gillis Land , it was the first sighting of the island for 200 years ( Gillis Land no longer appears on modern charts ) . The ship then sailed to North @-@ East Land , circumnavigating it and while doing so reaching the expedition 's farthest north , 81 ° 15 ′ N. Worsley ensured the New Zealand flag was flown at the spot . The expedition then set sail for Spitzbergen , reaching the island 's Green Harbour in mid @-@ October . The ship 's engine could not be repaired before Green Harbour was closed for winter and Worsley accepted a tow to Tromsø , the conclusion of which marked the end of the expedition . He later wrote a book of the voyage , Under Sail in the Frozen North , which was published in 1927 .
= = London life = =
After the completion of his Arctic voyage , Worsley returned to life in London , where he had a reasonably high profile due to his exploits with Shackleton and his wartime service . In 1926 , he married Jean Cumming , who he had met in 1920 at New Zealand House in London while collecting his mail . It was his second marriage ; in 1907 he had married Theodora Blackden but she had left him by the time of his return from Russia ( the couple had no children ) . It took several years for Worsley to obtain a divorce to allow his marriage to Jean , nearly 30 years his junior , to take place . For income in between trading voyages , Worsley wrote books and articles . Two of these , Shackleton 's Boat Journey and Crossing South Georgia were published as serials in the periodical Blue Peter in 1924 and were well received . These books were published together as a single volume in 1931 . His book was considered superior to Shackleton 's own account , published as South in 1919 . In 1938 , a fourth book , First Voyage in a Square @-@ rigged Ship was published . When his financial circumstances required it , which was often , Worsley would write an article for money . His topics would range from the dogs used on the expedition to the pipe smoking habits of his Elephant Island co @-@ habitants .
Worsley also conducted lecturing tours for income , his profile enhanced by his publication record . As sailing commissions at this late stage of his life were in short supply , his lectures became more important as a source of income . He mainly lectured on his voyages with Shackleton , whose wife lent Worsley several of her late husband 's slides to enhance his talks . In later years , he added talks on his own voyages to his repertoire . His lectures were well received with glowing reviews in local newspapers . His profile was boosted following his appearance in the film South , released in 1933 , for which he provided an accent @-@ free narration . The film was based on Frank Hurley 's cine film of the Endurance expedition , intercut with photographic slides . He made an onscreen appearance in the film , showing the audience several artefacts from the expedition . Like his books , the film was very well received .
In the 1930s , Worsley was part of a yacht and ship delivery company , Imray Laurie Norie & Wilson Limited . His personal experience was a key selling point in the company 's commercial literature . In 1937 , the company completed over 50 delivery voyages . The longest delivery was that of a steamer destined for Hong Kong , which took three months . On many of these voyages he was accompanied by Jean , who also enjoyed sailing .
= = Treasure hunting = =
Even into his 60s , Worsley still sought adventure . In 1934 , he was asked to join the Treasury Recovery Limited Expedition which was organised to locate treasure allegedly hidden at Cocos Island by pirates . In earlier times , the island had been used as a base by the pirates to attack Spanish ships transporting gold from South America back to Spain . At the time of mounting the expedition , it was believed that between £ 5 million and £ 25 million in gold and silver was buried on the island . Worsley sailed , with Jean for company , for Cocos Island in September 1934 aboard the Queen of Scots . On arrival at the island in October , he assisted in unloading stores to set up a village at Wafer Bay , the safest landing point on Cocos . The island , off the coast of Costa Rica , was heavily forested and hard labour was necessary to clear likely spots for searching . As the Queen of Scots was found to be too large for the expedition 's needs , Worsley left with the ship to return to England via the Panama Canal . He was to source a replacement vessel and bring back supplies .
En route , Worsley found that the government of Costa Rica , unhappy at not being informed of the expedition 's plans , intended to forcibly remove the treasure hunters from Cocos Island . Despite Worsley 's dispatch of a personal cable to the Costa Rican president , and ensuing publicity in England , some of the expedition 's men were forcibly taken to Panama . The others remained on Cocos under guard . By this time , the leaders of the expedition had returned to England , leaving Worsley as controller of the remaining men . He funded supplies for the remaining men from his own pocket but eventually those remaining on Cocos were shipped to Panama and discharged .
The expedition regathered , and after obtaining a concession from the Costa Rican government , returned to the island the following year . He sailed the expedition 's new yacht , Veracity , from England to Cocos Island in a troubled voyage , again accompanied by Jean . The expedition was underfunded and supplies were lacking . Mechanical failure while en @-@ route also hampered the voyage . By the time of his arrival on Cocos , he had been appointed the controller of the expedition . Despite extensive searching with a crude metal detector , no trace of the treasure had been found by September . Worsley , with a lecture season beginning in London in October , left the island in early September . This was his last involvement with the expedition which , after nine more months , failed to locate the treasure hunt . The expedition ended when funding ran out . Despite the lack of success , Worsley still believed treasure was to be found on the island and hoped to return . He never did , although his treasure hunting exploits provided plenty of material for his lecture tours .
= = Later life = =
When the Second World War broke out in September 1939 , Worsley was keen to contribute to the war effort . His age of 67 prevented his recall to the Royal Navy Reserve . He eventually joined the International Red Cross and travelled to France where he lectured troops of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) during the Phoney War . He also sought support from the War Office to provide equipment to Swedish volunteers travelling to Finland to assist its countrymen in fighting the Russians during the brief Winter War . When another BEF was sent to Norway in April 1940 to help secure railway links to Sweden , the Red Cross , intending to have a unit in the country as well , appointed Worsley as its Advance Agent – Norway . He was to prepare the way for the unit but after the Germans captured Narvik , it became too dangerous for the Red Cross to be involved . After a brief visit to Norway , Worsley returned to Britain .
Worsley became the commander of a Red Cross training depot in Balham , London , but it later closed down due to a lack of recruits . He repeatedly wrote to the War Office offering his services and proposing various schemes involving Norway , including one to land guns at Spitzbergen , an area he knew well from his Arctic expedition in 1925 .
Eventually , Worsley found a command in the Merchant Navy , and , giving his age as 64 ( he was actually 69 ) , was appointed master of the Dalriada in August 1941 . He worked to keep the harbour entrance at Sheerness clear of wrecked shipping and also carried out salvage work . His command was only for a few months for when the company that owned his vessel found out his true age , he was replaced . Unhappy at being put into the Merchant Navy Reserve Pool , he continued to advocate for a useful posting .
In April 1942 , Worsley was appointed to the staff at a training establishment for the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve , HMS King Alfred in Sussex , giving lectures on charts and pilotage . After two months he was transferred to the Royal Naval College , Greenwich . While in Sussex , his health began to deteriorate and he cut down on his pipe smoking . After a few months at Greenwich , he took ill and was hospitalised . Diagnosed with lung cancer , naval doctors found that they could do little for Worsley , and he was discharged . He opted to spend the last days of his life with his wife and the Bamford family , good friends who lived in Claygate , Surrey . He died in the Bamford house on 1 February 1943 . He was cremated after a well attended service held on 3 February at the chapel of the Royal Navy College . His casket was adorned with the New Zealand ensign and Worsley 's personal standard that he had flown aboard the Quest in the 1921 – 22 expedition . His ashes were scattered at the mouth of the Thames River , near the Nore lightship .
After Worsley 's death , Jean Worsley donated his unpublished diaries to the Scott Polar Research Institute . She returned to Aberdeen , where she had spent much of the previous months , to live with her mother . Jean later moved to Claygate following the death of her mother , and lived with the Bamfords . Her final years were spent in relative financial comfort ; several years before his death , Worsley had invested in shares in Venezuela Oil , which later became Shell Oil and provided good returns for Jean . She died at the Bamford home in 1978 , at the age of 78 , and in the same room that her husband had occupied at the time of his death . The couple were childless .
= = Legacy = =
A bust of Frank Worsley stands in his home town of Akaroa , New Zealand . The sculpture was created by artist Stephen Gleeson of Christchurch , and unveiled in 2004 . The town 's museum also displays the ensign from Worsley 's former command , the PC.61.
Several geographical features are named for Worsley , including Mount Worsley on South Georgia , Cape Worsley in the British Antarctic Territory , the Worsley Icefalls in the Ross Dependency and Worsley Harbour at Spitzbergen . Worsleys Road in the Christchurch suburb of Cracroft is named for his grandfather ; it was built by him as an access road for his farm .
190 hectares ( 470 acres ) of land at Akaroa , on which his childhood home stood , were purchased by the New Zealand Native Forest Restoration Trust in 2015 . The land borders onto Hinewai Reserve , with their staff managing the long process of native forest establishing itself again and building walking tracks . The Rod Donald Banks Peninsula Trust , Akaroa Museum , and Hinewai staff will erect information panels at the house site . As a teenager , Worsley helped with clearing bush on Banks Peninsula that is now being restored , and he wrote later in life :
It was a mad waste . The colonists in their greed for more grass seed and sheep pasture burned millions of pounds worth of timber . They recklessly destroyed the wonderful beauty of the bush , baring the soil until it was carried away by landslides , and lowered the rainfall , and laid waste the homes of countless sweet songsters .
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= Bhikshatana =
Bhikshatana ( Sanskrit : भिक ् षाटन ; Bhikṣāṭana ; literally , " wandering about for alms , mendicancy " ) or Bhikshatana @-@ murti ( Bhikṣāṭanamūrti ) is an aspect of the Hindu god Shiva as the " Supreme mendicant " or the " Supreme Beggar " . Bhikshtana is depicted as a nude four @-@ armed man adorned with ornaments who holds a begging bowl in his hand and is followed by demonic attendants and love @-@ sick women .
Bhikshatana is considered a gentler form of Shiva 's fierce aspect Bhairava and a gentle phase between Bhairava 's two gruesome forms , one of which decapitates the god Brahma and the other of which murders the god Vishnu 's gatekeeper . Bhikshatana is the form of Bhairava that Shiva assumes to atone for his sin of severing Brahma 's fifth head . He wanders the universe in the form of a naked Kapali mendicant , begging for alms with Brahma 's kapala ( skullcap ) as his begging bowl , until his sin is expiated upon reaching the holy city of Varanasi .
Another legend describes Bhikshtana 's visit to the Deodar ( Pine ) Forest to dispense the ignorance of sages and lead them to true knowledge . During his visit , he seduces the wives of the sages who come to give him alms . Horrified by Bhikshatana 's " heretic " appearance and actions , the sages have a long confrontation with him . Ultimately Bhikshatana triumphs , establishing the worship of the Linga , his aniconic symbol . A variant of the legend narrates how Bhikshatana transforms into Nataraja — Shiva as the Cosmic Dancer .
Bhikshatana is a popular icon in South India , in contrast to North India , where it is of lesser importance . Though Bhikshatana does not have any temples dedicated to him as the primary deity , he is sculpted in stone temple walls , worshipped as a subsidiary deity , and cast in bronze as a temple festival processional icon in almost every major Tamil Shiva temple . Many Tamil language hymns sing of Bhikshatana 's wanderings , often narrating of the pining of the love @-@ smitten who are enamoured of him .
= = Legends = =
= = = Expiatory wandering = = =
The Kurma Purana narrates that during a particular council of rishis ( sages ) , the god Brahma arrogantly declared that he was the Supreme Creator of the Universe . Shiva appeared at the assembly as an infinite pillar of light and challenged Brahma 's statement . After deliberation , the council accepted Shiva as the true Creator , but Brahma remained obstinate . Angered by Brahma 's vanity , Shiva — as the terrifying Bhairava — cut off one head of the five @-@ headed Brahma with a mere flick of his fingernail ( an act iconographically depicted as Brahmashirascheda @-@ murti ) . As a consequence Brahma died , but the spiritual credit he had accumulated over a lifetime of devout asceticism pulled him immediately back from death . Upon his resurrection , Brahma accepted Shiva 's superiority . The reason for the decapitation of Brahma remains the same in the narratives of the Shiva Purana and the Matsya Purana . In the Skanda Purana , the trigger is not Brahma 's arrogance but his incest with his daughter , while in the Bengali version of the Shiva Purana , Brahma insults Shiva using his fifth head 's mouth , while the rest of them praise Shiva when he comes to Brahma 's abode as a guest . In another instance in the Shiva Purana , when an argument erupts between Brahma and Vishnu over who is superior , Shiva appears as an infinite fiery pillar ( Linga ) in front of the pair . They decide whoever finds the end of the pillar is superior . Brahma lies about finding the head of the infinite pillar and declares himself as superior . In the Varaha Purana , in which Shiva is born from Brahma 's brow , Brahma calls his son a Kapali and angers him . In all versions , an infuriated Shiva or Bhairava cuts off Brahma 's head as a punishment . However , all Puranas ( Kurma , Varaha , Shiva , Skanda , and Vamana ) agree that the head of Brahma stuck to Bhairava @-@ Shiva 's left palm due to the sin of killing Brahma , the most learned Brahmin – Brahmahatya or Brahminicide . To expiate the sin of brahmahatya , Shiva had to perform the vow of a Kapali : wandering the world as a naked beggar with the skull of the slain as his begging bowl . In the Kurma and Vamana Puranas , Shiva 's sin takes corporeal form , becoming a ghoulish woman called Brahmahatya who follows Bhikshatana everywhere he goes .
The Kurma Purana further narrates that Bhikshatana wandered the three worlds ( heaven , earth , and netherworld ) begging from door to door with a host of bhutas ( goblins ) . The women of the houses who came to grant him food became enamoured by his appearance and followed him , singing and dancing . Wandering , Bhikshatana reached the Deodar Forest ( also called Daruka forest , Daruka @-@ vana or Daru @-@ vana ) , where he shocked the sages with his " lewdness and nudity " and tempted their wives . Bhikshatana @-@ Shiva made them realise his greatness after their confrontation . However , in some other Puranas this encounter is placed in a different time period unrelated to Bhikshatana 's expiatory wandering .
The Kurma Purana goes on to state that after the encounter with the sages of the Deodar Forest , Bhikshatana continued to wander , visiting various countries of gods and demons before he finally reached the abode of the god Vishnu . Vishnu 's gatekeeper Vishvaksena did not allow him to enter . Angered , Bhikshatana slew Vishvaksena and impaled the corpse on his trident , which added to his sin . This form of Shiva with a corpse on his trident is called Kankala @-@ murti ( " One with the skeleton " ) . Bhikshatana , now as Kankala @-@ murti , entered Vishnu 's abode and begged for food . Vishnu offered his own blood as food in one version . In another version , Vishnu cut an artery on Bhikshatana 's forehead ; a stream of blood spurts into his begging bowl as his food . Vishnu then directed Bhikshatana to visit the sacred city of Varanasi , where his sin would be expiated . The encounter with Vishnu 's gatekeeper is also retold with some variation in the Vamana Purana and the Matsya Purana .
All Puranas agree that upon reaching Varanasi , Brahma 's skull falls off Bhikshatana 's palm at a place now called Kapala @-@ mochana ( " liberating from the skull " ) and Vishaksena 's corpse disappears . The sin , personified by Brahmahatya , vanishes into hell . Vishaksena is resurrected and the sanctified Bhairava @-@ Shiva , having bathed in the sacred pond in Varanasi , casts off the appearance of Bhikshatana and returns to his abode .
= = = Visit to the Deodar Forest = = =
As told in the Kurma Purana , Bhikshatana @-@ Shiva wanted to reveal the ignorance of the sages , who were engrossed in Dharma ( righteousness ) and extreme austerities but had forgotten the Samkhya ( Supreme Knowledge ) . The naked , handsome , ithyphallic ( with an erect phallus , urdhvalinga ) beggar Shiva entered the forest , begging for alms from the sages ' wives . They were so enamoured of him that while granting alms , they allowed their clothes to fall off and followed him , dancing and singing , love @-@ sick . Bhikshatana was accompanied by Mohini — Vishnu disguised as Bhikshatana 's enchanting wife , who maddens the sages ' sons in love . The sages , unable to recognise Shiva , abused and cursed him , even assaulting him . They cursed that his Linga ( phallus ) should fall off . Shiva allowed it to be so and the Linga became an infinite fiery pillar of light . Anusuya , the wife of sage Atri , enlightened the sages that the couple was none other than Shiva and Vishnu . The sages thereafter worshipped the Linga . Pleased , Shiva returned to the forest as a beggar in an ugly form with his wife Parvati . Eventually , he revealed his supreme form to the sages and exalted the Pashupata vow – by which a man restrains his passion , becomes celibate , and roams naked smeared with ash – declaring that such a lifestyle would lead to moksha ( salvation ) .
Other scriptures describe other visits by Shiva to Deodar Forest in his Bhikshatana form . The Vamana Purana mentions Shiva entering the Deodar Forest twice as a beggar . Maddened by the death of his first wife Sati but chased by the love @-@ god Kamadeva , Shiva escapes to the Deodar Forest and lives as a mendicant . The sages ' wives who come to grant him food become sexually excited at the mere sight of him . The sages curse his Linga to fall off and it becomes the infinite pillar . Brahma and Vishnu propitiate him and Shiva reabsorbs the Linga into his body . In another instance , while passing the Deodar Forest , Parvati notices sages who worship Shiva and have emaciated their bodies with fasts and severe vows . Parvati requests Shiva to save them from further pain , but Shiva declares that the sages are simply foolish and have not restrained their passion and anger . He enters the forest as a handsome man , wearing only a garland of sylvan flowers . He entices the sages ' wives , who give him alms . As before , the Linga of the cursed Shiva falls off , but eventually the sages realise their folly and worship the Linga . Similar accounts of Bhikshatana @-@ Shiva 's visit to the Deodar Forest to humble and enlighten the false sages , Bhikshatana @-@ Shiva 's emasculation and establishment of Linga worship also appear in the Mahabharata , the Shiva Purana , and the Bhagavata Purana .
The Linga Purana also mentions the visit of Bhikshatana @-@ Shiva to Deodar Forest to entice the wives of sages , who had taken up austerities " detrimental to the perpetuation of a healthy social order . " The scripture mentions Bhikshatana @-@ Shiva 's deformed but attractive nude black @-@ red form , his seduction of the sages ' wives , and the sages ' resulting curse . However , the curse proves fruitless in this version . The confused sages ask Brahma for guidance , who tells them the truth about the beggar and informs them of the proper way to propitiate Shiva . Returning to the forest , they please Shiva , who had returned to beg for alms . Finally , he enlightens the sages , revealing his true form . In the Padma Purana , the curse of the sages fails . In retribution , Shiva casts a curse on the sages so that they , like Bhikshatana , will become beggars with matted hair and be devoid of knowledge . Those who would still worship him would gain knowledge , wealth , and progeny , and be reborn into good families . In the Skanda Purana , the sages of the Deodar Forest are performing rituals and start to think of themselves as gods . To humble these arrogant sages , Shiva takes the form of Bhikshatana — an attractive young beggar — and Vishnu becomes Mohini , his wife . While the sages fall for Mohini , the women wildly chase Shiva . When the sages regain their senses , they perform a black magic sacrifice , which produces a serpent , a lion , an elephant ( or tiger ) , and a dwarf , all of which attack Shiva , who overpowers them . Shiva then dances on the dwarf and takes the form of Nataraja , the Cosmic Dancer . The same legend is retold in the Tamil Kovil Puranam and Kandha Puranam with some differences . This legend is also told in the Sthala Purana related to the Chidambaram Temple dedicated to Shiva @-@ Nataraja . The ceiling of the Shivakamasundari shrine in the Nataraja temple complex illustrates this legend in a series of frescos , where Bhikshatana is depicted as a white naked mendicant accompanied by a scantily @-@ scad Mohini .
= = = Kapaleshvara legend = = =
The Skanda Purana narrates that Bhikshatana @-@ Shiva appears on another occasion as a naked , fierce Kapali beggar . Once , at a sacrifice hosted by Brahma , Bhikshatana appears and begs for food . The Brahmins performing the sacrifice try to drive him away , considering a hungry beggar unfit for sacrificial rites . Bhikshatana throws his skull begging @-@ bowl on the ground and the Brahmins throw it out , but another skull bowl appears in its place . Consequently , hundreds of skulls appear , polluting the sacrifice , which compels Brahma to promise Shiva that no sacrifice will be deemed complete without an invocation to him , Kapaleshvara — the Lord of the skulls .
= = Iconography = =
The iconography of Bhikshatana is discussed in all Shaiva Agamic texts , including Amshumadbhedagama , Kamikagama , Supredagama , Karanagama and the iconographic work Shilparatna ; the texts are mostly South Indian in origin . The iconography is quite similar to that of the Kankala @-@ murti aspect who , like Bhikshatana , is associated with the legend of Shiva 's atonement for severing Brahma 's head . The chief difference is that Bhikshatana is nude and Kankala @-@ murti is clothed .
Though Shiva is often described as a naked ascetic Yogi , iconographically he is rarely portrayed as nude except in his form as Bhikshatana . Often the seductive nature of the naked Bhikshatana is emphasised in his torso and buttocks . Though his manhood is fully visible , Bhikshatana is never displayed as ithyphallic in South Indian iconography . In contrast to textual descriptions , Orissan images of Bhikshatana depict him clothed with tiger skin and other body ornaments , but displaying an erect phallus . He is two @-@ armed , holding the begging bowl kapala in his left hand and the trishula ( trident ) in his right hand .
Bhikshatana is depicted with jatabhadra ( dishevelled matted locks ) or with jatamandala ( matted hair arranged in a circle ) . A serpent may be depicted in his matted hair , which is also adorned by the crescent moon . His forehead bears a tripundara , the Shaiva tilaka composed of three horizontal lines of sacred ash with a red dot in the middle representing the third eye . He wears a patta ( ornamental head band ) — sometimes adorned with a human skull motif — on his forehead . Snake ornaments adorn his body , and bronze images often depict multiple necklaces , a waist @-@ band , armlets , elbow bands , bracelets , anklets , and rings on all his toes and fingers . A snake is also tied around his waist and a white yagnopavita ( sacred thread ) is worn across the chest .
Bhikshatana is often pictured with four arms in South Indian iconography . The front right arm is stretched out downwards and the hand holds a bit of grass or another plant in the kataka gesture , near the mouth of his pet deer or antelope , who leaps playfully by his side . The back right arm is raised and holds a damaru ( drum ) . The front left hand holds a kapala ( skull @-@ cup ) , used as a begging bowl . The back left hand holds a trishula decorated with peacock feathers . The left leg is firmly rooted in the ground while the right one is slightly bent , suggesting walking . He often wears paduka ( wooden sandals ) but sometimes may be barefoot . The sandals are unique and identifying feature of Bhikshatana 's iconography and distinguish him from other forms of Shiva and all other deities , who are always depicted barefoot . Sometimes Bhikshatana 's iconography is amalgamated with that of Bhairava , in which case he displays Bhairava 's attributes in addition to his own .
One feature that does not appear in the canons but is often found in stone sculptures and bronzes is the presence of a small bell tied by a string just below the right knee . The bell is interpreted by the scholar Mahadev Chakravarti to be symbolic of Bhikshatana 's outcast status , as the bell is symbolic of the Pariah " untouchables " of South India , who traditionally had to ring a bell when entering a Brahmin village . In bronzes , the deer and the trishula were generally cast separately and positioned later in the icon , but since many of these separate pieces have been lost over time , bronzes often appear without them .
Bhikshatana is often accompanied by women and bhuta @-@ gana ( goblin attendants of Shiva ) . One of the attendants placed to the left of Bhikshatana should carry a large bowl used for storing the food alms of Shiva . The women , often seven in number , are variously pictured as enamoured of Shiva , eager to embrace him , blessing him , or serving him food in his begging bowl with a ladle . The clothes of some of these women are slipping from their loins , symbolising their lust . The woman giving Bhikshatana alms is also interpreted as Annapurna , the goddess of grain . Various gods , celestial beings , and sages bow to him with folded hands . In some scenes , the sages are depicted as angry and trying to beat Bhikshatana , alluding to the Deodar Forest legend .
= = Development and adoration = =
The theme of Shiva as a beggar is not unique to the Bhikshatana icon and his legends . Shiva is often described as wandering the universe as a homeless beggar @-@ ascetic with his consort Parvati 's raison d 'être being to bring him back to his marital and home life . Shiva is also depicted as asking for alms from the goddess Annapurna , a form of Parvati as the goddess of food . The Satarudriya describes Shiva as gathering food through begging , evocative of his Bhikshatana form . In spite of this he is described as a sustainer of the universe and of life @-@ sustaining food .
Though Shiva is commonly described as a beggar , the specific theme of the expiatory wandering — which is the core of the Bhikshatana tale — originates uniquely from the ascetic traditions of the Kapalika sect and its precessor Pashupata sect . Bhikshatana mirrors the role of Kapali ( skull @-@ bearer ) , the wandering ascetic who defends himself with a trident and magical powers , holds a skull @-@ bowl , and worships Shiva ( the term Kapali also being used to designate a member of the Kapalika sect ) . Scriptures like the Kurma Purana explicitly identify Shiva with a Kapali – " an outsider who scares by his looks , and sometimes charms " – in this form . To atone for the sin of severing the god Brahma 's fifth head , Shiva is said to have separated the body of Bhairava from his own and sent it to wander with the skull of Brahma in his hand , a vow that parallels the Maha @-@ vrata ( " great vow " ) that a Kapali must undertake to dispel the sin of accidentally killing a Brahmin . The expiatory wandering punishment of 12 years is also given to a Bhrunaghna sinner — a learned Brahmin who kills another of great learning and good conduct . The vow is prescribed in the Dharmashastras , a text corpus detailing ethics and conduct . The sinner should live in an isolated place and beg in only seven houses with the skull of the slain . He must use as a staff the bones of the slain and be treated by society as an outcast . Similarly , Bhikshtana is described as using Brahma 's skull as his begging bowl and his bones as a stave . He wandered begging at the seven houses of the Saptarishi – the seven great sages – and lived in cremation grounds outside a town .
Images of Bhikshatana are found throughout Shaiva temples of South India , but are almost unknown in Northern India . Sculpted in stone adorning the temple walls of every other South Indian temple , images of Bhikshatana are also cast in bronze as processional icons . In South Indian temples , Bhikshatana is prescribed to be enshrined as an avarana @-@ devata ( a deity depicted on the circumambulatory path encircling the central shrine ) . Similarly in Orissan temples , Bhikshatana may be worshipped and depicted as parshva @-@ devata ( an attendant deity ) or avarana @-@ devata .
The iconography and mythology of Bhikshatana developed mostly in South India , as did that of another form of Shiva , Nataraja , who is related to Bhikshatana through his legends . However , unlike Nataraja , Bhikshatana is not related to specific temples , but has become " part of the mythological and festival @-@ related traditions of all the major Tamil shrines " . For instance , in Chidambaram ( where a famous Nataraja temple stands ) , Bhikshatana is paraded in a golden chariot during the annual temple festival . In the Mylapore temple festival , the Bhikshatana icon is paraded in the streets along with four dogs signifying the Vedas and gana attendants . Shiva is described as sent by his consort Parvati ( Karpagambal ) to beg as he has lost her ring . Repentant for her harsh treatment of Bhikshatana and jealous of the glances of the women in the streets , who attracted are by his appearance , Parvati 's icon rushes behind Bhikshatana and " dances " to win him back . Shiva relents and they travel together to the temple .
Tamil works transform the terrible Kapali form of Shiva to a more lovable form . South Indian devotional literature portrays Bhikshatana in the Deodar Forest of the sages , but the Tevaram by the Nayanar poet @-@ saints also describes rural women following him and calling out to him . Several poet @-@ saints describe the sensuous nature of Bhikshatana and the love @-@ sick emotions of the women who came to give him alms . However , the references to Shiva seeking alms had reduced to only three or four by the time of Manikkavacakar ( 9th century AD ) . The poems of Campantar , Appar , and Cuntarar focus on two forms of Shiva : Nataraja and Bhikshatana . The 7th @-@ century Nayanar saint Campantar mentions that Bhikshatana wanders from door to door asking for alms with the beggar 's call " Ladies , give me alms " and places his verses on the lips of women , who become enamoured of Bhikshatana . In a verse , Campantar rhetorically asks why the giver of all things and one who ends all troubles of devotees — Shiva — is wandering begging for food with a disgusting white skull . In another verse a woman comments on his strange appearance and describes how she is frightened by the serpent that wraps around his body when she approaches to give him alms . Another 7th @-@ century Nayanar saint , Appar , talks about the handsome beggar Shiva , seducer of married women . He speaks of women allured by Bhikshatana 's speech and his glance . The women tell that the handsome beggar wearing tiger @-@ skin and smeared with ash had come riding a white bull and holding an axe , and used a skull as his begging bowl . Although he begged for alms , he would not accept any from the woman , deeming them " petty " . He did however warn the women of deceptions and cunning . Appar adds a strong erotic element in most of his verses , where the women directly desire physical contact with Bhikshatana . A woman in Appar 's poetry sings :
The 8th @-@ century saint Cuntarar described Bhikshatana as having matted hair and skin smeared with ash , and wearing bark clothes and a tiger skin around his waist . He added that Bhikshatana would roam begging for food by day and dance at night in front of a fire , in company of his wife and several jackals .
In more recent times the poet Papanasam Sivan ( 1890 – 1973 ) composed four songs which describe Bhikshatana . In " Picchaikku Vandiro " , Sivan wonders why Shiva roams as beggar and muses that it may be because Parvati is asking for jewels or his son Ganesha is asking for modak ( sweets ) , or perhaps just to show the world that he looks fabulous , even as a mendicant . The " Saundarya Vellantanil " tells of a love @-@ struck maiden describing Bhikshatana 's beauty from head to toe and her longing for him .
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= Prince Louis of Battenberg =
Admiral of the Fleet Louis Alexander Mountbatten , 1st Marquess of Milford Haven , GCB , GCVO , KCMG , PC ( 24 May 1854 – 11 September 1921 ) , formerly Prince Louis Alexander of Battenberg , was a British naval officer and German prince related to members of the British Royal Family .
Although born in Austria , and brought up in Italy and Germany , he enrolled in the United Kingdom 's Royal Navy at the age of fourteen . Queen Victoria and her son King Edward VII , when Prince of Wales , occasionally intervened in his career : the Queen thought that there was " a belief that the Admiralty are afraid of promoting Officers who are Princes on account of the radical attacks of low papers and scurrilous ones " . However , Louis welcomed battle assignments that provided opportunities for him to acquire the skills of war and to demonstrate to his superiors that he was serious about his naval career . Posts on royal yachts and tours arranged by the Queen and Edward actually impeded his progress , as his promotions were perceived as royal favours rather than deserved .
After a naval career lasting more than forty years , in 1912 he was appointed First Sea Lord , the professional head of the British naval service . With World War I looming , he took steps to ready the British fleet for combat , but his background as a German prince forced his retirement once the war began , when anti @-@ German sentiment was running high . He changed his name and relinquished his German titles , at the behest of King George V , in 1917 .
He married a granddaughter of Queen Victoria , and was the father of Louis Mountbatten , 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma , who also served as First Sea Lord from 1954 to 1959 . Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , consort of Queen Elizabeth II , is his grandson .
= = Early life = =
Louis was born as Ludwig Alexander von Battenberg in Graz , Austria , the eldest son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine by his morganatic marriage to Countess Julia von Hauke . Because of his morganatic parentage , Louis was denied his father 's rank in the Grand Duchy of Hesse ; and , from birth , his style of Illustrious Highness and title of Count of Battenberg instead derived from the rank given to his mother at the time of her marriage . On 26 December 1858 , he automatically became His Serene Highness Prince Louis of Battenberg when his mother was elevated to Princess of Battenberg with the style of Serene Highness , by decree of her husband 's brother , Louis III , Grand Duke of Hesse .
Shortly after Louis 's birth , his father was stationed with the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army of occupation in Northern Italy during the Second Italian War of Independence . Louis 's early years were spent either in the north of Italy or at Prince Alexander 's two houses in Hesse , the castle of Heiligenberg in Jugenheim , and the Alexander Palace in Darmstadt . Because his mother spoke French to him and he had an English governess , he grew up trilingual .
Among the visitors entertained at Heiligenberg were Prince Alexander 's relations , the Russian imperial family , and his cousin , Prince Louis of Hesse . Influenced by his cousin 's wife , Princess Alice , a daughter of Queen Victoria , and by Prince Alfred , another of Queen Victoria 's children , Battenberg joined the Royal Navy on 3 October 1868 at the age of fourteen and thus became a naturalised British subject . He was admitted by the Board of Admiralty without the production of a medical certificate , which was contrary to the usual regulation . He was enlisted as a naval cadet aboard HMS Victory , Nelson 's old flagship , then used as a permanently moored training ship .
In January of the following year , the Prince and Princess of Wales cruised the Mediterranean and Black Seas in the frigate HMS Ariadne ; and the Prince of Wales requested that Louis be appointed to the vessel , before his training was complete . As part of the same tour , Louis accompanied them on a visit to Egypt , where they visited the construction site of the Suez canal . As was traditional , the Khedive bestowed honours on the party , and Louis received the Medjidie ( Fourth Class ) . In April , he received the Osmanie ( Fourth Class ) from the Ottoman Sultan .
= = Early naval career = =
Louis returned to Britain in May 1869 . In June he joined HMS Royal Alfred , the flagship of the North America and West Indies Station , becoming a midshipman in October . From June to September 1870 he took leave in Germany , coinciding with the Franco @-@ Prussian war , but he spent the next three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years in the Americas , where his tour of duty served to make up for the training he had missed while posted with the Prince of Wales on the Ariadne . Returning to Europe in early 1874 , he was posted to the shore establishment HMS Excellent , and passed the sub @-@ lieutenant 's examinations — gaining the best marks ever recorded at seamanship and joint best @-@ ever at gunnery .
In 1875 , again at the invitation of the Prince of Wales , he joined HMS Serapis , which conducted the Prince on an official tour of India , 1875 – 76 . Louis sketched some of the events of the tour and his drawings were published in the Illustrated London News . He was promoted to lieutenant on 15 May 1876 . The Prince asked Louis to stay with him at Marlborough House for the summer of 1876 , but wishing to gain further experience at sea , Louis instead accepted an offer to join Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh , as a lieutenant on board HMS Sultan . In addition to acting as the Duke 's equerry , Louis continued his naval duties . He did not enjoy the position , as the Duke was rather touchy and Louis 's cabin was infested with rats , one of which he caught with his bare hands as it ran across his chest as he lay in bed . The Sultan toured the Mediterranean from July 1876 .
In late February – early March 1878 , Louis was still serving on the Sultan as it lay in the Bosphorus during the Russo @-@ Turkish War . He was criticised for visiting his brother , Prince Alexander , who was serving with the Russian forces , but an investigation cleared both Louis and Alexander , as well as Prince Alfred , of any wrongdoing . For the next two years Louis served on HMS Agincourt and on the Royal Yacht , HMY Osborne , but in October 1879 he refused further service on the Royal Yacht , saying it was damaging his professional career , and requested half @-@ pay until he could be given an active duty . On 17 February 1880 he , his father , and Tsar Alexander II witnessed an explosion at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg , when Stephen Chalturin unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate the Tsar with dynamite beneath the great dining room .
On 24 August 1880 , Louis was posted to HMS Inconstant , the flagship of the Flying Squadron , which included HMS Bacchante on which Princes Albert Victor and George were serving . The ship sailed to South America , South Africa , Australia , Fiji , Japan , China , Hong Kong , Singapore and the Dutch East Indies , before returning to South Africa in April 1882 . Seven months after Louis left Britain on the voyage , actress Lillie Langtry allegedly bore him an illegitimate daughter , Jeanne Marie . Langtry was also a one @-@ time mistress of the Prince of Wales . Jeanne Marie 's parentage was never completely verified , but Louis made a financial settlement nonetheless .
From South Africa the Inconstant sailed to St Helena , and the Cape Verde Islands , where the squadron received orders to proceed to Gibraltar , and from there to Malta and Egypt to take part in the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War . On 11 July 1882 , Alexandria was bombarded and in the next two weeks Louis served in the Flying Squadron delivering shells and ammunition to the battle fleet , and then as a guard to the Khedive at Ras Al Teen Palace . He was decorated with the Egypt War Medal by Queen Victoria personally .
In November 1882 , he left the Inconstant , spent Christmas in Darmstadt , and in March the following year visited his younger brother , Prince Alexander , in Bulgaria . Alexander had been made Sovereign Prince of Bulgaria in 1879 with the approval of Europe 's Great Powers . Louis accompanied his brother on a state visit to Turkey , and then on a tour of Cyprus and the Holy Land with the Turkish navy , during which Louis was appalled at the lack of seamanship — the Turkish captains were unable to navigate and had to hug the coast so as not to get lost ; when they did leave the coast they became so disoriented that they were unable to steer for Jaffa . On its return journey the ship on which they had travelled ran aground .
= = Marriage and family = =
In September 1883 , Queen Victoria appointed him to her yacht , HMY Victoria and Albert . On 30 April 1884 at Darmstadt in the presence of the Queen , Prince Louis married her granddaughter , Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine . His wife was the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria 's second daughter Princess Alice by Louis IV , Grand Duke of Hesse . Through the Hesse family , Prince and Princess Louis of Battenberg were first cousins once removed . They had known each other since childhood , and invariably spoke English to each other . As wedding presents Louis received the British Order of the Bath and the Star and Chain of the Hessian Order of Louis .
Louis and Victoria had four children :
In 1885 , one of Louis 's younger brothers , Prince Henry of Battenberg , married Princess Beatrice , the youngest child of Queen Victoria , and took up residence with the Queen in Britain so that Beatrice could continue to serve as her mother 's companion and personal secretary .
= = Commander = =
On his penultimate day aboard the Queen 's yacht , 30 August 1885 , Louis was promoted to the rank of commander . The next four years were spent in the shore establishments HMS Excellent and HMS Vernon on half @-@ pay , on HMS Cambridge , very briefly at Milford Haven in August 1886 , and on board HMS Dreadnought in the Mediterranean . Irish nationalist MP Willie Redmond and Liberal MP Charles Conybeare both questioned Battenberg 's appointment to Dreadnought in the British House of Commons . Conybeare asked , " What special qualifications have entitled a foreigner to be promoted over the heads of some 30 British officers ? " First Lord of the Admiralty Lord George Hamilton said , " Captain Stephenson , who commands the Dreadnought , applied for Prince Louis of Battenberg to fill the appointment . I may add that another officer who is about to command a large iron @-@ clad in the Mediterranean has made a similar application . " He added that 22 commanders junior to Battenberg held similar appointments , and that Battenberg was a naturalised British subject . Another Liberal MP , Edward Pickersgill , backed up by Conybeare and Irish nationalist Charles Tanner , questioned the propriety of Battenberg 's appointment to the Navy in 1868 , given Battenberg 's failure to get the required medical certificate , and suggested that he only got in the Navy because of royal favour .
On 3 October 1889 , Battenberg was appointed to his first independent command , HMS Scout , a torpedo @-@ cruiser , which saw service in the Red Sea .
= = Captain = =
On 31 December 1891 , Prince Louis was promoted to the rank of captain . At the beginning of the following year , he was appointed naval advisor to the inspector @-@ general of fortifications . His role was to act as a liaison between the navy and the army in order to ensure a co @-@ ordinated defence . Traditionally , there was a great deal of friction between the two services , but Louis exercised his social skills in the role , leading Prince George , Duke of Cambridge , to write to him , " You have produced a mutual feeling of goodwill and unanimity which I have always wished to see established , and which , by your tact and sound judgement , you have brought about to the fullest extent . "
In 1892 , Battenberg invented the Battenberg Course Indicator , a relative velocity analogue computer device used by seamen to determine course and speed to steer for changes of position between ships .
By February 1894 his role was further developed when he was appointed joint secretary of the naval and military committee on defence , which was later renamed the Committee of Imperial Defence . Louis captained HMS Cambrian in the Mediterranean Fleet from October 1894 to May 1897 and HMS Majestic in the Channel Fleet from June 1897 . His careful study of both naval and military defence , as well as its interaction , led to his appointment as Assistant Director of the Naval Intelligence Division in June 1899 . He used his relationships with the royal houses of Europe to gather intelligence on the naval fleets of other nations , which he passed on to the Admiralty in full and detailed reports . He became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Queen in 1897 a post he would retain under both King Edward VII and King George V.
He commissioned the newly built battleship HMS Implacable on 10 September 1901 , and served as its captain for a year in the Mediterranean , during which he spectacularly defeated a larger opposing force in a naval exercise . He was appointed as Director of Naval Intelligence in November 1902 , an apt posting for a man whom First Lord of the Admiralty the Earl of Selborne described as " the cleverest sailor I have met yet " .
= = Admiral = =
He was promoted to rear @-@ admiral on 1 July 1904 , in which year his family connections to the royal courts of Europe helped resolve the Dogger Bank incident peacefully . The following February , he was given command of the Second Cruiser Squadron , with HMS Drake as his flagship . During a successful two years the squadron visited Greece , Portugal , Canada , and the United States , where the American press commented favourably on Prince Louis 's courtesy , unassuming manner and democratic nature . After two years at the head of the Second Cruiser Squadron , and further visits to Spain ( where his niece Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg was Queen ) , he was appointed second @-@ in @-@ command of the Mediterranean Fleet as acting vice @-@ admiral with HMS Venerable as his flagship .
After less than six months in post his flag was transferred to the battleship Prince of Wales in August 1907 . The following year , he was promoted to vice @-@ admiral , and appointed as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Atlantic Fleet . Historian Andrew Lambert described Battenberg as a sea @-@ going admiral as " more cerebral than the average , although somewhat lazy . The [ fleet ] exercises had a greater sense of realism , reflecting the latest thinking on weapons and strategy . " In 1909 , he published a translation of Commander Vladimir Semenoff 's Rasplata ( The Reckoning ) , a memoir of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 5 , and witnessed the first crossing of the English Channel by air by Louis Blériot . He was appointed as commander of the newly constituted Third and Fourth Divisions of the Home Fleet two years later . The years immediately preceding this appointment were marred by disagreements between Admirals Sir John Fisher and Lord Charles Beresford over the direction of the navy and the imposition of reforms . Louis largely supported Fisher 's modernising efforts , although he disapproved of his methods , and as a result Fisher 's opponents attempted to prevent Louis 's promotions . Eventually , both Beresford and Fisher left active service but Fisher 's reforms were retained .
= = Sea Lord = =
Fisher recommended Louis as First Sea Lord : " He is the most capable administrator in the Admiralty 's list by a long way " , but elements of the British press were against his appointment on the grounds that he was a German . Horatio Bottomley said it was " a crime against our Empire to trust our secrets of National Defence to any alien @-@ born official " . In December 1911 , Louis did return to the Admiralty but as Second rather than First Sea Lord . As Second Sea Lord , Louis pushed through improvements in working conditions for the ratings , and created an Admiralty War Staff that would prepare the navy 's plans in case of war . He was promoted to full admiral on 13 July 1912 .
However , almost a year to the day later , on 8 December 1912 , Battenberg assumed the post of First Sea Lord in succession to Admiral Sir Francis Bridgeman . Military historian Hew Strachan contends that Battenberg " lacked Fisher 's dogmatism . Not the least of his attractions to Churchill [ the First Lord ] was his malleability . The combination of frequent change and weak appointees [ Wilson , Bridgeman and Battenberg ] ensured that the professional leadership of the Royal Navy lost its direction in the four years preceding the war . Power now lay with the service 's civilian head ... Winston Churchill " .
As First Sea Lord , Battenberg was responsible to the First Lord for the readiness of the fleet and the preparation of naval strategy , as well as the development of a scheme for state insurance of merchant vessels in times of war , which was to prove essential in preventing prohibitive insurance rates that would have stifled British trade .
On the eve of World War I , Churchill and Battenberg made the crucial decision to cancel the scheduled dispersal of the British fleet following practice manoeuvres , to preserve the Royal Navy 's battle readiness . In the view of Andrew Lambert , " While Churchill planned to recall Fisher if war broke out , he missed the chance to prevent war that might have been provided by drafting him earlier . No Cabinet advised by Fisher would have made such a blundering , incompetent , disastrous response to the July [ 1914 ] Crisis . The British trumpet gave a very uncertain note in July [ 1914 ] , allowing the Germans to delude themselves that Britain might be neutral ... the contrast in habits between the energy and enthusiasm of the young First Lord and the lackadaisical habits of the First Sea Lord Prince Louis of Battenberg made Fisher 's recall all but inevitable . "
Upon the outbreak of war , gout began to cause Battenberg considerable pain , and the naval staff he had set up did not function as well as it ought to have done . Anti @-@ German sentiment rose among the British public , in newspapers , and in elite gentlemen 's clubs , where resentment was inflamed by Admiral Lord Charles Beresford despite Churchill 's remonstrances . Driven by public opinion , Churchill asked Prince Louis to resign as First Sea Lord on 27 October 1914 . When acceptance of Battenberg 's resignation was delayed by the King 's opposition to the appointment of Fisher in his place , Louis wrote to Churchill , " I beg of you to release me . I am on the verge of breaking down & I cannot use my brain for anything " . On 13 November he wrote to Churchill 's Naval Secretary , Rear @-@ Admiral Horace Hood , " It was an awful wrench , but I had no choice from the moment it was made clear to me that the Government did not feel themselves strong enough to support me by some public pronouncement . "
His resignation was announced amid an outpouring of appreciation from politicians and naval comrades . Battenberg had written to Churchill on 28 October , " What I shd value above all else is to be admitted to the Privy Council . " The King later swore Louis in as a Privy Councillor in a public show of support . Labour party politician and trade union leader J. H. Thomas wrote to The Times : " I desire to express my extreme regret at the announcement that Prince Louis of Battenberg has , by his resignation , pandered to the most mean and contemptible slander I have ever known ... I was simply astounded to hear the base suggestions and rumours current , and I am afraid that his action will simply be looked upon as a triumph for the mean and miserable section of people , who , at a time of national trial , is ever ready to pass a foul lie from lip to lip without a tittle of evidence . " Admiral of the Fleet Lord John Hay thought that the " ingeniously propagated lies " originated from Germany .
Prince Louis held no official post for the remainder of the war and lived in retirement at Kent House on the Isle of Wight . He occupied his time in writing a comprehensive encyclopaedia on naval medals published in three large volumes , which became the standard reference work on the subject . His naval career had been characterised by industry , invention and intellect ; he introduced mechanical calculators to compute navigations and a cone signalling apparatus . Although assured that he would be returned to command post @-@ war , on 9 December 1918 the First Sea Lord , Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss , wrote to Prince Louis informing him that he would not be employed again and suggested that he might retire in order to facilitate the promotion of younger officers . Prince Louis agreed , and he officially retired on 1 January 1919 " at [ his ] own request " , shortly before reaching the mandatory retirement age of 65 .
= = Adoption of the surname Mountbatten = =
During the war , persistent rumours that the British Royal Family must be pro @-@ German , given their dynastic origins and many German relatives , prompted the King to abandon his subsidiary German dynastic titles and adopt an English surname . At the behest of the King , Louis relinquished the title Prince of Battenberg in the Grand Duchy of Hesse , along with the style of Serene Highness , on 14 July 1917 . At the same time , Louis anglicised his family name , changing it from " Battenberg " to " Mountbatten " , having considered but rejected " Battenhill " as an alternative . On 7 November , the King created him Marquess of Milford Haven , Earl of Medina , and Viscount Alderney in the peerage of the United Kingdom . The King 's British relatives in the Teck , Schleswig @-@ Holstein and Gleichen families underwent similar changes . Louis 's wife ceased to use her own title of Princess of Hesse and became known as the Marchioness of Milford Haven . His three younger children ceased to use their princely titles and assumed courtesy titles as children of a British marquess ; his eldest daughter , Princess Alice , had married into the Greek Royal Family in 1903 , and never had occasion to use the surname Mountbatten . However , her only son , Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark , adopted the name when he became a British subject in 1947 .
While the transition in names and titles was being effected , Louis spent some time at the home of his eldest son , George . After anglicising his surname to Mountbatten and becoming Marquess of Milford Haven , Louis wrote in his son 's guestbook , " Arrived Prince Hyde , Departed Lord Jekyll " .
= = Final years and death = =
During the war , two of Lord Milford Haven 's sisters @-@ in @-@ law ( Alexandra of Hesse and Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna ) were killed by the Bolsheviks in Russia . Eventually , in January 1921 , after a long and convoluted journey , the body of Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna was interred in Jerusalem in the presence of Milford Haven and his wife .
In 1919 , the Milford Havens had to give up their home , Kent House , for financial reasons . He sold his collection of naval medals . All of his financial investments in Russia were seized by the Bolsheviks and his German property became valueless with the collapse of the mark . He sold Heiligenberg Castle , which he had inherited from his father , in 1920 .
Milford Haven was appointed Military Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath ( GCB ) , to add to the Civil one he already held , in recognition of his service to the Royal Navy in the 1921 New Year Honours , and was specially promoted by Order in Council to the rank of Admiral of the Fleet on the Retired List , dated 19 August . A few days later he joined HMS Repulse , the ship on which his son Louis was serving , for a week at the invitation of the captain Dudley Pound . It was his last voyage ; he died at 42 Half Moon Street , Piccadilly , London in the annexe of the Naval and Military Club on 11 September 1921 of heart failure following influenza . After a funeral service at Westminster Abbey , his remains were buried at St. Mildred 's Church , Whippingham , on the Isle of Wight .
The marquess 's elder son , George Mountbatten , who had received the courtesy title Earl of Medina , succeeded him as 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven . Louis 's younger son , styled Lord Louis Mountbatten after 1917 , served in the Royal Navy , became First Sea Lord like his father , was the last Viceroy of India , and was created Earl Mountbatten of Burma in 1947 .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
24 May 1854 – 26 December 1858 : His Illustrious Highness Count Louis of Battenberg
26 December 1858 – 14 July 1917 : His Serene Highness Prince Louis of Battenberg
14 July – 7 November 1917 : The Right Honourable Sir Louis Mountbatten
7 November 1917 – 11 September 1921 : The Most Honourable The Marquess of Milford Haven
= = = Honours = = =
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath ( 1887 ( civil ) and 1921 ( military ) )
Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( 1884 ( civil ) and 1909 ( military ) )
Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order ( 1901 )
Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( 1905 )
Privy Councillor ( 1914 )
Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph ( 1877 , Austria )
Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III ( 1906 , Spain )
Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold ( 1908 , Austria )
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour ( France )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle ( Prussia )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword ( Portugal )
Grand Cross of the Order of Christ ( Portugal )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer ( Greece )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Württemberg Crown ( Württemberg )
Grand Cross of the Saxe @-@ Ernestine House Order ( Ernestine duchies )
Knight of the Order of St. Andrew ( Russia )
Knight of the Order of St. Anna ( Russia )
Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky ( Russia )
Knight of the Order of the White Eagle ( Russia )
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia ( 1917 , Japan )
= = = Arms = = =
= = Ancestry = =
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= Ho Yuen Hoe =
Ho Yuen Hoe ( simplified Chinese : 何润好 ; traditional Chinese : 何潤好 ; pinyin : Hé Rùnhǎo ; 18 February 1908 – 11 January 2006 ) , later in life but rarely known by her Dharma name , Venerable Jing Run ( simplified Chinese : 净润法师 ; traditional Chinese : 淨潤法師 ; pinyin : Jìngrùn Fǎshī ) , was a Buddhist nun affectionately known as Singapore 's " grand dame of charity " in recognition of her lifelong devotion in helping the old and needy . She was the abbess of Lin Chee Cheng Sia Temple and the founder in 1969 of the Man Fut Tong Nursing Home , the first Buddhist nursing home . Venerable Ho was relatively unknown to the public until 1996 , when she was featured in a television programme – The Extraordinary People – at the age of 88 . As a result , the public came to know more about her work and her nursing home . In 2001 , she received the Public Service Award from the President of Singapore in recognition of her contribution to the country . Until her hospitalisation in November 2005 she was actively involved in charity work . Venerable Ho died on 11 January 2006 , a month before what would have been her 98th birthday .
= = Early life = =
Ho Yuen Hoe was born on 18 February 1908 , to a family of silk weavers in Guangzhou , China , the second of three children . Her family was poor , and she was sold when she was five years old . Barely two years later , the spinster who had purchased her died , and Ho was sold by the woman 's nephew , to become a maid . After a few years she was sold again . In her late teens , a group of snakeheads persuaded her and several other girls to emigrate to Singapore , ostensibly to work on a rubber plantation , but the job did not materialise . At the age of 21 , alone and penniless , she married the owner of a grocery business . When the business failed , they left for Hong Kong , hoping for better fortune . Ho became a hairdresser in nearby Macau , but after discovering that her husband had another wife and children she decided to return to Singapore alone , vowing never to remarry . At about that same time , she became a vegetarian .
In 1936 , with the help of a friend , the then 28 @-@ year @-@ old Ho set up shop in Chinatown with only a comb , a stool , and a kerosene lamp . She worked from 8 am to 3 am , charging five cents to comb hair or weave plaits and buns for amahs and Samsui women . She did that every day for almost three decades , interrupted only by periods when she was incapacitated by acute attacks of arthritis . She scrimped and saved , and by the time she was in her 40s , she had enough to buy a shophouse in Club Street . Although illiterate , she made some property investments and eventually became a landlord , renting out rooms . As her wealth grew , she acquired more properties , and she began to adopt children from poor families , becoming a single mother of six daughters and twenty @-@ five godchildren .
= = Charity work = =
A devout Buddhist from youth , once her children had grown up Ho decided to serve the Buddhist cause , and to dedicate the rest of her life to caring for others . In 1958 , she became a Buddhist nun at the age of 50 . In 1969 , aged 61 , Ho bought a two @-@ storey detached house in Richards Avenue with her savings , and turned it into the Man Fut Tong Old Peoples ' Home for aged sick and single elderly women . Most of the 20 or so residents had neither enough earnings to support themselves nor any relatives to turn to . To raise additional funds for the home , she cultivated and sold prize @-@ winning white orchids at Tanglin , and vegetarian food at Kong Meng San Temple in Bishan . She cleaned , cooked , took her charges to the doctors , helped them to collect their social benefits and even sometimes saw to their last rites .
Venerable Ho 's work was unknown to the public until 1996 , when she was featured in a television programme – The Extraordinary People – at the age of 88 . As a result , the public came to know more about her and her nursing home . When asked why she had set up an old folks ' home , Venerable Ho replied :
I used to feed the old folks at some of the homes , and it would sadden me to see them so yellow and sallow . One of them told me , they would go in ' vertical ' and probably exit ' horizontal ' . I might be illiterate but I wanted to give back to society . I didn 't want to sit around and wait to die .
Inspired by Venerable Ho 's devotion and compassion , volunteers and donations began to stream in , allowing the home to provide better medical care and facilities for its residents . Spurred on by the desire to do even more , she approached the government for a piece of land to expand her old folks ' home . The Ministry of Health gave her a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 1 @.@ 2 @-@ acre ) plot in Woodlands , on which she oversaw the building of a new home . To help in raising funds for its construction , she published a recipe book called Top 100 Vegetarian Delights in 1998 , which brought in more than S $ 100 @,@ 000 ( U $ 66 @,@ 667 ) . In August 2001 , the new four @-@ storey building was opened at Woodlands Street 82 . It houses nearly 235 sick and elderly and provides residential , rehabilitation , and day @-@ care services . The home is open to all regardless of age , gender , race or religion . It regularly organises in @-@ house activities such as cooking , hand @-@ craft , karaoke , and games , as well as visits to places of interest and participation in various community events . The original home is now a Buddhist temple , the Lin Chee Cheng Sia Temple .
Despite her advancing age , Venerable Ho continued to raise funds to provide better medical care , and she set up committees to help organise Dharma classes for children and secure donations for various Buddhist causes . During an interview given to The Straits Times in 2004 , she said : " Everything in life is transient . Only charity is real and enduring . When you give , you receive . Charity is the best antidote for bad karma . "
She was not only successful in raising funds , but she also secured donations in kind and services . A Hindu charity , Shree Gniananda Seva Samajam donated S $ 75 @,@ 000 to the Man Fut Tong Nursing Home in 2004 , which was raised through ticket sales for a charity draw . On 11 February 2004 , President S R Nathan , attended her birthday @-@ cum @-@ charity dinner and gave a speech in tribute of her contributions to the country :
This Man Fut Tong Nursing Home Charity Dinner event marks the 96th Lunar Birthday of Ven . Ho Yuen Hoe . More importantly , it reflects what Ven . Ho has done over many years to look after the needy sick and distressed elderly , irrespective of their race , language or religion . As we look back at what Ven . Ho has done for her cause over the years , she well deserves to be recognized as a formidable role model for both young and old Singaporeans ... My wife and I wish Ven . Ho a Very Happy Birthday – good health and happiness , and thank her for her valuable contributions to the community . We also wish the Man Fut Tong Nursing Home every success in serving the sick and needy elderly in Singapore .
= = Death = =
On 11 January 2006 , Venerable Ho died peacefully in her sleep at the Man Fut Tong Nursing Home , at about 9 : 30 pm , just one month before turning 98 . Until being hospitalised in November 2005 , she had cooked for and looked after herself and played an active role in running both the temple and the nursing home . During her hospital stay , she suffered a stroke , which affected her speech and paralysed the left side of her body . Discharged in December 2005 , she was recuperating well at the nursing home until she developed a chest infection and breathing difficulties a few days before she died .
After her death , President S R Nathan sent a wreath of roses , chrysanthemums and orchids . Several government ministers attended her wake , including Senior Minister of State for Health Balaji Sadasivan , Minister of State for Community Development , Youth and Sports Yu @-@ Foo Yee Shoon , Minister of State for Education and Trade and Industry Chan Soo Sen , and Northwest Community Development Council mayor Teo Ho Pin . Temple officials said she left instructions for S $ 100 @,@ 000 to be distributed equally to 10 charities . She had purchased a simple coffin 10 years before her death , and she had also set aside S $ 10 @,@ 000 to pay for her funeral .
On 22 January 2006 , 20 chartered buses took more than 1 @,@ 000 mourners – devotees , her godchildren , scores of wheelchair @-@ bound residents , representatives from various Buddhist temples , and well @-@ wishers – to Tse Tho Aum Buddhist Temple in Sin Ming Drive for the final prayers and cremation . The abbess ' ashes were kept for 100 days at her temple , before making their way to her final resting place in Zhejiang province in China , where her niece lives . As a follow @-@ up to her funeral , her remains and personal items were put on one @-@ day public display at her temple on 26 February 2006 . The relics ( Sariras ) displayed were crystalline or pearl @-@ like deposits found in Venerable Ho 's ashes . Buddhists believe these are usually found in cremated Buddhist masters , are holy , and treat them with reverence .
Since Venerable Ho 's death , her work at the temple and nursing home has been administered by Reverend Seck Cheng Charn and Reverend Tang Wai Sum respectively .
= = Commemoration = =
A pictorial book chronicling Venerable Ho 's life , written in both English and Mandarin was launched at the Remembering Venerable Ho Charity Lunch held at the Meritus Mandarin Hotel on 28 January 2007 . Called A Life For Others , the 138 @-@ page book was written by Dr Uma Rajan , the home 's executive director . Five hundred hardcover copies of the book have been printed to raise funds for the Home , which costs S $ 4 @.@ 5 million a year to run .
A bronze sculpture by sculptor Chern Lian Shan , and a portrait of Venerable Ho by artist Marcus Lim were also unveiled at the event , by His Excellency , President S. R. Nathan . Both the sculpture and the painting are now on display at the Woodlands home . A new hybrid orchid , created from the orchids Dendrobium ' Ekapol ' and Dendrobium ' Lim Hepa ' , was also officially named ' Venerable Ho Yuen Hoe ' and presented by Mrs. S. R. Nathan .
In 2001 , Venerable Ho received the Public Service Medal from President S. R. Nathan at the Istana .
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= Sacrifice ( 2008 ) =
Sacrifice ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on May 11 , 2008 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the fourth event in the Sacrifice chronology and fifth event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule . Ten professional wrestling matches , two for championships , were featured on the card .
The main event was a Three Way match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion Samoa Joe and challengers Kaz and Scott Steiner . The match was initially promoted as Joe 's defense of his title against Kurt Angle and Steiner . However , Angle sustained an injury before the match that removed him from the bout ; he was replaced with Kaz . Joe won the match , retaining the championship . The Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship was also held at Sacrifice . The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) defeated Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) in the Finals to win the tournament and the championship . TNA featured two matches on the undercard : the TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal for a future TNA Women 's Knockout Championship match , and the debut of the TNA TerrorDome to determine who would compete in a future TNA X Division Championship match and take Angle 's place in the main event . Gail Kim won the TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal and Kaz won the latter .
Sacrifice is noted for the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament and the debut of the TerrorDome , later renamed the Steel Asylum at TNA 's Bound for Glory IV PPV event on October 12 , 2008 . The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported 25 @,@ 000 people purchased the PPV and 900 people attended . Chris Sokol of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated Sacrifice a seven out of ten , the same ranking he gave the 2007 event .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
In January 2008 , TNA announced that the fourth installment in the Sacrifice chronology would take place on May 11 . Two months later , Sacrifice was scheduled for the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . TNA created a section covering the event on their website and released a promotional poster featuring TNA wrestlers Christian Cage , Kurt Angle , Samoa Joe , and Sting , and the tagline " Are You Willing To Give Up What Means The Most ? " On the May 1 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , TNA announced it would introduce a new match type at Sacrifice , the TerrorDome .
= = = Storylines = = =
Sacrifice featured ten professional wrestling matches that involved wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines portraying villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters ; these scripted events built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Sacrifice was a Three Way match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion Samoa Joe and challengers Kurt Angle and Scott Steiner . At TNA 's previous PPV event Lockdown on April 13 , Joe defeated Angle in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . Prior to Lockdown on the April 3 episode of Impact ! , Steiner announced that he would use his Feast or Fired TNA World Heavyweight Title shot at Sacrifice . Staying true to his word , on the April 17 episode of Impact ! , Steiner challenged Joe to a title defense at Sacrifice . Angle and Joe fought in a rematch for the title on the April 24 episode of Impact ! ; Joe won after Steiner interfered . In response to Steiner 's interference , Management Director Jim Cornette scheduled a Three Way match between Angle , Joe , and Steiner for the title at Sacrifice .
On the April 17 episode of Impact ! , A.J. Styles and Tomko defended the TNA World Tag Team Championship in a Three Way match against the teams of Kaz and Eric Young and The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ; LAX ) . During the match , Young switched to his " Super Eric " superhero character and pinned Styles to win the championship for his team . Styles and Tomko were then scripted to argue that Young and Super Eric were different people . In the storyline , Super Eric and Young refused to admit they were the same person , causing Cornette to strip Kaz and Young of the championship . On the April 24 episode of Impact ! , Cornette set up the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament to crown new TNA World Tag Team Champions . The tournament consisted of eight established teams competing in four matches to qualify for the tournament . The four winning teams would then compete in a single @-@ elimination tournament against eight wrestlers chosen by Cornette to be assigned as teams at Sacrifice . The first two teams to qualify were Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) and the pairing of Christian Cage and Rhino on the April 24 episode of Impact ! . LAX and the team of Styles and Super Eric were the last , qualifying on the May 1 episode of Impact ! . Cornette also announced the eight wrestlers — known as the Egotistical Eight — who would be involved at Sacrifice on the May 1 episode of Impact ! : Awesome Kong , B.G. James , Booker T , Kip James , Matt Morgan , James Storm , Robert Roode , and Sting . Two teams were announced on the May 8 episode of Impact ! : Sting teamed with Storm and Kip aligned with Morgan .
The TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal and the debut of the X Division TerrorDome were promoted as featured matches for the Sacrifice undercard . The TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal was announced by Cornette on the April 24 episode of Impact ! . The rules of the contest involved two stages : a standard battle royal in which competitors fought to eliminate wrestlers by throwing them over the top rope and a ladder match in which the final two wrestles fought to retrieve a contract that had been hung above the ring . An added stipulation to the bout was that the loser 's head would be shaved and the winner would earn a TNA Women 's Knockout Championship match . On the May 8 episode of Impact ! , Gail Kim won a Ten @-@ Woman Clippers on a Pole match that granted her immunity from having her head shaven if she lost at the event . During the April 24 episode of Impact ! , TNA announced plans to introduce a new match type in the near future . The TerrorDome was announced on the May 1 episode of Impact ! , and the participants were announced on the May 8 episode . The participants were Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Consequences Creed , Curry Man , Jay Lethal , Jimmy Rave , Johnny Devine , Kaz , Shark Boy , and Sonjay Dutt .
= = Event = =
At the start of the program , Kurt Angle announced he received a legitimate neck injury wrestling overseas a few days prior to the show . He consequently removed himself from the main event at the order of his doctor .
= = = Other featured employees and attendees = = =
Sacrifice featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the primary commentators for the telecast ; Frank Trigg provided guest commentary for the main event . Jeremy Borash ( for the main event ) and David Penzer served as ring announcers . Andrew Thomas , Earl Hebner , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees . Lauren Thompson and Borash conducted interviews during the show . In addition , Angle , Trigg , Kevin Nash , Rick Steiner , Jim Cornette , Petey Williams , Hector Guerrero , Raisha Saeed , and members of Samoa Joe 's family appeared on camera in backstage or ringside segments . Joe 's family performed a traditional Samoan fire dance during his ring entrance . Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins was also in attendance .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first of four quarterfinal matches in the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament opened Sacrifice . It pitted James Storm , accompanied by Jackie Moore and Sting , against Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . The match lasted eight minutes and fifty seconds . Near the end , Team 3D set up a table in the middle of the ring . Sting then turned on Storm and lifted him off the turnbuckle and slammed him through the table . Devon covered Storm for the win , thereby advancing himself and Brother Ray in the tournament .
The second quarterfinal match , Christian Cage and Rhino against Booker T and Robert Roode , lasted seven minutes and five seconds . Rhino won the match for his team by tackling Roode . Afterwards , Booker T attacked Cage and Rhino with a steel chair .
In the third quarterfinal match , Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ; LAX ) , accompanied by Hector Guerrero , fought the team of Kip James and Matt Morgan . The match ended after four minutes and twenty seconds when Morgan missed a bicycle kick on Hernandez , mistakenly hitting Kip in the face . Hernandez then performed a dropkick on Morgan and followed with the cover on Kip for the win .
The last quarterfinal match featured A.J. Styles and Super Eric against Awesome Kong and B.G. James . Super Eric picked up Kong and slammed her into B.G. , who was laying on the ring mat . Later , Styles attempted to perform a move by jumping off the ropes , but legitimately tripped , falling face @-@ first on the mat . Then B.G. lifted Styles to perform a suplex , which Styles countered into a small package pin attempt , resulting in a victory at five minutes and forty five seconds .
The fifth match was the debut of the TerrorDome and involved Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Consequences Creed , Curry Man , Jay Lethal , Jimmy Rave , Johnny Devine , Kaz , Shark Boy , and Sonjay Dutt . Before the match , Management Director Jim Cornette announced that the winner would take Kurt Angle 's place in the main event , in addition to being the TNA X Division Championship number one contender . In this match , the ring was surrounded by a giant red steel barred cage with a domed roof . The wrestlers were to compete as they climbed up the side to a hole in the center of the ceiling ; the first to escape the cage would win . While Devine was attempting to escape , Kaz intervened and caused Devine to fall from the ceiling into a group of wrestlers huddled in the center of the ring . Kaz then climbed out of the hole to win the contest at ten minutes and forty five seconds .
The semifinals of the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament followed , beginning with Team 3D pitted against Cage and Rhino in the sixth encounter . The bout lasted ten minutes . Before the contest , the TNA commentators announced that Booker T 's attack on Cage and Rhino had caused them to have concussions in the storyline . During the contest , Team 3D associate Johnny Devine came to the ring and handed Ray a kendo stick without the referee 's knowledge . Although Rhino tackled Devon and went for the cover , Devine entered the ring to distract the referee , allowing Ray to hit Rhino with the kendo stick and cover to win the contest for his team .
The last semifinal match between LAX , accompanied by Guerrero and Salinas , and Styles and Super Eric . During the bout , Hernandez lifted Super Eric and held him upside @-@ down vertically for an extended period of time before slamming him back @-@ first into the mat with a delayed vertical suplex . Later , Styles held Homicide in a small package pin attempt until Salinas distracted the referee , allowing Guerrero to enter the ring and readjust Styles and Homicide to make the pin in LAX 's favor . Afterwards , the referee counted the pin , giving LAX the win at seven minutes and forty seconds , although Styles ' shoulders were clearly not fully against the mat .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The first main event match was the TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal , the winner of which would become the number one contender to the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship . It involved Angelina Love , Christy Hemme , Gail Kim , Jackie Moore , ODB , Salinas , Rhaka Khan , Roxxi Laveaux , Traci Brooks , and Velvet Sky . This contest involved two stages ; the first was a standard battle royal . After all but two wrestlers were eliminated , stage two , a ladder match , began . The winner of the ladder match would become the number one contender to the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship ; the loser would have her head shaved . The final four were Kim , Laveaux , Love , and ODB . The next eliminated was ODB , followed by Love ; both were eliminated by Laveaux . Only Kim and Laveaux remained for the ladder match portion . Kim had won immunity on the May 8 episode of Impact ! , so if Laveaux won the match , then Love 's head would be shaven . Love and Sky interfered in the contest several times . During the bout , as Kim and Laveaux stood on the ladder , Kim flipped over Laveaux , grabbed her around the legs , and slammed her into the mat back @-@ first with a powerbomb . Laveaux 's head was legitimately cut open during this stage . Later , while Laxeaux climbed the ladder in an attempt to retrieve the contract , Love interfered by pushing the ladder over . Kim followed by climbing the ladder and grabbing the contract to win the encounter at ten minutes . Afterwards , Laveaux was forced to have her head shaven .
Next was the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament finals for the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship between LAX , accompanied by Guerrero and Salinas , and Team 3D . The duration was eleven minutes and thirty seconds . Devine tried to interfere in the contest by setting up a table for Team 3D , but Guerrero stopped him and set up the table for himself outside the ring , placing Devine on top . Guerrero then climbed a padded turnbuckle and jumped onto Devine with a diving foot stomp , forcing him through the table . In the ring , Team 3D performed one of their signature tag team maneuvers , the 3D II , forcing Homicide into the mat and following with a cover , but the referee refused to count because Homicide was not the legal man in the contest . Hernandez then performed his signature Border Toss maneuver on Devon , slamming him into the mat from the top of a turnbuckle . Homicide followed with a splash from the top of a padded turnbuckle on Devon for the pinfall victory , winning the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament and the vacant TNA World Tag Team Championship .
The main event was a Three Way match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between then @-@ champion Samoa Joe and challengers Kaz and Scott Steiner — Steiner was accompanied by Petey Williams and Rhaka Khan . At the beginning of the bout , Joe placed Kaz and Steiner in various holds and submission maneuvers . Steiner countered this by placing Joe in his signature Steiner Recliner submission maneuver , which Joe escaped by lifting him in the air on his shoulders . Kaz then jumped off of a turnbuckle and dropkicked Steiner . Later , Joe dove through the second rope onto Steiner . However , Steiner countered by hitting Joe in the head with a steel pipe while the referee was distracted by Khan . Near the end of the match , Kaz tried to perform his signature Flux Capacitor maneuver on Steiner from a turnbuckle , but Steiner countered by pushing him off to the ringside area . Joe then kicked Steiner in the head and then performed his signature Muscle Buster maneuver , driving Steiner neck- and back @-@ first into the mat , at fourteen minutes and thirty seconds to win the contest and retain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Reception = =
The event was attended by 900 people and , according to the The Wrestling Observer Newsletter , 25 @,@ 000 people purchased the show on pay @-@ per @-@ view . Chris Sokol of the Canadian Online Explorer rated Sacrifice a seven out of ten ; the same rating he gave to the 2007 Sacrifice event and higher than TNA 's previous event , Lockdown , which he gave a six and a half out of ten . TNA 's next PPV event , Slammiversary on June 8 , received the same rating by Jon Waldman . Sokol felt that Sacrifice was a " decent PPV " , and " interesting " overall and rated main event a seven and a half out of ten ; he described it as a " solid match , with good wrestling " . He rated the TerrorDome the highest , an eight out of ten , and the TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal and The Latin American Xchange versus Kip James and Matt Morgan bout the lowest , a six out of ten . He rated the Finals of the Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament a seven and a half out of ten , and said that it was " another solid match between these two teams " . Sacrifice received a higher rating than rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's Judgment Day PPV event , held on May 19 , which Bob Kapur gave a six out of ten .
James Caldwell of the Pro Wrestling Torch gave the main event two and three @-@ quarter stars out of five and the Tournament Final received two and a half stars out of five . He stated that the main event had " its moments " but " wasn 't memorable " . However , he described the Tournament Final as a " great story " . Bryan Alvarez of Figure Four Weekly commented that the main event was a " good match " and the Tournament Final was a " pretty good match " . Phil Allely , a journalist for The Sun , argued that the absence of Kurt Angle " actually helped TNA as it added some realism to the night , giving an ultra talented mid @-@ carder a rare chance to shine in the main event " but felt that the show was " marred by TNA ’ s reliance on run @-@ ins and interference " .
Sacrifice was released on DVD on July 15 , 2008 by TNA Home Video .
= = Aftermath = =
The decision to remove Kurt Angle from the Sacrifice main event was not made until the day of the show . Angle was expected to be sidelined for at least one month , putting TNA 's original plan , a match between him and A. J. Styles at Slammiversary , in jeopardy . Scott Steiner received an unspecified injury at Sacrifice .
Following Sacrifice , Samoa Joe defended the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against four other competitors in a King of the Mountain match at Slammiversary . The match was announced on the May 15 episode of Impact ! by Joe . Booker T , Christian Cage , James Storm , Matt Morgan , Rhino , Robert Roode , Styles , and Tomko competed in qualification matches for the contest on the May 22 and May 29 Impact ! episodes ; Booker T , Cage , Rhino , and Roode qualified . Kevin Nash was named Special Guest Ringside Enforcer on the May 29 episode of Impact ! . Joe retained the championship at Slammiversary .
The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) began a rivalry after Sacrifice over the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On the May 15 episode of Impact ! , Team 3D attacked LAX 's manager Hector Guerrero . Management Director Jim Cornette announced a rematch for the title at Slammiversary between the two teams on the May 29 episode of Impact ! . LAX were the victors in the contest at Slammiversary , retaining the championship .
On the May 22 episode of Impact ! , Styles fought Booker T in a King of the Mountain qualifier . After the bout , Booker T , Team 3D , and Tomko assaulted Styles until Angle came to his defense . However , Angle soon turned on Styles , striking him with a steel chair and continuing the assault with Booker T , Team 3D , and Tomko . This set up a match between Styles and Angle at Slammiversary , announced by Cornette on the May 29 episode of Impact ! . Styles defeated Angle at Slammiversary .
After Sacrifice , Roxxi Laveaux shortened her name to Roxxi . Gail Kim was given a TNA Women 's Knockout Championship match against then @-@ champion Awesome Kong on the May 15 episode of Impact ! . Kim lost the bout after interference from Angelina Love . The team of Kim , ODB , and Roxxi defeated The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ) and Moose in a Six Woman Tag Team match at Slammiversary .
The new number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship , Kaz , was given a title match against then @-@ champion Petey Williams at Slammiversary . Kaz , however , lost the encounter . TNA later renamed the TerrorDome to the " Steel Asylum " when it was used on October 12 , 2008 at their Bound for Glory IV PPV event .
= = Results = =
TNA Knockouts Makeover Battle Royal
Deuces Wild Tag Team Tournament bracket
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= Disneyland with the Death Penalty =
" Disneyland with the Death Penalty " is a 4 @,@ 500 @-@ word article about Singapore written by William Gibson . His first major piece of non @-@ fiction , it was first published as the cover story for Wired magazine 's September / October 1993 issue ( 1 @.@ 4 ) .
The article follows Gibson 's observations of the architecture , phenomenology and culture of Singapore , and the clean , bland and conformist impression the city @-@ state conveys during his stay . Its title and central metaphor — Singapore as Disneyland with the death penalty — is a reference to the authoritarian artifice the author perceives the city @-@ state to be . Singapore , Gibson details , is lacking any sense of creativity or authenticity , absent of any indication of its history or underground culture . He finds the government to be pervasive , corporatist and technocratic , and the judicial system rigid and draconian . Singaporeans are characterized as consumerists of insipid taste . The article is accentuated by local news reports of criminal trials by which the author illustrates his observations , and bracketed by contrasting descriptions of the Southeast Asian airports he arrives and leaves by .
Though Gibson 's first major piece of non @-@ fiction , the article had an immediate and lasting impact . The Singaporean government banned Wired upon the publication of the issue , and the phrase " Disneyland with the death penalty " became a byword for bland authoritarianism that the city @-@ state could not easily discard .
= = Synopsis = =
The title " Disneyland with the Death Penalty " refers to the subject of the article , the Southeast Asian city @-@ state of Singapore , whose strictly @-@ guarded sterility Gibson describes with horror . After opening the article with the Disneyland metaphor , Gibson cites an observation attributed to Laurie Anderson that virtual reality " would never look real until they learned how to put some dirt in it " in relation to the immaculate state of the Changi Airtropolis , Singapore 's international airport . Beyond the airport , he notes that the natural environment has been cultivated into " all @-@ too @-@ perfect examples of itself , " such as with the abundance of golf courses . Singaporean society is a " relentlessly G @-@ rated experience , " controlled by a government akin to a megacorporation , fixated on conformity and behavioural constraint and with a marked lack of humour and creativity .
Gibson finds it painful to try to connect with the Victorian Singapore , of which few vestiges remained . In an attempt to uncover Singapore 's underlying social mechanisms , the author searches fruitlessly for an urban underbelly , rising at dawn for jetlagged walks on several mornings only to discover that the city @-@ state 's " physical past … has almost entirely vanished " . He gives an overview of the history of Singapore from the founding of modern Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819 to the Japanese occupation and the establishment of the Republic in 1965 . He concludes that modern Singapore , effectively a one @-@ party state and capitalist technocracy , is a product first and foremost of the vision of three @-@ decade Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew . As an aside , he quotes a headline from the South China Morning Post detailing the trial of a cadre of economists , a government official ( current Deputy Prime Minister , Tharman ) and a newspaper editor for divulging a state secret by revealing the Singaporean economic growth rate .
Gibson deplores the absence of an authentic metropolitan feeling , something which he blames for the " telling lack of creativity " . He gives a psychogeographic account of the architecture of the city @-@ state , noting the endless parade of young , attractive and generically attired middle class through the host of shopping centers , and comparing the city @-@ state to the convention district of Atlanta , Georgia . He finds the selection in music stores and bookshops unrelentingly bland , musing whether this is partially attributable to the efforts of the Undesirable Propagation Unit ( UPU ) , one of several state censorship agencies . Amidst the near total absence of bohemianism and counterculture , Gibson finds no trace of dissidence , an underground , or slums . In the place of a sex trade , the author finds government @-@ sanctioned " health centers " – in fact massage parlours – and mandatory dating organized and enforced by government agencies . " [ T ] here is remarkably little " , he writes of the city @-@ state " that is not the result of deliberate and no doubt carefully deliberated social policy . "
The creative deficit of the city @-@ state is evident to the author also in the Singaporeans ' obsession with consumerism as a pastime , the homogeneity of the retailers and their fare , and in what he characterizes as their other passion : dining ( although he finds fault with the diversity of the food , it is , he remarks " something to write home about " ) . He returns then to the theme of the staid insipidity of the city @-@ state , observing the unsettling cleanliness of the physical environment and the self @-@ policing of the populace . In detailing Singaporean technological advancement and aspirations as an information economy , Gibson casts doubt on the resilience of their controlled and conservative nature in the face of impending mass exposure to digital culture – " the wilds of X @-@ rated cyberspace " . " Perhaps " , he speculates , " Singapore 's destiny will be to become nothing more than a smug , neo @-@ Swiss enclave of order and prosperity , amid a sea of unthinkable ... weirdness . "
Toward the end of the essay , Gibson briefly covers two applications of the death penalty by the Singaporean justice system ; he excerpts a report from The Straits Times about Mat Repin Mamat , a Malay man sentenced to death for attempting to smuggle a kilogram of cannabis into the city @-@ state , and follows this with a description of the case of Johannes Van Damme , a Dutch engineer found with significant quantities of heroin with the same consequence . He expresses reservations about the justice of capital punishment and describes the Singaporeans as the true bearers of zero tolerance . After hearing the announcement of Van Damme 's sentencing , Gibson decides to leave , checks out " in record time " from the hotel , and catches a cab to the airport . The trip is conspicuous for the absence of police along the road , but there is an abundance of them at the Changi Airtropolis , where Gibson photographs a discarded piece of crumpled paper , incurring their ire . Flying into Hong Kong he briefly glimpses the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ destroyed shantytown Kowloon Walled City at the end of one of the runways at the chaotic Kai Tak Airport , and muses about the contrast with the staid and sanitized city @-@ state he has left behind . The essay ends with the declaration " I loosened my tie , clearing Singapore airspace . "
= = Impact and legacy = =
The Republic of Singapore responded to the publication of the article by banning Wired from the country . The phrase " Disneyland with the death penalty " became a famous and widely referenced description for the nation , adopted in particular by opponents of Singapore 's perceived authoritarian nature . The city @-@ state 's authoritarian and austere reputation made it difficult to shake the description off ; Creative Review hailed it as " famously damning " , while The New York Times associate editor R.W. Apple , Jr. defended the city @-@ state in a 2003 piece as " hardly deserving of William Gibson 's woundingly dismissive tag line " . Reviewing the work in a 2003 blog post , Gibson wrote :
That Wired article may have managed to convey the now @-@ cliched sense of Singapore as a creepy , anal @-@ retentive city @-@ state , but it didn 't go nearly far enough in capturing the sheer underlying dullness of the place . It 's a terrible * retail * environment . The endless malls are filled with shops selling exactly the same products , and it 's all either the stuff that kicks Cayce into anaphylactic shock or slightly sad local @-@ industry imitations of same . You could easily put together a smarter outfit shopping exclusively in Heathrow .
" Disneyland with the Death Penalty " was assigned as reading on the topic of " Singaporean progress " for a 2008 National University of Singapore Writing & Critical Thinking course . The piece was included in a 2012 compilation of Gibson 's non @-@ fiction writing , Distrust That Particular Flavor .
= = Critical reception = =
The article provoked a strong critical reaction . The Boston Globe characterized it as a " biting piece on the technocratic state in Singapore " . It was recommended by postmodern political geographer Edward Soja as " a wonderful tour of the cyberspatial urbanities " of the city @-@ state . Journalist Steven Poole called it a " horrified report " , and argued that it showed that the author " despises the seamless , strictured planes of corporate big business " and is " the champion of the interstitial " . In a review of Gibson 's 2010 novel Zero History for The Observer James Purdon identified " Disneyland " as one of the high points of Gibson 's career , " a witty , perceptive piece of reportage , hinting at a non @-@ fiction talent equal to the vision that had elevated Gibson to digital @-@ age guru . "
Philosopher and technology writer Peter Ludlow interpreted the piece as an attack on the city , and noted as ironic the fact that the real Disneyland was in California — a state whose " repressive penal code includes the death penalty " . Urban theorist Maarten Delbeke noted that Gibson cited the computerized control of the city @-@ state as responsible for its sanitized inauthentic character , a claim Delbeke called " a conventional , almost old @-@ fashioned complaint against technocracy " . In a 2004 article in Forum on Contemporary Art & Society , Paul Rae commented that " [ w ] hile an ability to capture the zeitgeist is to be taken seriously in a context such as this one , Gibson ’ s journalistic reportage is inevitably unrefined " , and cited the accusation of Singapore @-@ based British academic John Phillips that Gibson " fails to really think [ his critiques ] through " .
In S , M , L , XL ( 1995 ) , urbanist and architectural theorist Rem Koolhaas took issue with the acerbic , ironic tone of the article , condemning it as a typical reaction by " dead parents deploring the mess [ their ] children have made of their inheritance . " Koolhaas argued that reactions like Gibson 's imply that the positive legacy of modernity can only be intelligently used by Westerners , and that attempts such as Singapore 's at embracing the " newness " of modernity without understanding its history would result in a far @-@ reaching and deplorable eradication .
Singaporean Tang Weng Hong in turn wrote a critical response to both Gibson and Koolhaas .
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= Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre =
Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre , formerly Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ du @-@ Louvre , was a medieval church in the 1st arrondissement of Paris located just west of the original Louvre Palace . It was founded as Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ du @-@ Louvre in 1187 by Robert of Dreux as a Collegiate church . It had fallen into ruin by 1739 and was rebuilt as Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre in 1744 . The church was suppressed in 1790 during the French Revolution and turned over the next year for use as the first building dedicated to Protestant worship in the history of Paris , a role in which it continued until its demolition in 1811 to make way for Napoleon 's expansion of the Louvre . The Reformed congregation was given l 'Oratoire du Louvre as a replacement and saved the choir stalls from Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre which are still in place at l 'Oratoire .
= = History = =
= = = Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ du @-@ Louvre = = =
On 8 October 1164 , Thomas à Becket , the Archbishop of Canterbury , after intensifying conflict with Henry II over his efforts to reduce the power of the church through the Constitutions of Clarendon , was put on trial and convicted of various offenses by Henry in Northampton Castle . Becket proceeded to flee to France where he was welcomed and hosted for six years by Louis VII . Shortly after his return to England in 1170 , Becket was famously murdered in Canterbury Cathedral and subsequently canonized in 1173 . In 1179 , Louis VII travelled to Canterbury to pay his respects to the saint , making a donation of a gold chalice and an annual donation of 100 muids ( ~ 3 @,@ 400 gallons ) of wine for the celebration of the annual feast .
Inspired by his brother 's devotion , Robert of Dreux founded a new collegiate church , Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ du @-@ Louvre , in 1187 , with endowment for four canons . After Robert 's death , his wife , Agnès de Baudemont , obtained confirmation of the foundation of the church from Pope Clement III in 1189 . Philip Augustus provided further confirmation in 1192 by means of letters @-@ patent with the great seal in green wax . A papal bull from Pope Innocent III in 1199 took the church , its property and clergy , under the protection of the Pope . In 1428 , John VI , Duke of Brittany endowed more prebends for the church by donating the adjoining hotel , La Petite Bretagne , on the condition that the canons pray for his family . This increased the number of canons to seven , to be chosen alternately by the king and bishop .
= = = Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre = = =
By 1739 the church had fallen into ruin and Louis XV gave 50 @,@ 000 crowns for it to be rebuilt . During the demolition process a portion of the church was left for the continuing use of the chapter . While the canons were performing the office the remaining structure collapsed , burying them in the ruins . This accident led to the union of the chapter with that of the neighboring Saint @-@ Nicolas @-@ du @-@ Louvre , which had also been founded by Robert of Dreux and had at various times previously been united with Saint @-@ Thomas , and the rededication of the reconstructed church to Saint Louis in 1744 . In 1749 , Saint @-@ Maur @-@ des @-@ Fossés was also merged with the new congregation .
The new church was designed by Thomas Germain , known best for his work as a silversmith , and consisted of just a nave and an apse . The entrance of the church was in a circular projection decorated with Ionic pilasters . The apse housed the choir stalls of the canons surrounding the high altar . The nave was decorated with Corinthian pilasters surmounted by an entablature . In the chapel of the Virgin there was a sculpture of the Annunciation by Jean @-@ Baptiste II Lemoyne . The church was also decorated with works by members of the families of painters , Coypel , Restout , and Van Loo . The building enjoyed a good reputation in the middle of the 18th century for its singular plan and rich internal decoration . However , the style of the exterior and portico came under some criticism .
When Cardinal Fleury , the tutor and chief minister of Louis XV , died in 1743 the king decided that his mausoleum would be placed in Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre . A competition was held for the commission to create the tomb , a landmark event in the history of 18th century French sculpture due to its solicitation of public input . Philibert Orry , then the director of the Royal Buildings , solicited proposals from sculptors who were members of the Royal Academy . Models for the tomb were offered by Nicolas @-@ Sébastien Adam , Edmé Bouchardon , Charles @-@ François Ladette , Jean @-@ Baptiste II Lemoyne , and Jean @-@ Joseph Vinache . The wax maquettes of proposals were displayed at the Salon for public response . Bouchardon won the competition though ultimately Lemoyne was given the commission by the family of Cardinal Fleury and the tomb remained unfinished at the time of the church 's suppression . The church was also home to the tomb of its architect , Thomas Germain .
At the time of the French Revolution the church had a provost , a cantor , and twenty canons with the provost , cantor and fifteen canons nominated by the archbishop , four by the Duke of Penthièvre in this role as the Count of Brie , and one by Les Gallichets . On 24 February 1790 , the chapter declared to the revolutionary authorities annual revenues of 98 @,@ 562 livres , a great sum for the time . On 11 December 1790 , municipal officers came to the church to announce to the canons the suppression of their chapter and abolition of their titles . An inventory of the objects in the church was made and all the church 's properties and possessions were turned over to the state .
= = = Protestant Church = = =
In 1791 , at the behest of Jean Sylvain Bailly , the mayor of Paris , and the Marquis de Lafayette , the empty Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre was rented to the newly formed Reformed congregation in Paris for the annual sum of 16 @,@ 450 livres , with the first service held on Easter . In 1598 , Protestant worship had been forbidden in Paris by the Edict of Nantes . In 1685 , the Edict of Fontainebleau made non @-@ Catholic services illegal in all of France . This inaugurated a long period of persecution for French Protestants , though some in Paris were able to worship in the chapels of the Dutch and Swedish embassies .
The Edict of Tolerance in 1787 gave Protestants legal status and a congregation was formed under the pastorship of Paul @-@ Henri Marron , who had been serving as the chaplain at the Dutch embassy . The congregation gained permission to worship openly in 1789 during the revolution and met in a variety of places including a wine shop before gaining permission to rent Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louve , the first building dedicated to Protestant worship in the history of Paris . For the dedication of the new church , or temple as French Protestants referred to their buildings , Pastor Marron preached from the text , " Soyez joyeux dans l ’ espérance , patients dans l ’ affliction , persévérants dans la prière , " ( be joyful in hope , patient in affliction , faithful in prayer ( Romans 12 : 12 ) ) . When the mayor , Jean Bailly , attended in person on 13 October 1791 Marron chose the passage , " Vous connaissez la vérité et la vérité vous rendra libres , " ( you will know the truth , and the truth will set you free ( John 8 : 32 ) ) .
As the revolution became increasingly hostile to Christianity , Marron was arrested on 21 September 1793 . He was released and then rearrested and released once more , having made the concession of having services once every ten days according to the revolutionary calendar instead of on Sundays . Marron was once more arrested in June 1794 for continuing to marry and baptize in secret after Christian practice had been banned by Robespierre in favor of the Cult of the Supreme Being . He was freed from prison only by the fall of Robespierre .
In the Concordat of 1801 , Napoleon came to an agreement with Pope Pius VII to reconcile the Catholic church to the French state . The concordat also led to official recognition of , and state control over , other religious groups including Protestants . As a result , three former Catholic churches were dedicated for the use of reformed believers in Paris , Sainte @-@ Marie @-@ des @-@ Anges , the chapel of the Pentemont Abbey , and Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre . In 1806 however , Napoleon decreed an expansion of the Louvre that would require the demolition of all existing structures between the Louvre and the Tuileries Palace including the church of Saint @-@ Louis . As a replacement the Reformed congregation was given l 'Oratoire du Louvre , which had also been suppressed in the revolution . The choir and some of the other woodwork was preserved and can be seen in l 'Oratoire , including the misericorde seats in the choir stalls that enabled the canons to rest while standing . While most of the church was demolished in 1811 , a portion remained standing until the construction of the Denon wing of the Louvre in 1850 .
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= Teuruarii IV =
Teuruarii IV , born Epatiana a Teuruarii ( c . 1879 – 1933 ) , was the last King of Rurutu , an island within the larger Austral Islands archipelago , who ruled from around 1886 until the annexation of the island to France in 1900 . Proclaimed king upon his father 's abdication while still a child , his mother ruled as regent . During this regency the Church of Moerari was consecrated and the death penalty was abolished .
Teuruarii 's reign was disrupted by ongoing French expansionism in the Pacific . Teuruarii entreated the British to place Rurutu under a British protectorate , which the islanders deemed more favorable due to their predominant adherence to Protestantantism . These efforts failed and Rurutu was proclaimed a protectorate of the French Third Republic on 27 March 1889 . Teuruarii was allowed to continue ruling as king until the annexation of the island to the territory of French Oceania in 1900 , today part of the overseas country of French Polynesia . Living out the remainder of his life as a village chief , Teuruarii left many descendants who would have a strong influence in the islands to the modern day .
= = Family and early life = =
King Teuruarii IV was born Prince Epatiana in around 1879 on the island of Rurutu , in present @-@ day French Polynesia , to King Teuruarii III and his second wife Taarouru a Mootua . His family was originally from a chiefly line in Huahine rather than Rurutu , and it was only through the adoption of his father by King Teuruarii I that his family was eligible to rule . The island of Rurutu was settled later than many of the surrounding islands and was historically ruled as an unoccupied territory by the earliest kings of the archipelago . Including these early kings , the royal line of Epatiana stretched back more than forty generations and included many of the founding chiefs of the Austral Islands kingdoms , as well as early kings of Rurutu after the settlement of the island . Little is recorded of the prince 's childhood , although it is known that Epatiana and his parents were visited by the French writer and later governor of French Polynesia , Édouard Petit , in the early 1880s , when the young prince Epatiana was still nursing from his mother .
His full @-@ siblings were Amaiterai , Tautiare , Mearoha and Tautiti . His older half @-@ sister Tetuamarama , daughter of his father 's first wife Temataurarii a Tavita , was married into the royal family of Huahine and was the mother of that island 's last queen , Tehaapapa III .
= = Reign = =
Epatiana succeeded his father as King of Rurutu around 1886 , while still a young child . Due to historians ' lack of consensus about his birth year , sources differ on the actual age of Epatiana at the time . This early succession was a consequence of a decision taken in old age by Epatiana 's father to abdicate and journey back to his homeland of Huahine , where he died shortly after arrival . The body of Teuruarii III was repatriated to Rurutu and interred in the royal cemetery . Because of Epatiana 's youth and inexperience , his mother Taarouru served as regent for an indeterminate number of years until the prince was deemed fit to rule independently .
The young King Teuruarii 's coronation was celebrated in the traditional fashion . The ceremony included donning a feather headdress and the maro 'ura , a sacred loincloth of red @-@ tinted tapa cloth similar to the ones worn by the chiefs in the Society Islands , before being carried on the backs of two natives .
During the regency , he and his mother abolished the Va 'a Tai ' Aru , the law , enacted by his father , which had made crimes such as murder , treason and adultery punishable by death . Instead , criminals were exiled to small island of Îles Maria . Teuruarii and his mother also presided over the opening of the Protestant church of Moerai . The construction of the church had been begun by his father and the work was completed by a foreign carpenter named Quittaine Chapman .
In the late 19th @-@ century , Rurutu shared a close relationship with the neighboring island of Rimatara , which was also ruled by an adolescent monarch , in the person of Queen Tamaeva IV . The monarchs of both island kingdoms shared the same positions as being the last independent rulers in the Austral Islands not under French colonial control .
= = = Under French protectorate = = =
Teuruarii 's reign coincided with continuing expansion of European authority in the Pacific islands . By 1880 , France had formally annexed the Kingdom of Tahiti and its dependencies in the Austral Islands , including Raivavae and Tubuai , Rurutu 's neighbors to the south . The following year , Rapa Iti and Marotiri , further south , were also annexed to France , such that among the islands of the Austral archipelago , only Rurutu and Rimatara remained independent of French control . Teuruarii anticipated eventual European interests in Rurutu , but viewed the United Kingdom as a friendlier state than France due to the island 's adherence to Protestantism . Upon hearing news that the neighboring Cook Islands had been declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom , the King decided to ally himself with Great Britain .
On 27 November 1888 , Teuruarii and Tameava , along with their retinue of chiefs , visited the neighboring island kingdom of Rarotonga aboard two ships named the Faaito and the Ronui , to ask for British protection against French aggression . They sent a formal petition to Queen Victoria and the Prime Minister asking for protectorate status over the two kingdoms . The request was ultimately refused . The petition read :
November 27 , 1888 : Petition from the King of Rurutu and the Queen of Rimatara and their nobles to Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria , and to the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . May you have good health . We , Teuruarii , King of Rurutu and Te Maere , Queen of Rimatara and our nobles , ask for the Prime Minister to place our islands and our ships under the protection of the British flag . These are the islands , namely , Rurutu , Rimatara , and Marià , and there are the names of the ships : Faaito and Ronui , and the masters of the same are natives . This is our word to you : Do not forsake us ; we are your children ; you taught us the word of God , and that has led us in the path of civilisation ; therefore we know that you are a good parent to us . The thoughts of the children cling fondly to their good parent ; they do not wish to be separated from their good parent . If the parent forsake the children , the children will seek the parent ; so do we ; we are like those children , and we ask that you will give us your flag to protect us . We have heard that you have taken Rarotonga and the neighbouring islands under your protection , but we remain without anyone to protect us . When we received the news that Rarotonga and the neighbouring islands were placed under your protection , we wept aloud because we were forsaken by you ; we were afraid lest we should be adopted by another parent . The strange parent we mean is the French . They did not feed us with the milk of the gospel , but you did . O Great Britain ; you fed us with that milk which has given life to us . This is our last word to you ; we do not wish for French annexation or protection , not at all , but we wish you to be our parent , O Great Britain . We pray you now to accede to this our request . This letter was written in the house of Queen Pa . -TEURUARII , TE MAERE ARII .
The efforts of the two monarchs could not yield the desired result because the French , upon learning of their request , responded promptly to what they perceived as a threat to their interests in the Pacific . On 27 March 1889 , the French warship Dives landed on Rurutu carrying the colonial governor of French Oceania , Étienne Lacascade . British and French sources provide differing accounts of Teuruarii 's response to Lacascade 's arrival . According to the British , the King was initially reluctant to agree to a French protectorate but ultimately decided to give his acquiescence . According to the French , however , King Teuruarii and his chiefs had personally petitioned Governor Lacascade to take over the islands , largely contrary to the desire of the majority of the islanders . The French tricolor was added to the canton of the Kingdom 's flag to indicate its new status as a French protectorate . A 21 @-@ gun salute from the Dives , followed by the proclamation " Vive la France ! Vive Rurutu ! " , brought the island under French control .
Under the French protectorate , the internal affairs of the Kingdom were left to the King and chiefs including the judicial affairs of the island . Around 1895 , Mormon Elder Frank Goff visited Rurutu , noting the political situation at the time and giving a rather unflattering description of the young king :
The island is ruled over by a king . His name is Epatiana . He is a large , ignorant @-@ looking boy of about 18 summers , and is one of the worst rowdies on the island , and there is no power to touch him . The first time we met him he was just landing from an excursion trip to the island of Rimatara , near by . And you need not be told that I was surprised when told that he was the king of the island ; for instead of being dressed in a garb of rich apparel of some kind , with a crown about his head , as I had expected , he had nothing whatever on to indicate his supreme power . His costume was composed of a red breech @-@ clout , a red woolen shirt and upon his bare head an old dried up wreath of faded flowers , such as is worn by all rowdies . When we spoke to him about his island , he dropped his head , as he sat upon the sand , and blushingly answered us . We told him who we were and where we were from , saluted him and left him with very different ideas formed about the king of Rurutu , than we had before meeting him . This was the first monarch of the kind I ever saw , and the first time we were ever under the reign of a king . The island is under the French protection , still it regulates and governs its own affairs , and the French have nothing to say in that respect . The king has judges under him , who make the laws and enforce them while he is in his childhood days .
By contrast , French observers remarked favorably on the industriousness and intelligence of the people of Rurutu , as well as the success of Teuruarii in increasing revenues through maritime trade with neighboring islands . In 1899 , Rurutu 's annual exports were valued at 59 @,@ 881 French francs , of which 37 @,@ 919 were exported to the Tahitian port of Papeete - exceptionally high trade volumes in light of the relatively small size of the island and its population .
= = Annexation and later life = =
The protectorate status had a negative effect on the island 's trade with Tahiti . Ships from Rurutu , as from other protectorates , were considered foreign vessels at the ports of France and its overseas territories such as the Tahitian port capital of Papeete , Rurutu 's nearest significant trading partner . Consequently , Rurutu 's agricultural exports were subject to tariffs from which the exports of annexed territories were exempted . The economic disadvantages of the protectorate status became even more evident when France closed the Tahitian ports to all foreigners in 1899 , including merchants from Rurutu , in response to an outbreak of bubonic plague in San Francisco . This disruption of trade between the two islands occurred in a period during which Rurutu became increasingly reliant economically on Tahiti . The growing prominence of Tahiti was evidenced in the activities of Teuruarii , who regularly visited Papeete for trade and entertainment . Teuruarii incurred much debt during these trips , and the need to pay off his creditors along with the restriction on trade prompted him to consider formal annexation to France .
In May 1900 , Teuruarii journeyed with a few island dignitaries to Papeete on the invitation of Gustave Gallet , the French governor , to discuss the possibility of annexing the island . On May 11 , Teuruarii signed a statement of annexation , officially bringing Rurutu under French control . Months later , the L 'Aube brought Gallet to Rurutu , where he officially took possession of the island . On August 25 , in a formal ceremony witnessed by Governor Gallet , the officers of the L 'Aube , the French officials aboard , the former king and the native population , the flag of the protectorate was lowered and the French tricolor raised in its place ; this moment , like the ceremony of 1888 , was celebrated by a 21 @-@ gun salute from the French vessel .
The French government gave the former king an annual pension of eight hundred francs to pay off his debts . He was also given the task of administering over native affairs alongside the French commissioners assigned to the island . Laws that punished adultery and violation of the Sabbath , enacted during the kingdom 's Protestant period , were revoked , and the royal monopoly on turtle meat was abolished . Under French rule , Teuruarii was initially allowed to serve as the village chief of Moerai , the main village and former capital in the northeast corner of the island . On 27 June 1934 , the French named him honorary chief of Rurutu and his son Rooteatauira as chief of Moerai .
In 1925 , Scottish artist William Alister Macdonald ( 1861 @-@ 1948 ) painted a portrait of the former King in later life . According to most sources , Teuruarii IV died in 1933 , although his appointment as honorary chief of Rurutu was dated one year after .
= = Descendants = =
Teuruarii IV left behind several notable descendents . In 1923 , one of his sons , Rooteatauira a Teuruarii , was involved in a controversial embezzlement case that called into question the jurisdiction of French law over native inhabitants of its territories . Rooteatauira , along with his accomplice Tinorrua a Hurahtia , had embezzled various goods to the detriment of Sum @-@ You , a Chinese merchant . In the case , Rooteatauira argued that he should be prosecuted by native law rather than French law and that the annexation was illegal since it was done without the sanctioned of the King of Rurutu or the approval of the French Parliament . However , the French colonial court ruled that the annexation was valid and that he would be prosecuted by French law since the offense was committed against a non @-@ native . Rooteatauira was sentenced to two years in prison and fined fifty francs . In 1934 , Rooteatauira was appointed chief of Moerai and given an annual pension of seven hundred and twenty francs .
Rooteatauira was the father of Toromona ( Solomon ) Teuruarii , who served as mayor of Rurutu in the 1970s . On 14 October 1964 , Toromona ran unsuccessfully for a position in the French Territorial Assembly with Tetuamanuhiri Tetaumatani as his running mate , although he did manage to win a significant number of votes . Toromona 's son Maeua , born in 1941 , bears the title Teuruarii VII . Another descendant , Atitoa a Teuruarii , was the district chief of the southern portion of the island before World War II . His sons , Amaiterai and Tairi a Teuruarii , owned much of the land in the northwestern districts of Teautamatea and Vitaria , the ancestral lands of the Teuruarii royal line , where the remains of the island 's ancient temple ( Marae Tararoa ) still stand .
Many of Teuruarii 's living descendants still reside in the villages of Moerai and Avera and play major roles in island 's affairs .
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= American football =
American football , referred to as football in the United States and Canada , and also known as gridiron , is a sport played by two teams of eleven players on a rectangular field with goalposts at each end . The offense , the team with control of the oval @-@ shaped football , attempts to advance down the field by running with or passing the ball , while the team without control of the ball , the defense , aims to stop their advance and take control of the ball for themselves . The offense must advance at least ten yards in four downs , or plays , or else they turn over the football to the opposing team ; if they succeed , they are given a new set of four downs . Points are primarily scored by advancing the ball into the opposing team 's end zone for a touchdown or kicking the ball through the opponent 's goalposts for a field goal . The team with the most points at the end of a game wins .
American football evolved in the United States , originating from the sports of association football and rugby football . The first game of American football was played on November 6 , 1869 , between two college teams , Rutgers and Princeton , under rules based on the association football rules of the time . During the latter half of the 1870s , colleges playing association football switched to the Rugby Union code , which allowed carrying the ball . A set of rule changes drawn up from 1880 onward by Walter Camp , the " Father of American Football , " established the snap , eleven @-@ player teams , and the concept of downs ; later rule changes legalized the forward pass , created the neutral zone , and specified the size and shape of the football .
American football as a whole is the most popular sport in the United States ; professional football and college football are the most popular forms of the game , with the other major levels being high school and youth football . As of 2012 , nearly 1 @.@ 1 million high school athletes and 70 @,@ 000 college athletes play the sport in the United States annually . The National Football League , the most popular American football league , has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world ; its championship game , the Super Bowl , ranks among the most @-@ watched club sporting events in the world , and the league has an annual revenue of around US $ 10 billion .
= = Etymology and names = =
In the United States , American football is referred to as " football . " The term " football " was officially established in the rulebook for the 1876 college football season , when the sport first shifted from soccer @-@ style rules to rugby @-@ style rules ; although it could easily have been called " rugby " at this point , Harvard , one of the primary proponents of the rugby @-@ style game , compromised and did not request the name of the sport be changed to " rugby " . In English @-@ speaking countries where other codes of football are popular , such as the United Kingdom , Ireland , Canada , New Zealand , and Australia , the terms " gridiron " or " American football " are favored instead .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
American football evolved from the sports of association football ( soccer ) and rugby football . Rugby football , like American football , is a sport where two competing teams vie for control of a ball , which can be kicked through a set of goalposts or run into the opponent 's goal area to score points .
What is considered to be the first American football game was played on November 6 , 1869 between Rutgers and Princeton , two college teams . The game was played between two teams of 25 players each and used a round ball that could not be picked up or carried . It could , however , be kicked or batted with the feet , hands , head or sides , with the ultimate goal being to advance it into the opponent 's goal . Rutgers won the game 6 goals to 4 . Collegiate play continued for several years in which matches were played using the rules of the host school . Representatives of Yale , Columbia , Princeton and Rutgers met on October 19 , 1873 to create a standard set of rules for all schools to adhere to . Teams were set at 20 players each , and fields of 400 by 250 feet ( 122 m × 76 m ) were specified . Harvard abstained from the conference , as they favored a rugby @-@ style game that allowed running with the ball .
An 1875 Harvard @-@ Yale game played under rugby @-@ style rules was observed by two impressed Princeton athletes . These players introduced the sport to Princeton , a feat the Professional Football Researchers Association compared to " selling refrigerators to Eskimos . " Princeton , Harvard , Yale and Columbia then agreed to intercollegiate play using a form of rugby union rules with a modified scoring system . These schools formed the Intercollegiate Football Association , although Yale did not join until 1879 . Yale player Walter Camp , now regarded as the " Father of American Football , " secured rule changes in 1880 that reduced the size of each team from 15 to 11 players and instituted the snap to replace the chaotic and inconsistent scrum .
= = = Evolution of the game = = =
The introduction of the snap resulted in unexpected consequences . Prior to the snap , the strategy had been to punt if a scrum resulted in bad field position . However , a group of Princeton players realized that , as the snap was uncontested , they now could hold the ball indefinitely to prevent their opponent from scoring . In 1881 , both teams in a game between Yale @-@ Princeton used this strategy to maintain their undefeated records . Each team held the ball , gaining no ground , for an entire half , resulting in a 0 @-@ 0 tie . This " block game " proved extremely unpopular with the spectators and fans of both teams .
A rule change was necessary to prevent this strategy from taking hold , and a reversion to the scrum was considered . However , Camp successfully proposed a rule in 1882 that limited each team to three downs , or tackles , to advance the ball five yards . Failure to advance the ball the required distance within those three downs would result in control of the ball being forfeited to the other team . This change effectively made American football a separate sport from rugby , and the resulting five @-@ yard lines added to the field to measure distances made it resemble a gridiron in appearance . Other major rule changes included a reduction of the field size to 110 by 53 @.@ 333 yards ( 100 @.@ 584 m × 48 @.@ 768 m ) , and the adoption of a scoring system that awarded four points for a touchdown , two for a safety and a goal following a touchdown , and five for a goal from field ; additionally , tackling below the waist was legalized . The last , and arguably most important innovation , which would at last make American football uniquely " American " , was the legalization of interference , or blocking , a tactic which was highly illegal under the rugby @-@ style rules .
Despite these new rules , football remained a violent sport . Dangerous mass @-@ formations , which involved interlocking interference , like the flying wedge resulted in serious injuries and deaths . A 1905 peak of 19 fatalities nationwide resulted in a threat by President Theodore Roosevelt to abolish the game unless major changes were made . In response , sixty @-@ two colleges and universities met in New York City to discuss rule changes on December 28 , 1905 , and these proceedings resulted in the formation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States , later named the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) .
The legal forward pass was introduced in 1906 , although its impact was initially limited due to the restrictions placed on its use . Other rule changes introduced that year included the reduction of the time of play from 70 to 60 minutes and the increase of the distance required for a first down from 5 – 10 yards ( 4 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 1 m ) . To reduce infighting and dirty play between teams , the neutral zone was created along the width of the football . Scoring was also adjusted : field goals were lowered to three points in 1909 and touchdowns were raised to six points in 1912 . The field was also reduced to 100 yards ( 91 m ) long , but two 10 @-@ yard @-@ long end zones were created , and teams were given four downs instead of three to advance the ball 10 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . The roughing @-@ the @-@ passer penalty was implemented in 1914 , and eligible players were first allowed to catch the ball anywhere on the field in 1918 .
= = = The professional era = = =
On November 12 , 1892 , when William " Pudge " Heffelfinger was paid $ 500 to play a game for the Allegheny Athletic Association in a match against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club . This is the first recorded instance of a player being paid to participate in a game of American football , although many athletic clubs in the 1880s offered indirect benefits , such as helping players attain employment , giving out trophies or watches that players could pawn for money , or paying double in expense money . Despite these extra benefits , the game had a strict sense of amateurism at the time , and direct payment to players was frowned upon , if not outright prohibited .
Over time , professional play became increasingly common , and with it came rising salaries and unpredictable player movement , as well as the illegal payment of college players who were still in school . The National Football League ( NFL ) , a group of professional teams that was originally established in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association , aimed to solve these problems . This new league 's stated goals included an end to bidding wars over players , prevention of the use of college players , and abolition of the practice of paying players to leave another team . By 1922 , the NFL had established itself as the premier professional football league .
The dominant form of football at the time was played at the collegiate level , but the upstart NFL received a boost to its legitimacy in 1925 when an NFL team , the Pottsville Maroons , defeated a team of Notre Dame all @-@ stars in an exhibition game . A greater emphasis on the passing game helped professional football to further distinguish itself from the college game during the late 1930s . Football in general became increasingly popular following the 1958 NFL Championship game , a match between the Baltimore Colts and the New York Giants that is still referred to as the " Greatest Game Ever Played " . The game , a 23 – 17 overtime victory by the Colts , was seen by millions of television viewers and had a major impact on the popularity of the sport . This , along with the innovations introduced by the new American Football League ( AFL ) in the early 1960s , helped football to become the most popular sport in the United States by the mid @-@ 1960s .
The rival American Football League arose in 1960 and challenged the NFL 's dominance . The AFL began in relative obscurity but eventually thrived , with an initial television contract with the ABC network . The AFL 's existence forced the conservative NFL to expand to Dallas and Minnesota in an attempt to destroy the new league . Meanwhile , the AFL introduced many new features to Professional Football in the United States : official time on the scoreboard clock , rather than on a watch in the referee 's pocket , as the NFL did ; optional two @-@ point conversions by pass or run after touchdowns ; names on the jerseys of players ; and several others , including expansion of the role of minority players , actively recruited by the league in contrast to the NFL . The AFL also signed several star college players that had also been drafted by NFL teams . Competition for players heated up in 1965 , when the AFL New York Jets signed rookie Joe Namath to a then @-@ record US $ 437 @,@ 000 contract . A five @-@ year , $ 40 million NBC television contract followed , which helped to sustain the young league . The bidding war for players ended in 1966 , when NFL owners approached the AFL regarding a merger , and the two leagues agreed on one that would take full effect in 1970 . This agreement provided for a common draft that would take place each year , and it instituted an annual World Championship game to be played between the champions of each league . That game began play at the end of the 1966 season . Once the merger was completed , it was no longer a championship game between two leagues , and reverted to the NFL championship game , which came to be known as the Super Bowl .
College football maintained a tradition of postseason bowl games . Each bowl game would be associated with a particular conference , and earning a spot in a bowl game was the reward for winning a conference . This arrangement was profitable , but it tended to prevent the two top @-@ ranked teams from meeting in a true national championship game , as they would normally be committed to the bowl games of their respective conferences . Several systems have been used since 1992 to determine a national champion of college football . The first was the Bowl Coalition , in place from 1992 to 1994 . This was replaced in 1995 by the Bowl Alliance , which gave way in 1997 to the Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) . The BCS arrangement proved to be controversial , and was replaced in 2014 by the College Football Playoff ( CFP ) .
= = Teams and positions = =
A football game is played between two teams of 11 players each . Playing with more on the field is punishable by a penalty . Teams may substitute any number of their players between downs ; this " platoon " system replaced the original system , which featured limited substitution rules , and has resulted in teams utilizing specialized offensive , defensive and special teams squads .
Individual players in a football game must be designated with a uniform number between 1 and 99 . NFL teams are required to number their players by a league @-@ approved numbering system , and any exceptions must be approved by the Commissioner . NCAA and NFHS teams are " strongly advised " to number their offensive players according to a league @-@ suggested numbering scheme .
= = = Offensive unit = = =
The role of the offensive unit is to advance the football down the field with the ultimate goal of scoring a touchdown .
The offensive team must line up in a legal formation before they can snap the ball . An offensive formation is considered illegal if there are more than four players in the backfield or fewer than five players numbered 50 @-@ 79 on the offensive line . Players can temporarily line up in a position whose eligibility is different from what their number permits as long as they immediately report the change to the referee , who then informs the defensive team of the change . Neither team 's players , with the exception of the snapper , are allowed to line up in or cross the neutral zone until the ball is snapped . Interior offensive linemen are not allowed to move until the snap of the ball .
The main backfield positions are the quarterback ( QB ) , halfback / tailback ( HB / TB ) and fullback ( FB ) . The quarterback is the leader of the offense . Either he or a coach calls the plays . Quarterbacks typically inform the rest of the offense of the play in the huddle before the team lines up . The quarterback lines up behind the center to take the snap and then hands the ball off , throws it or runs with it .
The primary role of the halfback , also known as the tailback , is to carry the ball on running plays . Halfbacks may also serve as receivers . Fullbacks tend to be larger than halfbacks and function primarily as blockers , but they are sometimes used as runners in short @-@ yardage situations and often are not used in passing situations .
The offensive line ( OL ) consists of several players whose primary function is to block members of the defensive line from tackling the ball carrier on running plays or sacking the quarterback on passing plays . The leader of the offensive line is the center ( C ) , who is responsible for snapping the ball to the quarterback , blocking , and for making sure that the other linemen do their jobs during the play . On either side of the center are the guards ( G ) , while tackles ( T ) line up outside of the guards .
The principal receivers are the wide receivers ( WR ) and the tight ends ( TE ) . Wide receivers line up on or near the line of scrimmage , split outside of the line . The main goal of the wide receiver is to catch passes thrown by the quarterback , but they may also function as decoys or as blockers during running plays . Tight ends line up outside of the tackles and function both as receivers and as blockers .
= = = Defensive unit = = =
The role of the defense is to prevent the offense from scoring by tackling the ball carrier or by forcing turnovers ( interceptions or fumbles ) .
The defensive line ( DL ) consists of defensive ends ( DE ) and defensive tackles ( DT ) . Defensive ends line up on the ends of the line , while defensive tackles line up inside , between the defensive ends . The primary responsibilities of defensive ends and defensive tackles is to stop running plays on the outside and inside , respectively , to pressure the quarterback on passing plays , and to occupy the line so that the linebackers can break through .
Linebackers line up behind the defensive line but in front of the defensive backfield . They are divided into two types : middle linebackers ( MLB ) and outside linebackers ( OLB ) . Linebackers are the defensive leaders and call the defensive plays . Their diverse roles include defending the run , pressuring the quarterback , and guarding backs , wide receivers and tight ends in the passing game .
The defensive backfield , often called the secondary , consists of cornerbacks ( CB ) and safeties ( S ) . Safeties are themselves divided into free safeties ( FS ) and strong safeties ( SS ) . Cornerbacks line up outside the defensive formation , typically opposite of a receiver so as to be able to cover him , while safeties line up between the cornerbacks but farther back in the secondary . Safeties are the last line of defense , and are responsible for stopping deep passing plays as well as running plays .
= = = Special teams unit = = =
The special teams unit is responsible for all kicking plays . The special teams unit of the team in control of the ball will try and execute field goal ( FG ) attempts , punts and kickoffs , while the opposing team 's unit will aim to block or return them .
Three positions are specific to the field goal and PAT ( point @-@ after @-@ touchdown ) unit : the placekicker ( K or PK ) , holder ( H ) and long snapper ( LS ) . The long snapper 's job is to snap the football to the holder , who will catch and position it for the placekicker . There is not usually a holder on kickoffs , because the ball is kicked off of a tee ; however , a holder may be used in certain situations , such as if wind is preventing the ball from remaining upright on the tee . The player on the receiving team who catches the ball is known as the kickoff returner ( KR ) .
The positions specific to punt plays are the punter ( P ) , long snapper , and gunner . The long snapper snaps the football directly to the punter , who then drops and kicks it before it hits the ground . Gunners line up split outside of the line and race down the field , aiming to tackle the punt returner ( PR ) - the player that catches the punt .
= = Rules = =
= = = Scoring = = =
In American football , the winner is the team that has scored the most points at the end of the game . There are multiple ways to score in a football game .
The touchdown ( TD ) , worth six points , is the most valuable scoring play in American football . A touchdown is scored when a live ball is advanced into , caught in , or recovered in the end zone of the opposing team . The scoring team then attempts a try or conversion , more commonly known as the point ( s ) -after @-@ touchdown ( PAT ) , which is a single scoring opportunity . A PAT is most commonly attempted from the two- or three @-@ yard line , depending on the level of play . If scored by a placekick or dropkick through the goal posts , it is worth one point , and is typically called the extra point . If it is scored by what would normally be a touchdown , it is called the two @-@ point conversion and is worth two points . For the 2015 season , the NFL adopted a rule on extra points that stated the placekick must be kicked at the 15 yard line , however for a two @-@ point conversion teams were still eligible to scrimmage from the two @-@ yard line . No points are awarded on a failed extra point or two @-@ point conversion attempt . In general , the extra point is almost always successful in professional play and is only slightly less successful at amateur levels , while the two @-@ point conversion is a much riskier play with a higher probability of failure ; accordingly , extra point attempts are far more common than two @-@ point conversion attempts .
A field goal ( FG ) , worth three points , is scored when the ball is placekicked or dropkicked through the uprights and over the crossbars of the defense 's goalposts . After a PAT attempt or successful field goal the scoring team must kick the ball off to the other team . A safety is scored when the ball carrier is tackled in his own end zone . Safeties are worth two points , which are awarded to the defense . In addition , the team that conceded the safety must kick the ball to the scoring team via a free kick .
= = = Field and equipment = = =
Football games are played on a rectangular field that measures 120 yards ( 110 m ) long and 53 @.@ 33 yards ( 48 @.@ 76 m ) wide . Lines marked along the ends and sides of the field are known respectively as the end lines and side lines , and goal lines are marked 10 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) inward from each end line . Weighted pylons are placed on the inside corner of the intersections of the goal lines and end lines .
White markings on the field identify the distance from the end zone . Inbound lines , or hash marks , are short parallel lines that mark off 1 yard ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) increments . Yard lines , which run the width of the field , are marked every 5 yards ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . A one yard wide is placed at each end of the field ; this line is marked at the center of the two @-@ yard line in professional play and at the three @-@ yard line in college play . Numerals that display the distance from the closest goal line in multiples of ten are placed on both sides of the field every ten yards .
Goalposts are located at the center of the plane of each of the two end lines . The crossbar of these posts is ten feet ( 3 meters ) above the ground , with vertical uprights at the end of the crossbar 18 feet 6 inches ( 6 m ) apart for professional and collegiate play and 23 feet 4 inches ( 7 m ) apart for high school play . The uprights extend vertically 35 feet on professional fields , a minimum of 10 yards on college fields , and a minimum of ten feet on high school fields . Goal posts are padded at the base , and orange ribbons are normally placed at the tip of each upright .
The football itself is an oval ball , similar to the balls used in rugby or Australian rules football . At all levels of play , the football is inflated to 12 1 ⁄ 2 to 13 1 ⁄ 2 pounds per square inch ( psi ) and weighs 14 to 15 ounces ( 397 to 425 grams ) ; beyond that , the exact dimensions vary slightly . In professional play the ball has a long axis of 11 to 11 1 ⁄ 4 inches , a long circumference of 28 to 28 1 ⁄ 2 inches , and a short circumference of 21 to 21 1 ⁄ 4 inches , while in college and high school play the ball has a long axis of 10 7 ⁄ 8 to 11 7 ⁄ 16 inches , a long circumference of 27 3 ⁄ 4 to 28 1 ⁄ 2 inches , and a short circumference of 20 3 ⁄ 4 to 21 1 ⁄ 4 inches .
= = = Duration and time stoppages = = =
Football games last for a total of 60 minutes in professional and college play and are divided into two halves of 30 minutes and four quarters of 15 minutes . High school football games are 48 minutes in length with two halves of 24 minutes and four quarters of 12 minutes . The two halves are separated by a halftime period , and the first and third quarters are also followed by a short break . Prior to the start of the game , the referee and team captains for each team meet at midfield for a coin toss . The visiting team is allowed to call ' heads ' or ' tails ' ; the winner of the toss is allowed to decide from between choosing whether to receive or kick off the ball or choosing which goal they want to defend , but they can also defer their choice until the second half . The losing team , unless the winning team decides to defer , is allowed to choose the option the winning team did not select , and receives the option to receive , kick , or select a goal to defend to begin the second half . Most teams choose to receive or defer , because choosing to kick the ball to start the game would allow the other team to choose which goal to defend . Teams switch goals following the first and third quarters . If a down is in progress when a quarter ends , play continues until the down is completed .
Games last longer than their defined length due to play stoppages - the average NFL game lasts slightly over three hours . Time in a football game is measured by the game clock . An operator is responsible for starting , stopping and operating the game clock based on the direction of the appropriate official . A separate clock , the play clock , is used to determine if a delay of game infraction has been committed . If the play clock expires before the ball has been snapped or free @-@ kicked , a delay of game foul is called on the offense . The play clock is set to 40 seconds in professional and college football and to 25 seconds in high school play or following certain administrative stoppages in the former levels of play .
= = = Advancing the ball and downs = = =
There are two main ways that the offense can advance the ball : running and passing . In a typical play , the quarterback calls the play , and the center passes the ball backwards and under his legs to the quarterback in a process known as the snap . The quarterback then either hands the ball off to a back , throws the ball or runs with it himself . The play ends when the player with the ball is tackled or goes out of bounds , or a pass hits the ground without a player having caught it . A forward pass can only be legally attempted if the passer is behind the line of scrimmage . In the NFL , a down also ends if the runner 's helmet comes off .
The offense is given a series of four plays , known as downs . If the offense advances ten or more yards in the four downs , they are awarded a new set of four downs . If they fail to advance ten yards , possession of the football is turned over to the defense . In most situations , if the offense reaches their fourth down they will punt the ball to the other team , which forces them to begin their drive from further down the field ; if they are in field goal range , they might also attempt to score a field goal . A group of officials , the chain crew , keeps track of both the downs and the distance measurements . On television , a yellow line is electronically superimposed on the field to show the first down line to the viewing audience .
= = = Kicking = = =
There are two categories of kicks in football : scrimmage kicks , which can be executed by the offensive team on any down from behind or on the line of scrimmage , and free kicks . The free kicks are the kickoff , which starts the first and third quarters and overtime and follows a try attempt or a successful field goal , and the safety kick , which follows a safety .
On a kickoff , the ball is placed at the 35 @-@ yard line of the kicking team in professional and college play and at the 40 @-@ yard line in high school play . The ball may be drop @-@ kicked or place @-@ kicked . If a place kick is chosen , the ball can be placed on the ground or on a tee , and a holder may be used in either case . On a safety kick , the kicking team kicks the ball from their own 20 @-@ yard line . They can punt , drop @-@ kick or place @-@ kick the ball , but a tee may not be used in professional play . Any member of the receiving team may catch or advance the ball , and the ball may be recovered by the kicking team once it has gone at least ten yards and has touched the ground or has been touched by any member of the receiving team .
The three types of scrimmage kicks are place kicks , drop kicks , and punts . Only place kicks and drop kicks can score points . The place kick is the standard method used to score points , because the pointy shape of the football makes it difficult to reliably drop kick . Once the ball has been kicked from a scrimmage kick , it can be advanced by the kicking team only if it is caught or recovered behind the line of scrimmage . If it is touched or recovered by the kicking team beyond this line , it becomes dead at the spot where it was touched . The kicking team is prohibited from interfering with the receiver 's opportunity to catch the ball , and the receiving team has the option of signaling for a fair catch . This prohibits the defense from blocking into or tackling the receiver , but the play ends as soon as the ball is caught and the ball may not be advanced .
= = = Officials and fouls = = =
Officials are responsible for enforcing game rules and monitoring the clock . All officials carry a whistle and wear black @-@ and @-@ white striped shirts and black hats except for the referee , whose hat is white . Each carries a weighted yellow flag that is thrown to the ground to signal that a foul has been called . An official who spots multiple fouls will throw his hat as a secondary signal . The seven officials on the field are each tasked with a different set of responsibilities :
The referee is positioned behind and to the side of the offensive backs . He is charged with oversight and control of the game and is the authority on the score , the down number , and any and all rule interpretations in discussions between the other officials . He announces all penalties and discusses the infraction with the offending team 's captain , monitors for illegal hits against the quarterback , makes requests for first @-@ down measurements , and notifies the head coach whenever a player is ejected .
The umpire is positioned in the defensive backfield . He watches play along the line of scrimmage to make sure that no more than 11 offensive players are on the field prior to the snap and that no offensive linemen are illegally downfield on pass plays . He monitors the contact between offensive and defensive linemen and calls most of the holding penalties . The umpire records the number of timeouts taken and the winner of the coin toss and the game score , assists the referee in situations involving possession of the ball close to the line of scrimmage , determines whether player equipment is legal , and dries wet balls prior to the snap if a game is played in rain .
The back judge is positioned deep in the defensive backfield , behind the umpire . He ensures that the defensive team has no more than 11 players on the field and determines whether catches are legal , whether field goal or extra point attempts are good , and whether a pass interference violation occurred .
The head linesman is positioned on one end of the line of scrimmage . He watches for any line @-@ of @-@ scrimmage and illegal use @-@ of @-@ hands violations and assists the line judge with illegal shift or illegal motion calls . The head linesman also rules on out @-@ of @-@ bounds calls that happen on his side of the field , oversees the chain crew and marks the forward progress of a runner when a play has been whistled dead .
The side judge is positioned twenty yards downfield of the head linesman . He mainly duplicates the functions of the back judge .
The line judge is positioned on the end of the line of scrimmage , opposite the head linesman . He supervises player substitutions , the line of scrimmage during punts , and game timing . He notifies the referee when time has expired at the end of a quarter and notifies the head coach of the home team when five minutes remain for halftime . In the NFL , the line judge also alerts the referee when two minutes remain in the half . If the clock malfunctions or becomes inoperable , the line judge becomes the official timekeeper .
The field judge is positioned twenty yards downfield from the line judge . He monitors and controls the play clock , counts the number of defensive players on the field , and watches for offensive pass interference and illegal use @-@ of @-@ hands violations by offensive players . He also makes decisions regarding catches , recoveries , the ball spot when a player goes out of bounds , and illegal touching of fumbled balls that have crossed the line of scrimmage .
Another set of officials , the chain crew , are responsible for moving the chains . The chains , consisting of two large sticks with a 10 @-@ yard @-@ long chain between them , are used to measure for a first down . The chain crew stays on the sidelines during the game , but if requested by the officials they will briefly bring the chains on to the field to measure . A typical chain crew will have at least three people - two members of the chain crew will hold either of the two sticks , while a third will hold the down marker . The down marker , a large stick with a dial on it , is flipped after each play to indicate the current down , and is typically moved to the approximate spot of the ball . The chain crew system has been used for over 100 years and is considered to be an accurate measure of distance , rarely subject to criticism from either side .
= = Safety = =
Football is a full @-@ contact sport , and injuries are relatively common . Most injuries occur during training sessions , particularly ones that involve contact between players . To try to prevent injuries , players are required to wear a set of equipment . At a minimum players must wear a football helmet and a set of shoulder pads , but individual leagues may require additional padding such as thigh pads and guards , knee pads , chest protectors , and mouthguards . Most injuries occur in the lower extremities , particularly in the knee , but a significant number also affect the upper extremities . The most common types of injuries are strains , sprains , bruises , fractures , dislocations , and concussions . Repeated concussions can increase a person 's risk in later life for chronic traumatic encephalopathy and mental health issues such as dementia , Parkinson 's disease , and depression . Concussions are often caused by helmet @-@ to @-@ helmet or upper @-@ body contact between opposing players , although helmets have prevented more serious injuries such as skull fractures . Various programs are aiming to reduce concussions by reducing the frequency of helmet @-@ to @-@ helmet hits ; USA Football 's " Heads Up Football " program is aiming to reduce concussions in youth football by teaching coaches and players about the signs of a concussion , the proper way to wear football equipment and ensure it fits , and proper tackling methods that avoid helmet @-@ to @-@ helmet contact .
= = Leagues and tournaments = =
The National Football League ( NFL ) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) are the most popular football leagues in the United States . The National Football League was founded in 1920 and has since become the largest and most popular sport in the United States . The NFL has the highest average attendance of any sporting league in the world , with an average attendance of almost 70 @,@ 000 persons during the 2011 NFL Season . The NFL championship game is called the Super Bowl , and is among the biggest events in club sports worldwide . It is played between the champions of the National Football Conference ( NFC ) and the American Football Conference ( AFC ) , and its winner is awarded the Vince Lombardi Trophy .
College football is the third @-@ most popular sport in the United States , behind professional baseball and professional football . The NCAA , the largest collegiate organization , is divided into three Divisions : Division I , Division II and Division III . Division I football is further divided into two subdivisions : the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) and the Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) . The champions of each level of play are determined through NCAA @-@ sanctioned playoff systems ; while the champion of Division I @-@ FBS was historically determined by various polls and ranking systems , the subdivision adopted a four @-@ team playoff system in 2014 .
High school football is the most popular sport in the United States played by boys ; over 1 @.@ 1 million boys participated in the sport from 2007 to 2008 according to a survey by the National Federation of State High School Associations ( NFHS ) . The NFHS is the largest organization for high school football , with member associations in all 50 states as well as the District of Columbia . USA Football is the governing body for youth and amateur football , and Pop Warner Little Scholars is the largest organization for youth football .
= = = Rival professional leagues = = =
Several professional football leagues have been formed as rival leagues to the NFL . The most successful rival league was the American Football League ( AFL ) , which existed from 1960 to 1969 . The AFL became a significant rival in 1964 before signing a five @-@ year , US $ 36 million television deal with NBC . AFL teams began to sign NFL players to contracts , and the league 's popularity grew to challenge that of the NFL . The two leagues merged in the 1970 season , and all AFL teams joined the NFL . An earlier league , the All @-@ America Football Conference , was in play from 1946 to 1949 . After the league dissolved , two AAFC teams , the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers , became members of the NFL ; another member , the Baltimore Colts joined the league , but folded after just a year in the NFL .
Other attempts to start rival leagues have been far less successful . The World Football League ( WFL ) played for two seasons , in 1974 and 1975 , but faced monetary issues so severe that the league could not pay its players . In its second and final season the WFL attempted to establish a stable credit rating , but the league disbanded before its second season could be completed . The United States Football League ( USFL ) operated for three seasons from 1983 to 1985 but collapsed due to poor business decisions and monetary problems . A subsequent USD $ 1 @.@ 5 billion antitrust lawsuit against the NFL was successful in court , but the league was awarded only three dollars in damages . The XFL was created in 2001 by Vince McMahon and lasted for only one season . Despite television contracts with NBC and UPN and high expectations , the XFL suffered from poor television ratings and a low quality of play . The United Football League ( UFL ) began in 2009 , but folded after suspending its 2012 season , due to financial issues .
= = = International play = = =
American football leagues exist throughout the world , but the game has yet to achieve the international success and popularity of baseball and basketball . NFL Europa , the developmental league of the NFL , operated from 1991 to 1992 and then from 1995 to 2007 . At the time of its closure , NFL Europa had five teams based in Germany and one in the Netherlands .
The European Football League ( EFL ) , run by the European Federation of American Football ( EFAF ) , is an annual invitational tournament between the champions or co @-@ champions of competitions run by EFAF members . The league 's championship game is the Eurobowl . Other EFAF tournaments include the EFAF Cup , played between the top teams from national leagues in a similar manner to the UEFA Cup , the Atlantic Cup , played between teams from the Atlantic region of Europe , and the Challenge Cup , played between teams from newer federations that are not eligible to play in the EFL or EFAF Cup . American football federations are also present in Asia , Oceania , and Pan America , and a total of 64 national football federations exist as of July 2012 . The International Federation of American Football ( IFAF ) , an international body composed of American football federations , runs tournaments such as the IFAF World Championship , which is held every four years since 1999 , the IFAF Women 's World Championship , the IFAF U @-@ 19 World Championship and the Flag Football World Championship . The IFAF also organizes the annual International Bowl game . At the international level , Canada , Mexico , and Japan are considered to be second @-@ tier , while Austria , Germany , and France would rank among a third tier . All of these countries rank far below the United States , which is dominant at the international level .
Football is not an Olympic sport , but it was a demonstration sport at the 1932 Summer Olympics . The IFAF has received provisional recognition from the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , and a vote on making it an Olympic sport could be held as early as 2017 . Several major obstacles hinder the IFAF goal of achieving status as an Olympic sport , such as the predominant participation of men in international play and the short three @-@ week Olympic schedule . Large team sizes are an additional difficulty , due to the Olympics ' set limit of 10 @,@ 500 athletes and coaches . American football also has the issue of global visibility . Nigel Melville , the CEO of USA Rugby , noted that " American football is recognized globally as a sport , but it 's not played globally " . In order to solve these concerns , major effort has been put into promoting flag football , a modified version of American football , at the international level .
= = Popularity and cultural impact = =
= = = United States = = =
" Baseball is still called the national pastime , but football is by far the more popular sport in American society , " according to ESPN.com 's Sean McAdam . In a 2014 poll conducted by Harris Interactive , professional football ranked as the most popular sport , and college football ranked third behind only professional football and baseball ; 46 % of participants ranked some form of the game as their favorite sport . Professional football has ranked as the most popular sport in the poll since 1985 , when it surpassed baseball for the first time . Professional football is most popular among those who live in the eastern United States and rural areas , while college football is most popular in the southern United States and among people with graduate and post @-@ graduate degrees . Football is also the most @-@ played sport by high school and college athletes in the United States . In a 2012 study , the NCAA estimated there were around 1 @.@ 1 million high school football players and nearly 70 @,@ 000 college football players in the United States ; in comparison , the second @-@ most played sport , basketball , had around 1 million participants in high school and 34 @,@ 000 in college . The Super Bowl is the most popular single @-@ day sporting event in the United States , and is among the biggest club sporting events in the world in terms of TV viewership . The NFL makes approximately $ 10 billion annually . Super Bowl games account for seven of the top eight most @-@ watched broadcasts in American history ; the most recent Super Bowl , Super Bowl XLIX , was watched by a record 114 @.@ 4 million Americans .
American football also plays a significant role in American culture . The Super Bowl is considered a de facto national holiday , and in parts of the country like Texas , the sport has been compared to a religion . Football is also linked to other holidays ; New Year 's Day is traditionally the date for several college football bowl games , including the Rose Bowl . However , if New Year 's Day is on a Sunday , the bowl games are moved to another date to not conflict with the typical NFL Sunday schedule . Thanksgiving football is an American tradition , hosting many high school , college , and professional games . Steve Deace of USA Today wrote that Americans are passionate about football " because it embodies everything we love about American exceptionalism . Merit is rewarded , not punished . Masculinity is celebrated , not feminized . People of various beliefs and backgrounds — a melting pot , if you will — must unify for a common goal for the team to be successful " . Implicit rules such as playing through pain and sacrificing for the better of the team are promoted in football culture .
= = = Abroad = = =
In Canada , the game has a significant following — according to a 2013 poll , 21 % of respondents said they followed the NFL " very closely " or " fairly closely " , making it the third @-@ most followed league behind the National Hockey League ( NHL ) and Canadian Football League ( CFL ) . American football also has a long history in Mexico , which was introduced to the sport in 1896 . American football was the second @-@ most popular sport in Mexico in the 1950s , with the game being particularly popular in colleges . The Los Angeles Times notes that the NFL claims over 16 million fans in Mexico , which places the country third behind the US and Canada . American football is played in Mexico both professionally and as part of the college sports system .
Japan was introduced to the sport in 1934 by Paul Rusch , a teacher and Christian missionary who helped establish football teams at three universities in Tokyo . Play was halted during World War II , but began to grow in popularity again after the war . As of 2010 , there are more than 400 high school football teams in Japan , with over 15 @,@ 000 participants , and over 100 teams play in the Kantoh Collegiate Football Association ( KCFA ) . The college champion plays the champion of the X @-@ League ( a semi @-@ pro league where teams are financed by corporations ) in the Rice Bowl to determine Japan 's national champion .
Europe is a major target for expansion of the game by football organizers . In the United Kingdom in the 1980s , the sport was fairly popular , with the 1986 Super Bowl being watched by over 4 million people ( about 1 out of every 14 Britons ) . The sport 's popularity faded over the 1990s , coinciding with the establishment of the Premier League . According to BBC America , there is a " social stigma " surrounding American football in the UK , with many Brits feeling the sport has no right to call itself ' football ' due to the small emphasis on kicking . Nonetheless , the sport has retained a following in the United Kingdom ; the NFL operates a media network in the country , and since 2007 has hosted the NFL International Series in London . Super Bowl viewership has also rebounded , with over 4 @.@ 4 million Britons watching Super Bowl XLVI .
The sport is played in European countries such as Switzerland , which has American football clubs in every major city , and Germany , where the sport has around 45 @,@ 000 registered amateur players .
= = Variations and related sports = =
Canadian football , the predominant form of football in Canada , is closely related to American football - both sports developed from rugby , and the two sports are considered to be the chief variants of gridiron football . Although the two games share a similar set of rules , there are several key rule differences : for example , in Canadian football the field measures 150 yards ( 137 m ) by 65 ( 59 m ) yards , including two 20 @-@ yard end zones ( for a distance between goal lines of 110 yards ) , teams have three downs instead of four , there are twelve players on each side instead of eleven , fair catches are not allowed , and a rouge , worth a single point is scored if the offensive team kicks the ball out of the defense 's end zone . The Canadian Football League ( CFL ) is the major Canadian league and is the second @-@ most popular sporting league in Canada , behind only the National Hockey League .
A major variant of football is arena football , played by the Arena Football League ( AFL ) . Arena football has eight @-@ player teams and uses an indoor field 50 yards ( 46 m ) in length , excluding end zones , and 28 @.@ 3 yards ( 25 @.@ 9 m ) wide . Punting is illegal , and kickoffs are attempted from the goal line . Large overhead nets deflect forward passes and kicks that hit them , and deflected kicks are live balls that may be recovered by either team .
Below the Arena Football League are what New York Times writer Mike Tanier described as the " most minor of minor leagues : " indoor football leagues . Like in arena football , teams in indoor football leagues play in arenas , but games are only attended by a small number of fans , and most players are semi @-@ professional athletes . Indoor football leagues are unstable , with franchises regularly moving from one league to another or merging with other teams , and teams or entire leagues dissolving entirely . The Indoor Football League , Southern Indoor Football League , Ultimate Indoor Football League , Continental Indoor Football League and American Professional Football League are examples of prominent indoor leagues .
There are several non @-@ contact variants of American football , such as flag football . In flag football the ballcarrier is not tackled ; instead , defenders aim to pull a flag tied around his waist . Another variant , touch football , simply requires the ballcarrier to be touched to be considered downed . A game of touch football may require that the player be touched with either one or two hands to be considered down , depending on the rules used .
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= Second Test , 1948 Ashes series =
The Second Test of the 1948 Ashes series was one of five Tests in a cricket series between Australia and England . The match was played at Lord 's cricket ground in London from 24 to 29 June , with a rest day on 27 June . Australia won the match by 409 runs to take a 2 – 0 lead , meaning that England would need to win the remaining three matches to regain The Ashes .
Australian captain Don Bradman won the toss and elected to bat . The tourists had won the First Test convincingly , and decided to field the same team , while England made three changes , mainly to adopt a more attacking bowling strategy . Australia started strongly , led by opener Arthur Morris , who scored 105 and took the score to 166 / 2 mid @-@ way through the first day . However , the later batsmen struggled after his departure and fell to 258 / 7 by the end of the first day , handing the home team the advantage . However , a lower @-@ order counterattack on the second morning saw Australia reach 350 , wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon scoring 53 . For England , the seamer Alec Bedser was the most successful bowler , taking 4 / 100 . Australian paceman Ray Lindwall then cut through the English top @-@ order , reducing them to 46 / 4 . After a recovery an 87 @-@ run partnership between Denis Compton — who top @-@ scored with 53 — and captain Norman Yardley , both fell within one run of each other and England looked set to be dismissed short of the follow on mark when they were at 145 / 7 . However , the lower order resisted stoutly and they ended at 215 early on the third morning ; Lindwall took 5 / 70 . Australia then set about extending their first innings lead , and opener Sid Barnes led the way , scoring 141 . He put on an opening partnership of 122 with Morris ( 62 ) , and added 174 with Bradman ( 89 ) . Australia closed the third day at 343 / 4 after a productive day of batting , giving them a lead of 478 despite losing three quick wickets late in the afternoon .
After the rest day , Australia proceeded to reach 460 / 7 — Keith Miller making 74 — before Bradman declared , setting England a target of 596 midway through the afternoon . The hosts reached 106 / 3 at stumps on the fourth day , but then collapsed on the final morning to be all out for 186 , handing Australia a 409 @-@ run victory . Cyril Washbrook and Tom Dollery top @-@ scored for England with 37 apiece . Ernie Toshack had the pick of the figures with 5 / 40 while Lindwall took 3 / 61 . Although Toshack had the better figures , commentators credited Lindwall with orchestrating the England collapse ; at the start of the innings he bowled at leading English batsmen Len Hutton at great pace before dismissing him . Hutton had appeared very unsettled by Lindwall and played meekly . He was severely criticised for his timid manner and was controversially dropped for the following match as the selectors thought he was providing a poor example to the junior members of the team . The Australians were very pleased with this decision , which they believed to be wrong , as they regarded Hutton as their most formidable opponent . The match set a new record for the highest attendance at a Test in England .
= = Background = =
Australia had proceeded through the first two months of the tour of England without defeat . After winning 10 of the first twelve matches before the Tests started , eight of these by an innings — the other two were drawn — they won the First Test by eight wickets . Between the Tests , they defeated Northamptonshire by an innings before drawing against Yorkshire .
According to former English paceman Bill Bowes , England had approached the First Test with the intention of achieving a draw against a team they regarded as their superior , reflected in their selections and use of defensive tactics . Bowes himself believed the tactics to be correct and almost successful . However , he suspected that Walter Robins , one of the selectors , considered the English strategy to be misguided and that they should attack the Australians . This was reflected in the English selections . The home team made three changes ; the leg spinner Doug Wright , who was forced to withdraw from the First Test at late notice due to lumbago , had regained his fitness and replaced the left arm orthodox spin of Young , who had taken match figures of 1 / 107 in the First Test — Australian wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon was his only wicket . However , he had managed to keep the batsmen quiet with his defensive leg theory , bowling 60 overs for 79 runs ; Wright was a much more attacking and therefore expensive bowler . Jim Laker , who had been called into the First Test team due to Wright 's lumbago , was initially the third spinner in the pecking order , but he took 4 / 138 , including three specialist batsmen , and was retained .
Alec Coxon took match figures of 4 / 113 for Yorkshire against Australia , taking four middle @-@ order wickets , and scored 21 and 16 not out in the middle @-@ order . He came into the team as an all @-@ rounder , even though his performances during the rest of the English season had been mediocre ; he had a batting average of 20 @.@ 25 for the summer and took only ten wickets in seven matches prior to the county fixture against Australia . Bowes saw him as an attacking bowler compatible with Robins 's strategic thinking .
Tom Dollery was called into the team after a run of heavy scoring for Warwickshire on difficult pitches at Edgbaston . He had made two centuries and seven fifties in 12 first @-@ class matches for the season . Batsman Charlie Barnett was dropped after scoring only eight and six in the First Test . Joe Hardstaff junior was also left out ; he had scored a duck and 43 in the First Test , and had a toe infection , so the selectors were spared the predicament of deciding whether to drop him on performance grounds . With Wright in for Young , and Coxon selected in place of a specialist batsman , England had a more attacking bowling line @-@ up , something the retired Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly praised . He also thought the selection of Coxon was beneficial , as his swing bowling would ease the workload of batsman Bill Edrich , who had opened the bowling in the previous Test . O 'Reilly regarded Edrich as a mediocre bowler and thought the extra burden with the ball was detracting from his main duty , batting .
Australia retained the same XI from the First Test at Trent Bridge . Ian Johnson was retained despite taking match figures of 1 / 85 , as was Bill Brown , the opener who was batting out of position in the middle @-@ order . Brown had scored 25 , 26 and 17 in his three innings in the middle @-@ order during the tour . O 'Reilly criticised the selection of Brown , who had appeared to be noticeably uncomfortable in the unfamiliar role . He said that despite Brown 's unbeaten double century in his previous Test at Lord 's in 1938 , Sam Loxton and Neil Harvey had better claims to selection . Following his groin injury at Trent Bridge , Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the first morning . Bradman was not convinced of Lindwall 's fitness , but the bowler 's protestations were sufficient to convince his captain to gamble on his inclusion . Australia won the toss and elected to bat , allowing Lindwall further time to recover from his injury . Before the toss , Bradman had spent an unusually long time inspecting the wicket , and after correctly predicting the side of the coin , he looked at the surface for another period before announcing Australia 's decision to bat . The all @-@ rounder Keith Miller played , but was unfit to bowl .
= = Scorecard = =
= = = Australia innings = = =
= = = England innings = = =
= = 24 June : Day One = =
At 8 : 00 on the morning of the Test , there was a storm to the south of London but the rain did not reach Lord 's , which was located in the north of the English capital . The first over bowled by Bedser to Barnes was watchfully played to complete a maiden . The debutant Coxon opened the bowling with Bedser and he removed Barnes for a duck in his second over , caught by Hutton at short fine leg from a short delivery to leave Australia 3 / 1 . Barnes tried to knock the ball through square leg but misjudged the pace of the wicket and played his shot too early , mishitting the ball to Hutton . Coxon bowled from very close to the wickets and left substantial footmarks just outside the right @-@ hander 's leg stump in an area ideal for a leg spinner . Although he was not of particularly fast pace , Coxon ran in vigorously and landed heavily after a pronounced delivery stride , making a significant impact on the surface . Bradman received a loud , positive reception from the crowd as he came out to bat in his final Test at Lord 's .
Bradman initially struggled against the English bowling . He faced his first ball from Coxon and inside edged it past his leg stump , before missing the third ball from Coxon and surviving a loud appeal for leg before wicket ( lbw ) . Bowling from the other end , Bedser beat Bradman with seam movement off the pitch and one ball narrowly skimmed past the stumps . Standing up to the stumps , wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans removed the bails as Bradman leaned forward , but his foot had stayed firmly behind the crease . In another close call , Bradman inside edged a ball towards Yardley at short leg , but the English captain was slow to react and the ball landed in front of him . The Australian captain managed only three runs in the first 20 minutes and Australia had scored only 14 after the first 30 minutes . Coxon consistently moved the ball into a cautious Bradman , and the Australians scored only 32 runs in the first hour .
Edrich then relieved Coxon , who had bowled his first seven overs in Test cricket for the loss of only 10 runs . Edrich bowled a bouncer , which Bradman tried to swing to the leg side , but the leading edge instead went in the air and landed behind point . On 13 , Bradman leg glanced a Bedser ball from his legs , narrowly evading Hutton in the trap at short fine leg . After one hour , he was on 14 . Bradman had fallen twice for the leg trap in the previous Test . Bedser continued to the probe the Australian captain with inswingers , trying to extract a lofted leg glance in the vicinity if the waiting Hutton . In contrast , Morris was playing fluently and scoring many runs from the back cut .
Bedser was relieved after 70 minutes of bowling . The leg spin of Wright was introduced and Australia cut loose . Wright bowled a no ball that Morris dispatched into the leg side crowd for six , before hitting another ball for four . Bradman and Morris settled down as Coxon and Wright operated . The Australian captain drove the debutant Coxon through the covers for two fours , and Yardley made frequent rotations of his bowlers . Coxon continued to significantly rough up the pitch outside the right @-@ handed batsman 's leg stump , and from the other , Wright was able to extract substantial spin on the first morning of the match , hitting Morris in the stomach with a ball that turned in sharply from outside off stump . At lunch , Australia were 82 / 1 with Morris on 45 and Bradman 35 . The tourists had largely been content to wait for loose deliveries , rather than take risks , and as the Englishmen bowled accurately , the Australians did not score quickly .
In the third over after the lunch break , with the score at 87 , Bradman was caught for the third consecutive time in the series by Hutton off Bedser at short fine leg . Hutton had dropped Bradman in the same position when he was on 13 . Including a county match against Yorkshire , it was the fourth time Hutton had caught Bradman in the leg trap from a glance . According to O 'Reilly , this was evidence that Bradman was no longer the player he was before World War II , as he had been unable to disperse the close @-@ catching fielders by counter @-@ attacking , before eventually being dismissed . O 'Reilly said this was the first time Bradman had fallen to the same trap three times in succession .
Hassett came to the crease to join Morris , with the new ball already due . Still using the old ball , Bedser beat Hassett second ball with a delivery that moved back in , but the appeal for lbw was turned down . However , Yardley opted to not take the ball , and Hassett managed to score a single and get off strike before the English captain called for a replacement ball . O 'Reilly said the failure to take the new ball immediately after the appeal was a missed opportunity to maximise the psychological pressure on Hassett .
After a slow start , Morris had begun to take control . He drove the ball through the covers and clipped it through the leg side , and reached his century with consecutive boundaries from Coxon soon after the new ball was taken . Former Australian Test opener Jack Fingleton , covering the tour as a newspaper journalist , called it " a pretty Test century in the grandest of all cricket settings " . The century ended a poor run of form for Morris earlier in the tour , when he had been shuffling uncertainly on the crease without decisively moving forward or back . O 'Reilly called it Morris 's best Test century to date , as this was the strongest English attack he had faced during his career , and because of the loss of wickets at the other end . O 'Reilly said Morris had been disciplined in not playing loose shots outside off stump and missing or edging them , yet still being able to score quickly at every opportunity .
Morris was out soon after for 105 runs with the score at 166 / 3 , having struck 14 fours and one six . His innings , which was noted for powerful , well @-@ placed cover drives , ended when he hit Coxon to Hutton in the gully . Miller came in and Bedser bowled three consecutive outswingers to him . A fourth ball swung the other way , and Miller did not offer a shot , expecting the ball to curve away and miss the stumps . Instead , he was hit in front of the wickets and given out lbw for four . O 'Reilly said Miller 's display was more akin to that of a tail @-@ end batsman with minimal skill , and blamed his poor form with the bat on an excessive workload imposed on him by Bradman . With two quick wickets , England had put the match back in the balance . Batting out of position in the middle @-@ order , Brown came in at 173 / 4 and helped Hassett to rebuild the innings . Both scored slowly , averaging more than three and a half minutes for each run . They realised Australia could not afford to lose any more wickets quickly and batted with extreme caution , reluctant even to attack long hops . Hassett was dropped three times before Yardley , who was bowling mainly in order to allow his frontline bowlers to recuperate , broke through his defences with a yorker . The English skipper trapped Brown lbw nine runs later to leave Australia at 225 / 6 . Brown had hit two consecutive half @-@ volleys off his pads through the leg side for four , and attempted a third boundary in a row to a similar delivery . However , this third delivery came off the pitch more quickly and beat Brown for pace .
This left Johnson and Tallon as the new men at the crease . Johnson struggled to score , while Tallon did so freely in the last hour . Edrich had Johnson caught behind for four to leave Australia at 246 / 7 . Johnson had contributed only four of the 30 runs scored while he was at the crease . Lindwall joined Tallon and the pair survived to the close of play . England were well placed when Australia ended at stumps on 258 / 7 with Tallon on 25 and Lindwall on 3 . Tallon had dominated the scoring late in the day , making 25 of the 33 runs added . Bowes believed that Yardley attacked very well , keeping the pressure on Australia by rotating his bowlers effectively so his three main bowlers were always at the crease . O 'Reilly praised Evans 's agile display in his stumping attempts as the fastest and best he had seen . The English crowd were optimistic about England 's position and some of them immediately camped outside the turnstiles upon leaving the ground . Arlott said England 's " bowlers had done nobly " .
= = 25 June : Day Two = =
The next day , the English crowd filled the ground early , anticipating a strong showing from the home team after their promising start on the first day , but Australia 's lower order batted their team into control on the second morning . Tallon and Lindwall batted confidently from the start of the play , and the latter hit two cover drives for four from Bedser after the new ball was taken . O 'Reilly said Lindwall was playing in the same manner as when he made his maiden Test century in the last Ashes series , but he then played around a straight ball from Bedser , and was bowled for 15 to leave the score at 275 / 8 . Tallon kept on batting in a conventional manner , while Johnston and Toshack played adventurously , registering the highest Test scores of their careers . Both Johnston and Toshack swung hard at the ball , which often went in vastly different directions to where they had aimed their shots . Australia 's wicket @-@ keeper put on 45 with Johnston — who scored 29 — before becoming Bedser 's second victim of the morning , holing out to Yardley for 53 . Toshack came out to join Johnston with the score at 320 / 9 and the last pair put on 30 more runs before the latter was stumped from Wright 's leg spin , having overbalanced while leaning onto the front foot and trying to hit a ball for six . The Australians had regained the momentum , adding 92 runs in 66 minutes of hitting in the morning . One sequence of two overs from Edrich was taken for 28 runs , with many balls being unintentionally spooned over the slips or the covers from mishits . Both Johnston and Toshack — not known for their batting ability — played without inhibitions , joyfully revelling in their luck . Yardley was later criticised for not bringing Wright into the attack at an earlier stage , as the Australian tail was dealing efficiently with the English pacemen . Bedser was the most successful of the bowlers , ending with 4 / 100 from 43 overs , while debutant Coxon took 2 / 90 from 35 overs . The off spin of Laker was used sparingly , accounting for only seven overs , whereas the part @-@ time medium pace of Edrich and Yardley had combined for 23 overs .
Washbrook and Hutton then strode to the crease as England faced a short burst of Australian pace before the lunch break . Lindwall took the new ball and felt pain in his groin after delivering the first ball to Hutton . Despite this , Lindwall persevered , and his first over was a maiden . Seeing Lindwall struggle through the pain barrier , Bradman tossed the ball to Miller at the start off the second over to see if he could lift and bowl as well . However , Miller threw the ball back to his captain , indicating that his body would not be able to withstand the strain . This resulted in media speculation that Bradman and Miller had quarrelled .
Although Bradman claimed the exchange had been amicable , others disputed this . Teammate Barnes later asserted that Miller had retorted by suggesting Bradman — a very occasional slower bowler — bowl himself . Barnes said the captain " was as wild as a battery @-@ stung brumby " and warned his unwilling bowler that there would be consequences for his defiance . According to unpublished writings in Fingleton 's personal collection , Bradman chastised his players in the dressing room at the end of the play , saying " I 'm 40 and I can do my full day 's work in the field . " Miller reportedly snapped " So would I — if I had fibrositis " ; Bradman had been discharged from the armed services during World War II on health grounds , whereas most of the team had been sent into battle . Miller had crash @-@ landed while serving as a fighter pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force in England and had suffered chronic back trouble ever since .
Washbrook had been criticised after the First Test for playing aggressively and taking too many risks early in his innings , having fallen twice to attacking shots . He continued to play in a similar way , rather than adopting the traditional opener 's strategy of not playing at any ball unless it was going to hit the stumps and waiting for the bowlers to tire . Lindwall had Washbrook caught behind for eight in his fourth over , playing at a ball outside off stump , and ended his pre @-@ lunch spell with 1 / 7 from six overs , while Johnston accompanied him from the other end . Neither Hutton nor Washbrook appeared comfortable against the bowling , and the new batsman Edrich tried to hit Lindwall through the off side , leading to a loud appeal for caught behind , which was turned down . After lunch , Hutton did the majority of the scoring , before playing outside a Johnson off break on the front foot and being bowled for 20 to leave England at 32 / 2 . The English opener had been uncertain against Johnson 's spin and played forward too early at a slower ball , which went between a gap between his bat and pad . Compton came in , having been dismissed hit wicket after falling over in the last Test while trying to avoid a bouncer , and Lindwall delivered a few short balls straight away , but the new batsman was not caught off @-@ guard . Lindwall then clean bowled Edrich — who was playing across the line — with an outswinger for five . Edrich had toiled for 70 minutes in scoring those runs . Dollery came out and played the first ball with his pads before being bowled for a duck from the next delivery . Dollery 's bat was still about to start its downward swing towards by the time Lindwall 's outswinger had passed him and hit the stumps . O 'Reilly said Dollery 's inability to deal with Lindwall was typical of English cricket 's lack of answers to express pace bowling . This was part of a six @-@ over post @-@ lunch spell by Lindwall that yielded 2 / 11 as the batsmen appeared unable to deal with his extreme pace . England were 46 / 4 and Australia firmly in control .
Compton was joined by his skipper Yardley and after playing defensively for a period , the pair rebuilt the innings , scoring 87 runs in 100 minutes . After the loss of four quick wickets , the Compton and Yardley elected to not play at any balls that were not on the line of the stumps , and Lindwall and Johnston were taken off to recuperate ahead of the second new ball . Australia had the option of taking the new ball just before the tea break , but Bradman decided to wait so his two pacemen could have an extra 20 minutes to replenish their energy levels . Meanwhile , Johnson and Toshack operated , and the English duo played them cautiously and comfortably . At tea , England had recovered to be 129 / 4 , with Compton on 51 and Yardley 42 . The English captain had been particularly successful against Johnson , capitalising on a series of overpitched balls and driving them away for runs . After tea , Lindwall and Johnston returned with the new ball , but the former appeared to be tired and lacking in spirit in his first over . Compton edged Johnston into the slips , where Miller took a low catch , ending his innings for 53 . One run later , Lindwall clipped Yardley 's off stump with the first ball of the next over to leave England at 134 / 6 ; the home skipper had made 44 before an outswinger had evaded his bat as he attempted to play a back foot defensive shot . Evans came to the crease and tried to counter @-@ attack , hitting Lindwall for a boundary past square leg . Johnston then removed Evans for nine , caught by a diving Miller from a swing of the bat wide outside off stump , leaving the hosts at 145 / 7 .
Coxon and Laker came to the crease and put on a 41 @-@ run stand for the eighth wicket . After 85 minutes of resistance , Coxon hit a catch back to Johnson , ending his first Test innings for 19 , and Laker was caught behind from the same bowler , having already been dropped twice in the slips . England 's last pair added ten runs to close at stumps on 207 / 9 with Bedser on six and Wright eight , having just avoided the follow on .
= = 26 June : Day Three = =
On the third morning , Bedser and Wright survived for 20 minutes , and Lindwall tried to break their resistance by aiming a few bouncers at the former . Bedser eventually inside edged a Lindwall bouncer onto his stumps , ending England 's innings at 215 , giving Australia a 135 @-@ run first innings lead . Lindwall ended with 5 / 70 , while Johnson took 3 / 72 and Johnston 2 / 43 . Toshack was the other bowler used , sending down 18 overs for the loss of 23 runs . In later years , Bradman told Lindwall that he pretended not to notice his bowler 's pain . Lindwall was worried his captain had noticed the injury , but Bradman later claimed to have feigned ignorance to allow his paceman to relax . O 'Reilly said Lindwall " bowled as well as any fast bowler can bowl . He always seemed to have the situation sized up correctly and he knew just when to put his all into the task ... and enjoyed a triumph which seldom comes to any bowler . " Arlott praised Lindwall for his subtle variations in pace , line and length , and how he kept the batsman guessing as to what was coming to them .
The weather was fine as Australia started their second innings just after noon . From the second ball of the innings , bowled by Bedser , Barnes got off the mark to avoid his pair . Coxon took the new ball at the other end and Barnes and Morris saw it off . In contrast to their English counterparts , the Australian opening pair took a cautious approach to begin with , avoiding the hook shot and not playing at balls that were not going to hit the stumps and established a solid start for themselves . Yardley then introduced Laker , who induced Morris to hit a ball back down the pitch in the air , but the bowler was slow to react to the possibility of a caught and bowled . According to O 'Reilly , most other bowlers would have been able to reach the ball and attempt a catch . Barnes survived a missed stumping opportunity from Laker in the same over when he was on 18 ; he came down the pitch and the ball bounced out of the footmarks and narrowly missed leg stump , but Evans fumbled it , and it went away for four byes .
Barnes took advantage of his reprieve to combine with Morris in an opening stand of 122 , as Yardley made frequent bowling changes in an attempt to disrupt their progress . Wright came on and bowled a no ball , which Morris lofted into the crowd for six . Morris stopped shuffling , while Barnes decided to adopt a strategy of pre @-@ emptively moving down the pitch to Laker . Earlier in the tour , Barnes had often been bowled or trapped lbw trying to force off breaks into the leg side . He drove Laker into the pavilion and Australia were 73 / 0 at lunch with Morris on 40 and Barnes 25 , an overall lead of 208 .
After lunch , Morris was bowled for 62 , knocking a ball from Wright onto his stumps , after attempting a sweep from a long hop . This brought Bradman in to join Barnes . Yardley surrounded the Australian captain with fielders and Laker beat his bat thrice in an over . Bedser was brought in with the leg trap again in place as he bowled on Bradman 's pads with the second new ball . The Australian captain decided to avoid the danger of being caught at short fine leg from a leg glance by padding the inswingers away with his front leg . Bedser responded by changing his tactics by bowling a series of outswingers , beating the outside edge of his bat three times in a row , narrowly missing the off stump on one occasion . Barnes responded by manipulating the strike and shielding Bradman from Bedser . The Australian opener had little trouble against the leg trap Bedser set for him , scoring freely into the leg side and taking the shine off the new ball .
Barnes was also quiet after lunch , and after one long period of defence , he drove Laker for four through the covers , eliciting a round of ironic applause . The Australian opener responded by placing his hand on his chest and bowing to the spectators . Barnes had started slowly , but he accelerated after reaching his half @-@ century . Bradman took two consecutive boundaries from Wright to bring up his fifty . This left Barnes on 96 and Australia at 222 / 1 , half an hour after tea . By this time , the pace of the pitch appeared to have slowed , making batting relatively easy .
Barnes lingered for a further ten minutes on 96 before reaching his century with a straight drive from Laker . He had taken 255 minutes and hit ten fours . After registering his century , Barnes became particularly aggressive . Barnes stepped out to attack Laker but missed ; luckily for him , Evans failed to collect the ball as it turned down the leg side .
Barnes dispatched one Laker over for 21 runs , including two successive blows over the long on boundary for six , and two fours , and Australia 's lead went past the 400 mark with nine wickets still in hand . Yardley then brought on the part @-@ time left @-@ arm unorthodox spin of Compton , and himself , in an attempt to stem Barnes ' hitting . The Australian finally fell for 141 , caught by Washbrook on the boundary from Yardley . The ball would have gone for another six had it not been intercepted by Washbrook . Barnes had struck 14 boundaries and two sixes in his innings . The speed of his batting had allowed Australia to reach 296 / 2 in minutes , after a 174 @-@ run partnership with Bradman . Yardley bowled Hassett for a golden duck off the inside edge , so Miller came to the crease at 296 / 3 to face Yardley 's hat @-@ trick ball . The Australian all @-@ rounder survived a loud lbw appeal on his first ball , denying the English captain his hat @-@ trick . Despite Yardley 's failure to complete the hat @-@ trick , he had taken four wickets in the match , and was going through an unusually productive period with his semi @-@ regular bowling . While England 's front @-@ line bowlers struggled , Yardley managed 9 wickets at a bowling average of 22 @.@ 66 for the series . His average was second only to Lindwall among all bowlers , and only Bedser ( 18 ) among his players dismissed more batsmen . In contrast , Yardley averaged less than two wickets every three matches throughout his first @-@ class career , at an average above 30 .
Bradman was on 89 and heading towards a century in his last Test innings at Lord 's when he fell to Bedser again , this time courtesy of a one @-@ handed diving effort from Edrich . Bradman had been worried by Bedser 's angle into his pads and the leg trap , but the seamer 's leg cutter moved the ball the other way towards the slips and caught Bradman 's outside edge . Bedser had dismissed Bradman all four times so far in the Test series . Brown joined Miller at 329 / 4 after Australia had lost 3 / 33 . The tourists reached stumps at 343 without further loss , Miller striking one six over square leg into the grandstand . He had also offered two chances , but none of the catches were completed . This gave Australia a lead of 478 at the end of the third day , with Miller on 22 and Brown on 7 . In all , England had missed seven catches or stumpings . O 'Reilly said the loss of three quick wickets in the afternoon was not so much a sign of an English revival but Australian complacency due to the large size of the lead .
= = 28 June : Day Four = =
After the Sunday rest day , Australia resumed with a lead of 478 runs and six wickets in hand . The morning was punctuated by three rain stoppages , which increased England 's chances of saving the game . Just ten minutes after the start of the day 's play , heavy rain intervened . The weather cleared and Miller and Brown moved to lunch on 63 and 32 respectively , having advanced Australia to 409 / 4 . Miller was given a life before lunch when he hit a ball high into the air ; Dollery stood right under it and had ample time to prepare , but dropped the catch . In 88 minutes of play , Australia added a further 66 runs . During this time , the third new ball became available , but England opted not to use it immediately , as the wet and slippery ground had made it hard for the bowlers to grip the ball or run up to the crease with confidence ; the hosts instead waited for drier conditions so they could exercise more control over the ball . However , after a period of using his slower bowlers , Yardley opted to take the new ball , and Miller hit three boundaries to pass 50 , and both batsmen lifted their rate of scoring . It appeared that aside from the need to score quickly in preparation for the declaration , both players found the new ball easier to see than its muddied predecessor . Miller hooked Coxon repeatedly , and drove Bedser for many runs . Bradman was expected to declare just before lunch so he could attack the English openers for a short period before the adjournment , but a shower at this time deterred him from doing so , as his bowlers would have struggled to grip the ball ; Lindwall had also been injured on a slippery surface in earlier times .
After the resumption of play , Brown was caught behind from Coxon for 32 without adding to his lunch score , ending an 87 @-@ run partnership with Miller , and bringing Lindwall to the crease at 416 / 5 . Miller and Lindwall attacked at every opportunity before the declaration . Miller 's innings was noted for its driving , and he was out for 74 , playing a hook shot that was caught by Bedser at square leg from Laker in pursuit of quick runs . He was followed by Lindwall , who ran out of his crease in attempt to hit Laker across the line to the boundary , missed , and was stumped for 25 , prompting Bradman to declare with Australia at 460 / 7 with a lead of 595 runs . The tourists had added 51 runs for the loss of three wickets in approximately an hour 's batting after lunch . Yardley and Laker had been the only multiple wicket @-@ takers , with two each . The Australians had punished the spinners the most , taking more than 3 @.@ 50 runs per over from each of Wright , Laker and Compton . It would take a world record chase from England to win the match .
Yardley decided to use the medium roller to flatten out the surface , but further showers breathed more life into the pitch , forcing a rain break immediately after the start of England 's run chase . The rain immediately stopped after the players returned to the pavilion , but upon promptly returning to the middle , the rain started again . The players returned after 15 minutes and played for approximately half an hour , before Washbrook and Hutton unsuccessfully appealed against the light . Rain then came again for another 40 minutes , which included the tea break . The weather cleared in time for the normal resumption of play at 4 : 30 after the scheduled adjournment .
When the players returned , Lindwall and Johnston extracted steep bounce with the new ball , troubling the English batsmen . However , Washbrook changed his tactics and decided to eschew the hook shot , even allowing some short balls to hit him on the body . Washbrook drove Johnston for three runs and then pulled Lindwall for a four , almost collecting Barnes — who was standing close in at short leg — in the nose . He proceeded to score England 's first 16 runs . Lindwall dropped Hutton from Johnston 's bowling before the English batsman had scored . Johnston usually moved the ball into the right @-@ handed batsmen , but on this occasion the ball went straight on and took the outside of the edge of the bat . Hutton had trouble dealing with Lindwall , and played and missed multiple times in the deteriorating light , hampered by the lack of a sightscreen . Fingleton described it as " probably Hutton 's worst effort in a Test " . In a fidgety display , Hutton played loosely outside the off stump and missed four times in one Johnston over . O 'Reilly said Hutton " seemed to have lost all power of concentration and looked like a man being led to the gallows " , and that he " was little more than a masquerader compared to the Hutton [ of 1938 ] " . Hutton took 32 minutes of batting to score his first run of the innings .
Hutton and Washbrook took the score to 42 , England 's highest opening partnership of the series thus far , before the former edged Lindwall to Johnson in the slips and was out for 13 . Edrich and Washbrook were then subjected to repeated short balls , and the latter was hit several times on the fingers while fending down Lindwall 's bouncers , having decided to avoid the hook shot . Edrich ducked so low and so quickly that the top of the stumps could often be seen behind his back . Soon after , Toshack removed both Edrich and Washbrook in quick succession to leave England at 65 / 3 . Edrich , having played only one scoring shot in the preceding 20 minutes , edged an overpitched delivery to Johnson low down in the slips , and decided to stand his ground after the catch was taken . The batsman thought he may have hit a bump ball into the ground before it flew to Johnson , but the umpire ruled otherwise and gave him out . Tallon then took a difficult catch to remove Washbrook . Washbrook inside edged a Toshack full toss directly downwards at Tallon 's ankle . Bradman described the catch as " miraculous " because Tallon had to reach so low , so quickly , in order to take the catch . Up until this point , Washbrook had been beginning to find some fluency and was striking the ball confidently . Arlott speculated that Edrich and Washbrook may have lost concentration after Lindwall was replaced by Toshack , lulled into a false sense of security once Australia 's leading bowler was no longer operating . However , Compton and Dollery added 41 in the last 30 minutes to take England to 106 / 3 at the close of play . Compton was on 29 and Dollery 21 . The latter was particularly fluent in scoring on the leg side and he defied the Australian bowlers resolutely . Lindwall was brought back to put pressure on Dollery , having bowled him for a duck in the first innings , but the batsman had already been in the middle for a short period , and played the pace bowling with more assurance in the second innings .
= = 29 June : Day Five = =
The final day started poorly for England ; after failing to hit a leg stump full toss for a boundary from the first ball of the day , Compton edged Johnston to a diving Miller at second slip from the second ball of the morning . Compton had aimed a square drive , but the delivery was Johnston 's variation ball , which went away instead of into the batsman . It took the outside edge and flew to a diving Miller , who knocked the ball upwards before falling on his back and completing the catch as the ball went down . Compton stood his ground and waited for the umpire to confirm whether Miller had caught the ball cleanly , and was duly given out by the unhesitating official . O 'Reilly described Miller 's effort as " perhaps the very best slips catch of the whole series and ... a real match @-@ winner . " England had lost a wicket without adding to their overnight total .
Yardley and Dollery took the score to 133 before Toshack bowled the former for 11 . He trapped the new man Coxon two balls later in the same over for a duck , leaving England at 133 / 6 . Coxon shuffled across his stumps and missed his first delivery , which hit him in front of the stumps and prompted a loud lbw appeal , and did the same thing to the next ball . During this spell , Toshack conceded only seven runs from eight overs , but was taken off as Bradman wanted to take the new ball and utilise Lindwall and Johnston . In the meantime , Dollery had continued to bat effectively , watching the ball closely onto his bat , and scoring three leg side boundaries from Johnston 's bowling . Eight runs after Coxon 's dismissal , Dollery shaped to duck a Lindwall bouncer , but it skidded through low and bowled him . Lindwall bowled Laker without scoring later in the same over to leave England at 141 / 8 . Evans continued to resist stubbornly , remaining 24 not out as England were bowled out for 186 to cede a 409 @-@ run victory . Johnston had Bedser caught by Hassett for nine before Wright hit Toshack to Lindwall for four .
Toshack ended the innings with 5 / 40 , while Lindwall and Johnston took 3 / 61 and 2 / 62 respectively . The dominance of Australia 's three @-@ man seam attack was such that the off spinner Johnson bowled only two of the 78 @.@ 1 overs . Arlott said that while Toshack had the best figures , Lindwall was the pivotal figure . He said that when Lindwall " so patently disturbed Hutton he struck a blow at the morale of the English batting that was never overcome . " O 'Reilly said England 's second innings " had developed into an undignified scramble " and had allowed the Australian bowlers to pick up wickets as though they were playing against a weak county team . He blamed the low standards of county cricket for allowing English batsmen to accumulate large tallies of runs easily while not testing them against formidable bowling . O 'Reilly said they had become soft after many matches against weak opposition , which had not forced them to concentrate as intensely as they would have had to in Test cricket . The gross attendance was 132 @,@ 000 and receipts were £ 43 @,@ 000 — a record for a Test in England .
= = Aftermath = =
Wisden 's verdict was that " this convincing victory confirmed the First Test realisations of Australia 's clear superiority at all points . Only on the first day did England provide comparable opposition , and their Selectors must have been very disappointed at the lack of determination by some of the batsmen against an attack again below full strength ... Australia were the better team in batting , bowling , fielding and tactics , but England could not complain of lack of opportunities to wrest the initiative . " Bowes considered England 's attacking policy to be a failure and that , unlike the First Test , " there were no saving graces . "
The main talking point after the Test was the controversial omission of England 's leading batsman Hutton for the Third Test . The reason was said to be Hutton 's struggles with Lindwall 's short @-@ pitched bowling in the Second Test . Observers noticed Hutton backing away from the fast bowlers . The English selectors believed such a sight would have a negative effect on the rest of the side — which was not in good batting form — as it was a poor example from a leading batsman . The omission generated considerable acrimony , and pleased the Australians , who felt Hutton was their most formidable opponent with the bat . Former Australian batsman Jack Fingleton pointed out that while Hutton had batted erratically and appeared uncomfortable in the previous Test , he also had a strong track record against the tourists , having made 52 and 64 for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , a game in which no other Englishman passed 35 , and made 94 , 76 and 122 retired ill in his last three Test innings during the previous Ashes series of 1946 – 47 . Hutton 's position was taken by debutant George Emmett , who made only 10 and a duck in a rain @-@ shortened draw , and was subsequently dropped for the Fourth Test .
Hutton 's controversial exile thus ended after just one Test . However , both E. W. Swanton and Bill Bowes believed Hutton to be a better batsman once he returned to the side . He and Washbrook put on 168 for the first wicket , the first time England had put on more than 42 for the opening stand during the series , as the hosts went on to make 496 , their highest score for the series . The pair added another triple @-@ figure partnership in the second innings . Despite this , Australia 's batsmen set a world record by chasing down 404 on the final day to win by seven wickets and take a series @-@ winning 3 – 0 lead .
The events of the Second Test also affected the career paths of other players . England 's inability to cut down the Australians resulted in the dropping of three of their bowlers — Wright , Laker and Coxon — after the Lord 's Test . Coxon 's debut was his only Test match , something believed to be caused more by off @-@ field events than sporting merit . There was a story that he punched Compton — whom he disliked and considered self @-@ important — in the dressing room , but Coxon always denied this . However , there was certainly an altercation and Coxon was never selected again . The match was the last ever Test for Brown , who had struggled out of position in the middle @-@ order , scoring 73 runs at 24 @.@ 33 in three Test innings during the season . He had scored centuries on his previous Test outings at Lord 's in 1934 and 1938 , but the third visit proved to be the end of his international career .
After the historic win in the Fourth Test , Australia had five tour matches before the final Test . They won three while two ended in rain @-@ curtailed draws . Australia completed the series in style with an innings victory in the Fifth Test at The Oval to complete a 4 – 0 result . The Fifth Test was the last international match , and the tourists only had seven further matches to negotiate in order to fulfil Bradman 's aim of going through the tour undefeated . Apart from two matches that were washed out after Australia had secured first innings leads of more than 200 , Bradman 's men had little difficulty , winning the remaining five fixtures by an innings . They thus became the first touring Test team to complete an English season undefeated , earning themselves the sobriquet The Invincibles .
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= Béla II of Hungary =
Béla the Blind ( Hungarian : Vak Béla ; Croatian : Bela Slijepi ; Slovak : Belo Slepý ; c . 1109 – 13 February 1141 ) was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1131 . He was blinded along with his rebellious father Álmos on the order of Álmos 's brother , King Coloman of Hungary . Béla grew up in monasteries during the reign of Coloman 's son Stephen II . The childless king arranged Béla 's marriage with Helena of Rascia , who would become her husband 's co @-@ ruler throughout his reign .
Béla was crowned king at least two months after the death of Stephen II , implying that his accession to the throne did not happen without opposition . Two violent purges were carried out among the partisans of his predecessors to strengthen Béla 's rule . King Coloman 's alleged son Boris tried to dethrone Béla but the king and his allies defeated the pretender 's troops in 1132 . In the second half of Béla 's reign , Hungary adopted an active foreign policy . Bosnia and Split seem to have accepted Béla 's suzerainty around 1136 .
= = Early years until 1131 = =
Béla was the only son of Duke Álmos — the younger brother of King Coloman of Hungary — by his wife , Predslava of Kiev . Historians Gyula Kristó and Ferenc Makk write that Béla was born between 1108 and 1110 . Álmos devised several plots to dethrone his brother . In retaliation , the king deprived Álmos of his ducatus or " duchy " between 1105 and 1108 . Álmos did not give up his ambitions and King Coloman had him and the child Béla blinded between 1112 and 1115 to secure a peaceful succession for his own son , Stephen . According to one of the two versions of these events recorded in the Illuminated Chronicle , the king even ordered that Béla should be castrated but the soldier who was charged with this task refused to execute the order .
[ The ] King took the Duke and his infant son Bela and blinded them . He also gave orders that the infant Bela should be castrated . But the man who was instructed to blind them feared God and the sterility of the royal line , and therefore he castrated a dog and brought its testicles to the King .
After their blinding , Álmos lived in the monastery of Dömös , which he had founded . Kristó and Makk write that it is probable that Béla lived with his father in the monastery . The Annales Posonienses relates that " the child was growing in the reign of King Coloman 's son , Stephen " , who ascended the throne in 1116 . Having hatched a failed plot against the king , Álmos left the monastery and fled to Constantinople in about 1125 . For unknown reasons , Béla did not follow his father to the Byzantine Empire . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that he was kept " concealed in Hungary from the fury " of the king . Béla settled in the Pécsvárad Abbey , whose abbot sheltered him in secret .
Álmos died in exile on 1 September 1127 . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , Béla 's partisans " revealed to the King , who believed him to have died after his blinding , that Béla was alive " . On hearing this , King Stephen II " rejoiced with great joy , for he knew beyond doubt that he would have no heir " . The king even arranged Béla 's marriage with Helena of Rascia and granted Tolna to the couple around 1129 .
King Stephen II died in early 1131 . A late source — the Ottoman Turkish chronicle known as Tarih @-@ i Üngürüs or The History of the Hungarians — narrates that Béla ascended the throne after his predecessor 's nephew , Saul whom Stephen II had nominated as his heir had died . Béla II was crowned in Székesfehérvár on 28 April , substantiating the reliability of this report . However , no scholarly consensus on the exact circumstances of Béla 's ascension exists . According to Gyula Kristó , Béla was crowned after a civil war between his and Saul 's partisans , but Pál Engel does not mention any conflict related to Béla 's succession .
= = Reign = =
= = = Consolidation ( 1131 – 1132 ) = = =
Béla 's blindness prevented him from administering his kingdom without assistance . He put his trust in his wife and her brother Beloš . Both royal and private charters from Béla 's reign emphasize Queen Helena 's pre @-@ eminent role in the decision @-@ making process , proving that the king regarded his wife as his co @-@ ruler . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , at " an assembly of the realm near Arad " in early to mid @-@ 1131 , Queen Helena ordered the slaughter of all noblemen who were accused of having suggested the blinding of her husband to King Coloman . Béla distributed the goods of the executed magnates between the newly established Arad Chapter and the early 11th @-@ century Óbuda Chapter .
Béla 's was on good terms with the Holy Roman Empire , jeopardizing the interests of Boleslaw III of Poland who had been warring with the empire . The Polish monarch decided to support a pretender to the Hungarian crown named Boris . Boris was born to King Coloman 's second wife Euphemia of Kiev after his mother was repudiated for adultery . After Boris arrived in Poland , a number of Hungarian noblemen joined him . Others sent messengers to Boris " to invite him that he should come and with their help claim the kingdom for himself " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle .
Accompanied by Polish and Rus ' reinforcements , Boris broke into Hungary in mid @-@ 1132 . Béla entered into an alliance with Leopold III , Margrave of Austria . Before launching a counter @-@ attack against Boris , Béla convoked a council on the river Sajó . The Illuminated Chronicle relates that the King asked " the eminent men of Hungary " who were present if they knew whether Boris " was a bastard or the son of King Coloman " . The King 's partisans attacked and murdered all those who proved to be " disloyal and divided in their minds " during the meeting . Boris , who thought that the majority of the Hungarian lords supported his claim , in vain sent one of his partisans to Béla 's camp to incite the King 's retinue to mutiny .
[ Samson ] proposed to go to the assembly of the King and there openly and publicly insult him . All approved and [ Boris ] himself , misled by empty hope , gave him great thanks ; for he wanted to complete what he had begun , and he thought that after the King had been thus insulted the kingdom would be his . The King had taken up his station near the river [ Sajó ] , and as he sat in his tent with his nobles and soldiers , behold , [ Samson ] entered and said to the King : " Vile dog , what are you doing with the kingdom ? It is better that your lord [ Boris ] have the kingdom and for your to live in your monastery , as your father did . " There was commotion among the nobles of the realm , and Johannes , the son of Otto , the King 's notary ... , said to Count Bud : " Why are we waiting ? Why do we not seize him ? " As they made to seize him , he hastily leapt upon a horse and fled .
Béla tried to persuade the Polish monarch to stop supporting the pretender . However , Boleslaw remained loyal to Boris . In the decisive battle , which was fought on the river Sajó on 22 July 1132 , the Hungarian and Austrian troops defeated Boris and his allies .
= = = Expansion ( 1132 – 1139 ) = = =
Boleslaw III of Poland could not assist Boris after the Battle of the Sajó . Béla 's allies — Soběslav I of Bohemia and Volodimirko of Peremyshl — invaded Poland each year between 1132 and 1135 . Soběslav regularly — in 1133 , 1134 , 1137 , and 1139 — visited Béla 's court . The Czech monarch even persuaded Lothar III , Holy Roman Emperor to force Boleslaw III to abandon Boris and recognize Béla 's rule in Hungary in August 1135 .
Hungary adopted an expansionist policy after Boris 's attempts to dethrone Béla . The chronicler Thomas the Archdeacon relates that Gaudius , who became Archbishop of Split in 1136 , " enjoyed great favor with the kings of Hungary " and " often visited their court " . The report suggests that Split accepted Béla II 's suzerainty around 1136 , but this interpretation of the sources is not universally accepted by historians . The exact circumstances surrounding the submission of Bosnia are unknown but the region seems to have accepted Béla 's suzerainty without resistance by 1137 . Historian John V. A. Fine writes that the northeastern regions of the province formed part of Queen Helena 's dowry . The Hungarian army penetrated into the valley of the Rama River , a tributary of the Neretva River , in about 1137 . Although Béla assumed the title King of Rama in token of the new conquest , the permanent occupation of the region is not proven .
Hungarian troops participated in a campaign launched by Grand Prince Yaropolk II of Kiev against Vsevolod of Kiev in 1139 . Béla strengthened his alliance with the Holy Roman Empire . For this purpose , he gave financial support to Otto of Bamberg 's missions among the Pomeranians and arranged the engagement of his daughter Sophia with Henry , son of the new German king Conrad III in June 1139 .
= = = Last years ( 1139 – 1141 ) = = =
According to the Hungarian chronicles , in the last few years of his life Béla became a drunkard . His courtiers took advantage of his drunkenness to receive grants from him . When he was in an alcoholic stupor , he sometimes ordered the execution of innocent men . Béla died on 13 February 1141 , " on the Ides of February , a Thursday " . He was buried in the Székesfehérvár Cathedral .
After King Bela had been established in his rule of the kingdom , he indulged himself much with wine . His courtiers found that whatever they asked of the King in his drunkenness he would grant , and after his drunkenness he could not take it back . In his drunkenness he delivered Poch and Saul , who were in religious orders , into the hands of their enemies , and they were killed without cause .
= = Family = =
Béla married Helena of Rascia upon the initiation of his cousin , King Stephen II at the beginning of 1129 . Helena was a daughter of Uroš I of Rascia and his wife Anna , whose origin is uncertain . Queen Helena gave birth to at least six children . The first of these , the future King Géza II of Hungary , was born in 1130 . Three brothers — Ladislaus , Stephen and Álmos — were born in the early 1130s . Sophia , the first daughter of the royal couple , was born around 1135 ; she died as a nun in Admont Abbey after her engagement with Henry Berengar of Germany was broken . Béla II 's youngest daughter Elisabeth , who was born in about 1140 , married Mieszko III of Poland .
The following family tree presents Béla 's ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article .
* Whether Géza 's first or second wife was his children 's mother is uncertain .
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= Battle of Arawe =
The Battle of Arawe ( also known as Operation Director ) was fought between Allied and Japanese forces during the New Britain Campaign of World War II . The battle formed part of the Allied Operation Cartwheel , and had the objective of serving as a diversion before a larger landing at Cape Gloucester in late December 1943 . The Japanese military was expecting an Allied offensive in western New Britain , and was reinforcing the region at the time of the Allied landing in the Arawe area on 15 December 1943 . The Allies secured Arawe after about a month of intermittent fighting with the outnumbered Japanese force .
Initial Allied goals for the landing at Arawe included securing a base for American PT boats and diverting Japanese forces away from Cape Gloucester . The PT boat base was subsequently deemed unnecessary and was never built . Only a small Japanese force was stationed at Arawe at the time , although reinforcements were en route . The main Allied landing on 15 December was successful , despite a failed subsidiary landing and problems coordinating the landing craft . American forces quickly secured a beachhead and dug in . Japanese air units made large @-@ scale raids against the Arawe area in the days after the landing , and in late December Imperial Japanese Army ( IJA ) troops unsuccessfully counterattacked the American force . In mid @-@ January 1944 the American force , reinforced with additional infantry and tanks , launched a brief offensive that pushed the Japanese back . The Japanese units at Arawe withdrew from the area towards the end of February as part of a general retreat from western New Britain .
There is no consensus among historians on whether the Allied offensive at Arawe was necessary . While some have argued that the landing served as a useful diversion ahead of the Cape Gloucester operation , others believe that the entire campaign in western New Britain was unnecessary , and that the force employed at Arawe could have been better used elsewhere .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
In July 1942 , the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff directed that the main objective of the Allied forces in the South Pacific and Southwest Pacific area commands was to capture the major Japanese base at Rabaul on the eastern tip of New Britain . From August 1942 , U.S. and Australian forces conducted a series of offensives in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands , with the goals of eliminating Japanese positions in the region and establishing air bases close to Rabaul . The Japanese forces in the area mounted a strong resistance , but were unable to stop the Allied advance .
In June 1943 , the Allies launched a major offensive — designated Operation Cartwheel — to capture Rabaul . During the next five months , Australian and U.S. forces under the overall command of General Douglas MacArthur advanced along the north coast of eastern New Guinea , capturing the town of Lae and the Huon Peninsula . U.S. forces under the command of Admiral William Halsey , Jr. simultaneously advanced through the Solomon Islands from Guadalcanal , and established an air base at Bougainville in November . In June , the Joint Chiefs of Staff decided that it was unnecessary to capture Rabaul as the Japanese base there could be neutralized by blockade and aerial bombardment . MacArthur initially opposed this change in plans , it was endorsed by the British and United States Combined Chiefs of Staff during the Quebec Conference in August .
The Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assessed the strategic situation in the Southwest Pacific in late September 1943 , and concluded that the Allies would attempt to break through the northern Solomon Islands and Bismarck Archipelago in the coming months en route to Japan 's inner perimeter in the western and central Pacific . Accordingly , reinforcements were dispatched to strategic locations in the area in an attempt to slow the Allied advance . Strong forces were retained at Rabaul , however , as it was believed that the Allies would attempt to capture the town . At the time , Japanese positions in western New Britain were limited to airfields at Cape Gloucester on the island 's western tip and several small way stations which provided small boats travelling between Rabaul and New Guinea with shelter from Allied aerial attacks .
On 22 September 1943 , MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) directed Lieutenant General Walter Krueger 's Alamo Force to secure western New Britain and the surrounding islands . This operation had two goals , the first of which was to establish air and PT boat bases to attack the Japanese forces at Rabaul . The second objective was to secure the Vitiaz and Dampier Straits between New Guinea and New Britain so that convoys could safely pass through them en route to conduct further landings along New Guinea 's north coast and beyond . To this end , GHQ directed that both Cape Gloucester and Gasmata on New Britain 's south coast be captured . This offensive was code @-@ named Operation Dexterity . The 1st Marine Division was selected for the Cape Gloucester operation , and the heavily reinforced 126th Regimental Combat Team from the 32nd Infantry Division was to attack Gasmata .
Senior Allied commanders disagreed over whether it was necessary to land forces in western New Britain . Lieutenant General George Kenney — commander of the Allied Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific — opposed the landings , arguing that his forces did not need air fields at Cape Gloucester as the existing bases in New Guinea and surrounding islands were adequate to support the planned landings in the region . Vice Admiral Arthur S. Carpender — commander of both the 7th Fleet and the Allied Naval Forces , Southwest Pacific Area — as well as Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey — commander of Task Force 76 ( TF 76 ) — supported occupying Cape Gloucester to secure both sides of the straits , but opposed the landing at Gasmata as it was too close to the Japanese air bases at Rabaul . The Gasmata operation was cancelled in early November in response to the concerns raised by Kenney and the Navy as well as intelligence reports that the Japanese had reinforced their garrison there .
On 21 November , a conference between GHQ , Kenney , Carpender and Barbey was held in Brisbane at which it was decided to land a small force in the Arawe area . This operation had three goals : to divert Japanese attention from Cape Gloucester , to provide a base for PT boats , and to establish a defensive perimeter and make contact with the Marines once they landed . It was intended that PT boats operating from Arawe would disrupt Japanese barge traffic along the southern shore of New Britain and protect the Allied naval forces at Cape Gloucester from attack .
= = = Geography = = =
The Arawe area lies on the south coast of New Britain about 100 mi ( 160 km ) from the island 's western tip . Its main geographical feature is Cape Merkus , which ends in the " L " -shaped Arawe Peninsula . Several small islands called the Arawe Islands lie to the southwest of the Cape .
In late 1943 , the Arawe Peninsula was covered by coconut trees which formed part of the Amalut Plantation ; the terrain inland from the peninsula and on its offshore islands was swampy . Most of the shoreline in the area has limestone cliffs . There was a small unused airfield 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of the neck of the Arawe Peninsula , and a coastal trail leading east from Cape Merkus to the Pulie River where it split into tracks running inland and along the coast . The terrain to the west of the peninsula was a trackless region of swamp and jungle , which was very difficult for troops to move through . Several of the beaches in the Arawe area were suitable for landing craft ; the best were House Fireman on the peninsula 's west coast and near the village of Umtingalu to the east of the peninsula 's base .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Planning = = =
Alamo Force was responsible for coordinating plans for the invasion of western New Britain . The Arawe landing was scheduled for 15 December as this was the earliest date by which the air bases around Nadzab in New Guinea , which were needed to support the landing , could be made operational . This date also gave the landing force time to conduct essential training and rehearsals . As Arawe was believed to be only weakly defended , Krueger decided to use a smaller force than the one which had been intended for the landing at Gasmata . This force , designated the Director Task Force , was concentrated at Goodenough Island where it was stripped of all equipment not needed for combat operations . Logistical plans called for the assault echelon to carry 30 days worth of general supplies and enough ammunition for three days of intensive combat . After the landing , holdings would be expanded to 60 days worth of general supplies and six days worth of all categories of ammunition other than anti @-@ aircraft ammunition , for which a 10 @-@ day supply was thought necessary . The assault force and its supplies were to be carried in fast ships which could rapidly unload their cargo .
The commander of the PT boat force in the Southwest Pacific , Commander Morton C. Mumma , opposed building extensive PT boat facilities at Arawe as he had sufficient bases and Japanese barges normally sailed along the north coast of New Britain . Mumma took his concerns to Carpender and Barbey , who eventually agreed that he would not be required to establish a base there if he thought it unnecessary . Instead , he assigned six boats stationed at Dreger Harbor in New Guinea and Kiriwina Island to operate along the south coast of New Britain east of Arawe each night , and asked only for emergency refuelling facilities at Arawe .
The Director Task Force 's commander — Brigadier General Julian W. Cunningham — issued orders for the landing on 4 December . He directed that the Task Force would initially capture the Arawe Peninsula and its surrounding islands and establish an outpost on the trail leading to the Pulie River . The main body of the Director Task Force was to land at House Fireman Beach on the Arawe Peninsula at about dawn . Two troop @-@ sized forces would conduct separate operations about an hour before the main landing . One troop was to capture Pitoe Island to the peninsula 's south , as it was believed that the Japanese had established a radio station and a defensive position there which commanded the entrance to Arawe Harbor . The other troop was to land at Umtingalu and establish a blocking position on the coastal trail east of the peninsula . Once the beachhead was secure , amphibious patrols would be conducted to the west of the peninsula in an attempt to make contact with the Marines at Cape Gloucester . U.S. Navy personnel on the planning staff were concerned about these subsidiary landings , as a night @-@ time landing conducted at Lae in September had proven difficult .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
The Director Task Force was centered around the U.S. Army 's 112th Cavalry Regimental Combat Team ( 112th RCT ) . This regiment had arrived in the Pacific in August 1942 but had not seen combat . It was dismounted and converted to an infantry unit in May 1943 , and undertook an unopposed landing at Woodlark Island ( designated Operation Chronicle ) on 23 June . The 112th Cavalry Regiment was smaller and more lightly armed than U.S. infantry regiments as it had only two battalion @-@ sized squadrons compared to the three battalions in infantry regiments . Moreover , the squadrons were smaller and more lightly equipped than their infantry equivalents . The 112th RCT 's combat support units were the M2A1 howitzer @-@ equipped 148th Field Artillery Battalion and the 59th Engineer Company . The other combat units of the Director Task Force were two batteries of the 470th Anti @-@ aircraft Artillery Battalion ( Automatic Weapons ) , most of the 236th Anti @-@ aircraft Artillery Battalion ( Searchlight ) , " A " Company of the United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) 1st Amphibious Tractor Battalion and a detachment from the 26th Quartermaster War Dog Platoon . The 2nd Battalion of the 158th Infantry Regiment was held in reserve to reinforce the Director Task Force if required . Several engineer , medical , ordnance and other support units were scheduled to arrive at Arawe after the landing was completed . Cunningham requested a battery equipped with 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 54 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , but none were available . The U.S. Navy 's Beach Party Number 1 would also be landed with the Director Task Force and remain at Arawe until the beachhead was secured .
The Director Task Force was supported by Allied naval and air units . The naval force was drawn from TF 76 and comprised U.S. Navy destroyers USS Conyngham ( Barbey 's flagship ) , Shaw , Drayton , Bagley , Reid , Smith , Lamson , Flusser and Mahan and a transport group with destroyer transports USS Humphreys and Sands , the Australian landing ship infantry HMAS Westralia , landing ship dock USS Carter Hall , two patrol craft and two submarine chasers . The naval force also included a service group with three LSTs , three tugboats and the destroyer tender USS Rigel . United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) units operating under the Fifth Air Force would support the landing , but only limited air support was to be available after 15 December as the available aircraft were needed for strategic missions against Japanese bases .
Australian coastwatchers stationed on New Britain were reinforced during September and October 1943 to provide warning of air attacks from Rabaul bound for the Allied landing sites and to report on Japanese barge and troop movements . In addition to a coastwatching team already in place at Cape Orford near Wide Bay , five other parties were sent to Cape Hoskins , Gasmata , Open Bay ( on the north coast at the base of the Gazelle Peninsula ) , the area south of Wide Bay , and the neck between Wide Bay and Open Bay . The Gasmata party was discovered by the Japanese while en route to its destination and eliminated , but the other teams were in place by the end of October .
At the time of the Allied landing , the Arawe area was defended by only a small force , though reinforcements were en route . The Japanese force at Arawe comprised 120 soldiers and sailors organized in two temporary companies drawn from the 51st Division . The reinforcing units were elements of the 17th Division , which had been shipped from China to Rabaul during October 1943 to reinforce western New Britain ahead of the expected Allied invasion . The convoys carrying the division were attacked by U.S. Navy submarines and USAAF bombers and suffered 1 @,@ 173 casualties . The 1st Battalion , 81st Infantry Regiment was assigned to defend Cape Merkus . However , it did not depart Rabaul until December as it needed to be reorganized after suffering casualties when the ship transporting it from China was sunk . In addition , two of its rifle companies , most of its heavy machine guns and all its 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 76 in ) howitzers were retained by the 8th Area Army at Rabaul , leaving the battalion with just its headquarters , two rifle companies and a machine gun platoon . This battalion — which came under the command of Major Masamitsu Komori — was a four @-@ day march from Arawe when the Allies landed . A company of soldiers from the 54th Infantry Regiment , some engineers and detachments from other units were also assigned to the Arawe area . The ground forces at Arawe came under the overall command of General Matsuda , whose headquarters were located near Cape Gloucester . The Japanese air units at Rabaul had been greatly weakened in the months prior to the landing at Arawe by prolonged Allied attacks and the transfer of the 7th Air Division to western New Guinea . Nevertheless , the Imperial Japanese Navy 's ( IJN ) 11th Air Fleet had 100 fighters and 50 bombers based at Rabaul at the time of the landing at Arawe .
= = = Preliminary operations = = =
The Allies possessed little intelligence on western New Britain 's terrain and the exact location of Japanese forces , so they flew extensive air photography sorties over the region , and small ground patrols were landed from PT boats . A team from Special Service Unit No. 1 reconnoitered Arawe on the night of 9 / 10 December and concluded that there were few Japanese troops in the area . The Japanese detected this party near the village of Umtingalu and strengthened their defenses there .
Operation Dexterity was preceded by a major Allied air offensive which sought to neutralize the Japanese air units stationed at Rabaul . From 12 October until early November , the Fifth Air Force frequently attacked the airfields around the town as well as ships in its harbor . Aircraft flying from U.S. Navy aircraft carriers also attacked Rabaul on 5 and 11 November in support of the USMC 's landing at Bougainville .
The Allied air forces began pre @-@ invasion raids on western New Britain on 13 November . Few attacks were made on the Arawe area , however , as the Allies hoped to achieve tactical surprise for the landing and did not want to alert the Japanese to their intentions . Instead , heavy attacks were made against Gasmata , Ring Ring Plantation and Lindenhafen Plantation on New Britain 's south coast . The Arawe area was struck for the first time on 6 December and again on 8 December ; little opposition was encountered on either occasion . It was not until 14 December — the day before the landing — that heavy air attacks on Arawe were conducted ; Allied aircraft flew 273 sorties against targets on New Britain 's south coast that day . In addition to these air raids , a force comprising two Australian and two American destroyers ( designated Task Force 74 @.@ 2 ) bombarded the Gasmata area during the night of 29 / 30 November .
The Director Task Force was concentrated at Goodenough Island in early December 1943 . The 112th Cavalry was notified that it had been selected for the Arawe operation on 24 November , and departed Woodlark for the short voyage to Goodenough Island in two convoys that sailed on 30 and 31 November . All elements of the regiment were ashore at Goodenough by 2 December . A full @-@ scale rehearsal of the landing was held at the island on 8 December ; this revealed problems with coordinating the waves of boats and demonstrated that some of the force 's officers were insufficiently trained in amphibious warfare . There was insufficient time for further training to rectify these problems , however . At Goodenough , the troopers of the 112th Cavalry were issued with several types of infantry weapons with which they had not previously been equipped . Each of the regiment 's rifle squads received a Browning Automatic rifle and a Thompson submachine gun , and a number of 2 @.@ 36 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 0 cm ) bazookas , rifle grenades and flame throwers were also issued . The cavalrymen received little training on the use of these weapons however , and did not know how to make the best use of them in combat .
The invasion force boarded transport ships during the afternoon of 13 December , and the convoy sailed at midnight . It proceeded to Buna in New Guinea to rendezvous with most of the escorting destroyers and made a feint north toward Finschhafen before turning toward Arawe after dusk on 14 December . The convoy was detected by a Japanese aircraft shortly before it anchored off Arawe at 3 : 30 am on 15 December , and the 11th Air Fleet at Rabaul began to prepare aircraft to attack it .
= = Battle = =
= = = Landings = = =
Shortly after the assault convoy arrived off Arawe , Carter Hall launched LVT amphibious tractors and Westralia lowered landing craft , both operated by specialized Marine and U.S. Army units . The two large transports departed for New Guinea at 5 : 00 am . The high speed transports carrying " A " and " B " Troops of the 112th Cavalry Regiment 's 1st Squadron closed to within 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) of Umtingalu and Pilelo Island respectively , and unloaded the soldiers into rubber boats .
" A " Troop 's attempt to land at Umtingalu ended in failure . At about 5 : 25 am , the troop came under fire from machine guns , rifles and a 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) cannon as it was nearing the shore , and all but three of its 15 rubber boats were sunk . Shaw — the destroyer assigned to support the landing — was unable to fire upon the Japanese positions until 5 : 42 am as her crew initially could not determine if the soldiers in the water were in the ship 's line of fire . Once she had a clear shot , Shaw silenced the Japanese force with two salvos from her 5 in ( 130 mm ) guns . The surviving cavalrymen were rescued by small boats and later landed at House Fireman beach ; casualties in this operation were 12 killed , four missing and 17 wounded .
The landing conducted by " B " Troop at Pilelo Island was successful . The goal of this operation was to destroy a Japanese radio station believed to be at the village of Paligmete on the island 's east coast . The troop was originally intended to come ashore near Paligmete , but the landing site was switched to the island 's west coast after " A " Troop came under attack . After disembarking from their boats , the cavalrymen advanced east and came under fire from a small Japanese force stationed in two caves near the village of Winguru on the island 's north coast . Ten cavalrymen were detached to contain the Japanese while the remainder of the troop continued to Paligmete . The village proved to be unoccupied , and did not contain the suspected radio station . The majority of " B " Troop then attacked Winguru , using bazookas and flamethrowers to destroy the Japanese positions . One American and seven Japanese soldiers were killed in the fighting . Personnel from the RAAF 's No. 335 Radar Station also landed on Pilelo Island on 15 December , and established a radar station there in 48 hours .
The 2nd Squadron , 112th Cavalry Regiment made the main landing at House Fireman Beach . The landing was delayed by a strong current and difficulties forming the LVTs into an assault formation , and the first wave went ashore at 7 : 28 am rather than 6 : 30 am as planned . Destroyers bombarded the beach with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of 5 inch ammunition between 6 : 10 and 6 : 25 am , and B @-@ 25 Mitchells strafed the area once the bombardment concluded , but the landing area was not under fire as the troops approached the beach . This allowed Japanese machine gunners to fire on the LVTs , but these guns were rapidly silenced by rockets fired from SC @-@ 742 and two DUKWs . The first wave of cavalrymen were fortunate to meet little opposition as there were further delays in landing the follow @-@ up waves owing to differences in the speeds of the two types of LVTs used . While the four follow @-@ up waves were scheduled to land at five @-@ minute intervals after the first wave , the second landed 25 minutes after the initial force and the succeeding three waves landed simultaneously 15 minutes later . Within two hours of the landing , all the large Allied ships other than Barbey 's flagship had departed from Arawe . Conyngham remained in the area to rescue the survivors of the landing at Umtingalu , and withdrew later that day .
Once ashore , the cavalrymen rapidly secured the Arawe Peninsula . An American patrol sent to the peninsula 's toe met only scattered resistance from Japanese rear guards . More than 20 Japanese located in a cave on the east side of the peninsula were killed by members of " E " Troop and personnel from the squadron headquarters ; the remaining Japanese units in the area retreated to the east . The 2nd Squadron reached the peninsula 's base at 2 : 30 pm , where it began to prepare its main line of resistance ( MLR ) . By the end of 15 December , more than 1 @,@ 600 Allied troops were ashore . The two Japanese Army companies that had been stationed at Arawe withdrew to the northeast , and took up positions at Didmop on the Pulie River about 8 mi ( 13 km ) from the MLR ; the naval unit defending Umtingalu retreated inland in a state of disarray .
The Allied naval force off Arawe was subjected to a heavy air raid shortly after the landing . At 9 : 00 am , eight Aichi D3A " Val " dive bombers escorted by 56 A6M5 " Zero " fighters evaded the USAAF combat air patrol ( CAP ) of 16 P @-@ 38 Lightnings . The Japanese force attacked the recently arrived first supply echelon , which comprised five Landing Craft Tank ( LCT ) and 14 Landing Craft Medium ( LCM ) , but these ships managed to evade the bombs dropped on them . The first wave of attackers suffered no losses , but at 11 : 15 am four P @-@ 38s shot down a Zero , and at 6 : 00 pm a force of 30 Zeros and 12 Mitsubishi G4M3 " Betty " and Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 21 @-@ II " Sally " bombers was driven off by four P @-@ 38s . The Japanese lost two Zeros in the day 's air actions , but both pilots survived .
= = = Air attacks and base development = = =
Although the U.S. ground troops faced no opposition in the days immediately after the landing , naval convoys carrying reinforcements to the Arawe area were repeatedly attacked . The second supply echelon came under continuous air attack on 16 December , resulting in the loss of APc @-@ 21 as well as damage to SC @-@ 743 , YMS @-@ 50 and four LCTs . About 42 men on board these ships were killed or seriously wounded . Another reinforcement convoy was attacked three times by dive bombers on 21 December as it unloaded at Arawe . Overall , at least 150 Japanese aircraft attacked Arawe that day . Further air attacks took place on 26 , 27 and 31 December . However , the Allied air forces were able to mount a successful defense of the Arawe area as the coastwatcher parties in New Britain provided 30 to 60 minutes warning of most incoming raids . Between 15 and 31 December , at least 24 Japanese bombers and 32 fighters were shot down near Arawe . During the same time period , Allied air units also raided airfields at Rabaul and Madang in New Guinea which were believed to be the bases of the aircraft which had attacked Arawe . In aerial combat over Rabaul on 17 , 19 , and 23 December , 14 Zeros were shot down by Allied aircraft . The process of unloading ships at Arawe was hampered by air attacks and congestion on House Fireman Beach . The beach party contributed to these delays as it was inexperienced and too small . The resultant problems with unloading LCTs caused some to leave the area before discharging all their cargo .
Air attacks on Arawe dropped off after 1 January . As a result of the heavy losses they suffered during attacks on Arawe and Cape Gloucester , and the damage caused by Allied raids on Rabaul , Japanese air units conducted only small @-@ scale raids at night after this date . The IJN fighter units based at Rabaul and nearby Kavieng were also kept busy throughout January and February 1944 defending their bases from continuous Allied air attacks . Few raids were made against the Arawe area after 90 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns were established there on 1 February . These weak attacks did not disrupt the Allied convoys . In the three weeks after the landing , 6 @,@ 287 short tons ( 5 @,@ 703 t ) of supplies as well as 541 artillery guns and vehicles were transported to Arawe . On 20 February , the Japanese air units at Rabaul and Kavieng were permanently withdrawn to Truk , ending any significant aerial threat to Allied forces in New Britain from the IJN .
Following the landing , the 59th Engineer Company constructed logistics facilities in the Arawe area . Due to the Japanese air raids , priority was given to the construction of a partially underground evacuation hospital , which was completed in January 1944 . The underground hospital was replaced with a 120 @-@ bed above @-@ ground facility in April 1944 . Pilelo Island was selected for the site of the PT boat facilities , and a pier for refueling the boats and dispersed fuel storage bays were built there . A 172 ft ( 52 m ) pier was constructed at House Fireman Beach between 26 February and 22 April 1944 to accommodate small ships ; three LCT jetties were also built north of the beach . A 920 ft ( 280 m ) by 100 ft ( 30 m ) airstrip was hurriedly built for artillery observation aircraft on 13 January , and this was later upgraded and surfaced with coral . The engineer company also constructed 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of all @-@ weather roads in the Arawe region and provided the Director Task Force with water via salt water distillation units on Pilelo Island and wells dug on the mainland . These projects were continuously hampered by shortages of construction materials , but the engineers were able to complete them by improvising and making use of salvaged material .
The 112th Cavalry RCT strengthened its defensive positions during the week following the invasion . As " A " Troop had lost all of its weapons and other equipment during the landing attempt at Umtingalu , supplies were air @-@ dropped into the beachhead during the afternoon of 16 December to re @-@ equip the unit . The troop was also assigned 50 replacement personnel . Most of " B " Troop was also transferred from Pilelo Island to the mainland in the days after the landing . The regiment improved its MLR by removing vegetation in order to create clear fields of fire , establishing minefields and wire entanglements and laying down a field telephone network . A reserve defensive line was also established closer to Cape Merkus , and patrols were conducted each day along the shores of the peninsula in search of Japanese personnel attempting to infiltrate the Task Force 's rear area . These patrols located and killed between ten and twenty Japanese near Cape Merkus . In addition , the regiment established a network of observation posts throughout the Arawe area ; these included positions in villages , key positions on the peninsula and on several offshore islands . " G " Troop was assigned to secure Umtingalu , and after doing so the troop established a patrol base at the village as well as two observation posts along the track which connected it to the MLR .
= = = Japanese response = = =
The commander of the Japanese 17th Division — Lieutenant General Yasushi Sakai — ordered that Arawe be urgently reinforced when he was informed of the landing there . He did not believe that this would be the main Allied effort in western New Britain , however . The force under Komori was ordered to make haste . The 1st Battalion , 141st Infantry Regiment , stationed at Cape Bushing on the south coast of New Britain about 40 mi ( 64 km ) east of Arawe was also directed to move by sea to counter the Allied invasion . One of this battalion 's infantry companies remained at Cape Bushing , however . Komori was appointed the commander of all Japanese forces in the Arawe area , which were subsequently designated the Komori Force . The 1st Battalion , 141st Infantry Regiment landed at the village of Omoi on the night of 18 December , and started overland the next day to link up with Komori at Didmop . The battalion took eight days to cover the 7 mi ( 11 km ) between Omoi and Didmop as it became lost on several occasions while travelling through trackless jungle and paused whenever contact with American forces seemed likely . Komori reached Didmop on 19 December , and gathered the units that had retreated from Umtingalu into his command . On the basis of discussions with personnel who had witnessed the landing at Arawe , Komori mistakenly concluded that they had greatly overestimated the size of the Allied force . As a result , on 20 December he decided to launch a counteroffensive against the American positions .
After establishing its beachhead , the Director Task Force conducted a series of reconnaissance patrols . Cunningham had been ordered to gather intelligence on Japanese forces in western New Britain , and on 17 December he dispatched a patrol of cavalrymen in two LCVPs ( Landing Craft , Vehicle , Personnel ) to the west of Arawe to investigate the Itni River area . These landing craft encountered seven Japanese barges carrying part of the 1st Battalion , 141st Infantry Regiment near Cape Peiho , 20 mi ( 32 km ) west of Arawe , on 18 December . After an exchange of gunfire the U.S. soldiers abandoned their landing craft and returned to Arawe along the coast . Another patrol travelling in LCVPs was fired on by Japanese barges near Umtingalu on 18 December but was able to return to Cape Merkus . Japanese barges were also sighted near Arawe on 23 December . Cunningham believed that a large Japanese force was heading for the beachhead , and contacted Krueger on 24 December to request that the 2nd Battalion of the 158th Infantry Regiment be dispatched to reinforce his command . Krueger agreed to this request , and ordered that three of the battalion 's four infantry companies be sent to Arawe . " G " Company of the 2nd Battalion , 158th Infantry arrived on 27 December and the other two companies reached Arawe in early January .
After organizing his force while waiting for the 1st Battalion , 141st Infantry Regiment , Komori began his advance on Arawe on 24 December . He arrived at the airstrip to the north of Arawe during the early hours of Christmas Day . During that morning , elements of the Komori Force ambushed two platoon @-@ sized American patrols traveling in trucks northeast of Umtingalu . The American units withdrew to the village and reinforced " G " Troop 's defensive position there . The American force defeated several Japanese attempts to move around Umtingalu during the day , and killed at least three enemy soldiers . Cunningham believed that the force encountered around Umtingalu was the advance guard of a much larger body of Japanese soldiers advancing from Gasmata , and withdrew the troopers stationed around the village to positions behind the MLR . At 10 : 30 pm that night , 50 Japanese soldiers made a poorly coordinated attack on the MLR . While they succeeded in overrunning some American positions , the Japanese were repulsed by fire from the 112th Cavalry 's 60 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) mortars . The Americans lost one man killed and eight wounded , and estimated that the Japanese had suffered twelve casualties .
The Japanese offensive continued after the Christmas Day attack . Two small attacks , each involving 15 soldiers , were made against the eastern edge of the MLR on the nights of 26 and 27 December . These were also repulsed by the 112th Cavalry 's light mortars , and inflicted only a small number of casualties on the American force . On 28 December part of the 112th Cavalry Regiment 's " B " Troop set out from the MLR in an attempt to reach Umtingalu , but withdrew after encountering snipers and some light mortar fire . A platoon from " C " Troop also made an unsuccessful patrol from the western end of the MLR during which it suffered six casualties from Japanese machine gun and rifle fire . The same day , Komori dispatched a force of between 20 and 30 soldiers to destroy the American mortar positions . The Japanese soldiers infiltrated the American positions by wading through swamps at the western end of the MLR , but were detected before they could reach dry land . The Director Task Force mounted a strong response , which included a counterattack by elements of three cavalry troops and a platoon from the 158th Infantry Regiment supported by mortars . The Japanese force suffered 17 casualties .
The 1st Battalion , 141st Infantry Regiment arrived in the Arawe area on the afternoon of 29 December , and conducted several small and unsuccessful attacks in early January 1944 before taking up positions about 400 – 500 yd ( 370 – 460 m ) north of the American MLR . These positions comprised shallow trenches and foxholes which were difficult to see . While there were only about 100 Japanese soldiers in the area , they moved their six machine guns frequently , making them difficult targets for American mortars and artillery .
= = = American counter @-@ attack = = =
An American patrol located the Japanese defensive position on 1 January 1944 . " B " Troop of the 112th Cavalry Regiment launched an attack later that morning , but was beaten off by heavy fire ; the Americans suffered three killed and 15 wounded in this action . On 4 January , " G " Troop incurred three killed and 21 wounded in an unsuccessful attack on well @-@ built Japanese positions . This operation had been conducted without artillery support in an attempt to surprise the Japanese , and also included a feint against Umtingalu involving several LCMs . Further attacks on 6 , 7 and 11 January failed to make any headway , but gave the cavalrymen experience in maneuvering through the Japanese defensive positions . These American operations were conducted on a limited scale as Cunningham and the 112th Cavalry Regiment 's other senior officers believed that the unit had already achieved the goals of the landing at Arawe and did not want to incur unnecessary casualties .
On 6 January , Cunningham requested further reinforcements , including tanks , to tackle the Japanese defenses . Krueger approved this request and ordered " F " Company , 158th Infantry Regiment and " B " Company of the USMC 1st Tank Battalion to Arawe ; the two units arrived on 10 and 12 January respectively . The Marine tanks and two companies of the 158th Infantry Regiment subsequently practiced tank @-@ infantry cooperation from 13 to 15 January ; during this period the 112th Cavalry continued to conduct patrols into Japanese @-@ held areas . By this time , the Komori Force had incurred casualties of at least 65 killed , 75 wounded and 14 missing in action as a result of its offensive actions as well as the attacks on it conducted by the Director Task Force . The Japanese were also suffering from severe supply shortages and an outbreak of dysentery .
The Director Task Force launched its attack on 16 January . That morning , a squadron of B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers dropped one hundred and thirty @-@ six 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs on the Japanese defenses , and 20 B @-@ 25s strafed the area . Following an intensive artillery and mortar barrage the Marine tank company , two companies of the 158th Infantry and C Troop , 112th Cavalry Regiment attacked . The tanks led the advance , with each being followed by a group of infantrymen . The cavalry troop and three tanks were initially held in reserve , but were sent into action at 12 : 00 pm to mop up a Japanese position . The attack was successful , and reached its objectives by 4 : 00 pm . Cunningham then directed the force to withdraw to the MLR ; during this part of the operation two Marine tanks — which had become immobile — were destroyed to prevent the Japanese from using them as pillboxes . American engineers destroyed the Japanese defensive position the next day . The Director Task Force suffered 22 killed and 64 wounded in this operation and estimated that 139 Japanese had been killed .
Following the American attack , Komori pulled his remaining force back to defend the airstrip . As this was not an Allied objective , the Japanese were not subjected to further attacks by ground troops other than occasional patrol clashes and ambushes . As a result of the supply shortages , many of the Japanese soldiers fell sick . Attempts to bring supplies in by sea from Gasmata were disrupted by U.S. Navy PT boats and the force lacked enough porters to supply itself through overland trails . Komori concluded that his force was serving no purpose , and on 8 February informed his superiors that it faced destruction due to supply shortages . They responded by ordering Komori to hold his positions , though his force was awarded two Imperial citations in recognition of its supposed success in defending the airstrip .
= = Aftermath = =
The 1st Marine Division 's landing at Cape Gloucester on 26 December 1943 was successful . The Marines secured the airfields that were the main objective of the operation on 29 December against only light Japanese opposition . Heavy fighting took place during the first two weeks of 1944 when the Marines advanced south to the east of their initial beachhead to secure Borgen Bay . Little fighting took place once this area had been captured and the Marines patrolled extensively in an attempt to locate the Japanese . On 16 February , a Marine patrol from Cape Gloucester made contact with an Army patrol from Arawe at the village of Gilnit . On 23 February , the remnants of the Japanese force at Cape Gloucester were ordered to withdraw to Rabaul .
The Komori Force was also directed to withdraw on 24 February as part of the general Japanese retreat from western New Britain . The Japanese immediately began to leave their positions , and headed north along inland trails to join other units . The Americans did not detect this withdrawal until 27 February , when an attack conducted by the 2nd Squadron , 112th Cavalry and the Marine tank company to clear the Arawe area of Japanese encountered no opposition . The Director Task Force subsequently established a number of observation posts along the southern coast of New Britain and increased the distances covered by its reconnaissance patrols . Komori fell behind his unit , and was killed on 9 April near San Remo on New Britain 's north coast when he , his executive officer and two enlisted men they were travelling with were ambushed by a patrol from the 2nd Battalion , 5th Marines , which had landed around Volupai and captured Talasea , on the Willaumez Peninsula , in early March .
The Japanese force at Arawe suffered much heavier casualties than the Allies . The Director Task Force 's total casualties between 15 December 1943 and the end of major fighting in the area were 118 dead , 352 wounded , and four missing . Most of these casualties were members of the 112th Cavalry Regiment , which suffered 72 killed , 142 wounded and four missing . Japanese casualties over this period were 304 men killed and three captured .
In the period immediately after the Japanese withdrawal , the Director Task Force remained at Arawe . In line with standard practice , the 112th Cavalry continued to improve the defensive positions in the area . The regiment also undertook training , and some men were granted leave in Australia and the United States . Combat patrols continued to be conducted in the Arawe region in search of Japanese stragglers . Elements of the 40th Infantry Division began to arrive at Arawe in April 1944 to assume responsibility for garrisoning the area . The 112th Cavalry Regiment was informed that it was to be deployed in New Guinea in early June , and the Director Task Force was dissolved at this time . The regiment sailed for the Aitape area of New Guinea on 8 June and next saw combat there during the Battle of Driniumor River . The 40th Infantry Division maintained a garrison at Arawe until the Australian Army 's 5th Division assumed responsibility for New Britain in late November 1944 .
Historians disagree over whether the Arawe operation was worthwhile for the Allies . The official history of the USMC in World War II stated that the presence of two experienced Japanese battalions at Arawe made the 1st Marine Division 's task at Cape Gloucester easier . However , Samuel Eliot Morison wrote in his History of United States Naval Operations in World War II that " Arawe was of small value " as the Allies never used it as a naval base and the garrison stationed in the area after the landings would have been better employed elsewhere . The U.S. Army 's official history concluded that in retrospect the landings at Arawe and Cape Gloucester " were probably not essential to the reduction of Rabaul or the approach to the Philippines " , though the offensive in western New Britain had some benefits and was not " excessively high in casualties " .
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= Crazier ( Taylor Swift song ) =
" Crazier " is a song by American recording artist Taylor Swift . The song was written by Swift and Robert Ellis Orrall and produced by Nathan Chapman with Swift 's aid . The song was featured in both the 2009 film Hannah Montana : The Movie and on its soundtrack . The song is a relaxed ballad with country qualities and lyrics that describe being in love . Swift performed the song as herself during a cameo in the Hannah Montana : The Movie ; this scene was taken from the film and released as a music video for " Crazier " . The song was premiered on Radio Disney and Disney Channel , the latter promoting the home release of the film . The song charting at number seventeen on the Billboard Hot 100 , sixty @-@ four in the Australian Singles Chart , sixty @-@ seven in the Canadian Hot 100 , and one @-@ hundred on the UK Singles Chart .
" Crazier " was praised by critics , many of whom named it the best song on the soundtrack . Digital downloads began immediately after the soundtrack 's release on March 23 , 2009 , and led to commercial success in Australia , Canada , the United Kingdom , and the United States . Its highest international peak was at number seventeen on the United States chart , the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Background = =
Swift co @-@ wrote " Crazier " with Robert Ellis Orrall . The song is set in compound time with six eighth notes per bar . It is played in E major at a moderately fast tempo of 144 beats per minute . Swift 's vocals span one octave , from E3 to B4 . The chorus has the following chord progression , E — B — C # m — A.
The song 's appearance in Hannah Montana : The Movie came about after filmmakers approached Swift about using her music in the film . Film officials emailed her asking for a song " that was perfect to fall in love to " and " sort of a country waltz " . Although it was not written intentionally for the film , Swift sent in " Crazier " and the filmmakers " loved it " . In addition , Swift offered to perform the song in the film herself as a cameo appearance . In the film , Swift performs at an open mic fundraiser to save a small town 's treasured park from developers . The quick scene was filmed in a single day , but Swift 's performance impressed film members . Film director Peter Chelsom said , " I 've made a very big mental check to work with her again " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received critical acclaim . Warren Truitt of About.com complimented Swift 's " chim [ ing ] " in the ballad . Heather Phares of Allmusic praised the track , calling it " the best song on Hannah Montana : The Movie " . She complimented it for being " more genuine , more effortless , than any of [ Cyrus ' ] or Hannah 's tracks " . James Berardinelli agreed , stating , " Arguably , the movie 's biggest mistake is having Taylor Swift perform a song , since she can sing and the comparison is not flattering to the movie 's star . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly described " Crazier " as " a pretty , yearning ballad . " Premiere magazine reviewer Olivia Putnal referred to Swift 's performance one of the film 's " high points " . Peter Hartlaub of The San Francisco Chronicle believed that Swift 's cameo was enjoyable , but also calls it a mistake on the part of the filmmakers , explaining " Swift is so talented that she makes Cyrus seem bland by comparison . " Perry Seibert from TV Guide wrote , " when genuine teen star Taylor Swift shows up to perform [ ... ] she demonstrates all the spontaneity and authenticity that Miley Cyrus lacks . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Crazier " received exclusive airplay on Radio Disney . The song made its debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ two on the week ending April 11 , 2009 . " Crazier " rose three spots to number sixty @-@ nine in the following week , but jumped to number thirty @-@ eight on the week ending April 25 , 2009 due to an 87 percent increase in digital downloads . For the week of Saturday , May 2 , 2009 , the song reached its peak on the Hot 100 at number seventeen , selling 110 @,@ 000 downloads . It also peaked at number twenty @-@ eight on the Pop 100 chart . As of November 2014 , Crazier has sold one million copies in the USA .
As the song was not officially released to radio as a single , digital sales also accounted for " Crazier " ' s appearance on international charts . The song debuted at number seventy @-@ nine on the week ending April 11 , 2009 . For the week ending May 2 , 2009 , it reached number thirty on Hot Canadian Digital Singles and number sixty @-@ three on the Canadian Hot 100 . " Crazier " reached number fifty @-@ seven on the Australian Singles Chart . The song debuted and peaked at number one @-@ hundred in the UK Singles Chart for the week ending May 16 , 2009 .
= = Music video = =
" Crazier " ' s music video , directed by Peter Chelsom , featuring excerpts from Hannah Montana : The Movie , which premiered on March 28 , 2009 on Disney Channel .
The video begins in its principal setting with Swift and two backup musicians atop a stage in a crowded barn . Swift is dressed in a fitted pastel sundress and plays an acoustic guitar strapped over her shoulder . The backup musicians play the fiddle , the piano , the drum set , and the upright bass . The video then transitions to a clip from Hannah Montana : The Movie in which Miley Stewart ( Cyrus ) spots her love interest , Travis Brody ( Lucas Till ) , riding a brown horse . The video alternates between Swift performing and more film clips . Other scenes include Stewart and Brody riding the brown horse together , Stewart staring out from a red car into the street , Brody swinging from a rope in a waterfall , and the two characters on a date . At the end of the video , the couple are slow dancing while Swift sings .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Adam DeBus =
Adam Joseph DeBus , Jr . ( October 7 , 1892 – May 13 , 1977 ) was a German American professional baseball player whose career spanned three seasons , one of which was spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1917 ) . Over his MLB career , DeBus , an infielder , compiled a .229 batting average with nine runs scored , 30 hits , five doubles , four triples , seven runs batted in ( RBIs ) and two stolen bases in 38 games played . Originally , Debus signed with the MLB St. Louis Cardinals out of the Northern League , but his contract was waived after never making an appearance . He then signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates and made his MLB debut on July 14 , 1917 against the Brooklyn Robins . During his career , DeBus weighed 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) and stood at 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm ) . He batted and threw right @-@ handed .
= = Early life = =
Adam Joseph DeBus , Jr. was born on October 7 , 1892 in Chicago to Josephine and Adam DeBus , Sr. , both of Germany . Josephine DeBus , who came to the United States in 1882 , became a naturalized citizen in 1931 . Adam DeBus , Sr. , who came to the United States in 1878 and was naturalized in 1887 , worked as a cook in Chicago . Adam Joseph DeBus , Jr. was his parent 's only child . He was raised to speak German .
= = Baseball career = =
DeBus ' professional baseball career began in 1914 as a member of the minor league Green Bay Bays of the Class @-@ C Wisconsin – Illinois League . He was under the management of Robert Lynch with the Green Bay club . Two of Debus ' teammates on the Bays roster , Frank Scanlan and Joe Weiss , had experience in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) one time or another over their careers . On the season , DeBus compiled a .234 batting average with 91 hits , 14 doubles , three triples and three home runs in 108 games played . All of his 108 games were played at shortstop . His next professional baseball season came two seasons later in 1916 as a member of the minor league Fargo @-@ Moorhead Graingrowers of the Class @-@ C Northern League . The Graingrowers represented Fargo , North Dakota and Moorhead , Minnesota . Three of his teammates on the Graingrowers , Ralph Bell , Moxie Meixell and Bob Unglaub , were MLB players at one time in their careers . The Fargo @-@ Moorhead club was managed by Bob Unglaub , who also played first base for the team . DeBus batted .284 with 96 hits in 100 games played .
In 1917 , DeBus re @-@ signed with the Fargo @-@ Moorhead Graingrowers . On July 2 , he was sold by the Fargo @-@ Moorhead club to the MLB St. Louis Cardinals . On July 11 , DeBus was waived after never making an appearance with the club . He was then signed by the Pittsburgh Pirates and reported to the team in Brooklyn , New York . He made his MLB debut in the second game of a doubleheader on July 14 , 1917 against the Brooklyn Robins at Ebbets Field . He was sixth in the Pirates batting order . In four at @-@ bats against Brooklyn pitcher Rube Marquard , DeBus went hitless . His first MLB hit came on July 17 against Boston Braves pitcher Art Nehf . On July 20 , The Pittsburgh Press wrote that DeBus was a " better than ordinary hitter " and that he could " field with the best of them " . In August , it was reported that Pittsburgh manager Hugo Bezdek was pleased with the services of DeBus . The syndicated column " Diamond Dust " compared DeBus to former MLB player Art Devlin . His final MLB appearance came on September 1 against the St. Louis Cardinals . In two at @-@ bats against St. Louis pitcher Oscar Horstmann , DeBus went hitless . On the season with the Pirates , he batted .229 with nine runs scored , 30 hits , five doubles , four triples , seven runs batted in ( RBIs ) and two stolen bases in 38 games played . Defensively , he played 21 games at shortstop and 18 games at third base . DeBus committed 19 errors , 92 assists and 61 putouts . He also converted 10 double plays . Despite initial success in impressing Pirates manager Hugo Bezdek , by the end of the season The Pittsburgh Press wrote that DeBus " [ had ] probably donned a Pirate uniform for the last time " .
= = Later life = =
At the end of the 1917 baseball season , DeBus joined the United States Military to fight in World War I. He served with the 86th Infantry Division , and played with the division 's baseball team . After his baseball career was over , he was working for an electrical company based in Chicago . By 1930 , he was living with his parents in Chicago working as an electrical auto mechanic . On August 1 , 1931 , DeBus and his mother boarded the ocean liner SS Bremen in New York City to Germany . By 1942 , DeBus was working for Stewart @-@ Warner , a manufacturer of electrical automotive parts . DeBus died on May 13 , 1977 in Chicago . He was buried at St. Boniface Cemetery in Chicago .
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= Buford , Georgia =
Buford is a city in Gwinnett and Hall counties in the U.S. state of Georgia . As of the 2010 census , the city had a population of 12 @,@ 225 . Most of the city is in Gwinnett County , which is part of the Atlanta @-@ Sandy Springs @-@ Marietta Metropolitan Statistical Area . The portions of the city in Hall County are not part of Atlanta 's metropolitan statistical area , but are part of Atlanta 's larger Combined Statistical Area , which includes Hall County .
The city was founded in 1872 after a railroad was built in the area connecting Charlotte , NC with Atlanta . Buford was named after Algernon Sidney Buford , who at the time was president of the Atlanta and Richmond Air @-@ Line Railway . The city 's leather industry , led by the Bona Allen Company , as well as its location as a railway stop , caused the population to expand during the early 1900s until after the Great Depression had ended .
The city operates its own school district , the Buford City School District , and has been the birthplace and home of several musicians and athletes . Various tourist locations , including museums and community centers , the largest mall in the state of Georgia , the Mall of Georgia , and Lake Lanier Islands are in the city of Buford .
= = History = =
Buford appears in historical records beginning in the early 19th century . The area that is now Buford was originally part of the Cherokee territory and despite the treaty in 1817 that ceded the territory to the United States and Gwinnett County 's legislative establishment in 1818 , the area was still largely inhabited by the Cherokee until the 1830s . The first Americans moved to the Buford area in the late 1820s or early 1830s , although the Buford area was not largely inhabited by non @-@ Native Americans until the 1860s .
During the post @-@ civil war construction of the extended Richmond and Danville Railroad System in 1865 , railroad stockholders Thomas Garner and Larkin Smith purchased land around the railroad 's right @-@ of @-@ way and began developing the city of Buford . The city was named after Algernon Sidney Buford , who was president of the Atlanta and Richmond Air @-@ Line Railway during the railroad 's construction . The town began rapidly expanding around the railway after its completion in 1871 , and Buford was incorporated as the Town of Buford on August 24 , 1872 , and renamed the City of Buford in 1896 .
In the late 1800s and early 1900s Buford became widely known for its leather production , becoming prominently associated with the leather industry and earning the nickname " The Leather City " . Buford became a large producer of leather products , including saddles , horse collars , bridles , and shoes . Buford 's leather industry began with a leatherworker named R.H. Allen opening a harness shop and tannery in 1868 , three years before the completion of the railway and the founding of Buford . R.H. Allen 's brother Bona Allen moved to Buford from Rome , Georgia in 1872 and founded the Bona Allen Company the following year , in 1873 . The leather industry quickly became the city 's largest industry despite setbacks from several fires , including a fire in 1903 that destroyed the buildings of several businesses and a fire in 1906 that destroyed a straw store house and nearly destroyed the city 's harness and horse collar factory .
Bona Allen saddles were available through the Sears mail order catalog , and many Hollywood actors used saddles made by the Bona Allen Company , including cowboy actors Gene Autry , the cast of Bonanza , and Roy Rogers , who used a Bona Allen saddle on his horse Trigger . A statue of Roy Rogers and a Bona Allen saddle @-@ maker saddling Trigger is located in downtown Buford . The Bona Allen Company thrived during the Great Depression in the 1930s , likely as a result of the Great Depression forcing farmers to choose horses over expensive tractors , thereby increasing the demand for saddles , collars , bridles , and other leather products .
The Bona Allen Company constructed Tannery Row in downtown Buford as a shoe factory in 1919 . After a brief employee strike the shoe factory was closed in 1942 , although it was briefly reopened by the request of the federal government during World War II to make footwear for the United States military . Afterwards , the factory closed in 1945 . In 2003 Tannery Row became home to the Tannery Row Artist Colony , which houses galleries and studios for artists .
After the Great Depression the use of horses for farming decreased and tractors took their place , and the Bona Allen Company steadily downsized until the tannery was eventually sold to the Tandy Corporation in 1968 . Buford 's leather industry ended after the tannery experienced a fire in 1981 , when the Tandy Corporation decided not to rebuild the tannery and closed the facility .
= = Geography = =
Buford is located in both northern Gwinnett county and southern Hall county in northern Georgia and is a suburb of the Atlanta metropolitan area . According to the United States Census Bureau , as of 2010 the city has a total land area of 17 @.@ 01 square miles ( 44 @.@ 1 km2 ) and the city 's elevation is 1 @,@ 183 feet ( 361 m ) .
Buford 's city limits are 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) west of the Eastern Continental Divide . Ridge Road , part of which uses Buford as a mailing address , runs alongside the Eastern Continental Divide , although the road itself is outside the city limits . Buford 's primary water supply comes from Lake Lanier which receives its water from the Lake Lanier watershed .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Buford , as with most of the southeastern United States , is humid subtropical ( Cfa ) according to the Köppen classification , with four seasons including hot , humid summers and cool winters . July is generally the warmest month of the year with an average high of around 87 ° F ( 31 ° C ) . The coldest month is January which has an average high of around 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . The highest recorded temperature was 107 ° F ( 42 ° C ) in 1952 , while the lowest recorded temperature was − 8 ° F ( − 22 ° C ) in 1985 .
Buford receives rainfall distributed fairly evenly throughout the year as typical of southeastern U.S. cities , with February on average having the highest average precipitation at 5 @.@ 3 inches ( 130 mm ) , and April typically being the driest month with 3 @.@ 7 inches ( 94 mm ) .
= = Demographics = =
As of 2010 Buford had a population of 12 @,@ 225 . The racial and ethnic composition of the population was 65 @.@ 8 % white , 13 @.@ 8 % black or African American , 0 @.@ 3 % Native American , 2 @.@ 9 % Asian , 14 @.@ 7 % reporting some other race and 2 @.@ 5 % reporting two or more races . 25 @.@ 5 % of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race .
There were 4 @,@ 016 households , out of which 33 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 45 @.@ 7 % were married couples living together , 15 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 31 % were non @-@ families . 28 @.@ 3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 14 @.@ 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 74 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 35 .
The median age was 35 @.@ 1 years , and there were 5 @,@ 973 males and 6 @,@ 252 females .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 42 @,@ 546 , and the median income for a family was $ 44 @,@ 797 . Males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 902 versus $ 32 @,@ 218 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 19 @,@ 905 . About 18 @.@ 1 % of families and 23 @.@ 0 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 33 @.@ 2 % of those under age 18 and 13 @.@ 8 % of those aged 65 or over .
= = Economy = =
Buford , as with the rest of Gwinnett County , has a sales tax of 6 % , which is a combination of the 4 % state sales tax and a 2 % local tax . In 2008 , CNN Money ranked Buford as number 3 in its annual " 100 best places to live and start a business " list .
In the late 1800s and early 1900s , Buford 's economy was centered on both its location as a railway stop and its leather industry , until demand for leather declined and other transportation options became more readily available over the course of the 1900s , and these industries were no longer a viable part of Buford 's economy by the 1980s .
According to the U.S. Census 's American Community Survey 2007 – 2011 5 @-@ year estimate , around 65 % of Buford 's population that are 16 years or older are in the labor force . Of these , around 59 % are employed , and 6 % are unemployed . The power tool manufacturer Makita operates a factory in Buford with 400 employees . The North American division of Takeuchi Manufacturing was located in Buford from 1999 until 2006 , when the company moved to a larger facility in Pendergrass , Georgia .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Buford has several walking trails throughout the city ; over 7 miles ( 11 km ) of trails are accessible from both the Gwinnett Environmental & Heritage Center and the Mall of Georgia as well as walking trails at Bogan and Buford Dam parks . Bogan Park also has several baseball fields and playgrounds as well as the Bogan Park Community Center and Family Aquatics Center . Buford Dam Park is next to Lake Lanier and has areas for swimming and other recreational activities . In addition to the parks run by Gwinnett County there are five city parks located throughout Buford , and a community center , which was completed in early 2012 .
The southern part of Lake Sidney Lanier and the Lake Lanier Islands are also located in Buford .
The Mall of Georgia is the largest mall in Georgia and the 36th largest in the United States , with over 200 stores and a 20 Regal Cinema and IMAX Theater . While outside the official Buford city limits , the mall uses Buford as its mailing address .
= = Government = =
The City of Buford is governed by a city commission government headed by a Commission Chairman . Phillip Beard has served as Buford 's Commission Chairman since 1975.When the Town of Buford was incorporated in 1872 , a city commission consisting of six commissioners was established to govern the town . When a new city charter was enacted in 1896 that renamed the Town of Buford to the City of Buford , the city commission was replaced with a mayor and six councilmen . The city council governed the City of Buford until a new charter was approved on December 24 , 1937 that re @-@ established the city commission government .
The area of Buford inside Gwinnett County is part of Georgia 's 7th congressional district while the Hall County portions of Buford belong to Georgia 's 9th congressional district . For the state government , the city is part of the Georgia State Senate 's 45th and 49th districts , and the 97th , 98th , and 103rd districts for the Georgia House of Representatives .
= = Education = =
The city of Buford operates the Buford City School District for residents that live within the city limits , while Gwinnett County Public Schools and Hall County Public Schools operate schools for residents that live outside of the city limits . The Buford City School District operates two elementary schools , Buford Academy and Buford Elementary , as well as Buford Middle School and Buford High School .
The Buford @-@ Sugar Hill Branch of the Gwinnett County Public Library in located in Buford .
= = Arts and culture = =
The Gwinnett Environmental & Heritage Center is a museum and cultural center completed in August 2006 and is located in Buford . The center was created to educate children about both water and environmental resources as well as Gwinnett 's cultural heritage , including the county 's Cherokee and Creek cultures . The Chesser @-@ Williams House , a historic home which is believed to predate the 1850s and one of the oldest wooden @-@ frame houses in Gwinnett county , was moved to the museum to become part of the museum 's cultural exhibits .
Buford Community Center is a multi @-@ purpose facility that was completed in 2012 . Located across the street from Buford City Hall , the Buford Community Center has a museum , 290 @-@ seat stage theatre , an outdoor amphitheater , and several spaces for meetings , banquets , and weddings .
= = Media = =
As part of the Metro Atlanta area , Buford 's primary network @-@ affiliated television stations are WXIA @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WGCL @-@ TV ( CBS ) , WSB @-@ TV ( ABC ) , and WAGA @-@ TV ( Fox ) . WGTV is the local station of the statewide Georgia Public Television network and is a PBS member station .
Buford is served by the Gwinnett Daily Post , which is the most widely distributed newspaper in Buford as well as Gwinnett county 's legal organ . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution and Gainesville Times are also distributed in Buford . During the late 1800s , the city of Buford had a number of local newspapers including the Buford Gazette and the Buford Herald , none of which gained consistent widespread use in the city . The weekly Gwinnett Herald served Buford until 1885 .
Several movies have been filmed in and around Buford including the 2010 film Killers , Need for Speed , Blended , Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and A Simple Twist of Fate .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Two major interstate highways pass through Buford : Interstate 85 and Interstate 985 both travel through the city in a general northeast @-@ southwest direction . Buford is Exit 115 on I @-@ 85 and Exit 4 on I @-@ 985 . Georgia State Route 20 travels through Buford in a general northwest @-@ southeast direction . U.S. Route 23 travels northeast into Buford before first merging with State Route 20 towards the southeast and then with I @-@ 985 towards the northeast .
The Gwinnett County Transit provides public transportation in Buford and Gwinnett County , and GRTA Xpress operates a Park and Ride in Buford that commutes to Atlanta .
The nearest airport is the Gwinnett County Airport in the city of Lawrenceville , a small public airport with a single asphalt runway 14 miles ( 23 km ) from the Buford . The closest major airports are Hartsfield – Jackson Atlanta International Airport , which is 48 miles ( 77 km ) from Buford and Athens Ben Epps Airport , which is 53 miles ( 85 km ) .
= = = Health care = = =
Buford has several clinics and family doctors , including an Emory Healthcare clinic and a Northside Hospital imaging center , but no major hospitals inside the city limits . The closest hospital is Northside Hospital @-@ Forsyth , which is 9 miles ( 14 km ) away in Cumming . Gwinnett Medical Center and Emory Johns Creek Hospital are both 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Buford , in Lawrenceville and Johns Creek respectively . Northeast Georgia Health System has a hospital in Gainesville and Braselton .
= = Notable people = =
Buford has been both the birthplace and hometown of a number of notable individuals , including notable athletes and musicians . Due to its proximity to the Atlanta Falcons training facility in Flowery Branch , Georgia Buford is home to several Atlanta Falcons players , who have also trained in and around Buford . Many of Buford High School 's alumni have also played professional sports .
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= Velaiilla Pattadhari =
Velaiilla Pattadhari ( English : Unemployed Graduate ) , popularly referred to as VIP , is a 2014 Indian Tamil @-@ language masala film written , directed and filmed by Velraj , in his directorial debut . The film features Dhanush , Amala Paul in the lead roles , while Vivek , Saranya Ponvannan , Samuthirakani and Surabhi play supporting roles .
Dhanush , besides acting , producing and distributing the venture in association with Escape Artists Motion Pictures , also worked as the lyricist and album producer on the film 's original soundtrack with composer Anirudh Ravichander , who also composed the film 's background score . The film focuses on Raghuvaran , a graduate who is unemployed for four years , and how he gets a job , whilst successfully overcoming various obstacles before and after finding employment .
Principal photography commenced in August 2013 and was completed by May 2014 , with the film being shot primarily in Chennai . The film was released on 18 July 2014 , and received positive critical reception . The film grossed ₹ 190 @.@ 8 million on its opening weekend and earned a worldwide collection ₹ 530 million during its lifetime run . The film was dubbed into Telugu as Raghuvaran B.Tech , which was released on 1 January 2015 .
= = Plot = =
Raghuvaran is a graduate in Civil Engineering , but has been unemployed for four years . He is adamant about working in a job related to his field only and is unwilling to accept any other profession . He often comes into conflict with his father , who considers him irresponsible . His younger brother , Karthik , works in an IT company , earning well and , evidently , his father 's approval . Raghuvaran 's mother , Bhuvana , however , supports him . Raghuvaran falls for his neighbour 's daughter , Shalini who hates him initially , but warms up to him after hearing about the difficulties he is facing and eventually reciprocates his love .
One day , while Raghuvaran 's father and Karthik are absent , he is asked to look after his mother , who has a heart condition . However , he goes out on a date with Shalini . He gets continuous phone calls from his mother , which he ignores despite Shalini 's insistence to pick them up . However , on returning home , he finds out that his mother had died of a heart attack . Raghuvaran feels guilty about not being there when his mother needed him and develops depression . Meanwhile , Bhuvana 's lungs are transplanted into Anitha , a chain smoker who developed lung cancer . Anitha 's father is the chairman of a civil engineering company in Chennai and offers Raghuvaran a job as a token of his gratitude for saving his daughter 's life . Raghuvaran accepts the job while also requesting Anitha not to smoke , which she agrees . Six months later , Raghuvaran is offered an assignment on a government project to construct high @-@ rise flats to re @-@ house people living in a nearby slum . Azhagusundaram and Manickam are appointed as his assistants . He successfully wins the contract from the government and begins work on it immediately .
Arun Subramaniam , a business novice who took over his father 's company 's Chennai branch , bids for the same contract , even by using illegal methods . Furious that he did not get the land , he tries to thwart Raghuvaran 's progress in a number of ways . Raghuvaran overcomes each of these obstacles and continues his work , but Arun eventually hires rowdies to beat up Raghuvaran 's workers at the construction site . The workers get injured and end up in hospital , which prompts Raghuvaran to go to Arun 's office to put an end to this issue . He makes Arun confess that he sent the rowdies , which is recorded by a micro spy camera , and demands an apology from Arun , blackmailing him that otherwise the video would be made public . Fearing that the video could tarnish his reputation , Arun 's father , Venkat , sends his son to the hospital to apologise . Raghuvaran accepts the apology and the project is completed within ten months .
On the day of the flats ' inauguration , Arun and a gang of rowdies ambush Raghuvaran en route . He outwits them but spares Arun , much to Arun 's surprise . Raghuvaran says he has no intention to compete with or beat him and wishes to be his friend . Raghuvaran takes Arun to the site on his moped , where the state public works minister and Anitha inaugurate the flats .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Velraj and Dhanush had worked together on several projects including Aadukalam ( 2011 ) and 3 ( 2012 ) as cinematographer and lead actor respectively . During the production of those films , Dhanush suggested Velraj to make his debut as a director and promised to play the lead role . After Velraj showed Dhanush the film 's script , Dhanush agreed to play the lead role as well as produce the film . In July 2013 , Dhanush confirmed his collaboration with Velraj , whilst also confirming the inclusion of Amala Paul as the female lead and Anirudh Ravichander as the music director . The title of the film , Velaiilla Pattadhari was unveiled on 15 August 2013 . After the title launch , Dhanush confirmed that filming would start on 20 August 2013 .
Regarding the film 's development , Velraj said , “ Dhanush must have liked something about me to help me grow . It was during our Aadukalam days that he promised to make me a director and said he would act in my first film . Several directors would have lined up for this opportunity . He chose me . It ’ s just a bond we share . ”
Velraj shot the film alongside his commitments as cinematographer for Poriyaalan ( 2014 ) and Vai Raja Vai , while Anirudh Ravichander and Kola Bhaskar joined the team as music composer and editor respectively . However , Bhaskar was replaced with M. V. Rajesh Kumar after scheduling conflicts arose . The film was planned as a " message to the youth with some comedy on rising unemployment and the growing frustration for jobs with love " .
= = = Casting = = =
When Velraj showed Dhanush the script for the film , he was impressed by it and immediately offered to act in it as well as bankroll the venture . Velraj said besides acting , Dhanush suggested additional inputs to the script . Rather than demand changes , the actor collaborated with the director to develop the best script for the film . Dhanush 's well @-@ toned body was remarked upon by the media , but Dhanush clarified the workout was mostly for promoting the film rather than having done it as an integral part of his character . Velraj later commented about the requirement of a muscular appearance for a fight scene in the film 's climax , resulting in Dhanush toning his body for the sequence . Amala Paul was selected to play the role of a doctor named Shalini . She described her character as " very different " from those that she had done before , and that the characters in the film were drawn from real @-@ life archetypes .
Vivek , who was added to the cast in May 2014 , stated during a press meet of the film that he initially rejected the role and as a result , Dhanush decided to make someone else play the role . Vivek then accepted the role for Dhanush 's sake . Saranya Ponvannan was selected to play the role of Bhuvana , Raghuvaran 's mother , while Samuthirakani was chosen to play Dhanush 's father . Samuthirakani was suggested to Dhanush by Vetrimaaran .
Actress Surabhi began filming her scenes in early March 2014 . Hrishikesh , who plays Karthik , Raghuvaran 's sibling , received an SMS from Dhanush 's production office , which asked him to audition for the role . He was selected after his screen test ended successfully . Amitash Pradhan played the main antagonist , Arun Subramaniam . Amitash was recruited from the Anupam Kher Acting School . In an interview with Gulf News , Amitash described his character to be not the " stereotypical villain " often seen in Tamil cinema , and that his character was more cunning .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography formally began on 20 August 2013 . An initial production poster was released to the media on 25 December 2013 . On 31 December 2013 , the team released a teaser trailer featuring Dhanush , Amala Paul and Saranya . The team began the final shoot on 2 May 2014 , with comedian Vivek amongst other actors joining the cast . Filming was completed on 4 May 2014 .
During the film 's shoot , Velraj would often forget to say “ Action ! ” , but despite this , there were hardly any retakes . Being a cinematographer , Velraj gave priority to visual presentations and costume designing in the film . Director Subramaniam Siva , who had earlier collaborated with Dhanush for Thiruda Thirudi ( 2003 ) , helped with the post @-@ production work involved in the film . According to Velraj , during the entire schedule of filming , the speaking parts were completed in 52 days .
Prior to the release , there were concerns raised that the film was similar to the Kamal Haasan starrer , Sathya ( 1988 ) . Dhanush clarified that there were no similarities between the films , nor was it similar to another Haasan film , Varumayin Niram Sivappu ( 1980 ) , except for the fact that the protagonist was unemployed . A scene in the film where Dhanush speaks about the education that he got in Ramakrishna Vidyalaya was muted at the request of the Ramakrishna Mission School administration .
= = Themes and influences = =
Velaiilla Pattadhari raises the issue of unemployed graduates in society . Dhanush 's character , Raghuvaran , represented the unemployed graduate who is waiting to move up the social ladder . One scene shows Raghuvaran delivering a speech about the difficulties in finishing an engineering degree only to remain jobless , with some of them having to take jobs not related to their fields to make a living . Dhanush 's characterisation was similar to his characters from his previous films like Polladhavan ( 2007 ) , Yaaradi Nee Mohini ( 2008 ) and Padikkadavan ( 2009 ) . Both Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu and M. Suganth of The Times of India compare Dhanush 's and Amitash 's characters and their encounters with each other to those that took place between the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah , David and the Philistine warrior , Goliath .
The film shifts from exploring self @-@ pity to proving a point , where the protagonist overcomes all hurdles and outwits a rich adversary , as well as building a successful relationship . The father @-@ figure in the film disapproves of his son 's continued unemployment , while his mother defends him . Karthik , meanwhile , is a contrasting figure , being settled and prosperous . Amala Paul 's character , Shalini , is shown as Raghuvaran 's confidante though he feels jealous when she interacts with his brother . The film also portrays the relationship between a mother and her son as particularly important .
= = Music = =
The film 's soundtrack and score were composed by Anirudh Ravichander . The album , containing eight tracks , was initially scheduled to be released on 3 January 2014 , but the release was brought forward to 14 February 2014 , to add two additional songs . The team also recorded a track described as a " lilting melody " between Dhanush and singer S. Janaki in October 2013 . Anirudh promoted the album on Sun Music a week before the film 's release . The track list was released on 10 February 2014 . The album cover depicts Dhanush 's character , Raghuvaran 's frantic search for a job .
The album was launched at the Suryan FM 93 @.@ 5 radio station with Dhanush , Amala Paul and Anirudh Ravichander in attendance . The album received positive response from critics . IndiaGlitz gave the album 4 out of 5 stars : " Anirudh is back again with yet another sure hit . This time , it 's bigger , better and massive ! In all , the album is soulful , lively and truly Anirudh " . Srinivasa Ramanujam of The Times of India gave the album 3 out of 5 stars , saying that some of the songs sounded similar to Anirudh 's previous compositions . He criticised the use of only two male singers ( Dhanush and Anirudh ) , stating that " other voices might have provided a fresher musical perspective to some of the tunes " . The songs " Velaiyilla Pattathari " , " Poo Indru Neeyaga " , " What a Karuvad " and " Udhungada Sangu " topped the Radio Mirchi South charts for 31 weeks .
= = = Track list = = =
All lyrics written by Dhanush .
All lyrics written by Ramajogayya Sastry .
= = Release = =
The theatrical rights of the film in Tamil Nadu were sold to Madhan of Escape Artists Motion Pictures . ATMUS Entertainment distributed the film in the United States .
The film was released in 350 screens in Tamil Nadu . The film released in 60 screens in Chengalpattu , 65 screens in Kovai , 30 screens in Madurai , 30 screens in Trichy and 55 screens in Salem . The film also released in 60 screens in Kerala and 65 screens in Karnataka . The teaser of the film was uploaded on YouTube on 9 February 2014 . The official trailer of the film was released on 17 June 2014 on YouTube , and trended on social networking sites following its release , reaching 2 million views in two weeks . On 1 July 2014 , Madhan confirmed that the film would be released on 18 July 2014 .
The film 's satellite rights were sold to Sun TV . Some of the posters depicting Dhanush smoking were removed as this did not conform to the Tobacco Control Board 's guidelines . The film was dubbed into Telugu as Raghuvaran B.Tech , which was released on 1 January 2015 . The dubbed version was also a commercially successful venture .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received generally positive reviews from critics . Writing for The Hindu , Baradwaj Rangan said " There are films that cater to the actor , and there are films that cater to the star — in Velayilla Pattathari [ sic ] , Dhanush gets a film where he gets to showcase both sides . He ’ s ( Velraj ) given actor @-@ Dhanush fans half a movie to love , and he ’ s handed over the rest to the star @-@ Dhanush fans . Is there much use complaining when both actor and star are in such fine form ? " Sify wrote " Velai Illa Pattadhari [ sic ] is a rollicking fun ride . It ’ s pure unadulterated masala laced with all essential ingredients that work with mass audiences . Writer , director and cinematographer R Velraj has made a dream debut with a perfect commercial mix " .
M. Suganth of The Times of India gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote , " [ ... ] Velraj ( the cinematographer making his directorial debut ) superbly manages to strike a balance between the emotional and mass hero moments . [ ... ] It is fantastic to see Dhanush take this boy @-@ next @-@ door to mass hero mode and he has quite a few punchy lines . " Anupama Subramanian of the Deccan Chronicle gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote , " Dhanush has chosen a befitting script for his 25th milestone film and in the company of his favourite cinematographer turned filmmaker Velraj , who has churned out a mass family entertainer with Velai Illa Pattadhari [ sic ] " , calling it a " wholesome entertainer " .
Oneindia Entertainment gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and stated that " Velayilla Pattathari [ sic ] is a perfect entertainer for Dhanush 's fans " . S. Saraswathi of Rediff gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and concluded , " Velaiyilla Pattathari [ sic ] is two hours of pure entertainment , definitely worth a watch " . Haricharan Pudipeddi of IANS gave the film 3 stars out 5 and stated , " While VIP fortifies Dhanush 's heroism in a tailor @-@ made role which he comfortably pulls off , it also achieves so many things right as a commercial film and that 's what works in its favour . Dhanush reinforces he 's still cut out for commercial cinema with Velaiyilla Pattathari [ sic ] " .
In contrast , Malini Mannath of The New Indian Express wrote , " With its racy first half and a predictable second half , VIP is an average entertainer " . Gautaman Bhaskaran of the Hindustan Times gave the film 2 out of 5 , saying " Although Vellaiyilla Pattathari [ sic ] presents a grave social malaise – that of joblessness among engineering graduates in Tamil Nadu with 3000 @-@ odd colleges turning out hundreds of thousands of degree holders year after year – the script plays goodsport . Performances do not lift the movie either " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film was released in 30 screens in Chennai alone . Sreedhar Pillai stated that the film had made ₹ 43 @.@ 6 million on its opening day in Tamil Nadu alone . The first weekend gross was ₹ 190 @.@ 8 million . The film made ₹ 250 million in Tamil Nadu overall .
Velaiilla Pattadhari made ₹ 9 @.@ 83 million in the UK and Ireland together . It also grossed ₹ 3 @.@ 735 million in Australia . The film made one month 's collection of ₹ 22 @.@ 3 million in Malaysia . Overall , the film grossed ₹ 530 million worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Dunstaffnage Castle =
Dunstaffnage Castle is a partially ruined castle in Argyll and Bute , western Scotland . It lies 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) N.N.E. of Oban , situated on a platform of conglomerate rock on a promontory at the south @-@ west of the entrance to Loch Etive , and is surrounded on three sides by the sea .
The castle dates back to the 13th century , making it one of Scotland 's oldest stone castles , in a local group which includes Castle Sween and Castle Tioram . Guarding a strategic location , it was built by the MacDougall lords of Lorn , and has been held since the 15th century by the Clan Campbell . To this day there is a hereditary Captain of Dunstaffnage , although they no longer reside at the castle . Dunstaffnage is maintained by Historic Scotland , and is open to the public , although the 16th century gatehouse is retained as the private property of the Captain . The prefix dun in the name means " fort " in Gaelic , while the rest of the name derives from Norse stafr @-@ nis , " headland of the staff " .
= = History = =
= = = Before Dunstaffnage = = =
Before the construction of the castle , Dunstaffnage may have been the location of a Dál Riatan stronghold , known as Dun Monaidh , as early as the 7th century . It was recorded , by John Monipennie in 1612 , that the Stone of Destiny was kept here after being brought from Ireland , and before it was moved to Scone Palace in 843 . However , Iona and Dunadd are considered more likely , given their known connections with Dál Riatan and Strathclyde kings . Hector Boece records that the stone was kept at " Evonium " , which has traditionally been identified with Dunstaffnage , although in 2010 the writer A. J. Morton identified Evonium with Irvine in Ayrshire .
= = = The MacDougalls = = =
The castle itself was built in the second quarter of the 13th century , as the seat of Duncan MacDougall , Lord of Lorn and grandson of Somerled . Duncan was unsuccessfully attacked by his Norwegian @-@ backed brother , Uspak , who later died in an attack on Rothesay Castle with Norse forces in the 1230s . He had also travelled to Rome in 1237 , and was the founder of nearby Ardchattan Priory . Duncan 's son Ewen MacDougall inherited his father 's title in the 1240s , and expanded the MacDougall influence , styling himself " King of the Isles " . It is probable that Ewen built the three round towers onto the castle , and constructed and enlarged the hall inside .
Following Alexander III 's repulse of the Norse influence in Argyll , the MacDougalls backed the Scottish monarchy , and Ewen 's son Alexander was made the first sherriff of Argyll in 1293 . However , they supported the Balliol side during the Wars of Scottish Independence which broke out a few years later . Robert Bruce defeated the Clan MacDougall at the Battle of the Pass of Brander in 1308 or 1309 , and after a brief siege , took control of Dunstaffnage Castle .
= = = Royal fortress = = =
Now a Crown property , Dunstaffnage was controlled by a series of keepers . James I seized the castle in 1431 , following the Battle of Inverlochy , as his enemies were hiding inside . In 1455 James Douglas , 9th Earl of Douglas stayed at Dunstaffnage , on his way to treat with John MacDonald , Lord of the Isles . This followed James II 's attack on Douglas power , and led to the signing of the Treaty of Westminster @-@ Ardtornish . A later keeper , John Stewart of Lorn , was a rival of Alan MacDougall , and was stabbed by his supporters on his way to his marriage at Dunstaffnage Chapel in 1463 , although he survived long enough to make his vows . Although MacDougall took the castle , he was ousted by James III , who granted Dunstaffnage to Colin Campbell , 1st Earl of Argyll in 1470 .
= = = Clan Campbell = = =
The Earls of Argyll appointed Captains to oversee Dunstaffnage , and keep it in readiness , on their behalf . Changes were made to the buildings , particularly the gatehouse , which was rebuilt around this time . The Campbells were loyal allies of the royal house , and Dunstaffnage was used as a base for government expeditions against the MacDonald Lords of the Isles , among others , during the 15th and 16th centuries . James IV visited Dunstaffnage on two occasions .
Dunstaffnage saw action during the Civil War , holding out against Montrose 's army in 1644 . The castle was burned by royalist troops , following the failure of the rising of the 9th Earl of Argyll in 1685 , against the Catholic James VII . During the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 , the castle was occupied by government troops . Flora MacDonald , who helped Bonnie Prince Charlie to escape from Scotland , was briefly imprisoned here while en route to imprisonment in London .
= = = Decline and restoration = = =
The Campbells continued to add to the castle , building a new house over the old west range in 1725 . However , the rest of the castle was already decaying . In 1810 an accidental fire gutted the castle , and the Captains ceased to live here , moving to Dunstaffnage House , some 2 km to the south @-@ east , until this too burned down in 1940 . Tenants lived in the 1725 house within the castle until 1888 .
Restoration work was undertaken in 1903 by the Duke of Argyll , the castle 's owner . This was followed in 1912 by a court case , in which the Court of Session ruled that Angus Campbell , the 20th hereditary Captain , had right of residence notwithstanding the Duke of Argyll 's ownership . Works were delayed by World War I , and the planned total restoration was never completed . In 1958 , the 21st Captain and the Duke agreed to hand the castle into state care , and it remains a Historic Scotland property . Both the castle and chapel are category A listed buildings and Scheduled Ancient Monuments .
= = Description = =
= = = Walls = = =
Dunstaffnage is an irregular quadrangular structure of great strength , with rounded towers at three of the angles . It measures approximately 35 by 30 metres ( 115 by 98 ft ) , and has a circumference of about 120 metres ( 390 ft ) . The walls are of coursed rubble , with sandstone dressings , and stand up to 18 m ( 60 ft ) high , including the conglomerate bedrock platform . The walls are up to 3 m ( 10 ft ) thick , affording strong defence to this highly strategic location , guarding the entrance to Loch Etive and the Pass of Brander beyond , and today commanding a splendid view . The parapet walk , which once followed the whole of the walls , has been partially restored with new stone flags . The original parapet is now also gone . Arrow slits , later converted into gunloops , are the only openings . Brass cannon recovered from wrecked vessels of the Spanish Armada were once mounted on the walls .
= = = Round towers = = =
Soon after the construction of the castle walls , three round towers were built on the north , east , and west towers . The north tower , or donjon , is the largest , comprising three or four storeys originally , and probably housed the lord 's private apartments . The west tower is almost internal , barely projecting beyond the rounded corner of the curtain wall , and could only be entered via the parapet walk . The basement level contains a pit prison which was accessed from above . The east tower was almost completely rebuilt in the late 15th century as a gatehouse . Each tower was probably once topped by a conical roof .
= = = The gatehouse = = =
The gatehouse was built by the Campbells in the late 15th century , replacing an earlier round tower in the east corner . It takes the form of a four @-@ storey harled tower house , with the entrance passage running through half the vaulted basement , the other half forming guard rooms with arrow slits facing the gate . The present approach to the gate is by a stone stair , replacing an earlier drawbridge . The tower was remodelled in the 18th century to provide reception rooms and a private suite . The dormer windows at the top are capped by the pediments from the 1725 house ( see below ) , and bear the date , the Campbell arms , and the initials AEC and DLC , for Aeneas Campbell , 11th Captain , and his wife Dame Lilias . The pediments were moved here during the 1903 restoration works .
= = = Internal ranges = = =
The east range was located between the north and east towers , although only foundations remain . This was the principal range of buildings and contained a large hall above vaulted cellars . The hall had double @-@ lancet windows , decorated with carved patterns , which were later blocked up ; their outlines can be seen in the east curtain wall .
A second range stood along the north @-@ west wall , and would have been connected to the hall range by the donjon tower . The ground floor housed a kitchen . In 1725 the range was remodelled into a two @-@ storey house , accessed via a stone stair , and topped with the dormer windows which now form part of the gatehouse . The well in front is original , although the large stone surround is of 19th century date .
= = Dunstaffnage Chapel = =
A ruined 13th century chapel lies around 150 metres ( 490 ft ) to the south @-@ west of the castle . This was also built by Duncan MacDougall of Lorn , as a private chapel , and features detailed stonework of outstanding quality . The chapel is 20 by 6 metres ( 66 by 20 ft ) , and formerly had a timber roof . The lancet windows carry dog @-@ tooth carving , and have fine wide @-@ splayed arches internally . The chapel was already ruinous in 1740 , when a burial aisle was built on to the east end , to serve as a resting place for the Captains of Dunstaffnage and their families .
= = Captain of Dunstaffnage = =
Traditionally , an officer called the Hereditary Captain of Dunstaffnage is responsible for the castle and its defence . The office still exists , and to retain the title ( now rather a sinecure without military significance ) , the incumbent is required to spend three nights a year in the castle . No other responsibilities or privileges now attach to the post .
= = Castle ghost = =
A ghost , known as the " Ell @-@ maid of Dunstaffnage " , is said to haunt the castle . A type of gruagach , the ghost 's appearances are said to be associated with events in the lives of the hereditary keepers .
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= Rookery Building =
The Rookery Building is a historic landmark located at 209 South LaSalle Street in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . Completed by John Wellborn Root and Daniel Burnham of Burnham and Root in 1888 , it is considered one of their masterpiece buildings , and was once the location of their office . The building measures 181 feet ( 55 m ) , is twelve stories tall and is considered the oldest standing high @-@ rise in Chicago . It has a unique style with exterior load @-@ bearing walls and an interior steel frame , which provided a transition between accepted and new building techniques . The lobby was remodeled in 1905 by Frank Lloyd Wright . Beginning in 1989 , the lobby was restored to the original Wright design .
The building was designated a Chicago Landmark on July 5 , 1972 , and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 17 , 1970 and listed as a National Historic Landmark on May 15 , 1975 .
= = Name = =
The name of the building is an allusion to the old City Hall building that occupied the land before the Rookery . That building was nicknamed the Rookery not only in reference to the crows and pigeons that inhabited its exterior walls , but also because of the shady politicians it housed ( given the rook 's perceived reputation for acquisitiveness ) . After the Great Chicago Fire a dilapidated building was used as an interim City Hall at this location ( LaSalle and Adams ) . However , pigeons became such a nuisance that a complaining citizen began referring to the building as " a rookery " , a term the press quickly adopted . Although several names were considered when a new structure on the site was proposed , " the Rookery " won out .
= = Construction = =
= = = Burnham & Root = = =
The Rookery was built in 1887 – 1888 by the architectural partnership of Daniel H. Burnham and John Wellborn Root , known as Burnham and Root . In the architectural boom that followed the Great Chicago Fire , architects in what would become known as the Chicago School of commercial architecture competed with each other to create the world 's first true skyscrapers . By mixing modern building techniques , such as metal framing , fireproofing , elevators and plate glass , together with traditional ones , such as brick facades and elaborate ornamentation , Burnham and Root sought to create a bold architectural statement . At the same time , they intended their buildings to be commercially successful . This building is one of the few results of their partnership that is still standing .
As the master artisan , Root drew upon a variety of influences in designing the interior and exterior spaces , including Moorish , Byzantine , Venetian and Romanesque motifs . He also provided the architectural innovations that brought together many contemporary cutting edge building techniques . Of particular note was a " floating " foundation — a reinforced concrete slab that provided the building 's weight with a solid platform atop Chicago 's notoriously swampy soil . The term for the type of foundation that Root designed is grillage foundation , a foundation where iron rails and the structural beams are combined in a crisscross pattern and encased in concrete to support the building 's immense weight without heavy foundation stones . This construction is particularly useful when structural loads are high compared to the natural bearing capacity of the soil .
= = = Light court = = =
Making prodigious use of light and ornamentation , Root and Burnham designed a central light court to serve as the focal point for the entire building and provide daylight to interior offices . Rising two stories , the light court received immediate critical acclaim . " There is nothing bolder , more original , or more inspiring in modern civic architecture than its glass @-@ covered court " , wrote Eastern critic Henry Van Brunt . At a time when Chicago 's bold experiment in architecture was looking eastward for affirmation , this was welcome praise . The light court provides natural illumination for the interior offices .
Frank Lloyd Wright was a young architectural assistant working with Adler and Sullivan at the time the Rookery was built in 1886 . Architect Daniel Burnham was a friend of Wright patron Edward C. Waller . Waller managed the Rookery ; Wright had his offices in the building in 1898 – 1899 . In 1905 Wright received the commission to redesign the lobby in the building ; at the time considered the grandest in Chicago . Wright 's work on the Rookery recast the entryway in his Prairie style and added a sense of modernity through his simple but effective lighting design . Wright 's work on the Rookery is his only work on any building within the downtown cityscape .
Among Wright 's most significant alterations was the addition of white marble with Persian @-@ style ornamentation . The marble and decorative details added a sense of luxury to the lobby 's steel @-@ laden interior , marked by Burnham and Root 's skeletal metal ribbing . The entire interior space is bright and open . A double set of curving , heavily ornamented stairs wind upward from the lobby 's second floor into the building 's interior . A wrap @-@ around balcony on the second floor enhances the feeling of being within the interior of a " clockwork . " The Wright remodel opened the building up to more of the available light .
= = = Load bearing walls and steel structure = = =
The red marble , terra cotta and brick facade of the building is a combination of Roman Revival and Queen Anne styles that embraced Richardsonian Romanesque architecture . The building , which is a combination of iron framing and masonry bearing walls , marked a transition from masonry load @-@ bearing structures to steel skeleton load @-@ bearing structures . In fact , the Landmarks Commission citation commends " development of the skeleton structural frame using cast iron columns , wrought iron spandrel beams , and steel beams to support party walls and interior floors " . Aside from the first two floors of metal @-@ framed perimeter walls , the walls are all masonry . The building is known for its semi @-@ circular staircase west of the light court .
= = = Renovations = = =
While much of the Loop 's 19th @-@ century architecture has been lost to demolition and redevelopment , the Rookery has been spared this fate through a series of well executed renovations . The building remains a commercially successful rental office building , as it was when it was first built .
Beginning in the early 20th century , the building underwent three major renovations . In the first , from 1905 to 1907 , Frank Lloyd Wright was retained to remake the interior spaces . In keeping with contemporary tastes , Wright 's design covered Root 's elaborate wrought iron finishes with white carved Carrara marble surfaces . Wright was highly regarded by the public at this point , and his changes brought enhanced status to the building , making the Rookery one of the most sought after buildings of Chicago . Some of Wright 's other changes included incorporating simplified ironwork and adding his trademark style planters and light fixtures .
The second renovation , completed August 24 , 1931 by former Wright assistant William Drummond , modernized many of the interior elements , including new elevators , and brought period touches to the building , such as Art Deco detailing . The third renovation , in 1992 , brought the building back to much of its original splendor , reopening the light court ceiling after it had been covered over to protect against leaks .
After their purchase of the Rookery in October 2007 , the new owners announced plans for an extensive renovation of the building 's common areas .
= = = Tenants = = =
Burnham & Root had their offices at the Rookery for a while upon its completion , and at one time Frank Lloyd Wright had an office in the building as well . Current tenants include US Bank , Brooks Brothers and TVS Partnership / Architect .
= = Current ownership = =
The building was purchased in October 2007 for $ 73 million by an investment group controlled by a European family , and advised by Zeb Bradford of Metzler North America Corp. The seller was Broadway Real Estate Partners of New York , which had bought the Rookery for $ 56 million in April 2006 . BREP was reported to have increased occupancy of the building 's 281 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 26 @,@ 100 m2 ) from 80 % in January 2007 to 96 % at the time of the sale .
= = Visiting = =
The Preservation Trust offers thirty @-@ minute tours inside Mondays and Fridays at noon . The Chicago Architecture Foundation additionally provides tours approximately twice a month .
= = In popular culture = =
The Rookery Building was featured in the film Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York , in which the exterior and one of the lower levels were modeled as the toy store Duncan 's Toy Chest .
The Rookery was used by Frank Norris in his novel The Pit as the site of the office of fictional financial speculator Curtis Jadwin .
The Rookery was featured prominently in the 1987 film The Untouchables as the police headquarters of Eliot Ness .
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= USS Dunderberg =
The USS Dunderberg , which is a Swedish word meaning " thunder ( ing ) mountain , " was an ocean @-@ going casemate ironclad of 14 guns . She resembled an enlarged , two @-@ masted version of the Confederate casemate ironclad CSS Virginia . She was originally designed to have both gun turrets and a casemate but the turrets were deleted while the ship was still building . Construction began in 1862 , but progress was slow and she was not launched until after the end of the American Civil War in 1865 .
The ship was not accepted by the Union Navy so its builder began seeking buyers elsewhere ; Otto von Bismarck expressed some interest , and the thought of Prussia armed with such a vessel prompted France to purchase her and commission her in 1867 with the name Rochambeau . She was initially placed in reserve , but was mobilized in 1870 to participate in the Franco @-@ Prussian War . The ship saw no action and was decommissioned after the end of the war . Rochambeau was stricken from the Navy List in 1872 and scrapped in 1874 .
= = Design , description and construction = =
On 11 April 1862 , William H. Webb , arguably the premier wooden shipbuilder in the country , sent a model of a large wooden @-@ hulled , casemate ironclad with a displacement of about 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) to the US Navy Department . Webb signed a contract on 3 July with the Navy 's Bureau of Yards and Docks for a ship that had an overall length of 350 feet ( 106 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of at least 68 feet ( 20 @.@ 7 m ) and a draft of no more than 20 feet 6 inches ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) . His ship was required to make 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) in still water and she was to be armed with four 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns in two gun turrets , each protected by 11 inches ( 279 mm ) of armor , and eight 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns in a casemate . The ship was to be completed in 15 months at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 .
Dunderberg 's contract , as the ship was now named by Webb , was amended on 27 August to specify her armor scheme . Above the main deck , her armor was to be 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick . From the main deck to a depth of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below the waterline , the armor was to be 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) thick , tapering to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) at its lower edge . The ship 's main and casemate deck armor was .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick except at the rear of the ship . The main deck , from the rear of the casemate to the stern , was to consist of 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch armor plates that tapered to 2 @.@ 5 inches in thickness . Dunderberg was to be given a complete double bottom and her engine and boiler rooms were to be completely enclosed by watertight bulkheads . She was also to be provided with two masts and the appropriate rigging .
The ship was powered by two back @-@ acting steam engines driving one four @-@ bladed propeller 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) feet in diameter , using steam generated by six tubular boilers at a working pressure of 25 psi ( 172 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines , designed to produce 4 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 400 kW ) , and boilers were both subcontracted by Webb to the Etna Iron Works of New York City . The engines were originally intended to have a bore of 90 inches ( 2 @,@ 286 mm ) and a stroke of 45 inches ( 1 @,@ 143 mm ) , but Webb increased the bore to 100 inches ( 2 @,@ 540 mm ) to insure that Dunderberg reached her contract speed . During the ship 's first sea trial on 22 February 1867 , she reached a speed of about 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) ; during a demonstration for her French buyers on 12 June , Dunderberg reached 13 @.@ 9 knots ( 25 @.@ 7 km / h ; 16 @.@ 0 mph ) . She had two auxiliary boilers to provide steam for the steam engines that powered her pumps , ventilation fans and rotated the gun turrets . These engines , with their bore and stroke of 36 inches ( 914 mm ) , were larger than the main engines of the Passaic @-@ class monitors . All of the boilers exhausted through a retractable funnel . The ship normally carried 540 long tons ( 550 t ) of coal , but could hold a maximum of 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) . She had a light brigantine rig that had a sail area of 11 @,@ 170 square feet ( 1 @,@ 038 m2 ) .
Her keel was laid down before 3 October 1862 at Webb 's shipyard in New York City , even though Webb was forced to use unseasoned oak for Dunderberg because the supply of seasoned timber had been exhausted earlier in the war . Unseasoned wood was far more prone to rot and significantly shortened the ship 's life . Her hull was very strongly built with the space between her frames filled with timber and diagonal iron straps tied her frames together . The sides of the casemate at the level of the main deck were approximately 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) thick . Before beginning construction , Webb redesigned the hull , increasing its length to 358 feet 8 inches ( 109 @.@ 3 m ) between perpendiculars and its overall length to 377 feet 4 inches ( 115 @.@ 0 m ) . Her beam decreased from 75 feet 6 inches ( 23 @.@ 0 m ) to 72 feet 10 inches ( 22 @.@ 2 m ) and she displaced , at her nominal draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) forward and 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) aft , 6 @,@ 948 long tons ( 7 @,@ 059 t ) . These changes made her the longest wooden ship ever built . Dunderberg 's hull was protected from biofouling by two external layers of zinc and copper . The ship was fitted with two rudders , the primary one in the usual location aft of the propeller , but she also had an auxiliary rudder placed in the deadwood above and ahead of the propeller .
Many other changes were made to Dunderberg while she was under construction and significantly contributed to her delays in completion . The most important of these was the eventual elimination of her turrets which began in October 1863 when Webb wrote to Gideon Welles , Secretary of the Navy , saying that he concurred with the General Superintendent of Ironclads , Rear Admiral Francis Gregory 's suggestion that the " turrets be dispensed with and the casemate lengthened to accommodate an additional number of guns " Welles did not approve the change until September 1864 when he authorized an armament of four 15 @-@ inch and twelve 11 @-@ inch guns in the casemate . This was extended by 73 feet ( 22 @.@ 3 m ) to an approximate overall length of 228 feet ( 69 @.@ 5 m ) so that it now covered the aft magazine and shell room . It was provided with a total of 22 gun ports , six on each broadside , two on each corner and one each facing the bow and stern . The design of the gun ports was another issue that took years to resolve . They were originally sized for the 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren gun with a height of 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) , but this was inadequate to allow the guns to fully elevate as experience with New Ironsides proved . The mounting of the much larger 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren gun in the casemate further complicated the design of the gun ports , especially since the design for their carriages was not even finished until May 1866 . The design of the gunport itself was revised in the second half of 1865 to reduce the chance of projectiles entering them ; the new design was roughly hourglass shaped and narrower in the middle of the casemate than on either the inside or the outside of the gun port . All of these changes to the gun ports delayed the completion of the casemate 's woodwork as well as the cutting and installation of the casemate armor . The angle of the casemate was also changed from the original very shallow 35 ° from the horizontal to an angle of 60 ° after Rear Admiral Joseph Smith , Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks , noted that it would be very difficult to work the guns at such an angle . The deletion of the turrets also required a redesign of the conning tower as Webb had intended to mount it on top of the fore turret . A copy of that used by the Miantonomoh @-@ class monitors was installed between the funnel and the foremast during August 1866 .
Dunderberg was built with a plough @-@ shaped 44 @-@ foot ( 13 @.@ 4 m ) , ram bow of which the forward 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) were sheathed in cast iron . Her full armament was not installed before she was sold , but gunnery trials were conducted in February 1867 with two 15 @-@ inch and four 11 @-@ inch guns . With a gun port height of 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 270 mm ) , the 15 @-@ inch guns could elevate + 8 @.@ 5 ° and depress to − 5 ° ; equivalent figures for the 11 @-@ inch guns were + 5 ° and − 7 ° . The 15 @-@ inch guns could traverse 30 ° forward of the beam and 28 ° aft and the 11 @-@ inch Dahlgrens could bear 28 ° to both sides . The only significant problem encountered during the trials was that the gun deck was made of soft pine and did not withstand the force of recoil well .
Other problems that delayed the ship 's completion were shortages of material , labor and money . Prices for pig iron and bar iron nearly tripled while boiler plate and copper roughly doubled . Wages of even inexperienced workers increased between 50 and 100 percent . The New York City draft riots in July 1863 and several machinist 's strikes further slowed progress on Dunderberg . Webb failed to account for these problems when negotiating the ship 's contract and he repeatedly tried to charge the Navy for alterations as well as use cheaper materials to reduce his costs . He also attempted to have his contract amended by act of Congress , but he was unsuccessful . The Navy agreed to pay for some of the changes made and it also reduced the reserve amount held back in case the ship did not meet her specifications in 1865 .
By about 1864 , both sides regarded the ship as a white elephant ; Welles wrote in his diary that he would rather have the money than the ship and Webb was spending more money than he could anticipate from the contract . Nonetheless , he continued work on the Dunderberg as he had very little other work for his shipyard and , most importantly , in the hope of getting his contract amended to allow him to make a profit . On 22 July 1865 , he launched the ship , now with her hull complete and about half of her armor installed , with much fanfare . The New York Times estimated a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 watched the launching . The following year , the government rejected offers by Peru and Chile to purchase the ship , both then at war with Spain , lest the sale prejudice its lawsuit against Great Britain for selling warships to the Confederacy . Webb did manage to get a private bill passed by Congress in March 1867 that allowed him title to the ship once he repaid all monies advanced to him .
= = French service = =
After Prussia expressed an interest in the ship , the Emperor of France , Napoleon III , bought her in April for 2 @.@ 5 million dollars over the objections of his own navy , which preferred a home @-@ built ship . The exact date of purchase is unknown , but Welles noted in his diary on 7 May that Webb had told him of the sale . On 27 June , Webb refunded the money that had been paid to him and also purchased those items furnished by the government . A little over a week later , he attempted to sail to France , but had to return to port the following day due to engine problems . These were not resolved until 19 July when he , and his entire family , set sail . Dunderberg arrived at Cherbourg on 3 August and the French Navy took possession three days later .
The ship was commissioned and renamed Rochambeau , in honor of the Comte de Rochambeau , a general during the American Revolution , on 7 August . After briefly running machinery trials two days later , Rochambeau began an overhaul in the naval dockyard at Cherbourg to fix problems that had become apparent during her delivery voyage and to modify her in accordance with French practices . These changes included the addition of a pilothouse on top of the conning tower , the replacement of the main rudder and the length of her stern was reduced somewhat . Her armament was removed and replaced by four Canon de 270 Modèle 1864 / 66 and 10 Canon de 240 Modèle 1864 / 66 guns , both of which were breech @-@ loading . The 15 @-@ caliber 270 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) guns fired a 216 @-@ kilogram ( 476 lb ) shell while the 17 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns fired one that weighed 144 kilograms ( 317 lb ) . The 270 mm guns were mounted in the corners of the casemate and could pivot between a broadside gun port and one on the corner . Eight of the 240 mm guns were mounted on the broadside and the remaining two were positioned in the bow and stern gun ports . The remaining four gunports , those on the corners closest to the broadside , were plated over .
The French carefully measured the ship during her 1868 overhaul . At the waterline Rochambeau was 107 @.@ 4 meters ( 352 ft 4 in ) long and had a beam of 22 @.@ 15 meters ( 72 ft 8 in ) . She had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 5 meters ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a depth of hold of 7 @.@ 078 meters ( 23 ft 2 @.@ 7 in ) , and displaced 7 @,@ 849 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 725 long tons ) . They rated her engines at only 4 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 900 kW ) , but they produced a maximum of 4 @,@ 657 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 425 kW ) and gave an speed just over 15 knots during her machinery trials in June 1868 after the completion of her overhaul . At normal load she carried 540 tonnes ( 530 long tons ) of coal and 735 tonnes ( 723 long tons ) at deep load . In service the ship proved to burn a lot of coal , full bunkers and 30 tonnes ( 30 long tons ) stored on deck only provided her a range of 2 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 200 nmi ) at a speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . They reduced her sail area to 954 @.@ 42 square meters ( 10 @,@ 273 @.@ 3 sq ft ) .
They measured the ship 's armor thickness throughout . The casemate was completely protected by 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) plates . The hull armor extended to a depth of 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) below the waterline and its upper strake was 90 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) thick while the lower was 70 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Her decks were covered by 18 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 7 in ) plates and the sides of the conning tower were 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick . In service , Rochambeau proved to be very wet and threw up a lot of spray in a head sea . She had a very quick roll which caused problems when trying to work the guns in heavy weather as even moderate seas could prevent their use altogether since the gun ports were only about 1 @.@ 4 meters ( 4 ft 7 in ) above the waterline . Under sail alone in a good breeze , the ship could not maintain her course , could not be steered and would turn until wind and wave were on her beam .
Rochambeau completed her refit on 18 May 1868 and was briefly under the command of Captain ( Capitaine de vaisseau ) Jules @-@ François @-@ Émile Krantz ( a future Minister of Marine ) before being decommissioned on 1 August and placed in reserve . She was refitted from August to December and had her forward hull armor plates replaced by a one @-@ piece cast iron ram . Still in reserve in 1869 , Rochambeau was modified with an additional 240 mm pivot gun mounted over the forward end of the casemate and the pine planking underneath the guns in the casemate was replaced by oak .
The ship was recommissioned with a crew of 600 men in mid @-@ July 1870 , just before the beginning of the Franco @-@ Prussian War . She departed Cherbourg on 25 August to join the fleet in Danish waters and reached Copenhagen on 31 August . The fleet fruitlessly cruised the Baltic Sea for several weeks before they were ordered home on 16 September . Rochambeau 's shallow draft meant that she and the armored corvette Thétis were ordered to search the mouth of the Jade Estuary on 26 September for Prussian ships , but they found nothing .
Upon her return , Rochambeau was decommissioned again and her crew was ordered to help defend Paris . The ship was stricken from the Navy List ( Liste de la Flotte ) on 15 April 1872 and was scrapped sometime in 1874 .
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= Threat Level Midnight =
" Threat Level Midnight " is the seventeenth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 143rd episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on February 17 , 2011 . The episode was written by B. J. Novak and directed by Tucker Gates .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) screens his action film Threat Level Midnight to the office after eleven years of writing , shooting , re @-@ shooting , and editing . This film within a film features Michael as Agent Michael Scarn , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) as Scarn 's robot butler , and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) as archnemesis " Goldenface " .
The episode 's genesis stems from the second season entry " The Client " , in which the office discovers Michael 's incomplete screenplay for Threat Level Midnight . The episode features the reappearance of several actors and actresses who had not appeared on the show in years . Due to the nature of Michael 's film , scenes were filmed to create the illusion as if they had been shot years prior to the episode . " Threat Level Midnight " was viewed by 6 @.@ 41 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 3 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 . The episode was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the week that it aired , and received acclaim from critics , many of whom enjoyed the humor and the continuity references to the show 's past .
= = Plot Synopsis = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) screens his action film Threat Level Midnight to the office after eleven years of writing , shooting , re @-@ shooting and editing .
The plot for the movie is as follows . After Scarn is forced into retirement due to the death of his wife Catherine Zeta @-@ Scarn , the President of the United States of America requests that he prevent Goldenface from blowing up the NHL All @-@ Star Game and killing several hostages . Scarn goes undercover and learns how to play hockey , killing another hockey player to make it into the game , but after confronting Goldenface , he is shot . He later recuperates but learns that the President was in on it all along , leaking footage of Scarn killing the hockey player . Guilt @-@ ridden , he goes to a bar to drown his sorrows . The patrons of the bar sing a song called " The Scarn " and do an accompanying dance , which cheers Scarn up immensely . With his courage restored , Scarn is able to save the day and blow up Goldenface in the process .
Michael had shown the office a " work in progress " cut of the film years ago , but the employees all mistook it for a comedy , and Michael was so offended by their laughing that he shut down the screening . Everyone is very eager to see Michael 's film , albeit only because they all appear in it , and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) warns everyone to be mindful of how sensitive Michael is and not laugh . However , Pam is unable to keep herself from crying out in horror when she sees her mother cast in the film as a scantily clad nurse , and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) fails to fully suppress his laughter at " The Scarn " scene , so Michael angrily stops the movie and takes it away . Michael asks Holly Flax ( Amy Ryan ) what she thought and she does not seem impressed . Michael gets angry at her because he considers the film his " dream " , and he then offers the rest of the office the opportunity to finish seeing the film , which they happily accept . While watching , Michael begins noting how the film is not really very good ; he steps outside and tells Holly that it is a bad film but also one that people are having fun watching . They sit down and laugh with the rest of the office through the film 's conclusion .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
This episode was written by executive producer B. J. Novak , who also portrays Ryan Howard on the show . It was directed by Tucker Gates , his fourth directing credit of the series . Michael 's screenplay for Threat Level Midnight was the subplot for second season episode " The Client " , and had subsequently been referenced to in " E @-@ mail Surveillance " , " Product Recall " , " Money " , " Dinner Party " , and " Prince Family Paper " . The idea for the episode came from series ' star Steve Carell , who was leaving the show at the end of the season . He said that he enjoyed the idea behind the " Threat Level Midnight " script and wanted to do a story centered on it .
Several former recurring and minor characters make reappearances . Rashida Jones , who portrayed Karen Fillipelli , noted that it felt like " a time warp " to be asked to appear on the show . Jan Levinson , Michael 's former boss and lover played by Melora Hardin , reappeared in the " Jan @-@ as @-@ diva " mode . Tony Gardner , portrayed by Mike Bruner , cameos as a pianist . Novak rationalized that , despite Gardner being fired on his first day , the character might have appeared in the movie because he was " intrigued " and " flattered " that Michael — after apologizing " profusely " — asked him , or that he might have been " lonely " .
Andy Buckley , who portrayed David Wallace , former CFO of Dunder Mifflin , was originally billed as a guest star for this episode and his character was supposed to have a part in Michael 's movie . When NBC first aired the episode , Wallace 's scenes were not shown . It was revealed by Novak that , in the script , Wallace was Michael 's first choice as Goldenface , but turned it down because " it wouldn 't look good to people at Corporate " . Furthermore , Buckley filmed a talking head interview , which had his character exclaiming his regret in not taking the role . This scene was deleted due to time constraints . The scene does not appear on the Season 7 DVD . The script also had a scene that brought back Amy Adams ' character Katy , but it was cut because Adams was working on a movie during the time this episode was filmed . Ellie Kemper , who portrays Erin Hannon on the series , did not appear in the movie ; Novak reasoned that Michael had finished his filming long before she arrived at the office , and had spent the remaining years " editing and procrastinating " .
= = = Filming = = =
Writer Novak cites the episode as the " most conceptually ambitious " in the show 's history . More than half the episode consisted of footage from the film . Originally , the producers considered showing just the movie , but they felt that it " would feel like a gimmick or experiment " , and so it was decided that the film would be intercut with shots of the office reacting to the film . In order to make the film seem as if Michael had created it , the film used was colorized in post @-@ production to make it seem as if it were of a cheaper quality than the normal high @-@ quality film that the series used . Certain shooting methods , like hand @-@ held and zooms , were nixed , except for in cases where they could be presented in a " poorly @-@ executed " manner . This was done in a way to make it appear that Michael at least knew what he was doing ; Novak explained that the crew " didn 't want the joke of the episode to be how bad he was at filmmaking " because it would " be a little easy and a little out of character " . To create the fake dummy of Toby that exploded , Paul Lieberstein was required to spend several hours in a full @-@ face mold that reportedly " unnerved him greatly " . Two molds were taken . Both were filled with explosives , but one was filled with fake blood . Both were shot with slow @-@ motion cameras . However , the dummy with the fake blood in it was considered " too disturbing for us and arguably too disturbing for Michael " , and so the tamer explosion was used .
Due to the nature of Michael 's film , Novak realized that scenes would have to be filmed as if they had been shot years prior to the episode . In order to successfully pull this off , editor David Rogers and script supervisor Veda Semame were tasked with " mapping out " every scene to make sure the continuity of the series was preserved . Novak later elaborated on the continuity during an interview with The Office fansite OfficeTally . The scene featuring " The Scarn " would have been filmed after the corporate merger that occurred during the third season ; this would explain Karen 's willingness to deliver her lines , as she would be " eager to fit in " . Stanley 's voiceover was recorded " on a lunch break " sometime after the fourth season episode " Local Ad " because he had " got a big kick out of seeing himself " in Michael 's commercial . Helene 's scenes were filmed sometime when Michael was dating her during the early part of the sixth season .
In addition to the mapping out of sequences , the episode features a short sequence that was shot to look as if it had been filmed during the show 's second season , although the scene itself was filmed in 2011 . Novak explained that , in order to recreate the shot , great lengths had to be taken to ensure the authenticity of the footage . Series Department Head make @-@ up artist LaVerne Caracuzzi @-@ Milazzo and Hair Department Head Kim M. Ferry " put great care and effort into recreating the characters ' looks from earlier seasons " ; Novak , for instance wore " the same bright blue shirt that Ryan used to favor " and fake sideburns were glued onto the actor 's face to " match the era " . He also stated that the actors " remembered those dynamics [ from the second season ] and fell right back into them . " This is not the first nor the last time this trick has been utilized on the show . For instance , during the cold opening for the sixth season episode " Shareholder Meeting " featuring " Recyclops " , a montage of Dwight harassing past receptionists was shown . Furthermore , the episode " Customer Loyalty " from the ninth season featured a montage of Jim setting up a prank supposedly during the show 's second season . Appropriately , the montage was filmed to look as if the documentarians were using archival footage of Jim ; his hair matches the style that Jim had during the first few seasons of the show .
= = Cultural references = =
According to the clippings on the wall , Scarn had previously saved the NFL , the MLB , and the NBA all @-@ star games . Several Billy Joel songs play throughout the episode , such as " Running on Ice " and " Pressure " . A Dave Barry page @-@ a @-@ day calendar is featured in a montage to illustrate the passing of time . Michael mentions both Oceans 11 and Antz in defense of his movie . The latter is featured in a diatribe Michael delivers about Woody Allen and how you should always listen to your fans . The murder scene in which Scarn kills the unnamed hockey opponent ( portrayed by Oscar Martinez on the show ) parodies Walter White 's first direct murder of Krazy @-@ 8 from the episode " ... And the Bag 's in the River " from Breaking Bad .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on February 17 , 2011 , " Threat Level Midnight " was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 41 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 3 rating / 9 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a decrease in viewers from the previous episode . The full film , which has a runtime of 25 minutes , is available on the seventh season DVD and Blu @-@ ray , and was made available on iTunes on February 18 , 2011 .
IGN writer Cindy White awarded the episode a 9 out of 10 — denoting an " amazing " episode — and praised the self @-@ awareness of Michael Scott and Steve Carell 's performance . She ultimately said the episode was good enough to be Carell 's last episode . Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste wrote that " there wasn ’ t a ton of action this week , but it was just enough to keep Michael ’ s personal growth on our radar as we continue to brace ourselves for his grand finale . "
Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode five out of five stars , and called it one of " the best episodes in years " . Forcella praised the " continuity and callbacks " . He also noted that the tension between Michael and Holly were " easing the viewers towards the end of Carrell 's [ sic ] stay at The Office " . Alan Sepinwall wrote that , despite the episode being " goofy [ … ] silly , and [ and ] about as nonsensical as the film itself " , " Threat Level Midnight " was " a fun , sweet tour through the history of the Michael Scott era " .
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " and wrote that " there is no question that [ it ] is a fan service . " He called it a " mixed bag " ; on one hand , he noted that some of the scenes were clever , such as Darryl 's opinion on portraying a black president before Obama was elected . On the other hand , however , he felt that Michael 's " juvenile " response to Holly was uncharacteristic , and the " oddly high production values and camera work " were unrealistic for the show . He also felt the inclusion of some characters — such as Roy , Jan , or Karen — did not make sense in the context of the series . He concluded , however , that while the episode had issues , " the actual content of Threat Level Midnight was successful in more ways than I had expected " . Rick Porter of Zap2it gave the episode a more mixed review , saying that it " had moments that were a huge amount of fun , both inside Michael 's labor of love and in people 's reaction to it . But it also felt a little bit clip @-@ showy . "
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= SMS Rheinland =
SMS Rheinland was one of four Nassau @-@ class battleships , the first dreadnoughts built for the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . Rheinland mounted twelve 28 cm ( 11 in ) main guns in six twin turrets in an unusual hexagonal arrangement . The navy built Rheinland and her sister ships in response to the revolutionary British HMS Dreadnought , which had been launched in 1906 . Rheinland was laid down in June 1907 , launched the following year in October , and commissioned in April 1910 .
Rheinland 's extensive service with the High Seas Fleet during World War I included several fleet advances into the North Sea , some in support of raids against the English coast conducted by the German battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . These sorties culminated in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , in which Rheinland was heavily engaged by British destroyers in close @-@ range night fighting .
The ship also saw duty in the Baltic Sea , as part of the support force for the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in 1915 . She returned to the Baltic as the core of an expeditionary force to aid the White Finns in the Finnish Civil War in 1918 , but ran aground shortly after arriving in the area . Significant portions of her armor and all her main guns had to be removed before she could be refloated . The damage done by the grounding was deemed too severe to justify repairs and Rheinland was decommissioned to be used as a barracks ship for the remainder of the war . In 1919 , following the scuttling of the German fleet in Scapa Flow , Rheinland was ceded to the Allies who , in turn , sold the vessel to ship @-@ breakers in the Netherlands . The ship was eventually broken up for scrap metal starting in 1920 . Her bell is on display at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden .
= = Construction = =
Rheinland was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Württemberg , as a replacement for the old Sachsen @-@ class ironclad Württemberg . She was laid down on 1 June 1907 at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin . Like her sister Nassau , construction proceeded under absolute secrecy ; detachments of soldiers guarded the shipyard itself , as well as contractors such as Krupp that supplied building materials . The ship was launched on 26 September 1908 ; at the launching ceremony the ship was christened by Elisabeth of Wied and Clemens Freiherr von Schorlemer @-@ Lieser gave a speech . Fitting @-@ out work was completed by the end of February 1910 . A dockyard crew was used for limited sea trials , which lasted from 23 February to 4 March 1910 off Swinemünde . She was then taken to Kiel , where she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 30 April 1910 . More sea trials followed in the Baltic Sea .
The ship was 146 @.@ 1 m ( 479 ft 4 in ) long , 26 @.@ 9 m ( 88 ft 3 in ) wide , and had a draft of 8 @.@ 9 m ( 29 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 18 @,@ 873 t ( 18 @,@ 575 long tons ) with a normal load , and 20 @,@ 535 t ( 20 @,@ 211 long tons ) fully laden . She retained coal @-@ fired 3 @-@ shaft triple expansion engines instead of more advanced turbine engines . This type of machinery was chosen at the request of both Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz and the Navy 's construction department ; the latter stated in 1905 that the " use of turbines in heavy warships does not recommend itself . "
Rheinland carried twelve 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 45 guns in an unusual hexagonal configuration . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns and sixteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns , all of which were mounted in casemates . The ship was also armed with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) submerged torpedo tubes . One tube was mounted in the bow , another in the stern , and two on each broadside , on both ends of the torpedo bulkheads .
= = Commanding officers = =
Rheinland was initially commanded by Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Albert Hopman , from her commissioning until August 1910 . He was temporarily replaced by Korvettenkapitän Wilhelm Bunnemann when the ship 's crew was reduced to commission the battlecruiser Von der Tann in September 1910 . Hopman returned to the ship later that month , and held command through September 1911 . KzS Richard Engel replaced Hopman in 1911 and commanded the ship until August 1915 . That month , he left the ship and KzS Heinrich Rohardt was given command of Rheinland . He served for over a year , until December 1916 , when he was replaced by Korvettenkapitän Theodor von Gorrissen . Gorrissen 's command lasted until September 1918 ; he was replaced by KzS Ernst Toussaint , who held command of the ship for less than a month . Fregattenkapitän Friedrich Berger was the ship 's last commander , serving from September 1918 until the ship 's decommissioning on 4 October .
= = Service history = =
At the conclusion of trials on 30 August 1910 , Rheinland was taken to Wilhelmshaven , where a significant portion of the crew was transferred to the new battlecruiser Von der Tann . Following the autumn fleet maneuvers in September , the crew was replenished with crewmembers from the old pre @-@ dreadnought Zähringen , which was decommissioned at the same time . Rheinland was then assigned to the I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . In October , the fleet went on the annual winter cruise , followed by fleet exercises in November . The ship took part in the summer cruises to Norway each August in 1911 , 1913 , and 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
Rheinland participated in nearly all of the fleet advances throughout the war . The first such operation was conducted primarily by the battlecruisers ; the ships bombarded Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . During the operation , the German battle fleet of some 12 dreadnoughts and 8 pre @-@ dreadnoughts , which was serving as distant support for the battlecruisers , came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens convinced the German commander , Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , that he was confronted with the entire Grand Fleet . He broke off the engagement and turned for home . A fleet sortie to the Dogger Bank took place on 24 April 1915 . During the operation , the high @-@ pressure cylinder of Rheinland 's starboard engine failed . Repair work lasted until 23 May .
= = = = Battle of the Gulf of Riga = = = =
In August 1915 , the German fleet attempted to clear the Russian @-@ held Gulf of Riga in order to facilitate the capture of Riga by the German army . To do so , the German planners intended to drive off or destroy the Russian naval forces in the Gulf , which included the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Slava and a number of gunboats and destroyers . The German naval force would also lay a series of minefields in the northern entrance to the Gulf to prevent Russian naval reinforcements from reentering the area . The assembled German fleet included Rheinland and her three sister ships , the four Helgoland @-@ class battleships , and the battlecruisers Von der Tann , Moltke , and Seydlitz . The force operated under the command of Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper . The eight battleships were to provide cover for the forces engaging the Russian flotilla . The first attempt on 8 August was unsuccessful , as it had taken too long to clear the Russian minefields to allow the minelayer Deutschland to lay a minefield of her own .
On 16 August 1915 , a second attempt was made to enter the Gulf : Nassau and Posen , four light cruisers , and 31 torpedo boats managed to breach the Russian defenses . On the first day of the assault , the German minesweeper T46 was sunk , as was the destroyer V99 . The following day , Nassau and Posen engaged in an artillery duel with Slava , resulting in three hits on the Russian ship that forced her to retreat . By 19 August , the Russian minefields had been cleared and the flotilla entered the Gulf . However , reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted the Germans to call off the operation the following day . Admiral Hipper later remarked that " To keep valuable ships for a considerable time in a limited area in which enemy submarines were increasingly active , with the corresponding risk of damage and loss , was to indulge in a gamble out of all proportion to the advantage to be derived from the occupation of the Gulf before the capture of Riga from the land side . "
= = = = Return to the North Sea = = = =
By the end of August , Rheinland and the rest of the High Seas Fleet units were back in their bases on the North Sea . The next operation conducted was a sweep into the North Sea on 11 – 12 September , though it ended without any action . Another sortie followed on 23 – 24 October during which the German fleet did not encounter any British forces . On 12 February 1916 , Rheinland was sent to the dockyard for an extensive overhaul , which lasted until 19 April . Rheinland was back with the fleet in time to participate in another advance into the North Sea on 21 – 22 April . Another bombardment mission followed two days later ; Rheinland was part of the battleship support for the I Scouting Group battlecruisers that attacked Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April . During this operation , the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a British mine and had to return to port prematurely . Visibility was poor , so the operation was quickly called off before the British fleet could intervene .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Admiral Reinhard Scheer immediately planned another attack on the British coast , but the damage to Seydlitz and condenser trouble on several of the III Battle Squadron dreadnoughts delayed the plan until the end of May . The German battlefleet departed the Jade at 03 : 30 on 31 May . Rheinland was assigned to the II Division of the I Battle Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral W. Engelhardt . Rheinland was the second ship in the division , astern of Posen and ahead of Nassau and Westfalen . The II Division was the last unit of dreadnoughts in the fleet ; they were followed by the elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron .
Between 17 : 48 and 17 : 52 , 11 German dreadnoughts , including Rheinland , engaged and opened fire on the British 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , though the range and poor visibility prevented effective fire , which was soon checked . Some ten minutes later Rheinland again opened fire on the British cruisers , targeting what was most likely HMS Southampton , though without success . By 20 : 15 , the German fleet had faced the deployed Grand Fleet for a second time and was forced to turn away ; in doing so , the order of the German line was reversed , with Rheinland third from the front , behind Westfalen and Nassau . At 21 : 22 , crewmen aboard Rheinland and Westfalen , the two leading ships in the German line , spotted two torpedo tracks that turned out to be imaginary . The ships were then forced to slow down in order to allow the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group to pass ahead . Around 22 : 00 , Rheinland and Westfalen observed unidentified light forces in the gathering darkness . After flashing a challenge via searchlight that was ignored , the two ships turned away to starboard in order to evade any torpedoes that might have been fired . The rest of I Battle Squadron followed them .
At about 00 : 30 , the leading units of the German line encountered British destroyers and cruisers . A violent firefight at close range ensued ; Rheinland pounded the armored cruiser HMS Black Prince with her secondary guns at a range of 2 @,@ 200 to 2 @,@ 600 m ( 2 @,@ 400 to 2 @,@ 800 yd ) . After a few minutes , Rheinland and the rest of the German battleships turned away to avoid torpedoes . At 00 : 36 , Rheinland was hit by a pair of 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) shells from Black Prince . One of the shells cut the cables to the four forward searchlights and damaged the forward funnel . The second struck the side of the ship and exploded on the forward armored transverse bulkhead . Although the bulkhead was bent inward from the explosion , it was not penetrated . About 45 minutes later , Rheinland opened fire on another destroyer , possibly Ardent , but she had to cease when a German cruiser came too close to the line of fire . At the same time , Black Prince was obliterated by accurate fire from the battleship Ostfriesland .
Despite the ferocity of the night fighting , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British destroyer forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later , where Rheinland refueled and re @-@ armed . Meanwhile , her three sisters stood out in the roadstead in defensive positions . Over the course of the battle , the ship had fired thirty @-@ five 28 cm ( 11 in ) shells and twenty @-@ six 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) rounds . The two hits from Black Prince had killed 10 men and wounded 20 . Repair work followed immediately in Wilhelmshaven and was completed by 10 June .
= = = = Later actions = = = =
Another fleet advance followed on 18 – 22 August ; the I Scouting Group battlecruisers were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . As only two of the four German battlecruisers were still in fighting condition , three dreadnoughts were assigned to the Scouting Group for the operation : Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst ( or Großer Kurfürst ) , and the newly commissioned Bayern . Rheinland and the rest of the High Seas Fleet were to trail behind and provide cover . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Admiral Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Rheinland covered a sweep by torpedo boats into the North Sea on 25 – 26 September . She then participated in a fleet advance on 18 – 20 October . In early 1917 , the ship was stationed on sentry duty in the German Bight . The crew became unruly due to poor quality food in July and August of that year . The ship did not take part directly in Operation Albion against the Russians , but remained in the western Baltic to prevent a possible incursion by the British to support their Russian ally .
= = = = Expedition to Finland = = = =
On 22 February 1918 , Rheinland and her sister Westfalen were tasked with a mission to Finland to support German army units to be deployed there . The ship arrived in the Åland Islands on 6 March , where her commander became the Senior Naval Commander , a position he held until 10 April . On 11 April , the ship departed the Ålands for Helsinki , with the intention of proceeding to Danzig to refuel . However , she encountered heavy fog while en route and ran aground on Lagskär Island at 07 : 30 . Two men were killed in the incident and the ship was badly damaged . Three boiler rooms were flooded and the inner hull was pierced . Refloating efforts on 18 – 20 April proved unsuccessful . The crew was removed temporarily , to bring the pre @-@ dreadnought Schlesien back into service . On 8 May , a floating crane was brought in from Danzig ; the main guns , some of the turret armor , and the bow and citadel armor were all removed . The ship was lightened by 6 @,@ 400 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 300 long tons ; 7 @,@ 100 short tons ) — more than a third of her normal displacement — and with the aid of pontoons , eventually refloated by 9 July . The ship was towed to Mariehamn where some limited repairs were effected . On 24 July the ship departed for Kiel with the assistance of two tug boats ; she arrived there three days later . It was determined that repair work was impractical and instead the ship was decommissioned on 4 October and placed into service as a barracks ship in Kiel .
= = = Fate = = =
Following the German collapse in November 1918 , a significant portion of the High Seas Fleet was interned in Scapa Flow according to the terms of the Armistice . Rheinland and her three sisters were not among the ships listed for internment , so they remained in German ports . However , a copy of The Times informed von Reuter that the Armistice was to expire at noon on 21 June 1919 , the deadline by which Germany was to have signed the peace treaty . Rear Admiral von Reuter came to the conclusion that the British intended to seize the German ships after the Armistice expired . To prevent this , he decided to scuttle his ships at the first opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers ; at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships .
As a result of the scuttling at Scapa Flow , the Allies demanded replacements for the ships that had been sunk . This included Rheinland , which was struck from the German naval list on 5 November 1919 and subsequently handed over to the Allies . The ship was sold on 28 June 1920 to ship @-@ breakers in Dordrecht in the Netherlands , under the contract name " F " . She was towed there a month later on 29 July and broken up by the end of the following year . Rheinland 's bell is preserved at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden .
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= Margaret Fuller =
Sarah Margaret Fuller Ossoli ( May 23 , 1810 – July 19 , 1850 ) , commonly known as Margaret Fuller , was an American journalist , critic , and women 's rights advocate associated with the American transcendentalism movement . She was the first full @-@ time American female book reviewer in journalism . Her book Woman in the Nineteenth Century is considered the first major feminist work in the United States .
Born Sarah Margaret Fuller in Cambridge , Massachusetts , she was given a substantial early education by her father , Timothy Fuller . She later had more formal schooling and became a teacher before , in 1839 , she began overseeing what she called " conversations " : discussions among women meant to compensate for their lack of access to higher education . She became the first editor of the transcendentalist journal The Dial in 1840 , before joining the staff of the New York Tribune under Horace Greeley in 1844 . By the time she was in her 30s , Fuller had earned a reputation as the best @-@ read person in New England , male or female , and became the first woman allowed to use the library at Harvard College . Her seminal work , Woman in the Nineteenth Century , was published in 1845 . A year later , she was sent to Europe for the Tribune as its first female correspondent . She soon became involved with the revolutions in Italy and allied herself with Giuseppe Mazzini . She had a relationship with Giovanni Ossoli , with whom she had a child . All three members of the family died in a shipwreck off Fire Island , New York , as they were traveling to the United States in 1850 . Fuller 's body was never recovered .
Fuller was an advocate of women 's rights and , in particular , women 's education and the right to employment . She also encouraged many other reforms in society , including prison reform and the emancipation of slaves in the United States . Many other advocates for women 's rights and feminism , including Susan B. Anthony , cite Fuller as a source of inspiration . Many of her contemporaries , however , were not supportive , including her former friend Harriet Martineau . She said that Fuller was a talker rather than an activist . Shortly after Fuller 's death , her importance faded ; the editors who prepared her letters to be published , believing her fame would be short @-@ lived , censored or altered much of her work before publication .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Sarah Margaret Fuller was born on May 23 , 1810 , in Cambridgeport , Massachusetts , the first child of Timothy Fuller and Margaret Crane Fuller . She was named after her paternal grandmother and her mother , but by age nine she dropped " Sarah " and insisted on being called " Margaret . " The Margaret Fuller House , in which she was born , is still standing . Her father taught her to read and write at the age of three and a half , shortly after the couple 's second daughter , Julia Adelaide , died at 14 months old . He offered her an education as rigorous as any boy 's at the time and forbade her to read the typical feminine fare of the time , such as etiquette books and sentimental novels . He incorporated Latin into his teaching shortly after the birth of the couple 's son Eugene in May 1815 , and soon Margaret was translating simple passages from Virgil . Later in life Margaret blamed her father 's exacting love and his valuation of accuracy and precision for her childhood nightmares and sleepwalking . During the day Margaret spent time with her mother , who taught her household chores and sewing . In 1817 , her brother William Henry Fuller was born , and her father was elected as a representative in the United States Congress . For the next eight years , he spent four to six months a year in Washington , D.C. At age 10 , Fuller wrote a cryptic note which her father saved : " On 23 May 1810 , was born one foredoomed to sorrow and pain , and like others to have misfortunes . "
Fuller began her formal education at the Port School in Cambridgeport in 1819 before attending the Boston Lyceum for Young Ladies from 1821 to 1822 . In 1824 , she was sent to the School for Young Ladies in Groton , on the advice of aunts and uncles , though she resisted the idea at first . While she was there , Timothy Fuller did not run for re @-@ election , in order to help John Quincy Adams with his presidential campaign in 1824 ; he hoped Adams would return the favor with a governmental appointment . On June 17 , 1825 , Fuller attended the ceremony at which the American Revolutionary War hero Marquis de Lafayette laid the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument 50 years after the battle . Fuller left the Groton school after two years and returned home at 16 . At home she studied the classics and trained herself in several modern languages and read world literature . By this time , she realized she did not fit in with other young women her age . She wrote , " I have felt that I was not born to the common womanly lot . " Eliza Farrar , wife of Harvard professor John Farrar and author of The Young Lady 's Friend ( 1836 ) , attempted to train her in feminine etiquette until the age of 20 , but was never wholly successful .
= = = Early career = = =
Fuller was an avid reader . By the time she was in her 30s , she had earned a reputation as the best @-@ read person , male or female , in New England . She used her knowledge to give private lessons based on the teaching style of Elizabeth Palmer Peabody . Fuller hoped to earn her living through journalism and translation ; her first published work , a response to historian George Bancroft , appeared in November 1834 in the North American Review . When she was 23 , her father 's law practice failed and he moved the family to a farm in Groton . On February 20 , 1835 , Frederic Henry Hedge and James Freeman Clarke asked her to contribute to each of their periodicals . Clarke helped her publish her first literary review in the Western Messenger in June : criticisms of recent biographies on George Crabbe and Hannah More . In the fall of that year , she suffered a terrible migraine with a fever that lasted nine days . Fuller continued to experience such headaches throughout her life . While she was still recovering , her father died of cholera on October 2 , 1835 . She was deeply affected by his death : " My father 's image follows me constantly " , she wrote . She vowed to step in as the head of the family and take care of her widowed mother and younger siblings . Her father had not left a will , and two of her uncles gained control of his property and finances , later assessed at $ 18 @,@ 098 @.@ 15 , and the family had to rely on them for support . Humiliated by the way her uncles were treating the family , Fuller wrote that she regretted being " of the softer sex , and never more than now " .
Around this time , Fuller was hoping to prepare a biography of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , but felt that she could work on it only if she traveled to Europe . Her father 's death and her sudden responsibility for her family caused her to abandon this idea . In 1836 , Fuller was given a job teaching at Bronson Alcott 's Temple School in Boston , where she remained for a year . She then accepted an invitation to teach under Hiram Fuller ( no relation ) at the Greene Street School in Providence , Rhode Island , in April 1837 with the unusually high salary of $ 1 @,@ 000 per year . Her family sold the Groton farm and Fuller moved with them to Jamaica Plain , Massachusetts . On November 6 , 1839 , Fuller held the first of her " conversations " , discussions among local women who met in the Boston home of the Peabodys . Fuller intended to compensate for the lack of women 's education with discussions and debates focused on subjects including the fine arts , history , mythology , literature , and nature . Serving as the " nucleus of conversation " , Fuller also intended to answer the " great questions " facing women : " What were we born to do ? How shall we do it ? which so few ever propose to themselves ' till their best years are gone by " . A number of significant figures in the women 's rights movement attended these gatherings , including Sophia Dana Ripley , Caroline Sturgis , and Maria White Lowell .
= = = The Dial = = =
In October 1839 , Ralph Waldo Emerson was seeking an editor for his transcendentalist journal The Dial . After several declined the position , he offered it to Fuller , referring to her as " my vivacious friend . " Emerson had met Fuller in Cambridge in 1835 ; of that meeting , he admitted " she made me laugh more than I liked . " The next summer , Fuller spent two weeks at Emerson 's home in Concord . Fuller accepted Emerson 's offer to edit The Dial on October 20 , 1839 , and began work in the first week of 1840 . She edited the journal for its first two years from 1840 to 1842 , though her promised annual salary of $ 200 was never paid . Because of her role , she was soon recognized as one of the most important figures of the transcendental movement and was invited to George Ripley 's Brook Farm , a communal experiment . Fuller never officially joined the community but was a frequent visitor , often spending New Year 's Eve there . In the summer of 1843 , she traveled to Chicago , Milwaukee , Niagara Falls , and Buffalo , New York ; while there , she interacted with several Native Americans , including members of the Ottawa and the Chippewa tribes . She reported her experiences in a book called Summer on the Lakes , which she completed writing on her 34th birthday in 1844 . The critic Evert Augustus Duyckinck called it " the only genuine book , I can think of , this season . " Fuller used the library at Harvard College to do research on the Great Lakes region , and became the first woman allowed to use Harvard 's library .
Fuller 's " The Great Lawsuit " was written in serial form for The Dial . She originally intended to name the work The Great Lawsuit : Man ' versus ' Men , Woman ' versus ' Women ; when it was expanded and published independently in 1845 , it was titled Woman in the Nineteenth Century . After completing it , she wrote to a friend : " I had put a good deal of my true self in it , as if , I suppose I went away now , the measure of my footprint would be left on earth . " The work discussed the role that women played in American democracy and Fuller 's opinion on possibilities for improvement . It has since become one of the major documents in American feminism . It is considered the first of its kind in the United States .
= = = New York Tribune = = =
Fuller left The Dial in 1844 in part because of ill health but also because of her disappointment with the publication 's dwindling subscription list . She moved to New York that autumn and joined Horace Greeley 's New York Tribune as literary critic , becoming the first full @-@ time book reviewer in American journalism and , by 1846 , the publication 's first female editor . Her first article , a review of a collection of essays by Emerson , appeared in the December 1 , 1844 , issue . At this time , the Tribune had some 50 @,@ 000 subscribers and Fuller earned $ 500 a year for her work . In addition to American books , she reviewed foreign literature , concerts , lectures , and art exhibits . During her four years with the publication , she published more than 250 columns , most signed with a " * " as a byline . In these columns , Fuller discussed topics ranging from art and literature to political and social issues such as the plight of slaves and women 's rights . She also published poetry ; her poems , styled after the work of Emerson , do not have the same intellectual vigor as her criticism .
Around this time , she was also involved in a scandal involving fellow literary critic Edgar Allan Poe , who had been carrying on a public flirtation with the married poet Frances Sargent Osgood . Another poet , Elizabeth F. Ellet , had become enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood and suggested the relationship between Poe and Osgood was more than an innocent flirtation . Osgood then sent Fuller and Anne Lynch Botta to Poe 's cottage on her behalf to request that he return the personal letters she had sent him . Angered by their interference , Poe called them " Busy @-@ bodies " . A public scandal erupted and continued until Osgood 's estranged husband Samuel Stillman Osgood stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet .
= = = Assignment in Europe = = =
In 1846 the New York Tribune sent Fuller to Europe , specifically England and Italy , as its first female foreign correspondent . She traveled from Boston to Liverpool in August on the Cambria , a vessel that used both sail and steam to make the journey in ten days and sixteen hours . Over the next four years she provided the Tribune with thirty @-@ seven reports . She interviewed many prominent writers including George Sand and Thomas Carlyle — whom she found disappointing because of his reactionary politics , among other things . George Sand had previously been an idol of hers , but Fuller was disappointed when Sand chose not to run for the French National Assembly , saying that women were not ready to vote or to hold political office . Fuller was also given a letter of introduction to Elizabeth Barrett by Cornelius Mathews , but never met her , because Barrett had just eloped with Robert Browning .
In England in the spring of 1846 , she met Giuseppe Mazzini , who had been in exile there from Italy since 1837 . Fuller also met the Italian revolutionary Giovanni Angelo Ossoli , a marquis who had been disinherited by his family because of his support for Mazzini . Fuller and Ossoli moved in together in Florence , Italy , likely before they were married , though whether they ever married is uncertain . Fuller was originally opposed to marrying him , in part because of the difference in their religions ; she was Protestant and he was Roman Catholic . Emerson speculated that the couple was " married perhaps in Oct. Nov. or Dec " of 1847 , though he did not explain his reasoning . Biographers have speculated that the couple married on April 4 , 1848 , to celebrate the anniversary of their first meeting . By the time the couple moved to Florence , they were referred to as husband and wife , though it is unclear if any formal ceremony took place . It seems certain that at the time their child was born , they were not married . By New Year 's Day 1848 , she suspected that she was pregnant but kept it from Ossoli for several weeks . Their child , Angelo Eugene Philip Ossoli , was born in early September 1848 and nicknamed Angelino . The couple was very secretive about their relationship but , after Angelino suffered an unnamed illness , they became less so . Fuller informed her mother about Ossoli and Angelino in August 1849 in a letter that explained that she had kept silent so as not to upset her " but it has become necessary , on account of the child , for us to live publicly and permanently together . " Her mother 's response makes it clear that she was aware that the couple was not legally married . Even so , she was happy for her daughter , writing : " I send my first kiss with my fervent blessing to my grandson . "
The couple supported Giuseppe Mazzini 's revolution for the establishment of a Roman Republic in 1849 . Ossoli fought in the struggle while Fuller volunteered at a supporting hospital . When the republicans they supported met defeat , they had to flee Italy and decided to move to the United States . She intended to use her experience to write a book about the history of the Roman Republic — a work she may have begun as early as 1847 — and hoped to find an American publisher after a British one rejected it . She believed the work would be her most important , referring to it in a March 1849 letter to her brother Richard as , " something good which may survive my troubled existence . "
= = = Death = = =
In the beginning of 1850 , Fuller wrote to a friend : " It has long seemed that in the year 1850 I should stand on some important plateau in the ascent of life ... I feel however no marked and important change as yet . " Also that year , Fuller wrote : " I am absurdly fearful and various omens have combined to give me a dark feeling ... It seems to me that my future upon earth will soon close ... I have a vague expectation of some crisis — I know not what " . A few days after writing this , Fuller , Ossoli , and their child began a five @-@ week return voyage to the United States aboard the ship Elizabeth , an American merchant freighter carrying cargo that included mostly marble from Carrara . They set sail on May 17 . At sea , the ship 's captain , Seth Hasty , died of smallpox . Angelino contracted the disease and recovered .
Possibly because of the inexperienced first mate , now serving as captain , the ship slammed into a sandbar less than 100 yards from Fire Island , New York , on July 19 , 1850 , around 3 : 30 a.m. Many of the other passengers and crew members abandoned ship . The first mate , Mr. Bangs , urged Fuller and Ossoli to try to save themselves and their child as he himself jumped overboard , later claiming he believed Fuller had wanted to be left behind to die . On the beach , people arrived with carts hoping to salvage any cargo washed ashore . None made any effort to rescue the crew or passengers of the Elizabeth , though they were only 50 yards from shore . Most of those aboard attempted to swim to shore , leaving Fuller and Ossoli and Angelino some of the last on the ship . Ossoli was thrown overboard by a massive wave and , after the wave had passed , a crewman who witnessed the event said Fuller could not be seen .
Henry David Thoreau traveled to New York , at the urging of Emerson , to search the shore but neither Fuller 's body nor that of her husband was ever recovered . Angelino 's had washed ashore . Few of their possessions were found other than some of the child 's clothes and a few letters . Fuller 's manuscript on the history of the Roman Republic was also lost . A memorial to Fuller was erected on the beach at Fire Island in 1901 through the efforts of Julia Ward Howe . A cenotaph to Fuller and Ossoli , under which Angelino is buried , is in Mount Auburn Cemetery , Cambridge , Massachusetts . The inscription reads , in part :
Within a week after her death , Horace Greeley suggested to Emerson that a biography of Fuller , to be called Margaret and Her Friends , be prepared quickly " before the interest excited by her sad decease has passed away " . Many of her writings were soon collected together by her brother Arthur as At Home and Abroad ( 1856 ) and Life Without and Life Within ( 1858 ) . He also edited a new version of Woman in the Nineteenth Century in 1855 . In February 1852 , The Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli was published , edited by Emerson , James Freeman Clarke , and William Henry Channing , though much of the work was censored or reworded . It left out details about her love affair with Ossoli and an earlier relationship with a man named James Nathan . The three editors , believing the public interest in Fuller would be short @-@ lived and that she would not survive as a historical figure , were not concerned about accuracy . For a time , it was the best @-@ selling biography of the decade and went through thirteen editions before the end of the century . The book focused on her personality rather than her work . Detractors of the book ignored her status as a critic and instead criticized her personal life and her " unwomanly " arrogance .
= = Beliefs = =
Fuller was an early proponent of feminism and especially believed in providing education to women . Once equal educational rights were afforded women , she believed , women could push for equal political rights as well . She advocated that women seek any employment they wish , rather than catering to the stereotypical " feminine " roles of the time , such as teaching . She once said , " If you ask me what office women should fill , I reply — any ... let them be sea captains if you will . I do not doubt that there are women well fitted for such an office " . She had great confidence in all women but doubted that a woman would produce a lasting work of art or literature in her time and disliked the popular female poets of her time . Fuller also warned women to be careful about marriage and not to become dependent on their husbands . As she wrote , " I wish woman to live , first for God 's sake . Then she will not make an imperfect man for her god , and thus sink to idolatry . Then she will not take what is not fit for her from a sense of weakness and poverty " . By 1832 , she had made a personal commitment to stay single . Fuller also questioned a definitive line between male and female : " There is no wholly masculine man ... no purely feminine " but that both were present in any individual . She suggested also that within a female were two parts : the intellectual side ( which she called the Minerva ) and the " lyrical " or " Femality " side ( the Muse ) . She admired the work of Emanuel Swedenborg , who believed men and women shared " an angelic ministry " , as she wrote , as well as Charles Fourier , who placed " Woman on an entire equality with Man " . Unlike several contemporary women writers , including " Mrs. Sigourney " and " Mrs. Stowe " , she was familiarly referred to in a less formal manner as " Margaret " .
Fuller also advocated reform at all levels of society , including prison . In October 1844 , she visited Sing Sing and interviewed the women prisoners , even staying overnight in the facility . Sing Sing was developing a more humane system for its women inmates , many of whom were prostitutes . Fuller was also concerned about the homeless and those living in dire poverty , especially in New York . She also admitted that , though she was raised to believe " that the Indian obstinately refused to be civilized " , her travels in the American West made her realize that the white man unfairly treated the Native Americans ; she considered Native Americans an important part of American heritage . She also supported the rights of African @-@ Americans , referring to " this cancer of slavery " , and suggested that those who were interested in the abolition movement follow the same reasoning when considering the rights of women : " As the friend of the Negro assumes that one man cannot by right hold another in bondage , so should the Friend of Woman assume that Man cannot by right lay even well @-@ meant restrictions on Woman . " She suggested that those who spoke against the emancipation of slaves were similar to those who did not support the emancipation of Italy .
Fuller agreed with the transcendental concern for the psychological well @-@ being of the individual , though she was never comfortable being labeled a transcendentalist . Even so , she wrote , if being labeled a transcendentalist means " that I have an active mind frequently busy with large topics I hope it is so " . She criticized people like Emerson , however , for focusing too much on individual improvement and not enough on social reform . Like other members of the so @-@ called Transcendental Club , she rebelled against the past and believed in the possibility of change . However , unlike others in the movement , her rebellion was not based on religion . Though Fuller occasionally attended Unitarian congregations , she did not entirely identify with that religion . As biographer Charles Capper has noted , she " was happy to remain on the Unitarian margins . "
= = Legacy and criticism = =
Margaret Fuller was especially known in her time for her personality and , in particular , for being overly self @-@ confident and having a bad temper . This personality was the inspiration for the character Hester Prynne in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's novel The Scarlet Letter , specifically her radical thinking about " the whole race of womanhood " . She may also be the basis for the character Zenobia in another of Hawthorne 's works , The Blithedale Romance . Hawthorne and his then @-@ fiancée Sophia had first met Fuller in October 1839 .
She was also an inspiration to poet Walt Whitman , who believed in her call for the forging of a new national identity and a truly American literature . Elizabeth Barrett Browning was also a strong admirer , but believed that Fuller 's unconventional views were unappreciated in the United States and , therefore , she was better off dead . She also said that Fuller 's history of the Roman Republic would have been her greatest work : " The work she was preparing upon Italy would probably have been more equal to her faculty than anything previously produced by her pen ( her other writings being curiously inferior to the impressions her conversation gave you ) " . An 1860 essay collection , Historical Pictures Retouched , by Caroline Healey Dall , called Fuller 's Woman in the Nineteenth Century " doubtless the most brilliant , complete , and scholarly statement ever made on the subject " . Despite his personal issues with Fuller , the typically harsh literary critic Edgar Allan Poe wrote of the work as " a book which few women in the country could have written , and no woman in the country would have published , with the exception of Miss Fuller " , noting its " independence " and " unmitigated radicalism " . Thoreau also thought highly of the book , suggesting that its strength came in part from Fuller 's conversational ability . As he called it , it was " rich extempore writing , talking with pen in hand " .
Another admirer of Fuller was Susan B. Anthony , a pioneer of women 's rights , who wrote that Fuller " possessed more influence on the thought of American women than any woman previous to her time " . Fuller 's work may have partially inspired the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 . Anthony , along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Matilda Joslyn Gage wrote in their History of Woman Suffrage that Fuller " was the precursor of the Women 's Rights agitation " . Modern scholars have suggested Woman in the Nineteenth Century was the first major women 's rights work since Mary Wollstonecraft 's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) , though an early comparison between the two women came from George Eliot in 1855 . It is unclear if Fuller was familiar with Wollstonecraft 's works ; in her childhood , her father prevented her from reading them . In 1995 , Fuller was inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame .
Fuller , however , was not without her critics . A one @-@ time friend , the English writer Harriet Martineau , was one of her harshest detractors after Fuller 's death . Martineau said that Fuller was a talker rather than an activist , that she had " shallow conceits " and often " looked down upon persons who acted instead of talking finely ... and despised those who , like myself , could not adopt her scale of valuation " . The influential editor Rufus Wilmot Griswold , who believed she went against his notion of feminine modesty , referred to Woman in the Nineteenth Century as " an eloquent expression of her discontent at having been created female " . New York writer Charles Frederick Briggs said that she was " wasting the time of her readers " , especially because she was an unmarried woman and therefore could not " truly represent the female character " . English writer and critic Matthew Arnold scoffed at Fuller 's conversations as well , saying , " My G – d , [ sic ] what rot did she and the other female dogs of Boston talk about Greek mythology ! " Sophia Hawthorne , who had previously been a supporter of Fuller , was critical of her after Woman of the Nineteenth Century was published :
The impression it left was disagreeable . I did not like the tone of it — & did not agree with her at all about the change in woman 's outward circumstances ... Neither do I believe in such a character of man as she gives . It is altogether too ignoble ... I think Margaret speaks of many things that should not be spoken of .
Fuller had angered fellow poet and critic James Russell Lowell when she reviewed his work , calling him " absolutely wanting in the true spirit and tone of poesy ... his verse is stereotyped , his thought sounds no depth ; and posterity will not remember him . " In response , Lowell took revenge in his satirical A Fable for Critics , first published in October 1848 . At first , he considered excluding her entirely but ultimately gave her what was called the " most wholly negative characterization " in the work . Referring to her as Miranda , Lowell wrote that she stole old ideas and presented them as her own , she was genuine only in her spite and " when acting as censor , she privately blows a censer of vanity ' neath her own nose " .
Shortly after Fuller 's death , her importance faded . Her obituary in the newspaper she had once edited , the Daily Tribune , said that her works had a few great sentiments , " but as a whole they must commend themselves mainly by their vigor of thought and habitual fearlessness rather than freedom of utterance " . As biographer Abby Slater wrote , " Margaret had been demoted from a position of importance in her own right to one in which her only importance was in the company she kept " . Years later , Hawthorne 's son Julian wrote , " The majority of readers will , I think , not be inconsolable that poor Margaret Fuller has at last taken her place with the numberless other dismal frauds who fill the limbo of human pretension and failure . " In the 20th century , American writer Elizabeth Hardwick , former wife of Robert Lowell , wrote an essay called " The Genius of Margaret Fuller " ( 1986 ) . She compared her own move from Boston to New York to Fuller 's , saying that Boston was not a good place for intellectuals , despite the assumption that it was the best place for intellectuals .
= = Selected works = =
Summer on the Lakes ( 1844 )
Woman in the Nineteenth Century ( 1845 )
Papers on Literature and Art ( 1846 )
Posthumous editions
Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli ( 1852 )
At Home and Abroad ( 1856 )
Life Without and Life Within ( 1858 )
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= Sarah Vinci =
Sarah Vinci ( born 4 December 1991 ) is a 1 point wheelchair basketball player who plays for the Perth Western Stars in the Australian Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League . She made her debut with the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in 2011 , when she played in the Osaka Cup in Japan . Vinci represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London in wheelchair basketball , winning a silver medal . Her most recent international appearance was at the 2013 Osaka Cup .
= = Personal = =
Vinci was born on 4 December 1991 in Perth , Western Australia . She has spina bifida . As of 2013 , Vinci lives in Spearwood , Western Australia , and is a student . She has already attended a Technical and Further Education ( TAFE ) institute , where she earned a certificate in digital media .
= = Career = =
Vinci is a 1 point wheelchair basketball player . She started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . Vinci joined the Perth Western Stars in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) in 2009 , and has been with the club into the 2013 season . In 2010 , she won the league 's junior championship , the Kevin Coombs Cup , when her team beat the New South Wales side 63 – 58 .
Vinci was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 , and made her debut with the national team , universally known as the Gliders , the following year , when she played in the Osaka Cup in Japan . She competed in the 2011 Asia Oceania Regional Championships , the 2011 U25 World Championships , and the 2012 BT Paralympic World Cup , competing in the final match against Germany .
Vinci was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in wheelchair basketball . The London Games were her first . She attended a Paralympic farewell ceremony at Perth 's State Basketball Centre in late July .
In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal .
At the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , Vinci and the Gliders successfully defended the title they had previously won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 .
= = Statistics = =
= = Gallery = =
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= Last Post ( poem ) =
" Last Post " is a poem written by Carol Ann Duffy , the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom , in 2009 . It was commissioned by the BBC to mark the deaths of Henry Allingham and Harry Patch , two of the last three surviving British veterans from the First World War , and was first broadcast on the BBC Radio 4 programme Today on 30 July 2009 , the date of Allingham 's funeral .
The poem , named after the " Last Post " ( the bugle call used at British ceremonies remembering those killed in war ) , makes explicit references to Wilfred Owen 's poem from the First World War Dulce et Decorum Est . It imagines what would happen if time ran backwards and those killed in the war came back to life ; their lives would still be full of possibilities and filled with " love , work , children , talent , English beer , good food . " The poem was generally well received , with one commentator saying that it was " simply a damn good poem with rich imagery , cinematic movement and poignant ending . " Another said that it was " moving reversal of history " and a " fine poem " . Duffy herself was quoted as saying that she wanted to honour the tradition of poets who were soldiers .
= = Commission = =
Carol Ann Duffy was appointed as Poet Laureate in May 2009 , the first woman to be appointed to the post . She was asked by the BBC Radio 4 programme Today to write a poem to mark the deaths of Henry Allingham and Harry Patch . The poem was read by Duffy on Today on 30 July 2009 , the day of Allingham 's funeral . Allingham , who served with the Royal Naval Air Service before becoming a founder member of the Royal Air Force , died on 18 July 2009 at the age of 113 ; Patch , the last surviving man to have fought in the trenches in the war , died on 25 July 2009 at the age of 111 . Their deaths left Claude Choules , who served in the Royal Navy during the war and who lived in Australia until his death in 2011 , as the last surviving British veteran .
Duffy said that she felt that she should " honour that great tradition of poets who were also soldiers " , describing the poem as " an attempt at healing and being at one with the world " , and " a tribute and blessing , even an apology , on behalf of poetry and all poets . " She added that she " had been thinking about Afghanistan and trying to enthuse new war poetry among contemporary poets . " The poem was broadcast one week after Duffy published a selection of poems she had commissioned from poets such as Sean O 'Brien , Paul Muldoon and Daljit Nagra about the ongoing war in Afghanistan .
= = Poem = =
The poem takes its title from the bugle call used at British ceremonies remembering those killed in war , the " Last Post " . It begins with two lines from the poem Dulce et Decorum Est by the First World War poet Wilfred Owen :
The title of Owen 's poem is part of a line from the Roman poet Horace – Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori ( " It is sweet and fitting to die for one 's country " ) . The phrase was inscribed over the chapel door at Sandhurst , the British military academy , in 1913 . The phrase is again referenced when Duffy writes " Dulce — No — Decorum — No — Pro patria mori . " The writer Will Heaven said that , whilst the poem denies that death in war is " sweet and proper " ( dulce et decorum ) , it does not deny that the soldiers died for their country ( pro patria mori ) .
The heart of the poem depicts events " if poetry could tell it backwards " – soldiers who died in the war coming back to life , " lines and lines of British boys rewind / back to their trenches " . The poem imagines " all those thousands dead / are shaking dried mud from their hair / and queuing up for home " . Duffy pictures what would have happened to them if they had not died :
before adding , " You see the poet tuck away his pocket @-@ book and smile " . Erica Wagner , the literary editor of The Times , said that the poet Duffy refers to in the poem could be Owen , but could also be John McCrae , Isaac Rosenberg , or Charles Hamilton Sorley , or one of a number of other poets from the war . Wagner also noted that " Harry Patch and Henry Allingham escaped death , but never the effect of that awful war . "
= = Reaction = =
The poem received a generally favourable critical reaction . Wagner called it a " moving reversal of history " , a " fine poem " , and " the latest in a noble line of work [ about the First World War ] that aspires to a kind of salvation . " Heaven said that it was a " poignant and beautiful tribute " to Allingham . It has been called " sombre yet supremely uplifting " . The poem was also noticed in the United States . Jenna Krajeski , a writer for The New Yorker , described it as " another strong at @-@ bat " , and said that the poem highlighted " the power , but also the shortcomings , of poetry " when writing about an " imaginary , impossible event " and also writing about writing about it . The American poet John Lundberg said that the poem was a " surprising success " , adding that not only was it " accessible " and " a fitting tribute to those who served in World War I , " but also " simply a damn good poem with rich imagery , cinematic movement and poignant ending . " However , Christopher Howse , a writer for the Daily Telegraph , took a different view of the poem 's merits , saying ( under the title " Carol Ann Duffy falls short of Henry Allingham " ) that Duffy 's verse form was " open , to the point of invisibility " .
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= Mauritania at the 2004 Summer Olympics =
Mauritania competed at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece , from 13 to 29 August 2004 . The country 's participation at Athens marked its sixth appearance in the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1984 Summer Olympics . The delegation included two track and field athletes , Youba Hmeida and Aminata Kamissoko , who were both selected by wildcards after both failed to meet either the " A " or " B " qualifying standards . Hmeida was selected as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony . Neither of the Mauritanians progressed beyond the heats .
= = Background = =
Mauritania participated in six Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , United States and the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens . The Mauritania National Olympic Committee ( NOC ) selected two athletes via wildcards . Usually , an NOC would be able to enter up to 3 qualified athletes in each individual event as long as each athlete met the " A " standard , or 1 athlete per event if they met the " B " standard . However , since Mauritania had no athletes that met either standard , they were allowed to select two athletes , one of each gender , as wildcards . The two athletes that were selected to compete in the Athens games were Youba Hmeida in the Men 's 400 meters and Aminata Kamissoko in the Women 's 100 meters . Hmeida was flag bearer for the opening ceremony .
= = Athletics = =
Making his Summer Olympics debut , Youba Hmeida was notable for carrying the Mauritania flag at the opening ceremony . He qualified for the Summer Olympics via a wildcard place , as his best time , 47 @.@ 87 seconds at the 2001 World Championships in Athletics 400 meters , was 1 @.@ 92 seconds slower than the " B " standard required . He competed on 20 August in Heat 3 against seven other athletes . He ran a time of 49 @.@ 18 seconds , finishing seventh after Russia 's Anton Galkin was disqualified . El Salvador 's Takeshi Fujiwara placed ahead of him ( 46 @.@ 70 seconds ) , in a heat led by Cuba 's Yeimer López ( 45 @.@ 44 seconds ) . Out of 63 athletes , Hmeida ranked 57 and was 3 @.@ 30 seconds behind the slowest athlete that progressed to the semi @-@ finals . Therefore , that was the end of his competition .
Competing at her first Summer Olympics , Aminata Kamissoko qualified after being granted a wildcard as her best time , 13 @.@ 70 seconds in the 2003 World Championships in Athletics 100 meters , was 2 @.@ 30 seconds slower than the " B " qualifying standard . She competed on August 20 in Heat 3 against seven other athletes , finishing last with a time of 13 @.@ 49 seconds . Palau 's Ngerak Florencio ranked ahead of her ( 12 @.@ 76 seconds ) , in a heat led by United States ' Lauryn Williams . Overall , Kamissoko was 2 @.@ 06 seconds behind the slowest athlete that progressed , therefore not advancing to the quarter @-@ finals .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
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= Battle of Yarmouk =
The Battle of Yarmouk was a major battle between the army of the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim Arab forces of the Rashidun Caliphate . The battle consisted of a series of engagements that lasted for six days in August 636 , near the Yarmouk River , along what today are the borders of Syria – Jordan and Syria – Israel , east of the Sea of Galilee . The result of the battle was a complete Muslim victory which ended Byzantine rule in Syria . The Battle of Yarmouk is regarded as one of the most decisive battles in military history , and it marked the first great wave of Islamic conquests after the death of Muhammad , heralding the rapid advance of Islam into the then Christian Levant .
In order to check the Arab advance and to recover lost territory , Emperor Heraclius had sent a massive expedition to the Levant in May 636 . As the Byzantine army approached , the Arabs tactically withdrew from Syria and regrouped all their forces at the Yarmouk plains close to Arabia where , after being reinforced , they defeated the numerically superior Byzantine army . The battle is considered to be one of Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid 's greatest military victories . It cemented his reputation as one of the greatest tacticians and cavalry commanders in history .
= = Prelude = =
During the last Byzantine – Sassanid Wars in 610 , Heraclius became the emperor of the Byzantine Empire , after overthrowing Phocas . Meanwhile , the Sassanid Persians conquered Mesopotamia and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia , occupying Caesarea Mazaca . Heraclius , in 612 , managed to expel the Persians from Anatolia , but was decisively defeated in 613 when he launched a major offensive in Syria against the Persians . Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt . Meanwhile , Heraclius prepared for a counterattack and rebuilt his army . Nine years later in 622 , Heraclius finally launched his offensive . After his overwhelming victories over the Persians and their allies in the Caucasus and Armenia , Heraclius , in 627 , launched a winter offensive against the Persians in Mesopotamia winning a decisive victory at the Battle of Nineveh thus threatening the Persian capital city of Ctesiphon . Discredited by these series of disasters , Khosrau II was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II , who at once sued for peace , agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories of the Byzantine Empire . Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem with a majestic ceremony in 629 .
Meanwhile , there had been rapid political development in Arabia , where Muhammad had been preaching Islam and by 630 , he had successfully united most of the Arabia under a single political authority . When Muhammad died in June 632 , Abu Bakr was elected Caliph and his political successor . Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr 's succession , when several Arab tribes openly revolted against Abu Bakr , who declared war against the rebels . In what became known as the Ridda wars ( Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy , 632 – 33 ) , Abu Bakr managed to unite Arabia under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina .
Once the rebels had been subdued , Abu Bakr began a war of conquest , beginning with Iraq . Sending his most brilliant general , Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , Iraq was conquered in a series of successful campaigns against the Sassanid Persians . Abu Bakr 's confidence grew , and once Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq , Abu Bakr issued a call to arms for the invasion of Syria in February 634 . The Muslim invasion of Syria was a series of carefully planned and well coordinated military operations that employed strategy instead of pure strength to deal with Byzantine defensive measures . The Muslim armies , however soon proved to be too small to handle the Byzantine response , and their commanders called for reinforcements . Khalid was sent by Abu Bakr from Iraq to Syria with reinforcements and to lead the invasion . In July 634 , the Byzantines were decisively defeated at Ajnadayn . Damascus fell in September 634 , followed by the Battle of Fahl where the last significant garrison of Palestine was defeated and routed .
Caliph Abu Bakr died in 634 . His successor , Umar , was determined to continue the Caliphate Empire 's expansion deeper into Syria . Though previous campaigns led by Khalid were successful , he was replaced by Abu Ubaidah . Having secured southern Palestine , Muslim forces now advanced up the trade route , where Tiberias and Baalbek fell without much struggle , and conquered Emesa early in 636 . From thereon , the Muslims continued their conquest across the Levant .
= = Byzantine counterattack = =
Having seized Emesa , the Muslims were just a march away from Aleppo , a Byzantine stronghold , and Antioch , where Heraclius resided . Seriously alarmed by the series of setbacks , Heraclius prepared for a counterattack to reacquire the lost regions . In 635 Yazdegerd III , the Emperor of Persia , sought an alliance with the Byzantine Emperor . Heraclius married off his daughter ( according to traditions , his grand daughter ) Manyanh to Yazdegerd III , to cement the alliance . While Heraclius prepared for a major offensive in the Levant , Yazdegerd was to mount a simultaneous counterattack in Iraq , in what was meant to be a well @-@ coordinated effort . When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636 , Yazdegerd could not coordinate with the maneuver — probably owing to the exhausted condition of his government — and what would have been a decisive plan missed the mark .
Byzantine preparations began in late 635 and by May 636 Heraclius had a large force concentrated at Antioch in Northern Syria . The assembled army consisted of contingents of Byzantines , Slavs , Franks , Georgians , Armenians and Christian Arabs . This force was organized into five armies , the joint leader of which was Theodore Trithourios the Sakellarios . Vahan , an Armenian and the former garrison commander of Emesa , was made the overall field commander , and had under his command a purely Armenian army . Buccinator ( Qanateer ) , a Slavic prince , commanded the Slavs and Jabalah ibn al @-@ Aiham , king of the Ghassanid Arabs , commanded an exclusively Christian Arab force . The remaining contingents , all European , were placed under Gregory and Dairjan . Heraclius himself supervised the operation from Antioch . Byzantine sources mention Niketas , son of the Persian general Shahrbaraz , among the commanders , but it is not certain which army he commanded .
At that time , the Rashidun army was split into four groups : one under Amr in Palestine , one under Shurahbil in Jordan , one under Yazid in the Damascus @-@ Caesarea region and the last one under Abu Ubaidah along with Khalid at Emesa . As the Muslim forces were geographically divided , Heraclius sought to exploit this situation and planned to attack . He did not wish to engage in a single pitched battle but rather to employ central position and fight the enemy in detail by concentrating large forces against each of the Muslim corps before they could consolidate their troops . By forcing the Muslims to retreat , or by destroying Muslim forces separately , he would fulfill his strategy of recapturing lost territory . Reinforcements were sent to Caesarea under Heraclius ' son Constantine III probably to tie down Yazid 's forces which were besieging the town . The Byzantine imperial army moved out from Antioch and Northern Syria sometime in the middle of June 636 .
The Byzantine imperial army was to operate under the following plan :
Jabalah 's lightly armed Christian Arabs would march to Emesa from Aleppo via Hama and hold the main Muslim army at Emesa .
Dairjan would make a flanking movement – moving between the coast and Aleppo 's road – and approach Emesa from the west , striking at the Muslims ' left flank while they were being held frontally by Jabalah .
Gregory would strike the Muslims ' right flank , approaching Emesa from the northeast via Mesopotamia .
Qanateer would march along the coastal route and occupy Beirut , from where he was to attack weakly defended Damascus from the west to cut off the main Muslim army at Emesa .
Vahan 's corps would act as a reserve and would approach Emesa via Hama .
= = Muslim strategy = =
The Muslims discovered Heraclius ' preparations at Shaizar through Roman prisoners . Alert to the possibility of being caught with separated forces that could be destroyed , Khalid called for a council of war . There he advised Abu Ubaidah to pull the troops back from Palestine and from Northern and Central Syria , and then to concentrate the entire Rashidun army in one place . Abu Ubaidah ordered the concentration of troops in the vast plain near Jabiya , as control of the area made cavalry charges possible and facilitated the arrival of reinforcements from Umar so that a strong , united force could be fielded against the Byzantine armies . The position also benefited from close proximity to the Rashidun stronghold of Najd , in case of retreat . Instructions were also issued to return the jizya ( tribute ) to the people who had paid it . However , once concentrated at Jabiya , the Muslims were subject to raids from pro @-@ Byzantine Ghassanid forces . Encamping in the region was also precarious as a strong Byzantine force was garrisoned in Caeseara and could attack the Muslim rear while they were held in front by the Byzantine army . On Khalid 's advice the Muslim forces retreated to Dara ’ ah ( or Dara ) and Dayr Ayyub , covering the gap between the Yarmouk Gorges and the Harra lava plains , and established a line of camps in the eastern part of the plain of Yarmouk . This was a strong defensive position and these maneuvers pitted the Muslims and Byzantines into a decisive battle , one which the latter had tried to avoid . During these maneuvers , there were no engagements save for a minor skirmish between Khalid 's elite light cavalry and the Byzantine advance guard .
= = Battlefield = =
The battlefield lies in the western plane of Syrian Hauran , just south @-@ east of the Golan Heights , an upland region currently on the frontier between Israel , Jordan and Syria , east of the Sea of Galilee . The battle was fought on the plain north of Yarmouk River , which was enclosed on its western edges by a deep ravine known as Wadi @-@ ur @-@ Ruqqad . This ravine joins the Yarmouk River , a tributary of the Jordan River , on its south . The stream had very steep banks , ranging from 30 m ( 98 ft ) – 200 m ( 660 ft ) in height . On the north is the Jabiya road and to the east are the Azra hills , although these hills were outside the actual field of battle . Strategically there was only one prominence in the battlefield : a 100 m ( 330 ft ) elevation known as Tel al Jumm 'a , and for the Muslim troops concentrated there , the hill gave a good view of the plain of Yarmouk . The ravine on the west of the battlefield was accessible at a few places in 636 AD , and had one main crossing : a Roman bridge ( Jisr @-@ ur @-@ Ruqqad ) near ' Ain Dhakar Logistically , the Yarmouk plain had enough water supplies and pastures to sustain both armies . The plain was excellent for cavalry maneuvers .
= = Troop deployment = =
Most early accounts place the size of the Muslim forces between 24 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 and the number of Byzantine forces between 100 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 . Modern estimates for the sizes of the respective armies vary : the vast majority of estimates for the Byzantine army are between 80 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 , while other estimates are as low as 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 . Estimates for the Rashidun army are between 25 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 . Original accounts are mostly from Arab sources , generally agreeing that the Byzantine army and their allies outnumbered the Muslim Arabs by a sizeable margin . The only early Byzantine source is Theophanes , who wrote a century later . Accounts of the battle vary , some stating it lasted a day , others more than a day . [ citation needed ]
= = = Rashidun army = = =
During a council of war , the command of the Muslim army was transferred to Khalid by Abu Ubaidah , Commander in Chief of the Muslim army . After taking command , Khalid reorganized the army into 36 infantry regiments and four cavalry regiments , with his cavalry elite , the mobile guard , held in reserve . The army was organized in the Tabi 'a formation , a tight , defensive infantry formation . The army was lined up on a front of 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) , facing west , with its left flank lying south on the Yarmouk River a mile before the ravines of Wadi al Allan began . The army 's right flank was on the Jabiya road in the north across the heights of Tel al Jumm 'a , with substantial gaps between the divisions so that their frontage would match that of the Byzantine battle line at 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) . The center of the army was under the command of Abu Ubaidah ibn al @-@ Jarrah ( left center ) and Shurahbil bin Hasana ( right center ) . The left wing was under the command of Yazid and the right wing was under Amr ibn al @-@ A 'as . Center , left and right wings were given cavalry regiments , to be used as a reserve for counter @-@ attack in case they were pushed back by the Byzantines . Behind the center stood the mobile guard under the personal command of Khalid . If and when Khalid was too occupied in leading the general army , Dharar ibn al @-@ Azwar would command the mobile guard . Over the course of the battle , Khalid would repeatedly make critical and decisive use of this mounted reserve . Khalid sent out several scouts to keep the Byzantines under observation . In late July 636 , Vahan sent Jabalah with his lightly armored Christian Arab forces to reconnoiter @-@ in @-@ force , but they were repulsed by the mobile guard . After this skirmish , no engagement occurred for a month .
= = = = Weaponry = = = =
Helmets used included gilded helmets similar to the silver helmets of the Sassanid empire . Mail was commonly used to protect the face , neck and cheeks either as an aventail from the helmet or as a mail coif . Heavy leather sandals as well as Roman @-@ type sandal boots were also typical of the early Muslim soldiers . Armor included hardened leather scale or lamellar armor and mail armor . Infantry soldiers were more heavily armored than horsemen . Large wooden or wickerwork shields were used . Long @-@ shafted spears were used , with infantry spears being 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long and cavalry spears being up to 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) long . Short infantry swords like the Roman gladius and Sassanid long swords were used ; long swords were usually carried by horsemen . Swords were hung in baldrics . Bows were about 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long when unbraced , similar in size to the famous English longbow . The maximum useful range of the traditional Arabian bow was about 150 m ( 490 ft ) . Early Muslim archers , while being infantry archers without the mobility of horseback archer regiments , proved to be very effective in defending against light and unarmored cavalry attacks .
= = = Byzantine army = = =
A few days after the Muslims encamped at the Yarmouk plain , the Byzantine army , preceded by the lightly armed Ghassanids of Jabalah , moved forward and established strongly fortified camps just north of the Wadi @-@ ur @-@ Ruqqad . The right flank of the Byzantine army was at the south end of the plains , near the Yarmouk River and about a mile before the ravines of Wadi al Allan began . The left flank of the Byzantines was at the north , a short distance before the Hills of Jabiya began , and was relatively exposed . Vahan deployed the Imperial Army facing east , with a front about 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) long , as he was trying to cover the whole area between the Yarmouk gorge in the south and the Roman road to Egypt in the north , and substantial gaps had been left between the Byzantine divisions . The right wing was commanded by Gregory and the left by Qanateer . The center was formed by the army of Dairjan and the Armenian army of Vahan , both under the overall command of Dairjan . The Roman regular heavy cavalry , the cataphract , was distributed equally among the four armies , each army deploying its infantry at the forefront and its cavalry as a reserve in the rear . Vahan deployed Jabalah 's Christian Arabs , mounted on horses and camels , as a skirmishing force , screening the main army until its arrival . Early Muslim sources mention that the army of Gregory had used chains to link together its foot @-@ soldiers , who had all taken an oath of death . The chains were in 10 @-@ man lengths and were used as a proof of unshakeable courage on the part of the men , who thus displayed their willingness to die where they stood and never retreat . The chains also acted as an insurance against a breakthrough by enemy cavalry . However , modern historians suggest that the Byzantines adopted the Graeco @-@ Roman testudo military formation , in which soldiers would stand shoulder @-@ to @-@ shoulder with shields held high and an arrangement of 10 to 20 men would be completely shielded on all sides from missile fire , each soldier providing cover for an adjoining companion .
= = = = Weaponry = = = =
The Byzantine cavalry was armed with a long sword , known as the spathion . They would also have had a light wooden lance , known as a kontarion and a bow ( toxarion ) with forty arrows in a quiver , hung from a saddle or from the belt . Heavy infantry , known as skoutatoi , had a short sword and a short spear . The lightly armed Byzantine troops and the archers carried a small shield , a bow hung from the shoulder across the back and a quiver of arrows . Cavalry armor consisted of a hauberk with a mail coif and a helmet with a pendant , i.e. a throat @-@ guard lined with fabric and having a fringe and cheek piece . Infantry was similarly equipped with a hauberk , a helmet and leg armor . Light lamellar and scale armor was also used .
= = Tensions in the Byzantine army = =
Khalid 's strategy of withdrawing from the occupied areas and concentrating all of his troops for a decisive battle forced the Byzantines to concentrate their five armies in response . The Byzantines had for centuries avoided engaging in large @-@ scale decisive battles , and the concentration of their forces created logistical strains for which the empire was ill @-@ prepared . Damascus was the closest logistical base , but Mansur , leader of Damascus , could not fully supply the massive Byzantine army that was gathered at the Yarmouk plain . Several clashes were reported with local citizens over supply requisition , as summer was at an end and there was a decline of pasturage . Greek court sources accused Vahan of treason for his disobedience to Heraclius ' command not to engage in large @-@ scale battle with Arabs . Given the massing of the Muslim armies at Yarmouk , however , Vahan had little choice but to respond in kind . Relations between the various Byzantine commanders were also fraught with tension . There was a struggle for power between Trithurios and Vahan , Jarajis , and Qanateer ( Buccinator ) . Jabalah , the Christian Arab leader , was largely ignored , to the detriment of the Byzantines given his knowledge of the local terrain . An atmosphere of mistrust thus existed between the Greeks , Armenians , and Arabs . Longstanding ecclesiastical feuds between the Monophysite and Chalcedonian factions , while of negligible direct impact , certainly inflamed underlying tensions . The effect of these feuds was decreased coordination and planning , one of the reasons for the catastrophic Byzantine defeat .
= = Battle = =
The battle lines of the Muslims and the Byzantines were divided into four sections : the left wing , the left center , the right center and the right wing . Note that the descriptions of the Muslim and the Byzantine battle lines are exactly each other 's opposite , i.e. : so the Muslim right wing faced the Byzantine left wing ( see image ) .
Vahan was instructed by Heraclius not to engage in battle until all avenues of diplomacy had been explored . This was probably because Yazdegerd III 's forces were not yet ready for the offensive in Iraq . Accordingly , Vahan sent Gregory and then Jabalah to negotiate , though their efforts proved futile . Before the battle , on Vahan 's invitation , Khalid came to negotiate peace , to a similar end . These negotiations delayed the battles for a month . On the other hand , Caliph Umar , whose forces at Qadisiyah were threatened with confronting the Sassanid armies , ordered Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas to enter into negotiations with the Persians and send emissaries to Yazdegerd III and his commander Rostam Farrokhzād , apparently inviting them to Islam . This was most probably the delaying tactic employed by Umar on the Persian front . Meanwhile , he sent reinforcements of 6 @,@ 000 troops , mostly from Yemen , to Khalid . This force included 1 @,@ 000 Sahaba ( companions of Muhammad ) , among whom were 100 veterans of the Battle of Badr , the first battle in Islamic history , and included citizens of the highest rank , such as Zubayr ibn al @-@ Awwam , Abu Sufyan , and his wife Hind bint Utbah .
Also present were such distinct companions as Sa 'id ibn Zayd , Fadl ibn Abbas , Abdul @-@ Rahman ibn Abi Bakr ( the son of Abu Bakr ) , Abdullah ibn Umar ( the son of Umar ) , Aban ibn Uthman ( the son of Uthman ) , Abdulreman ibn Khalid ( the son of Khalid ) , Abdullah ibn Ja 'far ( the nephew of Ali ) , Ammar ibn Yasir , Miqdad ibn Aswad , Abu Dharr al @-@ Ghifari , Malik al @-@ Ashtar , Abu Ayyub al @-@ Ansari , Qays ibn Sa 'd , Hudhayfah ibn al @-@ Yaman , Ubada ibn as @-@ Samit , Hisham ibn al @-@ A 'as , Abu Huraira and Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl . As this was a citizen army in contrast to a mercenary one , the age of the soldiers ranged from 20 ( in the case of Khalid 's son ) to 70 years old ( in the case of Ammar ) . Three of the ten companions promised paradise by Muhammad , namely Sa 'id , Zubayr and Abu Ubaidah , were present at Yarmouk .
Umar , apparently wanting to defeat the Byzantines first , employed the best Muslim troops against them . The continuing stream of Muslim reinforcements worried the Byzantines , who fearing that the Muslims with such reinforcements would grow powerful , decided that they had no choice but to attack . The reinforcements that were sent to the Muslims at Yarmouk arrived in small bands , giving the impression of a continuous stream of reinforcements , in order to demoralize the Byzantines and compel them to attack . The same tactic would be repeated again during the Battle of Qadisiyah .
= = = Day 1 = = =
The battle began on 15 August 636 . At dawn both armies lined up for battle less than a mile apart . It is recorded in Muslim chronicles that before the battle started , George , a unit commander in the Byzantine right center , rode up to the Muslim line and converted to Islam ; he would die the same day fighting on the Muslim side . The battle began as the Byzantine army sent its champions to duel with the Muslim mubarizun . The mubarizun were specially trained swordsmen and lancers , with the objective to slay as many enemy commanders as possible to damage their morale . At midday , after losing a number of commanders in the duels , Vahan ordered a limited attack with a third of his infantry forces to test the strength and strategy of the Muslim army and , using their overwhelming numerical and weaponry superiority , achieve a breakthrough wherever the Muslim battle line was weak . However the Byzantine assault lacked determination ; many soldiers of the Imperial Army were unable to press the attack against the Muslim veterans . The fighting was generally moderate , although in some places it was especially intense . Vahan did not reinforce his forward infantry two @-@ thirds of which was kept in reserve with one @-@ third deployed to engage the Muslims , and at sunset both armies broke contact and returned to their respective camps .
= = = Day 2 = = =
Phase 1 : On 16 August 636 , Vahan decided in a council of war to launch his attack just before dawn , to catch the Muslim force unprepared as they conducted their morning prayers . He planned to engage his two central armies with the Muslim centre in an effort to stall them while the main thrusts would be against the wings of the Muslim army , which would then either be driven away from the battlefield or pushed towards the centre . To observe the battlefield , Vahan had a large pavilion built behind his right wing with an Armenian bodyguard force . He ordered the army to prepare for the surprise attack . Unbeknownst to the Byzantines , Khalid had prepared for such a contingency by placing a strong outpost line in front during the night to counter surprises , which gave the Muslims time to prepare for battle . At the center , the Byzantines did not press hard , intending to pin down the Muslim centre corps in their position and preventing them from aiding the Muslim army in other areas . Thus the center remained stable . But on the wings the situation was different . Qanateer , commanding the Byzantine left flank which consisted of mainly Slavs , attacked in force , and the Muslim infantry on the right flank had to retreat . Amr , the Muslim right wing commander ordered his cavalry regiment to counterattack , which neutralized the Byzantine advance and stabilized the battle line on the right for some time , but the Byzantine numerical superiority caused them to retreat towards the Muslim base camp .
Phase 2 : Khalid , aware of the situation at the wings , ordered the cavalry of the right wing to attack the northern flank of the Byzantine left wing while he with his mobile guard attacked the southern flank of the Byzantine left wing , while the Muslim right wing infantry attacked from the front . The three @-@ pronged attack forced the Byzantine left wing to abandon the Muslim positions they had gained on , and Amr regained his lost ground and started reorganizing his corps for another round . The situation on the Muslim left wing which Yazid commanded was considerably more serious . Whilst the Muslim right wing enjoyed assistance from the mobile guard , the left wing did not and the numerical advantage the Byzantines enjoyed caused the Muslim positions to be overrun , with soldiers retreating towards base camps . Here the Byzantines had broken through the corps . The testudo formation that Gregory 's army had adopted moved slowly but also had a good defense . Yazid used his cavalry regiment to counterattack but was repulsed . Despite stiff resistance , the warriors of Yazid on the left flank finally fell back to their camps and for a moment Vahan 's plan appeared to be succeeding . The centre of the Muslim army was pinned down and its flanks had been pushed back . However , neither flank had broken , though their morale was severely damaged . The retreating Muslim army was met by the ferocious Arab women in the camps . Led by Hind , the Muslim women dismantled their tents and armed with tent poles charged at their husbands and fellow men singing an improvised song from the Battle of Uhud that then had been directed against the Muslims .
This boiled the blood of the retreating Muslims so much that they returned to the battlefield .
Phase 3 : After managing to stabilize the position on the right flank , Khalid ordered the mobile guard cavalry to provide relief to the battered left flank . Khalid detached one regiment under Dharar ibn al @-@ Azwar and ordered him to attack the front of the army of Dairjan ( left center ) in order to create a diversion and threaten the withdrawal of the Byzantine right wing from its advanced position . With the rest of the cavalry reserve he attacked Gregory 's flank . Here again , under simultaneous attacks from the front and flanks , the Byzantines fell back , but more slowly because they had to maintain their formation . At sunset the central armies broke contact and withdrew to their original positions and both fronts were restored along the lines occupied in the morning . The death of Dairjan and the failure of Vahan 's battle plan left the larger Imperial army relatively demoralized , whereas Khalid 's successful counterattacks emboldened his troops despite their being smaller in number .
= = = Day 3 = = =
On 17 August 636 , Vahan pondered over his failures and mistakes of the previous day , where he launched attacks against respective Muslim flanks , but after initial success , his men were pushed back . What bothered him the most was the loss of one of his commanders . The imperial Byzantine army decided on a less ambitious plan , Vahan now aimed to break the Muslim army at specific points . He decided to press upon the relatively exposed right flank , where his mounted troops could maneuver more freely as compared to the rugged terrain at the Muslims ' left flank . And it was decided to charge at the junction between the Muslim right center and its right wing held by Qanateer 's Slavs , to break the two apart and to fight them separately .
Phase 1 : The battle resumed with Byzantine attacks on the Muslim right flank and right center . After holding off the initial attacks by the Byzantines , the Muslim right wing fell back , followed by the right center . They were again said to have been met by their own womenfolk who abused and shamed them . The corps , however , managed to reorganize some distance from the camp and held their ground preparing for a counterattack .
Phase 2 : Knowing that the Byzantine army was focusing on the Muslim right , Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid launched an attack with his mobile guard , along with the Muslim right flank cavalry . Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid struck at the right flank of the Byzantines left center , and the cavalry reserve of the Muslims right center struck at the Byzantines left center at its left flank . Meanwhile , he ordered the Muslims ' right wing cavalry to strike at the left flank of the Byzantines left wing . The combat soon developed into a bloodbath . Many fell on both sides . Khalid 's timely flanking attacks again saved the day for Muslims and by dusk the Byzantines had been pushed back to the positions they had at the start of the battle .
= = = Day 4 = = =
18 August 636 , the fourth day , was to prove decisive .
Phase 1 : Vahan decided to persist with the previous day 's war plan as he had been successful in inflicting damage on the Muslim right . Qanateer led two armies of Slavs against the Muslim right wing and right centre with some assistance from the Armenians and Christian Arabs led by Jabalah . The Muslim right wing and right center again fell back . Khalid entered the fray yet again with this mobile guard . He feared a general attack on a broad front which he wouldn 't be able to repulse and as a precaution ordered Abu Ubaidah and Yazid on the left centre and the left wings respectively to attack the Byzantine armies at the respective fronts . The attack would result in stalling the Byzantine front and prevent a general advance of the Imperial army .
Phase 2 : Khalid divided his mobile guard into two divisions and attacked the flanks of the Byzantine left center , while the infantry of the Muslim right center attacked from front . Under this three @-@ pronged flanking manoeuvre , the Byzantines fell back . Meanwhile , the Muslim right wing renewed its offense with its infantry attacking from the front and the cavalry reserve attacking the northern flank of the Byzantine left wing . As the Byzantine left center retreated under three @-@ pronged attacks of Khalid , the Byzantine left wing , having been exposed at its southern flank , also fell back .
While Khalid and his mobile guard were dealing with the Armenian front throughout the afternoon , the situation on the other end was worsening . Byzantine horse @-@ archers had taken to the field and subjected Abu Ubaidah and Yazid 's troops to intense archery preventing them from penetrating their Byzantine lines . Many Muslim soldiers lost their sight to Byzantine arrows on that day , which thereafter became known as the " Day of Lost Eyes " . The veteran Abu Sufyan is also believed to have lost an eye that day . The Muslim armies fell back except for one regiment led by Ikrimah bin Abi Jahal , which was on the left of Abu Ubaidah 's corps . Ikrimah covered the retreat of the Muslims with his four hundred cavalry by attacking the Byzantine front , while the other armies reorganized themselves to counterattack and regain their lost positions . All of Ikrimah 's men were either seriously injured or dead that day . Ikrimah , a childhood friend of Khalid 's was mortally wounded and died later in the evening .
= = = Day 5 = = =
During the four @-@ day offense of Vahan , his troops had failed to achieve any breakthrough and had suffered heavy casualties , especially during the mobile guard 's flanking counterattacks . Early on 19 August 636 , the fifth day of the battle , Vahan sent an emissary to the Muslim camp for a truce for the next few days so that fresh negotiations could be held . He supposedly wanted time to reorganize his demoralized troops . But Khalid deemed victory to be in reach and he declined the offer . Up till now , the Muslim army had adopted a largely defensive strategy , but knowing that the Byzantines were apparently no longer eager for battle , Khalid now decided to take the offensive and reorganized his troops accordingly . All the cavalry regiments were grouped together into one powerful mounted force with the mobile guard acting as its core . The total strength of this cavalry group was now about 8 @,@ 000 mounted warriors , an effective mounted corps for an offensive attack the next day . The rest of the day passed uneventfully . Khalid planned to trap Byzantine troops , cutting off their every route of escape . There were three natural barriers , the three gorges in the battlefield with their steep ravines , Wadi @-@ ur @-@ Ruqqad at west , Wadi al Yarmouk in south and Wadi al Allah in east . The northern route was to be blocked by Muslim cavalry . There were however , some passages across the 200 metres ( 660 ft ) deep ravines of Wadi @-@ ur @-@ Raqqad in west , strategically the most important one was at Ayn al Dhakar , a bridge . Khalid sent Dharar with 500 cavalry at night to secure that bridge . Dharar moved around the northern flank of Byzantines and captured the bridge . This maneuver was to prove decisive the next day .
= = = Day 6 = = =
On 20 August 636 , the final day of the battle , Khalid put into action a simple but bold plan of attack . With his massed cavalry force he intended to drive the Byzantine cavalry entirely off the battlefield so that the infantry , which formed the bulk of the imperial army , would be left without cavalry support and thus would be exposed when attacked from the flanks and rear . At the same time he planned to push a determined attack to turn the left flank of the Byzantine army and drive them towards the ravine to the west .
Phase 1 : Khalid ordered a general attack on the Byzantine front and galloped his cavalry around the left wing of the Byzantines . Part of his cavalry engaged the Byzantine left wing cavalry while the rest of it attacked the rear of the Byzantine left wing infantry . Meanwhile , the Muslim right wing pressed against it from the front . Under this two @-@ pronged attack , the Byzantine left wing fell back and collapsed and fell back to the Byzantine left center , greatly disordering it . The remaining Muslim cavalry then attacked the Byzantine left wing cavalry at the rear while they were held frontally by the other half of the Muslim cavalry , routing them off the battlefield to the north . The Muslim right wing infantry now attacked the Byzantine left center at its left flank while the Muslim right center attacked from front .
Phase 2 : Vahan , noticing the huge cavalry maneuver of the Muslims , ordered his cavalry to group together , but was not quick enough ; before Vahan could organize his disparate heavy cavalry squadrons , Khalid had wheeled his cavalry back to attack the concentrating Byzantine cavalry squadrons , falling upon them from the front and the flank while they were still moving into formation . The disorganized and disoriented Byzantine heavy cavalry was soon routed and dispersed to the north , leaving the infantry to its fate .
Phase 3 : With the Byzantine cavalry completely routed , Khalid turned to the Byzantine left center which already held the two @-@ pronged attack of the Muslim infantry . The Byzantine left center was attacked at its rear by Khalid 's cavalry and was finally broken .
The last phase : With the retreat of the Byzantine left center , a general Byzantine retreat started . Khalid took his cavalry north to block the northern route of escape . The Byzantines retreated west towards Wadi @-@ ur @-@ Ruqqad where there was a bridge at Ayn al Dhakar for safe crossing across the deep gorges of the ravines of Wadi @-@ ur @-@ Ruqqad . Dharar had already captured the bridge as part of Khalid 's plan the night before . A unit of 500 mounted troops had been sent to block this passageway . In fact , this was the route by which Khalid wanted the Byzantines to retreat all along . The Byzantines were surrounded from all sides now . Some fell into the deep ravines off the steep slopes , others tried to escape in the waters , only to be smashed on the rocks below and again others were killed in their flight . Nevertheless , a large number of the soldiers managed to escape the slaughter . Jonah , the Greek informant of the Rashidun army during the conquest of Damascus , died in this battle . The Muslims took no prisoners in this battle , although they may have captured some during the subsequent pursuit . Theodore Trithurios died on the battlefield , while Niketas managed to escape and reach Emesa . Jabalah ibn al @-@ Ayham also managed to escape and later , for a short time , came to terms with the Muslims , but soon defected to the Byzantine court again .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after this operation was over , Khalid and his mobile guard moved north to pursue the retreating Byzantine soldiers ; he found them near Damascus and attacked . In the ensuing fight Vahan , who had escaped the fate of most of his men at Yarmouk , was killed . Khalid then entered Damascus where he was said to have been welcomed by the local residents , thus recapturing the city .
When news of the disaster reached the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius at Antioch , he was devastated and enraged . He blamed his wrongdoings for the loss , primarily referring to his incestuous marriage to his niece Martina . He would have tried to reconquer the province if he had had the resources , but now he had neither the men nor the money to defend the province any more . Instead he retreated to the cathedral of Antioch , where he observed a solemn service of intercession . He summoned a meeting of his advisers at the cathedral and scrutinized the situation . He was told almost unanimously , and accepted the fact , that the defeat was God 's decision and a result of the sins of the people of the land , including him . Heraclius took to the sea on a ship to Constantinople in the night . It is said that as his ship set sail , he bade a last farewell to Syria , saying :
Farewell , a long farewell to Syria , my fair province . Thou art an infidel 's ( enemy 's ) now . Peace be with you , O Syria – what a beautiful land you will be for the enemy .
Heraclius abandoned Syria with the holy relic of the True Cross which was , along with other relics held at Jerusalem , secretly boarded on ship by Parthia of Jerusalem , just to protect it from the invading Arabs . It is said that the emperor had a fear of water. and a pontoon bridge was made for Heraclius to cross the Bosphorus to Constantinople . After abandoning Syria , the Emperor began to concentrate on his remaining forces for the defence of Anatolia and Egypt instead . Byzantine Armenia fell to the Muslims in 638 – 39 , after which Heraclius created a buffer zone in central Anatolia by ordering all the forts east of Tarsus to be evacuated . In 639 – 642 Muslims invaded and captured Byzantine Egypt , led by Amr ibn al @-@ A 'as – who had commanded the right flank of the Rashidun army at Yarmouk .
= = Evaluation = =
The Battle of Yarmouk can be seen as an example in military history where an inferior force manages to overcome a superior force by superior generalship .
The Imperial Byzantine commanders allowed their enemy to have the battlefield of his choosing . Even then they were at no substantial tactical disadvantage . Khalid knew all along that he was up against a force superior in numbers and , until the last day of the battle , he conducted an essentially defensive campaign suited to his relatively limited resources . When he decided to take the offensive and attack on the final day of battle , he did so with a degree of imagination , foresight and courage that none of the Byzantine commanders managed to display . Although he commanded a numerically inferior force and needed all the men he could muster , he nevertheless had the confidence and foresight to dispatch a cavalry regiment the night before his assault to seal off a critical path of the retreat he anticipated for the enemy army .
Because of his leadership at Yarmouk , Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid is considered one of the finest generals in history and his use of mounted warriors throughout the battle showed just how well he understood the potential strengths and weaknesses of his mounted troops . His mobile guard moved quickly from one point to another , always changing the course of events wherever they appeared , and then just as quickly galloping away to change the course of events elsewhere on the field .
Vahan and his Byzantine commanders did not manage to deal with this mounted force and use the sizable advantage of their army effectively . Their own Byzantine cavalry never played a significant role in the battle and were held in static reserve for most of the six days . They never pushed their attacks and even when they obtained what could have been a decisive breakthrough on the fourth day , they were unable to exploit it . There appeared to be a decided lack of resolve among the Imperial commanders , though this may have been caused by difficulties commanding the army because of internal conflict . Moreover , many of the Arab auxiliaries were mere levies , while the Muslim Arab army consisted for a much larger part of veteran troops .
The original strategy of Heraclius , to destroy the Muslim troops in Syria , needed a rapid and quick deployment , but the commanders on the ground never displayed these qualities . Ironically , on the field at Yarmouk , Khalid carried out on a small tactical scale what Heraclius had planned on a grand strategic scale : by rapidly deploying and manoeuvering his forces , Khalid was able to temporarily concentrate sufficient forces at specific locations on the field to defeat the larger Byzantine army in detail . Vahan was never able to make his numerical superiority count , perhaps because of the unfavorable terrain that prevented large @-@ scale deployment . However , at no point did Vahan attempt to concentrate a superior force to achieve a critical breakthrough . Although he was on the offensive 5 days out of the six , his battle line remained remarkably static . This all stands in stark contrast to the very successful offensive plan that Khalid carried out on the final day , when he reorganised virtually all his cavalry and committed them to a grand manoeuvre that won the battle . George F. Nafziger , in his book Islam at war , describes the battle as :
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= Westroads Mall shooting =
The Westroads Mall shooting was a mass shooting that occurred on December 5 , 2007 , at the Von Maur department store in the Westroads Mall in Omaha , Nebraska , United States . Nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Robert A. Hawkins killed nine people ( including himself ) and wounded four , two of them critically . It was the deadliest mass murder in Nebraska since the rampage of Charles Starkweather in 1958 .
= = Details = =
= = = Prior to the shooting = = =
An hour before the rampage , Hawkins ' mother gave the Sarpy County Sheriff 's Department his suicide note , which read : " I just want to take a few pieces of shit with me ... just think tho , I 'm gonna be fuckin famous [ sic ] . "
Unarmed at first , Hawkins entered the south entrance of the Von Maur department store at about 1 : 36 p.m. CST ( 19 : 36 UTC ) . After slowly walking a short distance into the store , he paused for a second , then turned around and left , in a somewhat agitated state . Returning six minutes later through the same entrance , he proceeded directly to the elevator at his immediate right , this time with a Century WASR @-@ 10 ( a commercial copy of the AKM ( 7 @.@ 62 × 39mm ) semi @-@ automatic rifle ) stolen from his stepfather 's house , along with two 30 @-@ round magazines taped together , concealed in a sweatshirt . He took the elevator to the top floor .
= = = The shooting = = =
At approximately 1 : 43 p.m. CST ( 19 : 43 UTC ) , Robert Hawkins stepped out of the elevator on the third floor and opened fire . He killed eight people and wounded four others over the course of six minutes , before dying from a self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound to the head near the customer service desk . He fired more than 30 rounds , striking 12 people . Six were killed instantly , one died before reaching the hospital , and another died 45 minutes after reaching the ER of another hospital .
Omaha Police arrived at Westroads Mall about six minutes after receiving the first 911 call . During the entire 70 seconds of that first call , all the dispatcher heard was gunshots . Audio tapes and transcripts of the 911 calls , along with images captured by mall security surveillance cameras , were released by the police on December 7 , 2007 . In one 911 call , gunshots can be heard .
An autopsy of Hawkins showed that he had 200 nanograms per milliliter of Valium in his system , which is the low end of its therapeutic @-@ use range ( 100 @-@ 1500 ng / mL ) . No trace of any other drug was found in his system .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = The victims = = =
Eight people were killed by Hawkins during the shooting . Six were employees at the Von Maur store and the remaining two were customers . They are :
Four of the victims shot by Hawkins survived . Two critically injured were store employees . Fred Wilson , 61 , was a manager for the customer service department . He was sent to the University of Nebraska Medical Center with a gunshot wound to the upper chest . By the time he reached the ER , he had lost three @-@ quarters of his blood and had no pulse . Wilson was upgraded to stable by the following weekend , and soon after was making some attempts to communicate . The other critically wounded victim was customer service employee Micheale " Mickey " Oldham , 65 , who was sent to Creighton University Medical Center . She sustained heavy injuries to the abdomen and back , and , of the surviving victims , she suffered the worst injuries .
Another surviving victim was customer Jeff Schaffart , 34 , who was treated and released at UNMC for a gunshot wound to the left arm and the little finger of his left hand . The Omaha Police Department announced on December 22 , 2007 , that Mandy Hyda , 34 , received a bruise when a bullet fragment struck her left leg . She was neither transported nor treated for the injury . It was initially reported that there were five people injured ( not including Hyda ) , but two of those at the scene who were sent to local hospitals were sent for reasons other than being shot by Hawkins .
= = = Community reaction = = =
The Von Maur corporate headquarters in Davenport , Iowa issued a statement saying , " We are deeply saddened by the horrific shooting at our Omaha store this afternoon . Our thoughts and prayers are with the victims of this tragic event , as well as their families . " A similar statement was shown on its web site 's home page . Westroads Mall also stated on its web site , " Our thoughts and prayers remain with all affected by this tragedy . " Its home page also indicated that the mall would remain closed until the following Saturday , December 8 ; however , the Von Maur store , where the incident took place , did not open until December 20 . In the days following the tragedy , the Von Maur store was thronged on all sides by flowers and signs expressing condolences , as makeshift memorials to the victims . By January 12 , 2008 , a fund for the victims ' families surpassed one million dollars .
= = The shooter = =
Robert A. Hawkins ( May 17 , 1988 – December 5 , 2007 ) was the 19 @-@ year @-@ old perpetrator of the Westroads Mall shooting . He was born at the RAF Lakenheath station in Suffolk , England , U.K. , to American parents Ronald Hawkins and Maribel " Molly " Rodriguez . He was estranged from his parents and lived with two friends and their mother in a ranch @-@ style house in the Quail Creek Neighborhood of Bellevue , a suburb 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Omaha . His stepmother had him sent to a psychiatrist when he was just four . He was attending therapy sessions , taking medication and being hospitalized for depression by the time he was six years old . Throughout most of his life , he and his family were plagued by his psychiatric problems . The day after he turned 14 , he was sent to a mental health treatment center for threatening to kill his stepmother Candace Sims with an axe . Four months later , he became a ward of the State of Nebraska , which lasted nearly four years . He had undergone two psychiatric hospitalizations , and was diagnosed with attention deficit disorder , an unspecified mood disorder , oppositional defiant disorder , and parent @-@ child relationship problems . His extensive treatments cost the state $ 265 @,@ 000 . He attended Papillion @-@ La Vista High School and was expelled and later dropped out in March 2006 , but received a GED . Debora Maruca @-@ Kovac , the owner of the house in which Hawkins lived , described him as " troubled " . She also stated that he was depressed over being fired from his job at McDonald 's , reportedly for stealing $ 17 , and over separating from his girlfriend two weeks prior to the incident .
Hawkins was ticketed on November 24 , 2007 , for suspicion of contributing to the delinquency of a minor and two alcohol charges , one of which was underage possession of alcohol . He was due in court for an arraignment on December 19 , 2007 . According to local news sources , he threatened to kill a local teenager , because he thought she had stolen his CD player . He was also convicted as a juvenile of a felony drug conviction while in foster care in Omaha .
The Smoking Gun released a copy of Hawkins ' three @-@ page suicide note which consisted of a note to his family , one to his friends , and his last will and testament , below which he signed his name and included his Social Security number . Initial news reports indicated that Hawkins wrote in his suicide note , " I 'm going out in style ; " however , the phrase does not appear on the publicly released document .
The day after the shooting , the Hawkins family released a statement expressing their condolences for the victims . On December 13 , 2007 , Hawkins ' mother issued a formal apology for Hawkins ' actions in an interview on Good Morning America .
In 2016 , the Investigation Discovery TV series " Evil Lives Here " speculated that Robbie had a genetic disposition to violence .
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= Mick Flannery =
Mick Flannery ( born 28 November 1983 ) is an Irish singer and songwriter .
His debut album Evening Train resulted from his time spent studying music and management at Coláiste Stiofáin Naofa in Cork . It featured tracks which had previously won Flannery two categories at the International Songwriting Competition in Nashville , Tennessee , as judged by his idol , Tom Waits . He was the first Irish musician to win in this event .
Flannery 's second studio album White Lies was released on 12 September 2008 , achieving a top ten position on the Irish Albums Chart . It later went platinum and was nominated for the Choice Music Prize .
The Irish Times placed him at number forty @-@ six in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 . Also that year Flannery won Best Irish Male at the 2009 Meteor Awards . Influences include Kurt Cobain , Leonard Cohen and Bob Dylan .
= = Early years = =
Flannery was reared on farmland outside Blarney , County Cork .
Coming from a family with a keen musical interest , Flannery was introduced to folk and blues music at a young age .
Flannery cites an encounter with the music of Kurt Cobain and Nirvana as a direct influence on his desire to become a musician . Seeing Cobain perform " The Man Who Sold the World " on MTV Unplugged he promptly purchased a copy of MTV Unplugged in New York . He soon bought the album Blonde on Blonde as well . Flannery claims to have written his first song at the age of fifteen . His first completed song was called " Mad Man 's Road " , a tale of a murder which took place on the road in which he lived . He has been dismissive of his earlier material , referring to it as " tripe " .
However , he is keen to express his fondness for stonemasonry and its position alongside his music : " I wasn 't going to sit in a room and write songs seven days a week and live on bread and beans . I liked doing stonemasonry as well " . He still does it on an occasional basis : " We wouldn ’ t be carving gravestones or anything . We ’ d do the fronts of houses , entrance walls , stuff like that " .
= = History = =
= = = Evening Train = = =
While undergoing a music and management course at Coláiste Stiofáin Naofa in Cork , Flannery commenced writing the album that would become Evening Train , an eleven @-@ track concept album about the exploits of two brothers . His original intention had been to write a musical but this endeavour proved unsuccessful .
Before its release Flannery and a friend who worked alongside him in the stonemasonry business embarked on a three @-@ month trip to the United States , living in Williamsburg , Brooklyn . Flannery spent his time performing in New York . His sister was present for one of the months and assisted him with organising his performances . Flannery , however , quickly became disillusioned by the New York music scene , and referred to it in one interview as " a bit up its own arse " .
Evening Train was received positively by critics in Ireland and the United States . Reviewers noted its " astute and sophisticated lyrics " , its " strong , imaginative melodies " , its Tom Waits sound . The RTÉ Guide later said , " His voice was like Tom Waits meets the howling of a grizzled freight train hobo " . entertainment.ie reviewer Lauren Murphy described it as " an album dripping with maturity , poise and potential " and that " the most astounding thing " was his age of 21 years .
Flannery signed with EMI Records in 2007 . That same year he was the subject of a programme called Mytunes , broadcast on RTÉ Radio 1 on 29 November . He performed on RTÉ Two 's Other Voices television programme in 2008 . This appearance led to increased interest in Flannery 's music in Ireland .
= = = White Lies = = =
Flannery 's second studio album White Lies was released on 12 September 2008 , achieving a top ten position on the Irish Albums Chart and later going platinum in Ireland . On the day of the album 's release Flannery performed " Tomorrow 's Papers " on The Late Late Show . The song contributed to the increasing popularity of the singer @-@ songwriter. entertainment.ie 's Lauren Murphy said : " White Lies may not be a perfect album , but it 's certainly a promising step forward for a real talent " . RTÉ reviewer Harry Guerin commented : " If you 're adamant that Ireland may sink with another singer @-@ songwriter on tour , then this is a record to seek out ; you won 't notice the time passing and the nation will remain afloat " .
Flannery began a tour of Ireland after the release of White Lies . He performed a duet of " Christmas Past " with Lisa Hannigan in December 2008 after Today FM 's Tony Fenton paired them together for a radio show broadcast from a rooftop . He joined Hannigan at a show in Vicar Street to perform the same duet that month . " Tomorrow 's Paper " was translated into the Irish language for a CD titled Ceol ' 09 , an annual compilation released by Seachtain na Gaeilge . The Irish version was recorded in forty minutes at a studio in Dublin 's Merrion Square . Flannery performed a cover version of " The River " on The Ray D 'Arcy Show 's Discover Ireland Feel Good Tour stopover in Carlingford and Cooley Peninsula in March 2009 . A deluxe edition of White Lies , which featured a duet of the song " Christmas Past " with Kate Walsh , was released in 2009 .
Flannery 's largest headlining performance in Dublin at this stage occurred at Vicar Street on 25 May 2009 . He performed alongside John Spillane at Live at the Marquee in Cork on 9 July 2009 . Flannery said being asked to perform there was " daunting [ ... ] In many ways I have drifted into this career and still have to pinch myself regularly to make sure I am not imagining it all " . He also performed at the Bloom Festival as part of the 50th anniversary celebrations of The Rose of Tralee in 2009 . He made an appearance on the Crawdaddy Stage at Electric Picnic 2009 . On 31 December 2009 , he performed a date at the Cork Opera House as part of celebrations marking the end of the decade . He has sold out several other venues around Ireland and has also toured the UK .
= = = Red to Blue = = =
Flannery released his third studio album , Red to Blue , on 30 March 2012 . It spent three weeks at number one in the Irish Albums Chart and singles " Gone Forever " and " No Way To Live " enjoyed a lot of airplay . The Red to Blue tour was a major success for Flannery , featuring sold @-@ out shows all over Ireland , most notably the Olympia Theatre in Dublin , one of Flannery 's biggest venues to date . The tour finished with two sold @-@ out shows at the Róisín Dubh in Galway . He 's been making head in Germany , living in Berlin .
= = Style = =
Flannery composes original lyrics and music . Among the topics he has written about is the subject of heartbreak , for which he has drawn on past experiences . He read the literary works of Charles Bukowski , Jonathan Miller and John Steinbeck from a young age . His biggest musical influences are Leonard Cohen , Bob Dylan and Tom Waits , once sending a letter to Waits but receiving no reply . Flannery attended shows by Cohen at the Royal Hospital Kilmainham and Waits in the Phoenix Park when they came to Ireland in 2008 . He is also fond of current music and likes the lyrics of Alex Turner from Arctic Monkeys . The RTÉ Guide once described his lyrics as " so personal they seemed carved from his very soul " and his humour was said to be " as dry as a Good Friday in Glenstal Abbey [ sic ] " .
= = Personal life = =
Flannery 's sister Sarah is a past winner of the Esat Young Scientist Exhibition . His mother 's family live in Coolroe near Killarney . Flannery has a difficult relationship with his younger brother David , whom he had to reprimand regularly when they were younger due to his ' peeping Tom ' tendency among the villagers , namely an elderly woman who once knitted the young David a pair of socks . Mick states , in one of his more intimate interviews " David seemed to take the socks as a gesture of Mrs Murphy 's sexual desire for him " .
Flannery is known to be a shy individual . He has admitted experiencing strong stage fright before performances . He does not often use a computer , preferring instead to ask others to update his Facebook and MySpace accounts , although this leaves him with " really sick " feelings when people come to him at his shows to thank him for replying to their messages .
Flannery tends to socialise with his fellow stonemasons instead of with other singer @-@ songwriters . They prefer to talk about sex instead of music . He also enjoys playing poker . He has admitted : " I 'm a sour bollocks . I wouldn 't be the life and soul of any party . I 'd be sitting in the corner " .
Flannery is left @-@ handed .
= = Band members = =
= = = Current = = =
Mick Flannery – lead vocals , piano , guitar
Karen O 'Doherty – Violin , vocals
Yvonne Daly – Vocals
Hugh Dillon – Electric guitar
Brian Hassett – Bass guitar , Double bass
Christian Best – Drums
= = = Former = = =
Aaron Dillon – Harmonica ( notably " In the Gutter " from the album Evening Train )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Extended plays = = =
Mick Flannery EP ( 2002 )
= = Awards = =
The Irish Times placed him at number forty @-@ six in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 , commenting on his album White Lies : " With this stunning exhibition of the gravel @-@ voiced musician 's abilities , Flannery turned his hand to mournful piano ballads and catchy guitar tunes with a flair that far surpasses his 25 years " .
= = = International Songwriting competition = = =
Flannery won in two categories in the International Songwriting Competition in Nashville , Tennessee : " In the Gutter " in the category of Folk Singer @-@ Songwriter and " The Tender " in the category of Lyrics Only . This came from a panel of judges which featured several renowned songwriters , including Flannery 's idol , Tom Waits . He was the first Irish musician to win in this competition . The two songs featured on the album Evening Train .
= = = Hot Press Reader 's Poll = = =
Flannery was Hot Press 's Most Promising Act in its 2009 Reader 's Poll .
= = = Meteor Music Awards = = =
Flannery won Best Irish Male at the 2009 Meteor Awards . The result was unexpected as beforehand the winner was anticipated to be Duke Special or Jape .
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
In 2009 , Flannery was nominated for the Choice Music Prize . He was one of seven of the ten nominated acts to perform at the award ceremony in Vicar Street on 4 March .
Flannery lost to Jape , though he was mentioned in the acceptance speech , as frontman Richie Egan mentioned what his mother had told him before the award : “ They all deserve the award – sure my mother even told me that Mick Flannery was going to win , she said you 're good , Ritchie [ sic ] , but he 's gorgeous ” .
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= Neepaulakating Creek =
Neepaulakating Creek is a 2 @.@ 4 @-@ mile long ( 3 @.@ 8 km ) tributary of Papakating Creek in Wantage Township in Sussex County , New Jersey in the United States . It is one of three streams feeding the Papakating Creek , a major contributor to the Wallkill River . Although the stream was dammed in the 1950s to create Lake Neepaulin as the focal point of a private residential development , the stream did not receive a name until 2002 . Residents chose a name that combined elements of the names " Neepaulin " and " Papakating " , and submitted a proposal to the United States Board of Geographic Names . The name was approved in 2004 .
= = Course and watershed = =
Neepaulakating Creek is small stream whose headwaters are located at 640 feet ( 195 m ) above sea level approximately 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of the north end of Lake Neepaulin . These headwaters are located a short distance south of County Route 650 ( Libertyville Road ) roughly halfway between the hamlet of Libertville in Wantage Township and Sussex Borough . The stream flows into Lake Neepaulin located at 509 ft ( 155 m ) above sea level . The man @-@ made lake , created through damming , is the centre of a private residential development . It flows southeast from the lake 's dam in the southeast direction for another 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) before flowing into Papakating Creek . It enters Papakating Creek at 395 feet ( 120 m ) above sea level approximately 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) upstream of that creek 's junction with the Wallkill River at a location directly south of Sussex Borough along County Route 565 near the hamlet of Lewisburg in Wantage Township and near Sussex Airport .
Along with the Clove Brook and West Branch Papakating Creek , Neepaulakating Creek is one the tributaries that form the 60 @.@ 6 square miles ( 157 km2 ) watershed of Papakating Creek , a major tributary of the Wallkill River . The Papakating Creek watershed is located in the Kittatinny Valley , is underlain by dark shale and limestone of the Martinsburg Formation , and has soils of glacial origin . The topography of the Papakating Creek 's watershed ranges from gentle slopes in the east to steeper slopes in the west . According to the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection ( NJDEP ) , the Papakating watershed consists of gently sloping farmland , forested land , wetlands , older individually built homes , and low @-@ density residential development .
According to NJDEP reports , two developed lake communities in the Papakating Creek watershed — Lake Neepaulin and the nearby Clove Acres Lake contribute to phosphorus loading in the waters of Papakating Creek . The phosphorus loading may originate from the runoff of fertilizer applications on residential lawns , nearby agricultural operations , or from large populations of geese that inhabit the lakes .
= = History and naming = =
In the 1950s , a real estate developer dammed an unnamed stream located to the west and south of Sussex Borough and created Lake Neepaulin . The lake was the center of a planned private lakeside residential community . In 2002 , an organization known as Friends of Lake Neepaulin , began using " Neepaulakating Creek " as a new name for an unnamed stream that was dammed to create the lake . After a review of resources available on the internet , topographic maps , and other government and historical documents , a state engineer reported there was no evidence the stream had any previous name . The name chosen , Neepaulakating , was a combination of portions of the names " Neepaulin " and " Papakating " . Lake Neepaulin was named after a combination of the original developers children 's names .
A formal proposal prepared by the residents was submitted to the Board of Geographic Names by Nathaniel Sajdak , described as the Outreach Coordinator of the Wallkill River Watershed and a member of Friends of Lake Neepaulin . Sajdak reported to the United States Geological Survey 's Board of Geographic Names that studies such as visual and biological asseessments were carried out on the unnamed stream by the Lake Neepaulin Lake Association for roughly two years , during which time they had begun to call it " Neepaulakating Creek " . On February 25 , 2004 , the Sussex County Board of Chosen Freeholders unanimously approved a resolution to support the naming , stating that the county government " defers to the Township of Wantage and concurs with the naming of the tributary as ' Neepaulakating Creek ' " . On April 8 , 2004 , the Board of Geographic Names approved the proposal .
= = Gallery = =
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= Avro Canada VZ @-@ 9 Avrocar =
The Avro Canada VZ @-@ 9 Avrocar was a VTOL aircraft developed by Avro Aircraft Ltd . ( Canada ) as part of a secret U.S. military project carried out in the early years of the Cold War . The Avrocar intended to exploit the Coandă effect to provide lift and thrust from a single " turborotor " blowing exhaust out the rim of the disk @-@ shaped aircraft to provide anticipated VTOL @-@ like performance . In the air , it would have resembled a flying saucer .
Originally designed as a fighter @-@ like aircraft capable of very high speeds and altitudes , the project was repeatedly scaled back over time and the U.S. Air Force eventually abandoned it . Development was then taken up by the U.S. Army for a tactical combat aircraft requirement , a sort of high @-@ performance helicopter . In flight testing , the Avrocar proved to have unresolved thrust and stability problems that limited it to a degraded , low @-@ performance flight envelope ; subsequently , the project was cancelled in September 1961 .
Through the history of the program , the project was referred to by a number of different names . Avro referred to the efforts as Project Y , with individual vehicles known as Spade and Omega . Project Y @-@ 2 was later funded by the U.S. Air Force , who referred to it as WS @-@ 606A , Project 1794 and Project Silver Bug . When the U.S. Army joined the efforts it took on its final name " Avrocar " , and the designation " VZ @-@ 9 " , part of the U.S. Army 's VTOL projects in the VZ series .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Avrocar was the ultimate result of a series of blue skies research projects by designer " Jack " Frost , who had joined Avro Canada in June 1947 after working for several British firms . He had been with de Havilland from 1942 and had worked on the de Havilland Hornet , de Havilland Vampire jet fighter and the de Havilland Swallow aircraft , where he had been the chief designer on the supersonic research project .
At Avro Canada , he had worked on the Avro CF @-@ 100 before creating a research team known as the " Special Projects Group " ( SPG ) . Frost first surrounded himself with a collection of like @-@ minded " maverick " engineers , then arranged for a work site . Initially ensconced in the " Penthouse " , a derisive nickname for the executive wing of the Administration Building , the SPG was subsequently relocated to a Second World War @-@ era structure across from the company headquarters , the Schaeffer Building , that was secured with security guards , locked doors and special pass cards . At times , the SPG also operated out of the Experimental Hangar where it shared space with other esoteric Avro project teams .
At the time , Frost was particularly interested in jet engine design and ways to improve the efficiency of the compressor without sacrificing the simplicity of the turbine engine . He found Frank Whittle 's " reverse flow " design too complex and was interested in ways to clean up the layout . This led him to design a new type of engine layout with the flame cans lying directly outside the outer rim of the centrifugal compressor , pointed outwards like the spokes on a wheel . Power for the compressor was drawn from a new type of turbine similar to a centrifugal fan , as opposed to the more typical pinwheel @-@ like design of conventional engines . The turbine drove the compressor using gearing , rather than a shaft . The resulting engine was arranged in the form of a large disk , which he referred to as a " pancake engine . " The jet thrust exited from around the entire rim of the engine , and this presented problems trying to adapt the design to a typical aircraft .
= = = Project Y = = =
At the same time , the aircraft industry as a whole was becoming increasingly interested in VTOL aircraft . It was expected that any future European war would start with a nuclear exchange that would destroy most airbases , so aircraft would need to operate from limited airbases , roads or even unprepared fields . Considerable research effort was put into various solutions to securing a second @-@ strike capability . Some of these solutions included rocket @-@ launched aircraft like the zero @-@ length launch concept , while many companies started work on VTOL aircraft as a more appropriate long @-@ term solution .
Frost felt the excellent performance of his new engine would be a natural fit for a VTOL aircraft due to its high expected power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio . The problem was how to use the annular thrust to drive the aircraft forward , as well as the problem of fitting the very large engine into a suitable airframe . Frost suggested using a series of ducts and vents to redirect the thrust flowing out of the front of the engine towards the rear . In order to keep the pipes as short as possible , the design ported the thrust out along the leading edge of what was essentially a thick delta wing . As the engine was disk @-@ shaped , the triangular delta shape was pushed out near the front where it met the engine disk , producing a shape roughly like a spade on a playing card . For this reason the design was also referred to as the " Avro Ace , " a likely reference to the Ace of Spades .
The engine was disk shaped and its intake was positioned in the middle , which meant the engine air intakes had to be located near the middle of the wing . In the Ace design , these were located just to the front of the centre on the top and bottom of the aircraft . The cockpit was positioned over the main bearing , behind the intakes . A " spine " on the top and bottom ran from the cockpit area to the rear edge of the aircraft . Several other versions of the basic layout were also studied , including the " Omega " which was more disk @-@ like as it cut away the rear portions of the delta wing as well .
For VTOL operations the aircraft was expected to sit pointed up , supported by long landing legs that extended out of the spine . Landing would be accomplished at a very high angle , making visibility during the approach very difficult . A number of other VTOL experiments of the era attempted various solutions to this problem , including rotating pilots seats and cockpits , but none proved very effective . Another problem with various VTOL experiments was that stability in a hover was difficult to arrange , although not entirely unexpected . A solution to this problem would require the thrust to be directed downward from a larger area , as it is in a helicopter , where the lift is supplied over the entire area of the rotor disk . Most designers turned to bleeding off air from the engine 's compressor , and directing that through pipes arranged around the aircraft . Frost 's engine design used such a large number of nozzles that such an arrangement would not be to easy to build .
In 1952 , the design was advanced enough that the Canadian Defense Research Board funded the effort with a $ 400 @,@ 000 contract . By 1953 , a wooden mock @-@ up of Project Y was completed , of which only images remain . It appears the project was considered too costly within the military establishment , which was at the time involved in several extremely expensive air defense projects . On 11 February 1953 , a story on the project was leaked to the Toronto Star along with images of the Omega design , apparently in order to gain further funding ( a strategy widely employed in the U.S. at the time , known as policy by press release ) . Five days later , the Minister for Defense Production informed the House of Commons that Avro was indeed working on a " mock @-@ up model " of a flying saucer , capable of flying at 1 @,@ 500 miles per hour ( 2 @,@ 400 km / h ) and climbing vertically . Nevertheless , further funding was not forthcoming .
= = = Project Y @-@ 2 : the " flat @-@ riser " = = =
While Project Y continued , Frost had meanwhile become interested in the Coandă effect , where fluid flows will follow strongly convex shapes , something that might be unexpected at first glance . Frost felt the effect could be used with his engine design to produce a more practical VTOL aircraft , the exhaust flowing outward over the upper surface of the aircraft and then being directed downward over a flap @-@ like arrangement . This would produce a lift force around the entire edge of the aircraft , allowing it to land " flat " . He produced a number of small experimental designs using compressed air in place of an engine in order to select a suitable airframe shape , and eventually decided that a disk was the best solution .
As he continued these experiments , he found that the same thrust @-@ direction system he intended for VTOL operations worked just as well for forward flight . In this case the disk shape was not of itself a good lifting surface , as it was neutral in terms of lift direction – that is , it would fly sideways as readily as it would fly forward . However , by modifying the airflow with the application of a small amount of jet thrust , the overall airflow over the craft could be dramatically altered , creating a sort of " virtual airfoil " of any needed configuration . For instance , by directing even a small amount of jet thrust down , a large mass of air would be pulled over the upper surface of the wing and dramatically augment the flow over the wing , creating lift .
This appeared to offer a solution to one of the most vexing problems of the era , designing an aircraft that was effective at subsonic and supersonic speeds . Subsonic lift is created by the airflow around the wing following streamlines , but supersonic lift is generated by shock waves at points of critical curvature . No single design could offer high performance for both regimes . The blown disk could attack this problem by being laid out for supersonic performance only , and then using jet thrust to modify subsonic airflow into a semblance of a normal wing . The resulting design would be tuned for high supersonic performance , have reasonable subsonic performance , and would also offer VTOL , all in a single design .
= = = U.S. Involvement : Project 1794 / WS 606A = = =
In late 1953 , a group of U.S. defence experts visited Avro Canada to view the new CF @-@ 100 fighter jet . Somewhere along the way , Frost co @-@ opted the tour and rerouted it to the Special Projects area where he proceeded to show off the Project Y mock @-@ up and models and drawings ( some never before seen by senior company officials ) for a completely circular disk @-@ shaped aircraft known as " Project Y @-@ 2 . " The USAF agreed to take over funding for Frost 's Special Projects Group , and a contract for US $ 750 @,@ 000 followed in 1955 . By 1956 , Avro management was interested enough to commit $ 2 @.@ 5 million to build a " private venture " prototype . In March 1957 , the Air Force added additional funding , and the aircraft became Weapons System 606A .
A wide variety of designs were studied for a VTOL fighter aircraft , all revolved around the disk shape , leading to the Project 1794 involving a supersonic large disk fighter aircraft . The concept proceeded to wind tunnel testing with a variety of scale models . It featured a raised section in the middle over the engine , the intake covered with a series of louvers that would be closed in forward flight . Frost 's performance estimates for the concept were for a potential of Mach 3 @.@ 5 at 100 @,@ 000 ft ( 30 @,@ 000 m ) altitudes .
There was some debate about the concept within the USAF , as many groups were attempting to gain funding for their own pet projects , like nuclear powered bombers . In a repeat of the earlier Toronto Star release , in 1955 an extensive article appeared in Look magazine that , among other claims , speculated that current UFO sightings were Soviet @-@ built saucers . The article went on to describe such an aircraft with diagrams that were clearly influenced by the Avro design .
For testing purposes , a new engine consisting of six Armstrong Siddeley Viper jet engines blowing across the outer rim of an impeller was designed under the name PV @-@ 704 , PV stood for Private Venture . The PV @-@ 704 was a stop @-@ gap design built into a bunker @-@ like building behind the Avro Experimental Test facility . It was intended to test various Project 1794 concepts and provide the USAF with test data to show the viability of the concept . The original plan to initially test the Viper Engine Rig was to have continued into free flight testing . Unfortunately , testing was anything but smooth ; the test model suffered from hazardous oil leaks , resulting in three fires . It eventually got to the point that staff were afraid of the machine , even when safely ensconced in a booth constructed of bullet @-@ proof glass and quarter @-@ inch @-@ thick steel . A final , disastrous and nearly lethal engine test in 1956 which involved a Viper jet engine running wild , convinced Frost that a less dangerous test vehicle was necessary .
= = = Genesis of the Avrocar = = =
To gather flight data on the basic concept while the engine development continued , in 1958 Frost proposed building a smaller " proof @-@ of @-@ concept " test vehicle he called the Avrocar . By this point , the U.S. Army was involved in a wide variety of experiments on smaller VTOL aircraft that would act as a " flying Jeep , " and they became interested in Avro 's concept as well . Frost pitched his smaller design both as a prototype of a vehicle suitable for the Army 's needs , as well as an aerodynamic testbed for the WS @-@ 606 . Initial performance requirements for the Avrocar were a ten @-@ minute hover capability in ground effect and 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) range with a 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) payload .
The new plan appeared to make everybody happy , and a $ 2 million joint @-@ services contract managed by the Air Force was awarded to Avro to build and test two Avrocars , which the Army referred to as the VZ @-@ 9 @-@ AV ( with AV standing for " Avro , " an unusual departure from normal U.S. Army nomenclature ) , the latest in a series of " VZ " aircraft . Army interest in the Avrocar program was apparently very high . Bernard Lindenbaum of the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory recalls a trip to Washington in the late 1950s to request additional funding for a study on helicopter drag reduction . Although the funding was approved , he overheard an Army General remark that the Huey would be the last helicopter the Army would buy since the helicopter would be replaced by the Avrocar .
Additional Air Force funding of approximately $ 700 @,@ 000 ( unexpended from the 606A program ) was also moved to the Avrocar project . In March 1959 , an additional $ 1 @.@ 77 million contract was received for a second prototype . At rollout , projected performance was far in excess of the requirement , with a 225 knots ( 417 km / h ) maximum speed , 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) ceiling , 130 @-@ mile ( 209 km ) range with 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) payload , and hover out of ground effect with 2 @,@ 428 lb ( 1 @,@ 101 kg ) payload . Maximum takeoff weight with transition to forward flight out of ground effect was calculated to be 5 @,@ 650 lb ( 2 @,@ 560 kg ) , maximum weight with a transition in ground effect ( GETOL ) was 6 @,@ 970 lb ( 3 @,@ 160 kg ) .
Just as the first working test models were being manufactured , disaster struck . The Canadian government cancelled the Avro CF @-@ 105 Arrow program on " Black Friday , " 20 February 1959 . The ensuing result was the lay @-@ off of almost all Avro Canada employees , including those with the Special Projects Group . However , three days following the announcement of the Arrow cancellation , many of the Special Projects employees were rehired . But it wasn 't quite business as usual . The team now included people from the CF @-@ 100 and CF @-@ 105 teams and the Special Projects Group was moved into the main building , which was nearly empty . As well , company " brass " became more involved in the group ’ s operations .
The USAF Project Office devoted to the Avro projects , recommended that the WS @-@ 606A and all related work ( including the Avrocar ) be cancelled . A " stop / go " work order came down and Frost was forced once more to try to rescue the project . In an elaborate effort , Frost made a resounding case for continuation of U.S. military funding . Late in May 1959 , the USAF authorized Avro to continue the " flying saucer " programs .
= = Design = =
The Avrocar was a disk @-@ shaped aircraft with the same basic shape as a frisbee , the upper surface of the disk being fairly curved , and the bottom much less so . The disk was 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter and 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) thick . The main structural truss was a large equilateral triangle , to which the various components were attached . The 124 @-@ blade " turborotor " sat in the center of the triangle , with most of the rotor 's thrust directed straight down through an opening in the lower surface , but some was bled off to power the control system running along the outer rim of the disk . Power for the rotor was provided by three Continental J69 @-@ T @-@ 9 jet engines attached to the truss . Each engine had its own fuel and oil tanks and other support systems , although it was expected these would be interconnected in future models . The majority of the airframe was made of aluminum with an empty weight of 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) .
Pilot control was entirely through a single side @-@ mounted control stick . Pitch and roll were controlled through conventional fore @-@ aft and side @-@ to @-@ side motions , while yaw could be controlled by twisting the stick . No mechanical linkages were used , the stick instead controlled the flow of high pressure air around the craft , which either directly attached to various control surfaces , or indirectly through local cable linkages to replace controls that were intended to be cable @-@ actuated ( like throttle controls on the engines ) .
The attitude / thrust control system consisted of a large ring situated outside of the main disk , shaped roughly like a rounded triangle with the flat surface on the " inside . " Viewing the craft from the side , the control flap is almost invisible , appearing in its neutral position to blend into the profile . The pilot 's controls moved the ring in relation to the rest of the craft , affecting the airflow moving outward from the center of the craft . Vertical lift could be increased by moving the entire ring down , which would produce more airflow over its upper surface , which would then bend down over this surface toward the ground . Tilting the ring resulted in asymmetric thrust for directional control .
It was discovered that the craft was inherently unstable in forward flight , as the aerodynamic center of pressure was well forward of the center of gravity . The Avrocar thus included a mechanical stability control system that was independent of the pilot 's controls . The turborotor had a fairly large angular momentum and was intended to act as a powerful gyroscope , providing a " normal " direction of flight . Control cables attached to the base of the rotor would be pulled when the craft moved in relation to the rotor , actuating the control surfaces to counteract the motion .
The vehicle was manned by a crew of two , positioned in separate cockpits squeezed into empty areas in the airframe . In practice , only one pilot was usually on board during testing ; a number of flights were made with an observer in the second cockpit . Until control problems were completely solved , the Avro test pilots acquired a " touch " for the extremely sensitive control inputs and Avro Aircraft Chief Development Test Pilot Potocki was eventually able to demonstrate a " hands @-@ off " flight . Nonetheless , Avro test pilot Peter Cope , USAF project pilot Walter J. Hodgson and NASA Ames Chief Test Pilot Fred J. Drinkwater III , who all flew the Avrocar , considered it still a tricky vehicle to fly . Drinkwater likened a flight in it to " balancing on a beach ball . "
The undercarriage of the Avrocar was rudimentary with three small castoring wheels mounted on " stub " shafts ; a set of skids was substituted later in testing although they were not normally fitted .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Testing = = =
The first Avrocar , # 58 @-@ 7055 , rolled out of the Avro Malton factory in May 1959 . From 9 June to 7 October 1959 , it was tested in a static hover rig . Unfortunately , hot gas from the exhaust was found to mix back into the intakes in hover , reducing engine thrust . In addition , the fan generated lift only from a small area of its surface , lowering overall thrust available . The ducts also proved to have higher losses than expected , and a series of modifications were not able to solve this problem to any large degree . These problems reduced maximum lift at higher altitudes out of the ground effect to 3 @,@ 150 lb ( 1 @,@ 430 kg ) , less than the empty weight of the aircraft at 4 @,@ 285 lb ( 1 @,@ 944 kg ) . This meant the aircraft would be incapable of hovering out of the ground effect . Following these tests , the vehicle was sent to NASA Ames for a wind tunnel testing .
The second , # 59 @-@ 4975 , was completed August 1959 . On 29 September , the first attempt to hover was made with the Avrocar tethered to the ground . After the vehicle became airborne , an uncontrollable roll and pitch @-@ coupled oscillation started that forced each of the three wheels into the ground in turn . The pilot , W.D. " Spud " Potocki , immediately shut down all engines . Changes were made to the stability system to provide more control authority , while new tethers were investigated to improve the ability to control these sorts of problems . As testing continued it became clear that the problem was inherent to the design , and the engineers started referring to the effect as " hubcapping , " so @-@ named as it appeared similar to a hubcap spun on the ground .
Investigations into the effect revealed what was causing the problem . While in the ground effect , the high @-@ pressure air under the craft was trapped , filling the entire area and thus providing a stable base . When the craft rose out of the ground effect , the air formed itself into a single narrow column , described by Frost as " tree trunking " . At intermediate altitudes the craft would momentarily transition from one regime to the other , during which time one side of the vehicle would be entirely supported while the support was disappearing under the other . This led to a strong pitching motion towards the unsupported side . As soon as this occurred that side would approach the ground and re @-@ establish the supporting air , while the other side would then be raised above this limit . This process would repeat itself , with the craft rolling from side to side . Modifications were carried out in order to try to solve the problem . Eventually a series of 52 holes were drilled in the bottom of the vehicle , located radially three feet from the center . These were to provide a central jet to stabilize the ground cushion .
With these modifications complete and apparently working , the first completely free flight occurred on 12 November 1959 . This test proved the nozzle control system unacceptable . The spoilers were intended to direct the air out over the top or bottom of the annular flap , out the bottom only during hover , but over the top and bottom during forward flight . The idea was that when the flap was positioned in order to provide control , the lift would be lowered on one side and raised on the other . Lift was indeed lowered on one side , but sadly the lift did not improve on the other , so every control input resulted in a loss of altitude . After five flights , testing was temporarily halted on 5 December 1959 , by which time the Avrocar had logged 18 @.@ 5 hours of test time in total .
A completely new design was installed over the winter . The original spoilers were removed and replaced by a single ring below the annular flap . The ring shifted in relation to the craft under control input , " sealing off " the gap on one side while opening it on the other . Tests continued in January 1960 , and appeared to work much better . However , while the new control system improved the hovering qualities , the craft now became unstable at higher speeds above 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) . The first Avrocar at Ames was similarly modified , and , in April 1960 , it was tested in their 40 ft × 80 ft ( 12 m × 24 m ) wind tunnel . The problem became clear ; the ring blocked so much of the overall engine thrust that the overall power was greatly reduced . As the craft sped up , the airflow on the underside reduced the recirculation , reducing the lift due to airflow over the upper surface . This was somewhat unexpected ; recirculation had been considered a " bad thing " due to the loss of engine thrust , and its positive effects on lift do not appear to have been appreciated . In the end , in order to maintain lift at higher forward speeds the craft had to be pitched to the end of its control capability .
Avro was convinced that the concept was still workable , and proposed a new program for major rework of the propulsion and control system . Instead of the single annular triangular flap and spoilers , or the later ring control , the new system included two separate control systems for hover and forward flight , combined into a single nozzle . For hover , a series of " transition doors " were opened into the nozzles , blocking them off and re @-@ directing the flow downward under the aircraft . Control during this regime was provided by moving the outer portion of the flap to " focus " the flow . At higher speeds , the doors were closed , allowing the air to flow out from the edge of the aircraft , where a series of simple flap @-@ like controls were located . The new control system covered the rear 3 / 4 's of the aircraft 's outer circumference ; the front section featured the hovering controls only .
Modifications were completed on the Ames model and testing resumed in April 1961 . The new design demonstrated much better control in hover and considerably improved lift . The vehicle was now able to travel at up to 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) , a great improvement over the 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) previously reached . However , it remained unstable in pitch , and exhibited a strong nose @-@ up trim . NASA engineers attempted to modify this with a T @-@ tail , but this proved to sit within the airflow of the turborotor and did not help . Frost 's team considered two new designs , one with a large vertical tail and one with a wing with tip mounted verticals — " winglets . " Both designs used two 2 @,@ 700 lbf ( 12 kN ) thrust General Electric J85 turbojets and increased the turborotor diameter from five to six ft .
On 9 June 1961 , a second USAF / NASA flight evaluation of the Avrocar was conducted on the similarly modified second prototype at the Avro facility . During these tests , the vehicle reached a maximum speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ) and showed the ability to traverse a ditch six feet across and 18 inches ( 460 mm ) deep . Flight above the critical altitude proved dangerous if not nearly impossible due to inherent instability . The flight test report further identified a range of control problems .
= = = Cancellation = = =
Before modifications could be achieved , funding ran out in March 1961 . Frost 's proposals for a modified design were not accepted , and the Avrocar and related WS @-@ 606A supersonic VTOL programs were officially cancelled in December 1961 by the U.S. military . Avro company executives encouraged additional VTOL research projects , exploring new configurations married to a disk platform and even a " lift jet " version , but no further interest resulted from Canadian or other sources , to cap the end of this Special Projects Group program . In 1961 , a number of later proposals , including the Avro P470 VTOL fighter concept derived from the Special Projects Group , were submitted to fulfill a NATO competition for a tactical strike fighter . These needs were filled by the Hawker Siddeley Harrier , but in more general terms , interest in VTOL faded as it became widely believed a nuclear first strike would not be used at the start of a European war .
The second Avrocar had logged about 75 flight hours at the end of the flight testing . Judged by its performance , the Avrocar was an abject failure : it couldn 't lift itself safely more than a few feet off the ground , and its bulbous design limiting high @-@ speed performance accompanied by unbearable heat and screaming exhaust noise , made it impractical for the military . Although considered a technical failure , its design would be prophetic : it was a rubber skirt shy of being one of the world 's first hovercraft , the Saunders Roe SR.N1 also taking off in 1959 . Nevertheless , company designer John Frost applied for a number of patents in Canada , the UK and the U.S. that established the pivotal role that the Avrocar and related Avro experimental vehicles made in the VTOL world .
= = = Latest developments = = =
The Avro VZ @-@ 9 Avrocar was a " dead end " in VTOL design , according to Russell Lee , curator at the National Air and Space Museum , yet its technological innovations have intrigued other designers . One of the design elements it embodied , the use of ducted fans , led to other experimental programs . Dr. Paul Moller , a Canadian expatriate who had worked at Avro Canada as a young engineer , based an initial series of experimental VTOL vehicles on " saucer " technology utilizing the buried ducted fan à la @-@ Avrocar . The XM @-@ 2 , the first of the series looked remarkably like a miniature flying saucer . After successful tether tests , the saucer designs also at one time publicized as " discojet " were abandoned and their latest project , the Moller Skycar , has a flying @-@ car appearance .
The Avrocar story did not end with the termination of the program . Only two Avrocars were ever produced and because the U.S. military had paid for the work , they reverted to U.S. ownership at the end of the program . The second example , S / N 59 @-@ 4975 , utilized for " flight " testing , returned to Canada briefly for display in Montreal at the Man and His World Exhibition ( 1968 ) ; after a lengthy period of outdoor display , it is now under restoration at the U.S. Army Transportation Museum in Fort Eustis , Virginia .
The first Avrocar , S / N 58 @-@ 7055 ( marked AV @-@ 7055 ) , after tethered testing , became the " wind tunnel " test model at NASA Ames , where it remained in storage from 1961 until 1966 , when it was donated to the National Air and Space Museum , in Suitland , Maryland . There it continued gathering dust for the next forty years . The Museum finally scheduled it for restoration and display at their newly constructed Steven F. Udvar @-@ Hazy Center . Instead the Avrocar has been loaned to the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton , Ohio , arriving in November , 2007 . After a full restoration , which included fabrication of both missing plexiglass bubbles , it was put on display in June 2008 in the Museum 's Cold War Gallery . It has since been moved to the Presidential Aircraft Gallery .
A full @-@ scale replica of the Avrocar was prepared for the 2002 production , Avrocar : Saucer Secrets from the Past . It now resides as an exhibit at the Western Canada Aviation Museum , Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada .
= = Specifications ( VZ @-@ 9 @-@ AV ) = =
Data from Avrocar : Canada 's Flying Saucer ... and The World 's Worst Aircraft : From Pioneering Failures to Multimillion Dollar Disasters
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Capacity : 1 observer / engineer
Diameter : 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m )
Height : 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 07 m )
Wing area : 254 sq ft ( 23 @.@ 6 m2 )
Empty weight : 3 @,@ 000 lb ( 1 @,@ 361 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 5 @,@ 560 lb ( 2 @,@ 522 kg )
Powerplant : 3 × Continental J69 @-@ T @-@ 9 turbojet engines , 660 lbf ( 2 @.@ 9 kN ) thrust each
Performance
Maximum speed : 300 mph ( 483 km / h ; 261 kn ) ( estimated ) , 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) ( actual )
Range : 995 mi ( 865 nmi ; 1 @,@ 601 km ) ( estimated ) , 79 mi ( 127 km ) ( actual )
Service ceiling : 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 048 m ) ( estimated ) , 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) ( actual )
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= Hamilton , Ontario =
Hamilton ( / ˈhæməltən / ; 2011 population 519 @,@ 949 ; UA population 670 @,@ 580 ; CMA population 721 @,@ 053 ) is a port city in the Canadian province of Ontario . Conceived by George Hamilton when he purchased the Durand farm shortly after the War of 1812 , Hamilton has become the centre of a densely populated and industrialized region at the west end of Lake Ontario known as the Golden Horseshoe . On January 1 , 2001 , the new City of Hamilton was formed through the amalgamation of the former city and the other constituent lower @-@ tier municipalities of the Regional Municipality of Hamilton @-@ Wentworth with the upper @-@ tier regional government . Residents of the old city are known as Hamiltonians . Since 1981 , the metropolitan area has been listed as the ninth largest in Canada and the third largest in Ontario .
Hamilton is home to the Royal Botanical Gardens , the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum , the Bruce Trail , McMaster University and Mohawk College . McMaster University is ranked 4th in Canada and 94th in the world by Times Higher Education Rankings 2015 @-@ 16 and has a well @-@ known medical school . The Canadian Football Hall of Fame can be found downtown right beside Hamilton City Hall and across town to the east , the Canadian Football League 's Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats began playing at the new Tim Hortons Field in 2014 , which was built as part of the 2015 Pan American Games .
Possibly because of its diverse environment , numerous TV and film productions have been filmed in Hamilton , regulated by the Hamilton Film and Television Office . A growing arts and culture community garnered media attention in 2006 when the Globe and Mail published an article called " Go West , Young Artist " about Hamilton 's growing art scene . The article highlighted local art galleries , recording studios and independent film production .
= = History = =
In pre @-@ colonial times , the Neutral Indians used much of the land but were gradually driven out by the Five ( later Six ) Nations ( Iroquois ) who were allied with the British against the Huron and their French allies . A member of the Iroquois Confederacy provided the route and name for Mohawk Road , which originally included King Street in the lower city . In 1784 , about 10 @,@ 000 United Empire Loyalists settled in Upper Canada ( what is now southern Ontario ) , chiefly in Niagara , around the Bay of Quinte , and along the St. Lawrence River between Lake Ontario and Montreal . They were soon followed by many more Americans , some of them not so much ardent loyalists but attracted nonetheless by the availability of inexpensive , arable land . At the same time , large numbers of Iroquois loyal to Britain arrived from the United States and were settled on reserves west of Lake Ontario .
The town of Hamilton was conceived by George Hamilton ( a son of a Queenston entrepreneur and founder , Robert Hamilton ) , when he purchased farm holdings of James Durand , the local Member of the British Legislative Assembly , shortly after the War of 1812 . Nathaniel Hughson , a property owner to the north , cooperated with George Hamilton to prepare a proposal for a courthouse and jail on Hamilton 's property . Hamilton offered the land to the crown for the future site . Durand was empowered by Hughson and Hamilton to sell property holdings which later became the site of the town . As he had been instructed , Durand circulated the offers at York during a session of the Legislative Assembly and a new Gore District was established of which the Hamilton townsite was a member .
Initially , this town was not the most important centre of the Gore District . A permanent jail was not constructed until 1832 when a cut @-@ stone design was completed on one of the two squares created in 1816 , Prince 's Square . Subsequently , the first police board and the town limits were defined by statute on February 13 , 1833 . Official City status was achieved on June 9 , 1846 , by an act of Parliament , 9 Victoria Chapter 73 .
As the city grew , several prominent buildings were constructed in the late 19th century , including the Grand Lodge of Canada in 1855 , West Flamboro Methodist Church in 1879 ( later purchased by Dufferin Masonic Lodge in 1893 ) , a public library in 1890 , and the Right House department store in 1893 . The first commercial telephone service in Canada , the first telephone exchange in the British Empire , and the second telephone exchange in all of North America all were established in the city between 1877 – 78 . The city had several interurban electric street railways and two inclines , all powered by the Cataract Power Co .
Though suffering through the Hamilton Street Railway strike of 1906 , with industrial businesses expanding , Hamilton 's population doubled between 1900 and 1914 . Two steel manufacturing companies , Stelco and Dofasco , were formed in 1910 and 1912 , respectively , and Procter & Gamble and the Beech @-@ Nut Packing Company opened manufacturing plants in 1914 and 1922 , respectively , their first outside the US . Population and economic growth continued until the 1960s , with the 1929 construction of the city 's first high @-@ rise building , the Pigott Building , the move of McMaster University from Toronto to Hamilton , the opening of the second Canadian Tire store in Canada in 1934 , an airport in 1940 , a Studebaker assembly line in 1948 , the Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway in 1958 , and the first Tim Hortons store in 1964 . Since then , many of the large industries have moved or shut down operations and the economy has shifted more toward the service sector , such as transportation , education , and health services .
On January 1 , 2001 , the new city of Hamilton was formed from the amalgamation of Hamilton and its five neighbouring municipalities : Ancaster , Dundas , Flamborough , Glanbrook , and Stoney Creek . Before amalgamation , the " old " City of Hamilton had 331 @,@ 121 Hamiltonians divided into 100 neighbourhoods . The former region of Hamilton @-@ Wentworth had a population of 490 @,@ 268 . The amalgamation created a single @-@ tier municipal government ending subsidization of its suburbs . The new amalgamated city has 519 @,@ 949 people in over 100 old neighbourhoods , and surrounding communities .
The city experienced a devastating fire at the Plastimet plastics plant in 1997 . Approximately 300 firefighters battled the blaze , and many sustained severe chemical burns and inhaled volatile organic compounds when at least 400 tonnes of PVC plastic were consumed in the fire .
= = Geography = =
Hamilton is located in Southern Ontario on the western end of the Niagara Peninsula and wraps around the westernmost part of Lake Ontario ; most of the city , including the downtown section , is on the south shore . Hamilton is situated in the geographic centre of the Golden Horseshoe and is roughly the midway point between Toronto and Buffalo , New York , although slightly closer to the former . Its major physical features are Hamilton Harbour , marking the northern limit of the city , and the Niagara Escarpment running through the middle of the city across its entire breadth , bisecting the city into " upper " and " lower " parts . The maximum high point is 250m ( 820 ' ) above the level of Lake Ontario .
According to all records from local historians , this district was called Attiwandaronia by the native Neutral people . The first aboriginals to settle in the Hamilton area called the bay Macassa , meaning " beautiful waters " . Hamilton is one of 11 cities showcased in the book , Green City : People , Nature & Urban Places by Quebec author Mary Soderstrom , which examines the city as an example of an industrial powerhouse co @-@ existing with nature . Soderstrom credits Thomas McQuesten and family in the 1930s who " became champions of parks , greenspace and roads " in Hamilton .
Hamilton Harbour is a natural harbour with a large sandbar called the Beachstrip . This sandbar was deposited during a period of higher lake levels during the last ice age , and extends southeast through the central lower city to the escarpment . Hamilton 's deep sea port is accessed by ship canal through the beach strip into the harbour and is traversed by two bridges , the QEW 's Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway and the lower Canal Lift Bridge .
Between 1788 and 1793 , the townships at the Head @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Lake were surveyed and named . The area was first known as The Head @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Lake for its location at the western end of Lake Ontario . John Ryckman , born in Barton township ( where present day downtown Hamilton is ) , described the area in 1803 as he remembered it : " The city in 1803 was all forest . The shores of the bay were difficult to reach or see because they were hidden by a thick , almost impenetrable mass of trees and undergrowth ... Bears ate pigs , so settlers warred on bears . Wolves gobbled sheep and geese , so they hunted and trapped wolves . They also held organized raids on rattlesnakes on the mountainside . There was plenty of game . Many a time have I seen ( sic ) a deer jump the fence into my back yard , and there were millions of pigeons which we clubbed as they flew low . "
George Hamilton , a settler and local politician , established a town site in the northern portion of Barton Township in 1815 . He kept several east – west roads which were originally Indian trails , but the north – south streets were on a regular grid pattern . Streets were designated " East " or " West " if they crossed James Street or Highway 6 . Streets were designated " North " or " South " if they crossed King Street or Highway 8 . The overall design of the townsite , likely conceived in 1816 , was commonplace . George Hamilton employed a grid street pattern used in most towns in Upper Canada and throughout the American frontier . The eighty original lots had frontages of fifty feet ; each lot faced a broad street and backed onto a twelve @-@ foot lane . It took at least a decade for all of the original lots to be sold , but the construction of the Burlington Canal in 1823 , and a new court @-@ house in 1827 , encouraged Hamilton to add more blocks around 1828 – 9 . At this time , he included a market square in an effort to draw commercial activity onto his lands , but the natural growth of the town was to the north of Hamilton 's plot .
The Hamilton Conservation Authority owns , leases or manages about 4 @,@ 500 hectares ( 11 @,@ 100 acres ) of land with the City operating 1 @,@ 077 hectares ( 2 @,@ 661 acres ) of parkland at 310 locations . Many of the parks are located along the Niagara Escarpment , which runs from Tobermory at the tip of the Bruce Peninsula in the north , to Queenston at the Niagara River in the south , and provides views of the cities and towns at the western end of Lake Ontario . The hiking path Bruce Trail runs the length of the escarpment . Hamilton is home to more than 100 waterfalls and cascades , most of which are on or near the Bruce Trail as it winds through the Niagara Escarpment .
= = = Climate = = =
Hamilton 's climate is humid @-@ continental , characterized by changeable weather patterns . However , its climate is moderate compared with most of Canada . Hamilton 's location on an embayment at the southwestern corner of Lake Ontario with an escarpment dividing upper and lower parts of the city results in noticeable disparities in weather over short distances . This is also the case with pollution levels , which depending on localized winds patterns or low clouds can be high in certain areas mostly originating from the city 's steel industry mixed with regional vehicle pollution . With a July average of exactly 22 @.@ 0 ° C ( 71 @.@ 6 ° F ) , the lower city is located in a pocket of the Dfa climate zone found at the southwestern end of Lake Ontario ( between Hamilton and Toronto and eastward into the Niagara Peninsula ) , while the upper reaches of the city fall into the Dfb climate zone .
The airport 's open , rural location and higher altitude ( 240m vs. 85m ASL downtown ) results in lower temperatures , generally windier conditions and higher snowfall amounts than lower , built @-@ up areas of the city . One exception is on early spring afternoons ; when colder than air lake temperatures keep shoreline areas significantly cooler , under the presence of an east or north @-@ east onshore flow .
The highest temperature ever recorded in Hamilton was 41 @.@ 1 ° C ( 106 ° F ) on 14 July 1868 . The coldest temperature ever recorded was -30.6 ° C ( -23 ° F ) on 25 January 1884 .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2006 Canadian Census , more than 20 percent of the local population was not born in Canada . This is the third highest such proportion in Canada after Toronto at 49 % , and Vancouver at 39 % . Between 2001 and 2006 , the foreign @-@ born population increased by 7 @.@ 7 % while the total population of the Hamilton census metropolitan area ( CMA ) grew by 4 @.@ 3 % . The share of Canada 's recent immigrants who settle in Hamilton has remained unchanged since 2001 at 1 @.@ 9 % . Hamilton was home to 20 @,@ 800 immigrants who arrived in Canada between 2001 and 2006 , half of whom were born in Asia and the Middle East , while nearly one @-@ quarter ( 23 % ) were from Europe . Hamilton also had a high proportion of people with Italian , English , Scottish , German and Irish ancestry . Nearly three in ten residents reported English as their sole ethnic origin or as one of their ancestral origins . As well , nearly one in five reported Scottish ancestry either alone or in combination with another ethnic origin .
The Canada 2011 Census short form did not include questions on ethnic background or national origin . However , the 2011 National Household Survey ( NHS ) ( a voluntary survey that accompanied the census ) produced the following data :
of 509 @,@ 635 respondents , 125 @,@ 010 ( or 24 @.@ 5 percent ) were immigrants
27 @,@ 750 respondents ( 5 @.@ 4 percent of total respondents ) immigrated between 2001 and 2011
the highest numbers of immigrants ( in total ) came from the following countries :
Italy : 11 @,@ 610 ( 9 @.@ 3 percent of immigrants )
Poland : 5 @,@ 950 ( 4 @.@ 8 percent )
India : 5 @,@ 930 ( 4 @.@ 7 percent )
Portugal : 5 @,@ 775 ( 4 @.@ 6 percent )
Philippines : 5 @,@ 285 ( 4 @.@ 2 percent )
Croatia : 4 @,@ 840 ( 3 @.@ 9 percent )
United States : 4 @,@ 290 ( 3 @.@ 4 percent )
Iraq : 3 @,@ 855 ( 3 @.@ 1 percent )
China ( excluding Hong Kong and Macau ) : 3 @,@ 740 ( 3 @.@ 0 percent )
Germany : 3 @,@ 345 ( 2 @.@ 7 percent )
In February 2014 , the city 's council voted to declare Hamilton a sanctuary city , offering municipal services to undocumented immigrants at risk of deportation .
Hamilton also has a large French community for which provincial services are offered in French . In Ontario , urban centres where there are at least 5000 Francophones or where at least 10 % of the population is francophone are designated areas where bilingual provincial services have to be offered . According to the latest statistics , the Francophone community grew by 50 % between 2006 and 2011 in Hamilton , and in the City , 45 @,@ 000 citizens claim to have knowledge of both official languages , amongst which 13 @,@ 000 have French as a mother tongue . The Franco @-@ Ontarian community of Hamilton boasts two schoolboards ( Conseil scolaire Viamonde and Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre @-@ Sud ) five schools ( 2 secondary and 3 elementary ) , a community health centre that is part of the LHIN ( Centre de santé communautaire Hamilton / Niagara ) , a cultural centre ( Centre français Hamilton ) , three daycare centres , a provincially funded employment centre ( Options Emploi ) , a community college site ( Collège Boréal ) and a community organization that supports the development of the francophone community in Hamilton ( ACFO Régionale Hamilton ) .
The top countries of birth for the newcomers living in Hamilton in the 1990s were : former Yugoslavia , Poland , India , China , the Philippines , and Iraq .
Children aged 14 years and under accounted for 17 @.@ 8 % of the population while those 65 years of age and older constituted 14 @.@ 9 % , resulting in an average age of 39 @.@ 6 years .
The most described religion in Hamilton is Christianity although other religions brought by immigrants are also growing . The 2011 census indicates that 67 @.@ 6 % of the population adheres to a Christian denomination , with Catholics being the largest at 34 @.@ 3 % of the city 's population . The Christ the King Cathedral is the seat of the Diocese of Hamilton . Other denominations include the United Church ( 6 @.@ 5 % ) , Anglican ( 6 @.@ 4 % ) , Presbyterian ( 3 @.@ 1 % ) , Christian Orthodox ( 2 @.@ 9 % ) , and other denominations ( 9 @.@ 8 % ) . Other religions with significant populations include Islam ( 3 @.@ 7 % ) , Buddhist ( 0 @.@ 9 % ) , Sikh ( 0 @.@ 8 % ) , Hindu ( 0 @.@ 8 % ) , and Jewish ( 0 @.@ 7 % ) . Those with no religious affiliation accounted for 24 @.@ 9 % of the population .
Environics Analytics , a geodemographic marketing firm that created 66 different " clusters " of people complete with profiles of how they live , what they think and what they consume , sees a future Hamilton with younger upscale Hamiltonians — who are tech savvy and university educated — choosing to live in the downtown and surrounding areas rather than just visiting intermittently . More two and three @-@ storey townhouses and apartments will be built on downtown lots ; small condos will be built on vacant spaces in areas such as Dundas , Ainslie Wood and Westdale to accommodate newly retired seniors ; and more retail and commercial zones will be created . The city is also expected to grow by more than 28 @,@ 000 people and 18 @,@ 000 households by the year 2012 .
The following data are recorded by the 2011 NHS survey :
= = Economy = =
The most important economic activity in Ontario is manufacturing , and the Toronto – Hamilton region is the most highly industrialized section of the country . The area from Oshawa , Ontario around the west end of Lake Ontario to Niagara Falls , with Hamilton at its centre , is known as the Golden Horseshoe and had a population of approximately 8 @.@ 1 million people in 2006 . The phrase was first used by Westinghouse President Herbert H. Rogge in a speech to the Hamilton Chamber of Commerce , on January 12 , 1954 . " Hamilton in 50 years will be the forward cleat in a golden horseshoe of industrial development from Oshawa to the Niagara River ... 150 miles long and 50 miles ( 80 km ) wide ... It will run from Niagara Falls on the south to about Oshawa on the north and take in numerous cities and towns already there , including Hamilton and Toronto . "
With sixty percent of Canada 's steel being produced in Hamilton by Stelco and Dofasco , the city has become known as the Steel Capital of Canada . After nearly declaring bankruptcy , Stelco returned to profitability in 2004 . On August 26 , 2007 United States Steel Corporation acquired Stelco for C $ 38 @.@ 50 in cash per share , owning more than 76 percent of Stelco 's outstanding shares . On September 17 , 2014 US Steel Canada announced that it was applying for bankruptcy protection and that it would be closing down its Hamilton operations .
Dofasco , in 1999 , was the most profitable steel producer in North America and in 2000 , the most profitable in Canada . It currently has approximately 7 @,@ 300 employees at its Hamilton plant and produces over four million tons of steel annually , representing about 30 % of Canada 's flat rolled sheet steel shipments . Dofasco is one of North America 's most profitable steel companies , and Dofasco was named to the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index in 2006 for the seventh year in a row . Dofasco produces steel products for the automotive , construction , energy , manufacturing , pipe and tube , appliance , packaging and steel distribution industries . Dofasco is currently a stand alone subsidiary of Arcelor Mittal , the world 's largest steel producer . Previously ordered by the U.S. Department of Justice to divest itself of the Canadian company , Arcelor Mittal has now been allowed to retain Dofasco provided it sells several of its American assets instead .
Originally , in the 1940s , the John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport was used as a wartime air force training station . Today TradePort International Corporation manages and operates the John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport . Under TradePort management , passenger traffic at the Hamilton terminal has increased from 90 @,@ 000 in 1996 to approximately 900 @,@ 000 in 2002 . The airport 's mid @-@ term target for growth in its passenger service is five million air travelers annually . The air cargo sector of the airport has 24 – 7 operational capability and strategic geographic location , allowing its capacity to increase by 50 % since 1996 ; 91 @,@ 000 metric tonnes ( 100 @,@ 000 tons ) of cargo passed through the airport in 2002 . Courier companies with operations at the airport include United Parcel Service and Cargojet Canada . In 2003 , the city began developing a 30 @-@ year growth management strategy which called , in part , for a massive aerotropolis industrial park centred on Hamilton Airport . The aerotropolis proposal , now known as the Airport Employment Growth District , is touted as a solution to the city 's shortage of employment lands . Hamilton turned over operation of the airport to TradePort International Corp. in 1996 . In 2007 , YVR Airport Services ( YVRAS ) , which runs the Vancouver International Airport , took over 100 percent ownership of TradePort in a $ 13 @-@ million deal . The airport is also home to the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum .
A report by Hemson Consulting identified an opportunity to develop 1 @,@ 000 hectares ( 2 @,@ 500 acres ) of greenfields ( the size of the Royal Botanical Gardens ) that could generate an estimated 90 @,@ 000 jobs by 2031 . A proposed aerotropolis industrial park at Highway 6 and 403 , has been debated at City Hall for years . Opponents feel the city needs to do more investigation about the cost to taxpayers before embarking on the project .
= = Crime = =
When ranked on a " total crime severity index " , Hamilton was 21st in Canada in 2011 for a metropolitan area . This was an eight percent decrease from 2010 . Of note was Hamilton 's second place rank for police @-@ reported hate crimes in 2011 .
= = Government = =
Citizens of Hamilton are represented at all three levels of Canadian government . Following the 2015 Federal Election , representation in the Parliament of Canada will consist of five Members of Parliament representing the federal ridings of Hamilton West — Ancaster — Dundas , Hamilton Centre , Hamilton East — Stoney Creek , Hamilton Mountain , and Flamborough — Glanbrook . This election will mark the first occasion in which Hamilton will have five Members of Parliament representing areas wholly within Hamilton 's city boundaries , with previous boundaries situating rural ridings across municipal lines .
Provincially , there are five elected Members of Provincial Parliament who serve in the Legislature of Ontario . Minister of Housing and Municipal Affairs , Ted McMeekin ( Liberal ) , represents Ancaster — Dundas — Flamborough — Westdale . Leader of the Ontario New Democratic Party , Andrea Horwath , represents Hamilton Centre , Paul Miller ( NDP ) represents Hamilton East — Stoney Creek , and Monique Taylor ( NDP ) represents Hamilton Mountain . Former leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario , Tim Hudak , serves as MPP for Niagara West — Glanbrook .
Hamilton 's municipal government consists of one mayor , elected city wide , and 15 city councillors , elected individually by each of the city 's wards , to serve on the Hamilton City Council . Presently , Hamilton 's mayor is Fred Eisenberger , elected on October 27 , 2014 to a second , non @-@ consecutive term . Additionally , both Public and Catholic school board trustees are elected for defined areas ranging from two trustees for multiple wards to a single trustee for an individual ward .
Municipal elections in Hamilton occur every four years , the last one occurring on October 27 , 2014 . The next scheduled municipal election will occur in October 2018 .
The Hamilton City Council is granted authority to govern by the province through the Municipal Act of Ontario . As with all municipalities , the Province of Ontario has supervisory privilege over the municipality and the power to redefine , restrict or expand the powers of all municipalities in Ontario .
The Criminal Code of Canada is the chief piece of legislation defining criminal conduct and penalty . The Hamilton Police Service is chiefly responsible for the enforcement of federal and provincial law . Although the Hamilton Police Service has authority to enforce , bylaws passed by the Hamilton City Council are mainly enforced by Provincial Offences Officers employed by the City of Hamilton .
The Canadian Military maintains a presence in Hamilton , with the John Weir Foote Armoury located in the downtown core on James Street North , housing the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry as well as the 11th Field Hamilton @-@ Wentworth Battery and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada . The Hamilton Reserve Barracks , located on Pier Nine , houses the naval reserve division HMCS Star , 23 Service Battalion and the 23 Field Ambulance .
= = Education = =
Hamilton is home to several post @-@ secondary institutions that have created numerous direct and indirect jobs in education and research . McMaster University moved to the city in 1930 and today has around 30 @,@ 000 enrolled students , of whom almost two @-@ thirds come from outside the immediate Hamilton region . Brock University of St. Catharines , Ontario has a satellite campus used primarily for teacher education located in Hamilton . Colleges in Hamilton include :
McMaster Divinity College , a Christian seminary affiliated with the Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec since 1957 . McMaster Divinity College is located on the McMaster University campus , and is affiliated with the University . The Divinity College was created as part of the process of passing governance of the University as a whole from the BCOQ to a privately chartered , publicly funded arrangement .
Mohawk College , a college of applied arts and technology since 1967 with 10 @,@ 000 full time , 40 @,@ 000 part time , and 3 @,@ 000 apprentice students .
Mohawk College also has an IELTS Testing Centre in Hamilton at their Fennell Campus , which tests twice monthly .
Columbia International College is Canada 's largest private boarding high school , with 1 @,@ 700 students from 73 countries .
Redeemer University College , a private Christian liberal arts and science university opened in 1982 , with about a thousand students currently .
Public education for students from kindergarten through high school is administered by three school boards . The Hamilton @-@ Wentworth District School Board manages 114 public schools , while the Hamilton @-@ Wentworth Catholic District School Board operates 55 schools in the greater Hamilton area . The Conseil scolaire de district du Centre @-@ Sud @-@ Ouest operates one elementary and one secondary school ( École secondaire Georges @-@ P.-Vanier ) , and the Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre @-@ Sud operates two elementary schools and one secondary school . Calvin Christian School , Providence Christian School and Timothy Christian School are independent Christian elementary schools . Hamilton District Christian High School , Rehoboth Christian High School and Guido de Bres Christian High School are independent Christian high schools in the area . Both HDCH and Guido de Brès participate in the city 's interscholastic athletics . Hillfield Strathallan College is located on the West Hamilton mountain and is a CAIS member , non @-@ profit school for children from early Montessori ages through grade twelve .
The Dundas Valley School of Art is an independent art school which has serviced the Hamilton region since 1964 . Students range in age from 4 years old to senior citizens and enrollment as of February 2007 was close to 4 @,@ 000 . In 1998 , a new full time diploma programme was launched as a joint venture with McMaster University . The faculty and staff are highly regarded regional artists .
The Hamilton Conservatory for the Arts is home to many of the area 's talented young actors , dancers , musicians , singers and visual artists . The school is equipped with a keyboard studio , spacious dance studios , art and sculpting studios , gallery space and a 300 seat recital hall . HCA offers over 90 programs for ages 3 – 93 , creating a " united nations " of arts under one roof .
The Hamilton Literacy Council is a non @-@ profit organization that provides basic ( grades 1 – 5 equivalent ) training in reading , writing , and math to English @-@ speaking adults . The council 's service is free , private , and one @-@ to @-@ one . It started to assist adults with their literacy skills in 1973 .
Hamilton is home to two think tanks , the Centre for Cultural Renewal and Cardus , which deals with social architecture , culture , urbanology , economics and education and also publishes the LexView Policy Journal and Comment Magazine .
= = Culture = =
Hamilton has built on its historical and social background with attractions including the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum , the HMCS Haida National Historic Site ( Canada 's most famous warship and the last remaining Tribal Class in the world ) , Dundurn Castle ( the residence of a Prime Minister of Upper Canada ) , the Royal Botanical Gardens , the Canadian Football Hall of Fame , the African Lion Safari Park , the Cathedral of Christ the King , and the Workers ' Arts and Heritage Centre .
Founded in 1914 , the Art Gallery of Hamilton is Ontario 's third largest public art gallery . The gallery has over 9 @,@ 000 works in its permanent collection that focus on three areas : 19th century European , Historical Canadian and Contemporary Canadian .
The McMaster Museum of Art ( MMA ) , founded at McMaster University in 1967 , houses and exhibits the University 's art collection of more than 7 @,@ 000 objects , including historical , modern and contemporary art , the Levy Collection of Impressionist and Post Impressionist paintings , and a collection of over 300 German Expressionist prints .
Hamilton has quite an active theatre scene , with the professional company Theatre Aquarius , plus long @-@ time amateur companies , the Players ' Guild of Hamilton and Hamilton Theatre Inc .. Many smaller theatre companies have also opened in the past decade , bringing a variety of theatre to the area .
Growth in the arts and culture sector has garnered high level media attention for Hamilton . A Globe and Mail article in 2006 , entitled " Go West , Young Artist , " focused on the growing art scene in Hamilton . The Factory : Hamilton Media Arts Centre , opened up a new home on James Street North in 2006 . Art galleries are springing up on many streets across the City : James Street , King William Street , Locke Street and King Street , to name a few . This , coupled with growth in the downtown condo market which is drawing people back to the core , is affecting the cultural fabric of the city . The opening of the Downtown Arts Centre on Rebecca Street has spurred further creative activities in the core . The Community Centre for Media Arts ( CCMA ) continues to operate in downtown Hamilton . The CCMA works with marginalized populations and combines new media services such as website development , graphic design , video , and information technology , with arts education and skills development programming .
The 2009 film Defendor , starring Woody Harrelson as a vigilante superhero , is implied to take place in Hamilton , referred to by its nickname of " Hammer Town " several times throughout the film . It was filmed in Hamilton and Toronto .
In March 2015 , Hamilton was host to the JUNO Awards , which featured performances by Hedley , Alanis Morissette and Magic ! . The award ceremony was held at the FirstOntario Centre in downtown Hamilton . During JUNOfest , hundreds of local acts performed across the city , bringing thousands of tourists .
= = Sports = =
Hamilton was the host of Canada 's first major international athletic event , the first Commonwealth Games ( then called the British Empire Games ) in 1930 . Hamilton bid unsuccessfully for the Commonwealth Games in 2010 , losing out to New Delhi in India . On November 7 , 2009 , in Guadalajara , Mexico it was announced that Toronto would host the 2015 Pan Am Games after beating out two rival South American cities , Lima , Peru and Bogota , Colombia . The city of Hamilton co @-@ hosted the Games with Toronto . Hamilton Mayor Fred Eisenberger said , " the Pan Am Games will provide a ' unique opportunity for Hamilton to renew major sport facilities giving Hamiltonians a multi @-@ purpose stadium , a 50 @-@ metre swimming pool , and an international @-@ calibre velodrome to enjoy for generations to come . ' "
The Around the Bay Road Race circumnavigates Hamilton Harbour . Although it is not a marathon distance , it is the longest continuously held long distance foot race in North America . The local newspaper also hosts the amateur Spectator Indoor Games .
Hamilton has representation in two professional sports leagues , the Canadian Football League and Major League Lacrosse . Its major sports complexes include Ivor Wynne Stadium and Copps Coliseum ; Hamilton is also home to the Canadian Football Hall of Fame museum . The museum hosts an annual induction event in a week @-@ long celebration that includes school visits , a golf tournament , a formal induction dinner and concludes with the Hall of Fame game involving the local CFL Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats at Ivor Wynne Stadium .
In addition to team sports , Hamilton is also home to an auto race track , Flamboro Speedway and Canada 's fastest half @-@ mile harness horse racing track , Flamboro Downs . Another auto race track , Cayuga International Speedway , is located near Hamilton in the Haldimand County community of Nelles Corners , situated between Hagersville and Cayuga .
Hamilton hosted an NHL team in the 1920s called the Hamilton Tigers . The team folded after a players ' strike in 1925 . Research in Motion CEO Jim Balsillie has shown interest in bringing another NHL team to southern Ontario . The NHL 's Phoenix Coyotes filed for bankruptcy in 2009 and have included within their Chapter 11 reorganization a plan to sell the team to Balsillie and move the team and its operations to Hamilton , Ontario . In late September , however , the bankruptcy judge did not rule in favor of Balsillie . The City plans to continue their fight for an NHL team .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Hamilton is a sister city with Flint , Michigan , and its young amateur athletes compete in the CANUSA Games , held alternatively in the two cities since 1958 . Flint and Hamilton hold the distinction of having the oldest continuous sister @-@ city relationship between a U.S. and Canadian city , since 1957 .
Other sister cities with Hamilton include :
Other city relationships :
Porto Alegre ( Brazil )
= = Gallery = =
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= A Vindication of the Rights of Men =
A Vindication of the Rights of Men , in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke ; Occasioned by His Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) is a political pamphlet , written by the 18th @-@ century British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft , which attacks aristocracy and advocates republicanism . Wollstonecraft 's was the first response in a pamphlet war sparked by the publication of Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , a defense of constitutional monarchy , aristocracy , and the Church of England .
Wollstonecraft attacked not only hereditary privilege , but also the rhetoric that Burke used to defend it . Most of Burke 's detractors deplored what they viewed as his theatrical pity for Marie Antoinette , but Wollstonecraft was unique in her love of Burke 's gendered language . By saying the sublime and the beautiful , terms first established by Burke himself in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful ( 1756 ) , she kept his rhetoric as well as his argument . In her first unabashedly feminist critique , which Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia Johnson describes as unsurpassed in its argumentative force , Wollstonecraft indicts Burke 's justification of an equal society founded on the passivity of women .
In her arguments for republican virtue , Wollstonecraft invokes an emerging middle @-@ class ethos in opposition to what she views as the vice @-@ ridden aristocratic code of manners . Driven by an Enlightenment belief in progress , she derides Burke for relying on tradition and custom . She describes an idyllic country life in which each family has a farm sufficient for its needs . Wollstonecraft contrasts her utopian picture of society , drawn with what she claims is genuine feeling , with Burke 's false theatrical tableaux .
The Rights of Men was successful : it was reviewed by every major periodical of the day and the first edition , published anonymously , sold out in three weeks . However , upon the publication of the second edition ( the first to carry Wollstonecraft 's name on the title page ) , the reviews began to evaluate the text not only as a political pamphlet but also as the work of a female writer . They contrasted Wollstonecraft 's " passion " with Burke 's " reason " and spoke condescendingly of the text and its female author . This analysis of the Rights of Men prevailed until the 1970s , when feminist scholars began to read Wollstonecraft 's texts with more care and called attention to their intellectualism .
= = Historical context = =
= = = Revolution Controversy = = =
A Vindication of the Rights of Men was written against the backdrop of the French Revolution and the debates that it provoked in Britain . In a lively and sometimes vicious pamphlet war , now referred to as the Revolution Controversy , which lasted from 1789 until the end of 1795 , British political commentators argued over the validity of monarchy . One scholar has called this debate " perhaps the last real discussion of the fundamentals of politics in [ Britain ] " . The power of popular agitation in revolutionary France , demonstrated in events such as the Tennis Court Oath and the storming of the Bastille in 1789 , reinvigorated the British reform movement , which had been largely moribund for a decade . Efforts to reform the British electoral system and to distribute the seats in the House of Commons more equitably were revived .
Much of the vigorous political debate in the 1790s was sparked by the publication of Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France in November 1790 . Most commentators in Britain expected Burke to support the French revolutionaries , because he had previously been part of the liberal Whig party , a critic of monarchical power , a supporter of the American revolutionaries , and a prosecutor of government malfeasance in India . When he failed to do so , it shocked the populace and angered his friends and supporters . Burke 's book , despite being priced at an expensive three shillings , sold an astonishing 30 @,@ 000 copies in two years . Thomas Paine 's famous response , The Rights of Man ( 1792 ) , which became the rallying cry for thousands , however , greatly surpassed it , selling upwards of 200 @,@ 000 copies .
Wollstonecraft 's Rights of Men was published only weeks after Burke 's Reflections . While Burke supported aristocracy , monarchy , and the Established Church , liberals such as William Godwin , Paine , and Wollstonecraft , argued for republicanism , agrarian socialism , anarchy , and religious toleration . Most of those who came to be called radicals supported similar aims : individual liberties and civic virtue . They were also united in the same broad criticisms : opposition to the bellicose " landed interest " and its role in government corruption , and opposition to a monarchy and aristocracy who they believed were unlawfully seizing the people 's power .
1792 was the " annus mirabilis of eighteenth @-@ century radicalism " : its most important texts were published , and the influence of radical associations , such as the London Corresponding Society ( LCS ) and the Society for Constitutional Information ( SCI ) , was at its height . However , it was not until these middle- and working @-@ class groups formed an alliance with the genteel Society of the Friends of the People that the government became concerned . After this alliance was formed , the conservative @-@ dominated government prohibited seditious writings . Over 100 prosecutions for sedition took place in the 1790s alone , a dramatic increase from previous decades . The British government , fearing an uprising similar to the French Revolution , took even more drastic steps to quash the radicals : they made ever more political arrests and infiltrated radical groups ; they threatened to " revoke the licences of publicans who continued to host politicised debating societies and to carry reformist literature " ; they seized the mail of " suspected dissidents " ; they supported groups that disrupted radical events ; and they attacked dissidents in the press . Radicals saw this period , which included the 1794 Treason Trials , as " the institution of a system of TERROR , almost as hideous in its features , almost as gigantic in its stature , and infinitely more pernicious in its tendency , than France ever knew . "
When , in October 1795 , crowds threw refuse at George III and insulted him , demanding a cessation of the war with France and lower bread prices , Parliament immediately passed the " gagging acts " ( the Seditious Meetings Act and the Treasonable Practices Act , also known as the " Two Acts " ) . Under these new laws , it was almost impossible to hold public meetings and speech was severely curtailed at those that were held . British radicalism was effectively muted during the later 1790s and 1800s . It was not until the next generation that any real reform could be enacted .
= = = Burke 's Reflections = = =
Published partially in response to Dissenting clergyman Richard Price 's sermon celebrating the French revolution , Burke used the device of a mock @-@ letter to a young Frenchman 's plea for guidance in order to defend aristocratic government , paternalism , loyalty , chivalry , and primogeniture . He viewed the French Revolution as the violent overthrow of a legitimate government . In Reflections , he argues that citizens do not have the right to revolt against their government , because civilizations , including governments , are the result of social and political consensus . If a culture 's traditions were continually challenged , he contends , the result would be anarchy .
Burke criticizes many British thinkers and writers who welcomed the early stages of the French Revolution . While the radicals likened the revolution to Britain 's own Glorious Revolution in 1688 , which had restricted the powers of the monarchy , Burke argues that the appropriate historical analogy was the English Civil War ( 1642 – 1651 ) , in which Charles I had been executed in 1649 . At the time Burke was writing , however , there had been very little revolutionary violence ; more concerned with persuading his readers than informing them , he greatly exaggerated this element of the revolution in his text for rhetorical effect . In his Enquiry into the Sublime and Beautiful , he had argued that " large inexact notions convey ideas best " , and to generate fear in the reader , in Reflections he constructs the set @-@ piece of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette forced from their palace at sword point . When the violence actually escalated in France in 1793 with the Reign of Terror , Burke was viewed as a prophet .
Burke also criticizes the learning associated with the French philosophes ; he maintains that new ideas should not , in an imitation of the emerging discipline of science , be tested on society in an effort to improve it , but that populations should rely on custom and tradition to guide them .
= = = Composition and publication of the Rights of Men = = =
In the advertisement printed at the beginning of the Rights of Men , Wollstonecraft describes how and why she wrote it :
MR. BURKE 'S Reflections on the French Revolution first engaged my attention as the transient topic of the day ; and reading it more for amusement than information , my indignation was roused by the sophistical arguments , that every moment crossed me , in the questionable shape of natural feelings and common sense .
Many pages of the following letter were the effusions of the moment ; but , swelling imperceptibly to a considerable size , the idea was suggested of publishing a short vindication of the Rights of Men .
Not having leisure or patience to follow this desultory writer through all the devious tracks in which his fancy has started fresh game , I have confined my strictures , in a great measure , to the grand principles at which he has levelled many ingenious arguments in a very specious garb .
So the pamphlet could be published as soon as she finished writing it , Wollstonecraft wrote frantically while her publisher Joseph Johnson printed the pages . In fact , Godwin 's Memoirs of Wollstonecraft tells that the sheets of manuscript were delivered to the press as they were written . Halfway through the work , however , she ceased writing . One biographer describes it as a " loss of nerve " ; Godwin , in his Memoirs , describes it as " a temporary fit of torpor and indolence " . Johnson , perhaps canny enough at this point in their friendship to know how to encourage her , agreed to dispose of the book and told her not to worry about it . Ashamed , she rushed to finish .
Wollstonecraft 's Rights of Men was published anonymously on 29 November 1790 , the first of between fifty and seventy responses to Burke by various authors . Only three weeks later , on 18 December , a second edition , with her name printed on the title page , was issued . Wollstonecraft took time to edit the second edition , which , according to biographer Emily Sunstein , " sharpened her personal attack on Burke " and changed much of the text from first person to third person ; " she also added a non @-@ partisan code criticising hypocritical liberals who talk equality but scrape before the powers that be . "
= = Structure and major arguments = =
Until the 1970s , the Rights of Men was typically considered disorganized , incoherent , illogical , and redolent with ad hominem attacks ( such as the suggestion that Burke would have promoted the crucifixion of Christ if he were a Jew ) . It had been touted as an example of " feminine " emotion tilting at " masculine " reason . However , since the 1970s scholars have challenged this view , arguing that Wollstonecraft employed 18th @-@ century modes of writing , such as the digression , to great rhetorical effect . More importantly , as scholar Mitzi Myers argues , " Wollstonecraft is virtually alone among those who answered Burke in eschewing a narrowly political approach for a wide @-@ ranging critique of the foundation of the Reflections . " Wollstonecraft makes a primarily moral argument ; her " polemic is not a confutation of Burke 's political theories , but an exposure of the cruel inequities which those theories presuppose . " Wollstonecraft 's style was also a deliberate choice , enabling her to respond to Burke 's Enquiry into the Sublime and Beautiful as well as to Reflections .
The style of the Rights of Men mirrors much of Burke 's own text . It has no clear structure ; like Reflections , the text follows the mental associations made by the author as she was writing . Wollstonecraft 's political treatise is written , like Burke 's , in the form of a letter : his to C. J. F. DePont , a young Frenchman , and hers to Burke himself . Using the same form , metaphors , and style as Burke , she turns his own argument back on him . The Rights of Men is as much about language and argumentation as it is about political theory ; in fact , Wollstonecraft claims that these are inseparable . She advocates , as one scholar writes , " simplicity and honesty of expression , and argument employing reason rather than eloquence . " At the beginning of the pamphlet , she appeals to Burke : " Quitting now the flowers of rhetoric , let us , Sir , reason together . "
The Rights of Men does not aim to present a fully articulated alternative political theory to Burke 's , but instead to demonstrate the weaknesses and contradictions in his own argument . Therefore , much of the text is focused on Burke 's logical inconsistencies , such as his support of the American revolution and the Regency Bill ( which proposed restricting monarchical power during George III 's madness in 1788 ) , in contrast to his lack of support for the French revolutionaries . In criticism of Burke 's contradictory support of the Regency Bill along with supporting the rule of monarchy in France , she writes :
You were so eager to taste the sweets of power , that you could not wait till time had determined , whether a dreadful delirium would settle into a confirmed madness ; but , prying into the secrets of Omnipotence , you thundered out that God had hurled him from his throne , and that it was the most insulting mockery to recollect that he had been a king , or treat him with any particular respect on account of his former dignity … . I have , Sir , been reading , with a scrutinizing , comparative eye , several of your insensible and profane speeches during the King 's illness . I disdain to take advantage of a man 's weak side , or draw consequences from an unguarded transport — A lion preys not on carcasses ! [ emphasis Wollstonecraft 's ]
Wollstonecraft 's goal , she writes , is " to shew you [ Burke ] to yourself , stripped of the gorgeous drapery in which you have enwrapped your tyrannic principles . " However , she does also gesture towards a larger argument of her own , focusing on the inequalities faced by British citizens because of the class system . As Wollstonecraft scholar Barbara Taylor writes , " treating Burke as a representative spokesman for old @-@ regime despotism , Wollstonecraft champions the reformist initiatives of the new French government against his ' rusty , baneful opinions ' , and censures British political elites for their opulence , corruption , and inhumane treatment of the poor . "
= = Political theory = =
= = = Attack against rank and privilege = = =
Wollstonecraft 's attack on rank and hierarchy dominates the Rights of Men . She chastises Burke for his contempt for the people , whom he dismisses as the " swinish multitude " , and berates him for supporting the elite , most notably Marie Antoinette . In a famous passage , Burke had written : " I had thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult . — But the age of chivalry is gone . " Wollstonecraft 's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) and An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution ( 1794 ) extend the specific arguments made in the Rights of Men into larger social and political contexts .
Contrasting her middle @-@ class values against Burke 's aristocratic ones , Wollstonecraft contends that people should be judged on their merits rather than on their birthrights . As Wollstonecraft scholar Janet Todd writes , " the vision of society revealed [ in ] A Vindication of the Rights of Men was one of talents , where entrepreneurial , unprivileged children could compete on equal terms with the now wrongly privileged . " Wollstonecraft emphasizes the benefits of hard work , self @-@ discipline , frugality , and morality , values she contrasts with the " vices of the rich " , such as " insincerity " and the " want of natural affections " . She endorses a commercial society that would help individuals discover their own potential as well as force them to realize their civic responsibilities . For her , commercialism would be the great equalizing force . However , several years later , in Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark ( 1796 ) , she would question the ultimate benefits of commercialism to society .
While Dissenting clergyman Richard Price , whose sermon helped spark Burke 's work , is the villain of Reflections , he is the hero of the Rights of Men . Both Wollstonecraft and Burke associate him with Enlightenment thinking , particularly the notion that civilization could progress through rational debate , but they interpret that stance differently . Burke believed such relentless questioning would lead to anarchy , while Wollstonecraft connected Price with " reason , liberty , free discussion , mental superiority , the improving exercise of the mind , moral excellence , active benevolence , orientation toward the present and future , and the rejection of power and riches " — quintessential middle @-@ class professional values .
Wollstonecraft wields the English philosopher John Locke 's definition of property ( that is , ownership acquired through labour ) against Burke 's notion of inherited wealth . She contends that inheritance is one of the major impediments to the progress of European civilization , and repeatedly argues that Britain 's problems are rooted in the inequity of property distribution . Although she did not advocate a totally equal distribution of wealth , she did desire one that was more equitable .
= = = Republicanism = = =
The Rights of Men indicts monarchy and hereditary distinctions and promotes a republican ideology . Relying on 17th- and early 18th @-@ century notions of republicanism , Wollstonecraft maintains that virtue is at the core of citizenship . However , her notion of virtue is more individualistic and moralistic than traditional Commonwealth ideology . The goals of Wollstonecraft 's republicanism are the happiness and prosperity of the individual , not the greatest good for the greatest number or the greatest benefits for the propertied . While she emphasizes the benefits that will accrue to the individual under republicanism , she also maintains that reform can only be effected at a societal level . This marks a change from her earlier texts , such as Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) , in which the individual plays the primary role in social reform .
Wollstonecraft 's ideas of virtue revolved around the family , distinguishing her from other republicans such as Francis Hutcheson and William Godwin . For Wollstonecraft , virtue begins in the home : private virtues are the foundation for public virtues . Inspired by Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's depictions of the ideal family and the republican Swiss canton , she draws a picture of idyllic family life in a small country village . One scholar describes her plan this way : " vast estates would be divided into small farms , cottagers would be allowed to make enclosures from the commons and , instead of alms being given to the poor , they would be given the means to independence and self @-@ advancement . " Individuals would learn and practice virtue in the home , virtue that would not only make them self @-@ sufficient , but also prompt them to feel responsible for the citizens of their society .
= = = Tradition versus revolution = = =
One of the central arguments of Wollstonecraft 's Rights of Men is that rights should be conferred because they are reasonable and just , not because they are traditional . While Burke argued that civil society and government should rely on traditions which had accrued over centuries , Wollstonecraft contends that all civil agreements are subject to rational reassessment . Precedence , she maintains , is no reason to accept a law or a constitution . As one scholar puts it , " Burke 's belief in the antiquity of the British constitution and the impossibility of improvement upon a system that has been tried and tested through time is dismissed as nonsense . The past , for Wollstonecraft , is a scene of superstition , oppression , and ignorance . " Wollstonecraft believed powerfully in the Enlightenment notion of progress , and rejected the contention that ancient ideas could not be improved upon . Using Burke 's own architectural language , she asks , " why was it a duty to repair an ancient castle , built in barbarous ages , of Gothic materials ? " She also notes , pointedly , that Burke 's philosophy condones slavery :
[ T ] he whole tenor of his plausible arguments settles slavery on an everlasting foundation . Allowing his servile reverence for antiquity , and prudent attention to self @-@ interest , to have the force which he insists on , the slave trade ought never to be abolished ; and , because our ignorant forefathers , not understanding the native dignity of man , sanctioned a traffic that outrages every suggestion of reason and religion , we are to submit to the inhuman custom , and term an atrocious insult to humanity the love of our country , and a proper submission to the laws by which our property is secured . — Security of property ! Behold , in a few words , the definition of English liberty . And to this selfish principle every nobler one is sacrificed .
= = Sensibility = =
In the Rights of Men , Wollstonecraft not only endorses republicanism , but also a social contract based on sympathy and fellow @-@ feeling . She describes the ideal society in these terms : individuals , supported by cohesive families , connect with others through rational sympathy . Strongly influenced by Price , whom she had met at Newington Green just a few years earlier , Wollstonecraft asserts that people should strive to imitate God by practicing universal benevolence .
Embracing a reasoned sensibility , Wollstonecraft contrasts her theory of civil society with Burke 's , which she describes as full of pomp and circumstance and riddled with prejudice . She attacks what she perceives as Burke 's false feeling , countering with her own genuine emotion . She argues that to be sympathetic to the French revolution ( i.e. , the people ) is humane while to sympathize with the French clergy , as Burke does , is a mark of inhumanity . She accuses Burke not only of insincerity , but also of manipulation , claiming that his Reflections is propaganda . In one of the most dramatic moments of the Rights of Men , Wollstonecraft claims to be moved beyond Burke 's tears for Marie Antoinette and the monarchy of France to silence for the injustice suffered by slaves , a silence she represents with dashes meant to express feelings more authentic than Burke 's :
Man preys on man ; and you mourn for the idle tapestry that decorated a gothic pile , and the dronish bell that summoned the fat priest to prayer . You mourn for the empty pageant of a name , when slavery flaps her wing , and the sick heart retires to die in lonely wilds , far from the abodes of men .... Why is our fancy to be appalled by terrific perspectives of a hell beyond the grave ? — Hell stalks abroad ; — the lash resounds on the slave 's naked sides ; and the sick wretch , who can no longer earn the sour bread of unremitting labour , steals to a ditch to bid the world a long good night — or , neglected in some ostentatious hospital , breathes his last amidst the laugh of mercenary attendants .
Such misery demands more than tears — I pause to recollect myself ; and smother the contempt I feel rising for your rhetorical flourishes and infantine sensibility .
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= = Gender and aesthetics = =
In the Rights of Men , Wollstonecraft challenges Burke 's rhetoric as much as , or more , than his political theory . She begins by redefining the sublime and the beautiful , terms he had established in his Enquiry into the Sublime and Beautiful . While Burke associates the beautiful with weakness and femininity , and the sublime with strength and masculinity , Wollstonecraft writes , " for truth , in morals , has ever appeared to me the essence of the sublime ; and , in taste , simplicity the only criterion of the beautiful . " With this sentence , she calls into question Burke 's gendered definitions ; convinced that they are harmful , she argues later in the Rights of Men :
You may have convinced [ women ] that littleness and weakness are the very essence of beauty ; and that the Supreme Being , in giving women beauty in the most supereminent [ sic ] degree , seemed to command them , by the powerful voice of Nature , not to cultivate the moral virtues that might chance to excite respect , and interfere with the pleasing sensations they were created to inspire . Thus confining truth , fortitude , and humanity , within the rigid pale of manly morals , they might justly argue , that to be loved , woman 's high end and great distinction ! they should ' learn to lisp , to totter in their walk , and nick @-@ name God 's creatures . ' Never , they might repeat after you , was any man , much less a woman , rendered amiable by the force of those exalted qualities , fortitude , justice , wisdom , and truth ; and thus forewarned of the sacrifice they must make to those austere , unnatural virtues , they would be authorised to turn all their attention to their persons , systematically neglecting morals to secure beauty .
As Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia Johnson has written , " As feminist critique , these passages have never really been surpassed . " Burke , Wollstonecraft maintains , describes womanly virtue as weakness , thus leaving women no substantive roles in the public sphere and relegating them to uselessness .
Wollstonecraft applies this feminist critique to Burke 's language throughout the Reflections . As Johnson argues , " her pamphlet as a whole refutes the Burkean axiom ' to make us love our country , our country ought to be lovely ' " ; Wollstonecraft successfully challenges Burke 's rhetoric of the beautiful with the rhetoric of the rational . She also demonstrates how Burke embodies the worst of his own ideas . He becomes the hysterical , illogical , feminine writer , and Wollstonecraft becomes the rational , masculine writer . Ironically , in order to effect this transposition , Wollstonecraft herself becomes passionate at times , for example , in her description of slavery ( quoted above ) .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Rights of Men was successful , its price contributing in no small measure : at one shilling and sixpence it was half the price of Burke 's book . After the first edition sold out , Wollstonecraft agreed to have her name printed on the title page of the second . It was her first extensive work as " a self @-@ supporting professional and self @-@ proclaimed intellectual " , as scholar Mary Poovey writes , and :
took the form that most people would have considered the least appropriate for a woman — the political disquisition . Requiring knowledge of government ( in which women had no share ) , analytical ability ( of which women theoretically had little ) , and the ambition to participate directly in contemporary events ( of which women were supposed to have none ) , political disquisition was in every sense a masculine domain .
Commentaries from the time note this ; Horace Walpole , for example , called her a " hyena in petticoats " for attacking Marie Antoinette . William Godwin , her future husband , described the book as illogical and ungrammatical ; in his Memoirs of Wollstonecraft , he dedicated only a paragraph to a discussion of the content of the work , calling it " intemperate " .
All the major periodicals of the day reviewed the Rights of Men . The Analytical Review agreed with Wollstonecraft 's arguments and praised her " lively and animated remarks " . The Monthly Review was also sympathetic , but it pointed out faults in her writing . The Critical Review , the " sworn foe " of the Analytical Review , however , wrote in December 1790 , after discovering that the author was a woman :
It has been observed in an old play , that minds have no sex ; and in truth we did not discover this Defender of the Rights of Man to be a Woman . The second edition , however , which often reveals secrets , has attributed this pamphlet to Mrs. Wollstonecraft , and if she assumes the disguise of a man , she must not be surprised that she is not treated with the civility and respect that she would have received in her own person . As the article was written before we saw the second edition , we have presented an acknowledgement of this kind to the necessary alterations . It would not have been sufficient to have corrected merely verbal errors : a Lady should have been addressed with more respect . [ emphasis in original ]
The Gentleman 's Magazine followed suit , criticizing the book 's logic and " its absurd presumption that men will be happier if free " , as well as Wollstonecraft 's own presumption in writing on topics outside of her proper domain , commenting " the rights of men asserted by a fair lady ! The age of chivalry cannot be over , or the sexes have changed their ground . " However , the Rights of Men put Wollstonecraft on the map as a writer ; from this point forward in her career , she was well known .
Wollstonecraft sent a copy of the book to the historian Catharine Macaulay , whom she greatly admired . Macaulay wrote back that she was " still more highly pleased that this publication which I have so greatly admired from its pathos & sentiment should have been written by a woman and thus to see my opinion of the powers and talents of the sex in your pen so early verified . " William Roscoe , a Liverpool lawyer , writer , and patron of the arts , liked the book so much that he included Wollstonecraft in his satirical poem The Life , Death , and Wonderful Achievements of Edmund Burke :
While most of the early reviewers of the Rights of Men , as well as most of Wollstonecraft 's early biographers , criticized the work 's emotionalism , and juxtaposed it with Burke 's masterpiece of logic , there has been a recent re @-@ evaluation of her text . Since the 1970s , critics who have looked more closely at both her work and Burke 's , have come to the conclusion that they share many rhetorical similarities , and that the masculine / logic and feminine / emotion binaries are unsupportable . Most Wollstonecraft scholars now recognize it was this work that radicalized Wollstonecraft and directed her future writings , particularly A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . It is not until after the halfway point of Rights of Men that she begins the dissection of Burke 's gendered aesthetic ; as Claudia Johnson contends , " it seems that in the act of writing the later portions of Rights of Men she discovered the subject that would preoccupy her for the rest of her career . "
Two years later , when Wollstonecraft published the Rights of Woman , she extended many of the arguments she had begun in Rights of Men . If all people should be judged on their merits , she wrote , women should be included in that group . In both texts , Wollstonecraft emphasizes that the virtue of the British nation is dependent on the virtue of its people . To a great extent , she collapses the distinction between private and public and demands that all educated citizens be offered the chance to participate in the public sphere .
= = = = Contemporary reviews = = = =
Analytical Review 8 ( 1790 ) : 416 – 419 .
Critical Review 70 ( 1790 ) : 694 – 696 .
English Review 17 ( 1791 ) : 56 – 61 .
General Magazine and Impartial Review 4 ( 1791 ) : 26 – 27 .
Gentleman 's Magazine 61 @.@ 1 ( 1791 ) : 151 – 154 .
Monthly Review New Series 4 ( 1791 ) : 95 – 97 .
New Annual Register 11 ( 1790 ) : 237 .
Universal Magazine and Review 5 ( 1791 ) : 77 – 78 .
Walker 's Hibernian Magazine 1 ( 1791 ) : 269 – 271 [ copied from the Gentleman 's Magazine ]
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= Harry Fox ( sportsman ) =
Henry " Harry " Fox ( 30 September 1856 – on or after 30 August 1888 ) was an English businessman , sportsman , and adventurer . He played cricket and rugby for his county , and began climbing mountains in the mid @-@ 1880s . He was part of the Fox family of Wellington , Somerset , and was a partner in the family business , Fox Brothers , a prominent textile manufacturer .
Fox played and financed cricket and rugby in Somerset ; he played cricket for Somerset County Cricket Club from 1877 to 1882 , and remained as a vice @-@ president of the club until his death . He founded Wellington Rugby Football Club in 1874 , and was an administrator and captain of the Somerset Rugby Football Union . After retiring as a rugby player , he continued to take part as an umpire . In 1884 he started mountaineering , and within two years he was well @-@ known in the mountain climbing community , and a well @-@ regarded alpine explorer . In 1888 , he and William Frederick Donkin travelled to the Caucasus Mountains in the Russian Empire in a bid to be the first ones to climb Koshtan @-@ Tau . The pair , along with their Swiss guides , died in an accident during the expedition .
= = Early life and sporting exploits = =
Henry Fox was born on 30 September 1856 as the second son of Dillworth Crewdson and Mary Augusta . He was educated at Sherborne School . His family owned Fox Brothers , of which he became a partner . In 1874 , he founded Wellington Rugby Football Club . Three years later , he became the honorary secretary , treasurer and captain of the Somerset county rugby football team upon its formation . He was captain in both 1877 and 1878 , playing as a three @-@ quarter back , and remained secretary and treasurer until 1882 . After retiring from the game , he continued as an umpire . Fox appeared in his final match in 1887 , officiating the game between Somerset and Yorkshire .
As well as rugby , Fox also played cricket for his county , first appearing for Somerset County Cricket Club in 1877 during a match against Wiltshire . He tended to play as a lower @-@ order batsmen for the county . His highest score in county cricket was 42 runs , made against Kent in 1881 , prior to Somerset 's elevation to first @-@ class status . In June 1882 , he was part of the Somerset team that competed in first @-@ class cricket for the first time , losing by an innings and 157 runs to Lancashire ; Fox scored no runs in either innings , and did not bowl . He made two further first @-@ class appearances that season , and did not appear for Somerset again , due to business engagements . In all , he scored sixteen runs in first @-@ class matches for Somerset at an average of 2 @.@ 66 . After retiring as a player , Fox continued to provide financial support to the cricket club , and remained a vice @-@ president until his death .
Fox was also a keen mountaineer ; having started mountain climbing in 1884 , he joined the Alpine Club the following year . He received training initially from William Woodman Graham and then William Cecil Slingsby . According to an article in The Times , he was well regarded by his peers as " a climber of great skill and daring " . He was a very experienced alpine climber , and often climbed without guides , ascending Aiguille du Dru , Fletschhorn , Ober Gabelhorn amongst others in this fashion . With guides , he climbed some of the toughest mountains in the Alps , such as the Matterhorn and the Eiger .
= = Death in the Caucasus Mountains = =
Fox left Wellington in late July 1888 for the Caucasus Mountains in the Russian Empire , joining up with William Frederick Donkin and Clinton Dent . The three were aiming to become the first climbers to scale Koshtan @-@ Tau , one of the few mountains in the region yet to be scaled . The three started from Nalchik , though Dent was forced to return home due to ill @-@ health , leaving Fox and Donkin to attempt the climb , along with two Swiss guides . Their initial plan was to climb a glacier on the northern slopes of the mountain , and then make their final ascent on the western side . However , a rock wall on the western slopes prevented this , and they changed their plans to attack the mountain from the east . They planned to meet up with their outfitter to the south @-@ east of the mountain , but after they missed that meeting , a message was sent back to Dent reporting the climbers missing . The Times reported on 6 October that Donkin and Fox , along with their guides , had suffered a mountaineering accident that had led " to the almost certain loss of four lives " .
Multiple searches were carried out , including one on the direct order of Tsar Alexander III , but no evidence was found . The Russians did recover items from the climbers ' base camp , including Fox 's diary . Russian authorities , possibly for political reasons , claimed that the climbing party may have probably strayed into Svaneti , Georgia , and may have been murdered by the local population , who had rebelled against the Russians not long before . In 1889 , Dent and Douglas Freshfield led an expedition to search the area . Although they were unable to find any remains , they did discover a bivouac at around 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) on the Ullu @-@ auz pass between two glaciers . They recovered a number of personal items from the camp , but found that light climbing gear – rope , ice axes and a camera – were missing . The search party concluded that Donkin and Fox had continued their climb , intending to return to the bivouac , but had fallen while navigating a narrow ridge higher up the mountain . Such a fall would have been thousands of feet , and the winter snow would have covered the climbers ' bodies . So despite conducting a search of the valley floor , no bodies were recovered .
For the purposes of his will , Fox 's death was recorded as being " on or since the 30th August , 1888 , at some place unknown . " The value of his personal estate was just over £ 7 @,@ 639 . As he was not married and had no children , his estate was shared between his eldest brother , Charles Dillworth , and his four sisters , Sarah , Anna , Alice and Louisa . A cricket pavilion was erected in his memory at Wellington Cricket Club in Somerset , and a mountain in the Dawson Range in Canada was named Mount Fox in his honour .
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= Simon & Marcy =
" Simon & Marcy " is the fourteenth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Cole Sanchez and Rebecca Sugar , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , and Pendleton Ward . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on March 25 , 2013 together with the fourth season episode " I Remember You " , and as such was advertised as a half @-@ hour special .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Marceline the Vampire Queen ( voiced by Olivia Olson ) reveals that 996 years prior to the events of the series , she and the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) — then a human named Simon Petrikov — wandered the post @-@ apocalyptic land after the cataclysmic Mushroom War .
" Simon & Marcy " was the last episode to feature Sugar as a storyboard artist . She left after completing the episode in order to create her own series , Steven Universe . The episode received critical acclaim ; many praised its balance of humor and emotions , as well as its exploration of the Ice King 's character . The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 6 million viewers and received a 0 @.@ 6 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode was later nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Short @-@ format Animation at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost to Mickey Mouse episode " Croissant de Triomphe " .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
In the context of the series , Marceline the Vampire Queen is a thousand @-@ year @-@ old vampire . The Ice King is a recurring antagonist of the series , and frequently kidnaps princesses throughout Ooo ; although he is often at odds with Finn and Jake , he is generally not a serious threat . In the fourth season episode " I Remember You " , it was revealed that Marceline and the Ice King had originally met following the events of the mysterious Mushroom War , a cataclysmic war that destroyed modern human society .
= = = Events = = =
While playing basketball at Marceline 's house , Finn and Jake are surprised to learn that Marceline invited the Ice King to play as well . After the two inquire , Marceline reveals that she had known the Ice King when he was still a human man named Simon Petrikov , 996 years before the timeframe of the episode .
The episode then flashes back 996 years , following the destruction of civilization in the mysterious Mushroom War . Simon and Marceline — who Simon affectionately called Marcy — wander the outskirts of a destroyed and unidentified city . After hearing a rustling from the woods , Simon is forced to put on the mysterious ice crown . The crown gives the wearer ice @-@ related magic powers but also drains them of their sanity . Using the power of the crown , Simon freezes what was making the rustling : a deer . Marcy eventually manages to snap Simon out of his bout of craziness , and later that night Simon sings the theme song from the sitcom Cheers to cheer her up . While laughing , Marcy begins to cough , and Simon realizes she is in need of medicine .
The two make their way into the ruins of the city looking for chicken soup in order to cure Marcy 's illness . Inside the ruins of a soupery , Simon and Marcy run into some sort of mutated slime @-@ creature , but Simon manages to knock it out with this crown . The two flee and eventually discover what they believe is a food cart . Hopeful , Simon approaches it , only to realize that the vehicle is actually a mobile clam delivery service . Frustrated , Simon kicks the doors , which alerts several more slime creatures inside the vehicle . Simon , scared and hoping to protect Marcy , pushes the vehicle off of a bridge , and the resulting sound alerts a horde of the mutants . Simon and Marcy run into an alley , but are trapped . As a last resort , Simon places Marcy in an abandoned car and puts the crown on his head . In order to maintain his sanity , he sings the theme to Cheers while he unleashes a blast of ice which stops the mutant hordes in their tracks . Simon is able to eventually snap out of his insanity , and a mysterious sentient mass of bubblegum — presumably one of Princess Bubblegum 's ancestors — subsequently gives him a can of chicken soup . Marcy tells Simon that she loves him . Simon hugs her back saying he loves her too , but calls her Gunter .
In the present , Marceline concludes her tale , to a shocked Finn and Jake and an oblivious Ice King . Marceline notes that Marcy and Simon " lived happily ever after " , and Finn , Jake , and herself watch as the Ice King dunks several baskets , still unable to remember his former self .
= = Production = =
" Simon & Marcy " was storyboarded by Cole Sanchez and Rebecca Sugar , from a story by Patrick McHale , Kent Osborne , and Pendleton Ward . The episode was co @-@ directed by Adam Muto and Nick Jennings ; the former was credited as " supervising director " , whereas the latter handled the art direction . This was the last episode of Adventure Time to feature Sugar as a storyboard artist . She left the series after this episode in order to focus her attention towards her own series , Steven Universe . Sugar explained that she had been working on both Steven Universe and Adventure Time , but by the time she was storyboarding " Simon and Marcy " , she realized the workload was too much and that she had to step down from Adventure Time in order to focus on her own show . According to Sugar , Muto also contributed " additional scenes " to the episode ; she wrote on her official Tumblr that " he really did a lot on this one and put it over the top . " She also noted that " everyone [ working on the series ] was pitching in to make this one special " .
The episode features the voice of Ava Acres , who portrays the young version of Marceline . Acres had previously appeared in the third season episode " Memory of a Memory " . As mentioned above , the episode makes notable use of the 1982 song " Where Everybody Knows Your Name " by Gary Portnoy — better known as the theme to the sitcom Cheers . According to Sugar 's father , Rob , on his official YouTube channel , the use of the song started merely as a placeholder . However , as the episode developed , Sugar decided to keep it in the episode . This was notable , as it required that the show purchase the rights to use the original . Muto later revealed that " According to Our New Arrivals " , the theme from the sitcom Mr. Belvedere , was also in the running .
= = Reception = =
" Simon & Marcy " aired on March 25 , 2013 , together with the fourth season episode " I Remember You " . As such , it was advertised by Cartoon Network as a " half @-@ hour special " . The episode was watched by 2 @.@ 6 million viewers , and received a 0 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 0 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds at the time of the broadcast . The episode was the 37th most @-@ watched cable program in the 18 – 49 demographic on the night it aired . The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2013 Jake the Dad DVD , which included 16 episodes from the series ' fourth and fifth seasons .
" Simon & Marcy " was critically acclaimed . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A " , and wrote that " this episode is all about finding [ a home ] in a world that has been completely devastated . " He was particularly pleased with the manner in which the episode balanced serious ideas with comedy , writing that — while the episode was not " super heavy " on laughs — humorous moments like Simon pushing the " Clambulance " off a bridge helped to " lighten the mood " in an otherwise dark episode . The site later named the episode one of the ten additional installments of the series that illustrates that " emotional complexity " lies " beneath Adventure Time 's weirdness " . The staff of TV.com wrote that " it 's sort of amazing how Adventure Time has transformed the Ice King from an irritating antagonist to one of the most tragic figures on television " . Furthermore , they felt that the episode successfully balanced excitement and comedy , and that the use of the Cheers theme song were " incredibly poignant " .
After the episode aired , Eric Kohn of IndieWire published an article explaining why " ' Adventure Time ' is the best Sci @-@ Fi show on TV right now " . He praised the way in which the episode " deepen [ ed ] the world [ of Ooo ] in all kinds of morbidly fascinating ways . " Furthermore , he compared it to Cormac McCarthy 's book The Road , specifically citing the similarities between the mutant creatures in the episode and the " demented people " in the latter . Kohn ultimately concluded that the series ' " willingness to contemplate [ the themes of the episode ] while sticking to its unique combination of silliness and haunting beauty routinely transforms the show into a wondrous genre experiment . "
Kendra Beltran of MTV Geek wrote that the episode " pushed Ice King and Marceline 's history even more into the pits of your heart and twisted it ever so . " She ultimately concluded that the episode was " a touching notch in the Adventure Time realm " . Novelist Lev Grossman , in an interview with NPR praised the backstory of the Ice King and the exploration of his condition , noting that his origin is " psychologically plausible " . Grossman praised the way the series was able to tackle the issues of mental illness , saying : " It 's very affecting . My dad has been going through having Alzheimer 's , and he 's forgotten so much about who he used to be . And I look at him and think this cartoon is about my father dying . "
The episode was later nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for Short @-@ format Animation at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost to the Mickey Mouse episode " Croissant de Triomphe " .
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= Hurricane Ida ( 2009 ) =
Hurricane Ida was the strongest landfalling tropical cyclone during the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season , crossing the coastline of Nicaragua with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The remnants of the storm became a powerful nor 'easter that caused widespread damage along coastal areas of the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . Hurricane Ida formed on November 4 in the southwestern Caribbean Sea , and within 24 hours struck the Nicaragua coast with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It weakened significantly over land , although it restrengthened in the Yucatan Channel to peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Hurricane Ida weakened and became an extratropical cyclone in the northern Gulf of Mexico before spreading across the southeastern United States . The remnants of Ida contributed to the formation of a nor 'easter that significantly affected the eastern coast of the United States .
Numerous watches and warnings were issued during the hurricane 's existence . Areas from Panama to Maine were affected by either the storm or the nor 'easter low . In Nicaragua , nearly 3 @,@ 000 people evacuated coastal areas ahead of the storm . More extensive evacuations in Mexico relocated over 100 @,@ 000 residents and tourists . In the United States , several counties in Louisiana , Alabama and Florida declared a state of emergency because of fear of significant damage from the storm . Officials issued voluntary evacuations and most schools and non @-@ emergency offices in the region closed .
In Central America , Ida brought heavy rainfall to parts of Costa Rica , Nicaragua and Honduras . Several people were reported missing in Nicaragua , however post @-@ storm reports denied these claims . Thousands of buildings collapsed or sustained damage and roughly 40 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Damages from Ida in Nicaragua amounted to at least 46 million córdoba ( $ 2 @.@ 12 million US $ ) . Aside from heavy rainfall in Mexico and Cuba , little impact from Ida was reported in either country . In the United States , the remnants caused substantial damage , mainly in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . One person was killed by Ida after drowning in rough seas , while six others lost their lives in various incidents related to the nor 'easter . Widespread heavy rainfall led to numerous reports of flash flooding in areas from Mississippi to Maine . Overall , the two systems caused nearly $ 300 million in damage throughout the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Ida originated from a weak tropical wave that reached the western Caribbean Sea on November 1 , 2009 . By November 2 , the system spawned an area of low pressure north of Panama which moved very little over the following days . The low became increasingly organized within a favorable environment that allowed deep convection to develop . By November 4 , the low had become sufficiently organized for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to classify it as Tropical Depression Eleven . At this time , the depression was situated just southwest of San Andrés Island . Convective banding features became increasingly defined throughout the day and six hours after becoming a depression , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Ida .
Light wind shear allowed Ida to quickly intensify as it slowly tracked towards the Nicaraguan coastline . Late on November 4 , microwave satellite imagery depicted an eye @-@ like featured forming within the storm . The storm tracked west @-@ northwestward in response to a weak ridge over the north @-@ central Caribbean Sea and a weak trough over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico ; these features were also responsible for Ida 's slow forward motion . Early on November 5 , the storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale as it passed near the Corn Islands . At approximately 1117 UTC , the center of Ida made landfall near Rio Grande , Nicaragua , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . After the hurricane moved inland , the high mountains of Nicaragua caused the convection associated with the hurricane to diminish , resulting in rapid weakening . Roughly 18 hours after landfall , Ida weakened to a tropical depression as it turned northward over Honduras .
Late on November 6 , Ida re @-@ emerged over water , entering the northwestern Caribbean Sea . Upon moving back over water , the storm quickly began to redevelop , with convection increasing around the center of circulation . Early on November 7 , Ida restrengthened into a tropical storm as it tracked just west of due north . Very warm sea surface temperatures ahead of the system would have allowed for substantial intensification ; however , wind shear over the area quickly increased , resulting in modest strengthening . Later that day , the storm turned northwestward in response to a strong trough over Mexico and a mid @-@ level ridge extending from the Southeast United States to Hispaniola . As Ida neared the Yucatan Channel , an eye redeveloped and the storm quickly intensified into a hurricane . By the morning of November 8 , the storm had attained Category 2 status with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) .
Late on November 8 , Ida attained its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 975 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 79 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear and forward speed caused the storm to rapidly weaken to a tropical storm . Only a small area of convection remained near the center by the morning of November 9 . Despite the strong shear , the storm quickly re @-@ organized , attaining hurricane status for a third time during the afternoon . Based on readings from a nearby oil platform and reconnaissance data , it was determined that Ida attained its secondary peak intensity near the southeast coast of Louisiana with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . However , this intensification was short @-@ lived as a combination of increasing wind shear and decreasing sea @-@ surface temperatures induced weakening to a tropical storm within three hours .
By the morning of November 10 , all of Ida 's convection appeared displaced to the northeast and the forward motion of the storm slowed substantially . Additionally , the storm had begun to undergo an extratropical transition near the United States Gulf Coast . Shortly before making landfall near Dauphin Island , Alabama , the storm completed its extratropical transition . Ida crossed Mobile Bay shortly thereafter and maximum winds decreased below gale @-@ force . After slowly tracking eastward for several hours , the surface circulation of Ida dissipated over the Florida Panhandle . However , energy from the storm led to the formation of a new low off the coast of North Carolina . This new low quickly intensified and became a powerful nor 'easter that caused substantial damage throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . By November 12 , the system attained a minimum pressure of 992 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 29 inHg ) along with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The extratropical low weakened the following day and moved out to sea after stalling along the North Carolina Coastline . The remnants of the cyclone persisted through November 17 , by which time it had moved over Atlantic Canada .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Central America = = =
Shortly after being designated as Tropical Storm Ida on November 4 , the government of Nicaragua issued a tropical storm warning for the entire coastline of Nicaragua , and the government of Columbia also issued a warning for the nearby islands of San Andrés and Providencia . Later that day , a hurricane watch was declared for areas between Bluefields and the Nicaragua – Honduras border . As Ida moved closer to land , the tropical storm warning for San Andrés and Providencia was discontinued . Several hours later , the tropical storm warning and hurricane watch were modified to cover areas south of the Nicaragua – Honduras border to Puerto Cabezas and a hurricane warning was issued for areas south of Puerto Cabezas to Bluefields . After Ida made landfall in Nicaragua , all hurricane advisories were discontinued and replaced by a tropical storm warning . Shortly thereafter , a tropical storm watch was declared for areas along the Honduran coastline between Limón and the Nicaragua – Honduras border . However , all watches and warnings were discontinued once Ida weakened to a tropical depression on November 6 .
Throughout Nicaragua , officials evacuated roughly 3 @,@ 000 people from areas prone to flash floods and landslides , as rainfall in excess of 20 in ( 510 mm ) was expected to fall . About 1 @,@ 100 of the evacuees were from Corn Island and Little Corn Island where their homes were not expected to hold up to hurricane @-@ force winds . In Bluefields , roughly 1 @,@ 100 people were evacuated to shelters . Authorities began stockpiling supplies such as food , blankets and water that could supply 20 @,@ 000 people after the storm . Upon the formation of Ida , officials in Costa Rica placed most northern regions under a yellow alert . Personnel from the Costa Rican Red Cross were also placed on standby . In El Salvador , officials raised the disaster alert level to green , the lowest stage of alert , on November 5 . As Ida neared the coastline of Nicaragua , officials in Honduras warned residents of the likelihood of heavy rainfall from the storm . In response to this , the country 's disaster alert level was raised to yellow .
= = = Northern Caribbean = = =
On November 7 , Tropical Depression Ida re @-@ entered the Caribbean Sea and restrengthened into a tropical storm , prompting the NHC to issue a tropical storm watch for areas between San Felipe , Yucatán and Punta Allen in Mexico as well as in Pinar del Río Province , Cuba . Several hours later , the watches were upgraded to warnings and a new tropical storm warning was declared for Grand Cayman . A tropical storm watch was also issued for Isla de la Juventud and a hurricane watch for areas between Tulum and Cabo Catoche , Mexico . Early on November 8 , the tropical storm warning and hurricane watch for Mexico were modified to include areas from Punta Allen to Playa del Carmen and Tulum to Playa del Carmen respectively . A hurricane warning was also declared for areas between Playa del Carmen and Cabo Catoche . Later that day , the tropical storm warning for Grand Cayman was discontinued as Ida moved away from the island . Early on November 9 , all watches and warnings for Cuba and Mexico were discontinued as Ida moved into the Gulf of Mexico and towards the United States .
In Mexico , officials declared a yellow alert , moderate hazard , as Hurricane Ida neared the Yucatan Peninsula on November 9 . Roughly 36 @,@ 000 tourists and 1 @,@ 500 residents were evacuated from coastal areas of Quintana Roo . The Mexican Navy was placed on standby to assist in relief efforts once the storm had passed . Later that day , the alert was raised to red , the highest level , as hurricane @-@ force winds and heavy rains threatened the region . A total of 95 shelters were opened in the state to house the evacuees .
= = = United States = = =
As Hurricane Ida moved over the Yucatan Channel on November 8 , the NHC issued a hurricane watch for areas between Grand Isle , Louisiana and Mexico Beach , Florida . As the storm moved closer to the states , a tropical storm warning was declared for areas between Grand Isle and Pascagoula , Mississippi , as well as areas between Indian Pass , Florida , and the mouth of the Aucilla River . The hurricane watch was also modified to encompass a smaller area , between Grand Isle and Pascagoula . A hurricane warning was also issued from Pascagoula to Indian Pass . During the afternoon of November 9 , all hurricane watches and warnings were discontinued and the tropical storm warning was modified to include areas between Grand Isle and the mouth of the Aucilla River . As Ida became extratropical , the NHC discontinued all watches and warnings on the storm on November 10 .
Due to the threat of large swells , several oil rigs along the Texas coastline were evacuated as a precautionary measure . Workers from the Chevron Corporation and the Anadarko Petroleum Corporation were evacuated from offshore platforms while those working for ConocoPhillips and ExxonMobil remained on site . The Louisiana Offshore Oil Port was also shut down on November 9 as a result of Ida 's passage . As a result of the decreased oil production , the price of oil rose more than $ 1 to $ 78 per barrel . Among the rigs that were damaged was the Transocean Marianas which was drilling the Macondo well . That vessel would be replaced on the Macondo Well by the Deepwater Horizon , which caused the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 .
On November 8 , Lafourche Parish , Louisiana president , Charlotte Randolph , declared a state of emergency for the parish as the storm approached the United States Gulf Coast . Although no evacuations were issued , all schools and government offices were closed through November 10 . Voluntary evacuations were issued for residents in Plaquemines Parish along coastal areas . The Belle Chasse Auditorium was converted into a shelter to house evacuees for the duration of the storm . Grand Isle mayor David Carmadelle issued voluntary evacuation orders for residents in recreational vehicles and trailers on the island . Nearly 1 @,@ 400 families still living in temporary FEMA homes in Louisiana , in the wake of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita , were urged to stay at home .
In Baldwin County , Alabama , a local state of emergency was declared on November 9 as Ida neared landfall . Voluntary evacuations were declared for residents living along coastal areas or in mobile homes . All government offices were closed until November 10 due to the storm . The Baldwin County Coliseum was converted into a shelter to house possible evacuees during the storm as well . In Mississippi , officials advised residents to remain vigilant and discussed possible evacuations . Residents living near Pensacola Beach , Florida , and nearby Perdido Key were urged to evacuate . On November 8 , emergency officials declared a state of emergency in Escambia County . The following day , Walton County was also placed under a state of emergency ahead of Hurricane Ida 's arrival . Voluntary evacuations were issued for residents in low @-@ lying areas and all non @-@ emergency offices were closed until November 10 . The Freeport High School gymnasium was converted into a shelter to house evacuees .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Nicaragua = = =
Throughout Nicaragua , rainfall produced by the storm was significantly less than anticipated according to satellite derived estimates . Initial fears were that more than 15 in ( 380 mm ) of rain would fall ; however , most areas received less than 5 in ( 130 mm ) , especially further inland . A maximum of 9 @.@ 1 in ( 230 mm ) fell in Puerto Cabezas while areas further inland received less than 8 in ( 200 mm ) . The most severe damage took place in Karawala and Corn Island , near where the storm made landfall . There , roughly 80 percent of the structures were destroyed and over 2 @,@ 000 ha ( 4 @,@ 900 acres ) of crops were lost . On Corn Island , 40 homes , 3 schools and a church were destroyed and the electrical and water grids were severely disrupted . Roughly 6 @,@ 000 people from the municipalities of Sandy Bay , Karawala , Kukra Hilla , Laguna de Perlas , El Tortuguero and the mouth of the Rio Grande were evacuated to 54 shelters during the storm . Officials stated that 42 people along the Miskito Coast were unaccounted for as they refused to evacuate before the storm . The day after Ida passed through , officials began to assess the full extent of the hurricane 's damage . An estimated 40 @,@ 000 people were left homeless throughout the country and one person was listed as missing . Mayors of severely affected towns reported that there were numerous injuries , missing persons and extensive property damage . In Nicaragua , there were no confirmed fatalities as a result of Ida .
Damage from Ida in Nicaragua was estimated to be at least 46 million Nicaraguan córdoba ( $ 2 @.@ 12 million USD ) . A total of 1 @,@ 334 people were injured by the storm throughout the country . Final damage assessments from the Nicaraguan Government for mainland Nicaragua were completed on November 12 . A government report said that 283 homes were destroyed and 1 @,@ 899 others damaged ; 1 @,@ 184 latrines were destroyed and 444 were damaged , and 476 wells were destroyed and 1 @,@ 139 were damaged .
Shortly after the storm moved inland , 700 civil defense personnel were deployed to the affected region ; however , due to damaged roads and poor travel conditions , they struggled to reach isolated regions . The Nicaraguan army supplied relief crews with four helicopters and two AN @-@ 2 aircraft for damage surveillance and search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions in the wake of Ida . The government of Nicaragua allocated roughly $ 4 @.@ 4 million in relief funds for those affected by the storm . Several agencies from the United Nations provided residents affected by the storm with relief supplies and donated disaster funds to the country . The United Nations Population Fund provided $ 49 @,@ 000 in funds ; the World Food Programme deployed several rescue vehicles and logistics teams ; UNICEF also provided logistics assistance in the country . OCHA provided $ 2 million in relief funds ; the Government of Sweden provided 400 @,@ 000 Swedish kronor ( $ 55 @,@ 946 USD ) for sanitation and health supplies ; the Netherlands Red Cross also donated 20 @,@ 000 euros ( $ 27 @,@ 226 USD ) for non @-@ food items .
= = = Elsewhere in Central America = = =
In Costa Rica , the outer bands of Ida brought torrential rainfall , triggering isolated landslides . One of these landslides damaged three homes , leading to officials evacuating five families . Homes near Los Diques de Cartago were flooded and the sewage system was damaged , resulting in overflow . In Veraguas Province , Panama , severe flooding displaced more 400 people after 84 homes were inundated up to their roofs . A flooding disaster that killed 124 people in El Salvador was initially attributed to Hurricane Ida , although the National Hurricane Center quickly affirmed that the event resulted from a separate tropical low @-@ pressure system in the Pacific . After weakening to a tropical storm , Ida moved over Honduras , where widespread heavy rains fell . A maximum rainfall of 7 @.@ 1 in ( 180 mm ) was recorded in Puerto Lempira . These rains caused some rivers in the country to swell , but none overflowed its banks . In northern areas of Honduras , minor flooding and fallen trees were reported .
= = = Northern Caribbean = = =
In Cuba , the outer bands of Ida produced widespread heavy rainfall across western areas of the country . A maximum rainfall amount of 12 @.@ 5 in ( 320 mm ) fell in Manuel Lazo , while nearby areas received between 7 and 9 in ( 180 and 230 mm ) . Strong winds , gusting up to 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) in localized areas , accompanied the storm during its passage . Several rivers were swollen due to the rains , including the Cuyaguateje River , which overflowed its banks and flooded nearby areas . In the Yucatan Peninsula , significantly less rain fell due to the asymmetrical structure of Ida even though the peninsula was relatively close to the storm . Isla Holbox , recorded substantial flooding , with roughly 70 percent of the island underwater . However , only minor damage was reported . Little to no beach erosion was sustained in coastal cities such as Cancun ; however , over 50 @,@ 000 tourists were evacuated from Chetumal , Quintana Roo , during the storm . The outer bands of Hurricane Ida also affected Grand Cayman . Moderate rainfall and gusty winds were reported across the island , and waves along the beach were estimated at 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) .
= = = United States = = =
Ahead of Ida 's arrival in the United States , a tight pressure gradient between the hurricane and a high pressure system over the southeastern states resulted in strong winds across southern Florida . These winds , reaching 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in gusts , caused moderate damage in parts of the state . Roughly 3 @,@ 000 people were left without power in Miami @-@ Dade , Broward and Palm Beach counties . Several trees were reported to have been downed and some uprooted . One car was struck by a broken tree limb during the event . Additionally , moderate beach erosion was reported in counties along the Gulf Coast . Rainfall from the system impacted Florida for two days , resulting in accumulations between 3 and 5 in ( 76 and 127 mm ) in parts of the panhandle . A maximum rainfall of 5 @.@ 41 in ( 137 mm ) fell in Pensacola . Coastal and inland flooding resulted in numerous road closures and schools and non @-@ governmental offices were closed on November 10 . Water rise along the coast was estimated between 3 and 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 and 1 @.@ 52 m ) at the height of the storm . Following the storm , a local state of emergency was declared in Wakulla County . Throughout Florida , damage from the storm amounted to $ 265 @,@ 000 .
In Alabama , where Ida made landfall , heavy rains resulted in widespread flash flooding . A maximum of 9 @.@ 83 in ( 250 mm ) of rain fell in Opelika during the storm . Several roads in coastal counties were closed after being covered by high water . Heavy rains in central areas of the state also resulted in moderate flooding . In Calhoun County , a three @-@ block area of Anniston was inundated by 2 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) of water . In addition to the storm 's heavy rains , waves up to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) caused severe damage along coastal regions . A storm surge of 4 @.@ 38 ft ( 1 @.@ 34 m ) was recorded at Bayou La Batre . The Gulf State Park Pier near Gulf Shores , recently re @-@ opened after being destroyed by Hurricane Ivan in 2004 , was damaged . Damage from beach erosion and coastal resorts amounted to roughly $ 9 million in the state .
Before making landfall in Alabama , Hurricane Ida brushed southeastern Louisiana , bringing light to moderate rains and increased surf to the state . Offshore , one person drowned after attempting to assist a boat that let out a distress signal during the storm . The rough seas resulted in moderate to severe beach erosion that caused roughly 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) of levee to collapse . The levee collapse led to minor flooding and threatened three homes . The storm cut a new pass through Elmer 's Island to Grand Isle between 100 and 200 ft ( 30 and 61 m ) wide . A maximum sustained wind of 62 mph ( 99 km / h ) and a gust of 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) was recorded at the mouth of the Mississippi River . The highest rainfall total was recorded in Venice at 1 @.@ 16 in ( 29 mm ) . Although not solely caused by Ida , high tides along the Texas coastline led to a few road closures .
Minor effects from Ida were also experienced in Mississippi , Georgia and Tennessee . In Mississippi , 4 @.@ 13 in ( 105 mm ) of rain fell in Waynesboro . Some flooding was reported in areas near the Alabama border while winds of up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) brought down trees . Along the coast , the hurricane 's storm surge was estimated at between 3 and 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 and 1 @.@ 07 m ) . Heavy rainfall from the storm affected much of Georgia , with a large swath of 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) falling in northern parts of the state . A peak of 7 @.@ 32 in ( 186 mm ) was recorded in Lithonia . Additionally , minor rains affected parts of eastern Tennessee , totaling 4 @.@ 11 in ( 104 mm ) on Mount Le Conte .
= = = Nor 'easter = = =
Along the east coast of the United States , a nor 'easter involving the remnants of Ida resulted in widespread damage along coastal areas . In North Carolina strong winds downed several trees loosened in saturated soil . In Rockingham County , one person was killed after being struck by a branch while driving . Four homes were destroyed along the Outer Banks , and over 500 others were damaged , leaving at least $ 5 @.@ 8 million in losses . Widespread coastal damage and flooding took place in Virginia , as rainfall exceeding 7 in ( 180 mm ) fell in many places and large waves battered beaches . In some areas , roads were closed multiple times due to flooding . Minor damage was also reported as a few homes were inundated with up to 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . Some areas reported a storm surge comparable to that of Hurricanes Gloria in 1985 and Isabel in 2003 . Damage from the storm in Virginia was estimated to be at least $ 38 @.@ 8 million , of which $ 25 million was in Norfolk alone . In New York , one person drowned after being caught in rough seas off Rockaway Beach . Total beach losses in the state reached $ 8 @.@ 2 million .
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= Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji =
Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji ( born Leon Dudley Sorabji ; 14 August 1892 – 15 October 1988 ) was an English composer , music critic , pianist and writer . He was one of the 20th century 's most prolific piano composers .
As a composer and pianist , Sorabji was largely self @-@ taught , and he distanced himself from the main currents of contemporary musical life early in his career . He developed a highly idiosyncratic musical language , with roots in composers as diverse as Busoni , Debussy and Szymanowski , and he dismissed large portions of the established and contemporary repertoire .
A reluctant performer , Sorabji played a few of his works in public between 1920 and 1936 , thereafter " banning " performances of his music until 1976 . Since very few of his compositions were published during those years , he remained in public view mainly by writing essays and music criticism , at the centre of which are his books Around Music and Mi contra fa : The Immoralisings of a Machiavellian Musician . He had a tendency to seclusion , and in the 1950s he moved from London to the village of Corfe Castle , Dorset , where he spent most of the rest of his life quietly .
Sorabji 's music is characterised by frequent use of polyrhythms , complex juxtaposition of tonal and atonal elements , and copious ornamentation . Many of his works contain sections employing strongly contrasting approaches to musical architecture ; some of them use baroque forms , while others are athematic . His musical output consists of over 100 compositions , ranging from aphoristic pieces to works spanning several hours . Most are for piano solo or feature an important piano part , but he also composed for orchestra , chamber ensembles , organ and other instruments . Partly because of this , Sorabji has been described as a descendant of a tradition of composer @-@ pianists such as Frédéric Chopin , Franz Liszt and Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji was born Leon Dudley Sorabji in Chingford , Essex ( now Greater London ) , on 14 August 1892 . His father , Shapurji Sorabji , was a civil engineer of Parsi parentage from Bombay , India , born on 18 August 1863 . His mother , Madeleine Marguerite Mathilde Sorabji ( née Madeline Matilda Worthy ; 13 August 1866 – 5 May 1959 ) , was English . She is said to have been a singer , pianist and organist , but no evidence has been found to support these claims . They married on 18 February 1892 . Shapurji Sorabji had married in India in 1880 but , as no record of his first wife 's death or his divorce from her has yet been traced , it is possible that he married the composer 's mother bigamously .
Very little is known of Sorabji 's biography , particularly his early life and musical beginnings . He studied music with Charles Arthur Trew from the early 1910s until around 1915 , during a private education that is thought to have ended at about the same time . He reportedly started to learn the piano from his mother at an early age , and he later received help ( but no lessons ) from his mother 's friend Emily Edroff @-@ Smith .
The first significant insight into Sorabji 's life comes from his correspondence with Peter Warlock , which began in 1913 . At least partly as a result of Warlock 's influence , Sorabji began to focus on composition and music criticism . In those letters he showed great interest in interacting with the world of musicians — an attitude that changed dramatically in later years . The first significant instance of such interaction took place in November 1919 . Sorabji had sent several of his scores , including that of his First Piano Sonata , to Ernest Newman , who paid them no attention . Sorabji then played the piece to Ferruccio Busoni , who expressed some reservations about the work , but gave him a letter of recommendation , which helped Sorabji get it published .
Already as a teenager , Sorabji took great interest in recent developments in art music — in the work of Schoenberg , Scriabin , Mahler and Debussy , among others — at a time when they received scant attention in the United Kingdom . This interest , along with his ethnicity , cemented his reputation as an outsider . He and his music had their detractors , but some musicians received his work positively : Frederick Delius , who heard a 1930 radio broadcast of Sorabji playing his own piece Le jardin parfumé : Poem for Piano Solo , sent a letter of admiration to Sorabji ; the French – Swiss pianist Alfred Cortot expressed interest in performing Sorabji 's piano concertos ; and Alban Berg reportedly took an interest in Sorabji 's music .
Although Sorabji performed some of his works in the UK and abroad in the 1920s , the most important period of his pianistic career was a result of his friendship with the Scottish composer Erik Chisholm . Their first meeting took place when Sorabji went to Glasgow to premiere his Piano Sonata No. 4 on 1 April 1930 for Chisholm 's Active Society for the Propagation of Contemporary Music . In the Society 's concerts Sorabji played some of the longest works he had written to date : in addition to the Fourth Piano Sonata , he premiered Opus clavicembalisticum and Piano Toccata No. 2 and gave a performance of his Nocturne , " Jāmī " . The two remained friends until Chisholm 's death in 1965 , although their correspondence became less frequent after Chisholm moved to South Africa .
= = = Ban and seclusion = = =
On 10 March 1936 , the pianist John Tobin gave a performance of Pars prima from Opus clavicembalisticum . This performance was highly inadequate , as it lasted twice as long as it should have . Sorabji left before it finished , and later denied having attended it . He gave his last public performance of his music on 16 December 1936 in Glasgow , when he premiered his Piano Toccata No. 2 , and afterwards withdrew from the concert platform for the rest of his life . He later banned unauthorised performances of his music , but it remains unclear when he did so ; Paul Rapoport has argued that it was probably in 1938 or 1939 , but Sorabji 's first announcement of it dates from 1944 . Although the ban was not legally enforceable , Sorabji presented it so sharply and decisively that , for the most part , he achieved his aim . The shift in Sorabji 's attitude to public performances of his music has generally been ascribed to Tobin 's performance , but this explanation has also been described as too simplistic . Apart from misleading reviews of his works by music critics , the deaths of people who were important to him ( Busoni , Warlock and Bernard van Dieren ) , the silence of Sibelius , the changes in Szymanowski 's style and the increasing prominence of Stravinsky and the late Schoenberg have all been put forward as catalysts for his decision to isolate himself from the world of music . The financial implications of his father 's death have also been cited as an important factor .
Sorabji left London in 1951 , and in 1956 he settled in " The Eye " , a house that he had built for himself in the village of Corfe Castle . This has been described as a parallel to his distancing from the world of music .
= = = Fate of his work = = =
From 1936 on , several admirers tried unsuccessfully to persuade Sorabji to record Opus clavicembalisticum . Given that Sorabji had not recorded any of his works , and that none of them had been published since 1931 , his friends and admirers began to be concerned about the fate of his output . The most ambitious attempt to ensure the preservation of his music and writings was initiated by Frank Holliday ( 1912 – 1997 ) , who met Sorabji in 1937 and was his closest friend for about four decades . In the early 1950s Holliday organised the presentation of a letter inviting Sorabji to make recordings of his own music . Sorabji received the letter in 1953 , but made no recordings then , in spite of the enclosed cheque for 121 guineas ( just over £ 127 ) . Holliday 's perseverance and closeness to Sorabji did , however , eventually change Sorabji 's attitude , and several recordings were made in Sorabji 's house between 1962 and 1968 . Holliday also helped with the WNCN broadcast of Sorabji 's music in 1970 ( which took place without Sorabji 's consent ) . Their friendship ended in 1979 as a result of disagreements about some of Sorabji 's decisions .
A similar initiative came from Norman Pierre Gentieu ( 1914 – 2009 ) , an American writer who discovered Sorabji by reading his book Around Music just after the Second World War . Because of the post @-@ war shortages in England , Gentieu sent Sorabji some provisions , and the depth of their friendship appears to have been such that he continued to do so for the next four decades . In the early 1950s Gentieu made an offer to Sorabji to pay for the microfilming of his major piano works and to give some copies to selected libraries . All of his unpublished musical manuscripts were eventually microfilmed . Gentieu also sent Sorabji a tape recorder to record some of his music , but Sorabji did not do so .
Rapoport has argued that Sorabji 's reluctance to make commercial recordings of his music stemmed from a fear of losing control over the making of future recordings of it , because of UK copyright laws of the time .
= = = End of the ban = = =
In November 1969 , the Scottish composer Alistair Hinton , then a student at the Royal College of Music in London , discovered Sorabji 's music in the Westminster Music Library while looking for scores of some guitar works by Fernando Sor . Hinton wrote a letter to Sorabji in March 1972 and met him for the first time in Sorabji 's home on 21 August 1972 . He was Sorabji 's closest friend for the last 16 years of Sorabji 's life .
Not only did Sorabji , who had not written any music since 1968 , return to composition as a result of Hinton 's interest in his work , but on 24 March 1976 he gave the pianist Yonty Solomon permission to play his works in public ( although it has been claimed that Michael Habermann received tentative approval at an earlier date ) . Several recitals ensued and led to the making of a television documentary on Sorabji , which was broadcast in 1977 . The images in it consisted mostly of still photographs of his house ; there was just one brief shot of Sorabji waving to the departing camera crew .
Sorabji went on to take part in two more broadcasts : one in 1979 for the centenary of the birth of composer Francis George Scott , and one in 1980 on BBC Radio 3 , commemorating Nikolai Medtner 's centenary . The former , although lacking any footage of Sorabji , was significant in that it brought about his first meeting with Ronald Stevenson , whose music and writings he had known for more than 20 years . After they met , Sorabji wrote Villa Tasca , a composition for Stevenson . While working on it , Sorabji received his only commission ; it came from Gentieu , acting on behalf of the Philadelphia branch of the Delius Society . Sorabji fulfilled it with Il tessuto d 'arabeschi ( 1979 ) . He dedicated it " To the memory of Delius " and received £ 1 @,@ 000 for it ( equivalent to £ 4 @,@ 563 in present @-@ day terms ) .
= = = Last years = = =
Towards the end of his life , Sorabji ceased composing , because of his failing eyesight and difficulties in holding a pen . His health deteriorated severely in 1986 , obliging him to abandon his home and spend several months in a Wareham hospital . In March 1987 , together with his companion Reginald Norman Best ( 1909 – 1988 ) , he moved into a two @-@ room suite in Marley House Nursing Home , a private nursing home in Winfrith Newburgh , where he was permanently chairbound and received daily nursing care . In June 1988 he suffered a mild stroke , which left him slightly mentally impaired . He died of heart failure on 15 October 1988 at a little after 7 pm , at the age of 96 . He was cremated in Bournemouth Crematorium on 24 October of that year , and the funeral services took place in Corfe Castle Parish Church on the same day .
The Sorabji Archive ( originally called The Sorabji Music Archive ) was founded in 1988 by Hinton ( the sole heir to Sorabji 's oeuvre ) , to disseminate knowledge of Sorabji 's legacy . His musical manuscripts are located in various places across the world .
= = Private life = =
For a long time , it was difficult to discover many details of Sorabji 's life , as he was extraordinarily private . He almost always refused requests for interviews or information , often with sharp messages and warnings not to approach him again . This has led to numerous misunderstandings , such as that he lived in a castle , because he lived in the Dorset village of Corfe Castle . Since he had independent financial means , he felt no need to be tactful in his dealings with the public , critics and musicians interested in performing his works . " The Eye " , Sorabji 's home in Corfe Castle , had a sign at the gate stating : " Visitors Unwelcome " .
Sorabji was homosexual , and in the early 1920s he consulted Havelock Ellis , a British psychologist and writer on sexual psychology , about it . Ellis held progressive views on the subject , and Sorabji expressed high admiration for him , dedicating his Piano Concerto No. 7 , Simorg @-@ Anka ( 1924 ) , to him as an expression of gratitude . Although Sorabji experienced racial harassment in his youth , his homosexuality caused him greater trouble ; he wrote to Holliday that he had once been blackmailed over it .
Sorabji changed his name to demonstrate his strong identification with his Parsi heritage , explaining :
It is also stated that my name , my real name , that is the one I am known by , is not my real name . Now one is given one 's name — one 's authentic ones — at some such ceremony as baptism , Christening , or the like , on the occasion of one 's formal reception into a certain religious Faith . In the ancient Zarathustrian Parsi community to which , on my father 's side , I have the honour to belong , this ceremony is normally performed , as in other Faiths , in childhood , or owing to special circumstances as in my case , later in life , when I assumed my name as it now is or , in the words of the legal document in which this is mentioned " ... received into the Parsi community and in accordance with the custom and tradition thereof , is now and will be henceforth known as ... " and here follows my name as now .
= = = Relationship with his father = = =
Sorabji appears to have had a difficult relationship with his father . Although the father was musically cultured and financed the publication of several of Sorabji 's compositions ( enabling 14 of them to be published between 1921 and 1931 ) , he did not want his son to become a musician . He is also alleged to have brought about the end of his wife 's singing career .
Already in 1896 , Sorabji 's father was back in Bombay , where he played a significant role in the development of India 's engineering and cotton machinery industries , among other things . Although he provided his family with financial support , he spent much of his time abroad and on 17 June 1929 bigamously married Nobubai Visvonata Catcar , causing Sorabji and his mother a substantial loss of fortune . He died in Bad Nauheim , Germany , on 8 July 1932 . In the same year , Sorabji travelled to India to settle matters related to his father 's estate , but obtained nothing but money from a trust fund that his father had established in 1914 . Nevertheless , it saved him from having to earn a living , although his lifestyle was ascetic .
= = = Religious views = = =
In his early years , Sorabji took an active interest in the occult — according to Rapoport , he was a mystic — and many of his early works contain occult inscriptions . For a time , he was a member of the London Society of Psychical Research . So interested was he in occultism that he even met Aleister Crowley in 1922 , an event that Sorabji found disappointing and caused him to describe Crowley as " the dullest of dull dogs " . His occult interests also led to his friendship with Bernard Bromage ( 1899 – 1957 ) , an English writer on mysticism and a member of the secret order of the Fraternity of Inner Light . Bromage was one of Sorabji 's closest friends for 20 years , acting as joint trustee of the Shapurji Sorabji Trust between 1933 and 1941 and producing an index to Sorabji 's book Around Music . Their relationship ended abruptly in 1942 .
Sorabji 's early preoccupation with the occult subsided , and he became more interested in other religions , although it is not known whether he practised any . He was enthusiastic about Parsi culture , but became disillusioned with Parsis after visiting India in 1932 . He embraced only a few of aspects of Zoroastrianism , and in later years he was interested in Roman Catholicism , although he did not take it up . For much of his life he practised yoga , but it is not known what branch of it .
= = Music = =
= = = Early works = = =
Although there has been speculation about earlier works , Sorabji 's earliest known ( albeit lost ) composition is a transcription dating from 1914 of Delius 's In a Summer Garden . His early works are predominantly piano sonatas , songs and piano concertos . Of these , Piano Sonatas Nos. 1 – 3 ( 1919 ; 1920 ; 1922 ) are compositionally the most ambitious and significant . They are characterised mainly by their use of the single @-@ movement format and by their athematism . The main criticism levelled at them is that they lack stylistic consistency and organic form . Sorabji himself developed a largely unfavourable view of his early works , to the extent that late in his life he even considered destroying many of their manuscripts .
= = = Mature works and symphonic thought = = =
Various people have stated that Sorabji achieved compositional maturity with Three Pastiches for Piano ( 1922 ) and Le jardin parfumé : Poem for Piano Solo ( 1923 ) , or with only the latter , but Sorabji himself regarded his First Organ Symphony ( 1924 ) as his first mature work . It is his first piece in which baroque organisational principles play an important role . The union of these and his earlier compositional ideas led to the emergence of what has been described as his " symphonic style " , which provided the basis for most of his piano and organ symphonies . The first piece to apply the architectural blueprint of this style is his Fourth Piano Sonata ( 1928 – 29 ) . It consists of three sections :
A " tapestry of motives " ;
An ornamental slow movement ( almost always labelled as a nocturne ) ;
A closing compound movement , which includes a fugue .
Sorabji 's symphonic first movements have been labelled as " symphonic tapestries " and " a kind of pure music drama " . Their organisation is related to that of his Second and Third Piano Sonatas and to that of the closing movement of the First Organ Symphony . They have been described as being based superficially on either the fugue or the sonata @-@ allegro form , but they differ from the normal application of those forms in that the exposition and development of themes are guided not by conventional tonal principles but by the way the themes , in the words of the musicologist Simon John Abrahams , " battle with each other for domination of the texture " . These movements can last over 90 minutes , and their thematic character varies considerably : while the opening movement of his Fourth Piano Sonata ( 1928 – 29 ) introduces seven themes , that of his Second Piano Symphony ( 1954 ) has sixty @-@ four .
The nocturnes are generally considered to be among Sorabji 's most accessible works , and they are also some of his most prestigious ; they have been described by Habermann as the best of his output , and by the pianist Fredrik Ullén as " perhaps ... his most personal and original contribution as a composer . " Sorabji 's descriptions of his Symphony No. 2 , Jāmī , give an insight into their organisation . In a 1942 letter , Sorabji compared this composition to his Gulistān — Nocturne for Piano , and he later wrote of the symphony 's " self @-@ cohesive texture relying upon its own inner consistency and cohesiveness without relation to thematic or other matters " . Melodic material is treated loosely in these works , reflecting their harmonic freedom ; ornamentation and textural patterns assume a preeminent position . Because of their emphasis on non @-@ thematic processes , the nocturnes have been described as " static " . Some examples of them are The Garden of Irām , Anāhata Cakra and Symphonic Nocturne for Piano Alone .
Sorabji 's fugues , the most atonal of his works , generally follow traditional methods . After a subject and between one and four countersubjects have been presented in an exposition , there follows a development section in which the subject ( and countersubjects , particularly in the earlier fugues ) are usually developed in their original form and in inversion , retrograde and retrograde inversion . The movement continues with a stretto and concludes with a section featuring augmentation and a thickening of lines into chords . His multi @-@ subject fugues repeat this pattern for each subject , and combine thematic material from all expositions in the last section . The fugues are more conservative than most of his output , in that they rarely use polyrhythms . They can contain up to six subjects , and it is these that mark Sorabji 's fugues as different from most others . Some of the subjects are among his most unconventional melodic creations , lacking the frequent changes of direction that characterise most melodies ; other subjects are possibly the longest ever conceived . This has led some people either to treat them with suspicion or to criticise them .
Other important forms in Sorabji 's mature work are the toccata and the variation set . The latter , along with his non @-@ orchestral symphonies , are his most ambitious works and have been praised for the imagination exhibited in them . Sequentia cyclica super " Dies irae " ex Missa pro defunctis ( 1948 – 49 ) , a set of 27 variations on the original Dies Irae plainchant , is considered by some to be his greatest work . His toccatas are more modest in scope and take the structure of Busoni 's work of the same name as their starting point .
= = = Late works = = =
Already in 1953 , Sorabji manifested a lack of interest in continuing to compose , when he described his Sequentia cyclica super " Dies irae " ex Missa pro defunctis ( 1948 – 49 ) as " the climax and crown of his work for the piano and , in all probability , the last he will write " . Around 1968 , Sorabji vowed to cease composing , and eventually stopped doing so after writing Concertino non grosso for String Sextet with Piano obbligato quasi continuo ( 1968 ) .
Hinton played a crucial role in Sorabji 's resumption of compositional activities . Sorabji 's next two pieces , Benedizione di San Francesco d 'Assisi and Symphonia brevis for Piano , were written in 1973 , the year after the two first met , and mark the beginning of what several people have identified as Sorabji 's " late style " , one characterised by thinner textures and a denser harmonic idiom .
= = = Style and inspiration = = =
Sorabji 's early influences include Cyril Scott , Ravel , Leo Ornstein and particularly Scriabin . He later became more critical of Scriabin and , after meeting Busoni in 1919 , was influenced primarily by the latter . His mature work was also significantly influenced by Alkan , Debussy , Godowsky , Reger and Szymanowski .
Sorabji was also influenced by Eastern culture . According to Michael Habermann , this manifests itself in the following ways : highly supple and irregular rhythmic patterns , abundant ornamentation , an improvisatory and timeless feel , frequent polyrhythmic writing and the vast dimensions of some of his compositions .
Non @-@ musical subjects , both religious and numerological , influenced Sorabji 's music , too , and he took inspiration from various sources . His Fifth Piano Sonata ( Opus archimagicum ) is inspired by the tarot , and his Tāntrik Symphony for Piano Alone has seven movements titled after the bodily centres of Tantric and Shaktic yoga . The song Benedizione di San Francesco d 'Assisi sets the text of a Catholic benediction . However , Sorabji did not intend the first two of these works to be programmatic , and he heaped scorn on attempts to represent stories or ideologies in music . Nevertheless , some of his works have been described as programmatic .
Sorabji , who claimed to be of Spanish – Italian – Sicilian ancestry , composed various pieces that reflect an enthusiasm for those cultures , such as Fantasia ispanica , Rosario d 'arabeschi and Passeggiata veneziana sopra la Barcarola di Offenbach . These are works of a Mediterranean character and are inspired by Busoni 's Elegy No. 2 , All 'Italia , and the Spanish music of Isaac Albéniz , Debussy , Enrique Granados and Liszt . They are considered among his outwardly more virtuosic and musically less ambitious works .
= = = = Harmony , counterpoint and form = = = =
Sorabji 's counterpoint stems from Busoni 's and Reger 's . The influence of these composers led Sorabji to employ various baroque contrapuntal forms ( chorale prelude , passacaglia , fugue and others ) , but he rejected the symmetry and forms that characterise the music of composers such as Mozart and Brahms . Sorabji was dismissive of the Classical style , mainly because he saw it as restricting the musical material to conform to a " ready @-@ made mould " , and his musical thinking is closer to that of the Baroque era than to the Classical .
Ornamentation assumes a preeminent role in much of Sorabji 's music . His harmonic language , which frequently combines tonal and atonal elements , is thus freer than in the music of many other composers and less amenable to analysis . Like many other 20th @-@ century composers , Sorabji displays a fondness for tritone and semitone relationships . The opening gesture of his Fourth Piano Sonata , for example , emphasises these two intervals , and the two long pedal points in its third movement are a tritone apart . However , some people have remarked that his music rarely contains the tension that is commonly associated with very dissonant music .
= = = Creative process and notation = = =
Because of Sorabji 's sense of privacy , little is known about his compositional process . Other people 's accounts of it state that he composed off the cuff and did not revise his work , and it has been claimed that he used yoga to gather " creative energies " . These claims , however , contradict statements made by Sorabji himself ( as well as some of his musical manuscripts ) , which reveal that he planned his compositions carefully in advance and used yoga to regulate his thoughts . Nevertheless , he wrote extremely fast , and there is an unusually high number of ambiguities and inconsistencies in his musical autographs . They are among the most distinctive features of his scores , and have prompted comparisons with his other characteristics . Hinton suggested a link between them and Sorabji 's speech , saying , " he invariably spoke at a speed almost too great for intelligibility " , and Stevenson remarked , " One sentence could embrace two or three languages . " A state of frenzy is reflected in several of Sorabji 's letters to Chisholm , which provide a unique insight into the creation of Opus clavicembalisticum and into Sorabji 's feelings while writing music , showing that Sorabji found composition highly enervating .
= = = Pianism = = =
= = = = As a performer = = = =
Sorabji 's pianistic abilities have been the subject of much contention . After his early lessons , he appears to have been self @-@ taught . In the 1920s and 1930s , when his works were being published for the first time and he was performing some of them in public , there were controversies involving their alleged unplayability and his pianistic proficiency . At the same time , some people — particularly his closest friends — hailed him as a first @-@ class virtuoso . From this disagreement it has been inferred that he was neither sloppy nor a player of the highest calibre . Sorabji repeatedly denied being a professional pianist and always focused primarily on composition ; from 1939 , he no longer practised the piano very often . He was a reluctant performer and had difficulty handling the pressure of performing in public . The private recordings that he made of some of his works in the 1960s contain substantial deviations from his scores ( although largely due to his impatience and disinterest in playing clearly and accurately ) . This has been used to argue that the early criticisms of his playing were at least partly justified and that the negative reviews of his music by some of its first listeners were the result of flaws in his performances .
= = = = As a composer = = = =
Many of Sorabji 's works are written for the piano or have an important piano part . His writing for the instrument was influenced by that of composers such as Liszt , Alkan and Godowsky , and he has been described as a composer @-@ pianist in their tradition , partly because he was one of the 20th century 's most prolific piano composers . It exhibits particularly the influence of Godowsky , specifically in its polyphony and its use of polyrhythms and polydynamics . This necessitated the regular use of systems of more than two staves in Sorabji 's keyboard parts , reaching its peak on page 124 of the manuscript of his Third Organ Symphony ( 1949 – 53 ) , which uses 11 staves , as well as frequent calls for use of the sostenuto pedal .
Sorabji 's piano writing has been praised by some for its variety and understanding of the piano 's sonorities . His approach to the piano was non @-@ percussive , and he emphasised that his music is conceived vocally . He once described Opus clavicembalisticum as " a colossal song " , and Geoffrey Douglas Madge said that his piano playing had much in common with bel canto singing . Sorabji once said , " If a composer can 't sing , a composer can 't compose . "
His piano music — not just that which is designated as symphonic — often strives to emulate the sounds of instruments other than the piano , as is evident from score markings such as " quasi organo pieno " ( like a full organ ) , " pizzicato " and " quasi tuba con sordino " ( like a muted tuba ) . In this respect , Alkan was a key source of inspiration ; Sorabji admired his " orchestral " writing for the piano and was influenced by his Concerto for Solo Piano and his Symphony for Solo Piano .
= = Writings = =
As a writer , Sorabji is best known for his music criticism , the bulk of which is contained in the books Around Music ( 1932 ) and Mi contra fa : The Immoralisings of a Machiavellian Musician ( 1947 ) . He contributed to various well @-@ known publications dealing with music in England , including The New Age , The New English Weekly , The Musical Times and Musical Opinion . He revised some of those articles and included them in his two books . His writings also devote attention to various non @-@ musical issues : he was , among other things , a critic of British rule in India and a proponent of birth control and legalised abortion . Being homosexual at a time when homosexual acts were illegal in England , he wrote of the biological and social realities that homosexuals faced during much of his lifetime .
Sorabji first expressed interest in becoming a music critic in 1914 , and he started contributing criticism to The New Age in 1924 , after it had published some of his letters to the editor . By 1930 , Sorabji had become disillusioned with concert life and developed a growing interest in gramophone recordings , believing that he would eventually lose all reason to attend concerts . In 1945 he stopped providing regular reviews and only occasionally submitted his writings to correspondence columns in various journals . While his earlier writings reflect a contempt for the music world in general — from its businessmen to its performers — his later reviews tend to be more detailed and less caustic .
Although in his youth Sorabji was attracted to what were then the newest developments in European art music , his musical tastes were essentially conservative . He had a particular affinity for late Romantic and Impressionist composers , such as Mahler , Debussy , Medtner and Delius , and his main bêtes noires were Stravinsky , the late Schoenberg and Hindemith . He rejected serialism and dodecaphony , considering both to be based on artificial precepts , and he criticised even the later tonal works and transcriptions of Schoenberg . He loathed the rhythmic character of Stravinsky 's music and what he perceived as its brutality and lack of melodic qualities . He viewed Stravinsky 's neoclassicism as a sign of lack of imagination . Shostakovich and Fauré are among the composers whom Sorabji initially condemned but later admired .
Sorabji 's writings also give an idea of his attitude towards performance practice , which was strongly Romantic ( that is to say , free ) . He dismissed performers like Albert Schweitzer and praised Egon Petri , Wanda Landowska and others for their ability to " re @-@ create " music . ( He also encouraged a less @-@ than @-@ literal approach to his compositions . )
= = Legacy = =
= = = Reception = = =
Assessments of Sorabji 's music vary widely . While some , such as the pianist John Ogdon and the organist Kevin Bowyer , speak of him as comparable to such composers as Bach , Beethoven , Chopin and Messiaen , others dismiss him altogether . Reviews of concerts featuring Sorabji 's music tend to be similarly mixed , some reviewers elevating him to the ranks of figures such as Debussy , and others describing his music as vacuous .
The pianist and composer Jonathan Powell writes of Sorabji 's " unusual ability to combine the disparate and create surprising coherence " . Abrahams finds that Sorabji 's musical oeuvre exhibits enormous " variety and imagination " and the ability to " develop a unique personal style and employ it freely at any scale he chose " . Bowyer counts Sorabji 's organ works , together with those of Messiaen , as among the " Twentieth Century Works of Genius " .
Others have expressed more negative sentiments . The English pianist Ian Pace describes Sorabji 's music as that of " a massive ego thoroughly unaware of its crushing banality . " The music critic Andrew Clements calls Sorabji " just another 20th @-@ century English eccentric ... whose talent never matched [ his ] musical ambition . " The music journalist Max Harrison , in his review of Rapoport 's book Sorabji : A Critical Celebration , heavily criticised Sorabji 's compositions , piano playing , music criticism and personal conduct and implied that " nobody cared except a few close friends " ; this , however , is in curiously stark contrast to his fulsomely enthusiastic reviews of some of Sorabji 's piano works in London performances by pianist Yonty Solomon .
Sorabji 's isolation , and sometimes the resulting lack of interaction with the music world , have been the target of criticism even by his admirers . His writings have also been highly divisive , being described by some as profoundly perceptive and enlightening , and by others as misguided .
= = = Innovation = = =
Sorabji has been described as a conservative composer who developed a highly idiosyncratic style fusing diverse influences . Even so , parallels have been identified between him and more progressive composers . Ullén describes Sorabji 's Études transcendantes ( 100 ) ( 1940 – 44 ) as pieces that might be seen as " presages of the piano music of , say , Ligeti , Finnissy or Ferneyhough " , although he cautions against overstating this . Some of Sorabji 's pieces have even been described as forerunners of the music of Nancarrow . According to Habermann , " The rhythmic structures within brackets [ in Sorabji 's nocturnes ] predate the complicated rhythms of Messiaen and Stockhausen . " Habermann also argues that Sorabji 's fusion of tonality and atonality into a different approach to relationships between harmonies is a significant innovation .
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= 55 Cancri =
55 Cancri ( / ˈkæŋkraɪ / or / ˈkæŋkriː / ) ( abbreviated 55 Cnc ) is a binary star approximately 41 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Cancer . The system consists of a G @-@ type star ( designated 55 Cancri A , also named Copernicus ) and a smaller red dwarf ( 55 Cancri B ) .
As of 2015 , five extrasolar planets ( designated 55 Cancri b , c , d , e and f ; named Galileo , Brahe , Lipperhey , Janssen and Harriot , respectively ) are believed to orbit 55 Cancri A.
= = Nomenclature = =
55 Cancri is the system 's Flamsteed designation . It also bears the Bayer designation Rho1 Cancri and the Bright Star Catalogue designation HR 3522 . The two components are designated A and B , though A is itself sometimes referred to as 55 Cancri . The first planet discovered orbiting 55 Cancri A was designated HR 3522b by its discoverers , though it is more commonly referred to as 55 Cancri b . Under the rules for naming objects in binary star systems it should be named 55 Cancri Ab and this more formal form is occasionally used to avoid confusion with the secondary star 55 Cancri B. The other planets discovered were designated 55 Cancri c , d , e and f , in order of their discovery .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning names were Copernicus for 55 Cancri A and Galileo , Brahe , Lipperhey , Janssen and Harriot for its planets ( b , c , d , e and f , respectively ) .
The winning names were those submitted by the Royal Netherlands Association for Meteorology and Astronomy of the Netherlands . They honor the astronomers Nicolaus Copernicus , Galileo Galilei , Tycho Brahe and Thomas Harriot and the spectacle makers and telescope pioneers Hans Lipperhey and Jacharias Janssen . ( The IAU originally announced the winning name was Lippershey for 55 Cancri d . In January 2016 , in recognition that his actual name was Lipperhey ( with Lippershey an error introduced in the 19th century ) , the exoplanet name was corrected to Lipperhey by the IAU and that name was submitted to the official sites that keep track of astronomical information . )
= = Stellar system = =
The 55 Cancri system is located fairly close to our solar system : the Hipparcos astrometry satellite measured the parallax of 55 Cancri A as 81 @.@ 03 milliarcseconds , corresponding to a distance of 12 @.@ 3 parsecs ( 40 @.@ 3 light years ) . 55 Cancri A has an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 95 , making it just visible to the naked eye under very dark skies . The red dwarf 55 Cancri B is of the 13th magnitude and only visible through a telescope . The two components are separated by an estimated distance of 1065 AU ( one thousand times the distance from the Earth to the Sun ) . Despite their wide separation , the two stars appear to be gravitationally bound , as they share a common proper motion .
The primary star , 55 Cancri A , is a yellow dwarf star of main sequence spectral type G8V . It is smaller in radius and slightly less massive than the Sun , and so is cooler and less luminous . The star has only low emission from its chromosphere , and is not variable in the visible spectrum ; but it is variable in X @-@ rays . It is more enriched than our sun in elements heavier than helium , with 186 % the solar abundance of iron ; it is therefore classified as a rare " super metal @-@ rich " ( SMR ) star . This abundance of metal makes estimating the star 's age and mass difficult , as evolutionary models are less well defined for such stars . Age estimates for 55 Cancri A include 7 @.@ 4 @-@ 8 @.@ 7 billion years and 10 @.@ 2 ± 2 @.@ 5 billion years .
A hypothesis for the high metal content in SMR dwarf stars is that material enriched in heavy elements fell into the atmosphere from a protoplanetary disk . This would pollute the star 's external layers , resulting in a higher than normal metallicity . The lack of a deep convection zone would mean that the outer layers would retain higher abundance ratios of these heavy elements .
Observations of 55 Cancri A in the submillimeter region of the spectrum have thus far failed to detect any associated dust . The upper limit on emissions within 100 AU of this star is about 850 mJy , at a wavelength of 850 μm . This limits the total mass of fine dust around the star to less than 0 @.@ 01 % of the Earth 's mass . However , this does not exclude the presence of an asteroid belt or a Kuiper belt equivalent .
The secondary , 55 Cancri B , is a red dwarf star much less massive and luminous than the Sun . There are indications that component B may itself be a double star , though this is uncertain .
= = Planetary system = =
The 55 Cancri system was the first known to have four , and later five planets , and may possibly have more . The innermost planet , e , transits 55 Cancri A as viewed from Earth . The next planet , b , is non @-@ transiting but there is tentative evidence that it is surrounded by an extended atmosphere that does transit the star .
In 1997 , the discovery of a 51 Pegasi @-@ like planet orbiting 55 Cancri A was announced , together with the planet of Tau Boötis and the inner planet of Upsilon Andromedae . The planet was discovered by measuring the star 's radial velocity , which showed a periodicity of around 14 @.@ 7 days corresponding to a planet at least 78 % of the mass of Jupiter . These radial velocity measurements still showed a drift unaccounted @-@ for by this planet , which could be explained by the gravitational influence of a more distant object .
In 1998 the discovery of a possible dust disk around 55 Cancri A was announced . Calculations gave the disk radius at least 40 AU , similar to the Kuiper belt in our solar system , with an inclination of 25 ° with respect to the plane of the sky . However , the discovery could not be verified and was later deemed to be spurious , caused instead by background radiation .
After making further radial velocity measurements , a planet orbiting at a distance of around 5 AU was announced in 2002 . This planet received the designation 55 Cancri d . At the time of discovery , the planet was thought to be in an orbit of mild eccentricity ( close to 0 @.@ 1 ) , but this value was increased by later measurements . Even after accounting for these two planets , a periodicity at 43 days remained , possibly due to a third planet . Measurements of the star suggested that this was close to the star 's rotation period , which raised the possibility that the 43 @-@ day signal was caused by stellar activity . This possible planet received the designation 55 Cancri c .
55 Cancri e was announced in 2004 . With 8 @.@ 3 Earth masses , it is a large super @-@ Earth which was originally thought to have an orbital period of 2 @.@ 8 days , though it was later found that this was an alias of its true period of 0 @.@ 78 days by observations of e transiting in 2011 . This planet was the first instance of a fourth extrasolar planet in one system , and was the shortest @-@ period planet until the discovery of PSR J1719 @-@ 1438 b . The measurements that led to the discovery of this planet also confirmed the existence of 55 Cancri c .
In 2005 , Jack Wisdom suggested that e actually had a period of 261 days and had a mass similar to that of Neptune in a 261 @-@ day orbit ( corresponding to 0 @.@ 77 AU in distance ) . However , the planets were found to not conflict , and hence 55 Cancri f , the first occurrence of a fifth extrasolar planet in one system , was announced in 2007 . With a similar mass to c , it has a 260 @-@ day orbit , towards the inner edge of 55 Cancri A 's habitable zone . The planet itself is not thought to be conducive to life , but hypothetical moons in principle could maintain at least microbial life .
The planet e 's eccentricity is poorly defined ; varying values between 0 and 0 @.@ 4 does not significantly improve the fit , so an eccentricity of 0 @.@ 2 was assumed . Taking interactions between the planets into account results in a near @-@ zero orbital eccentricity .
Astrometric observations with the Hubble Space Telescope measured an inclination of 53 ° of the outer planet d , though this result relies on the precise orbital parameters which have been substantially revised since this was published . The observed transits of e suggest an orbit normal inclined within 9 ° to the line @-@ of @-@ light , and a possible detection of the transit of an extended atmosphere around 55 Cancri b would , if confirmed , imply that it too is in an orbit that is close to edge @-@ on . Between them , no measurement of c 's nor f 's inclination has been made . It had been thought that with five planets , the system cannot deviate far from coplanar in order to maintain stability . An attempt to measure the spin @-@ orbit misalignment of the innermost planet reported that it was in a nearly polar orbit , but this interpretation of the data has since been challenged by a subsequent study , with noted inconsistencies between the implied and measured stellar rotation .
The approximate ratios of periods of adjacent orbits are ( proceeding outward ) : 1 : 20 , 1 : 3 , 1 : 6 , 1 : 20 . The nearly 1 : 3 ratio between 55 Cancri b and c is apparently a near resonance , rather than a genuine mean motion resonance .
More planets are possible within the stable zone , between f and d at 0 @.@ 9 to 3 @.@ 8 AU with eccentricities below 0 @.@ 4 . Given hypothetical planet g of up to 50 Earth masses , stable mean motion resonance regions lie at 3f : 2g , 2g : 1d , and 3g : 2d . As for the space outside d 's orbit , its stability zone begins beyond 10 AU , though there is a stability zone between 8 @.@ 6 - 9 AU due to a 2 : 1 resonance .
= = Communication = =
A METI message was sent to 55 Cancri . It was transmitted from Eurasia 's largest radar – 70 @-@ meter ( 230 @-@ foot ) Eupatoria Planetary Radar . The message was named Cosmic Call 2 ; it was sent on July 6 , 2003 , and it will arrive at 55 Cancri in May 2044 .
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= Saluki =
The Saluki or Persian Greyhound is a dog breed originating in the Fertile Crescent and Persia . The Saluki is classed as a sighthound and is typically deep @-@ chested and long @-@ legged . Salukis tend to be independent animals requiring patient training and are gentle and affectionate with their owners .
= = Name = =
The two ancient Sumerian words " Salu @-@ ki " translate into " plunge @-@ earth . " However there is no evidence the breed was referred to by the Sumerians with this name nor what " plunge to earth " might have meant in reference to the Saluki . The name of the breed first appeared in writing in pre @-@ Islamic Arabic poetry and may have derived from " Saluqiyyah , " the Arabic form of Seleucia . However , this is disputed . British diplomat Sir Terence Clark wrote that the Arabic word " Saluqi " describes a person or thing from a place named Saluq .
Arab tradition states that Saluq was an ancient town in Yemen not far from modern Ta 'izz , and the Arabs associate this town with the origin of the breed . However , the word " saluqi " might have been derived from reference to several other places : Saluq in Armenia , and three towns called Saluqiyah . One has become modern Silifke ( Turkey ) , another is near Antioch ( modern Antakya , Turkey ) and third is located near Baghdad ( Iraq ) . The latter was the capital of the Seleucid Empire ( 312 BC - 65 AD ) and the adjective saluqi may have been derived by the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula from the similar sounding word for Seleucid used in the Aramaic and Syriac languages spoken there by the various peoples of that part of Mesopotamia , but there is no irrefutable evidence .
= = Description = =
Salukis are " sight " hounds — hunting by sight — and run their quarry down to kill or retrieve it . The normal size range for the breed is 23 – 28 inches ( 58 – 71 cm ) high at the withers and 40 – 60 pounds ( 18 – 27 kg ) in weight . Females Salukis are slightly smaller than males . The head is long and narrow with large eyes and drop ears . The tail of the breed is long and curved . It has the typical deep @-@ chested , long @-@ legged body of sighthounds . The coat comes in a variety of colors including white , cream , fawn , red , grizzle / tan , black / tan , and tri @-@ color ( white , black and tan ) .
The overall appearance of the Saluki is one of grace and symmetry . Two coat types — smooth and feathered — are evident in the breed 's gene pool . The latter variety has light feathering on the back of the legs and thighs . The fur on both types is silky and is low @-@ shedding when compared to other breeds .
= = Swiftness and physical capacity = =
While the Greyhound is credited as being the fastest dog breed up to distances of around 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , both the Saluki and Whippet breeds are thought to be faster over longer distances . In 1996 , The Guinness Book of Records listed a Saluki as being the fastest dog , capable of reaching a speed of 68 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 42 @.@ 8 mi ) per hour . Due to its heavily padded feet being able to absorb the impact on its body , the Saluki has remarkable stamina when running .
Historically , Salukis were used for hunting by nomadic tribes . Typical quarry included the gazelle , hare , fox and jackal . While hunting hares , Bedouin hunters would sometimes ride close to their quarry on a camel holding a Saluki , which would be thrown towards the prey while at speed to give the dog a running start . Gazelle hunters also used hawks to gouge out the eyes of the prey so that a Saluki could then bring down the blinded animal .
= = Temperament = =
The modern Saluki has retained qualities of hunting hounds and may seem reserved to strangers . The often independent and aloof breed may be difficult to train . Training methods should always be gentle and patient . Salukis may bore easily and are not an ideal breed to leave unattended for long periods . The Saluki does not typically enjoy rough games or activities such as retrieving balls . Early socialization will help prevent timidity and shyness in later life . Given its hunting instincts , the dog is prone to chasing moving objects .
= = Health = =
Hip dysplasia is uncommon in Salukis , with the breed ranking joint lowest in a survey by the British Veterinary Association in 2003 . The breed scored an average of 5 points , with a score of 0 being low , while 106 is high . In a 2006 breed specific survey conducted by The Kennel Club and the British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee , responses highlighted several health issues . The primary cause of death identified was that of cancer , being responsible for 35 @.@ 6 % of deaths , with the most common forms being that of liver cancer or lymphoma . The secondary cause of death was cardiac related , with forms such as heart failure , or unspecified heart defects . Old age is listed as the third most frequent cause of death .
Cardiomyopathy , heart murmur and other cardiac issues were present in 17 @.@ 2 % of responses while dermatolic conditions such as dermatitis or alopecia were reported by 10 @.@ 8 % of responses . Salukis have an average lifespan of 12 to 14 years , which is similar to other breeds of their size .
= = History = =
The Saluki are one of the earliest dog breeds , splitting off ( together with the related Afghan Hound ) from the rest of dog breeds in the fourth major genetic split .
The Saluki was historically bred in the Fertile Crescent where agriculture originated . Images of running dogs with long , narrow bodies adorn pottery found in Susa that dates back to 6 @,@ 000 years ago in ancient Mesopotamia , with one writer suggesting that these might depict the ancestor of the saluki , despite the depictions bearing erect , pointed ears . Salukis and greyhounds were increasingly depicted on Egyptian tombs from the The Middle Kingdom ( 2134 BC – 1785 BC ) onward , however it was during the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt that Salukis rose to prominence , replacing the Tesem ( thought to be similar to modern Pariah dogs or a generic term for a dog ) in ancient Egyptian art . The breed spread southward into the Sudan .
From Iran , the breed is mentioned in the poetry of Khaghani ( 1121 @-@ 1190 ) , depicted in miniature paintings of hunting scenes along with horseback archers by Master Kamāl ud @-@ Dīn Behzād ( 1450 – 1535 ) , depicted in book illustrations by ' Abd al @-@ Wahhab ibn ' Abd al @-@ Fattah ibn ' Ali ( 1516 ) , and in metal @-@ smithing from the reign of the Injuid prince , Jamal al Dine Abu Is 'haq , created between 1342 – 1353 . One of the more outstanding pieces of sculpture in Iran is the Savashi Canyon Relief , carved around 1800 , that was commissioned by Shar Fath @-@ Ali Shah Qajar to commemorate his hunting exploits .
The Silk Road was a trading route that stretched from ancient Iran to China . From China , examples of the breed were painted by the fifth Ming Emperor Zhū Zhānjī , known more commonly as the Xuande Emperor during the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) . The inscription on the painting reads " playfully painted [ by the ] imperial brush " in 1427 . Additional red seals were added in later years by owners of the painting , which also reveals that the painting was in the Imperial Chinese collection in the 18th century .
From Europe , the legend maintains that the returning crusaders brought the Saluki back from the Middle East . The painting of Henry IV , Duke of Saxony with his hunting dog , painted by Lucas Cranach the Elder in 1514 , is thought by some to be a Saluki . The dog wears a collar decorated with a scallop shell , which is the badge of a pilgrim who has traveled the Way of Saint James in Spain . Salukis appear in Paolo Veronese 's 1573 work The Adoration of the Magi ( also known as the Adoration of the Kings ) , currently located at the National Gallery , London . Veronese painted the breed in another two of his religious paintings : the The Marriage at Cana and The Finding of Moses .
Sheik Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa , King of Bahrain during the 1930s , was known for a pack of Salukis that accompanied him throughout the Arab world on hunting trips . Following his death , his son Salman ibn Hamad Al Khalifa attempted to keep the lines pure @-@ bred but they became interbred with other breeds . However , the pure @-@ bred lines of the royal kennel were saved by the efforts of Dana Al Khalifa who was given two pure @-@ bred puppies by the King , and about a decade later had pure @-@ bred Salukis registered with the Kennel Club of Bahrain . Today , the breed is still held in high regard throughout the Middle East and were hunting dogs for nobles and rulers around the region . They are considered clean by the Bedouins , and are allowed to be in women 's quarters , while other dogs must be kept outside .
In 2014 , a DNA study compared dogs and wolves for AMY2B ( Alpha @-@ Amylase 2B ) , which is a gene that codes a protein that assists with the first step in the digestion of dietary starch and glycogen . An expansion of this gene in dogs would enable early dogs to exploit a starch @-@ rich diet as they fed on refuse from agriculture . Data indicated that the wolves and dingo had just 2 copies of the gene , the Siberian Husky that is associated with hunter @-@ gatherers had just 3 – 4 copies , " whereas the Saluki , which was historically bred in the Fertile Crescent where agriculture originated , has 29 copies " .
= = = Breeding in the West = = =
It was not until 1840 , that the Salukis were first brought to England . Referred to as Slughis , they and the modern Sloughi were treated as the same breed , however recent genetic tests have shown that the two breeds are genetically separate . The first successful modern breeding line of Salukis began in 1895 , with Florence Amherst ( daughter of the 1st Baron Amherst of Hackney ) . Having seen Salukis on a Nile tour in that year , she imported a breeding pair from the Al Salihah area of Lower Egypt . A champion of breed purity , she struggled alone for nearly three decades , and real Saluki popularity did not take hold until the early 1920s , when officers returning from the war in the Middle East and the Arab Revolt brought their pet Salukis home with them .
One of these was Brigadier General Frederick Lance of the 19th Lancers , and his wife , Gladys , returned to Britain with two Salukis from Sarona , where he was stationed during the post @-@ war occupation . The Lances were both keen hunters , and rode with their pack of dogs , including both Salukis and terriers , to course jackal and Dorcas Gazelle whilst stationed in the desert . They imported a male , called Sarona Kelb , who became an influence on the breed in the West .
Together , the Lances and Florence Amherst mounted a campaign for recognition of the Middle Eastern breed , that coincided with the phenomenon of " Tutmania " caused by Howard Carter 's discovery of Tutankhamun 's tomb in late 1922 . In 1923 , the Saluki or Gazelle Hound Club was formed , and the Kennel Club granted official recognition to the breed . The first registered Salukis in the western studbook were Cyrus and Slongha Peri imported from Iran and registered with the DWZRV . DWZRV also records the first litter in 1922 .
Imports to England during the inter @-@ war years were chiefly from areas of British military influence and commerce : Bahrain , Egypt , Transjordan , and Iraq . Both Florence Amherst and the Lances imported breeding stock from the latter two countries . Despite substantial populations of Salukis in Germany , the Netherlands , and Sweden , none of these were imported to England .
English Salukis ( chiefly descendants of Sarona Kelb ) were exported to many countries , but by the mid @-@ 1930s , interest slackened , and with the outbreak of World War II , breeding and show activities almost entirely stopped . The number of litters was minimal – just enough to keep the breed alive . Food rationing reserved all edible meat for humans , and to prevent the Salukis from dying from starvation or being killed by bombs , some owners euthanized entire kennels . A small number of Saluki kennels survived the war , and along with fresh imports belonging to a second wave of soldiers returning from the Middle East , the slow process of re @-@ establishing the breed began again .
Popularity of Salukis dramatically increased , and the Saluki Club of America was founded in 1927 , Salukis were recognized by The Kennel Club in 1923 , and by the American Kennel Club in 1929 . The breed is also the mascot of Southern Illinois University Carbondale .
The popularity of the Saluki in the United States , according to the American Kennel Club , has remained relatively stable over the past decade , with the breed ranked 107th in 1999 , had decreased to 118th in 2008 , but by 2008 had increased once again to 112th . Between 2000 and 2009 , 1215 Salukis were registered with The Kennel Club in the UK , while this does not approach the numbers of the more popular breeds , it is in line with similar breeds in the Hound Group such as the Borzoi , which had 1399 puppies registered in the same period . In September 2007 , The Kennel Club Art Gallery 's 12th exhibition celebrated the Saluki , The Saluki in Art showed a range of exhibits including terracotta and bronze works , along with contemporary artists and a range of trophies from Saluki breed clubs .
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= Contigo Quiero Estar =
" Contigo Quiero Estar " ( English : " With You , I Want To Be " ) is a song recorded by American recording artist Selena for her debut studio album Selena ( 1989 ) . It was released by EMI Latin on May 27 , 1989 , as the album 's lead single alongside " Quiero Ser " . Lyrically , the song explores the narrator 's feelings of wanting to be closer romantically with her lover . Composed by Mexican songwriter Alejandro Montealegre , " Contigo Quiero Estar " is a Tejano song with folk and ranchera influences . Deborah Vargas wrote in her book that the single " marked the beginning of her [ Selena 's ] international trajectory " . Many other recording artists have covered the song .
= = Background and composition = =
In 1989 , Selena signed a recording contract with EMI Latin , and that same year , began recording songs for her debut album with them . According to Selena 's record producer — sibling A.B. Quintanilla III — EMI Latin did not want A.B. to produce any songs for Selena 's debut album . He explained to an interview with Brian " Red " Moore , a family friend who overshadowed the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection interviews , that the recording company was already gambling on releasing a Latin division , and hesitated any family involvement that could hinder the sales of the album .
Selena 's father and manager , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. expressed that he tried to persuade the recording company to give A.B. a try . After this , A.B. was allowed to produce Selena 's songs for her album , including " Contigo Quiero Estar " . Mexican songwriter Alejandro Montealegre , sent in lyrics to a song he wrote to EMI Latin . They instantly wanted Selena to record it for her album , believing it fit well with her other recorded materials . The song makes use of the drums , an electronic keyboard , a french horn , and the piano . Lyrically , " Contigo Quiero Estar " talks about the narrator 's feelings for her lover , who wants to be by his side constantly .
= = Critical reception and covers = =
Deborah Vargas wrote in her book Dissonant Divas in Chicana Music : The Limits of la Onda that the song marked " the beginning of her [ Selena 's ] international trajectory " . Mexican band Los Reyes De Mexico recorded a mariachi version of the song on their album Reyes De Mexico Lo Lindo Ti . Puerto Rican band Orquesta Armonia Show recorded both a merengue and a cumbia version , which were included on their album Merengues y Cumbias .
= = Track listing = =
CD Single
" Contigo Quiero Estar " — 3 : 49
" Quiero Ser " — 2 : 33
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Books = =
Peña , Manuel ( 2002 ) , Música tejana : the cultural economy of artistic transformation , Texas A & M University Press , ISBN 9780890968888
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= Homicide : Life on the Street ( season 2 ) =
The second season of Homicide : Life on the Street , an American police procedural drama television series , originally aired in the United States between January 6 and January 27 , 1994 . Due to low Nielsen ratings during the first season , NBC executives decided to order only a four @-@ episode season , after which they would evaluate the ratings and decide whether to renew the show . Homicide was moved to a new timeslot of Thursdays at 10 p.m. EST , temporarily replacing the legal drama L.A. Law . NBC requested several changes from the series , including fewer episode subplots and less camera movements and jump cuts .
The entire Homicide cast returned for the second season . The uncertainty over Homicide 's future was stressful for the cast and crew , and the logistics of scheduling the filming around the actors ' schedules was difficult . Daniel Baldwin publicly criticized NBC Entertainment president Warren Littlefield over the matter , and it was initially reported Ned Beatty would not return at all . The second season was the last to include original cast member Jon Polito , who was reportedly dismissed because NBC officials were unhappy with his physical appearance . Polito was publicly critical of the show after his dismissal .
The second season marked the debut of Jean de Segonzac as director of photography and Chris Tergesen as music coordinator . The season premiere , " Bop Gun " , was the last of the four episodes filmed , but it was the first to be broadcast due to a guest appearance by Robin Williams , which NBC hoped would lead to improved ratings . " Bop Gun " differed from other Homicide episodes because it focused entirely on one story : the murder of a tourist and its impact on her husband , played by Williams . The episodes " See No Evil " and " Black and Blue " featured a suspected police shooting , which was based on a real life incident in David Simon 's book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets .
In addition to Williams , several actors made guest appearances throughout the second season , including Julianna Margulies , Wilford Brimley , Isaiah Washington , Adrienne Shelly and a 13 @-@ year @-@ old Jake Gyllenhaal . Homicide received generally positive reviews during the season , and the show received one Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series for Williams . The " Bop Gun " script won a Writers Guild of America Award . Homicide was often compared to the ABC police drama series NYPD Blue , which Baldwin called " the knockoff of Homicide " . While ratings improved during the second season , NBC still demanded further changes to the show before committing to a third season . The first and second seasons of Homicide were released together in a four @-@ DVD box @-@ set on May 27 , 2003 .
= = Episodes = =
= = Development = =
= = = Renewal = = =
Nielsen ratings for Homicide : Life on the Street had gradually declined throughout the first season , leaving the show at high risk of cancellation by the time the season concluded . NBC executives asked for several refinements – including fewer episode subplots and less camera movements and jump cuts – before approving a second season . Executive producer Tom Fontana said he was willing " to do anything to keep NBC from forgetting us " , although executive producer Barry Levinson said the show would maintain its realistic visual style , claiming , " We want a camera that 's almost a participant in the show . " Homicide was ultimately renewed , but the producers slightly toned down the show 's bleak visual style and hand @-@ held photography motif , and focused more strongly on single stories rather than multiple subplots . Fontana said , " We were experimenting with our first nine episodes . Whenever you try something new , you tend to err on the side of breaking ground . But we 'd rather have more people watching , so the colors and lighting are slightly brighter , and the camera movements are not as jarring . " However , both Levinson and Fontana insisted the changes were not entirely due to network pressure , but rather were evolutionary developments for the series .
NBC ordered a four @-@ episode second season , which would be broadcast in January 1994 as a mid @-@ year replacement . A decision about whether to renew the show for a third season would then be made based on how those four episodes performed in the ratings . David P. Kalat , author of Homicide : Life on the Street – The Unofficial Companion , credited NBC Entertainment president Warren Littlefield with that move , although Levinson claimed NBC West Coast president Don Ohlmeyer was behind the decision . Ohlmeyer said he believed a better timeslot , less dense stories and less hand @-@ held photography would attract more viewers and help the show succeed better : " For it to succeed long @-@ term , there 's a humanity that needs to be brought to the characters . There 's more here than there was last year . " Littlefield said of Homicide , " It 's a show we think has tremendous potential that was not fully realized in the first nine episodes . And that 's why we want to make more . "
Homicide was moved from its previous timeslot of Wednesdays at 9 p.m. EST to a new time on Thursdays at 10 p.m. Levinson and the other series producers considered this an extremely positive move for the show , as Homicide suffered greatly in the ratings on Wednesdays due to competition from the highly rated ABC comedy block featuring Home Improvement and Coach . Even during the first season , Levinson often said the series was truly designed for a 10 p.m. timeslot . Homicide took the timeslot previously held by the legal drama L.A. Law , which was placed on a six @-@ week hiatus from December 23 until early February . With some critics claiming L.A. Law had declined in quality , the hiatus led to speculation that it would be canceled and Homicide would replace it . This led to some tension during an NBC reception when L.A. Law star Corbin Bernsen approached Homicide actor Richard Belzer and shouted expletives at him , yelling , " You stole our timeslot ! "
The producers of Homicide said the decision to evaluate the series after a four @-@ episode season placed tremendous pressure on the staff of the show . Fontana said one @-@ hour dramas need time to fully develop and allow audiences to become familiar with the characters . Fontana expressed frustration with NBC in some news interviews , claiming the networks seemed to lack the courage to either cancel or renew it : " They will run it in a 10 p.m. time period for a month and then they 'll kiss us goodbye . ... I 'm used to this kind of treatment from NBC . I 'm a little surprised they 'd treat Barry Levinson the same way they 'd treat me . " In other interviews , however , Fontana said he saw the decision as a sign of support : " This is not just a casual action on NBC 's part . It 's a real statement to me that we have a possibility to return . " Levinson said he believed " four shots are better than nothing " , adding :
" What I learned is that it is very hard for a network to make a real commitment . A hit @-@ and @-@ run sensibility is prevalent . ... In all fairness to NBC , this is a tougher kind of show than any other show they carry . It is different , and no one is going to endorse different in this world , no one celebrates different . "
= = = Crew = = =
Homicide was produced by Levinson 's company Baltimore Pictures , which had partnered with Reeves Entertainment during the first season . However , Reeves Entertainment went out of business after the first season concluded , so NBC bought into the show and formally became a co @-@ producer , which gave the network more latitude to demand creative changes . The second season marked the debut of Jean de Segonzac as director of photography . He replaced Wayne Ewing , who Levinson felt was too inexperienced and did not trust with the responsibility of managing the show 's cinematography . Among Segonzac 's film credits was Laws of Gravity ( 1992 ) , which was directed by Nick Gomez , who directed the Homicide first season episode " Son of a Gun " .
Season premiere " Bop Gun " was directed by Stephen Gyllenhaal , a feature director then @-@ best known for such films as Waterland ( 1992 ) and A Dangerous Woman ( 1993 ) . Chris Menaul directed the back @-@ to @-@ back episodes " See No Evil " and " Black and Blue " , while the season finale , " A Many Splendored Thing " , was directed by John McNaughton , who previously directed Homicide star Belzer in the film Mad Dog and Glory ( 1993 ) . The second season included much of the same crew as the first : in addition to executive producers Levinson and Fontana , Jim Finnerty returned as supervising producer , Debbie Sarjeant worked as associate supervisor and screenwriter James Yoshimura became story editor starting with the second season , with Bonnie Mark as a staff writer and Chris Friel as a script supervisor . Other crew included Cindy Mollo as editor , Vincent Peranio as production designer , Susan Kessel as set decorator , Roland Berman as costume designer , Ivan Fonseca as post @-@ production coordinator , Bruce Litkey as sound mixer and Louis DiGiaimo and Pat Moran as casting directors . Ted Zachary and Allan Chaflin worked as the executives in charge of production .
= = = Cast = = =
Almost the entire original cast from season one returned for the second season , including Daniel Baldwin , Ned Beatty , Richard Belzer , Andre Braugher , Clark Johnson , Yaphet Kotto , Melissa Leo , Jon Polito and Kyle Secor . The only permanent cast member not to return was Wendy Hughes , who previously played medical examiner Carol Blythe ; her absence was never explained on @-@ screen . While the rest of the cast was contractually obliged to return , many of them had offers for other films , television shows or plays , and the logistics of arranging their schedules so all of them could return for the show was difficult . In an interview , Fontana claimed the cast was contractually entitled to be paid for 13 episodes but they all agreed to take less money and come back for the shortened @-@ season . The uncertainty over whether Homicide would be renewed or not created a great deal of stress for some cast members . Polito said of the feeling , " Where is limbo ? It 's in Baltimore . " Baldwin in particular expressed frustration with NBC for failing to renew the show for a full season and said he feared the uncertainty could hurt his film career :
" For two years now , I 've been walking around thinking , ' Why did I do this ? Why did I subject myself to this nonsense ? ' I will never , ever do another series . Ever . Ever . Ever . Ever . There is no justice in television . ... Where 's the confidence ? Why aren 't I here talking about being picked up for 22 episodes ? I want to say to Warren Littlefield : Can you read ? Can you read ? I 've never seen this kind of critical response to a show before . "
Likewise , Beatty said he enjoyed the actual filming of the episodes but hated the television business end of it , claiming , " I can 't think of anything I would less rather do than television at this moment . " He said the process left him " pretty much burnt " and said his enthusiasm for the show had " eroded as time goes on " . It was initially reported that Beatty would not return for the second Homicide season at all because he had accepted a starring role in The Boys , a CBS comedy series also featuring Christopher Meloni . Polito said he did not believe Beatty 's departure would hurt the show because of the ensemble nature of the cast : " I love Ned 's work , but the show won 't fall apart because of one character . " Beatty ended up appearing in both shows , and The Boys was canceled after six episodes .
Although Belzer said he and the rest of the cast returned to filming with " guarded emotions " , he credited his role as John Munch with giving him credibility as an actor . While he previously had to vigorously pursue roles , he was receiving unsolicited offers by the time of the second season , including a recurring role in the ABC television series Lois & Clark : The New Adventures of Superman . Polito , however , was terminated from the cast after the second season ended , reportedly because NBC officials were unhappy with his weight and physical appearance and did not believe he appealed to audiences . After his dismissal , Polito became publicly critical of the direction Homicide had recently taken , saying it changed to a " parody of itself " and claiming he had repeatedly voiced problems with the show 's recent scripts to Fontana and Chris Menaul . Polito said :
" It would have killed me to come back . The show went from art to mediocrity . I 'm relieved that they 've freed me legally . I didn 't want to go back to another six months of indecision and hurt . I 'm shocked that the other actors re @-@ signed . ... The brilliance of the show under Levinson was lost this season . It 's like watching the sinking of the Titanic . The problem is that the iceberg is the guys who built the ship – the producers . You can never trust producers . They would have said to van Gogh : ' Nice painting . A little lighter on the colors and we can sell it . ' "
Several notable actors made guest appearances throughout the second season of Homicide . Robin Williams appeared in " Bop Gun " as Robert Ellison , the husband of a slain woman tourist . Levinson previously directed Williams in the films Good Morning , Vietnam ( 1987 ) and Toys ( 1992 ) . Although Williams was primarily known for his comedic work , the Homicide producers and Williams himself consciously decided to remain true to the original script , rejecting the idea of adding humor or jokes to the episode . " Bop Gun " also featured a 13 @-@ year @-@ old Jake Gyllenhaal , son of the episode 's director Stephen , in one of his earliest acting performances ; he played Matt , the young son of Robert Ellison . Wilford Brimley portrayed the bed @-@ ridden and suicidal Harry Prentice in " See No Evil " , Isaiah Washington played murder suspect Lane Staily in " Black and Blue " , and Adrienne Shelly portrayed S & M fashion store owner Tanya Quinn in " A Many Splendored Thing " . Julianna Margulies appeared in the last two episodes of the season as Linda , a waitress who starts dating Bolander . Fontana was so impressed with Margulies that he offered her a recurring role on Homicide , but she turned it down in favor of the medical drama series ER .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
By the time the first season ended , four additional scripts for the second season had already been written , but before approving the second season , NBC asked for refinements in both the visual style and the scripts . From a screenwriting perspective , NBC asked that the scripts place more emphasis on single storylines , rather than multiple subplots ; during the first season , some episodes included as many as four separate storylines . The season premiere , " Bop Gun " , was the first Homicide episode to revolve entirely around a single plot : the murder of a tourist and its aftermath . Fontana said by focusing on one story , he believed it allows the show to tell that story better , adding , " In some places , there wasn 't enough time for the story . The " Bop Gun " script also differed from previous Homicide episodes by focusing more strongly on a murder victim , rather than on the detectives . The other three episodes of the season continued to focus on multiple stories , but switched from four different subplots to three .
" Bop Gun " was written by David Mills and David Simon , the later of whom wrote the 1991 non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , from which the television series was adapted . It was the first television script written by Mills , who previously worked as a reporter and became friends with Simon while studying journalism at the University of Maryland , College Park . Writing the script inspired Mills to quit journalism and start writing for television full @-@ time . Simon felt the script 's dialogue was faithful to reality , especially the detectives ' use of dark humor as a coping mechanism for dealing with the horrors of the homicide unit . This was particularly embodied by a scene in which the murdered tourist 's husband becomes angry after overhearing detectives talk about how much overtime they would get from the case , which Simon claimed was a conversation real @-@ life detectives would really have .
" See No Evil " was written by series creator Paul Attanasio , who had not penned a Homicide script since the series premiere " Gone for Goode " . Attanasio deliberately wrote the " See No Evil " script so that it would be morally questionable whether the police handling of both main subplots — the assisted suicide and the suspected police shooting — were done in an ethically correct way . " Black and Blue " was written by James Yoshimura , who continued working on Homicide throughout the entire life of the show , but considered that episode his favorite script . A story arc in " See No Evil " and " Black and Blue " featured Pembleton investigating a suspected police @-@ related shooting . This was based on a real @-@ life 1988 shooting and subsequent investigation by Baltimore Police Department Detective Donald Worden featured in David Simon 's book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets . Several members of the Baltimore Police Department publicly criticized Homicide for its negative portrayal of the police in the storyline , and 22 detectives wrote a formal letter of protest to Levinson over the matter .
" A Many Splendored Thing " was written by Noel Behn , who became consulting producer with the series . That episode featured a subplot about a man who killed another man over a pen , which was inspired by a real @-@ life murder in Anne Arundel County , Maryland , in which a 23 @-@ year @-@ old man shot another man 10 times in a doughnut shop when the victim refused to sell the shooter his pen . Since NBC had not decided on whether to renew Homicide until after the four episodes aired , the screenwriters did not start working on any scripts for the third season until after the second season concluded . As a result , once NBC was committed to renewal , the scripts had to be written later and the Homicide producers were not able to turn around new shows until the fall . Additionally , Fontana was working on other projects , including Philly Heat , an ABC miniseries about members of the Philadelphia Fire Department . Some media outlets criticized NBC for not commissioning Fontana and Levinson to write back @-@ up scripts , which prevented Homicide from starting earlier once the show was renewed . Alan Pergament of The Buffalo News wrote , " Understandably , Fontana didn 't sit by idly and wait for NBC to make its decision on Homicide . "
= = = Filming = = =
The four second season episodes were filmed during the summer of 1993 . The last of them , " Bop Gun " , was filmed in late September 1993 , with Fontana just having returned from accepting an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the script of first season episode " Three Men and Adena " . Like the first season , they were filmed on location in Baltimore . Levinson was not present for the filming and development of the episodes because he was in Los Angeles shooting Jimmy Hollywood ( 1994 ) , a comedy film starring Joe Pesci and Christian Slater . Fontana said Levinson remained involved in the development of scripts and the production of the shows .
Among the visual changes during Homicide 's second season were brighter colors . While colorist Drexel Williams previously drained footage of color value to create a gritty style , cinematographer Jean de Segonzac directed Williams to make the colors less muted and more lively . Segonzac also sought a more restrained visual style , as he believed the previous cinematographer Wayne Ewing tended to " get a little too wild , and someone could complain they got a little dizzy " . Levinson praised what he described as a subtler and more effective style under Segonzac . " Bop Gun " was originally meant to serve as the second season finale , but NBC decided to make it the season premiere with the hopes of getting increased ratings from Williams ' guest appearance . The scenes with Williams were filmed over three days ; Fontana said of the shooting , " [ Williams ] worked like a dog . It was quite a special event for all of us . It 's very intense . "
= = = Music = = =
Chris Tergesen became music coordinator during the second season , and more music is featured than in the previous episodes as a result . The first scene of " Bop Gun " , for example , featured the song " Killer " by Seal and Adamski over a brief montage of images just before a murder took place . In that same episode , the Buddy Guy blues song " Feels Like Rain " plays just after Howard speaks with a suspect in jail . Other songs were integrated into the show itself : one suspect listens to the Public Enemy song " Gett off My Back " on headphones just before he was arrested . Various songs are featured in other second season episodes , including the Gerry Goffin and Carole King song " Up on the Roof " in " Black and Blue " , and the Soul Asylum song " Whoa " and Donna Summer song " Bad Girls " in " A Many Splendored Thing " . " Black and Blue " ended with Bolander and Linda , on cello and violin respectively , performing a movement of " Passacaglia " , a classical music piece composed by George Frideric Handel . Cellist Zuill Bailey served as a body double for Beatty in the scenes with Bolander playing cello .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The second season received generally positive reviews . " Bop Gun " was particularly acclaimed ; it was named one of the ten best episodes of the series by The Baltimore Sun , and the Star Tribune called Williams ' performance one of the ten best guest star moments in television history . The performance of Andre Braugher was also particularly praised , especially for his scene in " Black and Blue " , in which Pembleton persuades a suspect to confess to a murder he did not commit . Gail Pennington of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch said the second season was an improvement over the first , which she said was excellent but " tended to demand an awful lot from viewers " . Pennington said the toned down visual style and stronger emphasis on single stories better focused the show , adding : " Homicide is great TV , and NBC believes in it enough to give it what may be the network 's best time slot . " Bob Langford of The News & Observer called Homicide " absolutely brilliant " and praised it for focusing not on the crimes but on the effects of it , as well as the realistic themes regarding race , such as concerns in " Bop Gun " that the murder would deter white tourists from visiting Baltimore . Langford said it was occasionally preachy , but said , " Sometimes , a good sermon is what we need . Amazing that one this powerful can come from a TV show . "
Rick Kogan , television critic with the Chicago Tribune , called the show " wholly original " and an example of how good television entertainment can be . He praised the ensemble cast and interesting characters , and said the show would be renewed " if there 's any justice in TV " . Ray Richmond of the Los Angeles Daily News praised NBC for giving Homicide a second chance , comparing it to the days when NBC stuck with the comedy series Cheers even though it ranked last in the ratings during its first season . Richmond said of Homicide : " This is also one of the final opportunities to see a television network stick with a struggling show for no better reason than it deserves to be stuck with . In the bottom line @-@ driven 1990s , that 's become as rare as quality itself . " Steven Cole Smith with the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram said of the evaluation period during Homicide 's second season : " If you don 't watch it , you may lose your right to complain that there 's never anything good on TV . " He called it " a gritty , atmospheric police series " and complimented it for showing not only gratuitous violence but the consequences of it .
Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette praised the show and said the decision to focus on fewer subplots might help . Bianco said , " Let 's hope the changes work , because Homicide is too good to lose , and its vision of civilization is too troubling to shunt aside . " The Washington Post television reviewer Tom Shales called Homicide " achingly , even painfully , brilliant . The best cop show I have ever seen . " David Zurawik of The Baltimore Sun called it the best police drama ever made for television besides Hill Street Blues . Baltimore Sun reporter David Bianculli praised the show 's writers for being willing to place their characters in ethically questionable positions , adding : " Please watch this series ; it 's so good , I don 't mind pleading . " Tom Jicha of South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel called it " an hour about as fine as there is on the tube " with great writing and camera @-@ work . Jicha said , " It would be a senseless act of violence against superb TV for those who claim to appreciate fine drama to kill this show by turning the dial . " Hal Boedeker , television critic with The Miami Herald , strongly praised the series , particularly " Bop Gun " , which he called " the highest order for network TV " . Boedeker called the writing , direction and acting " first @-@ rate " and declared Homicide the better choice over NYPD Blue because it did not resort to gimmicks like the nudity featured in the latter show .
= = = NYPD Blue = = =
The second season of Homicide drew several comparisons to NYPD Blue , an ABC police drama series that had debuted in September 1993 . It received a large amount of publicity and better ratings than Homicide , which some reviewers attributed to the violence and nudity featured in the show . Like Homicide , NYPD Blue featured an ensemble cast and intertwined subplots , and commentators suggested its success may have encouraged NBC to support Homicide . Levinson said he was not deterred by comparisons to NYPD Blue because Homicide debuted before that series . In a news article , Fontana quoted a friend who described NYPD Blue as " the television version of Homicide " . Baldwin was even more critical of the show , and said in an interview : " The ultimate compliment that can ever be paid [ is ] to be mimicked by someone else . So , thank you , NYPD Blue , because it 's the knockoff of Homicide . " NYPD Blue co @-@ creator Steven Bochco took exception to that characterization , saying he believed his reputation and experience in television proved he was capable of conceiving his own material . Bochco said : I don 't think it 's a knock @-@ off . It was conceived as its own show . I wish Homicide the best – and they should be so lucky as to do as well as we 're doing right now . "
Pete Schulberg of The Oregonian wrote , " Forget all the commotion about NYPD Blue . Homicide delivers without the lewd language and skin shots . It depicts violence in a most compelling way : You don 't see it . You just feel it . " Bob Wisehart of The Sacramento Bee said , " The bottom line is that while NYPD Blue is a fine show – it was on my 10 @-@ best list for 1993 – Homicide is better . There 's been nothing like it since the heyday of Hill Street Blues . " Elaine Liner , television critic with the Corpus Christi Caller @-@ Times , who called Homicide " as rewarding an hour of serious , quality television as you could ask for " , praised it for highlighting quality writing rather than gimmicks like the nudity from NYPD Blue , and praised it for fleshing out not only the detectives and victims , but the suspects too , like in " Bop Gun " . Ed Siegel of The Boston Globe wrote , " If [ the nudity ] is what it took to get you to watch NYPD Blue and you decided to stay because it was grittier , better written , directed and acted than any other drama on TV , be advised that Homicide is so far superior to NYPD Blue in all those categories that if you 're not [ watching it ] , you 're missing the best hour of episodic television since Hill Street Blues and St. Elsewhere left the air . "
= = = Ratings = = =
NBC heavily advertised the second season , especially the guest appearance by Williams in the season premiere , " Bop Gun " . Levinson , Baldwin , Belzer and Fontana all participated in multiple media interviews about the show . " Bop Gun " was seen by 16 @.@ 3 million viewers , a higher @-@ than @-@ usual Homicide : Life on the Street rating in large part to interest in Williams ' appearance . It received a 17 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating and a 28 share , the highest rating for a 10 p.m. drama series since January 1992 . The rating placed Homicide among the top ten network television Nielsen ratings for the week , and outperformed the ratings of L.A. Law , which normally filled the 10 p.m. Thursday timeslot . Warren Littlefield said the ratings " far exceeded expectations " , and said he expected the series to return for a third season if the viewership remained strong . Littlefield said of the Homicide ratings :
" These are outstanding numbers for a dramatic television series . If we can keep a reasonable level of audience , we believe in the work , we believe in the creative team we think we have , perhaps the most outstanding ensemble cast in all of television . We just would like to see continued signs of life . "
The other three episodes of the season did not match the viewership of " Bop Gun " , but they were nevertheless considered strong ratings for the show , better than past Homicide episodes and the average rating for L.A. Law . Homicide 's improved ratings in the Thursday night timeslot fueled speculation that L.A. Law might be canceled and Homicide would take its place . Warren Littlefield denied such claims , believing the success of one series did not necessarily have to mean the cancellation of the other . Despite Homicide 's improvement in the ratings , NBC did not immediately commit to a third season until the producers agreed to even more changes , including more prominent guest stars , more women in the cast and more life @-@ affirming storylines . Outgoing cast member Polito publicly decried these changes , claiming the show was going to change from a drama into a " soap opera " .
To cut down on costs , the network also pressured Levinson to relocate filming to California rather than Baltimore , which would reduce costs for travel , lodging and meals . Maryland Governor William Donald Schaefer sent a telegram to Levinson encouraging him to remain in the city : " I wanted you to know that we are proud of having this exceptional series shot in your native state and stand ready to help toward a positive decision for additional production of the series . " Levinson and Fontana considered leaving Baltimore not only for the cost savings , but also because of the letters of outrage by the city 's detectives over " See No Evil , " as well as a report in the Associated Press that the show was giving Baltimore a bad image by drawing attention to its murder rate . Ultimately , however , Levinson decided to remain in Baltimore . On February 15 , 1994 , the day the options of the cast contracts expired , NBC decided at midnight to sign for a third season , but ordered only 13 episodes instead of a full 22 @-@ episode season , opting to wait and see how the ratings performed before committing to the final nine .
= = = Awards = = =
Robin Williams received an Emmy Award nomination for Guest Actor in a Drama Series for his role in " Bop Gun " . It was the only Emmy nomination Homicide : Life on the Street received in the 46th Primetime Emmy Awards ; the series received four nominations the previous year . Williams lost the Emmy to Richard Kiley for his performance in the CBS drama series Picket Fences . " Bop Gun " won a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay of an Episodic Drama . It defeated competing episodes of Northern Exposure and NYPD Blue , as well as another second season Homicide episode , " A Many Splendored Thing " .
= = DVD release = =
The first and second seasons of Homicide were released together in a four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 . The set included an audio commentary by Levinson and Fontana for the first season premiere , " Gone for Goode " , as well as a collection of the commercials that advertised the episode during the Super Bowl .
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= 1884 Navy Midshipmen football team =
The 1884 Navy Midshipmen football team represented the United States Naval Academy in the 1884 college football season . The team was the fourth intercollegiate football squad to represent the United States Naval Academy , and was the final time the school played a single @-@ game season . The squad was captained by rusher Jim Kittrell . The team 's single game was a 9 to 6 ( 9 – 6 ) defeat of rival @-@ school Johns Hopkins . The season continued a seven @-@ season , eight game rivalry between the Naval Academy and Johns Hopkins . It was the final season that a Naval Academy team would go unbeaten and untied .
= = Background and prelude = =
According to biographer C. Douglas Kroll , the first evidence of a form of football at the United States Naval Academy came in 1857 , but the school 's cadets lost interest in the game shortly afterward . However , it is widely believed by football researchers that the playing of intercollegiate football began in November 1869 , when a player at Rutgers University challenged another player at the nearby College of New Jersey ( now Princeton ) . The contest more closely resembled soccer , with teams scoring by kicking the ball into the opponent 's net , and lacked a uniform rules structure . The game developed slowly ; the first rules were drafted in October 1873 , and only consisted of twelve guidelines . Even though the number of teams participating in the sport increased , the game was still effectively controlled by the College of New Jersey , who claimed eight national championships in ten years . Only Yale presented any form of challenge , claiming four national championships in the same time period .
The Naval Academy 's first ever football team was fielded in 1879 . The squad was entirely student @-@ operated , receiving no official support from Naval Academy officials . The team was entirely funded by its members and their fellow students . The 1879 team participated in just one game , which resulted in a scoreless tie . It was played against the Baltimore Athletic Club , apparently on the Academy superintendent 's cow pasture . Navy would not field a football team in 1880 or 1881 , due to the lack of support from officials . When football returned to the academy in 1882 , the squad was led by player @-@ coach Vaulx Carter , and won 8 – 0 in a match with Johns Hopkins , starting the seven @-@ year rivalry between the schools . The 1883 season resulted in Navy 's first ever loss , a 2 – 0 defeat by Johns Hopkins .
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
= = = Navy 9 , Johns Hopkins 6 = = =
The sole game of Navy 's 1884 season was the annual competition against rival Johns Hopkins , the third consecutive playing of the series . In what was the final season where the rivalry was the only game of the year , Navy defeated Johns Hopkins 9 – 6 . The game , played on November 27 , was hosted by the Academy , likely on an unused drill or parade field . In an unusual agreement between the two schools , the contest was played entirely under rugby rules . In the first half , Hopkins scored twice , on a touchdown from Mr. Bonsall and on a two @-@ point safety . Navy scored twice in the second half of the game , when halfback Julius Dashiell , brother of Hopkins ' Paul Dashiell , kicked a five @-@ point goal and rusher David W. Taylor scored a touchdown to secure a victory .
= = Players = =
The 1884 Naval Academy team was made up of eleven players at four different positions . The squad consisted of seven rushers , one fullback , two halfbacks , and a quarterback :
= = Postseason and aftermath = =
The first postseason college football game was not played until 1902 , with the Pasadena Tournament of Roses ' establishment of the east – west tournament game , later known as the Rose Bowl . The Midshipmen did not participate in their first Rose Bowl until the 1923 season , when they went 5 – 1 – 2 and tied with the Washington Huskies 14 – 14 in the match . As a result of the lack of a competition , there were no postseason games played after the 1882 season . According to statistics compiled by the National Championship Foundation , Parke Davis , and the Helms Athletic Foundation , Yale was declared the 1884 season champion . However , the Billingsley college football research center and Parke Davis also selected Princeton as the 1884 national champions .
The 1884 win over Johns Hopkins brought the Naval Academy 's overall win @-@ loss record to positive , as well as once again giving the Midshipmen a lead over Hopkins in their rivalry . The season marked the final time a team for the Naval Academy would play a single @-@ game season . In 1885 , their schedule was expanded to three games . It also marked the final time a Navy team finished a season unbeaten and untied ; the closest a squad would come was in 1926 , when they went 9 – 0 – 1 . Navy finished the 1880s with four winning seasons , and an overall record of 14 – 12 – 2 . The school outscored their opponents 292 – 231 , and finished the 19th century with an overall record of 54 – 19 – 3 .
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= Italian cruiser Vesuvio =
Vesuvio was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) built in the 1880s . She was the third member of the Etna class , which included three sister ships . Named for the volcano Mount Vesuvius , the ship 's keel was laid down in July 1883 . She was launched in March 1886 and was commissioned into the fleet in March 1888 . She was armed with a main battery of two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) and six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , and could steam at a speed of around 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Her career was relatively uneventful ; the only significant action in which she took part was the campaign against the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 . She was stricken from the naval register in May 1911 and sold for scrap in 1915 .
= = Design = =
Vesuvio was 283 feet 6 inches ( 86 @.@ 4 m ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 42 feet 6 inches ( 13 @.@ 0 m ) . She had a mean draft of 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) and displaced 3 @,@ 373 long tons ( 3 @,@ 427 t ) . Her crew numbered 12 officers and 296 men . The ship had two horizontal compound steam engines , each driving a single propeller , with steam provided by four double @-@ ended cylindrical boilers . Vesuvio was credited with a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) from 6 @,@ 820 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 090 kW ) . She had a cruising radius of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the ships consisted of two Armstrong 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) , 30 @-@ caliber breech @-@ loading guns mounted in barbettes fore and aft . She was also equipped with six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , 32 @-@ caliber , breech @-@ loading guns that were carried in sponsons along the sides of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defense , Vesuvio was fitted with five 57 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and five 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . Vesuvio was also armed with four 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . One was mounted in the bow underwater and the other three were above water . She was protected with an armored deck below the waterline with a maximum thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . The conning tower had .5 in ( 13 mm ) worth of armor plating .
= = Service history = =
Vesuvio was built by the Livorno shipyard , with her keel being laid down on 10 July 1883 . Her completed hull was launched on 21 March 1886 , and after fitting @-@ out work was finished , she was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 16 March 1888 . Vesuvio and her sisters Stromboli and Ettore Fieramosca participated in the 1893 naval maneuvers as part of the Squadron of Maneuvers , which was tasked with defending against the Permanent Squadron . Vesuvio was placed in reserve for 1896 , though she was reactivated to take part on the naval maneuvers at the end of the year . During these maneuvers , she was assigned to a force tasked with defending against a simulated French fleet .
In 1900 , she and Ettore Fieramosca were sent to Chinese waters to assist in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion as part of the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance . Both ships were formally assigned to the Cruising Squadron in Chinese waters in 1901 . During 1901 , she made stops in Shanghai , Wusong , and Hong Kong . After a second deployment to the Far East from 1906 to 1909 , Vesuvio was placed in reserve , struck from the Navy List on 11 May 1911 and sold for scrap in 1915 .
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= Battle of the Defile =
The Battle of the Defile or Battle of the Pass ( Arabic : وقعة الشعب Waqʿat al @-@ Shʿib ) was fought in the Tashtakaracha Pass ( in modern Uzbekistan ) between a large Arab army of the Umayyad Caliphate and the Turkic Turgesh khaganate over three days in July 731 CE . The Turgesh had been besieging Samarkand , and its commander , Sawra ibn al @-@ Hurr al @-@ Abani , sent a request for relief to the newly appointed governor of Khurasan , Junayd ibn Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Murri . Junayd 's army was attacked by the Turgesh in the pass , and although the Umayyad army managed to extricate itself from the pass and reach Samarkand , it suffered enormous casualties ( some 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 men ) , while Sawra 's 12 @,@ 000 men , who had been commanded to attack the Turgesh in the rear in a relief effort , were almost annihilated . The battle , for which one of the most detailed accounts of the entire Umayyad era survives in the History of al @-@ Tabari , halted and even reversed Muslim expansion into Central Asia for a decade .
= = Background = =
The region of Transoxiana ( Arabic : Ma wara ' al @-@ nahr ) had been conquered by the Muslims under Qutayba ibn Muslim in the reign of al @-@ Walid I ( r . 705 – 715 ) , following the Muslim conquest of Persia and of Khurasan in the mid @-@ 7th century . The loyalties of its native Iranian and Turkic inhabitants and autonomous local rulers however remained volatile , and in 719 , they sent a petition to the Chinese and their Turgesh vassals for military aid against the Muslims . In response , Turgesh attacks began in 720 , and the native Sogdians launched uprisings against the Caliphate . These were suppressed with great brutality by the governor of Khurasan , Sa 'id ibn Amr al @-@ Harashi , but in 724 his successor , Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi , suffered a major disaster ( the so @-@ called " Day of Thirst " ) while trying to capture Ferghana . For the next few years , Umayyad forces were limited to the defensive . Efforts to placate and win the support of the local population by abolishing taxation of the native converts to Islam ( mawali ) were undertaken , but these were half @-@ hearted and soon reversed , while heavy @-@ handed Arab actions further alienated the local elites . In 728 a large @-@ scale uprising , coupled with a Turgesh invasion , led to the abandonment of most of Transoxiana except for the region around Samarkand by the Caliphate 's forces .
In the hope of reversing the situation , in early 730 the Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 723 – 743 ) appointed a new governor in Khurasan , the experienced Junayd ibn Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Murri , who had been recently engaged in the pacification of Sindh . The difficult security situation at the time is illustrated by the fact that Junayd needed an escort of 7 @,@ 000 cavalry after crossing the Oxus , and that he was attacked by the Turgesh khagan while riding to link up with the army of his predecessor , Ashras al @-@ Sulami , who in the previous year had advanced up to Bukhara in a hard @-@ fought campaign . Although hard @-@ pressed , Junayd and his escort were able to repel the attack and link up with al @-@ Sulami 's forces . Bukhara and most of Sogdiana was recovered soon after , as the Turgesh army withdrew north towards Samarkand . The Muslim army followed , and scored a victory in a battle fought near the city . Junayd then retired with his troops to winter in Merv . During the winter , rebellions broke out south of the Oxus , in Tokharistan , which had hitherto been quiescent to Muslim rule . Junayd was forced to set out for Balkh and there dispersed 28 @,@ 000 of his men to quell the revolt . This left him seriously weakened when , in early 731 , the Turgesh laid siege to Samarkand and appeals for aid arrived from the city 's governor , Sawra ibn al @-@ Hurr al @-@ Abani . Despite the opinion of the army 's veteran Khurasani leaders , who counselled that he should wait to reassemble his forces and not cross the Oxus with less than 50 @,@ 000 men , Junayd resolved to march immediately to Samarkand 's rescue .
= = Battle = =
Junayd could not advance along the old Persian Royal Road , which led from Bukhara east to Samarkand and which was held by the Turgesh . Instead he led his army to Kish , about 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) due south from Samarkand . There he received news from his scouts that the Turgesh had sent detachments of their own to spoil the wells on his line of march . His counsellors initially suggested a route west around the mountains of the Zarafshan Range between Kish and Samarkand through the village of al @-@ Muhtaraqah , but al @-@ Mujashshir ibn Muzahim al @-@ Sulami , one of the Khurasani leaders , advised against it since the Turgesh could easily set fire to the uncultivated grasslands along that route . Instead he favoured a more direct approach over the steep but short — some 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 miles ) long — Tashtakaracha Pass , and expressed the possibility that this would catch the Turgesh by surprise . Junayd followed al @-@ Mujashshir 's counsel , and encamped before the entrance of the pass . The decision was unpopular with the army , largely Khurasanis who distrusted the " outsider " Junayd . The usual tribal quarrels also re @-@ emerged , and some began deserting . Undeterred , Junayd pressed on with some 28 @,@ 000 men . The course of the subsequent events is described in detail in al @-@ Tabari 's History of the Prophets and Kings , which in turn draws upon the work of the earlier historian Abu 'l @-@ Hasan al @-@ Mada 'ini , written about a century after the events .
The two armies that met at the Tashtakaracha Pass represented two different military philosophies . While the Umayyad armies disposed of a sizeable cavalry contingent , both light and heavy , their mainstay was the infantry , to the extent that in battle the Arab cavalry was often limited to skirmishing during the initial phases , before dismounting and fighting on foot . This was in stark contrast to the Turgesh , a typical Central Asian nomad realm , whose army was composed exclusively of cavalry . Their unmatched skill in horsemanship , especially as horse archers , and their natural hardiness combined to make them extremely dangerous opponents , adept in a fluid and highly mobile fighting style of feints , ambushes and feigned retreats , which they exploited to outmanoeuvre the slower @-@ moving Arabs . As the historian Hugh N. Kennedy writes , " when the nomad [ Turgesh ] allied with the local Iranian princes , they provided what was perhaps the fiercest opposition the early Muslim armies ever encountered " .
Supported by troops from the rulers of Sogdia , Shash and Ferghana , the Turgesh attacked the Umayyad army within the pass , two days after they had left Kish ( a Friday ) , at a distance of six farsakhs — ca . 24 kilometres ( 15 miles ) — from Samarkand . The Turgesh attacked while the Arab army had stopped to take a meal . The Arab vanguard , under Uthman ibn ' Abdallah ibn al @-@ Shikhkhir , was overwhelmed , but Junayd was able to hurriedly deploy the main body of his army , placing his troops according to their tribal affiliations , with the Tamim and Azd on the right , and the Rabi 'ah on the left . The Arabs hurriedly erected earthworks in front of their lines , and the initial Turgesh attack , directed against the Arab right , was pushed back . Junayd , who had placed himself in the centre to direct the battle , then joined the ranks of the Azd , who greeted him with hostility : their standard @-@ bearer is reported to have told him " If we win , it will be for your benefit ; if we perish , you will not weep over us . By my life , if we win and I survive , I will never speak a word to you . " Al @-@ Tabari reports that this man and seventeen successive bearers of the same standard were killed during the battle , indicative of the fierceness of the fight . The Arabs initially met the Turgesh attack on horseback , but as their casualties mounted , Junayd 's herald ordered them to dismount and fight on foot , crouching down behind the trenches and forming a spear @-@ wall . This measure helped the Muslims hold their ground , and eventually both sides wearied and the battle ceased for the day . The most grievous casualties among the Arabs were suffered by the stragglers and baggage , who gathered under Abdallah ibn Mu 'ammar ibn Sumayr al @-@ Yashkuri near Kish : they were attacked by the Turgesh and virtually annihilated .
The next day , the Turgesh launched renewed attacks on the Arabs , but these were repelled . The Arabs engaged in vigorous counterattacks whenever the Turgesh drew near , and the khaghan ordered his troops to besiege the Arab camp instead of attacking it . Having persevered through the initial onslaught , Junayd sent messengers to Sawra in Samarkand , ordering him to come to his assistance as a diversionary attack . Sawra and the Samarkand garrison were initially reluctant as they were aware that this was effectively a suicide mission , but Junayd 's threats forced Sawra to comply . Leaving behind a small garrison , Sawra led 12 @,@ 000 men out of Samarkand and with the help of a local guide managed to reach within a farsakh — roughly 5 – 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 7 miles ) — of Junayd 's force by crossing over the mountains . There he was confronted by the Turgesh , who , reportedly on the advice of Ghurak , the Sogdian king of Samarkand , set fire on the dry grasslands . Sawra 's lieutenants advised a slow infantry advance fronted by a spear @-@ wall — the standard Umayyad anti @-@ cavalry tactic — but Sawra , knowing his troops to be weary and desperate , decided instead to launch a cavalry charge against the Turgesh in the hopes of breaking through with at least part of his force and reach Junayd . Sawra 's troops , " maddened by heat and thirst " in the description of H.A.R. Gibb , charged the Turgesh and broke their front , but the battle soon became a confused affair with both sides hindered by the smoke , dust and the raging flames . In the end , the Arab army lost its cohesion , scattered and was destroyed piecemeal by the Turgesh cavalry . All but a thousand of Sawra 's force perished .
Junayd used the diversion to break through to Samarkand , but as his army exited the defile , his officers persuaded him to make camp and spend the night there instead of making for the city . The advice proved sound , as the Turgesh caught up with them and would likely have annihilated Junayd 's army on open ground . As it was , the camp 's fortifications could not be completed before the next day , when the Turgesh renewed their attack . At this point , the Arabs were so hard @-@ pressed that Junayd even promised the army 's slaves their freedom if they would fight . Many did so , using saddle blankets as armour . The Turgesh attacks were repelled , and despite its heavy casualties the Umayyad army reached Samarkand after almost three days of battle .
= = Aftermath and impact = =
Junayd remained in Samarkand for about four months , until October 731 , allowing his army to recover . The Turgesh meanwhile made for Bukhara , which they besieged . Junayd again resolved to meet them in battle , and managed to inflict some defeats on the Turgesh in early November and raise the siege of Bukhara , which he entered on the day of Mihragan . Junayd then returned to Merv , leaving a token garrison of 800 men behind in Samarkand . Once the Turgesh had withdrawn north for the winter , he evacuated the city of its Muslim inhabitants .
Although Samarkand was relieved and the Arab army escaped annihilation , the battle " was not wholly an Arab victory " ( M.A. Shaban ) . According to Khalid Yahya Blankinship , it was " a Pyrrhic victory at best " , due to the high casualties suffered by the Muslims ; indeed , the sources record both Junayd and the Caliph Hisham publicly equating it with the disastrous defeat suffered at the hands of the Khazars in the Battle of Marj Ardabil a year before . The 10th @-@ century historian Ibn A 'tham al @-@ Kufi puts the Muslim casualties at at least 20 @,@ 000 out of a total of 43 @,@ 000 or 48 @,@ 000 , while poets of the time inflate the number to 50 @,@ 000 . Judging by the numbers of replacements ordered sent into or levied in Khurasan in the aftermath of the battle , Blankinship estimates the dead at between 25 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 . Although the Turgesh also suffered heavy losses — Ibn A 'tham gives the unverifiable figure of over 10 @,@ 000 dead — the Arab losses at the Defile led to a rapid deterioration of the Muslim position in Central Asia . Junayd remained as governor of Khurasan until his death in early 734 , but by this time the Muslims had lost control of everything north of the Oxus save for Bukhara , Kish and the region of al @-@ Saghaniyan .
The events of the Defile increased the Khurasani disaffection with the Umayyad regime and its representatives , as exemplified by the words of the Azdi standard @-@ bearer to Junayd . Al @-@ Tabari also reports the words — albeit possibly a later addition — of another Khurasani to Junayd before the battle : " It used to be said that certain of the troops of Khurasan would perish at the hands of a luxury @-@ loving man from the Qays . We now fear that you may be he " . According to Blankinship , these passages , as well as poems disparaging Junayd 's leadership , are an eloquent testimony to the Khurasanis ' frustration at being " forced to fight continuous , unrewarding campaigns for the benefit of vainglorious generals on one of the caliphate 's worst fronts , by a central government whose special Syrian army had not hitherto , in the Khurasanis ' opinion , faced similar hardships " . Blankinship observes that " after the Day of the Defile , many Khurasani tribal surnames never again appear as part of the army in Khurasan , leading one to suppose they had been annihilated or their men had given up fighting . Some Khurasani troops remain , of course , but their divisions are now paralleled by Syrian ones . Thus it appears , particularly from Tabari 's emphasis , that the Day of the Defile was practically a turning point in the war with the Turks , at least as far as the Khurasanis were concerned [ ... ] . " The subsequent period in Khurasan was turbulent , with revolts and anti @-@ Umayyad agitation among the local Khurasani Arabs , which necessitated the introduction of 20 @,@ 000 loyal Syrian troops into the province in addition to the 20 @,@ 000 Iraqis sent in after the Defile . Only in 739 – 741 , after the Turgesh Khaganate collapsed following the murder of its leader Suluk , was the new governor of Khurasan , Nasr ibn Sayyar , able to largely restore the Caliphate 's position in Transoxiana , extending Muslim control again up to Samarkand .
In the aftermath of the setbacks at the Defile , Marj Ardabil and other similar disasters , the need to reinforce the buckling frontiers stretched the military and financial resources of the Caliphate . This was especially the case with the powerful Syrian army , the main pillar of the Umayyad regime , which was parcelled out to reinforce distant provinces . Eventually , this weakening of the Syrian army would be the major factor in the fall of the Umayyad dynasty during the civil wars of the 740s and the Abbasid Revolution that followed them .
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= Legal disputes over the Harry Potter series =
Since first coming to wide notice in the late 1990s , the Harry Potter book series by J. K. Rowling has engendered a number of legal disputes . Rowling , her various publishers and Time Warner , the owner of the rights to the Harry Potter films , have taken numerous legal actions to protect their copyrights , and also have fielded accusations of copyright theft themselves . The worldwide popularity of the Harry Potter series has led to the appearance of a number of locally produced , unauthorised sequels and other derivative works , sparking efforts to ban or contain them . While these legal proceedings have countered a number of cases of outright piracy , other attempts have targeted not @-@ for @-@ profit endeavours and have been criticised .
Another area of legal dispute involves a series of injunctions obtained by Rowling and her publishers to prohibit anyone from distributing or reading her books before their official release dates . The sweeping powers of these injunctions have occasionally drawn fire from civil liberties and free speech campaigners and sparked debates over the " right to read " . One of these injunctions was used in an unrelated trespassing case as precedent supporting the issuance of an injunction against a John Doe .
Outside these controversies , a number of particular incidents related to Harry Potter have also led , or almost led , to legal action . In 2005 , a man was sentenced to four years in prison after firing a replica gun at a journalist during a staged deal for stolen copies of an unreleased Harry Potter novel , and attempting to blackmail the publisher with threats of releasing secrets from the book . Then in 2007 Bloomsbury Publishing contemplated legal action against the supermarket chain Asda for libel after the company accused them of overpricing the final Harry Potter novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows . A comprehensive list of intellectual property and speech lawsuits involving Harry Potter , Harry Potter Lawsuits and Where to Find Them , was compiled by attorney David Kluft in 2015 for the Trademark and Copyright Law Blog .
= = Allegations of copyright and trademark infringement against Rowling = =
= = = Nancy Stouffer = = =
In 1999 , American author Nancy Kathleen Stouffer alleged copyright and trademark infringement by Rowling of her 1984 works The Legend of Rah and the Muggles ( ISBN 1 @-@ 58989 @-@ 400 @-@ 6 ) and Larry Potter and His Best Friend Lilly . The primary basis for Stouffer 's case rested in her own purported invention of the word " Muggles " , the name of a race of mutant humanoids in The Legend of Rah and the Muggles , and Larry Potter , the title character of a series of activity booklets for children . Larry Potter , like Harry Potter , is a bespectacled boy with dark hair , though he is not a character in The Legend of Rah and the Muggles . Stouffer also drew a number of other comparisons , such as a castle on a lake , a receiving room and wooden doors . Portions of Rah were originally published in booklet form by Ande Publishing Company in 1986 , a company founded by Stouffer together with a group of friends and family . Ande Publishing filed for bankruptcy in September 1987 without selling any of its booklets in the United States or elsewhere . Rowling has stated that she first visited the United States in 1998 .
Rowling , along with Scholastic Press ( her American publisher ) and Warner Bros. ( holders of the series ' film rights ) , pre @-@ empted Stouffer in 2002 with a suit of their own seeking a declaratory judgment that they had not infringed on any of Stouffer 's works . The court found in Rowling 's favour , granting summary judgment and holding that " no reasonable juror could find a likelihood of confusion as to the source of the two parties ' works " . During the course of the trial , it was held that Rowling proved " by clear and convincing evidence , that Stouffer has perpetrated a fraud on the Court through her submission of fraudulent documents as well as through her untruthful testimony " , including changing pages years after the fact to retroactively insert the word " muggle " . Her case was dismissed with prejudice and she was fined $ 50 @,@ 000 for her " pattern of intentional bad faith conduct " in relation to her employment of fraudulent submissions , along with being ordered to pay a portion of the plaintiffs ' legal fees . Stouffer appealed the decision in 2004 , but in 2005 the Second Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the ruling . In 2006 she stated on her website that she was planning to republish her books and was entertaining the possibility of another lawsuit against Warner Bros. , J. K. Rowling and Scholastic Press .
The Legend of Rah and the Muggles is currently out of print . In early 2001 , it was published by Thurman House , LLC , a Maryland publishing company . Thurman House , formed by Ottenheimer Publishers to republish the works of Nancy Stouffer , was closed when Ottenheimer ceased operations in 2002 after filing for bankruptcy . Stouffer later asserted that any copies of the book published by Thurman House are unauthorized because the publisher failed to honour its contractual obligations to her .
= = = The Wyrd Sisters = = =
In 2005 , Warner Bros. offered CAD $ 5 @,@ 000 ( later CAD $ 50 @,@ 000 ) to the Canadian folk band the Wyrd Sisters for the rights to use their name in the film version of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . Rowling had written a scene in the novel in which a band called the Weird Sisters appeared at a school dance , and the group owned the rights to the name in Canada . However , the offer was declined , and instead the band undertook a legal action against Warner Bros. , as well as Jarvis Cocker of Pulp and Jonny Greenwood and Phil Selway of Radiohead , who were to play the band in the film . All plans to use the name in the movie were later abandoned . Despite that decision , the Canadian band filed a CAD $ 40 @-@ million ( $ 39 million ) lawsuit against Warner in Ontario court . In connection with the lawsuit , the band brought an interlocutory injunction hoping to prevent the release of the film . The injunction application was dismissed . The entire suit was dismissed in November 2005 . In June 2006 , an Ontario judge decreed that the band pay Warner Bros. CAD $ 140 @,@ 000 in legal costs , describing their lawsuit as " highly intrusive " . The group claimed they planned to appeal the decision . Jarvis Cocker initially wished to release an album of " Weird Sisters " -themed music with collaborators including Franz Ferdinand , Jack White and Iggy Pop , but the project was dropped as a result of the lawsuit . The Wyrd Sisters reported received death threats from irate Harry Potter fans . As of March 2010 , the lawsuit has been settled out of court , the details sealed .
= = = Adrian Jacobs = = =
In June 2009 , the estate of Adrian Jacobs , a children 's author who died in 1997 , sued Rowling 's publishers , Bloomsbury , for £ 500 million , accusing her of having plagiarised " substantial parts " of his work in writing the novel Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . In a statement , Jacobs 's family claimed that a scene in Goblet of Fire was substantially similar to Jacobs 's book The Adventures of Willy the Wizard : Livid Land : " ' Both Willy and Harry are required to work out the exact nature of the main task of the contest which they both achieve in a bathroom assisted by clues from helpers , in order to discover how to rescue human hostages imprisoned by a community of half @-@ human , half @-@ animal fantasy creatures . " They also launched a joint suit against Rowling and her publishers . Bloomsbury countered with a statement of its own , saying that " This claim is without merit and will be defended vigorously , " and that Rowling " had never heard of Adrian Jacobs nor seen , read or heard of his book Willy the Wizard until this claim was first made in 2004 , almost seven years after the publication of the first Harry Potter book . " The Jacobs estate , driven by his son and grandson , have published a website with details and excerpts from the book , according to the Toronto Star . In July 2010 , the estate filed suit against Rowling 's American publisher , Scholastic , demanding that the company burn all copies of Goblet of Fire .
On 6 January 2011 , the US lawsuit against Scholastic was dismissed . The judge in the case stated that there was not enough similarity between the two books to make a case for plagiarism . In the UK courts , on 21 March 2011 , Paul Allen , a trustee of the Jacobs estate , was ordered to pay as security to the court 65 % of the costs faced by Bloomsbury and Rowling , amounting to over £ 1.5million , to avoid the claim being struck out . It was reported in The Bookseller that Paul Allen has appealed against paying this sum . As a condition of the appeal , he paid £ 50 @,@ 000 to the court in May 2011 . The claim was formally struck out in July 2011 after the deadline for Allen 's initial payment was missed .
= = International publications = =
In 2002 , an unauthorised Chinese @-@ language sequel titled Harry Potter and Bao Zoulong ( Chinese : Simplified : 哈利波特与豹走龙 , Traditional : 哈利波特與豹走龍 , Hanyu Pinyin : Hālì Bōtè yǔ Bào Zǒulóng ) appeared for sale in the People 's Republic of China . ( In English @-@ language media this was mistranslated as Harry Potter and Leopard @-@ Walk @-@ Up @-@ to @-@ Dragon . ) According to translated excerpts , the book principally consists of the text of J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Hobbit , but with most names changed to those of Harry Potter characters . The book was quickly recognised by media outlets as a fake . Rowling and Warner Bros. took steps to stop its distribution . Copies were briefly distributed around the world , including e @-@ book copies traded on the Internet . In November 2002 , the Bashu Publishing House , in the southwestern city of Chengdu , agreed to pay a £ 1 @,@ 600 ( US $ 3 @,@ 400 ) fine and publish an apology in China 's Legal Times for printing and distributing the novel . As of 2007 , the identity of the anonymous " author " has not been discovered . The opening of Harry Potter and Bao Zoulong , translated into English , was included in several news articles . As of 2007 , it is estimated that there are fifteen million copies of fraudulent Harry Potter novels circulating in China . In 2007 , Rowling 's agents , the Christopher Little Literary Agency , began to discuss the possibility of legal proceedings concerning a fake version of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows that appeared in China ten days before the actual book 's publication .
In 2003 , legal pressure from Harry Potter 's publishers led an Indian publisher to stop publication of Harry Potter in Calcutta by Uttam Ghosh ; a work in which Harry meets figures from Bengali literature . The case was settled out of court .
Also in 2003 , courts in the Netherlands prevented the distribution of a Dutch translation of Tanya Grotter and the Magical Double Bass , the first of Dmitri Yemets ' popular Russian series about a female apprentice wizard . Rowling and her publishers sued , arguing that the Grotter books violate copyright law . Yemets and his original Moscow @-@ based publishers , Eksmo , argued that the books constitute a parody , permitted under copyright . The Dutch courts ruled that the books did not constitute parody and thus were not allowed to be sold in the Netherlands . Later that year , as the Dutch translation Tanja Grotter en de magische contrabas was still legal in Belgium , the Flemish publishers Roularta Books decided to print 1 @,@ 000 copies ( and no more ) in order to let people decide whether it was plagiarism , hoping that under those circumstances Rowling and her publishers would not sue . Rowling did not sue , but as there was a lot of interest in the book ( Dutch people could buy the book by postal order from another Flemish publisher , Boekhandel VanIn ) it was soon sold out . The books continue to be published in Russia and have spawned several sequels .
In August 2008 , Warner Bros. filed a lawsuit against production company Mirchi Movies due to the similarity of the title of their Bollywood film Hari Puttar : A Comedy of Terrors to the Harry Potter film series . Mirchi Movies CEO Munish Purii claimed there is very little similarity between Hari Puttar and any elements in the Harry Potter franchise , and explained that Hari is a popular Indian name , while " puttar " means " son " in Punjabi , although Indian versions of Harry Potter also translate Harry 's name to Hari Puttar . The film was delayed until late September . Warner Bros. claimed that the title was confusing , but Mirchi Movies claimed they registered the name in 2005 . On 24 September 2008 , the court in Delhi rejected Warner Bros. ' claim , saying that Harry Potter readers were sufficiently able to distinguish between the two works . They also accused Warner Bros. of delaying the action , since they were aware of the film as far back as 2005 .
= = Other accusations of infringement = =
In 2000 , in the lead @-@ up to the release of the first Harry Potter film , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ; Warner Bros. , the film 's distributor , sent a series of letters to owners of Harry Potter fansites , demanding that , to protect their copyright , they hand over their domain names . The action resulted in negative publicity for the company when Claire Field , the then 15 @-@ year @-@ old webmaster of the British fansite harrypotterguide.co.uk , was reduced to tears by what were described by her father as unnecessary bully tactics . Eventually the corporation backed down in the face of media opposition and declared that , as the site was non @-@ commercial , it did not violate the trademark .
In their May 2004 issue , the US Army publication The Preventive Maintenance Monthly , which instructs soldiers on how to maintain their equipment , featured a spoof comic based on Harry Potter , featuring a character named Topper who resided at Mogmarts School under Professor Rumbledore . The publication received notice from Rowling 's lawyers that the comics breached copyright , though the magazine 's editor , Ken Crunk , claimed that no violation had taken place , as " [ t ] he drawings do not look like any of the characters from Harry Potter " . After a discussion with Rowling 's representatives , the magazine agreed not to use the characters again .
In 2004 , Rowling and Time Warner launched legal actions against bazee.com , now the Indian branch of the online auction site eBay . The site had hosted illegally created e @-@ books of Harry Potter , which Rowling had never agreed to be published . In 2005 , Rowling warned her fans on her website that various " signed " Harry Potter memorabilia appearing for sale on eBay did not in fact use her signature . She urged her fans to protest eBay to prevent other children from being swindled . In 2007 , Rowling launched lawsuits against a number of users of the site , obtaining a series of stay orders preventing them from selling her work . However eBay claimed that in her dealings with the media , Rowling had falsely claimed that her injunctions had been against eBay itself . In June 2007 , eBay filed papers with the Delhi High Court , alleging that Rowling had caused them " immense humiliation and harassment " . The High Court circumvented the application , claiming that it could not make such a judgment until the case went to trial .
In October 2007 , Warner Bros. sued a group constructing a façade during a Hindu religious festival in the Indian city of Kolkata for ₹ 2 million ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) , claiming that they had erected a giant replica of Harry Potter 's school , Hogwarts , without their permission . Initial reports stated that , as the effort was not for profit , it did not violate Rowling 's copyright . The Associated Press claimed that the High Court of Delhi , where the petition was filed , allowed the organisers to carry on with the temporary construction with an order that the structure had to be dismantled after the festival was over and that the court refused to impose any compensation on the basis that the organisers were involved in a " non @-@ profit making enterprise " . However , these statements were later retracted : the court had in fact ruled in favour of Warner Bros. , but no fine had been ordered , and Warner Bros. claimed that they had only requested a fine because such action was necessary under Indian law . In November 2007 , Rowling discussed the case on her website , listing the rumours that she had targeted a non @-@ profit organisation as " Toxic " and saying , " The defendants were not religious charities , and theirs was not a religious celebration . On the contrary , it was a large @-@ scale , commercial , sponsored event involving corporations that included a major Indian high street bank . The event was , however , set up while a Hindu festival was going on ... The court ruled that Warner Bros. rights had indeed been infringed , and that events such as the one in question would need Warner Bros. ' permission in the future . The court also restrained all the defendants from any future events infringing Warner Bros. rights . "
On 31 October 2007 , Warner Bros. and Rowling sued Michigan @-@ based publishing firm RDR Books to block the publication of a 400 @-@ page book version of the Harry Potter Lexicon , an online reference guide to her work . Rowling , who previously had a good relationship with Lexicon owner Steve Vander Ark , reiterated on her website that she plans to write a Harry Potter encyclopedia , and that the publication of a similar book before her own would hurt the proceeds of the official encyclopaedia , which she plans to give to charity . A judge later barred publication of the book in any form until the case was resolved . In their suit , Rowling 's lawyers also asserted that , as the book describes itself as a print facsimile of the Harry Potter Lexicon website , it would publish excerpts from the novels and stills from the films without offering sufficient " transformative " material to be considered a separate work . The trial concluded on 17 April 2008 . On 8 September 2008 , the judge ruled in her favour , claiming that the book would violate the terms of fair use . In December , 2008 , a modified ( and shorter ) version of Vander Ark 's Lexicon was approved for publication and was released 16 January 2009 as The Lexicon : An Unauthorized Guide to Harry Potter Fiction .
In November 2007 , The Scotsman reported that Rowling had threatened legal action against American computer programmer G. Norman Lippert for allegedly violating her intellectual property rights by producing and publishing the online novel , James Potter and the Hall of Elders ' Crossing , an unofficial and unauthorised continuation of the Harry Potter series . Written as a fan fiction project for Lippert 's wife and sons , the novel is set eighteen years after the end of the last official installment in the series , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , and describes the adventures of Harry Potter 's son , James Sirius Potter , during his first year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . A specialist in intellectual property law at Strathclyde University commented that , " If an insubstantial character from a novel is taken and built up by another author in a new story , that can be a defence against copyright infringements . " However , after Lippert offered Rowling an advance copy of the novel , Rowling dismissed her threat and said she supported the novel and any others like it . Lippert subsequently produced a sequel , James Potter and the Curse of the Gatekeeper . After the novel first appeared online in early November 2007 , some Harry Potter fans on the Internet initially speculated that the site might be part of an elaborate viral marketing campaign for an official continuation or spinoff of Harry Potter , one either written or at least approved by Rowling herself . On 9 November 2007 , Rowling 's agent Neil Blair denied that Rowling was in any way involved with the purported project , and Warner Bros. , the studio which owns the rights to the Harry Potter film series , denied that the novel was in any way connected to the official Harry Potter franchise .
= = Legal injunctions = =
Rowling and her publishers have brought a series of legal injunctions to ensure the books ' secrecy before their launch . These injunctions have drawn criticism from civil liberties campaigners over their potentially sweeping powers over individual freedoms .
In 2003 , in an attempt to maintain secrecy over the impending release of the fifth Harry Potter book , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , Rowling and her publishers sought and received a groundbreaking injunction against " the person or persons who has or have physical possession of a copy of the said book or any part thereof without the consent of the Claimants " . The ruling obtained , for the first time in British law , an injunction against unnamed or unknown individuals ; before then , injunctions could only be obtained against named individuals . Lawyers Winterbothams noted that , " The new Harry Potter style injunction could be used if you expected a demonstration or trespass to take place , but which had not yet begun , so long as you could find a description for the people expected which the Court was satisfied identified ' those who are included and those who are not ' " . The " Potter injunction " was later used against a camp of Roma travellers . In 2006 , pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline employed the injunction against anonymous animal rights campaigners who had sent threatening letters to their investors .
The series garnered more controversy in 2005 with the release of the sixth book , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , when a Real Canadian Superstore grocery store accidentally sold several copies before the authorised release date . The Canadian publisher , Raincoast Books , obtained an injunction from the Supreme Court of British Columbia prohibiting the purchasers from reading the books in their possession . A comment by a media lawyer that " there is no human right to read " led to a debate in the public sphere about whether free access to information was a human right . Michael Geist , the Canada Research Chair of Internet and E @-@ commerce Law at the University of Ottawa , said in response , " The copyright law claim was particularly puzzling . While copyright law does provide copyright owners with a basket of exclusive rights , the right to prohibit reading is not among them . In fact , copyright law has very little to say about what people can do with a book once they have purchased it . " Free @-@ speech activist Richard Stallman posted a statement on his blog calling for a boycott until the publisher issued an apology . Solicitors Fraser Milner and Casgrain , who represented Raincoast and formulated the legal argument for the embargo , have rebutted this , saying that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms applies only to the government , not to private litigation , and does not offer any protection of the right to read in any case , and the innocent purchasers of the Harry Potter book had no more right to read it than if they had come into possession of someone 's secret diary .
In 2007 , Scholastic Corporation threatened legal action against two booksellers , Levy Home Entertainment and DeepDiscount.com , for selling copies of the final novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , before its release date of 21 July . In an official statement , Scholastic appealed " to the Harry Potter fans who bought their books from DeepDiscount.com and may receive copies early requesting that they keep the packages hidden until midnight on 21 July . " Customers who agreed not to read the book received a special Harry Potter t @-@ shirt and a $ 50 coupon for Scholastic 's online store .
= = Blackmail = =
In June 2005 , Aaron Lambert , a security guard at a book distribution centre in Corby , Northamptonshire , England , stole a number of pages from Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince six weeks before its intended publication date . He was arrested a day later after negotiations to sell them to John Askill , a journalist from The Sun , turned violent . Lambert reportedly fired a shot from his imitation Walther PPK pistol , but Askill was unharmed . At his trial the following October , Lambert pleaded guilty to threatening Askill and to attempting to blackmail Harry Potter 's publishers , Bloomsbury . In January 2006 , Lambert was sentenced to four and a half years in prison . In November 2011 , in her testimony before the Leveson Inquiry , Rowling said that the Sun had attempted to " blackmail " her into a photo @-@ op in return for returning the stolen manuscript .
= = Accusation of libel = =
In July 2007 , a dispute arose between Harry Potter 's British publisher , Bloomsbury , and Asda , a British supermarket chain owned by the US corporation Wal @-@ Mart . On 15 July , a week before the release of the final Harry Potter novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , Asda issued a press release accusing Bloomsbury of unfairly fixing their prices . Asda spokesman Peter Pritchard claimed that Bloomsbury was " holding children to ransom " and that , " [ i ] t seems like Bloomsbury need to do a quid @-@ ditch as they have sent their prices up north on the Hogwarts Express . By setting the recommended retail price at this level can only be seen [ sic ] as blatant profiteering on their part . " Pritchard went on to say that Asda was acting to " champion the right of young readers " , and that the recommended retail price was " twice the average child 's pocket money and £ 5 more than the average children 's bestseller " . Asda had planned to sell the book as a loss leader at £ 8 @.@ 87 ( $ 16 @.@ 30 ) , or half Bloomsbury 's recommended retail price of £ 17 @.@ 99 ( $ 33 @.@ 00 ) and below the wholesale price of £ 9 @.@ 89 ( $ 18 @.@ 00 ) .
Two days later , Bloomsbury responded that the claims were " potentially libellous " and that :
Asda 's latest attempt to draw attention to themselves involves trying to leap on the Harry Potter bandwagon . This is just another example of their repeated efforts of appearing as Robin Hood in the face of controversy about their worldwide group , which would suggest they are perceived as more akin to the Sheriff of Nottingham . Loss leaders were invented by supermarkets and have nothing to do with Bloomsbury Publishing or Harry Potter and we deeply regret having been dragged into their price @-@ wars .
Bloomsbury stated that the price hike of £ 1 from the previous Harry Potter novel was due to it having been printed on recycled paper . " There is a price to be paid by the consumer for environmental best practice " , a Bloomsbury spokeswoman said .
Bloomsbury CEO Nigel Newton said , " [ They have ] unleashed a very disingenuous , self @-@ interested attack on us . This is complete nonsense and all they 're doing is grandstanding as they 've done on the price of aspirin and bread . They try to turn it into a big deal as though it 's a moral crusade for them , but it 's nothing of the kind . "
That same day , Bloomsbury cancelled all Asda 's orders of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , or roughly 500 @,@ 000 copies , citing unpaid bills from the company totalling £ 38 @,@ 000 ( $ 70 @,@ 000 ) for unauthorised returns of the sixth Harry Potter book . " The two matters are completely unrelated " , said a Bloomsbury spokeswoman , " We decided today that we couldn 't risk having arrears with anybody . " The dispute had been " going on a while – going on for weeks actually . " Asda responded that Bloomsbury owed them £ 122 @,@ 000 ( $ 224 @,@ 000 ) ( " for pulping and for other book trade issues and work we have done for them " ) and that , as one company spokesman claimed , " It just seems funny that after we expose the potty Potter price hike , Bloomsbury are trying everything they can to stop kids getting hold of Harry Potter at a price they can afford . "
Asda paid the bill within hours , and claimed that Bloomsbury would be in breach of contract if it did not allow the store to sell its books . However , Bloomsbury claimed that the block on Asda 's orders was still in place as , " Unfortunately , we 've now had to initiate a significant libel claim against them . That matter will have to be dealt with . If they want their 500 @,@ 000 books , they 'll have to come and make peace with us ... It could be good news for all their disappointed customers , because they don 't have to go to a soulless Asda shed to buy their book and they can share the magic of Harry Potter at an independent or specialist bookstore instead . "
Upon receipt of Bloomsbury 's legal letter , Asda responded that , " There is nothing defamatory in our press release . Everything there is factual . It is a commentary on how we see things . " Said another Asda spokesperson , " If they don 't supply us with the books , it will have a massive implication and [ be ] a breach of contract – but I don 't think they will do that . "
Later that day , however , Asda released a statement retracting its original comment : " We apologise unreservedly to Bloomsbury for [ our ] press release dated 15 July and withdraw our statement . We look forward to a good relationship with Bloomsbury going forward , including selling the latest Harry Potter book from 00 : 01 am BST on Saturday 21 July and many other Bloomsbury books in the future " . In response , Bloomsbury lifted the block and Asda was allowed to sell its books . The original press release was then expunged .
The rationale behind Asda 's initial press release remains uncertain . Neill Denny , commentator for thebookseller.com , opined that " the whole episode has the whiff of a badly @-@ conceived PR stunt by ill @-@ briefed senior executives at Asda out of touch with the subtleties of the book world . " Ralph Baxter of Publishing News concurred : " For Asda ... it may be seen as mission accomplished , a high @-@ risk strategy to maximise publicity for its Harry Potter offer rewarded with television , radio , Internet and newspaper coverage . And the association of Asda with low prices has no doubt been entrenched in a few more minds . "
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= Headline News ( song ) =
" Headline News " is a parody song by " Weird Al " Yankovic . It is a parody of the Crash Test Dummies 's 1993 hit " Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm " . It was released as the lead @-@ off single for the compilation box set Permanent Record : Al in the Box on September 27 , 1994 . The song was written after Yankovic 's label insisted he craft a new song to promote the album ; Yankovic in turn combined the music of the Crash Test Dummies ' song with three news stories that were popular in late 1993 and early 1994 .
To help promote the song and album , Yankovic directed a music video that was a direct parody of the Crash Test Dummies ' original . In it , the three news stories are presented as if they are one @-@ act plays before an audience of people . The video took two days to film and ended up running over the allotted time that had been scheduled for filming . The resulting video was also extremely expensive to fund . Several notable individuals made cameos in the video , such as Doug Llewelyn , Dr. Demento , Yokozuna and Judy Tenuta .
The song and video were met with mostly positive reviews from critics , although at least one critic noted that the source material would soon become dated . The Crash Test Dummies were very pleased with the final result and even performed the song with Yankovic in concert twice . " Headline News " charted at number four on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , making it Yankovic 's first single to chart domestically since 1992 's " Smells Like Nirvana " .
= = Writing = =
While Yankovic was writing the original songs for a new album — which was later released in 1996 as Bad Hair Day — his label , Scotti Brothers Records , insisted that he release a new record in order to meet monetary projections for the fourth fiscal quarter of the year . Yankovic , however , explained that he would be unable to finish a new record in time , so his label decided to release a box set entitled Permanent Record : Al in the Box . The label then stipulated that Yankovic would need to at least record a new single to promote the box set .
Yankovic had previously heard " Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm " during 1994 and felt that it was " one of two or three songs " that could be potentially parodied . He noted that it " would be really good to do for the next album " , but felt that " when the time is right , [ he would ] think of something " to write the parody about ; he then returned his attention to writing original songs . After Scotti Brothers insisted on the writing of a new lead single , Yankovic very nearly had his label cancel the box set due to being unable to write under pressure . However , he soon returned to the idea of parodying " Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm " . He decided to pair the song 's music up with " all the weird news stories that were going on " and make each verse its own vignette . Yankovic also felt that by doing this and releasing it on the box set , he would be able to capitalize on the topicality of the issues .
= = Recording and lyrics = =
Recording for the song itself started on July 27 , 1994 , at Santa Monica Sound Recorders in Santa Monica , California . Backing Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , Jim West on guitar , and Kim Bullard on keyboards . Lisa Popeil provides the female backup vocals , as well as the scream of Nancy Kerrigan . The song also features various idiosyncratic elements to increase the humor . The song features manualist Mike Kieffer , who produces the flatulence @-@ esque sound effects heard near the end of the song . Additionally , the ending features a chorus of kazoos , and Yankovic plays a short riff of the song on his trademark instrument , the accordion . Yankovic himself produced the session . Due to the vocal part of the original being in such a low register , Yankovic had to record the parody 's vocal tracks early in the morning , when his voice was naturally lower .
While the original song 's verses each told the story of three abnormal children , each verse of " Headline News " tells the story of three famous tabloid stories of 1993 and 1994 : Singapore caning American delinquent Michael Fay , figure skater Tonya Harding 's then @-@ boyfriend attacking her rival Nancy Kerrigan , and Lorena Bobbitt severing her husband 's penis with a knife . In the last verse , Yankovic substitutes the term " penis " with euphemisms like " wiener " and " Mr. Happy " . Yankovic later joked that he " wanted to write a song about these people because [ he didn 't ] think they 're getting quite enough media attention " , a reference to the stories ' over @-@ saturation in the news .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Headline News " parodies the " Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm " video in that it presents each news story as a one @-@ act play on stage before an audience of people . The video was directed by Yankovic , making it his third directoral credit after 1986 's " Christmas at Ground Zero " and 1993 's " Bedrock Anthem " . Yankovic appears as Brad Roberts , and his band appears as the other members of the Crash Test Dummies ; notably , the video also marks the on @-@ screen debut of Yankovic 's official keyboardist , Rubén Valtierra , who appears in drag as Ellen Reid . The video was filmed on August 29 and 31 , 1994 . All of the scenes that took place at the school were filmed during the day at Longfellow Elementary School Auditorium , in Pasadena , California . The scenes at the ice rink were filmed at night in a rink in Paramount , California . According to Yankovic , the crew ran over time and it was a rather expensive video . Yankovic noted that " without giving you the actual number " , he could have " recorded two albums , probably , for what it cost to do that one video . " The video features several celebrity cameos , including an appearance by Doug Llewelyn of People 's Court fame , and long time radio show host Dr. Demento . Comedianne Judy Tenuta also appears as Lorena Bobbitt .
= = Release = =
= = = Reception = = =
" Headline News " was released on September 26 , 1994 , as the lead @-@ off single for Permanent Record : Al in the Box , which was also released a day later . Yankovic also insisted that the song be commercially available as a CD single so that his fans who are completists would not have to purchase the expensive box set just to get the new song . Much like the cover for the Crash Test Dummies 's 1993 studio album God Shuffled His Feet , the cover for Yankovic 's single superimposes his faces over the figures of Titian 's painting Bacchus and Ariadne . The art direction is credited to Doug Haverty , and design is credit to Daniel Sorenson , David McDougall . The b @-@ side of " Headline News " was a remix of Yankovic 's 1986 original song " Christmas at Ground Zero " . The song was never officially released on a studio album , although it did appear on Yankovic 's Greatest Hits Volume II album , which was released a month later on October 25 , 1994 . The single charted and peaked at number four on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which corresponds to a position of 104 on the Billboard Hot 100 . This made it Yankovic 's first domestically charting single since 1992 's " Smells Like Nirvana " .
Brad Roberts , the original songwriter for " Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm " was extremely pleased with the parody , and found it humorous . He later noted that , " People assume that I was annoyed but when [ Yankovic ] does a parody of you , you know you 've made it . " He later praised the way Yankovic interacted with the artists that he parodies , noting that " Weird Al goes the whole route and cultivates a relationship with the artist . Plus he gets half the earnings and that helps me make money . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Headline News " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Lou Carlozo of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the song " provided savage laughs at the expense of Tonya Harding and John Bobbitt . " Roch Parisien of Allmusic cited the song as one of the three stand @-@ outs from Yankovic 's second greatest hits volume , and called it a " rib @-@ tickler " . Tina Maps of The Milwaukee Journal wrote a positive review and felt that the musical parody was a " dead @-@ on skewering of the Crash Test Dummies ' ' Mmm , Mmm , Mmm , Mmm " . Not all reviews , however , were so positive ; an article that appeared in The Commercial Appeal noted that while the video for " Headline News " had some " cute bits and unusual cameos " , it was " not as clever as many of Yankovic 's past efforts " and that " the current events included here are already dated " .
= = = Live performances = = =
Yankovic first started performing " Headline News " in August 1994 , almost a month before it was officially released . In addition , Yankovic has performed the song with the Crash Test Dummies twice : once on Canada 's MuchMusic channel and another time at the House of Blues in Los Angeles . Reportedly , during one of the performances , Ellen Reid , backing vocalist and keyboardist for the Crash Test Dummies , went out and purchased kazoos . The band then hid the instruments until the end of the song , when they took them out and played them ; this " came as a big surprise to " Yankovic . Yankovic 's Straight Outta Lynwood concert tour contained new lyrics as part of a parody medley , referencing Britney Spears , dealing with her 2007 head @-@ shaving shock and underpants @-@ less limousine trip in late 2006 . Later in the tour , he changed it to reference Paris Hilton 's DUI and imprisonment , and her subsequent interview on Larry King Live .
= = Track listing = =
CD single
" Headline News " – 3 : 46
" Christmas at Ground Zero ( Alternate Mix ) " – 3 : 07
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
" Weird " Al Yankovic – Lead and backing vocals , accordion , production , arrangement
Jim West – guitar
Steve Jay – bass guitar
Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz – drums
Kim Bullard – keyboards
Lisa Popeil - backing vocals
Mike Kieffer – manualism
Tony Papa – engineering
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= Al Aaraaf =
" Al Aaraaf " is an early poem by American writer Edgar Allan Poe , first published in 1829 . It is based on stories from the Qur 'an , and tells of the afterlife in a place called Al Aaraaf . At 422 lines , it is Poe 's longest poem .
" Al Aaraaf " , which Poe claimed to have written before he was 15 , was first published as the major poem in Poe 's 1829 collection Al Aaraaf , Tamerlane , and Minor Poems . The book and " Al Aaraaf " in particular received mostly negative reviews for its complexity , obscure references , and odd structure . Some , however , noted the potential in the young poet , including John C. Neal , to whom Poe had shown " Al Aaraaf " prior to publication . Poe would later refer to Neal 's response as the first words of encouragement he had received . Nevertheless , the negative response to " Al Aaraaf " may have inspired Poe 's later poetic theory that poems should be kept short .
Years later , in 1845 , Poe used " Al Aaraaf " to hoax members of the Boston literary circle during a reading . Poe claimed the poem was a new one and his audience was perplexed by it . He later claimed a Boston crowd did not deserve a new poem . He held a strong dislike for New England poets and the New England @-@ based Transcendental movement and hoped by presenting a poem he had written in his youth would prove Bostonians did not know good literature .
= = Overview = =
" Al Aaraaf " is the longest poem Poe wrote and was inspired by Tycho Brahe 's discovery of a supernova back in 1572 which was visible for about seventeen months . Poe identified this nova with Al Aaraaf , a star that was the place between paradise and hell . Al @-@ A`raaf ( Arabic الأعراف , alternatively transcribed Aʿraf or Al Orf ) was a place where people who have been neither markedly good nor markedly bad had to stay until forgiven by God and let into Paradise , as discussed in Sura 7 of the Qur 'an . As Poe explained to a potential publisher :
Its title is " Al Aaraaf " from the Al Aaraaf of the Arabians , a medium between Heaven and Hell where men suffer no punishment , but yet do not attain that tranquil & even happiness which they suppose to be the characteristics of heavenly enjoyment .
In the opening section of the poem , God commands Nesace , a name for Beauty 's spirit , to convey a message to " other worlds " . Nesace rouses the angel Ligeia and tells her to awaken the other thousand seraphs to perform God 's work . Two souls , however , fail to respond : the " maiden @-@ angel " Ianthe and her " seraph @-@ lover " Angelo ( Michelangelo ) , who describes his death on earth and the flight of his spirit to Al Aaraaf . Ianthe and Angelo are lovers , and their failure to do as Nesace commanded results in God not allowing them into heaven .
= = Analysis = =
" Al Aaraaf " is thick with allusions and , because of this , is often avoided by scholars because , as writer Arthur Hobson Quinn notes , it can be " unintelligible " . Nevertheless , Quinn says it possesses qualities which are important to understand the development of Poe 's skills as a poet . " Al Aaraaf " mixes historical facts , religious mythology and elements of Poe 's imagination . The poem primarily focuses on the afterlife , ideal love , and ideal beauty in relation to passion . The majority of the poem focuses on this reaching for ideal beauty and aesthetics . Characters in the poem serve as representative symbols of personified emotions . The goddess Nesace is beauty , Ligeia represents the music in nature , Ianthe and Angelo are creatures of passion .
The poem draws from Sura 7 ( Arabic الأعراف ) in the Qur 'an ; Poe also drew upon the Qur 'an in other works , including " The Thousand @-@ and @-@ Second Tale of Scheherazade " . In " Al Aaraaf " , Poe was probably less interested in the Qur 'an itself and more interested in an atmosphere of the exotic or otherworldliness . The true setting of the poem is a sort of dreamscape or alternative world . As critic Floyd Stovall wrote , the theme of the poem is " one of disillusionment with the world and escape into some more congenial realm of dream or of the imagination " .
The star which prompted Poe to write " Al Aaraaf " was believed to foretell disaster or that humanity would be punished for breaking God 's laws . Poe may have gotten the idea to base a poem on Brahe 's astronomical discovery from poet John Keats 's use of the 1781 discovery of the planet Uranus in a poem called " On First Looking into Chapman 's Homer " ( 1816 ) . The name of the star has been changed from " Al Orf " to " Al Aaraaf " to become similar to the word arafa , which means distinguishing between things . Additionally , Poe was indebted to Irish poet Thomas Moore , whose poem Lalla @-@ Rookh inspired , among other parts of " Al Aaraaf " , the catalogue of flowers near the beginning . Another work by Moore , The Loves of the Angels , inspired Poe 's idea of uniting mortal and immortal love .
Structurally , the 422 @-@ line " Al Aaraaf " has no discernible or consistent poetic rhythm , though the meter resembles a section of Lord Byron 's Manfred . Instead of formal structure , the poem focuses on the flow of sound . Poet Daniel Hoffman analyzed the fluctuating meter and determined that Part I begins as octosyllabic couplets then shifts to pentameter couplets with occasional interludes of alternately rhymed trimeter @-@ dimeters . Part II generally uses pentameter couplets with an interlude of anapestic dimeters .
= = Publication history = =
Poe claimed he wrote " Al Aaraaf " before he was 15 years old , though he would later adapt his claim . A few passages from the poem were first published in the May 19 , 1829 , issue of the Baltimore Gazette signed " Marlow " . Poe first offered the complete poem to publishers Carey , Lea & Carey in Philadelphia around May 1829 . He wrote to them , " If the poem is published , succeed or not , I am ' irrecoverably a poet . ' But to your opinion I leave it " . He met with Isaac Lea , who was willing to publish it so long as they were protected against any loss . Poe asked his foster @-@ father John Allan to subsidize the printing but , not supportive of Poe 's literary pursuits , he refused . By July 28 , Poe wrote to the publishers asking for the return of his manuscript because , as he said , he had " made a better disposition of my poems than I had any right to expect " .
" Al Aaraaf " finally saw print for the first time in the collection Al Aaraaf , Tamerlane , and Minor Poems . 250 copies of the 71 @-@ page work was issued by Hatch and Dunning of Baltimore , Maryland in December 1829 . Though Poe had already self @-@ published Tamerlane and Other Poems , he considered Al Aaraaf , Tamerlane , and Minor Poems his first book . Though this was not entirely true , it was the first work published with his name , signed " Edgar A. Poe " . Poe addressed the obscurity in " Al Aaraaf " by including multiple footnotes , many of which were left untranslated from French , Latin , and Spanish . " Al Aaraaf " was published in its entirety only once in Poe 's lifetime , though some critics believe Poe never actually completed the poem because Poe implied it was originally intended to have four parts or 400 lines .
= = Critical response = =
Upon publication , " Al Aaraaf " and the other poems in Poe 's collection drew harsh criticism because of how difficult it was to understand . Among the early reviewers was John Hill Hewitt , who wrote of Poe that " no man has been more shamefully overestimated " . In trying to explain the title poem , he wrote , " all our brain @-@ cudgeling could not compel us to understand it line by line or the sum total " . A reviewer for the Baltimore Minerva and Emerald asked , " Has the poet been struck dumb with palsy ? " Before publication , Poe had sought the advice of William Wirt , who had earned a reputation as a distinguished man of letters in Baltimore . On " Al Aaraaf " , Wirt wrote that he was not the best judge of poetry but believed that it might be accepted by modern @-@ thinking readers . As he wrote , " but to deal candidly ... ( as I am bound to do ) I should doubt whether the poem will take with old @-@ fashioned readers like myself " . Sarah Josepha Hale of Godey 's Lady 's Book noted that " Al Aaraaf " must have been written by a young author because it was " boyish , feeble , and altogether deficient in the common characteristics of poetry " . Nevertheless , she still called the author a genius . A reviewer for the American Ladies ' Magazine also commented on the poet 's age : " [ the ] author who appears to be very young , is evidently a fine genius , but he wants judgment , experience , tact " .
Poe 's boasted that these early poems were superior to most other examples in American poetry . Critic John Neal , who was a friend of Poe 's cousin George Poe , responded to Poe 's claim in his review of " Al Aaraaf " for the Yankee and Boston Literary Gazette . He said Poe 's boast was " rather exquisite nonsense " but that the young author showed promise and predicted that some day Poe might " make a beautiful and perhaps a magnificent poem " to prove his claim . He believed that if future poems by Poe were as good as some of his best lines in " Al Aaraaf " :
He will deserve to stand high — very high — in the estimation of the shining brotherhood . Whether he will do so however , must depend , not so much upon his words now in mere poetry , as upon his worth hereafter in something yet loftier and more generous — we allude to the stronger properties of the mind , to the magnanimous determination that enables a youth to endure the present , whatever the present may be , in the hope , or rather in the belief , the fixed , unwavering belief , that in the future he will find his reward .
Neal 's encouragement , which came prior to publication , led Poe to include a dedication to Neal in the collection Al Aaraaf , Tamerlane , and Minor Poems . Poe 's cousin Neilson Poe was impressed by Neal 's endorsement and wrote , " Our name will be a great one yet . " Edgar Poe would refer to Neal 's comments as " the very first words of encouragement I remember to have heard . " Poe himself admitted that " Al Aaraaf " had some " good poetry " in it as well as " much extravagance , which I have not had time to throw away " .
In the 20th century , poet Daniel Hoffman referred to " Al Aaraaf " as " Poe 's most ambitious failure " , suggesting it is a " fractured " attempt at an epic poem that " ran out of gas " . Biographer Jeffrey Meyers called it Poe 's " most turgid and opaque poem " .
= = Legacy = =
" Al Aaraaf " includes names Poe would later reuse : Ligeia and Zante . Some of the themes in the poem also foreshadow a future poem , " The City in the Sea " ( 1831 ) . The critical failure of both " Al Aaraaf " and " Tamerlane " convinced Poe that long poems are inherently flawed because they cannot sustain a proper mood or a high quality poetic form . Because of this , he never again experimented with long poetry . He would later write of his theory on short poetry in " The Poetic Principle " in 1848 . In that essay , he wrote " A long poem does not exist . I maintain that the phrase , ' a long poem , ' is simply a flat contradiction in terms . " Instead , he says , epic poetry and other long poems are actually a series of short poems strung together . Critics have suggested that this theory was written so that Poe could justify why " Al Aaraaf " was unpopular .
After the publication of " The Raven " in 1845 , Poe became a household name and , having reached the height of his poetic fame , he was often asked to lecture or recite poetry at public events . One such invitation came from the Boston Lyceum in October 1845 , arranged with help from James Russell Lowell . Poe had a strong dislike for the Boston literary scene and the city itself , despite having been born there . Nevertheless , he accepted the $ 50 fee and the challenge of writing a brand new poem for his appearance .
Fresh off his public feud with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and his dislike of the Massachusetts @-@ based Transcendentalism movement , Poe instead decided to play a trick on his Boston audience . The program , held October 16 at Boston 's Odeon Theater , was a grand event and featured a speech by Massachusetts statesman Caleb Cushing which was two and a half hours long . Poe read " Al Aaraaf " , renamed " The Messenger Star " for the event , and tried to convince his Boston audience that the poem he wrote as a young man was new . The audience was confused by the obscure poem and many left during its recitation . Poe ended with " The Raven " , as the theater manager noted , " thus enabling us to make some show of front after a most lamentable defeat . "
Poe considered the hoax an opportunity to prove that Bostonians did not know good literature . Based on critical reaction , he believed he was right . The editor of the Boston Courier reviewed " The Messenger Star " as " an elegant and classic production , based on the right principles , containing the essence of true poetry , mingled with a gorgeous imagination " . When Poe claimed that he wrote the poem before he had turned 12 , Cornelia Wells Walter of the Boston Evening Transcript wrote of her shock : " A poem delivered before a literary association of adults , as written by a boy ! Only think of it ! " It is unclear how old Poe was at the time he wrote the poem because , in part , he frequently changed his claim . Lewis Gaylord Clark said Poe 's age at writing the poem was irrelevant and , though he admitted the audience did not know the author 's age , " they only knew it was sad stuff " . Modern biographer Daniel Stashower compared Poe 's stunt with the story " The Imp of the Perverse " , in which Poe wrote about " an earnest desire to tantalize a listener ... The speaker is aware that he displeases . "
Upon his return to New York , Poe wrote in the Broadway Journal his view of the event . After noting that he refused to offer a didactic poem , he wrote :
It could scarcely be supposed that we would put ourselves to the trouble of composing for the Bostonians anything in the shape of an original poem ... We do not , ourselves , think the poem a remarkably good one : — it is not sufficiently transcendental . Still it did well enough for the Boston audience — who evinced characteristic discrimination in understanding , and especially applauding , all those knotty passages which we ourselves have not yet been able to understand ... If we cared a fig for their wrath we should not first have insulted them to their teeth , and then subjected to their tender mercies a volume of our Poems .
" Al Aaraaf " was used between 1928 and 1952 as a pen name by the noted Glasgow artist Hannah Frank .
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= Midtown Madness =
Midtown Madness ( also known as Midtown Madness : Chicago Edition ) is a racing game developed for Windows by Angel Studios ( now Rockstar San Diego ) and published by Microsoft . The demo version was released via download on May 1 , 1999 and the completed game was released toward the end of May 1999 . Two sequels followed , with Midtown Madness 2 released in September 2000 and Midtown Madness 3 released in June 2003 for the Xbox . The game is set in Chicago and its objective is to win street races and obtain new cars .
Unlike racing games that restrict the player to a race track , Midtown Madness offers an open world recreation of Chicago . This setting was said to provide " an unprecedented degree of freedom to drive around in a virtual city " . Players can explore the city via one of several modes , and can determine the weather and traffic conditions for each race . The game supports multiplayer races over a local area network or the Internet . The game received generally positive reviews from gaming websites .
= = Gameplay = =
Midtown Madness features four single @-@ player modes : Blitz , Circuit , Checkpoint , and Cruise . In Blitz , the player must reach three checkpoints and an end destination within a time limit . The Circuit mode curtains off most of the city to form race tracks and pits the player against other cars . The Checkpoint mode combines the features of Blitz and Circuit — it has the player race against other cars to a destination — but also adds the complication of other traffic , such as police cars and pedestrians . In the Cruise mode , the player can simply explore the city at their own pace . All of these modes except Cruise are divided into missions ; completing one unlocks the next . Environmental conditions that traverse all modes include weather ( normal , rain , clouds , and snow ) , time of day ( sunrise , afternoon , sunset , and night ) , and the density of pedestrians , traffic , and police officers . The heads @-@ up display includes , alongside information about the race , a detailed map , but this display can be turned off .
Players start off with five vehicles , and five more are unlockable ; the vehicles available range from a Volkswagen Beetle and a Ford F @-@ 350 to a city transit bus and a Freightliner Century truck . Unlocking vehicles requires completing goals such as placing within the top three of any two races . If the player has previously won a certain race mission , they can change the race 's duration and the weather when replaying it . The Checkpoint mode allows players to also set the frequency of traffic , police cars , and pedestrians .
The game 's city environment is modeled after Chicago , including many of its landmarks , such as the ' L ' , the Willis Tower ( then known as the Sears Tower ) , Wrigley Field , and Soldier Field . The streets feature a number of objects into which the player can crash , including trash bins , parking meters , mailboxes , and traffic lights . In Checkpoint , other vehicles move in accordance with traffic lights , but the player is under no obligation to obey them .
Midtown Madness supports multiplayer games via local area network , Internet , or serial cable connection . Multiplayer mode was originally supported by Microsoft 's MSN Gaming Zone , but this service was retired on June 19 , 2006 . It is now supported by similar services such as GameSpy Arcade and XFire , via DirectPlay . Multiplayer mode includes a Cops and Robbers mode , a capture the flag @-@ style game in which players form two teams and each team tries to steal the opposing team 's cache of gold and return it to their own hideout .
= = Development = =
Midtown Madness was one of the first games that Angel Studios ( now Rockstar San Diego ) developed for the PC . Microsoft planned to publish sequels to racing computer games with the word Madness in the title , including Motocross Madness and Monster Truck Madness . According to project director Clinton Keith , the concept behind the game came to two Microsoft employees during an attempt to cross a crowded street in Paris . They proposed their idea to Angel Studios , who had tried to sell Microsoft a 3D vehicle simulator . Angel Studios was initially hesitant to accept Microsoft 's offer given the magnitude of the proposed undertaking . They ultimately agreed and decided to use Chicago for the setting because the city was featured in several famous car chases from films , including The Blues Brothers . The development team asked Chicago residents to playtest the game to ensure that the city was recreated faithfully . PC Gamer reported that the recreation was mostly accurate , although certain landmarks were moved to enhance gameplay .
Angel Studios and Microsoft included regular cars in addition to the " overpowered Italian sports cars " often seen in racing games . The developers obtained permission from manufacturers to use the likenesses of selected vehicles . Microsoft received authorization from Volkswagen for the New Beetle , and Ford , for the Mustang , and the F @-@ 350 Super Duty . The decision to make only half the cars available at the outset was intended to promote a sense of competition . Microsoft staff asked Angel Studios employees to prevent players from hitting pedestrians . Angel Studios ( after deciding against rendering pedestrians in two dimensions ) developed 3D pedestrian models that could run and jump out of the way . Midtown Madness included an option to remove pedestrians , as they do not alter gameplay but may affect system performance when in a group ; consequently , the game does not require a 3D graphics card .
A demo version was released for download on May 1 , 1999 ; It featured three vehicles ( a Mustang , a Panoz Roadster , and a bus ) , and all driving modes except circuit . In December 1999 , Angel Studios reported that they were considering a race designer for players , but ultimately this feature was not added . The finished game was released on May 27 , 1999 .
Midtown Madness is distinct from other racing games of its time , especially those influenced by the Need for Speed series , in providing an open environment rather than a closed circuit . Project director Clinton Keith said that an open world makes the gameplay more diverse and adds " element [ s ] of discovery " such as finding shortcuts . Gary Whitta described the game as open world racing : " you still have checkpoints to hit [ but ] you don 't have to follow the A @-@ B @-@ C @-@ D standard to do it " .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of Midtown Madness were generally positive , with video game critics praising its gameplay . IGN wrote that the game " doesn 't rely heavily on driving authenticity ; this game 's all about fun . " The review also praised the simplicity whereby players can " pick a real @-@ world car and go " . GameSpot wrote that " it 's fun to be able to drive like a maniac [ ... ] because you know you can 't in real life . " Computer and Video Games remarked on the game 's humor , provided by other drivers , police , and competitors ( described as maniacs ) , praising the " carnage that unfolds before your windscreen " . PC Zone recommended the game , calling it highly refreshing ; Total Video Games said the game seemed a good choice , but suggested that it would be outdone by GT Interactive 's Driver , released soon after . AllGame called it a " must @-@ buy for the driving game enthusiast " and said that it would also appeal to players who are not necessarily fans of the racing car genre . Next Generation Magazine concluded its review by stating that Midtown Madness was not innovative , but that " it 'll stay on your hard drive for a while and keep you playing " .
IGN gave high marks to the game 's graphics , saying that " the downtown portion of Chicago is portrayed very accurately " even though other parts of the city looked more generic . Next Generation Magazine said the graphics were impressive , it praised the " thoroughly detailed " random occurrences of " cars hurtling in front of you " and " cringing pedestrians when you lurch onto the sidewalks " . GameSpot approved of the variety in third @-@ person , first @-@ person dashboard , and widescreen driving views . However , it complained of the game suffering from " choppy frame rates " and unconvincing visual effects .
PC Zone praised Angel Studios for avoiding gimmicks , instead presenting " accurately modelled cars and a meticulously recreated city " to the player . AllGame said Midtown Madness " possesses superb , immersive graphics " , using the different times of day and weather as an example . However , it complained that cars not controlled by the player were lacking in detail . Computer and Video Games said that as well as being " structurally and visually consistent " , the Chicago setting in Midtown Madness was " brought to life " — for instance , a " city bus legitimately pulling out at a four @-@ way junction " can end the race for a player by destroying their car . However , Total Video Games called the game 's presentation " far from optimal " even at the recommended system requirements . Reviewer Noel Brady pointed out " a serious lack of detail " and blockiness , especially without a graphics card . He was critical of the AI , declaring that cars often drive " without noticing [ the player ] at all " . In his book AI Game Engine Programming , Brian Schwab described Midtown Madness ' gameplay as " arcade style " and " fast and loose " , and said the in @-@ game traffic was satisfactory .
IGN described the in @-@ game narration as " a nice touch " , but noted some glitches among the otherwise " distinctive engine and horn sounds " . GameSpot called the game 's sounds exceptional , praising its variety of car noises such as the back @-@ up beeper for the bus . PC Zone praised the in @-@ game radio system , and the support for external media players . AllGame said players " get a dose of reality " with other drivers and pedestrians " hurling insults and exclamations your way " .
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= Anarchism =
Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self @-@ governed societies based on voluntary institutions . These are often described as stateless societies , although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non @-@ hierarchical free associations . Anarchism considers the state to be undesirable , unnecessary , and harmful , because anarchists generally believe that human beings are capable of managing their own affairs on the basis of creativity , cooperation , and mutual respect , and when making individual decisions they are taking into the account others . While anti @-@ statism is central , anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all human relations
Anarchism draws on many currents of thought and strategy . Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular world view , instead fluxing and flowing as a philosophy . Many types and traditions of anarchism exist , not all of which are mutually exclusive . Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally , supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism . Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications . Anarchism is usually considered a radical left @-@ wing ideology , and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti @-@ authoritarian interpretations of communism , collectivism , syndicalism , mutualism , or participatory economics .
= = Etymology and terminology = =
The term anarchism is a compound word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism , themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία , i.e. anarchy ( from ἄναρχος , anarchos , meaning " one without rulers " ; from the privative prefix ἀν- ( an- , i.e. " without " ) and ἀρχός , archos , i.e. " leader " , " ruler " ; ( cf. archon or ἀρχή , arkhē , i.e. " authority " , " sovereignty " , " realm " , " magistracy " ) ) and the suffix -ισμός or -ισμα ( -ismos , -isma , from the verbal infinitive suffix -ίζειν , -izein ) . The first known use of this word was in 1539 . Various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists ( as Robespierre did the Hébertists ) although few shared many views of later anarchists . There would be many revolutionaries of the early nineteenth century who contributed to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation , such as William Godwin and Wilhelm Weitling , but they did not use the word anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs .
The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon , marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid @-@ nineteenth century . Since the 1890s , and beginning in France , the term libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States ; its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States . On the other hand , some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free @-@ market philosophy only , referring to free @-@ market anarchism as libertarian anarchism .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC , among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi , and in later centuries by Zhuangzi and Bao Jingyan . Zhuangzi 's philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist . Zhuangzi wrote , " A petty thief is put in jail . A great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation . " Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics , their contemporary Zeno of Citium , the founder of Stoicism , also introduced similar topics . Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition . Georges Lechartier wrote that " The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ and ... the first anarchist society was that of the apostles . " In early Islamic history , some manifestations of anarchic thought are found during the Islamic civil war over the Caliphate , where the Kharijites insisted that the imamate is a right for each individual within the Islamic society . Later , some Muslim scholars , such as Amer al @-@ Basri and Abu Hanifa , led movements of boycotting the rulers , paving the way to the waqf ( endowments ) tradition , which served as an alternative to and asylum from the centralized authorities of the emirs . But such interpretations reverberates subversive religious conceptions like the aforementioned seemingly anarchistic Taoist teachings and that of other anti @-@ authoritarian religious traditions creating a complex relationship regarding the question as to whether or not anarchism and religion are compatible . This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry .
The French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent . The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by various authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England . The term " anarchist " first entered the English language in 1642 , during the English Civil War , as a term of abuse , used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents . By the time of the French Revolution some , such as the Enragés , began to use the term positively , in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power , seeing " revolutionary government " as oxymoronic . By the turn of the 19th century , the English word " anarchism " had lost its initial negative connotation .
Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment , particularly Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom .
As part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution , William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought . Godwin was , according to Peter Kropotkin , " the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism , even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work " , while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early Edmund Burke .
Godwin is generally regarded as the founder of the school of thought known as ' philosophical anarchism ' . He argued in Political Justice ( 1793 ) that government has an inherently malevolent influence on society , and that it perpetuates dependency and ignorance . He thought that the spread of the use of reason to the masses would eventually cause government to wither away as an unnecessary force . Although he did not accord the state with moral legitimacy , he was against the use of revolutionary tactics for removing the government from power . Rather , he advocated for its replacement through a process of peaceful evolution .
His aversion to the imposition of a rules @-@ based society led him to denounce , as a manifestation of the people ’ s ‘ mental enslavement ’ , the foundations of law , property rights and even the institution of marriage . He considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organization . In each case , government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of our capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgment .
The French Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon is regarded as the first self @-@ proclaimed anarchist , a label he adopted in his groundbreaking work , What is Property ? , published in 1840 . It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory . He developed the theory of spontaneous order in society , where organisation emerges without a central coordinator imposing its own idea of order against the wills of individuals acting in their own interests ; his famous quote on the matter is , " Liberty is the mother , not the daughter , of order . " In What is Property ? Proudhon answers with the famous accusation " Property is theft . " In this work , he opposed the institution of decreed " property " ( propriété ) , where owners have complete rights to " use and abuse " their property as they wish . He contrasted this with what he called " possession , " or limited ownership of resources and goods only while in more or less continuous use . Later , however , Proudhon added that " Property is Liberty , " and argued that it was a bulwark against state power . His opposition to the state , organised religion , and certain capitalist practices inspired subsequent anarchists , and made him one of the leading social thinkers of his time .
The anarcho @-@ communist Joseph Déjacque was the first person to describe himself as " libertarian " . Unlike Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon , he argued that , " it is not the product of his or her labour that the worker has a right to , but to the satisfaction of his or her needs , whatever may be their nature . " In 1844 in Germany the post @-@ hegelian philosopher Max Stirner published the book , The Ego and Its Own , which would later be considered an influential early text of individualist anarchism . French anarchists active in the 1848 Revolution included Anselme Bellegarrigue , Ernest Coeurderoy , Joseph Déjacque and Pierre Joseph Proudhon .
= = = First International and the Paris Commune = = =
In Europe , harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848 , during which ten countries had experienced brief or long @-@ term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings . After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure , conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists , anarchists , liberals , and nationalists , to prevent further revolt . In Spain Ramón de la Sagra established the anarchist journal El Porvenir in La Coruña in 1845 which was inspired by Proudhon ´ s ideas . The Catalan politician Francesc Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon 's works into Spanish and later briefly became president of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party . According to George Woodcock " These translations were to have a profound and lasting effect on the development of Spanish anarchism after 1870 , but before that time Proudhonian ideas , as interpreted by Pi , already provided much of the inspiration for the federalist movement which sprang up in the early 1860 's . " According to the Encyclopedia Britannica " During the Spanish revolution of 1873 , Pi y Margall attempted to establish a decentralized , or " cantonalist , " political system on Proudhonian lines . "
In 1864 the International Workingmen 's Association ( sometimes called the " First International " ) united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of Proudhon , Blanquists , Philadelphes , English trade unionists , socialists and social democrats . Due to its links to active workers ' movements , the International became a significant organisation . Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council . Proudhon 's followers , the mutualists , opposed Marx 's state socialism , advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings . Woodcock also reports that the American individualist anarchists Lysander Spooner and William B. Greene had been members of the First International . In 1868 , following their unsuccessful participation in the League of Peace and Freedom ( LPF ) , Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin and his collectivist anarchist associates joined the First International ( which had decided not to get involved with the LPF ) . They allied themselves with the federalist socialist sections of the International , who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property .
At first , the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction . Subsequently , the International became polarised into two camps , with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads . Bakunin characterised Marx 's ideas as centralist and predicted that , if a Marxist party came to power , its leaders would simply take the place of the ruling class they had fought against . Anarchist historian George Woodcock reports that " The annual Congress of the International had not taken place in 1870 owing to the outbreak of the Paris Commune , and in 1871 the General Council called only a special conference in London . One delegate was able to attend from Spain and none from Italy , while a technical excuse – that they had split away from the Fédération Romande – was used to avoid inviting Bakunin 's Swiss supporters . Thus only a tiny minority of anarchists was present , and the General Council 's resolutions passed almost unanimously . Most of them were clearly directed against Bakunin and his followers . " In 1872 , the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the Hague Congress , where Bakunin and James Guillaume were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York . In response , the federalist sections formed their own International at the St. Imier Congress , adopting a revolutionary anarchist program .
The Paris Commune was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March ( more formally , from 28 March ) to 28 May 1871 . The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco @-@ Prussian War . Anarchists participated actively in the establishment of the Paris Commune . They included Louise Michel , the Reclus brothers , and Eugene Varlin ( the latter murdered in the repression afterwards ) . As for the reforms initiated by the Commune , such as the re @-@ opening of workplaces as co @-@ operatives , anarchists can see their ideas of associated labour beginning to be realised ... Moreover , the Commune 's ideas on federation obviously reflected the influence of Proudhon on French radical ideas . Indeed , the Commune 's vision of a communal France based on a federation of delegates bound by imperative mandates issued by their electors and subject to recall at any moment echoes Bakunin 's and Proudhon 's ideas ( Proudhon , like Bakunin , had argued in favour of the " implementation of the binding mandate " in 1848 ... and for federation of communes ) . Thus both economically and politically the Paris Commune was heavily influenced by anarchist ideas . George Woodcock states :
a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organisation of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions , including the mutualists Courbet , Longuet , and Vermorel , the libertarian collectivists Varlin , Malon , and Lefrangais , and the bakuninists Elie and Elisée Reclus and Louise Michel .
= = = Organised labour = = =
The anti @-@ authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho @-@ syndicalists , seeking to " replace the privilege and authority of the State " with the " free and spontaneous organisation of labour . " In 1886 , the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions ( FOTLU ) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886 , as the date by which the eight @-@ hour work day would become standard .
In response , unions across the United States prepared a general strike in support of the event . On 3 May , in Chicago , a fight broke out when strikebreakers attempted to cross the picket line , and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd . The next day , 4 May , anarchists staged a rally at Chicago 's Haymarket Square . A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally , killing an officer . In the ensuing panic , police opened fire on the crowd and each other . Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed . Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer . The men became international political celebrities among the labour movement . Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution . The incident became known as the Haymarket affair , and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight @-@ hour day . In 1890 a second attempt , this time international in scope , to organise for the eight @-@ hour day was made . The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair . Although it had initially been conceived as a once @-@ off event , by the following year the celebration of International Workers ' Day on May Day had become firmly established as an international worker 's holiday .
In 1907 , the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14 different countries , among which important figures of the anarchist movement , including Errico Malatesta , Pierre Monatte , Luigi Fabbri , Benoît Broutchoux , Emma Goldman , Rudolf Rocker , and Christiaan Cornelissen . Various themes were treated during the Congress , in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement , popular education issues , the general strike or antimilitarism . A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and syndicalism ( or trade unionism ) . Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement themselves on this issue , as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a social revolution , while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient . He thought that the trade @-@ union movement was reformist and even conservative , citing as essentially bourgeois and anti @-@ worker the phenomenon of professional union officials . Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself , whereas anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from committing to any particular method of achieving it .
The Spanish Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho @-@ syndicalist movement ; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain . The most successful was the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo ( National Confederation of Labour : CNT ) , founded in 1910 . Before the 1940s , the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics , attracting 1 @.@ 58 million members at one point and playing a major role in the Spanish Civil War . The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association , a federation of anarcho @-@ syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922 , with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America . In Latin America in particular " The anarchists quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers throughout South and Central America , and until the early 1920s most of the trade unions in Mexico , Brazil , Peru , Chile , and Argentina were anarcho @-@ syndicalist in general outlook ; the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a revolutionary organization was undoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation . The largest and most militant of these organizations was the Federación Obrera Regional Argentina ... it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a quarter of a million , which dwarfed the rival socialdemocratic unions . "
= = = Propaganda of the deed and illegalism = = =
Some anarchists , such as Johann Most , advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter @-@ revolutionaries because " we preach not only action in and for itself , but also action as propaganda . " By the 1880s , people inside and outside the anarchist movement began to use the slogan , " propaganda of the deed " to refer to individual bombings , regicides , and tyrannicides . From 1905 onwards , the Russian counterparts of these anti @-@ syndicalist anarchist @-@ communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal ' expropriations ' . " Illegalism as a practice emerged and within it " The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ( " propaganda by the deed " ) and the anarchist burglars ( " individual reappropriation " ) expressed their desperation and their personal , violent rejection of an intolerable society . Moreover , they were clearly meant to be exemplary invitations to revolt . " . France 's Bonnot Gang was the most famous group to embrace illegalism .
However , as soon as 1887 , important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts . Peter Kropotkin thus wrote that year in Le Révolté that " a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite " . A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favour of collective revolutionary action , for example through the trade union movement . The anarcho @-@ syndicalist , Fernand Pelloutier , argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labour movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without " the individual dynamiter . "
State repression ( including the infamous 1894 French lois scélérates ) of the anarchist and labour movements following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics , although reciprocally state repression , in the first place , may have played a role in these isolated acts . The dismemberment of the French socialist movement , into many groups and , following the suppression of the 1871 Paris Commune , the execution and exile of many communards to penal colonies , favoured individualist political expression and acts .
Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the anarchist movement , including Tsar Alexander II of Russia , President Sadi Carnot of France , Empress Elisabeth of Austria , King Umberto I of Italy , President William McKinley of the United States , King Carlos I of Portugal and King George I of Greece . McKinley 's assassin Leon Czolgosz claimed to have been influenced by anarchist and feminist Emma Goldman .
Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist movement after World War I ( 1914 – 1918 ) and the 1917 October Revolution .
= = = Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s = = =
Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October revolutions , and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution . However , following a political falling out with the Bolsheviks by the anarchists and other left @-@ wing opposition , the conflict culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion , which the new government repressed . Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned , driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks ; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine . There , in the Free Territory , they fought in the civil war against the Whites ( a grouping of monarchists and other opponents of the October Revolution ) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno , who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months .
Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising , before they left Russia . Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia , criticising the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised . For them , Bakunin 's predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new " socialist " Marxist state would become a new elite had proved all too true .
The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally . Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example ; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements . In France and the United States , for example , members of the major syndicalist movements of the CGT and IWW left the organisations and joined the Communist International .
The revolutionary wave of 1917 – 23 saw the active participation of anarchists in varying degrees of protagonism . In the German uprising known as the German Revolution of 1918 – 1919 which established the Bavarian Soviet Republic the anarchists Gustav Landauer , Silvio Gesell and Erich Mühsam had important leadership positions within the revolutionary councilist structures . In the Italian events known as the biennio rosso the anarcho @-@ syndicalist trade union Unione Sindacale Italiana " grew to 800 @,@ 000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union ( 20 @,@ 000 members plus Umanita Nova , its daily paper ) grew accordingly ... Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces . In the Mexican Revolution the Mexican Liberal Party was established and during the early 1910s it led a series of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts in Baja California with the leadership of anarcho @-@ communist Ricardo Flores Magón .
In Paris , the Dielo Truda group of Russian anarchist exiles , which included Nestor Makhno , concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism . Their 1926 manifesto , called the Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists ( Draft ) , was supported . Platformist groups active today include the Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland and the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists of North America . Synthesis anarchism emerged as an organisational alternative to platformism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives . In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents Volin and Sebastien Faure . It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations .
= = = Conflicts with European fascist regimes = = =
In the 1920s and 1930s , the rise of fascism in Europe transformed anarchism 's conflict with the state . Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists . Italian anarchists played a key role in the anti @-@ fascist organisation Arditi del Popolo , which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions , and achieved some success in their activism , such as repelling Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922 . The veteran Italian anarchist , Luigi Fabbri , was one of the first critical theorists of fascism , describing it as " the preventive counter @-@ revolution . " In France , where the far right leagues came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots , anarchists divided over a united front policy .
Anarchists in France and Italy were active in the Resistance during World War II . In Germany the anarchist Erich Mühsam was arrested on charges unknown in the early morning hours of 28 February 1933 , within a few hours after the Reichstag fire in Berlin . Joseph Goebbels , the Nazi propaganda minister , labelled him as one of " those Jewish subversives . " Over the next seventeen months , he would be imprisoned in the concentration camps at Sonnenburg , Brandenburg and finally , Oranienburg . On 2 February 1934 , Mühsam was transferred to the concentration camp at Oranienburg when finally on the night of 9 July 1934 , Mühsam was tortured and murdered by the guards , his battered corpse found hanging in a latrine the next morning .
= = = Spanish Revolution = = =
In Spain , the national anarcho @-@ syndicalist trade union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance , and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory . But in 1936 , the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power . Months later , the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the Spanish Civil War ( 1936 – 1939 ) . In response to the army rebellion , an anarchist @-@ inspired movement of peasants and workers , supported by armed militias , took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivised the land . But even before the fascist victory in 1939 , the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists , who controlled much of the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet Union . According to Noam Chomsky , " the communists were mainly responsible for the destruction of the Spanish anarchists . Not just in Catalonia — the communist armies mainly destroyed the collectives elsewhere . The communists basically acted as the police force of the security system of the Republic and were very much opposed to the anarchists , partially because Stalin still hoped at that time to have some kind of pact with Western countries against Hitler . That , of course , failed and Stalin withdrew the support to the Republic . They even withdrew the Spanish gold reserves . " The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a workers ' social revolution that began during the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of anarchist and more broadly libertarian socialist organisational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years , primarily Catalonia , Aragon , Andalusia , and parts of the Levante . Much of Spain 's economy was put under worker control ; in anarchist strongholds like Catalonia , the figure was as high as 75 % , but lower in areas with heavy Communist Party of Spain influence , as the Soviet @-@ allied party actively resisted attempts at collectivization enactment . Factories were run through worker committees , agrarian areas became collectivised and run as libertarian communes . Anarchist historian Sam Dolgoff estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution , which he claimed " came closer to realizing the ideal of the free stateless society on a vast scale than any other revolution in history . " Spanish Communist Party @-@ led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and anarchists . The prominent Italian anarchist Camillo Berneri , who volunteered to fight against Franco was killed instead in Spain by gunmen associated with the Spanish Communist Party . The city of Madrid was turned over to the francoist forces by the last non @-@ francoist mayor of the city , the anarchist Melchor Rodríguez García .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
Anarchism sought to reorganise itself after the war and in this context the organisational debate between synthesis anarchism and platformism took importance once again especially in the anarchist movements of Italy and France . The Mexican Anarchist Federation was established in 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Centre united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District . In the early 1940s , the Antifascist International Solidarity and the Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merged into the large national organisation Asociación Libertaria de Cuba ( Cuban Libertarian Association ) . From 1944 to 1947 , the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerged as part of a factory and workplace committee movement , but was repressed by the new Communist regime . In 1945 in France the Fédération Anarchiste and the anarchosyndicalist trade union Confédération nationale du travail was established in the next year while the also synthesist Federazione Anarchica Italiana was founded in Italy . Korean anarchists formed the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945 and in 1946 the Japanese Anarchist Federation was founded . An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe was held in Paris in May 1948 . After World War II , an appeal in the Fraye Arbeter Shtime detailing the plight of German anarchists and called for Americans to support them . By February 1946 , the sending of aid parcels to anarchists in Germany was a large @-@ scale operation . The Federation of Libertarian Socialists was founded in Germany in 1947 and Rudolf Rocker wrote for its organ , Die Freie Gesellschaft , which survived until 1953 . In 1956 the Uruguayan Anarchist Federation was founded . In 1955 the Anarcho @-@ Communist Federation of Argentina renamed itself as the Argentine Libertarian Federation . The Syndicalist Workers ' Federation was a syndicalist group in active in post @-@ war Britain , and one of Solidarity Federation 's earliest predecessors . It was formed in 1950 by members of the dissolved Anarchist Federation of Britain . Unlike the AFB , which was influenced by anarcho @-@ syndicalist ideas but ultimately not syndicalist itself , the SWF decided to pursue a more definitely syndicalist , worker @-@ centred strategy from the outset .
Anarchism continued to influence important literary and intellectual personalities of the time , such as Albert Camus , Herbert Read , Paul Goodman , Dwight Macdonald , Allen Ginsberg , George Woodcock , Leopold Kohr , Julian Beck , John Cage and the French Surrealist group led by André Breton , which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the Fédération Anarchiste .
Anarcho @-@ pacifism became influential in the Anti @-@ nuclear movement and anti war movements of the time as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Alex Comfort or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho @-@ pacifists Ammon Hennacy and Dorothy Day . Anarcho @-@ pacifism became a " basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War . " The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham 's Anarchism : A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas , Volume Two : The Emergence of the New Anarchism ( 1939 – 1977 ) .
= = = Contemporary anarchism = = =
A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s . Anarchism was influential in the Counterculture of the 1960s and anarchists actively participated in the late sixties students and workers revolts . In 1968 in Carrara , Italy the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France ( the Fédération Anarchiste ) , the Federazione Anarchica Italiana of Italy and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile .
In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the punk rock movement , as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols . The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like that of Barcelona , Spain . In Denmark , squatters occupied a disused military base and declared the Freetown Christiania , an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen . Since the revival of anarchism in the mid @-@ 20th century , a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged . Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of anarcha @-@ feminism , they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s . Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber and anarchist historian Andrej Grubacic have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism , with those " who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits " of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are " much more informed , among other elements , by indigenous , feminist , ecological and cultural @-@ critical ideas " , and who by the turn of the 21st century formed " by far the majority " of anarchists .
Around the turn of the 21st century , anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti @-@ war , anti @-@ capitalist , and anti @-@ globalisation movements . Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , Group of Eight , and the World Economic Forum . Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting , property destruction , and violent confrontations with police . These actions were precipitated by ad hoc , leaderless , anonymous cadres known as black blocs ; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include security culture , affinity groups and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet . A significant event of this period was the confrontations at WTO conference in Seattle in 1999 . According to anarchist scholar Simon Critchley , " contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo @-@ libertarianism of contemporary neo @-@ liberalism ... One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility , whether sexual , ecological or socio @-@ economic ; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest ; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality , impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally . "
International anarchist federations in existence include the International of Anarchist Federations , the International Workers ' Association , and International Libertarian Solidarity . The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain , in the form of the Confederación General del Trabajo ( CGT ) and the CNT . CGT membership was estimated at around 100 @,@ 000 for 2003 . Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden and the Swedish Anarcho @-@ syndicalist Youth Federation ; the CNT @-@ AIT in France ; the Unione Sindicale Italiana in Italy ; in the US Workers Solidarity Alliance and the UK Solidarity Federation and Anarchist Federation . The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial Workers of the World , claiming 3 @,@ 000 paying members , and the International Workers Association , an anarcho @-@ syndicalist successor to the First International , also remain active .
= = Anarchist schools of thought = =
Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions , individualist anarchism and social anarchism , which have some different origins , values and evolution . The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises negative liberty , i.e. opposition to state or social control over the individual , while those in the social wing emphasise positive liberty to achieve one 's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill , " recognizing equality of entitlement " . In a chronological and theoretical sense , there are classical – those created throughout the 19th century – and post @-@ classical anarchist schools – those created since the mid @-@ 20th century and after .
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is philosophical anarchism , which embodies the theoretical stance that the state lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it . A component especially of individualist anarchism philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a minimal state as unfortunate , and usually temporary , " necessary evil " but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy . One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was " anarchism without adjectives " , a call for toleration first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the " bitter debates " of anarchist theory at the time . In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms ( i.e. collectivist- , communist- , mutualist – and individualist @-@ anarchism ) , it sought to emphasise the anti @-@ authoritarian beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought .
= = = Classical anarchist schools of thought = = =
= = = = Mutualism = = = =
Mutualism began in 18th @-@ century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States . Proudhon proposed spontaneous order , whereby organisation emerges without central authority , a " positive anarchy " where order arises when everybody does " what he wishes and only what he wishes " and where " business transactions alone produce the social order . " It is important to recognize that Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance . For this reason , much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning ultimate spontaneous self @-@ governance , Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary politics and allied himself not with Anarchist but Socialist factions of workers movements and , in addition to advocating state @-@ protected charters for worker @-@ owned cooperatives , promoted certain nationalization schemes during his life of public service .
Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity , free association , voluntary contract , federation , and credit and currency reform . According to the American mutualist William Batchelder Greene , each worker in the mutualist system would receive " just and exact pay for his work ; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost , without profit or discount . " Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism . Proudhon first characterised his goal as a " third form of society , the synthesis of communism and property . "
= = = = Individualist anarchism = = = =
Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups , society , traditions , and ideological systems . Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict .
In 1793 , William Godwin , who has often been cited as the first anarchist , wrote Political Justice , which some consider the first expression of anarchism . Godwin , a philosophical anarchist , from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present " necessary evil " that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge . Godwin advocated individualism , proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good .
An influential form of individualist anarchism , called " egoism , " or egoist anarchism , was expounded by one of the earliest and best @-@ known proponents of individualist anarchism , the German Max Stirner . Stirner 's The Ego and Its Own , published in 1844 , is a founding text of the philosophy . According to Stirner , the only limitation on the rights of individuals is their power to obtain what they desire , without regard for God , state , or morality . To Stirner , rights were spooks in the mind , and he held that society does not exist but " the individuals are its reality " . Stirner advocated self @-@ assertion and foresaw unions of egoists , non @-@ systematic associations continually renewed by all parties ' support through an act of will , which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state . Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals . " Egoism " has inspired many interpretations of Stirner 's philosophy . It was re @-@ discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay .
Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist , and the four @-@ page weekly paper he edited during 1833 , The Peaceful Revolutionist , was the first anarchist periodical published . For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster " It is apparent ... that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews ... William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form . " . Henry David Thoreau ( 1817 – 1862 ) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe . Thoreau was an American author , poet , naturalist , tax resister , development critic , surveyor , historian , philosopher , and leading transcendentalist . He is best known for his books Walden , a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings , and his essay , Civil Disobedience , an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state . Later Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner 's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty .
From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals , free love and birth control advocates ( see Anarchism and issues related to love and sex ) , individualist naturists nudists ( see anarcho @-@ naturism ) , freethought and anti @-@ clerical activists as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation ( see European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France ) . These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde , Emile Armand , Han Ryner , Henri Zisly , Renzo Novatore , Miguel Gimenez Igualada , Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others .
= = = = Social anarchism = = = =
Social anarchism calls for a system with common ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organisations , without any government authority or coercion . It is the largest school of thought in anarchism . Social anarchism rejects private property , seeing it as a source of social inequality ( while retaining respect for personal property ) , and emphasises cooperation and mutual aid .
= = = = = Collectivist anarchism = = = = =
Collectivist anarchism , also referred to as " revolutionary socialism " or a form of such , is a revolutionary form of anarchism , commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most . Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production , instead advocating that ownership be collectivised . This was to be achieved through violent revolution , first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence , or propaganda by the deed , which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production .
However , collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income , as workers would be paid according to time worked , rather than receiving goods being distributed " according to need " as in anarcho @-@ communism . This position was criticised by anarchist communists as effectively " uphold [ ing ] the wages system " . Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat , despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society . Anarchist , communist and collectivist ideas are not mutually exclusive ; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour , some held out the possibility of a post @-@ revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need .
= = = = = Anarcho @-@ communism = = = = =
Anarchist communism ( also known as anarcho @-@ communism , libertarian communism and occasionally as free communism ) is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of the state , markets , money , private property ( while retaining respect for personal property ) , and capitalism in favour of common ownership of the means of production , direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers ' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle : " from each according to his ability , to each according to his need " .
Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism , believing anarcho @-@ communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom . Most anarcho @-@ communists view anarcho @-@ communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society .
Anarcho @-@ communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International . The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro @-@ organisationalist and insurrectionary anti @-@ organisationalist sections . To date , the best known examples of an anarchist communist society ( i.e. , established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon ) , are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution . Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War , starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon , parts of the Levante and Andalusia , as well as in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being crushed by the combined forces of the regime that won the war , Hitler , Mussolini , Spanish Communist Party repression ( backed by the USSR ) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself . During the Russian Revolution , anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend – through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine – anarchist communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921 .
= = = = = Anarcho @-@ syndicalism = = = = =
Anarcho @-@ syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that focuses on the labour movement . Anarcho @-@ syndicalists view labour unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change , replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self @-@ managed by workers . The basic principles of anarcho @-@ syndicalism are : Workers ' solidarity , Direct action and Workers ' self @-@ management
Anarcho @-@ syndicalists believe that only direct action – that is , action concentrated on directly attaining a goal , as opposed to indirect action , such as electing a representative to a government position – will allow workers to liberate themselves . Moreover , anarcho @-@ syndicalists believe that workers ' organisations ( the organisations that struggle against the wage system , which , in anarcho @-@ syndicalist theory , will eventually form the basis of a new society ) should be self @-@ managing . They should not have bosses or " business agents " ; rather , the workers should be able to make all the decisions that affect them themselves . Rudolf Rocker was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho @-@ syndicalist movement . He outlined a view of the origins of the movement , what it sought , and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet Anarcho @-@ Syndicalism . The International Workers Association is an international anarcho @-@ syndicalist federation of various labour unions from different countries . The Spanish Confederación Nacional del Trabajo played and still plays a major role in the Spanish labour movement . It was also an important force in the Spanish Civil War .
= = = Post @-@ classical schools of thought = = =
Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements , at times eclectic , drawing upon various sources , and syncretic , combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches .
Green anarchism ( or eco @-@ anarchism ) is a school of thought within anarchism that emphasizes environmental issues , with an important precedent in anarcho @-@ naturism , and whose main contemporary currents are anarcho @-@ primitivism and social ecology .
Anarcha @-@ feminism ( also called anarchist feminism and anarcho @-@ feminism ) combines anarchism with feminism . It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy that should be replaced by decentralised free association . Anarcha @-@ feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle , and the anarchist struggle against the state . In essence , the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice versa . L. Susan Brown claims that " as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power , it is inherently feminist " . Anarcha @-@ feminism began with the late 19th @-@ century writings of early feminist anarchists such as Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre .
Anarcho @-@ pacifism is a tendency that rejects violence in the struggle for social change ( see non @-@ violence ) . It developed " mostly in the Netherlands , Britain , and the United States , before and during the Second World War " . Christian anarchism is a movement in political theology that combines anarchism and Christianity . Its main proponents included Leo Tolstoy , Dorothy Day , Ammon Hennacy , and Jacques Ellul .
Platformism is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement based on the organisational theories in the tradition of Dielo Truda 's Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists ( Draft ) . The document was based on the experiences of Russian anarchists in the 1917 October Revolution , which led eventually to the victory of the Bolsheviks over the anarchists and other groups . The Platform attempted to address and explain the anarchist movement 's failures during the Russian Revolution .
Synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives . In the 1920s , this form found as its main proponents the anarcho @-@ communists Voline and Sébastien Faure . It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations .
Post @-@ left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism 's relationship to traditional Left @-@ wing politics . Some post @-@ leftists seek to escape the confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organisations and morality . Influenced by the work of Max Stirner and by the Marxist Situationist International , post @-@ left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation .
Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory , practice , and tendency within the anarchist movement which emphasizes insurrection within anarchist practice . It is critical of formal organisations such as labour unions and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses . Instead , insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organisation and small affinity group based organisation . Insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack , permanent class conflict , and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies .
Post @-@ anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought , drawing from diverse ideas including post @-@ modernism , autonomist marxism , post @-@ left anarchy , Situationist International , and postcolonialism .
Left @-@ wing market anarchism strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self @-@ ownership and free markets , while maintaining that , taken to their logical conclusions , these ideas support strongly anti @-@ corporatist , anti @-@ hierarchical , pro @-@ labor positions and anti @-@ capitalism in economics and anti @-@ imperialism in foreign policy .
Anarcho @-@ capitalism advocates the elimination of the state in favour of individual sovereignty in a free market . Anarcho @-@ capitalism developed from radical anti @-@ state libertarianism and individualist anarchism , drawing from Austrian School economics , study of law and economics , and public choice theory . There is a strong current within anarchism which does not consider that anarcho @-@ capitalism can be considered a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an anti @-@ capitalist movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism incompatible with capitalist forms .
= = Internal issues and debates = =
Anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes , tendencies and schools of thought ; as such , disagreement over questions of values , ideology and tactics is common . The compatibility of capitalism , nationalism , and religion with anarchism is widely disputed . Similarly , anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as Marxism , communism and capitalism . Anarchists may be motivated by humanism , divine authority , enlightened self @-@ interest , veganism or any number of alternative ethical doctrines .
Phenomena such as civilization , technology ( e.g. within anarcho @-@ primitivism ) , and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others .
On a tactical level , while propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century ( e.g. the Nihilist movement ) , some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative direct action methods such as nonviolence , counter @-@ economics and anti @-@ state cryptography to bring about an anarchist society . About the scope of an anarchist society , some anarchists advocate a global one , while others do so by local ones . The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions , which has led to many definitional concerns in anarchist theory .
= = Topics of interest = =
Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought , certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory .
= = = Free love = = =
An important current within anarchism is free love . Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah Warren and to experimental communities , viewed sexual freedom as a clear , direct expression of an individual 's sovereignty . Free love particularly stressed women 's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women : for example , marriage laws and anti @-@ birth control measures . The most important American free love journal was Lucifer the Lightbearer ( 1883 – 1907 ) edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker , but also there existed Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood 's The Word ( 1872 – 1890 , 1892 – 1893 ) . Free Society ( 1895 – 1897 as The Firebrand ; 1897 – 1904 as Free Society ) was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries . The publication advocated free love and women 's rights , and critiqued " Comstockery " – censorship of sexual information . Also M. E. Lazarus was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love .
In New York City 's Greenwich Village , bohemian feminists and socialists advocated self @-@ realisation and pleasure for women ( and also men ) in the here and now . They encouraged playing with sexual roles and sexuality , and the openly bisexual radical Edna St. Vincent Millay and the lesbian anarchist Margaret Anderson were prominent among them . Discussion groups organised by the Villagers were frequented by Emma Goldman , among others . Magnus Hirschfeld noted in 1923 that Goldman " has campaigned boldly and steadfastly for individual rights , and especially for those deprived of their rights . Thus it came about that she was the first and only woman , indeed the first and only American , to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public . " In fact , before Goldman , heterosexual anarchist Robert Reitzel ( 1849 – 1898 ) spoke positively of homosexuality from the beginning of the 1890s in his Detroit @-@ based German language journal Der arme Teufel ( English : The Poor Devil ) . In Argentina anarcha @-@ feminist Virginia Bolten published the newspaper called La Voz de la Mujer ( English : The Woman 's Voice ) , which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897 , and was revived , briefly , in 1901 .
In Europe the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Emile Armand . He proposed the concept of la camaraderie amoureuse to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults . He was also a consistent proponent of polyamory . In Germany the stirnerists Adolf Brand and John Henry Mackay were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality . Mujeres Libres was an anarchist women 's organisation in Spain that aimed to empower working class women . It was founded in 1936 by Lucía Sánchez Saornil , Mercedes Comaposada and Amparo Poch y Gascón and had approximately 30 @,@ 000 members . The organisation was based on the idea of a " double struggle " for women 's liberation and social revolution and argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel . In order to gain mutual support , they created networks of women anarchists . Lucía Sánchez Saornil was a main founder of the Spanish anarcha @-@ feminist federation Mujeres Libres who was open about her lesbianism . She was published in a variety of literary journals where working under a male pen name , she was able to explore lesbian themes at a time when homosexuality was criminalized and subject to censorship and punishment .
More recently , the British anarcho @-@ pacifist Alex Comfort gained notoriety during the sexual revolution for writing the bestseller sex manual The Joy of Sex . The issue of free love has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho @-@ hedonist philosopher Michel Onfray in such works as Théorie du corps amoureux : pour une érotique solaire ( 2000 ) and L 'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques ( 2002 ) .
= = = Libertarian education and freethought = = =
For English anarchist William Godwin education was " the main means by which change would be achieved . " Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness . For Godwin education had to have " A respect for the child 's autonomy which precluded any form of coercion , " " A pedagogy that respected this and sought to build on the child 's own motivation and initiatives , " and " A concern about the child 's capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school . " In his Political Justice he criticises state sponsored schooling " on account of its obvious alliance with national government " . Early American anarchist Josiah Warren advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established . Max Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called The False Principle of our Education . In it Stirner names his educational principle " personalist , " explaining that self @-@ understanding consists in hourly self @-@ creation . Education for him is to create " free men , sovereign characters , " by which he means " eternal characters ... who are therefore eternal because they form themselves each moment " .
In the United States " freethought was a basically anti @-@ christian , anti @-@ clerical movement , whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters . A number of contributors to Liberty ( anarchist publication ) were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism . The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co @-@ editor of Freethought and , for a time , The Truth Seeker . E.C. Walker was co @-@ editor of the excellent free @-@ thought / free love journal Lucifer , the Light @-@ Bearer " . " Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers ; reprints from freethought papers such as Lucifer , the Light @-@ Bearer , Freethought and The Truth Seeker appeared in Liberty ... The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself " .
In 1901 , Catalan anarchist and free @-@ thinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established " modern " or progressive schools in Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church . The schools ' stated goal was to " educate the working class in a rational , secular and non @-@ coercive setting " . Fiercely anti @-@ clerical , Ferrer believed in " freedom in education " , education free from the authority of church and state . Murray Bookchin wrote : " This period [ 1890s ] was the heyday of libertarian schools and pedagogical projects in all areas of the country where Anarchists exercised some degree of influence . Perhaps the best @-@ known effort in this field was Francisco Ferrer 's Modern School ( Escuela Moderna ) , a project which exercised a considerable influence on Catalan education and on experimental techniques of teaching generally . " La Escuela Moderna , and Ferrer 's ideas generally , formed the inspiration for a series of Modern Schools in the United States , Cuba , South America and London . The first of these was started in New York City in 1911 . It also inspired the Italian newspaper Università popolare , founded in 1901 . Russian christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy established a school for peasant children on his estate . Tolstoy 's educational experiments were short @-@ lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police . Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture . He thought that " Education is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself ... Education is culture under restraint , culture is free . [ Education is ] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil , and when then instruction is exclusive , that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary " . For him " without compulsion , education was transformed into culture " .
A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of unschooling and the free school in which child @-@ led activity replaces pedagogic approaches . Experiments in Germany led to A. S. Neill founding what became Summerhill School in 1921 . Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice . However , although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian , they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political class struggle @-@ approach . In addition to organising schools according to libertarian principles , anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se . The term deschooling was popularised by Ivan Illich , who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self @-@ determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead .
= = Criticisms = =
Criticisms of anarchism include moral criticisms and pragmatic criticisms . Anarchism is often evaluated as unfeasible or utopian by its critics . European history professor Carl Landauer , in his book European Socialism argued that social anarchism is unrealistic and that government is a " lesser evil " than a society without " repressive force . " He also argued that " ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears " is an " absurdity . "
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= Joint attention =
Joint attention ( also : shared attention ) is the shared focus of two individuals on an object . It is achieved when one individual alerts another to an object by means of eye @-@ gazing , pointing or other verbal or non @-@ verbal indications . An individual gazes at another individual , points to an object and then returns their gaze to the individual . Scaife and Bruner were the first researchers to present a cross @-@ sectional description of children 's ability to follow eye gaze in 1975 . They found that most eight- to ten @-@ month @-@ old children followed a line of regard , and that all 11- to 14 @-@ month @-@ old children did so . This early research showed it was possible for an adult to bring certain objects in the environment to an infant 's attention using eye gaze .
Subsequent research demonstrates that two important skills in joint attention are following eye gaze and identifying intention . The ability to share gaze with another individual is an important skill in establishing reference . The ability to identify intention is important in a child 's ability to learn language and direct the attention of others . Joint attention is important for many aspects of language development including comprehension , production and word learning . Episodes of joint attention provide children with information about their environment , allowing individuals to establish reference from spoken language and learn words . Socio @-@ emotional development and the ability to take part in normal relationships are also influenced by joint attention abilities . The ability to establish joint attention may be negatively affected by deafness , blindness , and developmental disorders such as autism .
Other animals such as great apes , orangutans , chimpanzees , dogs , and horses also show some elements of joint attention .
= = Humans = =
= = = Levels of joint attention = = =
Defining levels of joint attention is important in determining if children are engaging in age @-@ appropriate joint attention . There are three levels of joint attention : triadic , dyadic , and shared gaze .
Triadic joint attention is the highest level of joint attention and involves two individuals looking at an object . Each individual must understand that the other individual is looking at the same object and realize that there is an element of shared attention . For an instance of social engagement to count as triadic joint attention it requires at least two individuals attending to an object or focusing their attention on each other . Additionally , the individual must display awareness that focus is shared between himself or herself and another individual . Triadic attention is marked by the individual looking back to the other individual after looking at the object .
Dyadic joint attention is a conversation @-@ like behavior that individuals engage in . This is especially true for human adults and infants , who engage in this behavior starting at two months of age . Adults and infants take turns exchanging facial expressions , noises , and in the case of the adult , speech .
Shared gaze occurs when two individuals are simply looking at an object . Shared gaze is the lowest level of joint attention .
Individuals who engage in triadic joint attention must understand both gaze and intention to establish common reference . Gaze refers to a child 's understanding of the link between mental activity and the physical act of seeing . Intention refers to the child 's ability to understand the goal of another person 's mental processes .
= = = Gaze = = =
For an individual to engage in joint attention they must establish reference . Following the gaze or directive actions ( such as pointing ) of others is a common way of establishing reference . For an individual to understand that following gaze establishes reference the individual must display :
Recognition that looking is intentional behavior directed to external objects and events . Following gaze serves the purpose of establishing reference .
An understanding that looking results in the mental experience of seeing an object or event .
Recognition that eyes are responsible for seeing .
Recognition that others share in the capacity to see things .
An understanding that voice direction helps determine whether the speaker is talking to them and what he or she is referring to or focused on .
Gaze becomes more complex with age and practice . As gaze increases in complexity , individuals are better able to discriminate what others are referring to . Joint attention is also important for social learning . Gaze following reflects an expectation @-@ based type of orienting in which an individual 's attention is cued by another 's head turn or eye turn . Individuals are motivated to follow another 's gaze and engage in joint attention because gaze is a cue for which rewarding events occur .
= = = Intention = = =
The ability to identify intention is critical to joint attention . When individuals understand that others have goals , intentions , and attentional states , they are able to enter into and direct another 's attention . Joint attention promotes and maintains dyadic exchanges and learning about the nature of social partners . The ability to engage in joint attention is crucial for language development .
Individuals who are intentional in their actions display regularity in their behavior . Individuals locate objects with their eyes , move towards the object , and then use hands to make contact with and manipulate the object . Change in gaze direction is one of several behavioral cues that individuals use in combination with changes in facial and vocal displays and body posture to mark the intention to act on an object . Individuals who seek or follow a joint focus of attention display knowledge that what is in their awareness is also in another 's awareness . They believe that they are experiencing the same world as others .
Joint attention plays an important role in the development of theory of mind . Theory of mind and joint attention are important precursors to a fully developed grasp of another individual 's mental activity .
= = = Language comprehension = = =
The ability of children to extract information from their environment rests on understandings of attentional behaviors such as pointing . Episodes of joint attention provide children with a great deal of information about objects by establishing reference and intention . Joint attention occurs within particular environments . The items and events in that environment provide a context that enables the child to associate meaning with a particular utterance . Joint attention makes relevant aspects of the context salient , helping children comprehend what is taking place .
= = = Language production = = =
An infant 's social environment relates to his or her later language development . Children 's first words are closely linked to their early language experience . For children with typically developing language skills , there is a close match between maternal speech and their environment : up to 78 % of maternal speech is matched to the object the child is focusing on . In children with delayed language development , only 50 % of maternal speech is matched to the object the infant is focusing on . Infants are more likely to engage in joint attention when the parent talks about an object that the child is attending to as opposed to an object outside of the infant 's attention . This increased level of joint attention aids in encouraging normal language development , including word comprehension and production . When joint attention is present , it plays an important role in word learning , a crucial aspect of language development .
= = = Relationship to socio @-@ emotional development = = =
Joint attention and the ability to attend to an aspect of one 's environment are fundamental to normal relationships that rely on the sharing of experience and knowledge . Infants are highly motivated to share experience . An infant 's motivation to engage in joint attention is strong enough that infants voluntarily turn away from interesting sights to engage in joint attention with others .
As described in attachment theory , infants need to develop a relationship with a primary caregiver to achieve normal social and emotional development . A key part of the ability to develop this relationship may be joint attention . In addition to language development , joint attention serves the function of preparing infants for more complex social structures involved in adult conversation . Children 's skills in initiating and responding to joint attention predict their social competence at 30 months of age . Anticipatory smiling ( a low level form of joint attention involving smiling at an object then turning the smile to one 's communicative partner ) at 9 months positively predicts parent @-@ rated social competence scores at 30 months in infants . Early joint attention abilities account for differences in social and emotional abilities in later life .
= = = Developmental markers in infancy = = =
At the age of 2 months , children engage in dyadic joint attention and conversation @-@ like exchanges with adults during which each is the focus of the other 's attention and they take turns exchanging looks , noises and mouth movements . At age 3 months , children display joint attention skills by calling to a caregiver when they are not perceivable . When caregiver does not respond in a similar manner , child exhibits a series of responses that were first studied in early 1970s by Edward Tronick in collaboration with pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton at the time when the latter was creating the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale . At age 6 months , infants display joint attentional skills by :
Orienting themselves in the same general direction ( in their visual field ) as another person . Infants also cease to focus on the first interesting ( salient ) object they encounter .
Following outward directed gaze of adults .
Extending more sophisticated behaviors , such as gaze checking , when initial gaze following is not successful .
Paying more attention to eyes , responding to shifts in eye gaze direction , and directing their own attention based on another 's gaze .
At age 8 months , infants demonstrate joint attention through proto @-@ declarative pointing , particularly in girls . At 9 months of age , infants begin to display triadic joint attention . Infants also will display joint attention activities , such as communicative gestures , social referencing , and using the behavior of others to guide response to novel things .
At one year of age , joint attention is displayed through a child 's understanding of pointing as an intentional act . One @-@ year @-@ olds also establish joint attention for objects within their visual field before objects beyond their current visual field . At this age , infants are not yet able to represent their entire environment , only what they can see . At age 15 months , children recognize the minds of others . At this age , children also recognize the importance of eyes for seeing and that physical objects can block sight . At age 18 months , infants are capable of following an individual 's gaze to outside their visual field and establishing ( representative ) joint attention . 18 @-@ month @-@ olds also grasp the intentional , referential nature of looking , the mentalistic experience of seeing and the role of eyes and are skilled at following both gaze and pointing with precision . At two years of age , children display joint attention by extending attention beyond the present and understanding that the targets of other 's attention extends to the past as well . Two @-@ year @-@ olds are also capable of representational thought or increased memory .
= = = Individuals with disabilities = = =
Several studies have shown that problems with joint attention are associated with developmental processes . Difficulties in establishing joint attention may partially account for differences in social abilities of children with developmental disorders ( i.e. Autism spectrum disorders ) . A core deficit noted in autism is eye gaze . Autistic children have difficulty alternating their attention towards a partner and third object . This difficulty is attributed to their deficiencies in following gaze , resulting in difficulty initiating and maintaining joint attention . Deaf infants are able to engage in joint attention similar to hearing infants ; however , the time spent engaged in joint attention is often reduced in deaf infants born to hearing parents . Hearing parents of deaf infants often are less likely to respond and expand on their deaf infants ' initiative and communicative acts . Deaf infants of deaf parents do not show reduced time spent in joint attention . Auditory input is not critical to joint attention but similar modes of communication and understanding are vital . Furthermore , mothers who are unable to successfully establish regular joint attention with their child rate that infant lower on scales of social competence . Judgement of low social competence can be made as early as 18 months of age . In blind infants , joint attention is established by means of auditory input or feeling another person 's hand on an object and may be delayed compared to sighted infants .
= = Other animals = =
= = = Definitions in non @-@ human animals = = =
Triadic joint attention is the highest level of joint attention and involves two individuals looking at an object . Each individual must understand that the other individual is looking at the same object and realize that there is an element of shared attention . Triadic attention is marked by the individual looking back to the other individual after looking at the object . Dyadic joint attention involves mutual gaze between the parent and infant . Mutual gaze is marked by both the parent and infant looking at each other 's face . If two individuals are simply looking at an object , it is referred to as shared gaze .
= = = Dyadic joint attention = = =
Infant and parent chimpanzees show dyadic joint attention in an affectionate manner by looking at each other 's eyes Non @-@ human animals such as Japanese monkeys , baboons , and other Old World monkeys seldom engage in dyadic joint attention . For these animals , the eye contact involved in dyadic joint attention is deemed threatening .
= = = Shared gaze = = =
Gaze following , or shared gaze , can be found in a number of primates . Domesticated animals such as dogs and horses also demonstrate shared gaze . This type of joint attention is important for animals because gaze shifts serve as indicators alerting the animal to the location of predators , mates , or food .
Chimpanzees are capable of actively locating objects that are the focus of another individual 's attention by tracking the gaze of others . They are not limited to following eye gaze to the first interesting object in their view . They use a number of different cues to engage in shared focus , including head movement and eye gaze . Infant chimpanzees start to follow tap , point , and head turn cues of an experimenter by nine months of age . By 13 months of age , they show following responses to glance cues without a head turn . There is no evidence to support that infant chimpanzees are able to use eye gaze alone as a cue for following responses . By 20 months of age , infant chimpanzees are able to follow an experimenter 's cues to a target behind the chimpanzee but infant chimpanzees do not look back to the experimenter after looking at the target . Moving targets are more salient than stationary targets for infant chimpanzees . Chimpanzee infants are sensitive to faces which are gazing at them , but chimpanzees less than three to four years old only look within their visual field when using the experimenter 's head turn as their cue .
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= Tillingbourne Bus Company =
Tillingbourne Bus Company was a bus company based in Cranleigh , Surrey . The company operated bus and coach services in Surrey , West Sussex , Hampshire and Berkshire from 1924 until 2001 .
It was founded as Tillingbourne Valley in 1924 , and became a limited company in 1931 , taking the name Tillingbourne Valley Services . It initially operated routes in the Guildford area from a garage in Chilworth using small single @-@ deck buses painted in a maroon livery . Coach hire and excursions began in 1931 , but two years later these activities split into a separate company , Tillingbourne Valley Coaches , which operated independently for a further 24 years . Until 1970 Tillingbourne was owned and managed by three generations of the Trice family , before being sold to Trevor Brown .
The company changed its name to Tillingbourne Bus Company in 1972 , changing its livery to blue and yellow , and moved to a garage in Gomshall in the same year . A second garage in Ewhurst was opened in 1974 . An expansion of operations in the late 1970s and early 1980s , much of it through the award of county council contracted routes , took the company 's vehicles into West Sussex and Hampshire as well as Surrey . Tillingbourne took over the services of London operator Orpington & District following that company 's collapse in 1981 . These were run separately from the main company as Tillingbourne ( Metropolitan ) which , in 1983 , was sold to its management to form Metrobus , now part of the Go @-@ Ahead Group . The company moved garages again in 1980 , settling in Cranleigh . A new , larger garage in the same town was opened in February 2001 . Deregulation of local bus services in 1986 led to further expansion , including the establishment in 1989 of a new brand , Hobbit , for Tillingbourne 's minibus operations . A high @-@ quality coaching subsidiary , Dorking Coaches , was also operated towards the end of Tillingbourne 's life .
Tillingbourne began operations with a single vehicle , expanding to operate around 70 buses by 2001 . A range of types were operated , including early Thornycroft and Dennis vehicles , and later Guy and Bedford products . The company 's fleet was updated in the 1990s with new Volvo and Optare vehicles . Following Tillingbourne 's closure , its fleet was disposed of , with vehicles sold to Shamrock Coaches , Norfolk Green , Black Prince Buses , Safeguard Coaches , Arriva Guildford & West Surrey and Islwyn Borough Transport .
The company was placed in administration in March 2001 , following two years of heavy losses , and closed down permanently a month later . This led to a series of service changes , which saw its operations covered by a range of different operators . Other effects causing Tillingbourne 's collapse included a fall in the total number of passengers using buses in Hampshire and local criticism following an increase in the number of vehicles using the , later closed , Arriva West Sussex garage in Warnham . The sites of both Tillingbourne garages in Cranleigh were converted for use by other industries .
= = History = =
= = = Creation and early history ( 1924 @-@ 1972 ) = = =
Tillingbourne was formed in 1924 by Vic Smith and George Trice . It was initially known as Tillingbourne Valley , and operated a single vehicle in a maroon livery from a garage in Chilworth on a service between Guildford and Gomshall . Smith left the company in the late 1920s , and a new route from Guildford to Albury Park was introduced around the same time , with four vehicles owned by 1928 . The route to Gomshall was extended to Peaslake , and briefly faced competition from Surrey Hills Motor Services prior to their takeover by Aldershot & District , who withdrew the competing route . The company 's garage was rebuilt after being destroyed in a fire along with three of its vehicles in 1928 . Tillingbourne was reconstituted as a limited company , Tillingbourne Valley Services Limited , in October 1931 .
Following George Trice 's death in 1933 , control of the business passed to his son , also called George . A coach hire and excursion business had been introduced in July 1931 ; this was split out into a new company , Tillingbourne Valley Coaches , which operated independently until 1955 . From the early 1930s , until 1964 , the service to Peaslake was run jointly with the London Passenger Transport Board ; operation of the entire route was taken over in August 1964 , but falling passenger numbers meant that the route was cut back in frequency a year later . A new livery of maroon and grey was introduced in 1964 .
George Trice retired in 1948 and was succeeded by his son Derek , who sold Tillingbourne to Trevor Brown in September 1970 . In the same year , route numbering was introduced for the first time to the three routes then operated . The company made an operating loss in 1969 and 1970 , so one route , a local service in Guildford , was withdrawn in October 1971 due to poor usage , and another was cut in frequency . As the Chilworth garage was still owned by Trice , operations were transferred to an open @-@ air site in Gomshall in early 1972 .
= = = Change of name and expansion ( 1972 @-@ 1986 ) = = =
The company 's name was changed to Tillingbourne Bus Company in May 1972 , following the introduction of a service between Horsham and Colgate , with a new livery of blue , yellow and grey introduced . A new Managing Director , Barry King , joined Tillingbourne from North Downs Coaches in the same year . In 1974 , a small garage in Ewhurst was acquired and maintenance work transferred there , although the majority of the fleet continued to be based in Gomshall .
In May 1976 , the company 's long @-@ established route between Guildford and Peaslake was extended to Cranleigh via Ewhurst , and a once @-@ daily schoolday service to and from The Haven , the first bus route to serve the community , was introduced . A number of service changes saw Tillingbourne vehicles operating to Croydon and Chichester one day a week each by 1977 , although both were withdrawn after three years . The service to Colgate was withdrawn and replaced by a local half @-@ hourly route in Horsham in 1979 . In September 1980 , the company moved depots again to a larger site in Cranleigh .
The collapse of Orpington & District in early 1981 prompted the company to launch a new operation in Greater London . This was split from the main operation as Tillingbourne ( Metropolitan ) in July 1981 , but sold to its managerial team in 1983 . It adopted the name Metrobus and continues to operate .
In June 1981 , new once @-@ weekly routes linking Horsham to Steyning and Cranleigh / Ewhurst to Brighton were introduced , the second to replace a withdrawn Southdown Motor Services service . To improve profits on the Brighton route , beer was carried from the Sussex Brewery near Edburton to public houses along the route alongside passengers . The scheduled service operations of coach firm McCann 's were acquired , together with three vehicles , on 1 November 1982 , although some were withdrawn a year later .
Further expansion came in April 1985 , following over a year of consultation with county council members , regulators , when two new routes were introduced . One operated in competition with Alder Valley , while the other took the place of services withdrawn by other operators . Following these changes Tillingbourne became the only operator to serve Chilworth , Albury and Shere . Two new vehicles were purchased for the routes . At the same time , all of Tillingbourne 's services were renumbered into a new two @-@ digit sequence , to avoid confusion with London Country routes . A year later , the second of the new services , circular route 23 / 25 , was reduced in frequency from hourly to two @-@ hourly , although much of the route was covered by extending another route . Another new service , linking Cranleigh and Godalming , was also introduced . In August 1986 , operation of a number of council @-@ contracted services , including a route from Redhill to Reigate and a local route in Horsham , were taken over from other companies .
= = = Post @-@ deregulation ( 1986 @-@ 2001 ) = = =
Following deregulation in October 1986 , a small number of service changes were made , with a new route from Guildford to Chiddingfold being introduced and a service to Gomshall withdrawn . At the same time , a new brand name , Hobbit , was introduced for Tillingbourne 's minibus operations . Barry King left the company in December 1986 and was replaced as Managing Director by Chris Bowler .
In early 1989 , operations in Horsham were reduced , following the loss of the tendered route to Barns Green . A new service to Billingshurst was briefly introduced in February 1989 , but withdrawn after two months . In July , a new service between Guildford and the British Aerospace site at Dunsfold Aerodrome was introduced . Further expansion eastwards came in November 1989 , when the operation of eleven tendered routes , requiring six buses , was won from the county council . These were operated under the Hobbit name . A new service linking Normandy and Christmaspie to Guildford two days a week was introduced in October 1989 . A second route to the two villages was added in 1995 . In January 1999 a new route from Farnham to Tongham via Normandy was launched , as was a direct service from the village to Guildford . In 1998 an outstation was opened in Aldershot following the award of contracted work in Reading to Tillingbourne .
Tillingbourne introduced a new tourist route in the summer of 1995 . Operating on Sundays for six months of the year , it provided a circular service linking Guildford , Godalming and Cranleigh with a number of nearby rural locations not served by other routes . Although similar services were operated by London & Country and Nostalgiabus , the new service was designed to avoid any direct competition . The route was operated with a Bristol SU single @-@ decker acquired from a bus preservationist .
In September 2000 , Tillingbourne controversially reduced the number of journeys on contracted route 516 , which linked Dorking , Leatherhead and Epsom . Although this was within the terms of the contract , it was criticised by residents of intermediate villages , who claimed the communities relied in particular on a cancelled morning journey . Operations were moved to a new larger site , still located in Cranleigh , in February 2001 . The company believed this would reduce operating costs and allow for future expansion .
= = Closure = =
On 19 March 2001 , Tillingbourne abruptly ceased operations and was placed in the hands of receivers Begbies Traynor . This followed two years in which the company had lost around £ 450 @,@ 000 . The receivers blamed the losses on increasing costs , low subsidies from local councils and falling passenger numbers . The closure left 140 staff unemployed and caused large numbers of passengers to be stranded . Replacement services were organised by Surrey County Council and four bus operators , with the majority of routes being covered within days by temporary contracted services . Some schoolchildren were forced to find other means of transport , although workings on routes 62 and 63 were covered by Aventa Transport .
It was initially thought that Tillingbourne would be sold to another operator , with four companies reported to be interested . However , by early April 2001 , it became clear that this would not take place , as the offers submitted were lower than the value of the vehicles owned by the company .
Begbies Traynor was criticised by Council members for refusing to keep the company operational while replacement services were being arranged . Mole Valley councillor Hazel Watson stated that the withdrawal of services at short notice was " totally unacceptable " , while Shere county councillor David Davis described the closure as a " local tragedy " . Council leaders also denied the claim that the subsidies had been too low .
= = Related operations = =
Tillingbourne Valley Coaches
In 1933 , the bus and coach operations of what was then Tillingbourne Valley Services were split . The coaching unit was taken over by Lionel Rhees , previously an employee of Tillingbourne , and operated from a depot in Chilworth under the name Tillingbourne Valley Coaches . This company bought three second @-@ hand coaches to run on excursions and private hire operations . After 14 years of operation it launched a bus service between Guildford and Blackheath . Rhees died in 1953 and Tillingbourne Valley Coaches passed to his wife , who sold out to established operator Rackliffe of Guildford a year later . Rackliffe was itself taken over by Cookes Coaches in 1955 , and the Blackheath service withdrawn .
Tillingbourne ( Metropolitan ) Limited
In February 1981 , the long @-@ standing operator Orpington & District collapsed due to financial difficulties , so Tillingbourne decided to launch a test operation of three former O & D services . These proved successful , so more services were added and two new AEC Reliance coaches purchased for the operation . In July 1981 , the Orpington operation was given a separate licence , under the name Tillingbourne ( Metropolitan ) Limited , with six vehicles allocated to it . By 1983 , however , it became clear that the local area management of Tillingbourne ( Metropolitan ) wanted to develop the business in a different way from that of the main company . On 24 September 1983 , the Orpington operation 's directors , Gary Wood and Peter Larking , bought out the subsidiary to form Metrobus Limited .
Dorking Coaches
Following the takeover of Dorking Coaches in the late 1990s , a coaching division was set up using the same name , under the management of former Traffic Manager John Gaff . It operated high @-@ quality coaches , including three air @-@ conditioned vehicles which joined the fleet in 2000 , on coach hire and tour work .
= = Fleet = =
The first vehicle to be bought by Tillingbourne was a single @-@ deck Chevrolet with 14 seats , which entered service on the launch of the company 's first route in 1924 . It was joined by a similar Overland Automobile bus later in the year . Two further vehicles had been purchased by 1928 , when a depot fire destroyed three of the four buses . They were replaced by second @-@ hand buses including an 18 @-@ seat Dennis and several Thornycroft A2 vehicles . From November 1934 until the outbreak of World War II , these were progressively replaced by new buses , also built by Thornycroft . The first double @-@ deck vehicle to be bought was a Bristol K Type , which joined the fleet in 1959 . Eight Guy Vixens were bought from London Transport between 1963 and 1964 to replace the entire previous fleet . These were succeeded by a wide variety of types , with Bedford coaches and buses the most numerous . In the 1970s , a number of second @-@ hand Bristol SUL4A 's , with ECW B36F bodies , were operated .
In the period shortly before and after deregulation , a range of types were used . As well as a large number of Bedford vehicles , which continued to be bought new until the late 1980s , the fleet also included the AEC Reliance , Leyland Leopard , Leyland Tiger and Volvo B10M models , and the first two Dennis Lancet single @-@ deckers to be built . The company bought its first minibus , a 16 @-@ seat Ford Transit , in 1985 . The Tillingbourne fleet in the late 1980s and early 1990s also included two rare Dennis Dorchesters bought new , and a Volvo B10M coach with the last Plaxton Derwent body built .
The fleet was substantially updated shortly prior to the company 's closure . Two Volvo B6 single @-@ deckers were bought in 1994 . These were followed by a number of Optare products including the Metrorider minibus and four of the last Optare Vecta single @-@ deckers built . The most common type in the fleet in the late 1990s was the Mercedes @-@ Benz 811D minibus ; by 1998 21 were in use out of a total fleet of 65 . Tillingbourne bought its first low @-@ floor buses , two new Optare Excels , in 2000 .
= = Legacy and subsequent history = =
Tillingbourne 's routes were taken over by a variety of local operators . Arriva Guildford & West Surrey took over the majority of the operations in Guildford and Cranleigh , while the Arriva West Sussex division took over services in Horsham . Operations in and around Woking were taken on by Tellings @-@ Golden Miller and Reptons Coaches . White Rose took over the route between Staines and Camberley , while Thames Travel took over the routes into Reading .
Following the end of Tillingbourne 's operations , many of its newer vehicles were sold for further use . Buyers included Black Prince Buses , which took three Optare Prismas , and Islwyn Borough Transport , which bought Tillingbourne 's Optare Vectas . One of the surviving Leyland Tigers was bought by Norfolk Green . The biggest customer was Shamrock Coaches of Pontypridd which took 27 vehicles , including the Mercedes minibuses and nine Optare Metroriders . Some vehicles remained in Surrey , including two Dennis Dart SLFs leased from Surrey County Council which were passed on to Arriva Guildford & West Surrey , and two Optare Excels bought by Safeguard Coaches of Guildford .
A fall in bus passenger numbers , between 1999 and 2001 in the areas of Hampshire served by Tillingbourne , was in part explained as being a result of the loss of services caused by the company 's closure .
The increased vehicle requirements at Arriva 's Warnham ( Horsham ) garage , which took over three of Tillingbourne 's former routes , led to criticism from residents in the area and the suggestion that the site should be closed and operations moved to another location . The depot , buses and operation were sold by Arriva to Metrobus in September 2009 , who moved all operations to their garage in Crawley and closed the site .
Both of Tillingbourne 's former garage sites in Cranleigh have been converted for other uses . Permission was granted in February 2002 for the smaller site abandoned shortly before the company closed down to be taken over by a plant and vehicle hire firm . The larger site used in the final few months of operation was converted for use by a mail order firm , with permission for the change granted by the local council in November 2002 .
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= Beagle =
The Beagle is a breed of small @-@ sized hound , similar in appearance to the much larger foxhound . The Beagle is a scent hound , developed primarily for hunting hare . With a great sense of smell and their tracking instinct , the Beagle is employed as detection dog for prohibited agricultural imports and foodstuffs in quarantine around the world . The Beagle is intelligent but single @-@ minded . It is a popular pet due to its size , good temper , and lack of inherited health problems .
Although beagle @-@ type dogs have existed for 2 @,@ 500 years , the modern breed was developed in Great Britain around the 1830s from several breeds , including the Talbot Hound , the North Country Beagle , the Southern Hound , and possibly the Harrier .
Beagles have been depicted in popular culture since Elizabethan times in literature and paintings , and more recently in film , television , and comic books . Snoopy of the comic strip Peanuts has been promoted as " the world 's most famous beagle " .
= = History = =
Dogs of similar size and purpose to the modern Beagle can be traced in Ancient Greece back to around the 5th century BC . Xenophon , born around 430 BC , in his Treatise on Hunting or Cynegeticus refers to a hound that hunted hares by scent and was followed on foot . Small hounds are mentioned in the Forest Laws of Canute which exempted them from the ordinance which commanded that all dogs capable of running down a stag should have one foot mutilated . If genuine , these laws would confirm that beagle @-@ type dogs were present in England before 1016 , but it is likely the laws were written in the Middle Ages to give a sense of antiquity and tradition to Forest Law .
In the 11th century , William the Conqueror brought the Talbot hound to Britain . The Talbot was a predominantly white , slow , deep @-@ throated , scent hound derived from the St. Hubert Hound which had been developed in the 8th century . At some point the English Talbots were crossed with Greyhounds to give them an extra turn of speed . Long extinct , the Talbot strain probably gave rise to the Southern Hound which , in turn , is thought to be an ancestor of the modern @-@ day Beagle .
From medieval times , beagle was used as a generic description for the smaller hounds , though these dogs differed considerably from the modern breed . Miniature breeds of beagle @-@ type dogs were known from the times of Edward II and Henry VII , who both had packs of Glove Beagles , so named since they were small enough to fit on a glove , and Queen Elizabeth I kept a breed known as a Pocket Beagle , which stood 8 to 9 inches ( 20 to 23 cm ) at the shoulder . Small enough to fit in a " pocket " or saddlebag , they rode along on the hunt . The larger hounds would run the prey to ground , then the hunters would release the small dogs to continue the chase through underbrush . Elizabeth I referred to the dogs as her singing beagles and often entertained guests at her royal table by letting her Pocket Beagles cavort amid their plates and cups . 19th @-@ century sources refer to these breeds interchangeably and it is possible that the two names refer to the same small variety . In George Jesse 's Researches into the History of the British Dog from 1866 , the early 17th @-@ century poet and writer Gervase Markham is quoted referring to the Beagle as small enough to sit on a man 's hand and to the :
little small mitten @-@ beagle , which may be companion for a ladies kirtle , and in the field will run as cunningly as any hound whatere , only their musick is very small like reeds .
Standards for the Pocket Beagle were drawn up as late as 1901 ; these genetic lines are now extinct , although modern breeders have attempted to recreate the variety .
By the 18th century two breeds had been developed for hunting hare and rabbit : the Southern Hound and the North Country Beagle ( or Northern Hound ) . The Southern Hound , a tall , heavy dog with a square head , and long , soft ears , was common from south of the River Trent and probably closely related to the Talbot Hound . Though slow , it had stamina and an excellent scenting ability . The North Country Beagle , possibly a cross between an offshoot of the Talbot stock and a Greyhound , was bred chiefly in Yorkshire and was common in the northern counties . It was smaller than the Southern Hound , less heavy @-@ set and with a more pointed muzzle . It was faster than its southern counterpart but its scenting abilities were less well developed . As fox hunting became increasingly popular , numbers of both types of hound diminished . The beagle @-@ type dogs were crossed with larger breeds such as Stag Hounds to produce the modern Foxhound . The beagle @-@ size varieties came close to extinction but some farmers in the South ensured the survival of the prototype breeds by maintaining small rabbit @-@ hunting packs .
= = = Development of the modern breed = = =
Reverend Phillip Honeywood established a Beagle pack in Essex in the 1830s and it is believed that this pack formed the basis for the modern Beagle breed . Although details of the pack 's lineage are not recorded it is thought that North Country Beagles and Southern Hounds were strongly represented ; William Youatt suspected that Harriers formed a good majority of the Beagle 's bloodline , but the origin of the Harrier is itself obscure . Honeywood 's Beagles were small , standing at about 10 inches ( 25 cm ) at the shoulder , and pure white according to John Mills ( writing in The Sportsman 's Library in 1845 ) . Prince Albert and Lord Winterton also had Beagle packs around this time , and royal favour no doubt led to some revival of interest in the breed , but Honeywood 's pack was regarded as the finest of the three .
Although credited with the development of the modern breed , Honeywood concentrated on producing dogs for hunting and it was left to Thomas Johnson to refine the breeding to produce dogs that were both attractive and capable hunters . Two strains were developed : the rough- and smooth @-@ coated varieties . The rough @-@ coated Beagle survived until the beginning of the 20th century , and there were even records of one making an appearance at a dog show as late as 1969 , but this variety is now extinct , having probably been absorbed into the standard Beagle bloodline .
In the 1840s , a standard Beagle type was beginning to develop ; the distinction between the North Country Beagle and Southern Hound had been lost , but there was still a large variation in size , character , and reliability among the emerging packs . In 1856 , " Stonehenge " ( the pseudonym of John Henry Walsh ) , writing in the Manual of British Rural Sports , was still dividing Beagles into four varieties : the medium Beagle ; the dwarf or lapdog Beagle ; the fox Beagle ( a smaller , slower version of the Foxhound ) ; and the rough @-@ coated or terrier Beagle , which he classified as a cross between any of the other varieties and one of the Scottish terrier breeds . Stonehenge also gives the start of a standard description :
In size the beagle measures from 10 inches , or even less , to 15 . In shape they resemble the old southern hound in miniature , but with more neatness and beauty ; and they also resemble that hound in style of hunting .
By 1887 the threat of extinction was on the wane : there were 18 Beagle packs in England . The Beagle Club was formed in 1890 and the first standard drawn up at the same time . The following year the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles was formed . Both organisations aimed to further the best interests of the breed , and both were keen to produce a standard type of Beagle . By 1902 , the number of packs had risen to 44 .
= = = Export = = =
Beagles were in the United States by the 1840s at the latest , but the first dogs were imported strictly for hunting and were of variable quality . Since Honeywood had only started breeding in the 1830s , it is unlikely these dogs were representative of the modern breed and the description of them as looking like straight @-@ legged Dachshunds with weak heads has little resemblance to the standard . Serious attempts at establishing a quality bloodline began in the early 1870s when General Richard Rowett from Illinois imported some dogs from England and began breeding . Rowett 's Beagles are believed to have formed the models for the first American standard , drawn up by Rowett , L. H. Twadell , and Norman Ellmore in 1887 . The Beagle was accepted as a breed by the American Kennel Club ( AKC ) in 1885 . In the 20th century the breed has spread worldwide .
= = Popularity = =
On its formation , the Association of Masters of Harriers and Beagles took over the running of a regular show at Peterborough that had started in 1889 , and the Beagle Club in the UK held its first show in 1896 . The regular showing of the breed led to the development of a uniform type , and the Beagle continued to prove a success up until the outbreak of World War I when all shows were suspended . After the war , the breed was again struggling for survival in the UK : the last of the Pocket Beagles was probably lost during this time , and registrations fell to an all @-@ time low . A few breeders ( notably Reynalton Kennels ) managed to revive interest in the dog and by World War II , the breed was once again doing well . Registrations dropped again after the end of the war but almost immediately recovered .
As purebred dogs , Beagles have always been more popular in the United States and Canada than in their native country England . The National Beagle Club of America was formed in 1888 and by 1901 a Beagle had won a Best in Show title . As in the UK , activity during World War I was minimal , but the breed showed a much stronger revival in the U.S. when hostilities ceased . In 1928 it won a number of prizes at the Westminster Kennel Club 's show and by 1939 a Beagle – Champion Meadowlark Draughtsman – had captured the title of top @-@ winning American @-@ bred dog for the year . On 12 February 2008 , a Beagle , K @-@ Run 's Park Me In First ( Uno ) , won the Best In Show category at the Westminster Kennel Club show for the first time in the competition 's history . In North America they have been consistently in the top @-@ ten most @-@ popular breeds for over 30 years . From 1953 to 1959 the Beagle was ranked No. 1 on the list of the American Kennel Club 's registered breeds ; in 2005 and 2006 it ranked 5th out of the 155 breeds registered . In the UK they are not quite so popular , placing 28th and 30th in the rankings of registrations with the Kennel Club in 2005 and 2006 respectively . In the United States the Beagle ranked 4th most popular breed in 2012 and 2013 , behind the Labrador Retriever ( # 1 ) , German Shepherd ( # 2 ) and Golden Retriever ( # 3 ) breeds .
= = Name = =
According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first mention of the beagle by name in English literature dates from c . 1475 in " The Squire of Low Degree . The origin of the word " beagle " is uncertain , although it has been suggested that the word derives from the French begueule ( meaning " open throat " from bayer " open wide " and gueule " mouth " ) or from an Old English , French , or the Gaelic word beag , meaning " little . " Other possibilities include the French beugler ( meaning " to bellow " ) and the German begele ( meaning " to scold " ) .
It is not known why the black and tan Kerry Beagle , present in Ireland since Celtic times , has the beagle description , since at 22 to 24 inches ( 56 to 61 cm ) it is significantly taller than the modern day Beagle , and in earlier times was even larger . Some writers suggest that the Beagle 's scenting ability may have come from cross @-@ breeding earlier strains with the Kerry Beagle . Originally used for hunting stags , it is today used for hare and drag hunting .
= = Appearance = =
The general appearance of the Beagle is very nice and resembles a miniature Foxhound , but the head is broader and the muzzle shorter , the expression completely different and the legs shorter in proportion to the body . They are generally between 13 and 16 inches ( 33 and 41 cm ) high at the withers and weigh between 18 and 35 lb ( 8 @.@ 2 and 15 @.@ 9 kg ) , with females being slightly smaller than males on average .
They have a smooth , somewhat domed skull with a medium @-@ length , square @-@ cut muzzle and a black ( or occasionally liver ) gumdrop nose . The jaw is strong and the teeth scissor together with the upper teeth fitting perfectly over the lower teeth and both sets aligned square to the jaw . The eyes are large , hazel or brown , with a mild hound @-@ like pleading look . The large ears are long , soft and low @-@ set , turning towards the cheeks slightly and rounded at the tips . Beagles have a strong , medium @-@ length neck ( which is long enough for them to easily bend to the ground to pick up a scent ) , with little folding in the skin but some evidence of a dewlap ; a broad chest narrowing to a tapered abdomen and waist and a long , slightly curved tail ( known as the " stern " ) tipped with white . The white tip , known as the flag has been selectively bred for , as it allows the dog to be easily seen when its head is down following a scent . The tail does not curl over the back , but is held upright when the dog is active . The Beagle has a muscular body and a medium @-@ length , smooth , hard coat . The front legs are straight and carried under the body while the rear legs are muscular and well bent at the stifles .
The tricolored Beagle — white with large black areas and light brown shading — is the most common . Tricolored Beagles occur in a number of shades , from the " Classic Tri " with a jet black saddle ( also known as " Blackback " ) , to the " Dark Tri " ( where faint brown markings are intermingled with more prominent black markings ) , to the " Faded Tri " ( where faint black markings are intermingled with more prominent brown markings ) . Some tricolored dogs have a broken pattern , sometimes referred to as pied . These dogs have mostly white coats with patches of black and brown hair . Tricolor Beagles are almost always born black and white . The white areas are typically set by eight weeks , but the black areas may fade to brown as the puppy matures . ( The brown may take between one and two years to fully develop . ) Some Beagles gradually change color during their lives , and may lose their black markings entirely .
Two @-@ color varieties always have a white base color with areas of the second color . Tan and white is the most common two @-@ color variety , but there is a wide range of other colors including lemon , a very light tan ; red , a reddish , almost orange , brown ; and liver , a darker brown , and black . Liver is not common and is not permitted in some standards ; it tends to occur with yellow eyes . Ticked or mottled varieties may be either white or black with different colored flecks ( ticking ) , such as the blue @-@ mottled or bluetick Beagle , which has spots that appear to be a midnight @-@ blue color , similar to the coloring of the Bluetick Coonhound . Some tricolour Beagles also have ticking of various colors in their white areas .
= = Sense of smell = =
Alongside the Bloodhound and Basset Hound , the Beagle has one of the best developed senses of smell of any dog . In the 1950s , John Paul Scott and John Fuller began a 13 @-@ year study of canine behavior . As part of this research , they tested the scenting abilities of various breeds by putting a mouse in a one @-@ acre field and timing how long it took the dogs to find it . The Beagles found it in less than a minute , while Fox Terriers took 15 minutes and Scottish Terriers failed to find it at all . Beagles are better at ground @-@ scenting ( following a trail on the ground ) than they are at air @-@ scenting , and for this reason they have been excluded from most mountain rescue teams in favor of collies , which use sight in addition to air @-@ scenting and are more biddable . The long ears and large lips of the Beagle probably assist in trapping the scents close to the nose .
= = Variations = =
= = = Breed varieties = = =
The American Kennel Club recognizes two separate varieties of Beagle : the 13 @-@ inch for hounds less than 13 inches ( 33 cm ) , and the 15 @-@ inch for those between 13 and 15 inches ( 33 and 38 cm ) . The Canadian Kennel Club recognizes a single type , with a height not exceeding 15 inches ( 38 cm ) . The Kennel Club ( UK ) and FCI affiliated clubs recognize a single type , with a height of between 13 and 16 inches ( 33 and 41 cm ) .
English and American varieties are sometimes mentioned . However , there is no official recognition from any Kennel Club for this distinction . Beagles fitting the American Kennel Club standard – which disallows animals over 15 inches ( 38 cm ) – are smaller on average than those fitting the Kennel Club standard which allows heights up to 16 inches ( 41 cm ) .
Pocket Beagles are sometimes advertised for sale but while the UK Kennel Club originally specified a standard for the Pocket Beagle in 1901 , the variety is not now recognized by any Kennel Club . A strain known as Patch Hounds was developed by Willet Randall and his family from 1896 specifically for their rabbit hunting ability . They trace their bloodline back to Field Champion Patch , but do not necessarily have a patchwork marking .
= = = Crossbreeds = = =
In the 1850s , Stonehenge recommended a cross between a Beagle and a Scottish Terrier as a retriever . He found the crossbreed to be a good worker , silent and obedient , but it had the drawback that it was small and could barely carry a hare .
More recently the trend has been for " designer dogs " and one of the most popular has been the Beagle / Pug cross known as a Puggle . Some puppies of this cross are less excitable than a Beagle and with a lower exercise requirement , similar to the Pug parent ; but many are highly excitable and require vigorous exercise .
= = Temperament = =
The Beagle has an even temper and gentle disposition . Described in several breed standards as " merry " , they are amiable and typically neither aggressive nor timid , although this depends on the individual . They enjoy company , and although they may initially be standoffish with strangers , they are easily won over . They make poor guard dogs for this reason , although their tendency to bark or howl when confronted with the unfamiliar makes them good watch dogs . In a 1985 study conducted by Ben and Lynette Hart , the Beagle was given the highest excitability rating , along with the Yorkshire Terrier , Cairn Terrier , Miniature Schnauzer , West Highland White Terrier , and Fox Terrier .
Beagles are intelligent but , as a result of being bred for the long chase , are single @-@ minded and determined , which can make them hard to train . They can be difficult to recall once they have picked up a scent , and are easily distracted by smells around them . They do not generally feature in obedience trials ; while they are alert , respond well to food @-@ reward training , and are eager to please , they are easily bored or distracted . They are ranked 72nd in Stanley Coren 's The Intelligence of Dogs , as Coren places them among the group with the lowest degree of working / obedience intelligence . Coren 's scale , however , does not assess understanding , independence , or creativity .
Beagles are excellent with children and this is one of the reasons they have become popular family pets , but they are pack animals , and are prone to separation anxiety , a condition which causes them to destroy things when left unattended . Not all Beagles will howl , but most will bark when confronted with strange situations , and some will bay ( also referred to as " speaking " , " giving tongue " , or " opening " ) when they catch the scent of potential quarry . They also generally get along well with other dogs . They are not too demanding with regard to exercise ; their inbred stamina means they do not easily tire when exercised , but they also do not need to be worked to exhaustion before they will rest . Regular exercise helps ward off the weight gain to which the breed is prone .
= = Health = =
The typical longevity of Beagles is 12 – 15 years , which is a common lifespan for dogs of their size .
Beagles may be prone to epilepsy , but this can often be controlled with medication . Hypothyroidism and a number of types of dwarfism occur in Beagles . Two conditions in particular are unique to the breed : " Funny Puppy " , in which the puppy is slow to develop and eventually develops weak legs , a crooked back and although normally healthy , is prone to a range of illnesses ; Hip dysplasia , common in Harriers and in some larger breeds , is rarely considered a problem in Beagles . Beagles are considered a chondrodystrophic breed , meaning that they are prone to types of disk diseases .
In rare cases , Beagles may develop immune mediated polygenic arthritis ( where the immune system attacks the joints ) even at a young age . The symptoms can sometimes be relieved by steroid treatments . Another rare disease in the breed is neonatal cerebellar cortical degeneration . Affected puppies are slow , have lower co @-@ ordination , fall more often and don 't have a normal gait . It has an estimated carrier rate of 5 % and affected rate of 0 @.@ 1 % . A genetic test is available .
Their long floppy ears can mean that the inner ear does not receive a substantial air flow or that moist air becomes trapped , and this can lead to ear infections . Beagles may also be affected by a range of eye problems ; two common ophthalmic conditions in Beagles are glaucoma and corneal dystrophy . " Cherry eye " , a prolapse of the gland of the third eyelid , and distichiasis , a condition in which eyelashes grow into the eye causing irritation , sometimes exist ; both these conditions can be corrected with surgery . They can suffer from several types of retinal atrophy . Failure of the nasolacrimal drainage system can cause dry eye or leakage of tears onto the face .
As field dogs they are prone to minor injuries such as cuts and sprains , and , if inactive , obesity is a common problem as they will eat whenever food is available and rely on their owners to regulate their weight . When working or running free they are also likely to pick up parasites such as fleas , ticks , harvest mites , and tapeworms , and irritants such as grass seeds can become trapped in their eyes , soft ears , or paws .
Beagles may exhibit a behaviour known as reverse sneezing , in which they sound as if they are choking or gasping for breath , but are actually drawing air in through the mouth and nose . The exact cause of this behaviour is not known , but it is not harmful to the dog .
= = Hunting = =
Beagles were developed primarily for hunting hare , an activity known as beagling . They were seen as ideal hunting companions for the elderly who could follow on horseback without exerting themselves , for young hunters who could keep up with them on ponies , and for the poorer hunters who could not afford to maintain a stable of good hunting horses . Before the advent of the fashion for foxhunting in the 19th century , hunting was an all day event where the enjoyment was derived from the chase rather than the kill . In this setting the tiny Beagle was well matched to the hare , as unlike Harriers they would not quickly finish the hunt , but because of their excellent scent @-@ tracking skills and stamina they were almost guaranteed to eventually catch the hare . The Beagle packs would run closely together ( " so close that they might be covered with a sheet " ) which was useful in a long hunt , as it prevented stray dogs from obscuring the trail . In thick undergrowth they were also preferred to spaniels when hunting pheasant .
With the fashion for faster hunts , the Beagle fell out of favour for chasing hare , but was still employed for rabbit hunting . In Anecdotes of Dogs ( 1846 ) , Edward Jesse says :
In rabbit @-@ shooting , in gorse and thick cover , nothing can be more cheerful than the beagle . They also are easily heard over long distances and in thick cover . They have been called rabbit @-@ beagles from this employment , for which they are peculiarly qualified , especially those dogs which are somewhat wire @-@ haired .
In the United States they appear to have been employed chiefly for hunting rabbits from the earliest imports . Hunting hare with Beagles became popular again in Britain in the mid @-@ 19th century and continued until it was made illegal in Scotland by the Protection of Wild Mammals ( Scotland ) Act 2002 and in England and Wales by the Hunting Act 2004 . Under this legislation Beagles may still pursue rabbits with the landowner 's permission . Drag hunting is popular where hunting is no longer permitted or for those owners who do not wish to participate in hunting a live animal , but still wish to exercise their dog 's innate skills .
The traditional foot pack consists of up to 40 Beagles , marshaled by a Huntsman who directs the pack and who is assisted by a variable number of whippers @-@ in whose job is to return straying hounds to the pack . The Master of the Hunt is in overall day @-@ to @-@ day charge of the pack , and may or may not take on the role of Huntsman on the day of the hunt .
As hunting with Beagles was seen as ideal for young people , many of the British public schools traditionally maintained Beagle packs . Protests were lodged against Eton 's use of Beagles for hunting as early as 1902 but the pack is still in existence today , and a pack used by Imperial College in Wye , Kent was stolen by the Animal Liberation Front in 2001 . School and university packs are still maintained by Eton , Marlborough , Wye , Radley , the Royal Agricultural University and Christ Church , Oxford .
In addition to organized beagling , beagles have been used for hunting or flushing to guns ( often in pairs ) a wide range of game including snowshoe hare , cottontail rabbits , game birds , roe deer , red deer , bobcat , coyote , wild boar and foxes , and have even been recorded as being used to hunt stoat . In most of these cases , the Beagle is employed as a gun dog , flushing game for hunter 's guns .
= = Detection = =
Beagles are used as detection dogs in the Beagle Brigade of the United States Department of Agriculture . These dogs are used to detect food items in luggage being taken into the United States . After trialling several breeds , Beagles were chosen because they are relatively small and unintimidating for people who are uncomfortable around dogs , easy to care for , intelligent and work well for rewards . They are also used for this purpose in a number of other countries including by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in New Zealand , the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service , and in Canada , Japan and the People 's Republic of China . Larger breeds are generally used for detection of explosives as this often involves climbing over luggage and on large conveyor belts , work for which the smaller Beagle is not suited .
= = Testing = =
Beagles are the dog breed most often used in animal testing , due to their size and passive nature . Beagles are used in a range of research procedures : fundamental biological research , applied human medicine , applied veterinary medicine , and protection of man , animals or the environment . Of the 8 @,@ 018 dogs used in testing in the UK in 2004 , 7 @,@ 799 were Beagles ( 97 @.@ 3 % ) . In the UK , the Animals ( Scientific Procedures ) Act 1986 gave special status to primates , equids , cats and dogs and in 2005 the Animal Procedures Committee ( set up by the act ) ruled that testing on mice was preferable , even though a greater number of individual animals were involved . In 2005 Beagles were involved in less than 0 @.@ 3 % of the total experiments on animals in the UK , but of the 7670 experiments performed on dogs 7406 involved Beagles ( 96 @.@ 6 % ) . Most dogs are bred specifically for this purpose , by companies such as Harlan . In the UK companies breeding animals for research must be licensed under the Animals ( Scientific Procedures ) Act .
Testing of cosmetic products on animals is banned in the member states of European Community , although France protested the ban and has made efforts to have it lifted . It is permitted in the United States but is not mandatory if safety can be ascertained by other methods , and the test species is not specified by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) . When testing toxicity of food additives , food contaminants , and some drugs and chemicals the FDA uses Beagles and miniature pigs as surrogates for direct human testing . Minnesota was the first state to enact a Beagle freedom adoption law in 2014 , mandating that dogs and cats are allowed to be adopted once they have completed with research testing .
Anti @-@ vivisection groups have reported on abuse of animals inside testing facilities . In 1997 footage secretly filmed by a freelance journalist inside Huntingdon Life Sciences in the UK showed staff punching and screaming at Beagles . Consort Kennels , a UK @-@ based breeder of Beagles for testing , closed down in 1997 after pressure from animal rights groups .
= = Other roles = =
Although bred for hunting , Beagles are versatile and are nowadays employed for various other roles in detection , therapy , and as family pets . Beagles are used as sniffer dogs for termite detection in Australia , and have been mentioned as possible candidates for drug and explosive detection . Because of their gentle nature and unimposing build , they are also frequently used in pet therapy , visiting the sick and elderly in hospital . In June 2006 , a trained Beagle assistance dog was credited with saving the life of its owner after using her owner 's mobile phone to dial an emergency number . In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake , a Beagle search and rescue dog with a Colombian rescue squad was credited with locating the owner of the Hôtel Montana , who was subsequently rescued after spending 100 hours buried in the rubble . Beagles were hired by New York City to help with bedbug detection , while the role of such dogs in this type of detection may have doubts .
= = In popular culture = =
Beagles have been featured across a wide range of media . References to the dog appear before the 19th century in works by such writers as William Shakespeare , John Webster , John Dryden , Thomas Tickell , Henry Fielding , and William Cowper , as well as in Alexander Pope 's translation of Homer 's Iliad . Beagles appeared in funny animal comic strips and animated cartoons from the 1950s with the Peanuts character Snoopy billed as " the world 's most famous Beagle " ; Walt Disney 's Beagle Boys ; Garfield 's friend and " chew dog " Odie ; and Beegle Beagle , the constant companion of Hanna @-@ Barbera 's Grape Ape and Cartoon Network 's Courage the Cowardly Dog . They have appeared in numerous films , taking a central role in Underdog , Cats & Dogs and its sequel , and the title role in the adaptation of Phyllis Reynolds Naylor 's book Shiloh . They have played supporting roles in films including Audition , The Monster Squad , I Am Number Four , and The Royal Tenenbaums , and on television in Star Trek : Enterprise , EastEnders , The Wonder Years , and To the Manor Born , among others . Former US President Lyndon Baines Johnson had several Beagles , and caused an outcry when he picked up one of them by its ears during an official greeting on the White House lawn . The ship on which Charles Darwin made the voyage which provided much of the inspiration for On the Origin of Species was named HMS Beagle after the breed , and , in turn , lent its name to the ill @-@ fated British Martian lander Beagle 2 . A Canadian bred 15 inch female Beagle with the registered name of Gr Ch Tashtins Lookin For Trouble and the pet name of " Miss P " won the 2015 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show .
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= John Knox =
John Knox ( c . 1513 – 24 November 1572 ) was a Scottish clergyman , theologian , and writer who was a leader of the Protestant Reformation and is considered the founder of the Presbyterian denomination in Scotland . He is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews and worked as a notary @-@ priest . Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart , he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church . He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546 and the intervention of the regent of Scotland Mary of Guise . He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549 .
While in exile , Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England , where he rose in the ranks to serve King Edward VI of England as a royal chaplain . He exerted a reforming influence on the text of the Book of Common Prayer . In England he met and married his first wife , Margery Bowes . When Mary Tudor ascended the throne and re @-@ established Roman Catholicism , Knox was forced to resign his position and leave the country . Knox moved to Geneva and then to Frankfurt . In Geneva he met John Calvin , from whom he gained experience and knowledge of Reformed theology and Presbyterian polity . He created a new order of service , which was eventually adopted by the reformed church in Scotland . He left Geneva to head the English refugee church in Frankfurt but he was forced to leave over differences concerning the liturgy , thus ending his association with the Church of England .
On his return to Scotland he led the Protestant Reformation in Scotland , in partnership with the Scottish Protestant nobility . The movement may be seen as a revolution , since it led to the ousting of Mary of Guise , who governed the country in the name of her young daughter Mary , Queen of Scots . Knox helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created reformed church , the Kirk . He continued to serve as the religious leader of the Protestants throughout Mary 's reign . In several interviews with the Queen , Knox admonished her for supporting Catholic practices . When she was imprisoned for her alleged role in the murder of her husband Lord Darnley , and King James VI enthroned in her stead , he openly called for her execution . He continued to preach until his final days .
= = Early life , 1505 – 1546 = =
John Knox was born sometime between 1505 and 1515 in or near Haddington , the county town of East Lothian . His father , William Knox , was a merchant . All that is known of his mother is that her maiden name was Sinclair and that she died when John Knox was a child . Their eldest son , William , carried on his father 's business , which helped in Knox 's international communications .
Knox was probably educated at the grammar school in Haddington . In this time , the priesthood was the only path for those whose inclinations were academic rather than mercantile or agricultural . He proceeded to further studies at the University of St Andrews or possibly at the University of Glasgow . He studied under John Major , one of the greatest scholars of the time .
Knox first appears in public records as a priest and a notary in 1540 . He was still serving in these capacities as late as 1543 when he described himself as a " minister of the sacred altar in the diocese of St. Andrews , notary by apostolic authority " in a notarial deed dated 27 March . Rather than taking up parochial duties in a parish , he became tutor to two sons of Hugh Douglas of Longniddry . He also taught the son of John Cockburn of Ormiston . Both of these lairds had embraced the new religious ideas of the Reformation .
= = Embracing the Protestant Reformation , 1546 – 1547 = =
Knox did not record when or how he was converted to the Protestant faith , but perhaps the key formative influences on Knox were Patrick Hamilton and George Wishart . Wishart was a reformer who had fled Scotland in 1538 to escape punishment for heresy . He first moved to England , where in Bristol he preached against the veneration of the Virgin Mary . He was forced to make a public recantation and was burned in effigy at the Church of St Nicholas as a sign of his abjuration . He then took refuge in Germany and Switzerland . While on the Continent , he translated the First Helvetic Confession into English . He returned to Scotland in 1544 , but the timing of his return was unfortunate . In December 1543 , James Hamilton , Duke of Châtellerault , the appointed regent for the infant Mary , Queen of Scots , had decided with the Queen Mother , Mary of Guise , and Cardinal David Beaton to persecute the Protestant sect that had taken root in Scotland . Wishart travelled throughout Scotland preaching in favour of the reformation and when he arrived in East Lothian , Knox became one of his closest associates . Knox acted as his bodyguard , bearing a two @-@ handed sword in order to defend him . In December 1545 , Wishart was seized on Cardinal Beaton 's orders by the Earl of Bothwell and taken to the Castle of St Andrews . Knox was present on the night of Wishart 's arrest and was prepared to follow him into captivity , but Wishart persuaded him against this course saying , " Nay , return to your bairns [ children ] and God bless you . One is sufficient for a sacrifice . " Wishart was subsequently prosecuted by Beaton 's Public Accuser of Heretics , Archdeacon John Lauder . On 1 March 1546 , he was burnt at the stake in the presence of Cardinal Beaton .
Knox had avoided being arrested by Lord Bothwell through Wishart 's advice to return to tutoring . He took shelter with Douglas in Longniddry . Several months later he was still in charge of the pupils , the sons of Douglas and Cockburn , who wearied of moving from place to place while being pursued . He toyed with the idea of fleeing to Germany and taking his pupils with him . While Knox remained a fugitive , Cardinal Beaton was murdered on 29 May 1546 , within his residence , the Castle of St Andrews , by a gang of five persons in revenge for Wishart 's execution . The assassins seized the castle and eventually their families and friends took refuge with them , about a hundred and fifty men in all . Among their friends was Henry Balnaves , a former secretary of state in the government , who negotiated with England for the financial support of the rebels . Douglas and Cockburn suggested to Knox to take their sons to the relative safety of the castle to continue their instruction in reformed doctrine . Knox arrived at the castle on 10 April 1547 .
Knox 's powers as a preacher came to the attention of the chaplain of the garrison , John Rough . While Rough was preaching in the parish church on the Protestant principle of the popular election of a pastor , he proposed Knox to the congregation for that office . Knox did not relish the idea . According to his own account , he burst into tears and fled to his room . Within a week , however , he was giving his first sermon to a congregation that included his old teacher , John Major . He expounded on the seventh chapter of the Book of Daniel , comparing the Pope with the Antichrist . His sermon was marked by his consideration of the Bible as his sole authority and the doctrine of justification by faith alone , two elements that would remain in his thoughts throughout the rest of his life . A few days later , a debate was staged that allowed him to lay down additional theses including the rejection of the Mass , Purgatory , and prayers for the dead .
= = Confinement in the French galleys , 1547 – 1549 = =
John Knox 's chaplaincy of the castle garrison was not to last long . While Hamilton was willing to negotiate with England to stop their support of the rebels and bring the castle back under his control , Mary of Guise decided that it could only be taken by force and requested the king of France , Henry II to intervene . On 29 June 1547 , 21 French galleys approached St Andrews under the command of Leone Strozzi , prior of Capua . The French besieged the castle and forced the surrender of the garrison on 31 July . The Protestant nobles and others , including Knox , were taken prisoner and forced to row in the French galleys . The galley slaves were chained to benches and rowed throughout the day without a change of posture while an officer watched over them with a whip in hand . They sailed to France and navigated up the Seine to Rouen . The nobles , some of whom would have an impact later in Knox 's life such as William Kirkcaldy and Henry Balnaves , were sent to various castle @-@ prisons in France . Knox and the other galley slaves continued to Nantes and stayed on the Loire throughout the winter . They were threatened with torture if they did not give proper signs of reverence when mass was performed on the ship . Knox recounted an incident in which one Scot — possibly himself , as he tended to narrate personal anecdotes in the third person — was required to show devotion to a picture of the Virgin Mary . The prisoner was told to give it a kiss of veneration . He refused and when the picture was pushed up to his face , the prisoner seized the picture and threw it into the sea , saying , " Let our Lady now save herself : she is light enough : let her learn to swim . " After that , according to Knox , the Scottish prisoners were no longer forced to perform such devotions .
In summer 1548 , the galleys returned to Scotland to scout for English ships . Knox 's health was now at its lowest point due to the severity of his confinement . He was ill with a fever and others on the ship were afraid for his life . Even in this state , Knox recalled , his mind remained sharp and he comforted his fellow prisoners with hopes of release . While the ships were lying offshore between St Andrews and Dundee , the spires of the parish church where he preached appeared in view . James Balfour , a fellow prisoner , asked Knox whether he recognised the landmark . He replied that he knew it well , recognising the steeple of the place where he first preached and he declared that he would not die until he had preached there again .
In February 1549 , after spending a total of 19 months in the galley @-@ prison , Knox was released . It is uncertain how he obtained his liberty . Later in the year , Henry II arranged with Edward VI of England the release of all remaining Castilian prisoners .
= = Exile in England , 1549 – 1554 = =
On his release , Knox took refuge in England . The Reformation in England was a less radical movement than its Continental counterparts , but there was a definite breach with Rome . The Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Cranmer , and the regent of King Edward VI , the Duke of Somerset , were decidedly Protestant @-@ minded . However , much work remained to bring reformed ideas to the clergy and to the people . On 7 April 1549 , Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England . His first commission was in Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed . He was obliged to use the recently released Book of Common Prayer , which maintained the structure of the Sarum Rite while adapting the content to the doctrine of the reformed Church of England . Knox , however , modified its use to accord with the doctrinal emphases of the Continental reformers . In the pulpit he preached Protestant doctrines with great effect as his congregation grew .
In England , Knox met his wife , Margery Bowes ( died c.1560 ) . Her father , Richard Bowes ( d.1558 ) , was a descendant of an old Durham family and her mother , Elizabeth Aske , was an heiress of a Yorkshire family , the Askes of Richmondshire . Elizabeth Bowes presumably met Knox when he was employed in Berwick . Several letters reveal a close friendship between them . It is not recorded when Knox married Margery Bowes . Knox attempted to obtain the consent of the Bowes family , but her father and her brother Robert Bowes were opposed to the marriage .
Towards the end of 1550 , Knox was appointed a preacher of St Nicholas ' Church in Newcastle upon Tyne . The following year he was appointed one of the six royal chaplains serving the King . On 16 October 1551 , John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland , overthrew the Duke of Somerset to become the new regent of the young King . Knox condemned the coup d 'état in a sermon on All Saints Day . When Dudley visited Newcastle and listened to his preaching in June 1552 , he had mixed feelings about the fire @-@ brand preacher , but he saw Knox as a potential asset . Knox was asked to come to London to preach before the Court . In his first sermon , he advocated a change for the second edition of the Book of Common Prayer . The liturgy required worshippers to kneel during communion . Knox and the other chaplains considered this to be idolatry . It triggered a debate where Archbishop Cranmer was called upon to defend the practice . The end result was a compromise in which the famous Black Rubric , which declared that no adoration is intended while kneeling , was included in the second edition .
Soon afterwards , Dudley , who saw Knox as a useful political tool , offered him the bishopric of Rochester . Knox refused , and he returned to Newcastle . On 2 February 1553 Cranmer was ordered to appoint Knox as vicar of Allhallows Church in London placing him under the authority of the Bishop of London , Nicholas Ridley . Knox returned to London in order to deliver a sermon before the King and the Court during Lent and he again refused to take the assigned post . Knox was then told to preach in Buckinghamshire and he remained there until Edward 's death on 6 July . Edward 's successor , Mary Tudor , re @-@ established Roman Catholicism in England and restored the Mass in all the churches . With the country no longer safe for Protestant preachers , Knox left for the Continent in January 1554 on the advice of friends . On the eve of his flight , he wrote :
Sometime I have thought that impossible it had been , so to have removed my affection from the realm of Scotland , that any realm or nation could have been equal dear to me . But God I take to record in my conscience , that the troubles present ( and appearing to be ) in the realm of England are double more dolorous unto my heart than ever were the troubles of Scotland .
= = From Geneva to Frankfurt and Scotland , 1554 – 1556 = =
Knox disembarked in Dieppe , France , and continued to Geneva , where John Calvin had established his authority . When Knox arrived Calvin was in a difficult position . He had recently prosecuted the execution of the scholar Michael Servetus for heresy . Knox asked Calvin four difficult political questions : whether a minor could rule by divine right , whether a female could rule and transfer sovereignty to her husband , whether people should obey ungodly or idolatrous rulers , and what party godly persons should follow if they resisted an idolatrous ruler . Calvin gave cautious replies and referred him to the Swiss reformer Heinrich Bullinger in Zürich . Bullinger 's responses were equally cautious ; but Knox had already made up his mind . On 20 July 1554 , he published a pamphlet attacking Mary Tudor and the bishops who had brought her to the throne . He also attacked the Holy Roman Emperor , Charles V , calling him " no less enemy to Christ than was Nero " .
In a letter dated 24 September 1554 , Knox received an invitation from a congregation of English exiles in Frankfurt to become one of their ministers . He accepted the call with Calvin 's blessing . But no sooner had he arrived than he found himself in a conflict . The first set of refugees to arrive in Frankfurt had subscribed to a reformed liturgy and used a modified version of the Book of Common Prayer . More recently arrived refugees , however , including Edmund Grindal , the future Archbishop of Canterbury , favoured a stricter application of the book . When Knox and a supporting colleague , William Whittingham , wrote to Calvin for advice , they were told to avoid contention . Knox therefore agreed on a temporary order of service based on a compromise between the two sides . This delicate balance was disturbed when a new batch of refugees arrived that included Richard Cox , one of the principal authors of the Book of Common Prayer . Cox brought Knox 's pamphlet attacking the emperor to the attention of the Frankfurt authorities , who advised that Knox leave . His departure from Frankfurt on 26 March 1555 marked his final breach with the Church of England .
After his return to Geneva , Knox was chosen to be the minister at a new place of worship petitioned from Calvin . In the meantime , Elizabeth Bowes wrote to Knox , asking him to return to Margery in Scotland , which he did at the end of August . Despite initial doubts about the state of the Reformation in Scotland , Knox found the country significantly changed since he was carried off in the galley in 1547 . When he toured various parts of Scotland preaching the reformed doctrines and liturgy , he was welcomed by many of the nobility including two future regents of Scotland , the Earl of Moray and the Earl of Mar.
Though the Queen Regent , Mary of Guise , made no move to act against Knox , his activities caused concern among the church authorities . The bishops of Scotland viewed him as a threat to their authority and summoned him to appear in Edinburgh on 15 May 1556 . He was accompanied to the trial by so many influential persons that the bishops decided to call the hearing off . Knox was now free to preach openly in Edinburgh . William Keith , the Earl Marischal , was impressed and urged Knox to write to the Queen Regent . Knox 's unusually respectful letter urged her to support the Reformation and overthrow the church hierarchy . Queen Mary took the letter as a joke and ignored it .
= = Return to Geneva , 1556 – 1559 = =
Shortly after Knox sent the letter to the Queen Regent , he suddenly announced that he felt his duty was to return to Geneva . In the previous year on 1 November 1555 , the congregation in Geneva had elected Knox as their minister and he decided to take up the post . He wrote a final letter of advice to his supporters and left Scotland with his wife and mother @-@ in @-@ law . He arrived in Geneva on 13 September 1556 .
For the next two years , he lived a happy life in Geneva . He recommended Geneva to his friends in England as the best place of asylum for Protestants . In one letter he wrote :
I neither fear nor eschame to say , is the most perfect school of Christ that ever was in the earth since the days of the apostles . In other places I confess Christ to be truly preached ; but manners and religion so sincerely reformed , I have not yet seen in any other place ...
Knox led a busy life in Geneva . He preached three sermons a week , each lasting well over two hours . The services used a liturgy that was derived by Knox and other ministers from Calvin 's Formes des Prières Ecclésiastiques . The church in which he preached , the Église de Notre Dame la Neuve — now known as the Auditoire de Calvin — had been granted by the municipal authorities , at Calvin 's request , for the use of the English and Italian congregations . Knox 's two sons , Nathaniel and Eleazar , were born in Geneva , with Whittingham and Myles Coverdale their respective godfathers .
In the summer of 1558 , Knox published his best known pamphlet , The first blast of the trumpet against the monstruous regiment of women . In calling the " regiment " or rule of women " monstruous " , he meant that it was " unnatural " . The pamphlet has been called a classic of misogyny . Knox states that his purpose was to demonstrate " how abominable before God is the Empire or Rule of a wicked woman , yea , of a traiteresse and bastard " . The women rulers that Knox had in mind were Queen Mary I of England and Mary of Guise , the Dowager Queen of Scotland and regent on behalf of her daughter , Mary , Queen of Scots . Knox 's prejudices against women were not unusual in his day ; however , even he was aware that the pamphlet was dangerously seditious . He therefore published it anonymously and did not tell Calvin , who denied knowledge of it until a year after its publication , that he had written it . In England , the pamphlet was officially condemned by royal proclamation . The impact of the document was complicated later that year , when Elizabeth Tudor became Queen of England . Although Knox had not targeted Elizabeth , he had deeply offended her , and she never forgave him .
With a Protestant on the throne , the English refugees in Geneva prepared to return home . Knox himself decided to return to Scotland . Before his departure , various honours were conferred on him , including the freedom of the city of Geneva . Knox left in January 1559 , but he did not arrive in Scotland until 2 May 1559 , owing to Elizabeth 's refusal to issue him a passport through England .
= = Revolution and end of the regency , 1559 – 1560 = =
Two days after Knox arrived in Edinburgh , he proceeded to Dundee where a large number of Protestant sympathisers had gathered . Knox was declared an outlaw , and the Queen Regent summoned the Protestants to Stirling . Fearing the possibility of a summary trial and execution , the Protestants proceeded instead to Perth , a walled town that could be defended in case of a siege . At the church of St John the Baptist , Knox preached a fiery sermon and a small incident precipitated into a riot . A mob poured into the church and it was soon gutted . The mob then attacked two friaries in the town , looting their gold and silver and smashing images . Mary of Guise gathered those nobles loyal to her and a small French army . She dispatched the Earl of Argyll and Lord Moray to offer terms and avert a war . She promised not to send any French troops into Perth if the Protestants evacuated the town . The Protestants agreed , but when the Queen Regent entered Perth , she garrisoned it with Scottish soldiers on the French pay roll . This was seen as treacherous by Lord Argyll and Lord Moray , who both switched sides and joined Knox , who now based himself in St Andrews . Knox 's return to St Andrews fulfilled the prophecy he made in the galleys that he would one day preach again in its church . When he did give a sermon , the effect was the same as in Perth . The people engaged in vandalism and looting .
With Protestant reinforcements arriving from neighbouring counties , the Queen Regent retreated to Dunbar . By now , the mob fury had spilled over central Scotland . Her own troops were on the verge of mutiny . On 30 June , the Protestant Lords of the Congregation occupied Edinburgh , though they were only able to hold it for a month . But even before their arrival , the mob had already sacked the churches and the friaries . On 1 July , Knox preached from the pulpit of St Giles ' , the most influential in the capital . The Lords of the Congregation negotiated their withdrawal from Edinburgh by the Articles of Leith signed 25 July 1559 , and Mary of Guise promised freedom of conscience .
Knox knew that the Queen Regent would ask for help from France . So he negotiated by letter under the assumed name John Sinclair with William Cecil , Elizabeth 's chief adviser , for English support . Knox sailed secretly to Lindisfarne , off the northeast coast of England at the end of July , to meet James Croft and Sir Henry Percy at Berwick upon Tweed . Knox was indiscreet and news of his mission soon reached Mary of Guise . He returned to Edinburgh telling Croft he had to return to his flock , and suggested that Henry Balnaves should go to Cecil .
When additional French troops arrived in Leith , Edinburgh 's seaport , the Protestants responded by retaking Edinburgh . This time , on 24 October 1559 , the Scottish nobility formally deposed Mary of Guise from the regency . Her secretary , William Maitland of Lethington , defected to the Protestant side , bringing his administrative skills . From then on , Maitland took over the political tasks , freeing Knox for the role of religious leader . For the final stage of the revolution , Maitland appealed to Scottish patriotism to fight French domination . Following the Treaty of Berwick , support from England finally arrived and by the end of March , a significant English army joined the Scottish Protestant forces . The sudden death of Mary of Guise in Edinburgh Castle on 10 June 1560 paved the way for an end to hostilities , the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh , and the withdrawal of French and English troops from Scotland . On 19 July , Knox held a National Thanksgiving Service at St Giles ' .
= = Reformation in Scotland , 1560 – 1561 = =
On 1 August , the Scottish Parliament met to settle religious issues . Knox and five other ministers were called upon to draw up a new confession of faith . Within four days , the Scots Confession was presented to Parliament , voted upon , and approved . A week later , the Parliament passed three acts in one day : the first abolished the jurisdiction of the Pope in Scotland , the second condemned all doctrine and practice contrary to the reformed faith , and the third forbade the celebration of Mass in Scotland . Before the dissolution of Parliament , Knox and the other ministers were given the task of organising the newly reformed church or the Kirk . They would work for several months on the Book of Discipline , the document describing the organisation of the new church . During this period , in December 1560 , Knox 's wife , Margery , died , leaving Knox to care for their two sons , aged three and a half and two years old . John Calvin , who had lost his own wife in 1549 , wrote a letter of condolence .
Parliament reconvened on 15 January 1561 to consider the Book of Discipline . The Kirk was to be run on democratic lines . Each congregation was free to choose or reject its own pastor , but once he was chosen he could not be fired . Each parish was to be self @-@ supporting , as far as possible . The bishops were replaced by ten to twelve " superintendents " . The plan included a system of national education based on universality as a fundamental principle . Certain areas of law were placed under ecclesiastical authority . The Parliament did not approve the plan , however , mainly for reasons of finance . The Kirk was to be financed out of the patrimony of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland . Much of this was now in the hands of the nobles , who were reluctant to give up their possessions . A final decision on the plan was delayed because of the impending return of Mary , Queen of Scots .
= = Knox and Queen Mary , 1561 – 1564 = =
On 19 August 1561 , cannons were fired in Leith to announce Queen Mary 's arrival in Scotland . When she attended Mass being celebrated in the royal chapel at Holyrood Palace five days later , this prompted a protest in which one of her servants was jostled . The next day she issued a proclamation that there would be no alteration in the current state of religion and that her servants should not be molested or troubled . Many nobles accepted this , but not Knox . The following Sunday , he protested from the pulpit of St Giles ' . As a result , just two weeks after her return , Mary summoned Knox . She accused him of inciting a rebellion against her mother and of writing a book against her own authority . Knox answered that as long as her subjects found her rule convenient , he was willing to accept her governance , noting that Paul the Apostle had been willing to live under Nero 's rule . Mary noted , however , that he had written against the principle of female rule itself . He responded that she should not to be troubled by what had never harmed her . When Mary asked him whether subjects had a right to resist their ruler , he replied that if monarchs exceeded their lawful limits , they might be resisted , even by force .
On 13 December 1562 , Mary sent for Knox again after he gave a sermon denouncing certain celebrations which Knox had interpreted as rejoicing at the expense of the Reformation . She charged that Knox spoke irreverently of the Queen in order to make her appear contemptible to her subjects . After Knox gave an explanation of the sermon , Mary stated that she did not blame Knox for the differences of opinion and asked that in the future he come to her directly if he heard anything about her that he disliked . Despite her friendly gesture , Knox replied that he would continue to voice his convictions in his sermons and would not wait upon her .
During Easter in 1563 , some priests in Ayrshire celebrated Mass , thus defying the law . Some Protestants tried to enforce the law themselves by apprehending these priests . This prompted Mary to summon Knox for the third time . She asked Knox to use his influence to promote religious toleration . He defended their actions and noted she was bound to uphold the laws and if she did not , others would . Mary surprised Knox by agreeing that the priests would be brought to justice .
The most dramatic interview between Mary and Knox took place on 24 June 1563 . Mary summoned Knox to Holyrood after hearing that he had been preaching against her proposed marriage to Don Carlos , the son of Philip II of Spain . Mary began by scolding Knox , then she burst into tears . " What have ye to do with my marriage ? " she asked , and " What are ye within this commonwealth ? " " A subject born within the same , Madam , " Knox replied . He noted that though he was not of noble birth , he had the same duty as any subject to warn of dangers to the realm . When Mary started to cry again , he said , " Madam , in God 's presence I speak : I never delighted in the weeping of any of God 's creatures ; yea I can scarcely well abide the tears of my own boys whom my own hand corrects , much less can I rejoice in your Majesty 's weeping . " He added that he would rather endure her tears , however , than remain silent and " betray my Commonwealth " . At this , Mary ordered him out of the room .
Knox 's final encounter with Mary was prompted by an incident at Holyrood . While Mary was absent from Edinburgh on her summer progress in 1563 , a crowd forced its way into her private chapel as Mass was being celebrated . During the altercation , the priest 's life was threatened . As a result , two of the ringleaders , burgesses of Edinburgh , were scheduled for trial on 24 October 1563 . In order to defend these men , Knox sent out letters calling the nobles to convene . Mary obtained one of these letters and asked her advisors if this was not a treasonable act . Stewart and Maitland , wanting to keep good relations with both the Kirk and the Queen , asked Knox to admit he was wrong and to settle the matter quietly . Knox refused and he defended himself in front of Mary and the Privy Council . He argued that he had called a legal , not an illegal , assembly as part of his duties as a minister of the Kirk . After he left , the councillors voted not to charge him with treason .
= = Final years in Edinburgh , 1564 – 1572 = =
On 26 March 1564 Knox stirred controversy again , when he married Margaret Stewart , the daughter of an old friend , Andrew Stewart , 2nd Lord Ochiltree , a member of the Stuart family and a distant relative of the Queen , Mary Stuart . The marriage was unusual because he was a widower of fifty , while the bride was only seventeen . Very few details are known of their domestic life . They had three daughters , Martha , Margaret , and Elizabeth .
When the General Assembly convened in June 1564 , an argument broke out between Knox and Maitland over the authority of the civil government . Maitland told Knox to refrain from stirring up emotions over Mary 's insistence on having mass celebrated and he quoted from Martin Luther and John Calvin about obedience to earthly rulers . Knox retorted that the Bible notes that Israel was punished when it followed an unfaithful king and that the Continental reformers were refuting arguments made by the Anabaptists who rejected all forms of government . The debate revealed his waning influence on political events as the nobility continued to support Mary .
On 29 July 1565 when Mary married Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , some of the Protestant nobles , including James Stewart , 1st Earl of Moray , rose up in rebellion . Knox revealed his own objection while preaching in the presence of the new King Consort on 19 August 1565 . He made passing allusions on ungodly rulers which caused Darnley to walk out . Knox was summoned and prohibited from preaching while the court was in Edinburgh .
On 9 March 1566 , Mary 's secretary , David Rizzio , was murdered by conspirators loyal to Darnley . Mary escaped from Edinburgh to Dunbar and by 18 March returned with a formidable force . Knox fled to Kyle in Ayrshire , where he completed the major part of his magnum opus , History of the Reformation in Scotland . When he returned to Edinburgh , he found the Protestant nobles divided over what to do with Mary . Lord Darnley had been murdered and the Queen almost immediately married the chief suspect , the Earl of Bothwell . The indictment of murder thus upon her , she had been forced to abdicate and was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle . Lord Moray had become the regent of King James VI . Other old friends of Knox 's , Lord Argyll and William Kirkcaldy , stood by Mary . On 29 July 1567 , Knox preached James VI 's coronation sermon at the church in Stirling . During this period Knox thundered against her in his sermons , even to the point of calling for her death . However , Mary 's life was spared , and she escaped on 2 May 1568 .
The fighting in Scotland continued as a civil war . Lord Moray was assassinated on 23 January 1570 . The regent who succeeded him , the Earl of Lennox , was also a victim of violence . On 30 April 1571 , the controller of Edinburgh Castle , Kirkcaldy of Grange , ordered all enemies of the Queen to leave the city . But for Knox , his former friend and fellow galley @-@ slave , he made an exception . If Knox did not leave , he could stay in Edinburgh , but only if he remained captive in the castle . Knox chose to leave , and on 5 May he left for St Andrews . He continued to preach , spoke to students , and worked on his History . At the end of July 1572 , after a truce was called , he returned to Edinburgh . Although by this time exceedingly feeble and his voice faint , he continued to preach at St Giles ' .
After inducting his successor , Lawson of Aberdeen , as minister of St Giles ' on 9 November , Knox returned to his home for the last time . With his friends and some of the greatest Scottish nobles around him , he asked for the Bible to be read aloud . On his last day , 24 November 1572 , his young wife read from Paul 's first letter to the Corinthians . A testimony to Knox was pronounced at his grave in the churchyard of St Giles ' by James Douglas , 4th Earl of Morton and newly elected regent of Scotland : " Here lies one who never feared any flesh " .
= = Legacy = =
In his will , Knox claimed : " None have I corrupted , none have I defrauded ; merchandise have I not made . " The paltry sum of money Knox bequeathed to his family , which would have left them in dire poverty , showed that he had not profited from his work in the Kirk . The regent , Lord Morton , asked the General Assembly to continue paying his stipend to his widow for one year after his death , and the regent ensured that Knox 's dependents were decently supported .
Knox was survived by his five children and his second wife . Nathaniel and Eleazar , his two sons by his first wife , attended St John 's College , Cambridge . Nathaniel became a Fellow of St John 's but died early in 1580 . Eleazar was ordained into the Church of England and served in the parish of Clacton Magna . He also died young , and was buried in the chapel of St John 's College in 1591 . Knox 's second wife , Margaret Stewart , got remarried to Andrew Ker , one of those involved in the murder of David Rizzio . Knox 's three daughters also married : Martha to Alexander Fairlie ; Margaret to Zachary Pont , son of Robert Pont and brother of Timothy Pont ; and Elizabeth to John Welsh , a minister of the Kirk .
Knox 's death was barely noticed at the time . Although his funeral was attended by the nobles of Scotland , no major politician or diplomat mentioned his death in their letters that survive . Mary , Queen of Scots made only two brief references to him in her letters . However , what the rulers feared were Knox 's ideas more than Knox himself . He was a ruthless and successful revolutionary and it was this revolutionary philosophy that had a great impact on the English Puritans . Despite his strictness and dogmatism , he has also been described by partisans as contributing to the struggle for genuine human freedom , by teaching a duty to oppose unjust government in order to bring about moral and spiritual change .
Knox was notable not so much for the overthrow of Roman Catholicism in Scotland , but for assuring the replacement of the established Christian religion with Presbyterianism rather than Anglicanism . It was thanks to Knox that the Presbyterian polity was established , though it took 120 years following his death for this to be achieved in 1689 . Meanwhile , he accepted the status quo and was happy to see his friends appointed bishops and archbishops , even preaching at the inauguration of the Protestant Archbishop of St Andrews John Douglas in 1571 . In that regard , Knox is considered the notional founder of the Presbyterian denomination , whose members number millions worldwide .
= = Gallery = =
= = Selected works = =
An Epistle to the Congregation of the Castle of St Andrews ; with a Brief Summary of Balnaves on Justification by Faith ( 1548 )
A Vindication of the Doctrine that the Sacrifice of the Mass is Idolatry ( 1550 )
A Godly Letter of Warning or Admonition to the Faithful in London , Newcastle , and Berwick ( 1554 )
Certain Questions Concerning Obedience to Lawful Magistrates with Answers by Henry Bullinger ( 1554 )
A Faithful Admonition to the Professors of God 's Truth in England ( 1554 )
A Narrative of the Proceedings and Troubles of the English Congregation at Frankfurt on the Maine ( 1554 – 1555 )
A Letter to the Queen Dowager , Regent of Scotland ( 1556 )
A Letter of Wholesome Counsel Addressed to his Brethren in Scotland ( 1556 )
The Form of Prayers and Ministration of the Sacraments Used in the English Congregation at Geneva ( 1556 )
The first blast of the trumpet against the monstruous regiment of women ( 1558 )
A Letter to the Queen Dowager , Regent of Scotland : Augmented and Explained by the Author ( 1558 )
The Appellation from the Sentence Pronounced by the Bishops and Clergy : Addressed to the Nobility and Estates of Scotland ( 1558 )
A Letter Addressed to the Commonalty of Scotland ( 1558 )
On Predestination in Answer to the Cavillations by an Anabaptist ( 1560 )
The History of the Reformation in Scotland ( 1586 – 1587 )
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= Samuel Escue Tillman =
Samuel Escue Tillman ( October 3 , 1847 – June 24 , 1942 ) was an astronomer , engineer , military educator , and career officer in the United States Army who spent 30 years teaching at the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York . In addition to writing for periodicals on a wide range of subjects and authoring several influential textbooks on chemistry and geology , in 1917 Tillman was recalled from previous mandatory retirement to serve as superintendent of the United States Military Academy for the duration of conflict which became known as World War I.
= = Early life = =
Samuel Tillman was born in Bedford County , Tennessee , near modern Shelbyville on October 3 , 1847 , one of several sons of Lewis Tillman and his wife Mary C. Davidson Tillman . The younger Tillman and his brothers were raised on the family plantation in wartime Tennessee during much of the American Civil War . Tillman left the farm in 1864 to attend Miami University in Oxford , Ohio , but left after a year to accept an at @-@ large appointment to the United States Military Academy in July , 1865 , months after the end of the rebellion .
= = Military career = =
Tillman proved an excellent cadet , graduating 3rd out of 39 in the USMA graduating class of 1869 . Tillman spent fifteen months on the frontier at Fort Riley , Kansas , then returned to the academy for a period as assistant professor of mathematics . The following years would see Tillman alternating tours between teaching assignments at the academy and surveying the last unexplored portions of the American West . In addition to involvement in expeditions to explore and map parts of the western states of Arizona , California , Idaho , Montana , Nevada , New Mexico , and Utah , Tillman was detailed for a year as assistant astronomer on the national expedition to Northern Tasmania observe the Transit of Venus . In late 1878 , Tillman became the sixtieth of the founding members of Washington , D.C. ' s Cosmos Club , but resigned in 1881 , after he was given permanent assignment at West Point as professor of chemistry , mineralogy , and geology .
Lieutenant Tillman sat on the board of inquiry concerning the alleged assault by cadets on Johnson Chesnut Whittaker . As full professor Tillman was given responsibility for redesigning the physical science curriculum at the academy ; U.S. Army Adjutant General Richard C. Drum ordered Tillman and fellow academy instructor George L. Andrews to visit Harvard , Yale , and other American institutions of higher learning to investigate new educational technologies in order to incorporate them into the curriculum .
The next thirty years of Tillman 's life were devoted to writing and teaching at the academy . He wrote for popular periodicals like Popular Science and Cosmopolitan and literary journals like American Monthly Review of Reviews . Tillman authored several science textbooks for use by academy instructors , notably the physics work Elementary Lessons in Heat ( 1889 ) , Descriptive General Chemistry ( 1897 ) , and A text @-@ book of Important Minerals and Rocks ( 1900 ) . He was responsible for the academy 's mineralogical and geological cabinet . Tillman also wrote a series of memoirs which have been featured in the works of Miami University historian Dwight L. Smith .
Toward the end of his career , Tillman was presented with an honorary degree from Yale University in 1906 . In 1911 , after 44 years of active U.S. Army service in the classroom and field , Tillman was retired . He spent some time in Italy , leaving at the outbreak of World War I ; Tillman settled in Princeton , New Jersey , continuing to write , presenting A Review of West Point 's History before the New York Historical Society in October , 1915 .
In early 1917 , the United States Army was preparing for its involvement in the war raging in Europe , and all academy instructors who could be detailed were assigned to field commands . This left an understrength USMA teaching staff not only doing " double duty , " but also teaching in officer training schools during the summer . When Colonel Tillman was recalled from retirement to serve as USMA superintendent in June , 1917 , the cadet class of 1917 had already graduated two months early and been assigned to wartime posts . The USMA class of 1918 graduated in the Autumn of 1917 , the classes of 1919 and 1920 graduated in June 1918 , and the cadet class of 1921 were graduated before the Armistice was signed . " On November 2 , 1918 , the Corps of Cadets consisted of members of the Fourth Class only . " Tillman had seen the graduation of an entire corps of cadets before he was again retired , this time with promotion to Brigadier General and the Distinguished Service Medal for his wartime service . While Superintendent of West Point , Tillman refused repeated requests to add military aviation to the curriculum .
= = Legacy = =
Samuel Escue Tillman died June 24 , 1942 at the home of his daughter , Katherine Tillman Martin , in Southampton , New York and was buried at West Point Cemetery . According to his obituary , he was survived by one brother , A.H. Tillman , who served for a time as United States district attorney in Washington D.C .. Four brothers had preceded him in death .
In 1885 , when Henry Tureman Allen was exploring the Copper River in the new U.S. territory of Alaska , he named a discovered peak after Tillman , his academy professor , but the discovery proved to be one major error in the survey , Allen mistaking either Mount Wrangell or Mount Sanford for the non @-@ existent Mount Tillman .
In 2008 , Kent Biffle of the Dallas Morning News reported receiving newspaper clippings from a local lawyer and historian on the subject of UFO sightings in Stephenville , Texas . Apparently in 1897 , widespread newspaper reports of a cigar @-@ shaped flying object started to circulate in the Midwest and Southwest . Responding to sightings previously reported in the Morning News , on April 17 , 1897 , one respected Erath County farmer , C.L. McIlhany discovered such a craft had landed on his property , and reported two human operators , a pilot and an engineer , who gave their names as " S.E. Tilman " and " A.E. Dolbear . " The two operators performed minor repairs on their electrically powered lighter @-@ than @-@ air craft , then again flew away .
= = Selected works by Tillman = =
Tillman , Samuel Escue ( 1990 ) . Smith , Dwight La Vern , ed . The Kansas Frontier , 1869 @-@ 1870 : Lt. Samuel Tillman 's First Tour of Duty . Kansas State Historical Society . Retrieved April 25 , 2009 .
Tillman , Samuel ( May 21 , 1878 ) . Wheeler , George W. , ed . Annual report upon the geographical explorations and surveys west of the one hundredth meridian ... Geographical Surveys West of the 100th Meridian . Washington , D.C. : Government Printing Office. p . 107 . Retrieved April 25 , 2009 .
Tillman , Samuel Escue ( 1892 ) [ 1889 ] . Elementary Lessons in Heat ( 2 ed . ) . Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : J.B. Lippincott. p . 160 . Retrieved April 25 , 2009 .
Tillman , Samuel E. ( 1893 ) . " Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone " . The Popular science monthly 43 ( New York : D. Appleton ) . p . 301 . Retrieved April 25 , 2009 .
Tillman , Samuel Escue ( 1911 ) [ 1897 ] . Descriptive General Chemistry ( 4 ed . ) . New York : John Wiley & Sons. p . 459 . Retrieved April 25 , 2009 .
Tillman , Samuel Escue ( 1903 ) [ 1900 ] . A text @-@ book of Important Minerals and Rocks ( 2 ed . ) . New York : John Wiley & Sons. p . 176 . Retrieved April 25 , 2009 .
Tillman , Samuel E. ( 1902 ) . " West Point and Its Centenary " . American Monthly Review of Reviews 26 ( New York : Review of Reviews ) . p . 45 . Retrieved April 25 , 2009 .
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= John Sherman =
John Sherman ( May 10 , 1823 – October 22 , 1900 ) was an American Republican representative and senator from Ohio during the Civil War and into the late nineteenth century . He also served as both Secretary of the Treasury and Secretary of State . Sherman ran for the Republican presidential nomination three times , coming closest in 1888 , but never won . His brothers included General William Tecumseh Sherman , Charles Taylor Sherman , a federal judge in Ohio , and Hoyt Sherman , an Iowa banker .
Born in Lancaster , Ohio , Sherman later moved to Mansfield , Ohio , where he began a law career before entering politics . Initially a Whig , Sherman was among those anti @-@ slavery activists who formed what became the Republican Party . He served three terms in the House of Representatives . As a member of the House , Sherman traveled to Kansas to investigate the unrest between pro- and anti @-@ slavery partisans there . He rose in party leadership and was nearly elected Speaker in 1859 . Sherman was elevated to the Senate in 1861 . As a senator , he was a leader in financial matters , helping to redesign the United States ' monetary system to meet the needs of a nation torn apart by civil war . After the war , he worked to produce legislation that would restore the nation 's credit abroad and produce a stable , gold @-@ backed currency at home .
Serving as Secretary of the Treasury in the administration of Rutherford B. Hayes , Sherman continued his efforts for financial stability and solvency , overseeing an end to wartime inflationary measures and a return to gold @-@ backed money . He returned to the Senate after his term expired , serving there for a further sixteen years . During that time he continued his work on financial legislation , as well as writing and debating laws on immigration , business competition law , and the regulation of interstate commerce . Sherman was the principal author of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 , which was signed into law by President Benjamin Harrison . In 1897 , President William McKinley appointed him Secretary of State . Failing health and declining faculties made him unable to handle the burdens of the job , and he retired in 1898 at the start of the Spanish – American War . Sherman died at his home in Washington , D.C. in 1900 .
= = Early life and education = =
John Sherman was born in Lancaster , Ohio , May 10 , 1823 , to Charles Robert Sherman and his wife , Mary Hoyt Sherman , the eighth of their eleven children . John Sherman 's grandfather , Taylor Sherman , a Connecticut lawyer and judge , first visited Ohio in the early nineteenth century , where he gained title to several parcels of land before returning to Connecticut . After Taylor 's death in 1815 , his son Charles , newly married to Mary Hoyt , moved the family west to Ohio . Several other Sherman relatives soon followed , and Charles became established as a lawyer in Lancaster . By the time of John Sherman 's birth , Charles had just been appointed a justice of the Supreme Court of Ohio .
Sherman 's father died suddenly in 1829 , leaving his mother to care for eleven children . Several of the oldest children , including Sherman 's older brother William , were fostered with nearby relatives , but John and his brother Hoyt stayed with their mother in Lancaster until 1831 . In that year , Sherman 's father 's cousin ( also named John Sherman ) took Sherman into his home in Mount Vernon , Ohio , where he enrolled in school . The other John Sherman intended for his namesake to study there until he was ready to enroll at nearby Kenyon College , but Sherman disliked school and was , in his own words , " a troublesome boy . " In 1835 , he returned to his mother 's home in Lancaster . Sherman continued his education there at a local academy where , after being briefly expelled for punching a teacher , he studied for two years .
In 1837 , Sherman left school and found a job as a junior surveyor on construction of improvements to the Muskingum River . Because he had obtained the job through Whig Party patronage , the election of a Democratic governor in 1838 meant that Sherman and the rest of his surveying crew were discharged from their jobs in June 1839 . The following year , he moved to Mansfield , Ohio to study law in the office of his older brother , Charles Taylor Sherman . He was admitted to the bar in 1844 and joined his brother 's firm . Sherman quickly became successful at the practice of law , and by 1847 had accumulated property worth $ 10 @,@ 000 and was a partner in several local businesses . By that time , Sherman and his brother Charles were able to support their mother and two unmarried sisters , who now moved to a house Sherman purchased in Mansfield . In 1848 , Sherman married Margaret Cecelia Stewart , the daughter of a local judge . The couple never had any biological children , but adopted a daughter , Mary , in 1864 .
Around the same time , Sherman began to take a larger role in politics . In 1844 , he addressed a political rally on behalf of the Whig candidate for president that year , Henry Clay . Four years later , Sherman was a delegate to the Whig National Convention where Zachary Taylor was nominated . As with most conservative Whigs , Sherman supported the Compromise of 1850 as the best solution to the growing sectional divide . In 1852 , Sherman was again a delegate to the Whig National Convention , where he supported the eventual nominee , Winfield Scott , against rivals Daniel Webster and Millard Fillmore .
= = House of Representatives = =
Sherman moved north to Cleveland , Ohio , in 1853 and established a law office there with two partners . Events soon interrupted Sherman 's plans for a new law firm , as the passage of the Kansas – Nebraska Act in 1854 inspired him ( and many other anti @-@ slavery Northerners ) to take a more involved role in politics . That Act , the brainchild of Illinois Democrat Stephen A. Douglas , opened the two named territories to slavery , an implicit repeal of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 . Intended to quiet national agitation over slavery by shifting the decision to local settlers , Douglas 's Act instead inflamed anti @-@ slavery sentiment in the North by allowing the possibility of slavery 's expansion to territories held as free soil for three decades . Two months after the Act 's passage , Sherman became a candidate for Ohio 's thirteenth district in the federal House of Representatives . A local convention nominated Sherman over two other candidates to represent what was then called the Opposition Party ( later to become the Republican Party . ) The new party , a fusion of Free Soilers , Whigs , and anti @-@ slavery Democrats , had many discordant elements , and some among the former group thought Sherman too conservative on the slavery question . Nevertheless , they supported him against the incumbent Democrat , William D. Lindsley . Democrats were defeated across Ohio that year , and Sherman was elected by 2823 votes .
= = = Kansas = = =
When the 34th United States Congress convened in December 1855 , members opposed to Democratic President Franklin Pierce ( most of them Northerners ) held the majority in the House , while the Democrats retained their majority in the Senate . That House majority , however , was not fully unified , with some members adhering to the new anti @-@ Nebraska party , and others loyal to the new nativist American ( or Know @-@ Nothing ) party . The Know Nothings were also fractious , with some former Whigs and some former Free Soilers in their ranks . The result was a House that was unable to elect a Speaker for two months . When they finally agreed on the election of Nathaniel Banks of Massachusetts , the House quickly turned to the matter of Kansas . Preventing the expansion of slavery to Kansas was the one issue that united Banks ' fragile majority , and the House resolved to send three members to investigate the situation in that territory ; Sherman was one of the three selected .
Sherman spent two months in the territory and was the primary author of the 1 @,@ 188 @-@ page report filed on conditions there when they returned in April 1856 . The report explained what anti @-@ administration members already feared : that the principle of local control was being seriously undermined by the invasion of Missourians who , while not intending to settle there , used violence to coerce the Kansans to elect pro @-@ slavery members to the territorial legislature . The House took no action on the reports , but they were widely distributed as campaign documents . That July , Sherman proposed an amendment to an army appropriation act to bar use of federal troops to enforce the acts of the Kansas territorial legislature , which many now viewed as an illegitimate body . The amendment narrowly passed the House , but was removed by the Senate ; the House ultimately agreed to the change . In spite of this defeat , however , Sherman had achieved considerable prominence for a freshman representative .
= = = Lecompton and financial reform = = =
Sherman was reelected in 1856 , defeating his Democratic opponent , Herman J. Brumback , by 2861 votes . The Republican candidate for president , John C. Frémont carried Ohio while losing the national vote to the Democrat , James Buchanan . When the 35th Congress assembled in December 1857 , the anti @-@ Nebraska coalition — now formally the Republicans — had lost control of the House , and Sherman found himself in the minority . The sectional crisis had also deepened in the past year . In March 1857 , the Supreme Court issued its decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford , holding that Congress had no power to prevent slavery in the territories and that blacks — whether free or enslaved — could not be citizens of the United States . In December of that year , in an election boycotted by free @-@ state partisans , Kansas adopted the pro @-@ slavery Lecompton Constitution and petitioned Congress to be admitted as a slave state . Buchanan urged that Congress take up the matter , and the Senate approved a bill to admit Kansas . Sherman spoke against the Kansas bill in the House , pointing out the evidence of fraud in the elections there . Some of the Northern Democrats joined with a unanimous Republican caucus to defeat the measure . Congress agreed to a compromise measure , by which Kansas would be admitted after another referendum on the Lecompton constitution . The electorate rejected slavery and remained a territory , a decision Sherman would later call " the turning point of the slavery controversy . "
Sherman 's second term also saw his first speeches in Congress on the country 's financial situation , which had been harmed by the Panic of 1857 . Citing the need to pare unnecessary expenditures in light of diminished revenue , Sherman especially criticized Southern senators for adding appropriations to the House 's bills . His speech attracted attention , and was the start of Sherman 's focus on financial matters , which would continue throughout his long political career .
= = = House leadership = = =
The voters returned Sherman to office for a third term in 1858 . After a brief special session in March 1859 , the 36th Congress adjourned , and Sherman and his wife went on vacation to Europe . When they returned that December , the situation was similar to that of four years earlier : no party had an absolute majority . Republicans held 109 seats , Democrats 101 , and Know Nothings 27 . Again , sectional tension had increased while Congress was in recess , this time due to John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry , Virginia . The election for Speaker of the House promised to be contentious . This time , Sherman was among the leading candidates , receiving the second @-@ largest number of votes on the first ballot , with no candidate receiving a majority . The election for Speaker was sidetracked immediately by a furor over an anti @-@ slavery book , The Impending Crisis of the South , written by Hinton Rowan Helper and endorsed by many Republican members . Southerners accused Sherman of having endorsed the book , while he protested that he only endorsed its use as a campaign tool and had never read it . After two months of balloting , no decision had been reached . After their attempts to adopt a plurality rule failed , Sherman accepted that he could not be elected , and withdrew . Republicans then shifted their support to William Pennington , who was elected on the forty @-@ fourth ballot .
Pennington assigned Sherman to serve as chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means , where he spent much of his time on appropriations bills , while cooperating with his colleague Justin Smith Morrill on the passage of what became known as the Morrill Tariff . The Morrill Tariff raised duties on imports in order to close the deficit that had resulted from falling revenues . It also had the effect of encouraging domestic industries , which appealed to the former Whigs in the Republican party . Sherman spoke in favor of the bill and it passed the House by a vote of 105 to 64 . The tariff bill would likely have died in the Senate , but the withdrawal of Southern members at the start of the Civil War allowed the rump Senate to pass the bill in the 36th Congress 's final session , and President Buchanan signed it into law in February 1861 . Likewise , Sherman supported a bill admitting Kansas as a free state that passed in 1861 .
Sherman was renominated for Congress in 1860 and was active in Abraham Lincoln 's campaign for President , giving speeches on his behalf in several states . Both were elected , with Sherman defeating his opponent , Barnabas Burns , by 2864 votes . He returned to Washington for the lame duck session of the 36th Congress . By February 1861 , seven states had reacted to Lincoln 's election by seceding from the Union . In response , Congress passed a constitutional amendment proposed by Representative Thomas Corwin of Ohio . Known today as the Corwin Amendment , it was an attempt to forge a compromise to keep the remaining slave states in the Union and entice the seceded states to return . Corwin 's legislation would have preserved the status quo on slavery and prohibited any future amendment granting Congress power to interfere with slavery in the states . Sherman voted for the amendment , which passed both houses of Congress and was sent to the states for ratification . Few states ratified it , and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865 , outlawing slavery , rendered the compromise measure moot .
= = Senate = =
Lincoln took office on March 4 , 1861 . Among his first acts was to nominate Senator Salmon P. Chase of Ohio to be Secretary of the Treasury . Chase resigned his Senate seat on March 7 , and after two weeks of indecisive balloting , the Ohio Legislature elected Sherman to the vacant seat . He took his seat on March 23 , 1861 , as the Senate had been called into special session to deal with the secession crisis . The Senate that convened at the start of the 37th Congress had a Republican majority for the first time , a majority that grew as more Southern members resigned or were expelled . In April , Sherman 's brother William visited Washington to rejoin the army , and the brothers went together to the White House to meet Lincoln . Lincoln soon called for 75 @,@ 000 men to enlist for three months to put down the rebellion , which William Sherman thought too few and too short a duration . William 's thoughts on the war greatly influenced his brother , and John Sherman returned home to Ohio to encourage enlistment , briefly serving as an unpaid colonel of Ohio Volunteers .
= = = Financing the Civil War = = =
The Civil War expenditures quickly strained the government 's already @-@ fragile financial situation and Sherman , assigned to the Senate Finance Committee , was involved in the process of increasing the revenue . In July 1861 , Congress authorized the government to issue Demand Notes , the first form of paper money issued directly by the United States government . The notes were redeemable in specie ( i.e. , gold or silver coin ) but , as Sherman would note in his memoirs , they did not solve the revenue problem , as the government did not have the coin to redeem the notes should they all be presented for payment . To solve this problem , Chase asked for and Congress authorized the issuance of $ 150 million in bonds , which ( as banks purchased them with gold ) replenished the treasury . Congress also sought to increase revenue when they passed the Revenue Act of 1861 , which imposed the first federal income tax in American history . Sherman endorsed the measure , and even spoke in favor of a steeper tax than the one imposed by the Act ( 3 % on income above $ 800 , ) preferring to raise revenue by taxation than by borrowing . In August , the special session closed and Sherman returned home to Mansfield to promote military recruitment again .
When Congress returned to Washington in December 1861 , Sherman and the Finance Committee continued their attempts to fix the deepening financial crisis caused by the war . The financial situation had continued to worsen resulting that month in banks suspending specie payments — that is , they refused to redeem their banknotes for gold . Gold began to disappear from circulation . With the 500 @,@ 000 soldiers in the field , the government was spending the then @-@ unheard @-@ of sum of $ 2 million per day . Sherman understood that " a radical change in existing laws relating to our currency must be made , or ... the destruction of the Union would be unavoidable ... " Secretary Chase agreed , and proposed that the Treasury Department issue United States Notes that were redeemable not in specie but in 6 % government bonds . The bills would be " lawful money and a legal tender in the payment of all debts . " Nothing but gold and silver coin had ever been legal tender in the United States , but Congress yielded to the wartime necessities and the resulting First Legal Tender Act passed both the House and the Senate . The Act limited the notes ( later known as " greenbacks " ) to $ 150 million , but two subsequent Legal Tender Acts that year expanded the limit to $ 450 million . The idea of making paper money legal tender was controversial , and William Pitt Fessenden of Maine , chairman of the Senate Finance Committee , was among many who opposed the proposal . Sherman disagreed , and spoke in favor of the idea . He defended his position as necessary in his memoirs , saying " from the passage of the legal tender act , by which means were provided for utilizing the wealth of the country in the suppression of the rebellion , the tide of war turned in our favor . "
Reform of the nation 's financial system continued in 1863 with the passage of the National Banking Act of 1863 . This Act , first proposed by Chase in 1861 and introduced by Sherman two years later , established a series of nationally chartered private banks that would issue banknotes in coordination with the Treasury , replacing ( though not completely ) the system of state @-@ chartered banks then in existence . Although the immediate purpose was to fund the war , the National Bank Act was intended to be permanent , and remained the law until 1913 . A 10 % tax on state banknotes passed in 1865 to facilitate the shift to a national bank system . Sherman agreed with Chase wholeheartedly , and hoped that state banking would be completely eliminated . Sherman believed the state @-@ by @-@ state system of regulation was disorderly and unable to facilitate the level of borrowing a modern nation might require . He also believed the state banks were unconstitutional . Not all Republicans shared Sherman 's views , and when the Act eventually passed the Senate , it was by a narrow 23 – 21 vote . Lincoln signed the bill into law on February 25 , 1863 .
= = = Slavery and Reconstruction = = =
Besides his role in financial matters , Sherman also participated in debate over the conduct of the war and goals for the post @-@ war nation . Sherman voted for the Confiscation Act of 1861 , which allowed the government to confiscate any property being used to support the Confederate war effort ( including slaves ) and for the act abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia . He also voted for the Confiscation Act of 1862 , which clarified that slaves " confiscated " under the 1861 Act were freed . In 1864 , Sherman voted for the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , abolishing slavery . After some effort , it passed Congress and was ratified by the states the next year .
When the session ended , Sherman campaigned in Indiana and Ohio for Lincoln 's reelection . In 1865 , he attended Lincoln 's second inauguration , then traveled to Savannah , Georgia to meet with his brother William , who had arrived there after his army 's march to the sea . Sherman returned home to Mansfield in April , where he learned of Lincoln 's assassination . He was again in Washington for the Grand Review of the Armies and then returned home until December , when the 39th Congress assembled . There had been no special session that summer , and President Andrew Johnson , Lincoln 's successor , had taken the lead on Reconstruction of the conquered South , to the consternation of many in Congress . Sherman and Johnson had been friendly , and some observers hoped that Sherman could serve as a liaison between Johnson and the party 's " Radical " wing . By February 1866 , however , Johnson was publicly attacking these Radical Republicans , who demanded harsh punishment of the rebels and federal action to assist the freedmen . The following month Johnson vetoed the proposed Civil Rights Act of 1866 , which had passed Congress with overwhelming numbers . Sherman joined in re @-@ passing the bill over Johnson 's veto . That same year , Sherman voted for the Fourteenth Amendment , which guaranteed equal protection of the laws to the freedmen . It became law in 1868 .
By then , Johnson had made himself the enemy of most Republicans in Congress , including Sherman . Sherman , a moderate , took the side of the Radicals in voting for the Tenure of Office Act , which passed over Johnson 's veto in 1867 — but in debating the First Reconstruction Act , he argued against disenfranchising Southern men who had participated in the rebellion . The latter bill , amended to remove that provision , also passed over Johnson 's veto . The continued conflict between Johnson and Congress culminated in Johnson 's impeachment by the House in 1868 . After a trial in the Senate , Sherman voted to convict , but the total vote was one short of the required two @-@ thirds majority , and Johnson continued in office . Writing later , Sherman said that although he " liked the President personally and harbored against him none of the prejudice and animosity of some others , " he believed Johnson had violated the Tenure of Office Act , and accordingly voted to remove him from office .
With Ulysses S. Grant elected to the Presidency in 1868 , Congress had a more willing partner in Reconstruction . The 40th Congress 's lame duck session passed the Fifteenth Amendment , which guaranteed that the right to vote could not be restricted because of race ; Sherman joined the two @-@ thirds majority that voted for its passage . The 41st Congress passed the Enforcement Act of 1870 in an effort to enforce its civil rights Amendments among a hostile Southern population . That Act , written by John Bingham of Ohio to mirror the Fourteenth Amendment , created penalties for violating another person 's constitutional rights . The next year , Congress passed the Ku Klux Klan Act , which strengthened the Enforcement Act by allowing federal trials and federal troops to be used . Sherman voted in favor of both Acts , which had Grant 's support .
= = = Post @-@ war finances = = =
With the financial crisis abated , many in Congress wanted the greenbacks to be withdrawn from circulation . The public had never seen greenbacks as equivalent to specie , and by 1866 they circulated at a considerable discount , although their value had risen since the end of the war . Hugh McCulloch , the Treasury Secretary under Lincoln and Johnson , believed the notes were an emergency measure only , and thought they should be gradually withdrawn . McCulloch proposed a bill , the Contraction Act , to convert some of the greenbacks from notes redeemable in bonds to interest @-@ bearing notes redeemable in coin . Most Senate Finance Committee members had no objection , and Sherman found himself alone in opposition to it , believing that withdrawing greenbacks from circulation would contract the money supply and harm the economy . Sherman instead favored leaving the existing notes in circulation and letting the growth in population catch up to the growth in money supply . He suggested an amendment that would instead just allow the Treasury to redeem the notes for lower @-@ interest bonds , now that the government 's borrowing costs had decreased . Sherman 's amendment was voted down , and the Contraction Act passed ; greenbacks would be gradually withdrawn , but those still circulating would be redeemable for the high @-@ interest bonds as before . In his memoirs , Sherman called this law " the most injurious and expensive financial measure ever enacted by Congress , " as the continued high interest payments it required " added fully $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of interest " to the national debt .
The Ohio legislature reelected Sherman to another six @-@ year term that year , and when ( after a three @-@ month vacation in Europe ) he resumed his seat he again turned to the greenback question . Public support for greenbacks had grown , especially among businessmen who thought withdrawal would lead to lower prices . When a bill passed the House suspending the authority to retire greenbacks under the Contraction Act , Sherman supported it in the Senate . It passed the Senate 33 – 4 , and became law in 1868 .
In the next Congress , among the first bills to pass the house was the Public Credit Act of 1869 , which would require the government to pay bondholders in gold , not greenbacks . The 1868 election campaign had seen the Democrats proposing to repay the bondholders ( mostly supporters of the Union war effort ) in paper ; Republicans favored gold , as the bonds had been purchased with gold . Sherman agreed with his fellow Republicans and voted with them to pass the bill 42 @-@ 13 . Sherman continued to favor wider circulation of the greenback when he voted for the Currency Act of 1870 , which authorized an additional $ 54 million in United States Notes . Sherman was also involved in debate over the Funding Act of 1870 . The Funding Act , which Sherman called " [ t ] he most important financial measure of that Congress , " refunded the national debt . The bill as Sherman wrote it authorized $ 1 @.@ 2 billion of low interest rate bonds to be used to purchase the high @-@ rate bonds issued during the war , in order to take advantage of the lower borrowing costs brought about by the peace and security that followed the Union victory . The Act was the subject of considerable debate over the exact rates and amounts , but once the differences were ironed out , it passed by large majorities in both houses . While Sherman was unhappy with the compromises ( especially the extension of the bonds ' term to 30 years , which he believed too long ) , he saw the bill as an improvement over the existing conditions , and urged its passage .
= = = Coinage Act of 1873 = = =
The Ohio Legislature elected Sherman to a third term in 1872 , after then @-@ governor Rutherford B. Hayes declined the invitation of several legislators to run against Sherman . Sherman returned to his leadership of the Finance Committee , and the issues of greenbacks , gold , and silver continued into the next several congresses . Since the early days of the republic , the United States had minted both gold and silver coins , and for decades the ratio of value between them had been set by law at 16 : 1 . Both metals were subject to " free coinage " ; that is , anyone could bring any amount of silver or gold to the United States Mint and have it converted to coinage . The ratio was bound to be imperfect , as the amount of gold and silver mined and the demand for it around the world fluctuated from year to year ; as a metal 's market price exceeded its legal price , coins of that metal would disappear from circulation ( a phenomenon known as Gresham 's law ) . Before the Civil War , gold circulated freely and silver disappeared , and while silver dollars were legal tender , Sherman wrote that " [ a ] lthough I was quite active in business ... I do not remember at that time to have ever seen a silver dollar . " The issuance of greenbacks had pushed debate over gold @-@ silver ratios to the background as coins of both metals disappeared from the nation 's commerce in favor of the new paper notes , but as the dollar became stronger in peacetime and the national debt payments were guaranteed to be paid in specie , Congress saw the need to update the coinage laws .
Grant 's Treasury Secretary , George S. Boutwell , sent Sherman ( who was by now Senate Finance Committee Chairman ) a draft of what would become the Coinage Act of 1873 . The list of legal coins duplicated that of the previous coinage act , leaving off only the silver dollar and two smaller coins . The rationale given in the Treasury report accompanying the draft bill was that to mint a gold dollar and a silver dollar with different intrinsic values was problematic ; as the silver dollar did not circulate and the gold did , it made sense to drop the unused coin . Opponents of the bill would later call this omission the " Crime of ' 73 , " and would mean it quite literally , circulating tales of widespread bribery of Congressmen by foreign agents . Sherman emphasized in his memoirs that the bill was openly debated for several years and passed both Houses with overwhelming support and that , given the continued circulation of smaller silver coins at the same 16 : 1 ratio , nothing had been " demonetized , " as his opponents claimed . Silver was still legal tender , but only for sums up to five dollars . On the other hand , later scholars have suggested that Sherman and others wished to demonetize silver for years and move the country onto a gold @-@ only standard of currency — not for some corrupt gain , but because they believed it was the path to a strong , secure currency .
In switching to what was essentially a gold standard , the United States joined a host of nations around the world that based their currencies on gold alone . But in doing so , these nations exacerbated the demand for gold as opposed to silver which , combined with more silver being mined , drove the cost of gold up and silver down . The result was not apparent immediately after the Coinage Act 's passage , but by 1879 the ratio between the price of gold and that of silver had risen from 16 @.@ 4 : 1 to 18 @.@ 4 : 1 ; by 1896 it was 30 : 1 . The ultimate effect was more expensive gold , which meant lower prices and deflation for other goods . The deflation made the effects of the Panic of 1873 worse , making it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had contracted when currency was less valuable . Farmers and laborers , especially , clamored for the return of coinage in both metals , believing the increased money supply would restore wages and property values , and the divide between pro- and anti @-@ silver forces grew in the decades to come . Writing in 1895 , Sherman defended the bill , saying that , barring some international agreement to switch the entire world to a bimetallic standard , the United States dollar should remain a gold @-@ backed currency .
= = = Resumption of specie payments = = =
At the same time as he sought to reform the coinage , Sherman worked for " resumption " — the policy of resuming specie payment on all bank notes , including the greenbacks . The idea of withdrawing the greenbacks from circulation altogether had been tried and quickly rejected in 1866 ; the notes were , as Sherman said , " a great favorite of the people . " The economic turmoil of the Panic of 1873 made it even more clear that shrinking the money supply would be harmful to the average American . Still , Sherman ( and others ) desired an eventual return to a single circulating medium : gold . As he said in an 1874 speech , " a specie standard is the best and the only true standard of all values , recognized as such by all civilized nations of our generation . " If greenbacks were not to be withdrawn from circulation , therefore , they must be made equal to the gold dollar .
While Sherman stood against printing additional greenbacks , as late as 1872 he remained a proponent of keeping existing greenbacks backed by bonds in circulation . Over the next two years , Sherman worked to develop what became the Specie Payment Resumption Act . The Act was a compromise . It required gradual reduction of the maximum value of greenbacks allowed to circulate to $ 300 million and , while earlier drafts had allowed the Treasury the choice between paying in bonds or in coin , the final version of the Act required payment in specie , starting in 1879 . The bill passed on a party @-@ line vote in the lame duck session of the 43rd Congress , and President Grant signed it into law on January 14 , 1875 .
= = = Election of 1876 = = =
After the close of the session , Sherman returned to Ohio to campaign for the Republican nominee for governor there , former governor Rutherford B. Hayes . The issue of specie payments was debated in the campaign , with Hayes endorsing Sherman 's position and his Democratic opponent , incumbent Governor William Allen , in favor of increased circulation of greenbacks redeemable in bonds . Hayes won a narrow victory , and was soon mentioned as a possible presidential candidate in 1876 . The controversy over resumption carried into the presidential election . The Democratic platform that year demanded repeal of the Resumption Act , while the Republicans nominated Hayes , whose position in favor of a gold standard was well known . The election of 1876 was very close and the electoral votes of several states were ardently disputed until mere days before the new president was to be inaugurated . Louisiana was one of the states in which both parties claimed victory , and Grant asked Sherman and a few other men to go to New Orleans and ensure the party 's interests were represented .
Sherman , by this time thoroughly displeased with Grant and his administration , nonetheless took up the call in the name of party loyalty , joining James A. Garfield , Stanley Matthews , and other Republican politicians in Louisiana a few days later . The Democrats likewise sent their politicos , and the two sides met to observe the elections return board arrive at its decision that Hayes should be awarded their state 's electoral votes . This ended Sherman 's direct role in the matter , and he returned to Washington , but the dispute carried over until a bipartisan election commission was convened in the capital . A few days before Grant 's term would end , the commission narrowly decided in Hayes 's favor , and he became the 19th President of the United States .
= = Secretary of the Treasury = =
Sherman 's financial expertise and his friendship with Hayes made him a natural choice for Treasury Secretary in 1877 . Like Grant before him , Hayes had not consulted party leaders about his cabinet appointments , and the Senate took the then @-@ unusual step of referring all of them to committee . Two days later , senators approved Sherman 's nomination after an hour of debate , and he began lobbying his former colleagues to approve the other nominations , which they eventually did . Hayes and Sherman became close friends in the next four years , taking regular carriage rides together to discuss matters of state in private . In the Treasury , as in the Senate , Sherman was confronted with two tasks : first , to prepare for specie resumption when it took effect in 1879 ; second , to deal with the backlash against the diminution of silver coinage .
= = = Preparing for specie resumption = = =
Sherman and Hayes agreed to stockpile gold in preparation for the exchange of greenbacks for specie . The Act remained unpopular in some quarters , leading to four attempts to repeal it in the Senate and fourteen in the House — all unsuccessful . By this time , public confidence in the Treasury had grown to the extent that the a dollar in gold was worth only $ 1 @.@ 05 in greenbacks . Once the public was confident that they could redeem greenbacks for gold , few actually did so ; when the Act took effect in 1879 , only $ 130 @,@ 000 out of the $ 346 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 outstanding dollars in greenbacks were redeemed . Greenbacks were now at parity with gold dollars , and the nation had , for the first time since the Civil War , a unified monetary system .
= = = Bland – Allison Act = = =
Sentiment against the Coinage Act of 1873 gained strength as the economy worsened following the Panic of 1873 . Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri proposed a bill that would require the United States buy as much silver as miners could sell the government and strike it into coins , a system that would increase the money supply and aid debtors . In short , silver miners would sell the government metal worth fifty to seventy cents , and receive back a silver dollar . The pro @-@ silver idea cut across party lines , and William B. Allison , a Republican from Iowa led the effort in the Senate . Allison offered an amendment in the Senate requiring the purchase of two to four million dollars per month of silver , but not allowing private deposit of silver at the mints . Thus , the seignorage , or difference between the face value of the coin and the worth of the metal contained within it accrued to the government 's credit , not private citizens . The resulting Bland – Allison Act passed both houses of Congress in 1878 . Hayes feared that the act would cause inflation through the expansion of the money supply that would be ruinous to business . Sherman 's opinion was more complicated . He knew that silver was gaining popularity , and opposing it might harm the party 's candidates in the 1880 elections , but he also agreed with Hayes in wanting to avoid inflation .
Sherman pressured his friends in the Senate to defeat the bill , or to limit it to production of a larger silver dollar , which would actually be worth 1 / 16th its weight in gold . These efforts were unsuccessful , but Allison 's amendment made the bill less financially risky . Sherman thought Hayes should sign the amended bill did not press the matter , and the President vetoed it . " In view of the strong public sentiment in favor of the free coinage of the silver dollar , " he later wrote , " I thought it better to make no objections to the passage of the bill , but I did not care to antagonize the wishes of the President . " Congress overrode Hayes 's veto and the bill became law . The effects of the Bland – Allison Act were limited : the premium on gold over silver continued to grow and financial conditions in the country continued to improve .
= = = Civil service reform = = =
Hayes took office determined to reform the system of civil service appointments , which had been based on the spoils system since Andrew Jackson was president . Sherman was not a civil service reformer , but he went along with Hayes 's instructions . The foremost enemy of reform — and Hayes — was New York Senator Roscoe Conkling , and it was to Conkling 's spoilsmen that Hayes first turned his attention . At Hayes 's direction , Sherman ordered John Jay to investigate the New York Custom House , which was stacked with Conkling 's appointees . Jay 's report suggested that the New York Custom House was so overstaffed with political appointees that 20 % of the employees were expendable .
Hayes issued an executive order that forbade federal office holders from being required to make campaign contributions or otherwise taking part in party politics . Chester A. Arthur , the Collector of the Port of New York , and his subordinates Alonzo B. Cornell and George H. Sharpe , all Conkling supporters , refused to obey the president 's order . Sherman agreed with Hayes that the three had to resign , but he made clear in a letter to Arthur that he had no personal grudge against the Collector . In September 1877 , Hayes demanded the three men 's resignations , which they refused to give . He submitted appointments to the Senate for confirmation as their replacements but the Senate 's Commerce Committee , which Conkling chaired , voted unanimously to reject the nominees .
During a congressional recess in July 1878 , Hayes finally sacked Arthur and Cornell ( Sharpe 's term had expired ) and appointed replacements . When Congress reconvened , Sherman pressured his former Senate colleagues to confirm the President 's replacement nominees , which they did after considerable debate . Jay and other reformers criticized Sherman the next year when he traveled to New York to speak on Cornell 's behalf in his campaign for governor of New York . Sherman replied that it was important that the Republican party win the election there , despite their intra @-@ party differences . His friendliness may also have related , as Arthur 's biographer Thomas C. Reeves suggests , to a desire to keep Conkling 's New York machine friendly to him as the 1880 presidential election approached .
= = Election of 1880 = =
Hayes had pledged himself to a one @-@ term presidency , and the Republican nomination in 1880 attracted many candidates , including Sherman . Hayes 's preference was for Sherman to succeed him , but he made no official endorsement , and he did not think Sherman could win the nomination . Among the early favorites for the nomination were former President Grant , Senator James G. Blaine of Maine , and Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont . Grant did not actively promote his candidacy , but his entry into the race energized his partisans and when the convention met in Chicago in June 1880 , they instantly divided the delegates into Grant and anti @-@ Grant factions , with Blaine the most popular choice of the latter group . After Grant and Blaine were nominated , James Garfield nominated Sherman with an eloquent speech , saying " You ask for his monuments , I point you to twenty @-@ five years of national statutes . Not one great beneficent statute has been placed in our statute books without his intelligent and powerful aid . " The speech , while heartfelt , was not particularly stirring . As Senator George Frisbie Hoar later explained , " [ t ] here was nothing stimulant or romantic in the plain wisdom of John Sherman . "
After the other candidates were nominated , the first ballot showed Grant leading with 304 votes and Blaine in second with 284 ; Sherman 's 93 placed him in a distant third , and no candidate had the required majority of 379 . Sherman 's delegates could swing the nomination to either Grant or Blaine , but he refused to release them through twenty @-@ eight ballots in the hope that the anti @-@ Grant forces would desert Blaine and flock to him . By the end of the first day , it was clear that neither Grant nor Blaine could muster a majority ; a compromise candidate would be necessary . Sherman held out hope that he would be that compromise candidate , but while his vote tally reached as high as 120 , he never commanded even all of Ohio 's delegates . His divided home @-@ state support was likely fatal to his cause , as Blaine delegates , searching for a new champion , did not think Sherman would make a popular candidate . After several days of balloting , Blaine 's men found their compromise candidate , but instead of Sherman they shifted their votes to his fellow Ohioan , Garfield . By the thirty @-@ sixth ballot , Garfield had 399 votes , enough for victory .
Sherman was respected among his fellow Republicans for his intelligence and hard work , but there were always doubts about his potential as a national candidate . As one author described him , Sherman was " thin as a rail , over six feet high , with close cropped beard and possessed of bad teeth and a divine laugh , when he laughs . " His public speeches were adequate and informative , but never " of a sort to arouse a warm feeling for John Sherman , the man . " Unlike Blaine or Conkling , Sherman " communicated no colorful personality , no magnetic current . " His nickname , " the Ohio Icicle , " deserved or not , hindered his presidential ambitions .
Garfield placated the pro @-@ Grant faction by endorsing Chester A. Arthur as nominee for vice president . Despite his good relations with Arthur in 1879 , Sherman thought the choice a bad one : " The nomination of Arthur is a ridiculous burlesque , " he wrote in a letter to a friend , " and I am afraid was inspired by a desire to defeat the ticket ... His nomination attaches to the ticket all the odium of machine politics , and will greatly endanger the success of Garfield . " He was nearly correct , as Garfield eked out a narrow victory over the Democratic nominee Winfield Scott Hancock . Sherman continued at the Treasury for the rest of Hayes 's term , leaving office March 3 , 1881 .
= = Return to the Senate = =
The Ohio legislature had elected Garfield to the Senate in 1880 , and when he was elected President before taking his seat , they elected Sherman in his place . Sherman 's position in the Senate changed after his four @-@ year absence . He rejoined the Finance Committee , but Justin Smith Morrill , his old House colleague , now held the chairmanship . When Sherman re @-@ entered the Senate in the 47th United States Congress , the Republicans were not in the majority . The Senate was divided among 37 Republicans , 37 Democrats , one independent ( David Davis ) who caucused with the Democrats , one Readjuster ( William Mahone ) , who caucused with the Republicans . Arthur 's tie @-@ breaking vote as Vice President left the Republicans with a narrow hold on the chamber . Even so , the special session convened in March 1881 remained deadlocked for two months over Garfield 's nominations because of Conkling 's opposition to some of them , resulting in the resignation of Conkling and the other Senator from New York , Thomas C. Platt , in protest of Garfield 's continuing opposition to their faction . Sherman sided with Garfield on the appointments , and was pleased when the New York legislature declined to reelect Conkling and Platt , replacing them with two less troublesome Republicans .
= = = Garfield 's assassination and the Pendleton Act = = =
After the special session of Congress had adjourned , Sherman returned home to Mansfield . He spoke on behalf of Ohio Governor Charles Foster 's effort for a second term and went to Kenyon College with ex @-@ President Hayes , where he received an honorary degree . Sherman looked forward to staying with his wife at home for an extended period for the first time in years , when news arrived that Garfield had been shot in Washington . The assassin , Charles J. Guiteau , was a deranged office @-@ seeker who believed that Garfield 's successor would appoint him to a patronage job . After lingering for several months , Garfield died and Arthur became president . After completing a long @-@ planned visit to Yellowstone National Park and other Western sites with his brother William , Sherman returned to a second special session of Congress in October 1881 .
Garfield 's assassination by an office @-@ seeker amplified the public demand for civil service reform . Both Democratic and Republican leaders realized that they could attract the votes of reformers by turning against the spoils system and , by 1882 , a bipartisan effort began in favor of reform . In the previous Congress , Sherman 's fellow Ohio Senator , Democrat George H. Pendleton , had introduced legislation that required selection of civil servants based on merit as determined by an examination , but Congress declined to act on it right away . Republicans lost seats in the 1882 congressional elections , in which Democrats campaigned on the reform issue , and in the lame duck session were more amenable to civil service reform . Sherman spoke in favor of merit selection and against removing employees from office without cause . He was against the idea that civil servants should have unlimited terms of office , but believed that efficiency , not political activity , should determine an employee 's length of service . Sherman voted in favor of Pendleton 's bill , and the Senate approved it 38 – 5 . The House concurred by a vote of 155 – 47 . Arthur signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act into law on January 16 , 1883 .
= = = The Mongrel Tariff = = =
There was relatively little financial legislation in the 1880s . By that time , fewer bonds were necessary , as the government now ran a consistent surplus which by 1882 reached $ 145 million . Opinions varied on how to balance the budget ; Democrats wished to lower tariffs to reduce revenues and the cost of imported goods , while Republicans believed that high tariffs ensured high wages in manufacturing and mining . They preferred the government spend more on internal improvements and reduce excise taxes . Congress passed a law creating a committee to study tariff reduction , but Arthur appointed mostly protectionists to it . In December 1882 , the committee submitted a report to Congress calling for tariff cuts averaging between 20 and 25 % . The commission 's recommendations were ignored , however , as the House Ways and Means Committee , dominated by protectionists , provided a 10 % reduction . After conference with the Senate , the bill that emerged only reduced tariffs by an average of 1 @.@ 47 % , but it did remove or reduce many excise taxes . Sherman supported the bill , more for the excise reduction than for the tariff changes . The bill , known as the Tariff of 1883 ( or , by detractors , as the " Mongrel Tariff " ) passed both houses narrowly on March 3 , 1883 , the last full day of the 47th Congress ; Arthur signed the measure into law , but it had no effect on the surplus .
= = = Chinese immigration = = =
Sherman paid greater attention to foreign affairs during the second half of his Senate career , serving as chairman of the Committee on Foreign Relations . In 1868 , the Senate had ratified the Burlingame Treaty with China , allowing unrestricted immigration from China . After the Panic of 1873 , Chinese immigrants were blamed for depressing wages ; in reaction Congress in 1879 passed the Chinese Exclusion Act , but Hayes vetoed it . Now , three years later , after China had agreed to treaty revisions , Congress tried again to exclude Chinese immigrants : Senator John F. Miller of California introduced another Exclusion Act that denied Chinese immigrants United States citizenship and banned their immigration for a twenty @-@ year period . Sherman opposed both the 1880 treaty revisions and the bill Miller proposed , believing that the Exclusion Act reversed the United States ' traditional welcoming of all people and our dependence on foreign immigration for growth . President Arthur vetoed the bill , and Sherman voted to sustain the veto . A new Exclusion Act passed to conform to Arthur 's objections . Sherman voted against this bill , too , but it passed and Arthur signed it into law . In 1885 , Sherman voted in favor of the Alien Contract Labor Law , which barred engaging in a labor contract before immigrating or transporting a person under such a contract to the United States . Sherman saw this Act as a more appropriate solution to depressed wages than Chinese exclusion : the problem , as he saw it , was not the national origin of Chinese immigrants , but their employment under serf @-@ like conditions .
= = = Further presidential ambitions = = =
In 1884 , Sherman again ran for the Republican nomination , but his campaign never gained steam . Blaine was considered the favorite and President Arthur also gathered delegates in an attempt to win the a term in his own right . Again , the Ohio delegation failed to unite behind Sherman , and he entered the convention with only 30 total delegates pledged to him . Former Cincinnati judge Joseph B. Foraker gave a speech nominating Sherman , but it drew little attention . Blaine gathered support the next day , and Sherman withdrew after the fourth ballot . Blaine was duly nominated , and went on to lose the election to Democrat Grover Cleveland of New York . Sherman returned to the Senate where , in 1885 , he was elected President pro tempore of the Senate . After the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks later that year , Sherman was next in line to the presidency until February 26 , 1887 , when he resigned the position .
In 1886 , the Ohio legislature elected Sherman to a fifth term but , before long , he was considering another run for the presidency . To broaden his national image , he traveled to Nashville to give a speech defending Republican principles . He encouraged fairness in the treatment of black Americans and denounced their mistreatment at the hands of the " redeemed " Southern state governments . The tour had its effect , and Sherman 's hopes were high . His old friend , ex @-@ President Hayes , thought him the best candidate . The early favorite for the nomination was again Blaine , but after Blaine wrote several letters denying any interest in the nomination , his supporters divided among other candidates , including Sherman . With no clear consensus going into the 1888 convention , delegates divided their support among an unusual number of favorite sons . Daniel H. Hastings of Pennsylvania placed Sherman 's name in nomination , seconded by Foraker ( who was , by then , Governor of Ohio ) . Sherman , at last , had a unified Ohio delegation behind him and led on the first ballot with 229 votes — more than double his nearest competitor , but well short of the 416 needed for nomination . Walter Q. Gresham of Indiana was in second place with 111 , followed by Russell A. Alger of Michigan with 84 . Sherman gained votes on the second ballot , but plateaued there ; by the fifth ballot , it was clear that he would gain no more delegates . He refused to withdraw , but his supporters began to abandon him ; by the eighth ballot , the delegates coalesced around Benjamin Harrison of Indiana and voted him the nomination . Sherman thought Harrison a good candidate , and bore him no ill will , but he did begrudge Alger , who he believed " purchased the votes of many of the delegates from the southern states who had been instructed by their conventions to vote for me . " A loyal Republican , Sherman gave speeches for Harrison in Ohio and Indiana and was pleased with his victory over Cleveland that November . After 1888 , Sherman , aware that he would be seventy @-@ three years old when the nomination was next open , resolved that from then on " no temptation of office will induce me to seek further political honors " and did not run for president again .
= = = Interstate commerce = = =
For some time , there had been concern about the power of the railroads and the way they charged different rates for different customers . In 1885 , a bill to regulate the practice , authored by John Henninger Reagan , of Texas passed the House . The Reagan bill forbade discrimination in railroad or pipeline freight rates , required that rates be reasonable , and fixed maximum charges allowed . Sherman agreed with the general idea of the law , but objected to certain portions , especially a provision that gave state courts jurisdiction over enforcement disputes . Sherman believed the law should allow for more nuance as well , insisting that competition against other forms of transit be considered . These changes were adopted in the conference committee and the result , the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 , owed much to Sherman 's influence . Cleveland signed it into law on February 4 , 1887 , and appointed members to the new Interstate Commerce Commission . The act displeased the railroad industry , but was a boon to farmers and the oil industry .
= = = Sherman Antitrust Act = = =
By the late 19th century , businesses began to form combinations , known as trusts , which claimed a larger and larger share of the market — large enough to dictate prices , their detractors claimed . Members of both major parties were concerned with the growth of the power of trusts and monopolies , and , at the opening of the 51st Congress Sherman proposed what would become the Sherman Antitrust Act . The bill Sherman proposed was largely derivative of a failed bill from the previous Congress written by Senator George F. Edmunds , which Sherman had amended during its consideration . Until 1888 , Sherman had shown little interest in the trust question but it was rising in the national consciousness and Sherman now entered the fray . The revised bill Sherman proposed was simple , stating that " [ e ] very contract , combination in the form of trust or otherwise , or conspiracy , in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States , or with foreign nations , is declared to be illegal . " The bill further prescribed criminal penalties for any person who monopolizes trade . In debate , Sherman praised the effects of corporations in developing industry and railroads and asserted the right for people to form corporations , so long as they were " not in any sense a monopoly . "
The bill passed the Senate by an overwhelming 52 – 1 vote , and passed the House without dissent . President Harrison signed the bill into law on July 2 , 1890 . Sherman was the prime mover in getting the bill passed and became " by far the most articulate spokesman for antitrust in Congress . " The Act was later criticized for its simple language and lack of defined terms , but Sherman defended it , saying that it drew on common @-@ law language and precedents . He also denied that the Act was anti @-@ business at all , saying that it only opposed unfair business practices . Sherman emphasized that the Act aimed not at lawful competition , but at illegal combination . Later analysis was more generous : " The Sherman Act was as good an antitrust law as the Congress of 1890 could have devised . "
= = = Silver Purchase Act = = =
Since the passage of the Bland – Allison Act in 1878 , there had been little discussion of gold versus silver coinage . Silver had been hardly mentioned in the 1888 campaign , and Harrison 's exact position on the issue was initially unclear , but his appointment of a silverite Treasury Secretary , William Windom , encouraged the free silver supporters . Silver supporters ' numbers had grown in Congress with the addition of new Western states . The drop in agricultural prices , which made farmers ' debts harder to pay , broadened their cause 's appeal . Harrison attempted to steer a middle course between the two positions , advocating a free coinage of silver , but at its own value , not at a fixed ratio to gold . This served only to disappoint both factions . Windom suggested keeping the Bland – Allison system , but doubling the amount of silver allowed to be coined . The intrinsic value of the silver dollar had fallen to 72 @.@ 3 cents , but Windom believed ( though gold supporters doubted ) that coining more silver would increase demand and raise its value . Harrison was willing to sign whatever bill would satisfy the largest group of people , as long as it did not make the currency unsound .
Both Houses of Congress were majority @-@ Republican , but their solutions differed . The House passed a bill in June 1890 requiring the government to purchase 4 @.@ 5 million ounces of silver each month ( in addition to the $ 2 – $ 4 million required to be coined under Bland – Allison . ) The Senate passed a bill by Republican Preston B. Plumb of Kansas for free coinage of silver at the legal ( 16 : 1 ) ratio . Sherman voted against Plumb 's bill , but was appointed to the conference committee to produce a compromise bill that , now called the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , passed that July . The Treasury would buy 4 @.@ 5 million oz. of silver , and would issue Treasury Notes to pay for it , which would be redeemable in gold or silver . The law also provided that the Treasury could coin more silver dollars if the Secretary believed it necessary to redeem the new notes . Sherman thought the bill was the least harmful option . Harrison believed it would end the controversy , and he signed it into law . The effect of the bill , however , was the increased depletion of the nation 's gold supply .
In 1893 , a financial panic struck the stock market , and the nation soon faced an acute economic depression . The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the increased coinage of silver , and President Cleveland , who had replaced Harrison that March , called Congress into session and demanded repeal of the part of the Act requiring the government to purchase silver . The effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repeal ; even so , the silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago , and the House debated for fifteen weeks before passing the repeal by a considerable margin . In the Senate , the repeal of silver purchase was equally contentious , but Cleveland convinced enough Democrats to stand by him that they , along with eastern Republicans , formed a 48 – 37 majority . Sherman voted for repeal of " his " bill . After repeal , depletion of the Treasury 's gold reserves continued , but at a lesser rate and subsequent bond issues replenished supplies of gold . Academic debate continues over the efficacy of the bond issues , but the consensus is that the repeal of the Silver Purchase Act was , at worst , unharmful and , at best , useful in restoring the nation 's financial health .
= = = Final years in the Senate = = =
Sherman was elected in 1892 to a sixth term , easily defeating the Democratic candidate in the state legislature . The more difficult fight had been for the Republican caucus 's vote , as many preferred Foraker to Sherman . With assistance from Cleveland businessman Mark Hanna , and after four days of balloting , the caucus agreed to support Sherman over Foraker , and he was re @-@ elected by the full legislature on January 12 , 1893 . In 1894 , Sherman surpassed Thomas Hart Benton 's record for longest tenure in the Senate . His memoirs , Recollections of Forty Years in the House , Senate and Cabinet , were published the following year . In 1896 , he gave speeches on behalf of fellow Ohioan William McKinley in his campaign for the presidency , but took a lesser role than in previous campaigns because of his advanced age . McKinley was elected over Democrat William Jennings Bryan . Wishing to see the appointment of Hanna , his friend and political manager , to the Senate , McKinley created a vacancy by appointing Sherman to his cabinet as Secretary of State .
= = Secretary of State = =
In January 1897 , McKinley offered Sherman the Secretary of State position , which Sherman , facing a difficult reelection campaign in 1898 , quickly accepted . His appointment was swiftly confirmed when Congress convened that March . The appointment was seen as a good one , but many in Washington soon began to question whether Sherman , at age 73 , still had the strength and intellectual vigor to handle the job ; rumors circulated to that effect , but McKinley did not believe them . Asked for advice on the inaugural address , Sherman offered a draft threatening intervention in Cuba , then in rebellion against Spain ; the suggestion was ignored .
Both Sherman and McKinley sought a peaceful resolution to the Cuban War , preferably involving an independent Cuba without American intervention . The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897 , but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence , while the rebels ( and their American supporters ) would never settle for anything less . In January 1898 , Spain promised some concessions to the rebels , but when American consul Fitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana , McKinley agreed to send the battleship USS Maine there to protect American lives and property . On February 15 , the Maine exploded and sank with 266 men killed .
War fever ran high , and by April , McKinley reported to Congress that efforts at diplomatic resolution had failed ; a week later , Congress declared war . By this time , McKinley had begun to rely on Assistant Secretary of State William R. Day for day @-@ to @-@ day management of the State Department , and was even inviting him to cabinet meetings , as Sherman had stopped attending them . Day , a McKinley associate of long standing , superseded his boss as the real power in the State Department . Sherman , sensing that he was being made a mere figurehead and recognizing , at last , his declining health and worsening memory , resigned his office on April 25 , 1898 .
= = Retirement , death , and legacy = =
Sherman retired from public life after resigning as Secretary of State . Except for one day , Sherman had spent the previous forty @-@ two years , four months , and twenty @-@ two days in government service . He gave a few interviews in which he disagreed with the administration 's policy of annexing Puerto Rico and the Philippines . Later that year , his wife , Margaret , had a stroke ; she died two years later on June 5 , 1900 . Sherman continued to alternate between houses in Mansfield and Washington . He mostly remained out of politics , except for a letter he wrote endorsing George K. Nash for Governor of Ohio in 1899 . Sherman died at his Washington home on October 22 , 1900 , in the company of his daughter , relatives and friends . After a funeral at St. John 's Episcopal Church in Washington , he was interred in Mansfield City Cemetery with his wife .
Sherman was not unmindful of his legacy and left $ 10 @,@ 000 in his will for a biography to be written " by some competent person . " Two biographies were published shortly thereafter , but neither mentions the bequest . In 1906 , Congressman Theodore E. Burton of Ohio published a biography ; two years later , former Representative Winfield S. Kerr of Mansfield , Ohio , published another . Both were very favorable to Sherman . A scholarly biography was said to be in preparation in Allan Nevins 's " American Political Leaders " series of the 1920s and 1930s , to be written by Roy Franklin Nichols and his wife , Jeanette Paddock Nichols , but the work was never completed . Jeanette Nichols later published several articles on Sherman in the next few decades , but he still awaits a full @-@ length scholarly biography . He is most remembered now by the antitrust act that bears his name . Burton , in summing up his subject , wrote :
It is true that there was much that was prosaic in the life of Sherman , and that his best efforts were not connected with that glamour which gains the loudest applause ; but in substantial influence upon those characteristic features which have made this country what it is , and in the unrecognized but permanent results of efficient and patriotic service for its best interests , there are few for whom a more beneficial record can be claimed .
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= HMS Enterprise ( 1864 ) =
The seventh HMS Enterprise of the Royal Navy was an armoured sloop launched in 1864 at Deptford Dockyard . Originally laid down as a wooden screw sloop of the Camelion class , she was redesigned by Edward Reed and completed as a central battery ironclad . The ship spent the bulk of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before returning to England in 1871 where she was paid off . Enterprise was sold for scrap in 1885 .
= = Design and description = =
The ship had a length between perpendiculars of 180 feet ( 54 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 36 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 m ) , and a draught of 15 feet 10 inches ( 4 @.@ 83 m ) at deep load . She displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) . Her crew consisted of 130 officers and men .
Enterprise 's wooden hull was remodeled shortly after she was laid down ; she was given a plough @-@ shaped ram bow and a semi @-@ circular stern . The ship had only two decks : the main deck , very close to the ship 's waterline , and the upper deck which carried her armament , about 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) above the waterline . She was the first ship of composite construction in the Royal Navy , with iron upperworks .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Enterprise had a Ravenhill , Salkeld & Co. direct @-@ acting horizontal single @-@ expansion 2 @-@ cylinder direct acting steam engine driving a single propeller . Steam was provided by a pair of tubular boilers . The engine produced 690 indicated horsepower ( 510 kW ) which gave the ship a maximum speed around 9 @.@ 9 knots ( 18 @.@ 3 km / h ; 11 @.@ 4 mph ) . Enterprise carried 95 long tons ( 97 t ) of coal . As built , her funnel was mounted in the middle of the battery for protection , which impaired the working of her guns until it was relocated forward of the battery in November 1864 . She was barque @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 18 @,@ 250 square feet ( 1 @,@ 695 m2 ) . Her best speed under sail and steam was 9 @.@ 8 knots ( 18 @.@ 1 km / h ; 11 @.@ 3 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Enterprise was armed with two 100 @-@ pounder smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading Somerset cannon and two rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns . The breech @-@ loading guns were of a new design from Armstrong and much was hoped for them . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration , and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to withdraw the guns from service shortly afterwards .
In an attempt to provide axial fire the sides of the hull at the upper deck level were cut away in front and behind the battery and covered by a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) bulwark . The bulwark hinged inwards and covered a gun port though which a gun could traverse and fire . While providing better coverage than the traditional broadside layout this still left a 120 ° arc forward and another aft on which no gun could bear .
The 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) solid shot of the Somerset gun weighed approximately 113 pounds ( 51 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 13 @,@ 514 pounds ( 6 @,@ 130 kg ) . The gun had a velocity of 1 @,@ 462 ft / s ( 446 m / s ) at 563 feet ( 171 @.@ 6 m ) and had a range of 5 @,@ 253 yards ( 4 @,@ 803 m ) . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The 110 @-@ pounder gun weighed 9 @,@ 520 pounds ( 4 @,@ 320 kg ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells . Both guns were mounted on wooden gun carriages with slides " which were difficult to traverse even on an even keel ; in a seaway few captains would have run the risk of casting them loose . "
Enterprise was rearmed during her 1868 refit with four 7 @-@ inch ( 180 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
Enterprise had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick . It protected only the main deck and was shallow , reaching just 3 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . The guns were protected by a section of 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch armour , 34 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) long , and by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads . The armour was backed by 19 @.@ 5 inches ( 500 mm ) of teak wood . The total weight of her armour was 195 long tons ( 198 t ) .
= = Service = =
The ship was laid down on 5 May 1862 at the Royal Dockyard in Deptford , England , as the 17 @-@ gun sloop Circassian . She was renamed Enterprise in July 1862 and reclassified as an armoured corvette . Construction had barely begun before she was redesigned with an iron upper hull as well as armoured sides and battery . The ship was launched on 9 February 1864 , commissioned on 5 May 1864 and completed on 3 June 1864 . She cost £ 62 @,@ 474 to build . Enterprise initially served with the Channel Fleet , but was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet where she remained until 1871 when she returned to England . She was refitted and rearmed at Malta in 1868 . Upon her return the ship was paid off into 4th Class Reserve in August 1871 at Sheerness . Enterprise was sold for scrap in 1885 for £ 2 @,@ 072 .
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= Leo Minor =
Leo Minor is a small and faint constellation in the northern celestial hemisphere . Its name is Latin for " the smaller lion " , in contrast to Leo , the larger lion . It lies between the larger and more recognizable Ursa Major to the north and Leo to the south . Leo Minor was not regarded as a separate constellation by classical astronomers ; it was designated by Johannes Hevelius in 1687 .
There are 37 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 in the constellation ; three are brighter than magnitude 4 @.@ 5 . 46 Leonis Minoris , an orange giant of magnitude 3 @.@ 8 , is located some 95 light @-@ years from Earth . At magnitude 4 @.@ 4 , Beta Leonis Minoris is the second brightest star and the only one in the constellation with a Bayer designation . It is a binary star , the brighter component of which is an orange giant and the fainter a yellow @-@ white main sequence star . The third brightest star is 21 Leonis Minoris , a rapidly rotating white main @-@ sequence star of average magnitude 4 @.@ 5 . The constellation also includes two stars with planetary systems , two pairs of interacting galaxies , and the unique deep @-@ sky object Hanny 's Voorwerp .
= = History = =
The classical astronomers Aratus and Ptolemy had noted the region of what is now Leo Minor to be undefined and not containing any distinctive pattern ; Ptolemy classified the stars in this area as amorphōtoi ( not belonging to a constellation outline ) within the constellation Leo .
Johannes Hevelius first depicted Leo Minor in 1687 when he outlined ten new constellations in his star atlas Firmamentum Sobiescianum , and included 18 of its objects in the accompanying Catalogus Stellarum Fixarum . Hevelius decided upon Leo Minor or Leo Junior as a depiction that would align with its beastly neighbours the Lion and the Great Bear . In 1845 , English astronomer Francis Baily revised the catalogue of Hevelius 's new constellations , and assigned a Greek letter known as Bayer designation to stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 5 . Richard A. Proctor gave the constellation the name Leaena " the Lioness " in 1870 , explaining that he sought to shorten the constellation names to make them more manageable on celestial charts .
German astronomer Christian Ludwig Ideler posited that the stars of Leo Minor had been termed Al Thibā ' wa @-@ Aulāduhā " Gazelle with her Young " on a 13th @-@ century Arabic celestial globe , recovered by Cardinal Stefano Borgia and housed in the prelate 's museum at Velletri . Arabist Friedrich Wilhelm Lach describes a different view , noting that they had been seen as Al Haud " the Pond " , which the Gazelle jumps into . In Chinese astronomy , the stars Beta , 30 , 37 and 46 Leonis Minoris made up Neiping , a " Court of Judge or Mediator " , or Shi " Court Eunuch " or were combined with stars of the neighbouring Leo to make up a large celestial dragon or State Chariot . A line of four stars was known as Shaowei ; it represented four Imperial advisors and may have been located in Leo Minor , Leo or adjacent regions .
= = Characteristics = =
A dark area of the sky with a triangle of brighter stars just visible to the naked eye in good conditions , Leo Minor has been described by Patrick Moore as having " dubious claims to a separate identity " . It is a small constellation bordered by Ursa Major to the north , Lynx to the west , Leo to the south , and touching the corner of Cancer to the southwest . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' LMi ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 16 sides . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 9h 22.4m and 11h 06.5m , while the declination coordinates are between 22 @.@ 84 ° and 41 @.@ 43 ° . Ranked 64th out of 88 constellations in size , Leo Minor covers an area of 232 @.@ 0 square degrees , or 0 @.@ 562 percent of the sky . It culminates each year at midnight on February 24 , and at 9 p.m. on May 24 .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
There are only three stars in the constellation brighter than magnitude 4 @.@ 5 , and 37 stars with a magnitude brighter than 6 @.@ 5 . Leo Minor does not have a star designated Alpha because Baily erred and allocated a Greek letter to only one star , Beta . It is unclear whether he intended to give 46 Leonis Minoris a Bayer designation , as he recognised Beta and 46 Leonis Minoris as of the appropriate brightness in his catalogue . He died before revising his proofs , which might explain this star 's omission .
At magnitude 3 @.@ 8 , the brightest star in Leo Minor is an orange giant of spectral class K0III named 46 Leonis Minoris or Praecipua ; its colour is evident when seen through binoculars . Situated 95 light @-@ years ( 29 parsecs ) from Earth , it has around 32 times the luminosity and is 8 @.@ 5 times the size of the Sun . It was also catalogued and named as o Leonis Minoris by Johann Elert Bode , which has been misinterpreted as Omicron Leonis Minoris . More confusion occurred with its proper name Praecipua , which appears to have been originally applied to 37 Leonis Minoris in the 1814 Palermo Catalogue of Giuseppe Piazzi , who mistakenly assessed the latter star as the brighter . This name was later connected by Allen with 46 Leonis Minoris — an error perpetuated by subsequent astronomers . The original " Praecipua " , 37 Leonis Minoris , has an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 69 , but is a distant yellow supergiant of spectral type G2.5IIa and absolute magnitude of − 1 @.@ 84 , around 578 light @-@ years ( 177 parsecs ) distant .
Beta Leonis Minoris is a binary star system . The primary is a giant star of spectral class G8 and apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 4 . It has around double the mass , 7 @.@ 8 times the radius and is 36 times the luminosity of the Earth 's Sun . Separated by 11 seconds of arc from the primary , the secondary is a yellow @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type F8 . The two orbit around a common centre of gravity every 38 @.@ 62 years , and lie 154 light @-@ years ( 47 parsecs ) away from the Solar System .
Around 98 light @-@ years ( 30 parsecs ) away and around 10 times as luminous as the Sun , 21 Leonis Minoris is a rapidly rotating white main @-@ sequence star , spinning on its axis in less than 12 hours and very likely flattened in shape . Of average apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 5 and spectral type A7V , it is a Delta Scuti variable . These are short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars which have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study asteroseismology .
Also known as SU and SV Leonis Minoris , 10 and 11 Leonis Minoris are yellow giants of spectral type G8III , with average magnitudes 4 @.@ 54 and 5 @.@ 34 respectively . Both are RS Canum Venaticorum variables , with 10 Leonis Minoris varying by 0 @.@ 012 magnitude over 40 @.@ 4 days , and 11 Leonis Minoris by 0 @.@ 033 magnitude over 18 days . 11 Leonis Minoris has a red dwarf companion of spectral type M5V and apparent magnitude 13 @.@ 0 . 20 Leonis Minoris is a multiple star system 49 light @-@ years ( 15 parsecs ) away from the Sun . The main star is another yellow star , this time a dwarf of spectral type G3Va and apparent magnitude 5 @.@ 4 . The companion is an old , active red dwarf that has a relatively high metallicity and is of spectral type M6.5. The fact that the secondary star is brighter than expected indicates it is likely two stars very close together that are unable to be made out separately with current viewing technology .
R and S Leonis Minoris are long @-@ period Mira variables , while U Leonis Minoris is a semiregular variable ; all three are red giants of spectral types M6.5e @-@ M9.0e , M5e and M6 respectively . R varies between magnitudes 6 @.@ 3 and 13 @.@ 2 during a period of 372 days , S varies between magnitudes 8 @.@ 6 and 13 @.@ 9 during a period of 234 days , and U varies between magnitudes 10 @.@ 0 and 13 @.@ 3 during a period of 272 days . The lack of bright stars makes finding these objects challenging for amateur astronomers . G 117 @-@ B15A , also known as RY Leonis Minoris , is a pulsating white dwarf of apparent magnitude 15 @.@ 5 . With a period of approximately 215 seconds , and losing a second every 8 @.@ 9 million years , the 400 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old star has been proposed as the most stable celestial clock .
SX Leonis Minoris is a dwarf nova of the SU Ursae Majoris type that was identified in 1994 . It consists of a white dwarf and a donor star , which orbit each other every 97 minutes . The white dwarf sucks matter from the other star onto an accretion disc and heats up to between 6000 and 10000 K. The dwarf star erupts every 34 to 64 days , reaching magnitude 13 @.@ 4 in these outbursts and remaining at magnitude 16 @.@ 8 when quiet . Leo Minor contains another dwarf nova , RZ Leonis Minoris , which brightens to magnitude 14 @.@ 2 from a baseline magnitude of around 17 but does so at shorter intervals than other dwarf novae .
Two stars with planetary systems have been found . HD 87883 is an orange dwarf of magnitude 7 @.@ 57 and spectral type K0V 18 parsecs distant from Earth . With a diameter three quarters that of Earth 's sun , it is only 31 percent as luminous . It is orbited by a planet around 1 @.@ 78 times the mass of Jupiter every 7 @.@ 9 years , and there are possibly other smaller planets . HD 82886 is a yellow dwarf of spectral type G0 and visual magnitude 7 @.@ 63 . A planet 1 @.@ 3 times the mass of Jupiter and orbiting every 705 days was discovered in 2011 .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
In terms of deep @-@ sky objects , Leo Minor contains many galaxies viewable in amateur telescopes . Located 3 degrees southeast of 38 Leonis Minoris , NGC 3432 is seen nearly edge on . Known as the knitting needle galaxy , it is of apparent magnitude 11 @.@ 7 and measures 6 @.@ 8 by 1 @.@ 4 arcminutes . Located 42 million light years away , it is moving away from the Solar System at a rate of 616 km per second . In 2000 , a star within the galaxy brightened to magnitude 17 @.@ 4 , and has since been determined to be a luminous blue variable and supernova impostor . NGC 3003 , a SBbc barred spiral galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 3 and an angular size of 5 @.@ 8 arcminutes , is seen almost edge @-@ on . NGC 3344 , 25 million light years distant , is face @-@ on towards Earth . Measuring 7 @.@ 1 by 6 @.@ 5 arcminutes in size , it has an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 45 . NGC 3504 is a starburst barred spiral galaxy of apparent magnitude 11 @.@ 67 and measuring 2 @.@ 1 by 2 @.@ 7 arcminutes . It has hosted supernovae in 1998 and 2001 . It and the spiral galaxy NGC 3486 are also almost face @-@ on towards Earth ; the latter is of magnitude 11 @.@ 05 and measures 7 @.@ 1 by 5 @.@ 2 arcminutes . NGC 2859 is an SB0 @-@ type lenticular galaxy .
At least two pairs of interacting galaxies have been observed . Arp 107 is a pair of galaxies in the process of merging , located 450 million light years away . NGC 3395 and NGC 3396 are a spiral and irregular barred spiral galaxy respectively that are interacting , located 1 @.@ 33 degrees southwest of 46 Leonis Minoris .
The unique deep @-@ sky object known as Hanny 's Voorwerp was discovered in Leo Minor in 2007 by Dutch school teacher Hanny van Arkel while participating as a volunteer in the Galaxy Zoo project . Lying near the 650 million light year @-@ distant spiral galaxy IC 2497 , it is around the same size as the Milky Way . It contains a 16 @,@ 000 light year wide hole . The voorwerp is thought to be the visual light echo of a quasar now gone inactive , possibly as recently as 200 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = = Meteor shower = = =
Discovered by Dick McCloskey and Annette Posen of the Harvard Meteor Program in 1959 , the Leonis Minorid meteor shower peaks between October 18 and October 29 . The shower 's parent body is the long period comet C / 1739 K1 ( Zanotti ) . It is a minor shower , and can only be seen from the Northern Hemisphere .
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= Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) =
" Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " is a song from American singer Beyoncé 's third studio album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . Columbia Records released " Single Ladies " as a single on October 13 , 2008 alongside " If I Were a Boy " , showcasing the contrast between Beyoncé and her aggressive onstage alter ego Sasha Fierce . It explores men 's unwillingness to propose or commit . In the song , the female protagonist is in a club to celebrate her single status .
Most music critics praised the song 's smooth production and some noted its similarity to Beyoncé 's 2007 single " Get Me Bodied " . " Single Ladies " won three Grammy Awards in 2010 , among other accolades . Several news media sources named it as one of the best songs of 2008 , while some considered it one of the best songs of the decade .
It topped the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and has been certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , with more than 5 million paid digital downloads . The song charted among the top ten within the singles category in several other countries . Globally , it was 2009 's seventh best @-@ selling digital single with 6 @.@ 1 million units sold and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
A black @-@ and @-@ white music video accompanied the single 's release . It won several awards , including the Video of the Year at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards . Beyoncé has performed " Single Ladies " on television and during her concert tours . The song and particularly its music video have been widely parodied and imitated . Several notable artists have performed cover versions . Media usage has included placement in popular television shows .
= = Background and release = =
" Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " was written by Beyoncé , Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , Thaddis " Kuk " Harrell , and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , and was produced by Nash and Stewart . Beyoncé recorded the song in April 2008 at the The Boom Boom Room Studio in Burbank , California , and it was mixed by Jaycen Joshua and Dave Pensado , with assistance from Randy Urbanski and Andrew Wuepper . Nash conceptualized " Single Ladies " after Beyoncé 's secret marriage to hip hop recording artist Jay @-@ Z in April 2008 . Stewart commented that the song was " the only public statement that [ Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z had ] ever made about marriage " , and that while in the studio recording the song Beyoncé had remained tightlipped , even to the point of removing her wedding band . Beyoncé 's marriage inspired Nash to compose a song about an issue that affected many people 's relationships : the fear or unwillingness of men to commit . In an interview with Billboard magazine , Beyoncé added that she was drawn to the song because of the universality of the topic , an issue that " people are passionate about and want to talk about and debate " . She stated that although " Single Ladies " is a playful uptempo song , it addresses an issue that women experience every day .
In " Single Ladies " , Beyoncé portrays her alter ego Sasha Fierce , which appears on the second part of I Am ... Sasha Fierce . The song was released simultaneously with " If I Were a Boy " ; as lead singles , they were meant to demonstrate the concept of the dueling personalities of the singer . This reinforced the theme of the album , which was created by placing its ballads and uptempo tracks on separate discs . The singles debuted on US radio on October 8 , 2008 ; " Single Ladies " did so on mainstream urban New York radio station Power 105 @.@ 1 . Both singles were added to rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on October 12 , 2008 ; " Single Ladies " was sent to urban contemporary playlists the same day , while " If I Were a Boy " was instead classified for contemporary hit radio . The two songs were released as a double A @-@ side single on November 7 , 2008 , in Australia , New Zealand , and Germany . Dance remixes of the song were made available in the US on February 10 , 2009 , and in Europe on February 16 , 2009 . " Single Ladies " was not originally released as a single in the UK , but the song became increasingly popular there and reached the top ten in the UK Singles Chart as a result of download sales . On February 16 , 2009 , it was released as a CD single , and the dance remixes became available as a digital download .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Single Ladies " is an upbeat dance @-@ pop and R & B song with dancehall , disco and bounce influences . It is set in common time , and makes use of staccato bounce @-@ based hand claps , Morse code beeps , an ascending whistle in the background , and a punchy organic beat . The instrumentation includes a bass drum , a keyboard and spaced out synthesizers that occasionally zoom in and out ; one commentator , Sarah Liss of CBC News , noted that their arrangement surprisingly comes as light , instead of dense . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Single Ladies " is written in the key of E major and played in a moderate groove of 96 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the note of F ♯ 3 to D5 . It has a chord progression of E in the verses , and Bdim – C – Bdim – Am in the chorus . J. Freedom du Lac of The Washington Post noted the song features " playground vocals " .
" Single Ladies " is musically similar to Beyoncé 's 2007 single " Get Me Bodied " ; Andy Kellman of Allmusic called it a " dire throwback " to the song . Stewart and Harrell said in an interview given to People magazine that the similar rhythm of the two songs is " what Beyoncé responds to " . Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times saw the song 's theme of female empowerment as an extension of that of " Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) , and Daniel Brockman of The Phoenix noted that its usage of " blurry pronouns " such as " it " resembles Beyoncé 's 2005 single " Check on It " . Liss commented that the beat of the " Single Ladies " evokes African gumboot dancing and schoolyard Double Dutch chants , a view shared by Douglas Wolf of Time magazine . Trish Crawford of the Toronto Star concluded that " Single Ladies " is " a strong song of female empowerment " , and other music critics have noted its appeal to Beyoncé 's fan base of independent women as in the song , Beyoncé offers support to women who have split up from their no @-@ good boyfriends .
In " Single Ladies " , Beyoncé emphasizes her aggressive and sensual alter ego Sasha Fierce . She displays much attitude in her voice , as stated by Nick Levine of Digital Spy . Echoing Levine 's sentiments , Liss wrote that Beyoncé sounds " gleefully sassy " . The lyrics reflect post @-@ breakup situations . Accompanied by robotic @-@ like sounds , the opening lines of the song are call and response ; Beyoncé chants , " All the single ladies " , and background singers echo the line each time . In the first verse , Beyoncé narrates the recent end to a poor relationship after she " cried [ her ] tears for three good years " . She reclaims her right to flirt , have fun , and find a lover who is more devoted than the previous one . Beyoncé goes out to celebrate with her friends in a club where she meets a new love interest . However , her former boyfriend is watching her , and she directs the song to him . She then sings the chorus , which uses minor chords and contains several hooks , " If you like it then you shoulda put a ring on it ... Oh oh oh " .
In the second verse , Beyoncé tells her ex @-@ lover that , as he did not attempt to make things more permanent when he had the chance , he has no reason to complain now that she has found someone else . On the bridge , she affirms that she wants her new love interest " to make like a prince and grab her , delivering her to ' a destiny , to infinity and beyond ' " while " Prince Charming is left standing there like the second lead in a romantic comedy " . Towards the end of the song , Beyoncé takes a more aggressive vocal approach and employs a middle eight as she sings , " And like a ghost I 'll be gone " . When she chants the chorus for the third and final time , her vocals are omnipresent within layers of music , as described by Frannie Kelley of NPR . An electronic swoop tugs in continuously until the song ends .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
" Single Ladies " received positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its production . Nick Levine of Digital Spy particularly praised its beats , which according to him , " just don 't quit " . Michelangelo Matos of The A.V. Club wrote that the song is " fabulous , with glowing production , a humongous hook , and beats for weeks " . Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times was also impressed with the overall production of the song , specifically the chorus , adding " More than most female singers , Beyoncé understands the funky art of singing rhythmically , and this is a prime example . " Fraser McAlpine of BBC Online considered " Single Ladies " to be the best song Beyoncé has attempted since " Ring the Alarm " ( 2006 ) and complimented the former 's refrain , describing it as " so amazingly catchy that it provides a surprisingly solid foundation for the entire song " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian commended the threatening atmosphere that " Single Ladies " creates by using minor chords . Daniel Brockman of The Phoenix complimented the song 's use of the word " it " , and wrote that the technique " sums up her divided musical persona far more effectively than the [ album 's ] two @-@ disc split @-@ personality gimmick . "
Darryl Sterdan of Jam ! called the song single @-@ worthy , and wrote that it is " a tune that actually sounds like a Beyoncé number " . Sarah Liss of CBC News wrote that " Single Ladies " represents Beyoncé at her best , describing it as " an instantly addictive [ and ] a bouncy featherweight dance @-@ pop track " . She further commented that it was pleasant hear a voice which " changes timbre naturally , a voice with actual cracks and fissures ( however slight ) " in contrast to the " Auto @-@ Tune epidemic that seems to be plaguing so many of her mainstream pop peers " . Douglas Wolf of Time magazine added that " Single Ladies " is a sing @-@ along which allows Beyoncé to demonstrate her virtuosity and " a focused , commanding display of individuality that speaks for every raised hand without a ring on it " . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker wrote that the song combines a jumble of feelings and sounds that " don 't resolve but also never become tiring " . He concluded that " Single Ladies " was generally jubilant and that Beyoncé 's vocals were pure and glimmering . Andy Kellman of Allmusic and Jessica Suarez of Paste magazine noted the song as one of the standouts from I Am ... Sasha Fierce , and saw similarities to " Get Me Bodied " .
Writers praised the song 's dance beat ; Colin McGuire of PopMatters praised " Single Ladies " as one of Beyoncé 's best dance tracks . Spence D. of IGN Music described the song as a " Caribbean flair and booty shaking jubilation that should get even the most staid of listeners snapping their necks and gyrating joyfully " . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle wrote that it is a " hip @-@ shaking club " song similar to " Check on It " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly magazine wrote that " Single Ladies " is a " giddy , high @-@ stepping hybrid of lyrical kiss @-@ off and fizzy jump @-@ rope jam " . Describing the song as a " winning high @-@ stepping " one , Adam Mazmanian of The Washington Times wrote that " Single Ladies " is designed to get the women out on the dance floor as Beyoncé sings it with " a genuinely defiant , independent voice " . Some critics were unimpressed by " Single Ladies " . Mariel Concepcion of Billboard magazine called it " standard screech @-@ thump fare " . The Observer 's Adam Mattera saw " Single Ladies " and " Diva " as potential sources of inspiration for drag queens , although they may leave others confused . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine criticized its lyrical inconsistencies , suggesting it is a " leftover " from B 'Day .
= = = Recognition = = =
Rolling Stone named " Single Ladies " the best song of 2008 , and wrote , " The beat ... is irresistible and exuberant , the vocal hook is stormy and virtuosic . " " Single Ladies " ranked as the second @-@ best song of the 2000s decade in the magazine 's 2009 readers ' poll , and Rolling Stone critics placed it at number 50 on the list of the 100 Best Songs of the Decade . " Single Ladies " was placed at number two on MTV News ' list of The Best Songs of 2008 ; James Montgomery called it " hyperactive and supercharged in ways I never thought possible . It 's epic and sexy and even a bit sad . " " There is absolutely zero chance Beyoncé ever releases a single like this ever again " , Montgomery concluded . Time magazine 's critic Josh Tyrangiel , who called the song " ludicrously infectious " , ranked it as the seventh @-@ best song of 2008 . Douglas Wolf of the same publication placed it at number nine on his list of the All @-@ Time 100 Songs .
" Single Ladies " appeared at number six on the Eye Weekly 's critics ' list of the Best Singles of 2008 , and at number six on About.com 's Mark Edward Nero 's list of the Best R & B Songs of 2008 . On The Village Voice 's year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " Single Ladies " was ranked at numbers three and forty one in 2008 and 2009 respectively . Additionally , the Maurice Joshua Club Mix of the song was ranked at number 443 on the 2008 list . " Single Ladies " was named the best song of the 2000s decade by Black Entertainment Television ( BET ) . Sarah Rodman , writing for The Boston Globe , named " Single Ladies " the fourth most irresistible song of the decade , and stated , " [ Beyoncé ] combined leotards with crass engagement @-@ bling baiting into one delicious sexy @-@ yet @-@ antiquated package . The video had the whole world dancing and waving along via YouTube . " VH1 ranked " Single Ladies " at number sixteen on its list of The 100 Greatest Songs of the 2000s . In his book Eating the Dinosaur ( 2009 ) , Chuck Klosterman wrote that " Single Ladies " is " arguably the first song overtly marketed toward urban bachelorette parties " . Jody Rosen of The New Yorker credited the melodies that float and dart over the thump for creating a new sound in music that didn 't exist in the world before Beyoncé . He further wrote , " If they sound ' normal ' now , it 's because Beyoncé , and her many followers , have retrained our ears . "
= = = Accolades = = =
" Single Ladies " has received awards and nominations , including the Song of the Year , Best R & B Song and Best Female R & B Vocal Performance at the 52nd Grammy Awards . It also won the awards for Favorite Song at the 2009 Kids ' Choice Awards , Song of the Year at the 2009 Soul Train Music Awards , and Best R & B Song at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized " Single Ladies " as one of the most performed songs of 2009 at the 27th ASCAP Pop Music Awards . The song was nominated in the Best Song category at the 2009 NAACP Image Awards and in the English @-@ language " Record of the Year " category at the 2009 Premios Oye ! Awards . It was also nominated for Record of the Year at the 2009 Soul Train Music Awards , Viewer 's Choice Award at the 2009 BET Awards , Best R & B / Urban Dance Track at the 2009 International Dance Music Awards , and World 's Best Single at the 2010 World Music Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
" Single Ladies " debuted at number 72 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated November 1 , 2008 . On December 6 , 2008 , it moved from number 28 to number two on the Hot 100 chart , as a result of its debut at number one on the Hot Digital Songs chart , selling 204 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The song became Beyoncé 's fifth solo single to top the Hot Digital Songs chart . " If I Were a Boy " charted at number three on the Hot 100 chart the same week , and thus Beyoncé became the seventh female in the US to have two songs in the top five positions of that particular chart . The following week " Single Ladies " climbed to number one on the Hot 100 chart , selling 228 @,@ 000 downloads , and became Beyoncé 's fifth solo single to top the chart . It tied her with Olivia Newton @-@ John and Barbra Streisand at number six on the list of female artists with the most Hot 100 number one hits .
The song was at the top of the chart for four non @-@ consecutive weeks , during the last of which digital downloads of " Single Ladies " increased by 157 percent to 382 @,@ 000 units — its best week of digital sales . For the week ending January 15 , 2009 , the song moved to number one on the Hot 100 Airplay chart with 147 @.@ 3 million listener impressions . It reached number one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , where it remained for twelve consecutive weeks . " Single Ladies " topped the Pop Songs and the Hot Dance Club Play charts , and reached number two on the Pop 100 chart . The song has been certified quadruple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of over 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . It has sold over 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US as of October 2012 , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
" Single Ladies " debuted at number 81 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart for the week ending November 29 , 2008 . On January 24 , 2009 , its ninth charting week , it moved to its peak spot at number two , and was subsequently certified double @-@ platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for sales of over 160 @,@ 000 copies . The song peaked at number seven , and spent 112 weeks on the UK Singles Chart . It topped the UK R & B Chart , where it succeeded the song 's double A @-@ side , " If I Were a Boy " . On October 23 , 2009 , " Single Ladies " was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for sales of over 600 @,@ 000 copies . As of November 2013 , it has sold 704 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . On the Irish Singles Chart , it reached number four and enjoyed twenty weeks of charting , while on the Japan Hot 100 chart it made its way to number 25 . In Australia , the single attained a high point of number five on the ARIA Singles Chart , and received a five @-@ times platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of over 350 @,@ 000 copies . It peaked at number two on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipment of over 15 @,@ 000 copies . " Single Ladies " appeared on several charts in mainland Europe , and peaked at number 20 on the European Hot 100 Singles chart . It reached the top 10 in the Netherlands , Italy and Spain , and the top 40 in both Belgian territories ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , as well as in Hungary , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland . " Single Ladies " was 2009 's seventh best @-@ selling digital single with 6 @.@ 1 million units sold worldwide , and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all @-@ time .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The music video for " Single Ladies " was shot immediately after that of " If I Were a Boy " , but it received less attention during production than the " higher @-@ gloss , higher @-@ profile video " for " If I Were a Boy " . Both videos were shot in black @-@ and @-@ white in New York City and were directed by Jake Nava , with whom Beyoncé had worked on previous music videos including " Crazy in Love " and " Beautiful Liar " . " Single Ladies " was choreographed by Frank Gatson and JaQuel Knight , and incorporates J @-@ Setting choreography . The two music videos premiered on MTV 's Total Request Live show on October 13 , 2008 to reinforce the concept of conflicting personalities . The videos were released to other media outlets on the same date and subsequently included on Beyoncé 's remix album with videography , Above and Beyoncé , and the platinum edition of I Am ... Sasha Fierce .
Beyoncé told Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly that the inspiration for the video was a 1969 Bob Fosse routine entitled " Mexican Breakfast " seen on The Ed Sullivan Show , which featured Fosse 's wife , Gwen Verdon , dancing with two other women . " Mexican Breakfast " had become an Internet viral sensation the previous summer after Unk 's " Walk It Out " was dubbed over the original mix . Beyoncé wanted to attempt a similar dance and eventually , the choreography of " Single Ladies " was liberally adapted from " Mexican Breakfast " :
I saw a video on YouTube . [ The dancers ] had a plain background and it was shot on the crane ; it was 360 degrees , they could move around . And I said , ' This is genius . ' We kept a lot of the Fosse choreography and added the down @-@ south thing — it 's called J @-@ Setting , where one person does something and the next person follows . So it was a strange mixture ... It 's like the most urban choreography , mixed with Fosse — very modern and very vintage .
Beyoncé wanted a simple music video ; it was filmed with minimal alternative camera shots and cuts , and no changes to hairstyles , costumes and sets . According to JaQuel Knight , Beyoncé also wanted the video to feel " good and powerful " and include choreography that could be attempted by anybody . The day the video was shot , the song was divided into three parts . Nava deliberately used lengthy shots so that viewers " would connect with the human endeavor of Beyoncé 's awe @-@ inspiring dance " , with all the changes in looks , angles , and lighting executed live on @-@ camera because he wanted to keep the feel " very organic and un @-@ gimmicky " . The styling was inspired by a Vogue photo shoot . In the video Beyoncé wears a titanium roboglove designed by her long @-@ time jeweler , Lorraine Schwartz , to complement her alter ego Sasha Fierce . The glove consists of several pieces , including a ring and a separate component that covers Beyoncé 's upper arm . She first wore the roboglove on the red carpet at the MTV Europe Music Awards on November 8 , 2008 . The video shoot took around twelve hours . Many performances of the song were filmed without interruption , and edited together to give the impression that the final video was filmed in a single take .
= = = Synopsis = = =
In the video for " Single Ladies " , emphasis is laid on Beyoncé 's more aggressive and sensual side , her alter ego Sasha Fierce . It shows her in an asymmetrical leotard and high @-@ heels , with two backup dancers , Ebony Williams and Ashley Everett . Beyoncé 's mother , Tina Knowles , designed the high @-@ cut leotards after seeing something similar in the American musical films A Chorus Line and All That Jazz . The dance routine incorporates many styles , including jazz , tap , and hip hop , and is credited with popularizing J @-@ Setting , a flamboyant lead and follow dance style prominent in many African American gay clubs across Atlanta and used by the all @-@ female Prancing J @-@ Settes dance troupe of Jackson State University .
The video features Beyoncé and her two companions dancing inside an infinity cove , which alternates between black and white and places the focus on the complex choreography . Throughout the video the women click their heels and shake their hips and legs . However , the main intention is to attract the viewers ' attention toward their hands and ring fingers as they do the hand @-@ twirl move . At one point during the video , the dancers run up to a wall , which , according to Frank Gatson Jr . , pays homage to Shirley MacLaine 's act in the 1969 film Sweet Charity . Toward the end of the video , Beyoncé flashes her own wedding ring on her finger .
= = = Response and accolades = = =
Although the video for " Single Ladies " was the cheapest and quickest of all her videos to produce , Beyoncé felt that it ended up being " the most iconic ... something special " . It spawned a dance craze and inspired thousands of imitations all over the world , many of which were posted on YouTube . In an interview with MTV , Beyoncé expressed her appreciation of the public 's response to the video , and stated that she had spent much time watching several of these parodies : " It 's beautiful to feel you touch people and bring a song to life with a video . " Nava also expressed his surprise at the positive reception of the video , and attributed its success to the video 's understated , less @-@ is @-@ more approach . In an interview with Chandler Levack for Eye Weekly , Toronto director Scott Cudmore stated that the Internet age has impacted the way music videos are made , as well as perceived by an audience . Although Cudmore believes that the music video as a medium is " disappearing ... from the mainstream public eye " , he accredited " Single Ladies " with its resurgence , and stated that after the video appeared on the Internet , people began to " consciously look for music videos because of its art " .
The music video has won several awards and accolades . It was voted Best Dance Routine in the 2008 Popjustice Readers ' Poll ; and won Video of the Year , Best Choreography , and Best Editing at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards . The song also won Best Video at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards , the 2009 MOBO Awards , and the 2009 BET Awards . The video has also received many nominations : Best Video in the 2009 Popjustice Readers Polls ( placed 4th ) ; nine ( including the three that it won ) in the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards ; Best International Artist Video at the 2009 MuchMusic Video Awards ( losing to Lady Gaga 's " Poker Face " ) ; Outstanding Music Video at the 2009 NAACP Image Awards ; and two at the 2009 MTV Australia Awards for Best Video and Best Moves . The video was ranked at number four on BET 's Notarized : Top 100 Videos of 2008 countdown , and at number three on VH1 's Top 40 Videos of 2009 . It was voted best music video of the 2000s decade by fans of the music website MUZU TV and fifth @-@ best of the decade by readers of Billboard magazine . Claire Suddath of Time magazine included it in her 30 All @-@ Time Best Music Videos , writing that " sometimes the best creations are also the simplest " . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number one on their list of Beyoncé 's ten best music videos writing , " [ It has ] All of the sex appeal . Ever ... Beyoncé doesn 't need anything but an empty room in this one . It 's all about the dancing . It 's all about the leotard . It 's all about the fierceness . And it 's epic . " . The music video was certified platinum by CRIA for shipment of sales 10 @,@ 000 units .
= = = = " Kanyegate " = = = =
" Single Ladies " was nominated for nine awards at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , ultimately winning three including Video of the Year . Its failure to win the Best Female Video category , which went to American country pop singer Taylor Swift 's " You Belong with Me " , sparked controversy during the ceremony . Swift 's acceptance speech was interrupted by rapper Kanye West , who grabbed her microphone to declare the " Single Ladies " video as " one of the best videos of all time " . Footage of Beyoncé in the audience looking shocked was then shown . When Beyoncé won the Video of the Year award later that night , she reminisced about when she won her first MTV award with her former group , Destiny 's Child , and called the experience " one of the most exciting moments in [ her ] life " . She then invited Swift on @-@ stage to finish her speech and " have her moment " .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé first promoted " Single Ladies " in a concert organized by Power 105 @.@ 1 radio in New York on October 29 , 2008 , and subsequently performed the song at various awards ceremonies , concerts and television shows . At the 2008 World Music Awards in Monaco , Beyoncé performed " Single Ladies " while wearing her roboglove , and pointed to the glove as she sang the song 's chorus . Beyoncé sang " Single Ladies " on Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) on November 15 , 2008 . That night , Beyoncé was featured in a parody of the song 's music video , where the two female backup dancers from the video were replaced by pop singer Justin Timberlake and SNL cast members Andy Samberg and Bobby Moynihan . On November 16 , 2008 , Beyoncé performed a medley of " If I Were a Boy " , " Single Ladies " , and " Crazy in Love " during the final episode of Total Request Live . " Single Ladies " was also performed by Beyoncé on November 18 , 2008 , on 106 & Park , on November 23 , 2008 , at the 2008 American Music Awards , on November 25 , 2008 , on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and on November 26 , 2008 , at Rockefeller Plaza on The Today Show . She delivered a performance of " Single Ladies " with two male dancers on The Tyra Banks Show on January 9 , 2009 .
In July 2009 , Beyoncé gave a concert at the Staples Center in Los Angeles where American actor Tom Cruise danced with her and her dancers as they performed the dance routine of " Single Ladies " . At the MTV Video Music Awards on September 13 , 2009 , Beyoncé performed " Single Ladies " backed by " an army of single ladies " on stage . In a poll conducted by Billboard magazine , the performance was ranked as the seventh best in the history of MTV Video Music Awards . A critic wrote in the magazine : " The world gave a collective ' whoa ' when Beyonce unleashed her ' Single Ladies ' video , but to see those dance moves come to life at the 2009 VMAs was beyond eye @-@ popping . " Erika Ramirez of the same publication placed the performance at number two on her list of Beyoncé 's five biggest TV performances . " Single Ladies " was included on the set lists of Beyoncé 's I Am ... Yours concerts and her I Am ... World Tour . The song was subsequently included on Beyoncé 's live albums I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas ( 2009 ) and I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . " Single Ladies " was later performed by Beyoncé in a pink fringe dress at a concert at Palais Nikaia in Nice , France , on June 20 , 2011 , and at the Glastonbury Festival on June 26 , 2011 , in front of more than 175 @,@ 000 spectators . On July 1 , 2011 , Beyoncé gave a free concert on Good Morning America as part of its Summer Concert Series , which included " Single Ladies " . Backed by her all @-@ female band and her backing singers The Mamas , Beyoncé performed " Single Ladies " in front of 3 @,@ 500 people during the 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé revue at the Roseland Ballroom in New York , in August 2011 . In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed the song during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue at Revel Atlantic City , a hotel . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times mentioned " Single Ladies " in the " almost continuous high point " of the concert . Rebecca Thomas of MTV News wrote that Beyoncé 's dancing during " Single Ladies " reflected the female empowerment theme of the song . On February 3 , 2013 , Beyoncé performed the song along with her former bandmates from Destiny 's Child during the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show . The song was added to the set list of her Mrs. Carter Show World Tour ( 2013 ) . Beyoncé 's performed " Single Ladies " at The Sound of Change Live concert on June 1 , 2013 at Twickenham Stadium , London as part of the Chime for Change movement .
= = Cultural impact and legacy = =
" Single Ladies " gained widespread popularity for its catchy hook and theme of female empowerment . Critics have compared the song to Aretha Franklin 's " Respect " and Gloria Gaynor 's " I Will Survive " , prompted by their lyrics , which all promote female empowerment . The music video achieved fame for its intricate choreography and its deployment of jazz hands with a wrist twist . It has been credited with starting the " first major dance craze of both the new millennium and the Internet " , triggering a number of parodies of the dance choreography . Billy Johnson of Yahoo ! Music wrote that the video of " Single Ladies " was the top music @-@ related viral hit of 2009 . MTV News ' James Montgomery wrote that " it appears like [ the music video ] was custom @-@ made for the YouTube generation , which probably explains why making homages became a worldwide phenomenon . " The video generated interest in J @-@ Setting , the dance form that choreographer JaQuel Knight highlights in the video , and Beyoncé is credited with bringing the dance style to the mainstream .
In a radio interview on NPR 's All Things Considered , Knight shared his excitement that the popular video made people want to learn to dance . Trish Crawford from the Toronto Star observed how it has appealed to all age groups and genders , in contrast with the short @-@ lived dance craze inspired by Soulja Boy two years before , which she considered " mainly a male hip @-@ hop dance " . Crawford mentioned , " Toddlers have tackled [ the ' Single Ladies ' dance ] . [ So have ] recreation centre dance classes , sorority sisters in their dorm rooms , suburban teenagers in their basements and high school cheerleaders . " In February 2009 , Columbia Records announced the launch of a " Single Ladies " Dance Video Contest . Fans aged eighteen and older were invited to adhere precisely to the dance routine performed by Beyoncé and her two dancers in the original production . The winning video was included in her live album , I Am ... World Tour .
= = = Parodies and homages = = =
" Single Ladies " was first parodied in the November 15 , 2008 , episode of SNL , which featured Beyoncé . She was initially reluctant to participate in the segment but agreed to after a visit from Timberlake in her dressing room . Beyoncé 's choreographer , Frank Gatson Jr . , expressed mixed emotions at the result , saying : " I was upset because I know that Justin 's a great dancer and if he learned the choreography , he could do it really well ... If they 're making parodies [ of our work ] just like they make parodies of politicians and presidents , that means it must be big time . So in that respect , I have to take my hat off to them for doing it . " Later , Joe Jonas of the pop rock band Jonas Brothers posted a video on their YouTube account where he imitated the dance in a black leotard and heels . Irish pop duo Jedward parodied Beyoncé 's dance moves for the video of their cover version of " All the Small Things " . In London , one hundred dancers wearing leotards similar to the one worn by Beyoncé performed the choreography on April 20 , 2009 , to promote Trident Unwrapped gum . On November 20 , 2009 , BBC Newsreaders including Fiona Bruce , Sophie Raworth , Kate Silverton , and Susanna Reid performed " Single Ladies " in black military @-@ style uniforms . They were later joined onstage by their male newsreader colleagues Bill Turnbull , Ben Brown , Nicholas Owen , and Charlie Stayt before taking on Diversity , winners of the third series of Britain 's Got Talent , in a dance @-@ off . They performed the choreography to raise funds for the UK campaign , Children In Need .
The music video inspired a legion of amateur imitators to post videos of themselves performing the choreography on YouTube . One of the most viewed viral videos is that of Shane Mercado , who appeared on The Bonnie Hunt Show in bikini bottoms to perform the choreography . His subsequent meeting with Beyoncé became a media event . Beyoncé has acknowledged the popularity of the videos on YouTube ; during her concert tour , excerpts from many of the YouTube videos were played in the background while Beyoncé was performing the song . Cubby , who is an on air personality for Charlotte , North Carolina 's 96 @.@ 1 The Beat AM , based his parody on the SNL one . His video lead to a meet and greet with Beyoncé and eventually , an opportunity to join her on stage at a show stop in Atlanta during her I Am ... World Tour . Many videos featuring babies of different ages , imitating the dance choreography of " Single Ladies " , have been uploaded on YouTube . A video showing Cory Elliott , a baby boy from New Zealand , performing the dance while watching Beyoncé on television , gained significant coverage from several media outlets . Time magazine 's critic Dan Fletcher ranked it as the fourth best viral video of 2009 and wrote , " Young children love songs with good rhythm and repetition , and ' Single Ladies ' certainly has both . " However , when a video of seven @-@ year @-@ old girls performing choreography from " Single Ladies " at a dance competition in Los Angeles went viral on YouTube , it created a controversy and sparked outrage from many viewers , who felt the girls were sexualized by the suggestive dance moves .
In a video filmed by singer John Legend , US President Barack Obama appears with his wife Michelle performing part of the " Single Ladies " routine . He also briefly performed the hand @-@ twirl move from the song 's video at the Obama Inaugural Celebration . This video prompted an Obama look @-@ alike , Iman Crosson , to do his own version of the " Single Ladies " choreography . Several other well @-@ known personalities , including American environmentalist and politician Joe Nation and American actor Tom Hanks , have performed the dance . In the music video for " Dancin on Me " by DJ Webstar and Jim Jones , three females are featured in the background , imitating the " Single Ladies " dance . Wearing a black leotard and gold glove , Katy Brand performed the choreography with two backup female dancers for the final of BBC One 's Let 's Dance for Comic Relief to raise money for the charity Comic Relief on March 12 , 2010 . Jenna Ushkowitz , Chris Colfer and Heather Morris did the " Single Ladies " dance as part of the Glee Live tour in June 2011 . The music minister at Geyer Springs First Baptist Church in Little Rock , Arkansas , thought it would be " an excellent idea " to attract interest in the church choir by using a remix of " Single Ladies " and having choir members dance to it . In the music video he made , the choir members sing , " All the singing ladies , all the singing fellas ... If you like the choir , then won 't you come and sing in it . " Cyndi Wilkerson , Music Ministry Assistant at Geyer Springs First Baptist Church , uploaded the video to YouTube on August 29 , 2011 . In April 2013 , YouTube phenomenon Psy did the dance routine during a concert in Seoul while wearing a red leotard and red boots .
= = = Usage in media = = =
" Single Ladies " has been used in various media including television shows , commercials and books . In the Best of 2009 issue of People magazine , Khloe , Kim , and Kourtney Kardashian were ranked at number nine on the magazine 's list of " 25 Most Intriguing People " ; the photograph accompanying the article showed the three women in leotards mimicking the look from the " Single Ladies " video . The song has been included in many television shows , including CSI : Miami , Cougar Town , and in two episodes in Glee . In the United Kingdom , the video for " Single Ladies " was used for a 2009 television commercial for the new Doner kebab flavored Pot Noodle . In other media , issue 33 of comic book series The Brave and the Bold features a scene in which Wonder Woman , Zatanna , and Barbara Gordon sing a karaoke version of the song while at a club . A mash @-@ up video of the theme of " Single Ladies " and The Andy Griffith Show circulated on the Internet in early 2010 . It was produced by Party Ben at the end of 2008 . In July 2010 , the line " Put a Ring on It " was used by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS as the tagline for a female condom public awareness campaign in the US .
= = = Cover versions = = =
Singers and bands of various genres have covered the song in their own style . Scottish band Marmaduke Duke performed a cover version in April 2009 on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge show . In October 2009 , it was released on Radio 1 's Live Lounge – Volume 4 , a compilation of Live Lounge recordings . Australian singer Stan Walker sang a jazzier version of the song on the seventh series of Australian Idol in October 2009 . The same year , elementary school group PS22 chorus covered " Single Ladies " and " Halo " ( 2009 ) during Billboard 's annual Women In Music luncheon held at The Pierre in New York City . In her short @-@ lived Broadway revue " All About Me " in March 2010 , Dame Edna Everage performed a version of the song with backup dancers Gregory Butler and Jon @-@ Paul Mateo . It was also covered by Jeff Tweedy and British singer @-@ songwriter Alan Pownall . According to Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly , Tweedy sang only a few bars ; he gave " Single Ladies " an acoustic feel and recited the rest of the song 's lyrics . He performed the hand movements that Beyoncé and her dancers do in the song 's video . Pomplamoose , an American indie music duo consisting of Jack Conte and Nataly Dawn , recorded a cover of " Single Ladies " on video , which makes use of split screens to show Dawn on vocals and Conte playing the instruments . Inspired by the avant @-@ garde Dogme 95 movement in cinema , Conte began to record songs on video as a quick way to create " organic and raw " music . They chose " Single Ladies " as they believed that it would help them grow their audience .
During a concert at New York 's Madison Square Garden , Prince performed a mash @-@ up of his 1984 songs " Pop Life " and " I Would Die For You , incorporating a sample of " Single Ladies " . During her tour in Melbourne , Australia , on August 13 , 2010 , Katy Perry performed " Single Ladies " and attempted to emulate the choreography . English composer of classical music Mark @-@ Anthony Turnage composed a setting of the song which he titled " Hammered Out " . Describing it as his " most R & B work to date " , Turnage told Tim Rutherford @-@ Johnson of The Guardian that he was motivated to put the " Single Ladies " reference in his work by his young son , a fan of the song . The piece premiered at the BBC Proms on August 27 , 2010 . Sara Bareilles covered the song as part of Billboard 's " Mashup Mondays " and performed it as part of her set list on the 2010 Lilith Fair Tour . As stated by a critic writing for the magazine , Bareilles put " a piano @-@ pop " twist on " Single Ladies " and turned it " into a slow , jazzy track , complete with creeping bassline and vocal harmonies " . American rock band A Rocket to the Moon covered " Single Ladies " and placed it on their EP , The Rainy Day Sessions , which was released in October 2010 .
On September 26 , 2010 , Kharizma sang their version of the song on the second series of The X Factor Australia , and on May 31 , 2011 , Matthew Raymond @-@ Barker sang the song live on the seventh prime of the second series of the X Factor France . During the finale of the tenth season of American Idol on May 25 , 2011 , the lady contestants joined together onstage to perform " Single Ladies " and attempted the dance moves from the song 's video . " Single Ladies " was covered by The Chipettes in the film Alvin and the Chipmunks : The Squeakquel and is on the film 's soundtrack . Their three @-@ part harmonies were all sung by Janice Karman , who recorded all parts , which were then layered and pitched up . The Chipettes attempted the Bob Fosse @-@ styled choreography . Billy Johnson of Yahoo ! Music commented that for the first time the movie includes a performance he wanted to watch , and concluded , " this is definitely one of the best ' Single Ladies ' parodies . It is worth it just to see the squirrels singing . " The film Sex and the City 2 features a performance of the song by American singer and actress Liza Minnelli . On October 18 , 2011 , Young Men Society sang " Single Ladies " on the third series of The X Factor Australia , and on June 30 , 2014 , Holly Tapp sang the song on the third series of The Voice Australia .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from I Am ... Sasha Fierce album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release and radio history = =
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= Asher Levi =
Asher Levi is a fictional character from EastEnders : E20 , an Internet spin @-@ off of the BBC soap opera EastEnders . Played by Heshima Thompson , Asher is a main character in series two . He is a charismatic street dancer , who uses his talent to escape from his criminal past . As a father @-@ figure to his younger brother Sol Levi ( Tosin Cole ) , Asher occasionally resorts to stealing in order to provide for them both . He is willing to go to extreme lengths to protect Sol , including being stabbed by their schizophrenic mother . Over the course of the series , Asher betrays Sol by sleeping with his girlfriend , Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) . The two are ultimately able to reconcile , and Asher makes amends by encouraging his brother 's dancing talent .
The character was created by the programme 's team of thirteen writers , alongside the series ' other main characters : Sol , Naz , and their friend Stevie Dickinson ( Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes ) . Thompson appreciated that the role allowed him to combine his love of acting and dancing . It brought him public recognition , and led fans of the series to hope that he and the other main characters would appear in the parent show , EastEnders .
= = Storylines = =
After being evicted by their mother Caroline ( Sandra Yaw ) , Asher and his younger brother Sol ( Tosin Cole ) move in with Walford resident Stevie Dickinson ( Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes ) . The brothers attend a dance audition , at which Asher is successful but Sol fails . Asher offers the judge a bribe on his brother 's behalf , and is witnessed doing so by Fatboy ( Ricky Norwood ) . He threatens him with a knife , revealing a stab wound on his abdomen , but disposes of the weapon when Fatboy leaves . While practicing dancing in the local community centre , Asher is mistaken for a Latin dance class instructor and steals the group 's money . Though he attempts to find legitimate work , he is turned down due to having a criminal record , and again resorts to stealing .
When Sol begins a romantic relationship with his new friend Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) , Asher tells Naz 's fiancé , Ekin Beg ( Hemi Yeroham ) , that she is cheating on him . Ekin leads Sol to believe that Asher and Naz are an item , which causes Sol to insult them both . Annoyed , the two go clubbing together , and have sex after getting drunk and taking drugs . Naz later confesses the one @-@ night stand to Sol , who punches his brother . He leaves Stevie 's flat after Asher returns home drunk , having got into trouble selling stolen property . Asher later finds Sol with their mother , who has been hospitalised . It is revealed that she is schizophrenic , and that Asher 's stab wound was caused by her . Asher apologises for sleeping with Naz , and tells Sol that she loves him . Finally , he encourages Sol to enter a dance competition . Though nervous , Sol is reassured by his brother and completes his routine to great acclaim .
= = Other appearances = =
Asher appears in extra video content on the E20 website . In one video , he and Sol argue during filming of an advert for " SmasherDance " — a video in which they demonstrate various dancing styles — as Sol is more interested in getting food . The full SmasherDance advert is also on YouTube . In another video , the four friends play a drinking game in the local café , and in another he is an Elvis Presley impersonator marrying Naz and Ekin in Naz 's nightmare .
= = Creation , development and characterisation = =
Asher is one of the four main characters in series two of EastEnders : E20 , alongside Sol , Naz and Stevie . They were created by the programme 's team of thirteen writers . Actor and singer Heshima Thompson auditioned for the series , having learned about it from his agent . Part of the process involved a dance audition with Tony Adigun , the leader of dance group Avant Garde . Thompson was subsequently cast as Asher , and the character and his casting were announced on 28 July 2010 . Deborah Sathe , the show 's producer , expressed pride in the writers and stated , " [ They ] have created four new faces for [ Albert ] Square and their reaction to Walford life is really exciting . " Thompson called E20 " a great project to be part of " , and eagerly anticipated the dancing the role would entail . He later said in an interview with Daniel Kilkelly from entertainment news website Digital Spy that it was good to be able to combine his love of acting with his love of dance .
Asher is described on the E20 website as being charming and sexy , with the talent to make him a star . Thompson deemed his character " very confident " and a " bit of a bad boy " . He is a hustler , who finds it difficult to refuse easy money , and seizes opportunities regardless of their legality . He has a criminal past , having recently been released from prison for theft prior to the start of the series . Thompson explained that Asher becomes a street dancer to help keep himself away from crime , which he commits in order to provide for Sol . He stated that Asher would " try his best to stay out of trouble " , but may return to crime through learned behaviour .
Asher 's life is complicated by his mother and brother . He has been a father @-@ figure to Sol since a young age , and , as revealed in episode nine , has cared for him through their mother 's schizophrenic episodes . Thompson assessed that Asher is not necessarily the best role model for Sol , but is willing to go to great lengths to protect him and ensure his success , such as being stabbed by his mother and giving away his father 's Rolex watch to secure Sol a place in the dance group . Thompson said that looking after Sol has " taken a toll on [ Asher ] " . Although he initially feels optimistic about moving to Walford , he loses perspective and makes a mistake by sleeping with Naz . Thompson deemed this out of character for Asher , as he loves his brother so much , but opined that despite his mistakes , Asher is still a good brother : " At heart , he 's like anyone trying to do well . He wants to escape his old past and do well by his brother . "
Aware of his own sex appeal , Asher 's confidence and dance ability mean he has little difficulty in attracting women . Thompson characterises him as having youthful fun , rather than being " dirty " . He feels he is easily intimidating , and intelligent enough to use his unpleasant façade to his advantage . This is demonstrated in the first episode , when he threatens Fatboy with a knife despite having no intention of using it .
= = Reception = =
Appearing in EastEnders : E20 brought Thompson public recognition , from groups ranging from " screaming girls to proud parents " . He has received comments on Asher 's immoral behaviour , and compliments for his dancing . In October 2010 , Thompson stated that many fans hoped Asher and the other E20 spin @-@ off characters would go on to appear in EastEnders itself .
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= Hugh B. Cott =
Hugh Bamford Cott , ( 6 July 1900 – 18 April 1987 ) , was a British zoologist , an authority on both natural and military camouflage , and a scientific illustrator and photographer . Many of his field studies took place in Africa , where he was especially interested in the Nile crocodile , the evolution of pattern and colour in animals . During the Second World War , Cott worked as a camouflage expert for the British Army and helped to influence War Office policy on camouflage . His book Adaptive Coloration in Animals ( 1940 ) , popular among serving soldiers , was the major textbook on camouflage in zoology of the twentieth century . After the war , he became a Fellow of Selwyn College , Cambridge . As a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London , he undertook expeditions to Africa and the Amazon to collect specimens , mainly reptiles and amphibians .
= = Life and career = =
Cott was born in Ashby Magna , Leicestershire , England , on 6 July 1900 ; his father was the rector there . He was schooled at Rugby . In 1919 , he graduated from the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , and was commissioned into the Leicestershire Regiment . Between 1922 and 1925 , he studied at Selwyn College , Cambridge .
He had intended to become a priest , and went to Cambridge to read theology , but after his first year he went on the university expedition to South America , where he studied natural forms in eastern Brazil in 1923 , led by the entomologist Frank Balfour Browne , where he became fascinated by natural history , and changed his studies to zoology on his return . He then went on an expedition to the lower Amazon ( 1925 – 1926 ) , and on research trips to the Zambesi river area in Africa ( 1927 ) , including Mozambique , Zambia and East Africa , and Lanzarote ( 1930 ) . He married Joyce Radford in 1928 . He was a lecturer in Zoology at Bristol University from 1928 until 1932 , when he moved to Glasgow University . He studied under another advocate of military camouflage , John Graham Kerr . His thesis , which he completed in 1935 under a Carnegie Fellowship , was on ' adaptive coloration ' – both camouflage and warning coloration – in the Anura ( frogs ) . In 1938 he was made a Doctor of Science at Glasgow , and he became a Zoology lecturer at Cambridge University and Strickland Curator of Birds at the university 's Museum of Zoology .
Cott served in the Leicestershire Regiment of the British Army as a camouflage expert from 1919 – 1922 , and , during the Second World War , with the Royal Engineers as a camouflage instructor from 1939 – 1945 . Cott was chief instructor at the Camouflage Development and Training Camp at Helwan , Egypt , under filmmaker Geoffrey Barkas from its inception in November 1941 .
After the war , Cott returned to Cambridge , becoming a Fellow of Selwyn College in 1945 ; he worked there until he retired in 1967 . He gave the Fison Memorial Lecture of 1958 on ' Protective Coloration in Animals ' . He continued to work from time to time after his retirement , for instance conducting a survey of crocodile nests on the Victoria Nile for the Uganda National Parks in 1972 . He died at the age of 86 on 18 April 1987 .
= = Camouflage = =
While trying to photograph a hen partridge on her nest , Cott waited for hours for the bird to return , finally taking some pictures of the empty nest before giving up . On developing the photographs , he realized the bird had been there all along , perfectly camouflaged .
As a camouflage expert during the Second World War , Cott likened the functions of military camouflage to those of protective coloration in nature . The three main categories of coloration in his book Adaptive Coloration in Animals are concealment , disguise , and advertisement . He studied , described and presented examples of such diverse camouflage effects as obliterative shading , disruption , differential blending , high contrast , coincident disruption , concealment of the eye , contour obliteration , shadow elimination , and mimicry . In his wartime lectures at Farnham Castle , he described nine categories of visual deception :
merging , e.g. hare , polar bear
disruption , e.g. ringed plover
disguise , e.g. stick insect
mis @-@ direction , e.g. butterfly and fish eyespots
dazzle , e.g. some grasshoppers
decoy , e.g. angler fish
smokescreen , e.g. cuttlefish
the dummy , e.g. flies , ants
false display of strength , e.g. toads , lizards
Cott 's account of all this ( illustrated by his own pen and ink drawings ) is the 550 @-@ page book Adaptive Coloration in Animals ( 1940 ) . It was proof @-@ read by Kerr , who commented on its publication ' It is by far the finest thing of the kind in existence ' . His co @-@ workers ' first @-@ hand accounts of his work in military camouflage can be found in the memoirs of two of his fellow camoufleurs : Julian Trevelyan and Roland Penrose .
Peter Forbes wrote of Cott 's book :
Cott 's Adaptive Coloration in Animals must be the only compendious zoology tract ever to be packed in a soldier 's kitbag . The book also marks the apotheosis of the descriptive natural history phase of mimicry studies . Although Cott does report experiments on predation to test the efficacy of mimicry and camouflage , the book is essentially a narrative of examples plus theory .
The book was written as war loomed , and published in wartime . Cott makes use of his knowledge of natural history to draw parallels between survival in nature and in war , and to advise on military camouflage , for example commenting :
Various recent attempts to camouflage tanks , armoured cars , and the roofs of buildings with paint reveal an almost complete failure by those responsible to grasp the essential factor in the disguise of surface continuity and contour … in nature vigorous disruptive contrasts are frequently seen at work , and their wonderful effectiveness in hindering recognition needs to be experienced in the field to be fully appreciated .
Forbes notes that Adaptive Coloration in Animals is a narrative , short on the experimentation that followed after the war , but Forbes continues :
But Cott 's book is still valuable today for its enormous range , for its passionate exposition of the theories of mimicry and camouflage .
Cott attempted to persuade the British army to use more effective camouflage techniques , including countershading . For example , in August 1940 , with the Battle of Britain imminent , he painted two rail @-@ mounted coastal guns , one in conventional style , one countershaded . In aerial photographs , the countershaded gun is essentially invisible . Cott was triumphant , announcing :
These photographs furnish most convincing proof of the effectiveness of countershading , and are especially valuable in that we have in them a direct comparison between the two methods .
However ( like Kerr before him in the First World War ) , Cott did not succeed in influencing policy on camouflage , and he resigned from the Camouflage Advisory Panel in 1940 .
= = Artwork = =
Cott was a founding member of the Society of Wildlife Artists , and a fellow of the Royal Photographic Society . From material gathered in field expeditions , he made contributions to the Cambridge University zoological museum .
Cott possessed considerable artistic skill . Like Abbott Thayer , he used his artistry in his scientific work , including in Adaptive Coloration in Animals , to help argue the case he was making . For example , his black @-@ and @-@ white potoo shows this rainforest bird sitting motionless on a mottled tree trunk , its behaviour and disruptive pattern combining to provide effective camouflage . The philosopher and jazz musician David Rothenberg wrote of Cott 's art :
Back to Hugh Cott 's marvelous engraving of a potoo hidden in a black and white Costa Rican forest , frozen vertically like the tree trunk on which it hides . In nature the visible and invisible dance back and forth with each other , depending on how much we have learned to see . The science and art of this magic merge into one at the moment we grasp it .
= = Legacy = =
The journalist and author Peter Forbes praised Cott 's balance of science and artistry :
.. in the conflict between artists and biologists , he was both . Cott was a competent illustrator as well as a biologist . Without having Nabokov 's precisianism and anti @-@ Darwinism , he brought an artistic sensibility to bear on these phenomena . His text is radiant with the wonder of these adaptations .
Over 60 years after its publication , Adaptive Coloration in Animals remains a core reference on the subject ; the Evolutionary biologists Graeme Ruxton , Thomas Sherratt and Michael Speed conclude their book on animal coloration by writing
The study of animal coloration and associated anti @-@ predator adaptations has a long history ... this field of research has been blessed from the earliest years with the insights of particularly gifted scientists . The writings of Wallace , Bates , Müller , Poulton and Cott truly stand up to the test of time : these individuals deserve even better renown not just as great natural historians but as exceptional scientists too .
The biologist Steven Vogel commented that
The zoologist Hugh Cott had the final word in Adaptive Coloration in Animals ( 1940 ) , a definitive synthesis of everything known about camouflage and mimicry in nature . Cott ruffled fewer feathers [ than Trofim Lysenko or Vladimir Nabokov ] , and his well @-@ organized and unfanatic ideas proved militarily effective , even under the scrutiny of improved techniques for target detection . Thayer ’ s principles reemerged in more temperate and rational terms , and camouflage schemes based on them survived both photometric analyses and enemy encounters . Biomimetic camouflage took its place as yet another technique in a sophisticated armamentarium of visual deceptions .
= = Writings = =
In addition to Adaptive Coloration in Animals , Cott wrote two essays on camouflage : “ Camouflage in nature and in war ” in the Royal Engineers Journal ( December 1938 ) , pp501 – 517 ; and ” Animal form in relation to appearance ” in Lancelot Law Whyte , ed . Aspects of form : a symposium on form in nature and art ( London : Percy Lund Humphries , 1951 ) . As a scientific illustrator and photographer , he also wrote three other books : Zoological photography in practice ( 1956 ) ; Uganda in black and white ( 1959 ) ; and Looking at animals : a zoologist in Africa ( 1975 ) . He became interested in the relationship of bird colours with their role as warning colours , an idea that arose when he observed hornets attracted to some birds being skinned while ignoring others . This led him to study the palatability of birds and their eggs . Among his papers were several studies on the relative palatibility of the eggs based initially on the preferences of ferrets , rats and hedgehogs and later on the use of a panel of expert egg tasters . In one study he found that of 123 species of bird , the kittiwake eggs scored highly with 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 .
= = = By Cott = = =
Books
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1940 ) . Adaptive Coloration in Animals . Methuen .
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1975 ) . Looking at Animals : a Zoologist in Africa . Scribner .
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1959 ) . Uganda in Black and White . Macmillan .
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1956 ) . Zoological Photography in Practice . Fountain Press .
Journals
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1936 ) . " The effectiveness of protective adaptations in the Hive @-@ Bee , illustrated by experiments on the feeding reactions , habit formation , and memory of the common toad ( Bufo bufo bufo ) " . Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 106 ( 1 ) : 111 – 133 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1096 @-@ 3642.1936.tb02283.x.
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1951 ) . " The Palatability of the Eggs of Birds : Illustrated by Experiments on the Food Preferences of the Hedgehog ( Erinaceus Europaeus ) . " . Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 121 ( 1 ) : 1 – 41 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1096 @-@ 3642.1951.tb00726.x.
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1952 ) . " The palatability of the eggs of birds : illustrated by three seasons ' experiments ( 1947 , 1948 and 1950 ) on the food preferences of the Rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) ; and with special reference to the protective adaptations of eggs considered in relation to vulnerability " . Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 122 ( 1 ) : 1 – 54 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1469 @-@ 7998.1952.tb06312.x.
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1953 ) . " The palatability of the eggs of birds : illustrated by experiments on the food preferences of the Ferret ( Putorius furo ) and Cat ( Felis catus ) ; with notes on other egg @-@ eating Carnivora " . Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 123 ( 1 ) : 123 – 141 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1096 @-@ 3642.1953.tb00160.x.
Cott , Hugh B. ( 1938 ) . Wonder Island of the Amazon Delta ; on Marajo Cowboys Ride Oxen , Tree @-@ Dwelling Animals Throng Dense Forests . National Geographic Magazine .
= = = About Cott = = =
Forbes , Peter ( 2009 ) . Dazzled and Deceived : Mimicry and Camouflage . Yale . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 12539 @-@ 9
Forsyth , Isla McLean ( 2012 ) . From dazzle to the desert : a cultural @-@ historical geography of camouflage . PhD thesis , University of Glasgow .
Forsyth , Isla ( 2014 ) . " The practice and poetics of fieldwork : Hugh Cott and the study of camouflage " . Journal of Historical Geography 43 : 128 – 137 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.jhg.2013.10.002.
Penrose , Roland ( 1981 ) . Scrapbook 1900 – 1981 . Thames and Hudson .
Ruxton , G. D. ; Speed , M. P. ; Sherratt , T. N. ( 2004 ) . Avoiding Attack . The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis , Warning Signals and Mimicry . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 852860 @-@ 4
Trevelyan , Julian ( 1957 ) . Indigo days . MacGibbon and Kee .
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= The Book of Taliesyn =
For the Middle Welsh manuscript , see Book of Taliesin .
The Book of Taliesyn is the second studio album by English rock band Deep Purple , recorded only three months after Shades of Deep Purple and released by Tetragrammaton Records in October 1968 , just before their first US tour . The name for the album was taken from the 14th @-@ century Book of Taliesin .
The structure of the album is similar to that of their debut , with four original songs and three rearranged covers , although the tracks are longer , the arrangements more complex and the sound more polished than on Shades of Deep Purple . The music style is a mix of psychedelic rock , progressive rock and hard rock , with several inserts of classical music arranged by the band 's keyboard player Jon Lord .
Deep Purple 's American record label aimed at a hippie audience , which was very influential in the US at the time , but the chart results of album and singles were not as high as expected . This setback did not hinder the success of the three months long US tour , when the band played in many important venues and festivals and received positive feedback from audience and press . On the contrary , Deep Purple were still an underground band which played in small clubs and colleges in the United Kingdom , largely ignored by media and public . The British record company EMI released The Book of Taliesyn only in June 1969 on the new underground prog rock sub @-@ label Harvest Records , but the album did not chart . Even the release of the new single " Emmaretta " and new dates in their home country in the summer of 1969 did not increase the album sales or the popularity of Deep Purple in the UK . Perception of the album changed in modern times , when it received more favourable reviews .
= = Background = =
Deep Purple were booked for a long tour in the United States , starting in October 1968 , as a result of the unexpected success gathered in North America by their debut album Shades of Deep Purple , fronted by the hit single " Hush " . The single , released in June , had reached No. 4 in the US Singles Chart and No. 2 in Canada and was the main reason of their sudden popularity overseas . The situation was quite the opposite at home , where the band had been heavily criticized by media and audience .
In July , band and crew relocated from West Sussex to London . Their management rented a house at 13 Second Avenue , Acton Vale , which was used as living quarters and for preparing the upcoming US tour when not away for gigs or promotion . Guitarist Ritchie Blackmore went to live there with his German fiancée Babs Hardie .
Executives at Tetragrammaton Records , Deep Purple 's American label , thought that it would have been more profitable to have a new album to promote during the US tour , besides the already successful Shades of Deep Purple . Moreover , the eight tracks recorded in May for Deep Purple 's debut album and performed live in the British gigs of July and August were deemed insufficient for their shows as headliners in the US . For these reasons , they were pushed back into the studio just a couple of months before the tour began , even though their debut album had not been released in the United Kingdom yet .
= = Composition and recording = =
The request of the record label to record a new album only three months after their debut found the band unprepared , because the intense activity after the release of Shades of Deep Purple had left very little time for writing and rehearsing new songs . Under pressure , the musicians eventually came up with four lengthy original compositions , but to fill up the new album they reworked and expanded three cover songs , following again the example of the American band Vanilla Fudge , which many band members admired . The first was " Kentucky Woman " , a hit single for Neil Diamond in 1967 which Deep Purple performed live at a BBC session in August . Though written by Diamond , Deep Purple 's version musically leans toward the style of Mitch Ryder 's recording of " Devil with a Blue Dress On " . The second cover was " River Deep – Mountain High " , a single released by Ike & Tina Turner in 1966 . Finally , the 1965 Beatles song " We Can Work It Out " was chosen after Paul McCartney himself had reportedly expressed appreciation for Deep Purple 's version of " Help ! " .
On the first of August 1968 , Deep Purple entered De Lane Lea Studios in Kingsway , London , with producer Derek Lawrence and sound engineer Brian Aintsworth , who had both worked on their previous album . Tetragrammaton 's advance of $ 250 @,@ 000 had been used to book two weeks in the studio , a time which covered songwriting , rehearsals and recording sessions . Time was granted in larger amount than for the making of Shades of Deep Purple in May , feeding the band ’ s ambition of coming up with better original material than their previous effort .
Deep Purple recorded " Shield " and " Anthem " on the first day . On the first song Ian Paice plays a complex drum pattern which sounds like a repeated clash of glass objects , while the second one required a string quartet for the baroque style interlude in the middle . The following days they proceeded with the composition and recording of " Exposition / We Can Work It Out " and of the original track " Listen , Learn , Read On " . On 19 August , they concluded these sessions with the recording of " Kentucky Woman " and of the heavy and up @-@ tempo instrumental " Wring That Neck " , which came out from a tight collaboration between Blackmore and bass player Nick Simper . The name " Wring That Neck " comes from a phrase the band used when they were playing live , describing the bassist or guitarist really bursting at their instruments to create a hard noise ( i.e. , squeezing , or " wringing " , the neck of the guitar ) . Another instrumental called " Playground " was written and recorded on 18 August , but the lyrics were never completed and it was eventually discarded . " River Deep - Mountain High " was always intended as the final track , so its recording was postponed until the other tracks were finished . The musicians ’ perfectionism required extra time to complete the track and it was taped only on 10 October , a long time after the planned deadline for studio recording .
The mixing was supposed to be overseen by the band members , but their schedule in October was so tight that Lawrence did it without them . This dismayed the band at first , but the sound turned out cleaner , heavier and more polished than on their debut . The tapes were mixed in both mono and stereo , but the mono tapes were trashed , as neither Tetragrammaton nor EMI , Deep Purple 's British label , had any use for them .
= = Release = =
The album was released in the United States in October 1968 , just in time for the tour . The American label insisted on changing the title of the instrumental " Wring That Neck " , considered too violent , to " Hard Road " . The track was used as B @-@ side of the single " Kentucky Woman " , issued in December 1968 . The Book of Taliesyn reached No. 54 in the US chart and No. 48 in the Canadian chart . The single peaked at No. 38 in the US and received much airplay , but did not replicate the success of " Hush " .
In an attempt to improve sales of the album , a shorter and heavily edited version of " River Deep - Mountain High " was released as single exclusively in the United States and Canada in February 1969 , with " Listen , Learn , Read On " as the B @-@ side . It reached No. 53 and No. 42 respectively in the two countries and was not a success , charting lower than " Kentucky Woman " . The album was distributed in Canada ( in 1968 ) and Japan ( in June 1969 ) by Polydor Records .
EMI delayed the release of the album in the UK to June 1969 , after the band had come back from the US and set up a proper tour of their home country . By that time , the band had already recorded and released their third album Deep Purple in the US , and recorded a single with a new line @-@ up . The Book of Taliesyn was the first release by Harvest Records , a new sub @-@ label which EMI executives had devised as an outlet for British underground progressive rock groups . " Kentucky Woman " , with " Wring That Neck " as B @-@ side , was the only single released in the UK in December 1969 , but it was retired after only six weeks . Just as it had happened with Shades of Deep Purple the year before , both album and single received little promotion and were widely overlooked , selling much less in the UK than overseas .
The Book of Taliesyn was reissued many times all over the world , often in a set with the two other albums recorded by the Mk . I line @-@ up . Besides the original issues , the most significant version of the album is the Remastered CD edition of 2000 by EMI , which contains previously unreleased recordings taken from the sessions of August and December 1968 and from TV shows appearances as bonus tracks . All the songs were digitally remastered by Peter Mew at Abbey Road Studios in London . Other notable re @-@ releases of the album include a white vinyl collector 's edition issued in 2015 for a Record Store Day .
= = Musical style = =
The musical style of The Book of Taliesyn is a mix of progressive rock , psychedelic rock and hard rock and different observers think that in this album the band is more mature and in greater control of its own means of expression . Critics highlight how the compositions are generally longer and more complex than in their debut album . Deep Purple biographer Dave Thompson writes that a dark mood permeates The Book of Taliesyn with little indulgence to pop rock , citing influences of the American band The Doors in the original tracks written for this album .
The influence of keyboard player Jon Lord 's classical music upbringing is felt strongly in all the tracks , but this time he was not the main responsible for songwriting and arrangements , which are considered by critics Deep Purple 's first real group effort . Lord 's interest in mixing rock and classical music would culminate in late 1969 with his Concerto for Group and Orchestra suite , but he already defined Deep Purple as a symphonic rock band in a 1968 interview . Nick Simper complained about Lord 's excessive influence in composition and arrangements in a 1983 interview , which he said " resulted in a lack of direction for the band . " " Anthem " is perhaps the band 's deepest venture into classical music on a regular studio album , with its baroque style interlude reminiscent of a Bach fugue written by Lord and performed using Mellotron and string quartet . A similar approach can be found on King Crimson 's debut album , released a year later . Rearranged excerpts from the second movement of Beethoven 's Symphony No. 7 and Tchaikovsky 's Ouverture @-@ Fantasy " Romeo and Juliet " are in the instrumental intro " Exposition " , while " River Deep , Mountain High " is introduced by the notes of " Also sprach Zarathustra " , written in 1896 by Richard Strauss and very popular after its inclusion in the film 2001 : A Space Odyssey , screened earlier in 1968 .
" Wring that Neck " and " Kentucky Woman " show more traces of the heavier music that the band would embrace in their 70s albums with the Mk.II line @-@ up . Blackmore 's guitar work is generally praised by critics . However , in a recent interview , the guitarist defined the album as " lame " and remembered that he had not yet found his own style of guitar playing at the time of recording .
The lyrics written by the band 's singer Rod Evans are very functional to the music and the marketing Deep Purple 's record label was building up for the American hippie audience . Evans took inspiration for the fantasy @-@ themed " Listen , Learn , Read On " , which contains lyrical reference to the album 's title , from the 14th @-@ century Welsh manuscript Book of Taliesin , a collection of poems attributed to the 6th @-@ century poet Taliesin . The title and cover art of the album were also inspired by the manuscript . Instead psychedelia and its rituals play a large part in the lyrics of " Shield " . Simper thinks that Evans ' lyrics are " far better than anything ( ... ) has ever been written in other line ups , in Deep Purple . "
= = Cover art = =
Cover art and sleeve notes convey Tetragrammaton 's decision to aim the album at the vast American hippie audience , which was very influential in the US at the time . The notes in particular were written in a mystical tone , evoking the bard Taliesyn as a spiritual guide and comparing listening to the songs to an exploration in the band members ' souls . The original cover was drawn in pen , ink and color by the British illustrator and author John Vernon Lord , who coincidentally appears to share the same name as Deep Purple 's keyboard player . The Book of Taliesyn was the only record cover John Vernon Lord ever designed and , according to the artist 's recent retrospective book Drawing upon Drawing , the original artwork was never returned . In his book , John Vernon Lord remembers the assignment received from his agency Saxon Artists :
The agent gave me the title saying that the art director wanted a ' fantasy Arthurian touch ' and to include hand lettering for the title and the musicians ' names . I mainly drew from The Book of Taliesin , which is a collection of poems , said to be written by the sixth century Welsh bard Taliesin .
The fee for the job was £ 30 , minus 25 % for the agent . John Vernon Lord was , until recently , Professor of Illustration at the University of Brighton .
= = Touring = =
Deep Purple arrived in California on 15 October 1968 and their first public appearance on American soil was at The Dating Game TV show on ABC on 17 October . They were the first rock band to perform on the show , where Jon Lord was one of the contestants . The next two days the band played live in the US for the first time as supporting act of Cream in their Goodbye tour . The concerts were held at the Inglewood Forum near Los Angeles , California , in front of more than 16 @,@ 000 people every night . Recordings of those live shows were issued in 2002 as Inglewood – Live in California . The next gig at San Diego was the last one supporting Cream , whose management apparently did not appreciate the cheerful reaction of the audience to Deep Purple and dropped them . After a week of forced stop , their American manager succeeded in setting up a tour which included the San Francisco International Pop Festival and venues on the West Coast . This opportunity was very useful for the young musicians , who as headliners could lengthen their live shows up to 90 minutes and gained much needed experience on the road . This was particularly true for Blackmore , who developed and extended his guitar solos , incorporating more improvisations .
The tour was a success and Deep Purple 's popularity in the US received another boost from a TV appearance at Playboy After Dark alongside Hugh Hefner on 23 October 1968 . The band had become a much requested act and more dates were added on the East Coast till the end of the year , including a two nights gig at the Fillmore East with Creedence Clearwater Revival and the James Cotton Blues Band , and Christmas holiday shows at the famous Electric Circus club in New York .
In late December , the band managers Tony Edwards and John Coletta booked some studio time in New York to record a new single , after the relative failure of " Kentucky Woman " and " River Deep , Mountain High " . The band recorded the cover of Ben E. King 's song " Oh No No No " and tried " Lay Lady Lay " by Bob Dylan and " Glory Road " by Neil Diamond , without satisfying results . The record label did not publish those recordings and a surviving take of " Oh No No No " can be heard only in the 2000 remastered edition of The Book of Taliesyn .
The band returned in England on 3 January 1969 and went straight into De Lane Lea Studios to record new songs . The recording sessions were interspersed with gigs and lasted from January to March ; most of the songs ended up in their eponymous album , which would be released by Tetragrammaton in the US only in June 1969 .
Deep Purple debuted the new single " Emmaretta " , new material and new takes on songs from their released albums at BBC sessions for the Top Gear radio show on 14 January . The song " Hey Bop a Re Bop " played at those sessions would later become " The Painter " . Starting on the first of February the band went on tour in Denmark and the UK , with gigs in colleges and small clubs . In an interview , the band commented that in comparison with what they earned in America " they were actually losing a couple of thousand pounds every night they played in Britain . " The last UK gig was on 22 March and on 1 April 1969 the band was again on tour in the US , despite the lack of a new album to promote . It was at this time that Blackmore and Lord decided to change Deep Purple 's musical style , veering towards straight hard rock , which led to Evans and Simper 's dismissal in July .
When The Book of Taliesyn was finally released in the UK in June 1969 a few more dates in the band 's home country were added to promote the album release , even if the Mk.II line @-@ up with new members Ian Gillan and Roger Glover was already rehearsing and recording new material in secret .
Songs from this album were performed regularly by the Mk . I line @-@ up . The exceptions were " Exposition / We Can Work It Out " and " Anthem " , whose complex arrangements could not be easily reproduced in a live setting . The Mk . II formation performed " Kentucky Woman " in their first shows , but dropped it from the set list together with the few other songs from the first three albums , in favour of new material . Only the instrumental " Wring That Neck " remained a staple of Deep Purple 's performances for a couple of years , working as a frame for Blackmore and Lord 's long improvisations and coming back in the set list of the current line @-@ up in the 2000s .
= = Reception = =
Deep Purple 's albums and singles were almost completely ignored in the UK , a fact that puzzled American reporters . In an interview , Simper tried to justify their lack of success in their home country , saying that the British audience was more interested in a fancy presentation than music and that blues rock " was becoming very big " at the time in England . John Peel , head of the Top Gear radio show , who had met the band in 1968 and had great expectations for The Book of Taliesyn , was not too pleased with the final result :
The group have done some fine things for Radio One and they excite when they play live . I don 't understand where this record went wrong , it is all too restrained somehow . They recorded " Wring That Neck " much better for a recent Top Gear .
American reviewers were enthusiastic of Deep Purple 's live performances and the lack of a new successful single apparently did not ruin the positive perception of the band in the US , to the point that they were often addressed as an American band . Band members even thought about transferring their residence in the United States , but renounced when they learned that the 21 year old Paice could be drafted for the Vietnam War .
Modern reviews of the album go from positive to mixed . Joe Viglione of AllMusic compares Deep Purple 's production to Vanilla Fudge 's , underlining how the two bands covered songs from the same authors and used similar arrangements . He writes that on The Book of Taliesyn Deep Purple veered more towards progressive rock than their American counterparts , combining meaningful lyrics and " innovative musical passages " . On the contrary , PopMatters criticizes the " Spinal Tapish " lyrics and the lack of hit material on the album with the exception of " Wring That Neck " , considered " perhaps the first real Deep Purple composition . " Blogcritics reviewers stress how the original material , and " Wring That Neck " in particular , " stands the test of time well " . However , Greg Barbrick finds " Jon Lord ’ s classical leanings ( ... ) a bit too much " on tracks like " Exposition " and " Anthem " , where they " threaten to derail the proceedings " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Deep Purple = = =
Rod Evans - lead vocals
Ritchie Blackmore - guitar
Jon Lord - Hammond organ , keyboards , backing vocals , strings arrangement on " Anthem "
Nick Simper - bass guitar , backing vocals
Ian Paice - drums
= = = Production = = =
Derek Lawrence - producer , mixing
Barry Ainsworth - engineer
Peter Mew - restoring and digital remastering at Abbey Road Studios , London
= = Charts = =
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= Egardus =
Egardus , alternatively Engardus or Johannes Echgaerd , was a European composer of music in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries . Almost no information survives about his life , and only three of his works are known . A certain " Johannes Ecghaerd " , who held chaplaincies in Bruges and Diksmuide , may be a possible match for Egardus . The extant works — a canon and two Glorias — appear to be less complex than music by mid @-@ century composers , possibly because they date from either very early or very late in Egardus ' career .
= = Biography = =
Little is known with certainty about his life . The enigma of his biography stems from a difficulty in knowing whether he was Flemish or Italian . A northern origin is suggested by his name , a copy of one of his works in a Flemish manuscript , and a possible citation of his music by Thomas Fabri . But with only one other exception , all of his works are found in Northern Italian manuscripts , and that exception , a Polish manuscript , has strong Italian connections . The most important biographical research on the composer was conducted by Reinhard Strohm , who notes that it was more common for Northern works ( and composers ) to travel to Italy than the opposite .
Strohm identifies a " Magister Johannes Ecghaerd " appointed as succentor of St Donatian 's Cathedral ( Sint @-@ Donaaskathedraal ) in Bruges in 1370 as a possible match for the composer . This appointment suggests to Strohm that Echgaerd would have been born by or before 1340 . Strohm also finds connections to a work by Thomas Fabri , a Dutch composer , in the text of Furnos reliquisti , an unlikely coincidence if they were not working in close proximity to each other . Johannes Egardus held chaplaincies in Diksmuide and Bruges . The number of his pieces in Paduan manuscripts suggested to Strohm that he may have been resident there . Nino Pirrotta had suggested that he may have been one of the musicians in the papal court of Bologna c.1410. However , Pirrotta 's evidence was based on the position of Egardus 's works within the manuscript Mod A — a connection between manuscript and court now considered more tenuous , and not from the lists of singers in the Italian papal chapels : lists from which Egardus is absent .
= = Works = =
Only three works by Egardus survive . A canon , Furnos reliquisti quare ; Equum est et salutare is found in a single source , Mod A ( Modena , Biblioteca Estense e Universitaria alpha.M.5.24 ) . His other two works have a somewhat wider distribution . The Gloria with the trope " Spiritus et Alme " appears in three sources , Utrecht , Universiteitsbibliotheek 1846 ( olim 37 , independently discovered by Schmid and Strohm ) and two sources from Padua , Biblioteca Universitaria : MSS Ba 2.2.a ( formerly 1225 , part of Pad D ) and 1475 ( part of Pad A ) . Both of the Paduan sources originally come from the Paduan abbey of Santa Giustina . An untroped Gloria appears in five independent sources : Warsaw , Biblioteka Narodowa , MS III.8054 ( olim Biblioteka Krasiński 52 , commonly called Kras . ) f . 204v @-@ 205r , Mod A f . 21v @-@ 22r , a collection of sources in Grottaferrata and at Dartmouth College ( f . Dv @-@ 4r ) , Padua Ba 2.2.a ( 1225 ) , f . 1v , and , recently identified , in Udine , Archivio di Stato framm . 22 recto ( part of Cividale A ) . In the Warsaw source , the work is labeled " Opus Egardi . " In Mod A , " Egardus " is used . In no other source of this work is there an attribution . Strohm notes that Egardus 's music is less complex than other mid @-@ century composers , but this lack of complexity can either be attributed to an early date for its composition , contemporaneous with Philippe de Vitry , or a far later date , just prior to Johannes Ciconia ) .
= = = Editions of music = = =
Additional editions are listed in the critical notes of the Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century editions :
Fischer , Kurt von and F. Alberto Gallo , editors . Italian Sacred and Ceremonial Music , Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century 12 ( Monaco : Éditions de l 'Oiseau @-@ Lyre , 1976 ) , p . 21 ( untroped Gloria ) .
Fischer , Kurt von and F. Alberto Gallo , editors . Italian Sacred and Ceremonial Music , Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century 13 ( Monaco : Éditions de l 'Oiseau @-@ Lyre , 1987 ) , p . 90 ( Gloria , " Spiritus et Alme " ) , 214 ( Furnos reliquisti ) .
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= C. R. M. F. Cruttwell =
Charles Robert Mowbray Fraser Cruttwell ( 23 May 1887 – 14 March 1941 ) was a British historian and academic who served as dean and later principal of Hertford College , Oxford . His field of expertise was modern European history , his most notable work being A History of the Great War , 1914 – 18 . He is mainly remembered , however , for the vendetta pursued against him by the novelist Evelyn Waugh , in which Waugh showed his distaste for his former tutor by repeatedly using the name " Cruttwell " in his early novels and stories to depict a sequence of unsavoury or ridiculous characters . The prolonged minor humiliation thus inflicted may have contributed to Cruttwell 's eventual mental breakdown .
After gaining first @-@ class honours at The Queen 's College , Oxford , Cruttwell was elected a Fellow of All Souls College , Oxford in 1911 , and the following year became a lecturer in history at Hertford College . His academic career was interrupted by war service during which he suffered severe wounds ; after his return to Oxford in 1919 he became dean of Hertford , and in 1930 , principal of the college . It was during his tenure as dean that the feud with Waugh developed while the latter was a history scholar at Hertford , in 1922 – 24 . This hostility was pursued on Waugh 's part until shortly before Cruttwell 's death .
Cruttwell 's term as Hertford 's principal saw the production of his most important scholarly works , including his war history which earned him the degree of DLitt . Beyond his college and academic duties Cruttwell held various administrative offices within the university , and was a member of its Hebdomadal Council , or ruling body . In private life Cruttwell served as a Justice of the Peace in Hampshire , where he had a country home , and stood unsuccessfully for the university 's parliamentary seat in the 1935 general election , representing the Conservative party . Ill @-@ health , aggravated by his war injuries , caused his retirement from the Hertford principalship in 1939 . A mental collapse led to his committal to an institution , where he died two years later .
= = Early life and career = =
Cruttwell was born on 23 May 1887 , in the village of Denton , Norfolk , the eldest of three sons of the Rev. Charles Thomas Cruttwell , Rector of St Mary 's Church . The elder Cruttwell was a scholar and historian of Roman literature ; his wife Annie ( née Mowbray ) , was the daughter of Sir John Mowbray , who served as Conservative Member of Parliament for Durham from 1853 to 1868 and for one of the two Oxford University parliamentary seats from 1868 to 1899 . Cruttwell was educated at Rugby School , where in 1906 he won a scholarship to Queen 's College , Oxford , to read classics and history . At Queen 's , Cruttwell enjoyed considerable academic success , including a first class honours degree in modern history . In 1911 he was elected to a fellowship at All Souls College and a year later was appointed to a history lectureship at Hertford College .
On the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , Cruttwell enlisted in the Royal Berkshire Regiment and was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant . He fought in France and Belgium , until a severe leg wound in 1916 ended his front line military service . Apart from its physical effects , Cruttwell 's experience in the trenches seemingly inflicted permanent psychological damage on his personality , replacing the general good manners of his youth with a short @-@ tempered , impatient and bullying character . The novelist Evelyn Waugh , an undergraduate at Hertford in the 1920s , wrote later that " It was as though he had never cleansed himself from the muck of the trenches " . In the latter part of the war , Cruttwell was employed in the military intelligence department at the War Office in London , before returning to Oxford in 1919 . In 1922 , he published a short history of his regiment 's wartime exploits .
= = Hertford College = =
On his return to Hertford College , Cruttwell was elected to a fellowship in modern history and a year later was appointed Hertford 's Dean , responsible for general discipline within the college ; he held this post for five years . He also became active in the administration of Oxford University and was elected to its ruling body , the Hebdomadal Council . He served as a university statutory commissioner and was one of several academics nominated by the Vice @-@ Chancellor as delegates to the Oxford University Press .
Cruttwell 's administrative competence was recognised in 1930 , when he was elected principal of Hertford College . In this office , he helped to establish the university 's geography school and arranged that the first Oxford professorship in geography was based at Hertford . During his tenure as principal , he completed his most significant academic works , including his Great War history ( 1934 ) which earned him the Oxford degree of DLitt . In 1936 Cruttwell delivered the Lees @-@ Knowles Lecture at Trinity College , Cambridge , under the title " The Role of British Strategy in the Great War " . In the same year he published a biography of the Duke of Wellington and in 1937 produced his final major academic work , A History of Peaceful Change in the Modern World . An attempt in 1935 to emulate his grandfather and become one of the university 's members of parliament failed when , as a Conservative candidate in the general election of 1935 , Cruttwell was defeated . An Independent , A. P. Herbert , beat him on the third ballot in a single transferable vote system . This was the first time since the 1860s , that a Conservative had failed to hold either of the two university seats , a humiliation noted with relish by Waugh who harboured a deep hostility towards his former tutor . According to The Times , Cruttwell had underestimated the nature and determination of the opposition and had taken his election as a Conservative for granted . In first preferences , he came bottom of the poll with only 1 @,@ 803 votes , while his Conservative running mate , Lord Hugh Cecil , gained 7 @,@ 365 , almost five times as many . Because he polled less than one @-@ eighth of the first ballot votes , Cruttwell forfeited his deposit .
= = Feud with Evelyn Waugh = =
Waugh joined Hertford College on a scholarship , in January 1922 . He had received a congratulatory letter from Cruttwell welcoming him to the college and complimenting him on his English prose : " about the best of any of the Candidates in the group " . Despite this warmth , Waugh 's initial impressions of his tutor were unfavourable — " not at all the kind of don for whom I had been prepared by stories of Jowett . " The first recorded clash between them came early in Waugh 's first term ; in a letter to his school friend Dudley Carew , Waugh reports that his tutor verbally abused him for a Latin mistranslation with the words " Damn you , you 're a scholar ! " The main basis for the rift that rapidly developed was Waugh 's increasingly casual attitude towards his scholarship . Whereas Cruttwell saw the scholarship as a commitment to hard and devoted study , Waugh considered it a reward for his successful school studies and a passport to a life of pleasure . To the detriment of his work , Waugh involved himself in a range of university activities : the Oxford Union , the Hertford debating society , journalism and drawings for the undergraduate papers Isis and Cherwell , and a hectic social life . In his third term , he was brusquely advised by Cruttwell that he should take his studies more seriously , a warning which Waugh chose to interpret as an insult . " I think it was from then on that our mutual dislike became incurable " , he later wrote .
During his remaining time at Hertford , Waugh missed few opportunities to ridicule Cruttwell . He did this in numerous unsigned contributions to Isis , including an article in March 1924 , in the " Isis Idols " series . In this , according to Waugh 's biographer Martin Stannard , the mockery was cleverly disguised as a paean of praise , arranged around an unflattering photograph of Cruttwell displaying " bad teeth within an unfortunate smile " . In Cherwell , in August 1923 , Waugh published a short story , " Edward of Unique Achievement " , in which the protagonist , a history student at an Oxford college , murders his tutor , " Mr Curtis " ( who is , among other things , revealed to be a sexual deviant ) . Waugh and an accomplice , spread a rumour that Cruttwell favoured sex with animals ; they bought a stuffed dog which they placed in the college quadrangle and began the practice of barking under the dean 's window . Cruttwell made no apparent response to these provocations , other than a dismissive reference to Waugh as " a silly suburban sod with an inferiority complex " .
Waugh left Hertford in the summer of 1924 , with a third class degree and a brief note from Cruttwell , expressing disappointment with this performance . Although the pair never met again , a few years later Cruttwell spoke disparagingly of Waugh , to the latter 's prospective mother @-@ in @-@ law , Lady Burghclere , describing him as vice @-@ ridden and " living off vodka and absinthe " . Once Waugh had established himself as a writer , he resumed the vendetta against his former tutor by introducing a succession of disreputable or absurd characters called " Cruttwell " into his novels and stories . In Decline and Fall ( 1928 ) " Toby Cruttwell " is a psychopathic burglar ; in Vile Bodies ( 1930 ) the name belongs to a snobbish Conservative MP . In Black Mischief ( 1932 ) " Cruttwell " is a social parasite , and he becomes a dubious osteopath or " bone @-@ setter " in A Handful of Dust ( 1934 ) . In Scoop ( 1938 ) , " General Cruttwell " is a salesman with a fake tropical tan at the Army & Navy Stores . The 1935 short story " Mr Loveday 's Little Outing " , which recounts the grisly deeds of an escaped homicidal maniac , was originally published as " Mr Cruttwell 's Little Outing " . The final Cruttwell reference in Waugh 's fiction came in 1939 , in the short story " An Englishman 's Home " , in the form of an embezzling Wolf Cub master . In 1935 , in an additional gesture of sarcastic ridicule , Waugh told a survey in which modern novelists were asked to nominate their best work that he had yet to write his masterpiece : " It is the memorial biography of C. R. M. F. Cruttwell , some time Dean of Hertford College , Oxford , and my old history tutor . It is a labour of love to one to whom , under God , I owe everything " . As with Waugh 's student taunting , Cruttwell made no public response , although according to Stannard he anticipated each new Waugh novel with much trepidation about how he might be portrayed .
= = Later years = =
Cruttwell remained a bachelor throughout his life . His one proposal of marriage — to the socialite and later New York society hostess Anne Huth @-@ Jackson — was rebuffed and there are no accounts of other romantic attachments . Beyond his academic duties , he enjoyed entertaining at his country house near the village of Highclere in Hampshire , where he was active in the local community and served as a Justice of the Peace . Since the war , his health had suffered from the effects of his wounds , and he was subject to recurrent rheumatic fever . In 1939 his poor physical condition caused his early retirement from Hertford , followed a period of mental illness possibly exacerbated by the continuing mockery from Waugh . Eventually Cruttwell was confined to a mental hospital , the Burden Institute at Stapleton , near Bristol , where he died on 14 March 1941 , aged 53 . He left his book collection and a bequest of £ 1 @,@ 000 to Hertford College , together with an oil portrait of him , painted in 1937 by his cousin , Grace Cruttwell . The probate value of his estate was £ 19 @,@ 814 .
= = Reputation = =
Cruttwell was an accepted authority on the political and military history of the Rhineland . His professional standing is largely based on his Great War history , which his ODNB biographer Geoffrey Ellis suggests is " most notable for its frank and fearless judgements on those identified as the principal actors ( military , naval and political ) in that tragic conflict " . This work was widely admired at the time and has undergone several reprints but has also been criticised as lacking in humanity , displaying " almost no awareness of the appalling degree of suffering it chronicles " . Ellis describes Cruttwell 's textbooks on modern British and European history as " models of clarity and cogency " . Cruttwell 's professional reputation has been largely overshadowed , by the attention given to his feud with Waugh , the true significance of which , Ellis believes , may have been somewhat exaggerated .
Cruttwell 's relations with his colleagues and students have been the subject of contradictory reports . Waugh 's biographer , Selena Hastings , describes him as of " unprepossessing " appearance , " good @-@ hearted but difficult " , inclined to misogyny , brusque and sometimes offensive towards his male colleagues . Waugh 's description is of someone " tall , almost loutish , with the face of a petulant baby " , of indistinct speech , who " smoked a pipe which was attached to his blubber @-@ lips by a thread of slime " . Stannard records that Waugh 's student contemporary Christopher Hollis , found nothing particularly remarkable about Cruttwell . " Like Waugh " , says Stannard , " Cruttwell played up his eccentricities and had an uncharitable sense of humour " . Ellis 's 2004 biographical sketch suggests that much of Cruttwell 's rebarbative manner , may have been the result of simple shyness .
Although there was clearly mutual animosity between Cruttwell and Waugh , Hastings points out that Cruttwell would have been justified in suspending Waugh from the college on numerous occasions , but did not do so . Ellis acknowledges a " forceful , forthright and eccentric character " but stresses Cruttwell 's generous hospitality " to many who became his close friends " and concern for his undergraduates ' welfare .
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= Putana =
In Hindu mythology , Putana ( Sanskrit : Pūtanā , lit . " putrefaction " ) is a Rakshasi ( demoness ) , who is killed by the infant @-@ god Krishna . Putana is also considered as a foster @-@ mother of Krishna as she breast @-@ fed him , though it was with the motive of killing Krishna by poisoned milk . By offering her milk , Putana had performed " the supreme act of maternal devotion " , in the shadow of her evil motives . The myth is told and retold in Hindu scriptures and some Indian books , which portray her variously as an evil hag or a demoness who surrendered herself to Krishna , though she initially came with evil motives .
Putana is interpreted as an infantile disease or bird , symbolizing danger to an infant or desire respectively , and even as a symbolic bad mother . She is included in a group of malevolent Hindu mother goddesses called the Matrikas and also in the group of Yoginis and Grahinis ( Seizers ) . Ancient Indian medical texts prescribe her worship to protect children from diseases . A group of multiple Putanas is mentioned in ancient Indian texts .
= = Etymology = =
The word " Pūtanā " , broken as " Pūt " ( virtue ) and " nā " ( no ) means " devoid of virtue " . Another explanation derives " Pūtanā " from " Pūta " ( purifying ) , thus meaning " she who purifies " . Herbert theorizes " Pūtanā " is derived from " Put " , a hell in Hindu mythology , associated with parents and children . Thus , Herbert proposes , on the basis of the etymology and her association with the Matrikas , that Putana is closely linked to motherhood . White translates Putana as " stinky " , and relates it to pustulant sores , the eruption of which is a symptom of chicken pox . Putana is also the name of the weapon of or a form of the goddess of small pox , Sitala .
= = Legend = =
The legend of Putana and Krishna is narrated in many Hindu texts : Bhagavata Purana , Harivamsa ( part of Mahabharata ) , Brahma Vaivarta Purana , Vishnu Purana , Garga Samhita and Prem Sagar .
Putana ( also called as poothani ) , the " killer of infants " , was sent by Krishna 's evil uncle Kamsa to kill Krishna . Putana assumed the disguise of a young , beautiful woman and came to Gokul ( Vraj ) - Krishna 's home @-@ town . Her beauty resulted in her being mistaken by gopas ( cowherds ) as a manifestation of goddess Lakshmi . Stunned by her beauty , Krishna 's foster @-@ mother Yashoda allowed Putana to take the infant Krishna in her lap and suckle him . Putana had smeared her breast with a mandana , an intoxicant , to kill Krishna . However , Krishna squeezed her breasts and sucked her life ( prana ) , as well as her milk . In pain , Putana screamed , pleading for her release , but in vain . She ran out of the town with Krishna still clinging to her and finally fell dead . She then assumed her real demonic form , turning trees to a distance of three gavyuti ( a unit of distance equivalent totally to 12 miles ) to dust . The people of Vraj cut Putana 's body , burying her bones and feet and burning the flesh and skin . The fragrant smoke rose out of the flames , as Putana was cleansed of all sin by breast @-@ feeding Krishna and she attained the same heaven that Yashoda acquired . Thus , Putana , like Yashodha , is also considered as a foster @-@ mother of Krishna as she breast @-@ fed him .
In later versions of the myth , the intoxicant smearing on Putana 's breast is replaced with poison or the milk itself is said to be poisoned . Another version of the tale portrays Putana as stealing Krishna at night , when everyone else is asleep .
K. M. Munshi had a totally different take on the myth in his Krishnavatara series . Though Putana came with evil intentions , she is portrayed as being happy to see Krishna and her maternal instinct rises , telling her " Take this lovely boy to your breast . You are a wicked and miserable woman . You have never seen joy before , joy which thrills your whole body and mind with mad delight . " Overjoyed and forgetful of her poisoned breasts , she took Krishna in her lap and suckled him . In the process , she surrenders to Krishna saying " I give you all , my beloved child ... I am yours . " Further , Putana is purified and liberated from her mortal body by Krishna .
= = = Previous birth = = =
Garga Samhita ( a work on the life of Krishna ) and Brahma Vaivarta Purana further tell of the previous birth of Putana as Ratnamala , the daughter of demon king Bali . When she saw Vamana , the previous incarnation of Krishna as a dwarf , she felt a desire to have him as her son and suckle him . She soon changed her mind and decided to kill Vamana , after he acquired all possessions of Bali . Krishna knew her desires and allowed her to fulfil both of them - to suckle him and to attempt to take his life .
= = = Symbolism = = =
One theory interprets Putana as being the first foe faced by Krishna ( further numerous demons are sent by Kamsa to kill Krishna ) or as the first obstacle of possessive maternal instinct faced by yogis . The legend assures a devotee liberation if they treat god as their own son . Another theory interprets Putana as an infantile disease that Krishna survived , which can be cured by forcefully suckling the child affected . Further , the theory relates to Krishna 's later life when he fights a demon called Jvara ( fever ) .
In Vishnu Purana , it is explicitly stated that Putana should work in the dark , symbolizing the lack of illumination of knowledge . Her ear @-@ rings are described not as radiant , but as quivering , signifying her unstable nature . Agrawal equates Putana to Varuna , the Vedic god of darkness and chaos in the water . As Varuna pollutes life @-@ giving water , Putana mixed her breast milk with poison . Thus , Putana stands for death and darkness . O 'Flaherty says :
The myth of Pūtanā is significant not merely for the image it presents ... but for the intensity with which the image is depicted and the frequency with which the myth itself is told in India .
Kakar further adds :
The secret fantasy of poisoned milk , of nourishment that kills , originates early in life when the decisive separation between child and mother takes place . The elevation of this fantasy , ... , to the status of myth for a whole culture indicates the intensity of ( this ) inner conflict ... in the Indian setting .
According to Kakar , Putana may represent a dangerous schizophrenic mother , who has trapped her child in an emotional net , of which he cannot let go . He interprets Krishna clinging to Putana 's breast as not only the infant 's excitement and anger , but also a form of " incestuous intercourse " , as in the killing of other maternal demons . By killing the " bad mother " , the son kills " sexually ravenous maternal images in his psyche " , leaving the protective images unhurt , and thus emerges as an adult , drawing boundaries between her and him .
= = Textual descriptions = =
Putana is defined as yātudhānī at the beginning and the end of Bhagavata Purana . Though the word yātudhānī is rarely used , yātudhāna - the masculine form - is frequently used in Hindu scriptures to mean an evil spirit . In the Rigveda , yātudhānas are to be killed , their bodies broken and their flesh eaten , just as Putana was treated . The Bhagavata Purana further tells of a gopi or milkmaid , narrating a hymn for protection from evil spirits including the Matrikas and Putana , even though Putana is dead . In another instance in the Purana , it is said that Putana and " her tribe " still had access to Krishna . Finally , the whole chapter is called " Deliverance of Putana " , and not " Killing of Putana " . Both incidences enforce the view that though Putana 's mortal body is killed by Krishna , she lives on in the world as a spirit .
In the Mahabharata , when mentioned with the Matrikas ( Mothers ) and the war @-@ god Skanda , Putana is mentioned as a protectress rakshasi , a Grahini ( female seizer ) , as well as a Matrika and Yogini . In Harivamsa , an appendix to Mahabharata , she is listed as a Grahini , with a prayer to protect the child at the end . In Agni Purana , she is mentioned as a Grahini and also a Yogini .
= = = Group of Putanas = = =
The medical text Balatantra mentions Putana as the common name of 16 sisters of the demon king Ravana , who are permitted to eat the flesh of infants . The Buddhist text , Saddharmapundarika Sutra and the 1131 CE encyclopedia Manasollasa by Western Chalukya king Someshvara III lists multiple demons , including a group of Putanas . The Brahmanda Purana and Harita Samhita mention Putanas as a sub @-@ group of Matrikas and Grahinis , whose individual names include Kali and Dakini .
= = In Ayurvedic medicine = =
The Ayurvedic medical text Sustum Samhita describes Putana as " black in colour , with a gaping mouth and projecting teeth and disheveled hair , clad in filthy garments , very smelly , and dwelling in empty broken @-@ down buildings . " It further prescribes an offering of crow dung , fish , a rice dish , ground sesame and alcohol to Putana and recitation of hymns to Putana , urging her to protect the baby , along with other treatments . Kumaratantra ( " Rituals related to childhood " ) , a branch of Ayurveda , specifically mentions that it aims to heal diseases that arise from " empoisoned milk of Seizers " ( Grahini ) , Putana being one . As per Kumaratantra , all childhood diseases falling on the third day , the third month , or the third year of a child 's life are attributed to Putana , regardless of the disease 's symptoms .
= = Depiction as a bird = =
Putana is portrayed as a bird in sculpture and myth . Kushan images of Putana as a bird are found in Mathura , Deogarh and Mandor . In a third @-@ century version of Harivamsa , Putana is called the " nurse of Kamsa " , who comes to a child as a female bird ( shakuni ) , and is one of many birdlike female divinities mentioned in Harivamsa . Putana 's bird form symbolizes desire of materialistic objectives . In some texts , Putana is described as a Vaki , a female crane , thus a symbol of crookedness and hypocrisy .
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= Battle of Battle Mountain =
The Battle of Battle Mountain was an engagement between United Nations ( UN ) and North Korean ( NK ) forces early in the Korean War from August 15 to September 19 , 1950 , on and around the Sobuk @-@ san mountain area in South Korea . It was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter . The battle ended in a victory for the UN after large numbers of United States ( US ) and Republic of Korea ( ROK ) troops were able to prevent a North Korean division from capturing the mountain area .
Operating in defense of Masan , the US Army 's 25th Infantry Division placed its 24th Infantry Regiment and 5th Infantry Regiment on Sobuk @-@ san to defend its two peaks , P 'il @-@ bong and Hill 665 , which would later be known as " Battle Mountain . " What followed was a month @-@ long struggle with the North Korean People 's Army 's 6th Division , in which Battle Mountain changed hands 20 times .
During the deadlock , neither side was able to secure a definite victory in capturing the mountaintop , but the US forces succeeded in their mission of preventing the North Koreans from advancing beyond Battle Mountain , paving the way for the North Koreans ' eventual defeat and withdrawal from the area after the Battle of Inchon .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the June 25 , 1950 , outbreak of the Korean War as a result of the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations committed troops to the conflict in support of South Korea . The United States , a member of the UN , subsequently dispatched ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of pushing back the North Korean invasion and preventing South Korea from collapsing . However , the number of US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength however , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th was ordered to South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying the much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive . The division was consequently alone for several weeks while the 1st Cavalry Division and the 7th and 25th Infantry Divisions moved into position , along with other Eighth United States Army supporting units . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat at Osan , 24th Infantry was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , where it was almost completely destroyed but delayed North Korean forces from advancing until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With Taejon captured , North Korean forces attempted to envelop the Pusan Perimeter . The 4th and 6th North Korean ( NK ) Infantry Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver . The two divisions were forced to spread their units along a thin line , but managed to penetrate the UN 's left flank with armor and superior numbers , repeatedly pushing back US and South Korean forces . American forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country . The 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in the country , sustained massive casualties at Hadong in a coordinated ambush on July 27 that opened a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju to the west , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan area open for more North Korean attacks . US formations were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 . Suffering mounting losses , the KPA force in the west withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = = Emplacement of the 25th Infantry Division = = =
The Eighth Army commander , Lieutenant General Walton Walker , then ordered the US 25th Infantry Division , under Major General William B. Kean , to take up defensive positions on the Pusan Perimeter 's southern flank west of Masan . By August 15 , the 25th Infantry Division had moved into the line , but rough terrain west of Masan limited the choice of its positions . The mountain group west of Masan was the first readily defensible ground east of the Chinju pass . The 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 610 m ) mountain ridges of Sobuk @-@ san dominated the area and protected the road from Komam @-@ ni to Haman to Chindong @-@ ni , the only means of north – south communication west of Masan .
Northwest of Komam @-@ ni was the broken spur ridge of P 'il @-@ bong , dominated by 900 feet ( 270 m ) Sibidang @-@ san , along the Nam River . Sibidang provided an excellent observation point for the surrounding area , and US artillery emplaced in the Komam @-@ ni area could interdict the road junction at Chungam @-@ ni . The US 35th Infantry Regiment set up positions at Sibidang @-@ Komam @-@ ni , in the northern part of the 25th Infantry Division defense line . The 35th Regiment line extended from a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Komam @-@ ni to the Nam River and then turned east along that stream to its confluence with the Naktong River . It was a long regimental line , about 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) , twice the length a regiment was typically assigned .
The 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , held the regiment 's left flank west of Komam @-@ ni , and the 2nd Battalion held the regimental right along the Nam River . Meanwhile , the 3rd Battalion , redesignated from the 1st Battalion , 29th Infantry , was in reserve on the road south of Chirwon , with quick access to any part of the line . To the south was the US 24th Infantry Regiment ; west of Chindong @-@ ni , the 5th Regimental Combat Team ( RCT ) was on the division 's left flank . On division orders , 5th RCT first held the ground above the Chindong @-@ ni coastal road only as far as Yaban @-@ san , but Kean soon ordered them to close the gap with the 24th Infantry northward . When the 5th sent a South Korean unit of 100 men under American officers to the higher slope of Sobuk @-@ san , North Korean troops already there drove them back . Kean then ordered the 5th Regimental Combat Team to take this ground , but it was too late ; the ground was firmly in North Korean hands .
= = Prelude = =
The NK 6th Division and NK 7th Division closed on Masan , attacking the US 25th Infantry Division on multiple fronts , with the main efforts aimed at the 24th and 35th Infantry regiments . At the same time that the North Korean 7th Division was trying to penetrate the 35th Infantry positions around Sibidang and Komam @-@ ni , the 6th Division also sent strong patrols and probing attacks against the mountainous middle part of the 25th Infantry Division line . When the division issued orders to its subordinate units to take up defensive positions west of Masan , the 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry was still trying to seize Obong @-@ san , the mountain ridge just west of Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong , and across a gorge @-@ like valley from them . At daybreak on August 15 , the 2nd Battalion broke contact with the North Koreans and withdrew to Sobuk @-@ san and the ridge west of Haman . The 3rd Battalion , 24th Infantry now came to the Haman area to help in the regimental defense of the sector .
= = = Battle Mountain = = =
The high ground west of Haman on which the 24th Infantry established its defensive line was part of the Sobuk @-@ san mountain mass . Sobuk @-@ san reaches its 2 @,@ 400 feet ( 730 m ) peak at P 'il @-@ bong , also called Hill 743 , 8 miles ( 13 km ) northwest of Chindong @-@ ni and 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of Haman . From P 'il @-@ bong , the crest of the ridge line curves northwestward , to rise again 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away in the bald peak designated Hill 665 , which became known as Battle Mountain . US troops also occasionally called it " Napalm Hill , " " Old Baldy , " and " Bloody Knob . " Between P 'il @-@ bong and Battle Mountain the ridge line narrows to a rocky ledge which the troops called the " Rocky Crags . " Northward from Battle Mountain toward the Nam River , the ground drops sharply in two long spur ridges . US troops who fought there called the eastern one Green Peak .
At the western , North Korean – held base of Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong were the villages of Ogok and Tundok , 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) from the crest . A north – south mountain trail crossed a high saddle just north of these villages and up the west slope about halfway to the top of Battle Mountain . This road gave the North Koreans an advantage in mounting and supplying their attacks in the area . A trail system ran from Ogok and Tundok to the crests of Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong . From the top of Battle Mountain , an observer could look directly down into the North Korean – held valley . At the same time , from Battle Mountain the North Koreans could look down into the Haman valley eastward and observe the US 24th Infantry command post , supply road , artillery positions , and approach trails . Whichever side held the crest of Battle Mountain could observe the rear areas of the other . Both forces , seeing the advantages of holding the crest of Battle Mountain , fought relentlessly to capture it in a six @-@ week @-@ long battle .
= = = Logistics = = =
The approach to Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong was much more difficult from the east , the American @-@ held side , than from the west , the North Korean side . On the east side there was no road climbing halfway to the top ; from the base of the mountain at the edge of the Haman valley the only way to make the ascent was by foot trail . Climbers took two to three hours to reach the top of P 'il @-@ bong from the reservoir area , and required from three to four hours to get on top of Battle Mountain from the valley floor . The turnaround time for supply trains to Battle Mountain was six hours . Often a dispatch runner required eight hours to go up Battle Mountain and come back down . In some places the trail was so steep that climbers had to set up ropes to hold along the side of the trail . North Korean night patrols constantly cut telephone lines . The wire men had a difficult and dangerous job trying to maintain wire communication with units on the mountain . Food , water and ammunition were frequently short for the units at the tops of the peaks .
Bringing dead and seriously wounded down from the top was difficult for both sides . UN litter @-@ bearing teams of six men had to carry each wounded man on a stretcher down the mountain . A medical aide was also needed to administer care during the trip if the man was critically wounded , and riflemen often accompanied the groups to protect them from North Korean snipers along the trail . Critically wounded men often died before reaching the bottom where full medical care could be administered . This possibility was one of the factors that lowered morale in the 24th Infantry units fighting on Battle Mountain . Many men were afraid that if they were wounded there they would die before reaching adequate medical care . North Korean troops often did not have time to move dead and wounded from the peak at all , forcing both sides to bury casualties in shallow graves along the peak .
The 24th Infantry 's supporting artillery , the 159th Field Artillery Battalion , emplaced in the valley south of Haman . On August 19 , the artillery moved farther to the rear , except for C Battery , which remained in a creek bed north of Haman . Regimental engineers worked to improve a trail running from Haman northeast to the main Komam @-@ ni @-@ Masan road . The engineers intended to use it as an evacuation road for the artillery , if that became necessary , and to improve the road net of the regimental sector for better movement of troops and supplies . This road became known as the " Engineer Road " .
On August 15 , there was a gap 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) wide in the P 'il @-@ bong area between the 24th Infantry and the US 5th Infantry Regimental Combat Team to the south . The 24th Infantry had not performed well during previous engagements , so Kean sent 432 ROK National Police to the area the next day and placed them in this gap , ensuring the North Koreans would not be able to exploit any holes in the line .
= = Battle = =
Opposing the US 24th Infantry at Battle Mountain was the NK 6th Division , which had been engaging Task Force Kean since August 5 . The division , which had originally numbered 10 @,@ 000 , had suffered 4 @,@ 000 casualties thus far fighting at the Pusan Perimeter . However it brought in 3 @,@ 100 South Koreans forcibly conscripted from neighboring towns to replenish its ranks . The South Koreans fought as ordered , though the North Koreans dispatched rearguard soldiers with them to shoot any who attempted to desert , defect , or surrender .
= = = US 24th Infantry repulsed = = =
The first attack against the mountain line of the 24th Infantry came on the morning of August 18 , when the North Koreans overran several E Company positions on the northern spur of Battle Mountain and killed the company commander . During the day , Lieutenant Colonel Paul F. Roberts succeeded Lieutenant Colonel George R. Cole in command of the 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry there . The next day , the North Koreans attacked C Company on Battle Mountain and routed it . Officers could collect only 40 men to bring them back into position . Many ROK police on P 'il @-@ bong also ran from the fight , and only 56 of them remained in their defensive positions . American officers used threats and physical force to get others back into position . A 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) gap in the line north of P 'il @-@ bong existed in the 24th Infantry lines at the close of the day , and an unknown number of North Koreans were moving into it .
On August 20 , the NK 6th Division intensified its efforts to capture Battle Mountain , and began sending stronger attacks to capture the two peaks . In the face of attack , all of C Company except the company commander and about 25 men abandoned their position on Battle Mountain . Upon reaching the bottom of the mountain those who had fled reported erroneously that the company commander had been killed and their position surrounded , then overrun by the North Koreans . On the basis of this misinformation , American artillery and mortars fired concentrations on the position , and fighter @-@ bombers , in 38 sorties , attacked the crest of Battle Mountain , using napalm , fragmentation bombs , rockets , and machine guns , forcing the 26 remaining men off Battle Mountain after they had held it for 20 hours . In this time they had declined an offer from the North Koreans to surrender . A platoon of E Company , except for about 10 men , also left its position on the mountain as soon as the attack progressed . On the regimental left , an ROK patrol from K Company 's position on Sobuk @-@ san captured the commanding officer of the NK 15th Regiment , but he was killed a few minutes later while trying to escape . The patrol removed several intelligence reports from his body . During the day of fighting at Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong , the North Koreans drove off the ROK police from the 24th Infantry 's left flank on Sobuk @-@ san . 24th Infantry troops continued to straggle from their positions , ignoring commands from officers to stay in place . Both African American and white officers , infuriated by the disobedience , wrote sworn statements implicating the deserters . The situation was so severe that those who stayed in their positions were often given Bronze Star Medals with Valor Devices because they were so far outnumbered in the fighting .
= = = US 5th RCT enters the fight = = =
Kean then alerted 5th Regimental Combat Team commander Colonel John L. Throckmorton to prepare a force from the 5th Infantry to attack Sobuk @-@ san and retake it . On the morning of August 21 , the 1st Battalion , 5th Regimental Combat Team , attacked across the 24th Infantry 's boundary and secured the southernmost ridges of the mountain against light North Korean resistance . That evening a strong force of North Koreans counterattacked and drove the 1st Battalion , 5th Infantry off the mountain . At 12 : 00 on August 22 , the 1st Battalion , 5th Infantry again attacked the heights , and five hours later B Company seized the highest ridges . Kean now changed the boundary line between the 5th Regimental Combat Team and the 24th Infantry , giving responsibility for the southern ridges to the 5th , and Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong to the 24th . During the night , the North Koreans launched counterattacks against the 1st Battalion , 5th Regimental Combat Team , and prevented it from consolidating its position . On the morning of August 23 , A Company tried to secure the high ground 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) southwest of the peak and link up with B Company , but was unable to do so . The North Koreans considered the Sobuk @-@ san ridges so important that they committed substantial resources to defending them , and attacked the nearby 5th Regimental Combat Team daily .
North of B Company 's position on Sobuk , the battle situation was similar . North Korean troops in the Rocky Crags , which extended from Sobuk @-@ san toward P 'il @-@ bong , took cover during air strikes . Napalm , 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) bombs , and strafing had little effect . Every time the UN aircraft departed , the North Koreans reoccupied their battle positions . Elements of the 24th Infantry were not able to extend southward and join with B Company of the 5th Regimental Combat Team because of stubborn North Korean resistance .
= = = August 21 – 26 attack = = =
Still farther north along the mountain ridge , in the Battle Mountain area , the battle was going poorly for the 24th Infantry . After C Company lost Battle Mountain , heavy UN airstrikes and artillery fire struck its crest in preparation for an infantry counterattack planned to regain the mountain from the North Koreans . The hot and sultry weather made climbing the steep slope difficult , but L Company was on top by 12 : 00 on August 21 . North Korean troops had left the summit under fire from the UN aircraft , artillery , and mortars . The North Koreans placed their own mortar fire on the crest and prevented L Company from consolidating its position . This situation continued until mid afternoon when a North Korean platoon came out of the trenches on the eastern slope of the mountain and surprised a platoon of L Company with an attack from behind . The other two platoons of L Company , upon hearing firing , started to leave their positions and drift down the hill . The North Koreans swiftly reoccupied the peak while officers tried to assemble L and I Companies on the eastern slope . Elements of E Company also left their position during the day .
American air , artillery , mortar , and tank fire now concentrated on Battle Mountain , and I and L Companies prepared another counterattack to retake it . This attack launched soon after , but made slow progress and at midnight it halted to wait for daylight . Shortly after dawn on August 22 , I and L Companies resumed the attack . L Company moved up the mountain , with I Company supplying a base of fire . Three North Korean grenades wounded six of the troops , causing the rest to retreat without orders from their frustrated commander . They were eventually returned to the hill with some coercion . A few hours later , when a small North Korean force worked around its right flank , the company again withdrew back down the hill to I Company 's position without orders .
Fighting continued on Battle Mountain the next day , August 23 , with more ROK police units arriving to reinforce I and L Companies . The American and South Korean troops finally secured precarious possession of Battle Mountain , mainly because the supporting fire of US mortars targeting the North Korean avenues of approach on the western slope . During the day the North Koreans counterattacked the hill six times , but were repulsed each time . The 3rd Battalion , 24th Infantry units continued to come apart under fire , so much that the battalion commander complained to Kean that he needed more officers to keep the men in line . The situation in the Haman area caused Walker to alert the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade , a reserve unit , for possible movement to this part of the front . However , it was never dispatched . On August 24 , I and L Companies had been so racked by deserters and casualties that they withdrew from the hill . They had suffered 120 casualties during the fight . C Company , along with the ROK police , took charge of the peak .
North Korean troops continued attacking the 24th Infantry all across its line , probing for weaknesses . On August 25 and 26 , C Company beat off several more North Korean attacks on Battle Mountain coming along the long ridge extending from Tundok . At one point in these fights , a flight of US Air Force aircraft caught about 100 North Korean soldiers in the open and immediately napalmed , bombed , and strafed them . The North Korean force was destroyed with few survivors . Task Force Baker , comprising C Company and a platoon of E Company , 24th Infantry with an ROK police company , defended Battle Mountain at this time . The special command was established because of the isolated Battle Mountain area and the extended regimental battle front . For the next two days , air strikes continued to rack North Korean counterattacks and to prevent them from forming into any serious attack on Battle Mountain .
= = = August 28 – 29 attack = = =
The 3rd Battalion , 24th Infantry relieved the 1st Battalion in the Battle Mountain area on August 27 , and 1st Battalion withdrew to reserve , except for C Company which remained on Battle Mountain as a part of Task Force Baker . The next day , August 28 , North Korean attacks continued . That day , a North Korean company @-@ sized attack struck between C and I Companies before dawn . That night , North Korean mortar fire fell on C Company on Battle Mountain . After midnight , a North Korean infantry force appeared in the rear area and captured the command post . Some men of C Company left their positions on Battle Mountain without firing when the attack began at 02 : 45 the next morning , August 29 . The North Koreans then directed their attack toward E Company and overran part of its positions . Airdrops after daylight kept C Company supplied with ammunition , and a curtain of artillery fire , sealing off approaches from the North Koreans ' main positions prevented substantial reinforcements from entering the fight . All day on August 29 , artillery fire and air strikes racked the North Koreans occupying E Company 's old positions . Then , in the evening , E Company counterattacked and reoccupied the lost ground .
At 23 : 00 on August 29 , the North Koreans attacked C Company again . Men on the left flank of the company position quickly abandoned their positions and soon the entire company was retreating , leaving the North Koreans in possession of the mountain again . Captain Lawrence M. Corcoran , the company commander , was left with only the 17 men in his command post , which included several wounded . All of those who stayed were later given Bronze Star Medals . After daylight on August 30 , UN air strikes again came in on Battle Mountain , and US artillery , mortar , and tank fire from the valley concentrated on the North Korean @-@ held peak . A wounded US soldier came down off the mountain where he had hidden for several hours while cut off from escape . He reported that the main body of the North Koreans had withdrawn to the wooded ridges west of the peak for better cover from the airstrikes , leaving only a small covering force on the mountain itself . At 11 : 00 , B Company , which had to this point been the reserve unit , with the 3rd Battalion in support , attacked toward the heights and retook the top by 13 : 00 . The poor defensive positions were repaired but logistical difficulties continued for the US troops at the top .
The 24th Infantry consistently captured Battle Mountain in the same way . Artillery , mortar , and tank fire raked the crest and air strikes employing napalm blanketed the top of the peak . Then , the infantry attacked from the hill beneath the east slope of the summit . Supporting mortars would set up a base of fire and would keep the heights under barrage until the infantry had arrived at a point just short of the crest . The mortar fire then lifted and the infantry moved rapidly up the last stretch to the top , usually to find it abandoned by the North Koreans .
= = = Stalemate = = =
Battle Mountain changed hands so often during August that there is no agreement on the exact number of times . The intelligence sergeant of the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry estimated the peak changed hands 19 times . Subsequent research suggests the actual number was 20 . From August 18 to the end of the month , North Korean troops attacked the mountain every night . The peak often changed hands two or three times in a 24 @-@ hour period . The usual pattern was for the North Koreans to take it at night and the US 24th Infantry to recapture it the next day . This type of fluctuating battle resulted in relatively high losses among artillery forward observers and their equipment . During the period of August 15 – 31 , seven forward observers and eight other members of the Observer and Liaison Section of the 159th Field Artillery Battalion were casualties , and they lost eight radios , 11 telephones , and two vehicles in the process .
In its defense of that part of Sobuk @-@ san south of Battle Mountain and P 'ilbong , the 1st Battalion , 5th Regimental Combat Team , also had nearly continuous action in the last week of the month . During this time , Master Sergeant Melvin O. Handrich of C Company , 5th Regimental Combat Team posthumously won the Medal of Honor for actions on August 25 and 26 . From a forward position he directed artillery fire on an attacking North Korean force and at one point personally kept part of the company from abandoning its positions . Although wounded , Handrich returned to his forward position , to continue directing artillery fire , and engaged North Korean troops alone until he was killed . When the 5th Regimental Combat Team regained the area , it counted over 70 dead North Koreans in the vicinity , all likely killed by Handrich . By the end of August , the fighting in the mountains west of Masan remained a stalemate . Neither side had secured a definite advantage .
= = = September push = = =
Although the NK 6th and 7th Divisions had massed their troops primarily for the attempted breakthrough of the US 25th Infantry Division positions along the Nam and Naktong Rivers during their September offensive , the NK 6th Division continued its attacks on the area . North Korean artillery and mortar fire fell on Battle Mountain , P 'il @-@ bong and Sobuk @-@ san , and during the period of September 1 – 6 there were strong local attacks and patrols by North Korean troops . The 1st Battalion , 5th Infantry , never succeeded in gaining complete possession of the southern parts of Sobuk @-@ san , which would have given observation into the valley below and into the North Koreans ' rear areas . The instability of the 24th Infantry made it necessary for Kean to order Throckmorton to send his only regimental reserve , E Company , north into the 24th Infantry sector along the Haman road to protect the right flank of the 5th Regimental Combat Team . In this position , E Company collected stragglers from the 24th Infantry every night and the next morning sent them back to their units . The US Navy then entered the battle in this part of the line , its destroyers standing off the south coast gave illumination at night by directing their searchlights against low @-@ hanging clouds on Sobuk @-@ san . One destroyer was on station almost continuously , supporting the ground action with the fire of six 5 @-@ inch guns . An artillery aerial observer directed this naval gunfire through the fire direction center .
On September 7 , a North Korean attack succeeded once again in driving ROK and American troops from Battle Mountain . The 25th Division ordered Lieutenant Colonel George H. DeChow 's 3rd Battalion , US 27th Infantry Regiment to retake the peak . DeChow had just counterattacked through the rear areas of the 24th Infantry to the vicinity of Haman . K and B Companies of the 24th Infantry were to follow him and secure the crest if he regained it . From September 7 – 9 , the 3rd Battalion counterattacked up Battle Mountain . On September 9 , I Company reached the top and engaged in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the North Koreans . L Company followed to the crest but the dug @-@ in North Koreans drove both companies off and back down the slope . An estimated two companies of North Korean troops held the crest of Battle Mountain and two more companies protected their flanks . DeChow 's 3rd Battalion suffered heavy casualties in these three days of fighting . On the afternoon of September 9 , the American counterattack force dropped back to the high ground which it had recaptured on September 7 , 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) east of Battle Mountain . Artillery , mortars , and air strikes pounded the North Korean position on Battle Mountain . During this stalemate , word came from the 25th Division for the 3rd Battalion , 27th Infantry to move to the vicinity of Masan . It was needed elsewhere along the Pusan Perimeter front .
= = = Containment action = = =
With the failure of the 3rd Battalion , 27th Infantry , to hold the high knob on Battle Mountain after its attacks on September 8 and 9 , the 24th Infantry stopped trying to retake Battle Mountain . K Company , 24th Infantry , and C Company , 65th Engineer Combat Battalion , dug in on the hill east of and beneath Battle Mountain , fortified their position with barbed wire and mine fields , and placed registered artillery and mortar fires on all approaches to the position . The regimental commander planned to contain the North Koreans on Battle Mountain by artillery and mortar fire . The North Koreans on Battle Mountain attacked the lower American defensive position many times on subsequent nights , but all their attacks were driven off . After a month of almost constant battle the North Koreans gained and held possession of the crest of Battle Mountain . The defensive fires of the 24th Regiment and attached artillery , however , contained them there and they were unable to exploit the possession on the peak or attack further .
With Battle Mountain in their possession , the North Koreans set out to gain control of P 'il @-@ bong to the southeast . In the predawn hours of September 14 a force of 400 to 500 North Korean men attacked I and L Companies , 24th Infantry , on P 'ilbong . Several attacks were repulsed , but because of men leaving their positions L Company 's strength dwindled from 100 to 40 men . The remnant of L Company withdrew toward I Company 's position on the crest of P 'il @-@ bong , only to find that this company under a relatively minor attack had left the hill . They could not hold P 'il @-@ bong with the handful of men remaining and it was also lost .
As soon as the heaviest attacks subsided against the 25th Division , Walker ordered it to release the 5th Regimental Combat Team on September 7 to move to other engagements along the Pusan Perimeter . The continuing fighting north of Taegu made it necessary to move reserves there . That evening the 1st and 2nd Battalions , 27th Infantry , moved from the Nam River battlefield to relieve the 5th Regimental Combat Team on the Masan front . 27th commander Colonel John H. Michaelis assumed command of the regimental zone at 15 : 00 on September 9 . The 3rd Battalion , 27th Infantry , broke off its counterattacks on Battle Mountain that day , rejoined the regiment , and took its place in the southern end of the line on September 11 . Meanwhile , the 5th Regimental Combat Team began moving to Samnangjin on the September 10 . Upon arrival at Samnangjin , it passed to Eighth Army reserve .
At mid @-@ September the Eighth Army and the ROK Army were still engaged with North Korean forces at nearly all points of the Pusan Perimeter . After two weeks of the heaviest fighting of the war they had just barely turned back the North Korean Great Naktong Offensive on the main axes of the attack around the approaches to Masan .
= = = Inchon landing = = =
The UN counterattack at Inchon collapsed the North Korean line and forced them back on all fronts . On 16 September , however , 25th Infantry Division was still fighting North Korean forces behind its lines , and North Korean strong points existed on the heights of Battle Mountain , P 'il @-@ bong , and Sobuk @-@ san . Kean felt that the division could advance along the roads toward Chinju only when the mountainous center of the division front was clear . He therefore believed that the key to the advance of the 25th Division lay in its center where the North Koreans held the heights and kept the 24th Infantry Regiment under daily attack . The 27th Infantry on the left and the 35th Infantry on the right , astride the roads between Chinju and Masan held their positions and could not advance until the situation in front of the 24th Infantry improved .
To carry out his plan , Kean organized a composite battalion @-@ sized task force on September 16 under command of Major Robert L. Woolfolk , commanding officer of the 3rd Battalion , 35th Infantry , and ordered it to attack Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong the next day , with the mission of restoring the 24th Infantry positions there . On September 17 – 18 the task force repeatedly attacked these heights , heavily supported by artillery fire from the 8th and 90th Field Artillery Battalions and by numerous air strikes , but North Korean automatic fire from the heights drove back the assaulting troops every time with heavy casualties . Within one day , A Company , 27th Infantry , alone suffered 57 casualties . The 24th Infantry bogged down behind Battle Mountain . Woolfolk 's force abandoned its effort to drive the North Korean from the peaks after its failure on September 18 , and the task group was dissolved the next day .
= = = North Korean withdrawal = = =
On September 19 the UN discovered the North Koreans had abandoned of Battle Mountain during the night , and the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry , moved up and occupied it . On the right , the 35th Infantry began moving forward . There was only light resistance until it reached the high ground in front of Chungam @-@ ni where hidden North Korean soldiers in spider holes shot at 1st Battalion soldiers from the rear . The next day the 1st Battalion captured Chungam @-@ ni , and the 2nd Battalion captured the long ridge line running northwest from it to the Nam River . Meanwhile , the North Koreans still held strongly against the division left where the 27th Infantry had heavy fighting in trying to move forward .
The North Koreans withdrew from the Masan area the night of September 18 – 19 . The NK 7th Division withdrew from south of the Nam River while the 6th Division sideslipped elements to cover the entire front . Covered by the 6th Division , the 7th had crossed to the north side of the Nam River by the morning of September 19 . Then the NK 6th Division withdrew from its positions on Sobuk @-@ san . The US units rapidly pursued them north , passing over the Battle Mountain positions , which were no longer of strategic importance .
= = Aftermath = =
The US 5th Regimental Combat Team suffered 269 killed , 573 wounded and four missing during its battles at the Pusan Perimeter , most of these at Masan . The 24th Infantry suffered 267 killed , 796 wounded , one captured and two missing during its time at Pusan Perimeter , however these figures are split between the portions of the regiment which fought at Battle Mountain , which accounted for about 450 of those wounded and 150 of those killed , and those which fought in Haman after August 31 . The 65th Engineer Battalion , supporting the 24th Infantry , suffered 27 killed , 75 wounded .
The North Korean troops suffered heavily in the fight , and most became casualties in the attack . By mid @-@ September , the NK 7th Division was reduced to just 4 @,@ 000 men , a loss of 6 @,@ 000 from when it was committed to the perimeter . Only 2 @,@ 000 from the NK 6th Division returned to North Korea , a loss of 80 percent of its strength . Large groups of troops from the divisions were captured as they attempted to return to North Korea , including up to 3 @,@ 000 North Korean troops . The attacking force of over 20 @,@ 000 had been reduced to only 6 @,@ 000 by the end of the fights at Masan .
Desertion had continued to be a problem for the 24th Infantry , a de facto segregated unit . Statistics compiled by the Eighth Army found the 25th Infantry Division had to detain 116 deserters from the 25th Infantry throughout August , compared to 15 from the 27th Infantry and 12 from the 35th Infantry . The regiment had already been criticized for its poor performance at the Battle of Sangju several weeks earlier . In late August , Kean began investigating the unit 's behavior , and found its poor performance was starting to bring other units of the division down as well . Kean considered the regiment a weak link in the chain , and after its poor performance at the battles of Battle Mountain and Haman , he suggested to Walker that the regiment be disbanded and its troops used as replacements for other units in the field . Virtually all of the officers and enlisted men in the regiment were supportive of this idea , but Walker declined , feeling he could not afford to lose a regiment .
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= Salisbury Sports Club tournament in 1970 =
Garfield Sobers , captain of the West Indies cricket team and one of the most prominent cricketers in the world , outraged many in the Caribbean in September 1970 when he took part in a friendly double @-@ wicket tournament at Salisbury Sports Club in Rhodesia ( renamed Zimbabwe in 1980 ) , a country in southern Africa that was unrecognised internationally because of its mostly white minority government . The resulting furore nearly caused him to lose the captaincy , and threatened the unity of the West Indies team itself .
Sobers was captain of the " Rest of the World " team that toured England between May and August 1970 in place of the South Africa national team , whose proposed tour had been cancelled by English cricketing authorities because of apartheid . He accepted an invitation to the Rhodesian competition from Eddie Barlow , a South African member of the Rest of the World team , and arrived in Salisbury on the day of the event . To ecstatic applause from the mostly white spectators , Sobers partnered South African Test captain Ali Bacher in the tournament , and said afterwards that he had enjoyed himself , though he and Bacher had not won . Having established a personal rapport with the Rhodesian Prime Minister , Ian Smith , Sobers left the next day and returned home to Barbados .
Many in the West Indies were appalled by Sobers ' actions , and when he subsequently made positive comments about Smith , Rhodesia and white South African cricketers in press interviews and announced his intention to play more cricket in Rhodesia , the vitriol intensified , with one Antiguan newspaper branding him a " white black man " . A number of prominent figures , including entire political parties , called for Sobers to be stripped of the West Indies cricket captaincy . Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham barred Sobers from Guyana , and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India announced that if Sobers remained in the team , India would pull out of its upcoming tour of the West Indies . Sobers argued that as a " professional cricketer and a sportsman , not a politician " , he had done nothing wrong .
The West Indies Cricket Board ( WICB ) contemplated whether it would be better to cancel all matches in Guyana or to sack Sobers ; neither prospect was attractive . The crisis ended when Eric Williams , the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago , wrote a letter of apology for Sobers to sign , which was relayed to the WICB and several governmental bodies in late October 1970 . This was accepted , and the incident was soon largely forgotten . Sobers regained his overwhelming popularity with West Indian cricket fans , continued as team captain until 1972 and retired from cricket two years later . He thereafter retained his stance that politics should not interfere with sport . His Rhodesian visit has been cited as precursoring the South African rebel tours controversy of the 1980s .
= = Background = =
Garfield Sobers , from the Caribbean island of Barbados , was widely regarded as one of the world 's finest cricketers from the late 1950s to the early 1970s , and is placed by many among the best to ever play the sport . An all @-@ rounder , he made his debut for the West Indies cricket team , the multinational side representing the Caribbean in international cricket , at the age of 17 in 1954 . He was a regular member of the team for the next two decades . Sobers set a then @-@ world record highest individual score of 365 runs not out during a Test match against Pakistan in 1958 , and became captain of the West Indies team six years later . In domestic first @-@ class cricket , he was one of the first West Indians to play abroad , representing South Australia and Nottinghamshire during the 1960s and 1970s . His batting , bowling and fielding were all regarded as excellent by contemporaries , but his decision making and tactics were occasionally criticised .
Rhodesia was an unrecognised state in southern Africa , run by a predominantly white minority government headed by Prime Minister Ian Smith . Taking exception to the UK 's insistence on majority rule as a condition for independence , Smith 's colonial administration had unilaterally declared independence in 1965 following a long dispute over the terms . International uproar and the first ever United Nations economic sanctions had ensued , making Rhodesia deeply isolated . This quarantine variously extended to sports . Rhodesian athletes , including the 1968 , 1972 and 1976 Olympic squads ( which were racially integrated ) , were barred from international competition on political grounds . Rhodesian cricket and rugby were not greatly affected as these sports largely operated in tandem with South Africa . The Rhodesia cricket team , for example , took part in the annual Currie Cup tournament against South African provincial sides .
As world opinion hardened against South Africa during the 1960s because of apartheid , international governing bodies in various sports introduced boycotts of South African teams and athletes . Until 1976 , non @-@ whites were legally barred from the South Africa cricket team , and , as the law required matches to be racially homogenous , this also applied to visiting squads . The South African government provoked overseas ire in 1968 when it refused entry to the England cricket team because its proposed tour party included Basil D 'Oliveira , a Cape Coloured . Amid the ensuing scandal , Marylebone Cricket Club ( which then governed English cricket ) called off the tour . Two years later , a tour of England by the South Africa cricket team was cancelled by the English Test and County Cricket Board ( TCCB ) at a week 's notice following public protests and immense pressure from the UK government . South Africa did not play another official international cricket match until 1991 .
The TCCB sought to recoup the lost revenues for the 1970 season by hastily organising a replacement series of matches between England and a " Rest of the World " team comprising leading cricketers from around the world . This squad , described by the leading cricket publication Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack as " one of the strongest teams ever to take the field " , included five South Africans , five West Indians ( including Sobers , as captain ) , two Pakistanis and a player each from Australia and India . It defeated England 4 – 1 over a tour lasting from late June to late August 1970 .
= = Sobers in Rhodesia = =
Eddie Barlow , one of the South African members of the Rest of the World team , suggested to Sobers towards the end of the English series that the West Indian might like to take part in a friendly double @-@ wicket competition in the Rhodesian capital Salisbury on 12 September , the local Pioneers ' Day holiday . Barlow was one of several prominent South African cricketers already booked to play . Sobers was initially noncommittal , but decided to go following assurances that Rhodesia did not practice apartheid and there would be no racial discrimination regarding team selection . Sobers ' intended participation became public on 7 September when a London newspaper reported on it ; widespread condemnation of the West Indian captain followed , but he still travelled , landing in Salisbury early on the day of the event .
Sobers was enthusiastically received in Salisbury by blacks and whites alike ; he described the reception and hospitality as " wonderful " and " just great " . After a few hours ' rest , he made his way to Salisbury Sports Club for the competition , in which he partnered the South African Test captain Ali Bacher , whom he had never met . Sobers received £ 600 for appearing . The largely white capacity crowd gave the Barbadian a hero 's welcome , accompanying his walk out to the wicket with a standing ovation and a chorus of " For He 's a Jolly Good Fellow " . Having flown in just that morning , Sobers underperformed , and he and Bacher did not win . All the same , the other teams formed a guard of honour for them as they left the field . Bacher found Sobers be " a great guy with no airs or graces " ; he suggested to his teammate that he should consider also playing in South Africa .
Sobers spent part of the day sitting with Ian Smith in the stands . Both reported enjoying the occasion ; Smith , a keen sports fan and a talented player in his day , fondly recounted his " lovely day discussing the great men of cricket " with Sobers in his memoirs , while Sobers recalled the Rhodesian premier as " a tremendous person to talk to " . After the tournament ended , they continued their conversation over dinner . Smith told Sobers that he was welcome to come back to Rhodesia whenever he liked . Sobers left the next day , after less than 48 hours in the country , and returned home to Barbados on 15 September 1970 .
= = Controversy = =
Sobers was met in Bridgetown by an enormous and hostile press storm . " To say there was an uproar in the Caribbean is comprehensively to understate what took place , " the Jamaican politician Michael Manley later wrote in his History of West Indies Cricket . The Antigua Labour Party 's Workers ' Voice newspaper damned Sobers as " a white black man " and charged that by playing in Rhodesia , he had " abdicated his loyalty to Africans everywhere , and all West Indians in particular " . Manley 's opinion was that if Sobers did not apologise , he " may not be welcomed anywhere by people who believe that justice is bigger than even sport " . Frank Walcott of the Barbados Workers ' Union , who was a personal friend of Sobers , publicly called for his captaincy of the West Indies to be revoked , as did many others . Sobers told reporters at Seawell Airport that he had " never been bothered about criticism , and I do not see why I should start now " . Sympathy for Sobers amid the affair came mainly from his fellow Barbadians . Vernon Jamadar , Leader of the Opposition in Trinidad and Tobago , praised Sobers ' " calm dignity in response to the primitive savagery of West Indian gutter politicians " .
Sobers told the media that he had played in Rhodesia as he felt it would be good for cricket , particularly after the cancellation of the South African tour of England , and that politics had not entered his mind . He told interviewers that he had had no problems whatsoever in Rhodesia , that sport in Rhodesia appeared to him to be integrated and that he intended to accept Smith 's invitation to return there in the future to play more cricket . Reporting Bacher 's suggestion of playing in South Africa , Sobers said that he probably would not do so : " I don 't know if I would want to get involved in that , " he said , " but it does show that South African cricketers are willing to play with and against players of any colour , race or creed . " Sobers said that the white South African members of the Rest of the World squad in England had functioned well as part of the multiracial team , and that he hoped for a similar Rest of the World series in the Caribbean as he believed West Indian cricket fans would enjoy seeing the South African players . He expressed confusion regarding the calls for him to be stripped of his captaincy . " I am a professional cricketer and a sportsman , not a politician , " he said . " I went to play cricket . I don 't see why this should affect my position as captain of the West Indies team . "
The crisis deepened on 10 October 1970 , when Guyanese Prime Minister Forbes Burnham announced that Sobers would not be allowed to enter Guyana until he apologised . This was a major issue for the West Indies Cricket Board ( WICB ) as the team played at least one Test match a year in Georgetown , the Guyanese capital . The Jamaica Labour Party called for Sobers to resign as captain four days later ; Indira Gandhi , the Indian Prime Minister , then announced that if Sobers were not removed from the West Indies team , India would cancel its upcoming tour of the West Indies , scheduled for early 1971 . The WICB considered its options . Cancelling matches in Guyana might prompt Burnham to instruct Guyanese members of the West Indian team to boycott , and sacking Sobers might cause Barbados to withdraw in protest ; either way , the unity of the West Indies team was threatened . Meanwhile , no sign of an apology emanated from Sobers .
= = Apology , resolution and legacy = =
Taking matters into his own hands , the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago Eric Williams wrote an apology letter for Sobers to sign , addressed to WICB president Noel Pierce , and had it delivered to the West Indies captain by the Barbadian fast bowler Wes Hall . The letter explained that Sobers had not known of the " deep feelings of the West Indian people " on Rhodesia , that he now better understood the political issues , and that he would not go to the southern African country again . " I therefore wish to convey to you and the members of the board my sincere regrets for any embarrassment which my action may have caused , and to assure you of my unqualified dedication whenever I may be called upon to represent my country — the West Indies — and my people , " it concluded . Sobers signed , and the apology was promptly conveyed to the WICB in late October 1970 , with copies also going to the council of the West Indies Associated States and the prime ministerial offices of Barbados , Guyana , Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica . " A grateful Caribbean grabbed the apology with both hands , " Manley records — " The thought that [ Sobers ] might be lost as a consequence of a political gaffe was intolerable . For the great majority , the incident was forgiven and promptly forgotten . "
Sobers regained his former popularity and kept the West Indies cricket captaincy until 1972 ; he retired from the sport two years later . He was subsequently knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1975 for his services to cricket , and named one of the ten National Heroes of Barbados by the Barbadian government in 1998 . His controversial visit to Rhodesia has been described by cricket journalist Siddhartha Vaidyanathan as precursoring the West Indian " rebel tours " affair of the early 1980s , in which black cricketers from the Caribbean broke the apartheid sporting boycott and played in South Africa . The West Indian rebel players became wildly popular among South African cricket fans , but were punished at home with bans from all organised cricket ( initially for life , but lifted in 1989 ) , compounded by lasting social and professional ostracism . Sobers retained his stance that politics should not interfere with sport , and was reluctant to criticise the West Indians who toured South Africa . All the same , he came to regret having gone to Rhodesia because of the scandal he had provoked . " Had I known the furore my visit was to cause , " he later said , " I would not have gone . "
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= Shangguan Yunzhu =
Shangguan Yunzhu ( Chinese : 上官雲珠 ; Wade – Giles : Shang @-@ kuan Yün @-@ chu ; 2 March 1920 – 23 November 1968 ) was a Chinese actress active from the 1940s to the 1960s . She was considered one of the most talented and versatile actresses in China , and was named one of the 100 best actors of the 100 years of Chinese cinema in 2005 .
Born Wei Junluo , Shangguan Yunzhu fled to Shanghai when her hometown Jiangyin was attacked by the Japanese . In Shanghai she became a drama and film actress , and her career took off after the end of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . She starred in several prominent leftist films such as Spring River Flows East , Crows and Sparrows , and Women Side by Side . After the Communist victory in mainland China in 1949 , her career was set back when her husband was embroiled in the anti @-@ capitalist Five @-@ anti Campaign , but she later portrayed a wide variety of characters in many films .
Shangguan Yunzhu was married three times and had three children , but all her marriages ended in divorce . She was said to have had an affair with Mao Zedong , for which she was severely persecuted by the followers of Mao 's wife Jiang Qing during the Cultural Revolution , leading to her suicide in November 1968 .
= = Early life = =
Shangguan Yunzhu was born in 1920 in the town of Changjing ( 长泾 ) in Jiangyin , Jiangsu province . Her birth name was Wei Junluo ( Chinese : 韋均犖 ) , and she also used the name Wei Yajun ( 韋亞君 ) . She was the fifth and youngest child of her parents . In 1936 she married Zhang Dayan ( 张大炎 ) , an art teacher and a friend of her brother 's , and soon gave birth to a son named Zhang Qijian ( 张其坚 ) at the age of 17 .
Soon after her marriage , the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War erupted . In November 1937 the invading Japanese army attacked Jiangyin , and one of Wei Junluo 's sisters was killed in a bombing raid . She fled to Shanghai with her family .
= = 1940s = =
In Shanghai Wei Junluo found work at a photo studio owned by He Zuomin , a photographer for the Mingxing Film Company . Influenced by the studio 's many customers from the film industry , she became fascinated with acting . In 1940 she enrolled in a drama school and was employed by the Xinhua Film Company after graduation . She adopted the name Shangguan Yunzhu suggested by the influential director Bu Wancang . After successfully playing the female lead in Cao Yu 's stage play Thunderstorm , Shangguan joined the Yihua Company and made her film debut in Fallen Rose in 1941 .
In 1942 Shangguan joined the Tianfeng Drama Society , where she met the playwright Yao Ke ( 姚克 ) . The next year Shangguan divorced Zhang Dayan and married Yao . In August 1944 she gave birth to a daughter named Yao Yao ( 姚姚 ) . However , her new marriage was short @-@ lived due to Yao 's infidelity , and the couple divorced before their daughter turned two . Shangguan subsequently had a brief relationship with the actor Lan Ma ( 蓝马 ) .
In the post @-@ war period , Shangguan Yunzhu played her first lead roles in Dream in Paradise directed by Tang Xiaodan and Long Live the Missus directed by Sang Hu . She then starred in several leftist films including Spring River Flows East ( 1947 , directors Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli ) , Myriad of Lights ( 1948 , director Shen Fu ) , Crows and Sparrows ( 1949 , director Zheng Junli ) , and Women Side by Side ( 1949 , director Chen Liting ) . Her masterful performances in these popular films brought her great fame and critical acclaim .
= = After 1949 = =
After Mao Zedong 's communists won the Chinese Civil War and established the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , Shangguan Yunzhu continued her acting career under the new government . In 1951 she married her third husband Cheng Shuyao ( 程述尧 ) , manager of Shanghai 's Lyceum Theatre . She gave birth to a son named Wei Ran ( 韦然 ) . However , Cheng Shuyao was soon embroiled in the Five @-@ anti Campaign , a political campaign launched by Mao against the capitalist class in 1952 . He was accused of embezzlement and confessed to the charges under pressure . Shangguan decided to divorce Cheng ; their marriage lasted less than two years . She later had another relationship with the director He Lu ( 贺路 ) .
Affected by her association with Cheng Shuyao , Shangguan did not play any major role for several years . This changed in 1955 , when she starred in the film Storm on the Southern Island . Director Bai Chen ( 白沉 ) chose her to play the leading role as a heroic nurse , a far cry from her traditional roles of socialites and rich wives . She adjusted to her new role well , and portrayed a wide variety of characters in many films including It 's My Day Off ( 1959 ) , Spring Comes to the Withered Tree ( 1961 , director Zheng Junli ) , Early Spring in February ( 1963 , director Xie Tieli ) , and Stage Sisters ( 1965 , director Xie Jin ) . She was recognized as one of the most talented and versatile actresses in China .
= = Relationship with Mao = =
Shangguan Yunzhu was said to have had an intimate relationship with Chairman Mao Zedong . On 10 January 1956 , Shangguan and Mao had a private meeting set up by Shanghai mayor Chen Yi , at which Mao said he was a fan of hers . Mao was said to have requested to meet her " in private " many times .
= = Suicide = =
In 1966 Shangguan was diagnosed with breast cancer and had a successful surgery . However , only two months later it was found that she also had cancer in her brain and had to undergo another major operation .
At the same time , the Cultural Revolution was under way . Two films Shangguan had appeared in , Early Spring in February and Stage Sister , had been denounced as " huge poisonous weeds " . She was also under severe persecution for her alleged affair with Mao . She was badly beaten by followers of Mao 's wife Jiang Qing , who gave her an ultimatum to confess her relationship with Mao . At 3 am on 23 November 1968 , Shangguan Yunzhu jumped from her apartment in the Wukang Mansion to her death .
= = Biographies and museum = =
Several biographies have been published in Chinese about Shangguan Yunzhu 's life :
Chen Danyan , Shanghai Beauty ( 上海的红颜遗事 ) ( 2000 ) – Biographical account of Shangguan and her daughter Yao Yao , who was killed in a traffic accident in 1975 .
Wei Xiangtao , Grieving for a movie star : a biography of Shangguan Yunzhu ( 1986 ) .
Chen Fuguan ( 陈复官 ) , Shangguan Yunzhu .
In 2007 , her childhood home in Changjing , Jiangyin was opened to the public as the Shangguan Yunzhu Museum .
= = Selected filmography = =
1941 Fallen Rose ( dirs . Wu Wenchao and Wen Yimin )
1947 Dream in Paradise ( dir . Tang Xiaodan )
1947 Long Live the Missus ( dir . Sang Hu )
1947 Spring River Flows East ( dirs . Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli )
1948 Myriad of Lights ( dir . Shen Fu )
1949 Hope in the World ( dir . Shen Fu )
1949 Crows and Sparrows ( dir . Zheng Junli )
1949 Women Side by Side ( dir . Chen Liting )
1955 Storm on the Southern Island ( dir . Bai Chen )
1959 It 's My Day Off ( dir . Lu Ren )
1961 Spring Comes to the Withered Tree ( dir . Zheng Junli )
1963 Early Spring in February ( dir . Xie Tieli )
1965 Stage Sisters ( dir . Xie Jin )
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= South Park =
South Park is an American adult animated sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone for the Comedy Central television network . The show revolves around four boys — Stan Marsh , Kyle Broflovski , Eric Cartman , and Kenny McCormick — and their bizarre adventures in and around the titular Colorado town . Much like The Simpsons , South Park uses a very large ensemble cast of recurring characters . Intended for mature audiences , the show has become infamous for its crude language and dark , surreal humor that satirizes a wide range of topics .
Parker and Stone developed the show from two animated shorts they created in 1992 and 1995 . The latter became one of the first Internet viral videos , which ultimately led to its production as a series . South Park debuted in August 1997 with great success , consistently earning the highest ratings of any basic cable program . Subsequent ratings have varied but it remains one of Comedy Central 's highest rated shows , and is slated to air through at least 2019 .
The pilot episode was produced using cutout animation . All subsequent episodes are created with software that emulates the cutout technique . Parker and Stone perform most of the voice acting . Since 2000 , each episode is typically written and produced during the week preceding its broadcast , with Parker serving as the primary writer and director . There have been a total of 267 episodes over the course of the show 's 19 seasons . Season 20 will premiere on September 14 , 2016 .
South Park has received numerous accolades , including five Primetime Emmy Awards , a Peabody Award , and numerous inclusions in various publications ' lists of greatest television shows . The show 's popularity resulted in a feature @-@ length theatrical film , South Park : Bigger , Longer and Uncut which was released in June 1999 , less than two years after the show 's premiere , and became a commercial and critical success . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked South Park the tenth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time .
= = Premise = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The show follows the exploits of four boys , Stan Marsh , Kyle Broflovski , Eric Cartman and Kenny McCormick . The boys live in the fictional small town of South Park , located within the real life South Park basin in the Rocky Mountains of central Colorado . The town is also home to an assortment of frequent characters such as students , families , elementary school staff , and other various residents , who tend to regard South Park as a bland and quiet place to live . Prominent settings on the show include the local elementary school , bus stop , various neighborhoods and the surrounding snowy landscape , actual Colorado landmarks , and the shops and businesses along the town 's main street , all of which are based on the appearance of similar locations in the town of Fairplay , Colorado .
Stan is portrayed as the everyman of the group , as the show 's official website describes him as an " average , American 4th grader " . Kyle is the lone Jew among the group , and his portrayal in this role is often dealt with satirically . Stan is modeled after Parker , while Kyle is modeled after Stone . Stan and Kyle are best friends , and their friendship , which is intended to reflect the real life friendship between Parker and Stone , is a common topic throughout the series . Eric Cartman ( usually referred to by his surname only ) is a loud , obnoxious , manipulative , racist and obese literal psychopath . He is often portrayed as an antagonist whose anti @-@ Semitic attitude has resulted in an ever @-@ progressing rivalry with Kyle , although the deeper reason for the antagonistic relationship is the strong clash between Kyle 's strong morality , and Cartman 's complete lack of such . Kenny , who comes from a poor family , wears his parka hood so tightly that it covers most of his face and muffles his speech . During the show 's first five seasons , Kenny would die in nearly every episode before returning in the next with little or no definitive explanation given . He was written out of the show 's sixth season in 2002 , re @-@ appearing in the season finale . Since then , the practice of killing Kenny has been seldom used by the show 's creators . During the show 's first 58 episodes , the boys were in the third grade . In the season four episode " 4th Grade " ( 2000 ) , they entered the fourth grade , where they have remained ever since .
Plots are often set in motion by events , ranging from the fairly typical to the supernatural and extraordinary , which frequently happen in the town . The boys often act as the voice of reason when these events cause panic or incongruous behavior among the adult populace , who are customarily depicted as irrational , gullible , and prone to vociferation . The boys are also frequently confused by the contradictory and hypocritical behavior of their parents and other adults , and often perceive them as having distorted views on morality and society .
= = = Themes and style = = =
Each episode opens with a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek disclaimer : " All characters and events in this show — even those based on real people — are entirely fictional . All celebrity voices are impersonated ..... poorly . The following program contains coarse language and due to its content it should not be viewed by anyone . "
South Park was the first weekly program to be assigned the TV @-@ MA rating , and is generally intended for adult audiences . The boys and most other child characters use strong profanity , with only the most taboo words being bleeped by censors during a typical broadcast . The use of such language serves as a means for Parker and Stone to display how they claim young boys really talk when they are alone .
South Park commonly makes use of carnivalesque and absurdist techniques , numerous running gags , violence , sexual content , offhand pop @-@ cultural references , and satirical portrayal of celebrities .
Early episodes tended to be shock value @-@ oriented and featured more slapstick @-@ style humor . While social satire had been used on the show occasionally earlier on , it became more prevalent as the series progressed , with the show retaining some of its focus on the boys ' fondness of scatological humor in an attempt to remind adult viewers " what it was like to be eight years old . " Parker and Stone also began further developing other characters by giving them larger roles in certain storylines , and began writing plots as parables based on religion , politics , and numerous other topics . This provided the opportunity for the show to spoof both extreme sides of contentious issues , while lampooning both liberal and conservative points of view . Parker and Stone describe themselves as " equal opportunity offenders " , whose main agenda is to " be funny " and " make people laugh " , while stating that no particular topic or group of people be spared the expense of being subject to mockery and satire .
Parker and Stone insist that the show is still more about " kids being kids " and " what it 's like to be in [ elementary school ] in America " , stating that the introduction of a more satirical element to the series was the result of the two adding more of a " moral center " to the show so that it would rely less on simply being crude and shocking in an attempt to maintain an audience . While profane , and with a tendency to sometimes be cynical , Parker notes that there is still an " underlying sweetness " aspect to the child characters , and Time described the boys as " sometimes cruel but with a core of innocence . " Usually , the boys and / or other characters ponder over what has transpired during an episode and convey the important lesson taken from it with a short monologue . During earlier seasons , this speech would commonly begin with a variation of the phrase " You know , I 've learned something today ... " .
= = Origins and creation = =
Soon after meeting in film class at the University of Colorado in 1992 , Parker and Stone created an animated short entitled The Spirit of Christmas . The film was created by animating construction paper cutouts with stop motion , and features prototypes of the main characters of South Park , including a character resembling Cartman but named " Kenny " , an unnamed character resembling what is today Kenny , and two near @-@ identical unnamed characters who resemble Stan and Kyle . Brian Graden , Fox network executive and mutual friend , commissioned Parker and Stone to create a second short film as a video Christmas card . Created in 1995 , the second The Spirit of Christmas short resembled the style of the later series more closely . To differentiate between the two homonymous shorts , the first short is often referred to as Jesus vs. Frosty , and the second short as Jesus vs. Santa . Graden sent copies of the video to several of his friends , and from there it was copied and distributed , including on the internet , where it became one of the first viral videos .
As Jesus vs. Santa became more popular , Parker and Stone began talks of developing the short into a television series . Fox refused to pick up the series , not wanting to air a show that included the character Mr. Hankey , a talking piece of feces . The two then entered negotiations with both MTV and Comedy Central . Parker preferred the show be produced by Comedy Central , fearing that MTV would turn it into a kids show . When Comedy Central executive Doug Herzog watched the short , he commissioned for it to be developed into a series .
Parker and Stone assembled a small staff and spent three months creating the pilot episode " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " . South Park was in danger of being canceled before it even aired when the show fared poorly with test audiences , particularly with women . However , the shorts were still gaining more popularity over the Internet , and Comedy Central agreed to order a run of six episodes . South Park debuted with " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " on August 13 , 1997 .
= = Production = =
Except for the pilot episode , which was produced using cutout animation , all episodes of South Park are created with the use of software . As opposed to the pilot , which took three months to complete , and other animated sitcoms , which are traditionally hand @-@ drawn by companies in South Korea in a process that takes roughly eight @-@ to @-@ nine months , individual episodes of South Park take significantly less time to produce . Using computers as an animation method , the show 's production staff were able to generate an episode in about three weeks during the first seasons . Now , with a staff of about 70 people , episodes are typically completed in one week , with some in as little as three to four days . Nearly the entire production of an episode is accomplished within one set of offices , which were originally at a complex in Westwood , Los Angeles , California , and are now part of South Park Studios in Culver City , California . Parker and Stone have been the show 's executive producers throughout its entire history , while Anne Garefino has served as South Park 's co @-@ executive producer since the latter part of the first season . 20th Century Fox Senior Production Executive Debbie Liebling also served as an executive producer during the show 's first five seasons , coordinating the show 's production efforts between South Park Studios and Comedy Central 's headquarters in New York City .
Scripts are not written before a season begins . Production of an episode begins on a Thursday , with the show 's writing consultants brainstorming with Parker and Stone . Former staff writers include Pam Brady , who has since written scripts for the films Hot Rod and Hamlet 2 , and Nancy Pimental , who served as co @-@ host of Win Ben Stein 's Money and wrote the film The Sweetest Thing after her tenure with the show during its first three seasons . Television producer and writer Norman Lear , an idol of both Parker and Stone , served as a guest writing consultant for the season seven ( 2003 ) episodes " Cancelled " and " I 'm a Little Bit Country " . During the 12th and 13th seasons , Saturday Night Live actor and writer Bill Hader served as a creative consultant and co @-@ producer .
After exchanging ideas , Parker will write a script , and from there the entire team of animators , editors , technicians , and sound engineers will each typically work 100 – 120 hours in the ensuing week . Since the show 's fourth season ( 2000 ) , Parker has assumed most of the show 's directorial duties , while Stone relinquished his share of the directing to focus on handling the coordination and business aspects of the production . On Wednesday , a completed episode is sent to Comedy Central 's headquarters via satellite uplink , sometimes in just a few hours before its air time of 10 PM Eastern Time .
Parker and Stone state that subjecting themselves to a one @-@ week deadline creates more spontaneity amongst themselves in the creative process , which they feel results in a funnier show . The schedule also allows South Park to both stay more topical and respond more quickly to specific current events than other satiric animated shows . One of the earliest examples of this was in the season four ( 2000 ) episode " Quintuplets 2000 " , which references the United States Border Patrol 's raid of a house during the Elián González affair , an event which occurred only four days before the episode originally aired . The season nine ( 2005 ) episode " Best Friends Forever " references the Terri Schiavo case , and originally aired in the midst of the controversy and less than 12 hours before she died . A scene in the season seven ( 2003 ) finale " It 's Christmas in Canada " references the discovery of dictator Saddam Hussein in a " spider hole " and his subsequent capture , which happened a mere three days prior to the episode airing . The season 12 ( 2008 ) episode " About Last Night ... " revolves around Barack Obama 's victory in the 2008 presidential election , and aired less than 24 hours after Obama was declared the winner , using segments of dialogue from Obama 's real victory speech .
On October 16 , 2013 , the show failed to meet their production deadline for the first time ever , after a power outage on October 15 at the production studio prevented the episode , season 17 's " Goth Kids 3 : Dawn of the Posers " , from being finished in time . The episode was rescheduled to air a week later on October 23 , 2013 . In July 2015 , South Park was renewed through 2019 ; extending the show through season 23 with 304 episodes overall .
= = = Animation = = =
The show 's style of animation is inspired by the paper cut @-@ out cartoons made by Terry Gilliam for Monty Python 's Flying Circus , of which Parker and Stone have been lifelong fans . Construction paper and traditional stop motion cutout animation techniques were used in the original animated shorts and in the pilot episode . Subsequent episodes have been produced by computer animation , providing a similar look to the originals while requiring a fraction of the time to produce . Before computer artists begin animating an episode , a series of animatics drawn in Toon Boom are provided by the show 's storyboard artists .
The characters and objects are composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary colors . Most child characters are the same size and shape , and are distinguished by their clothing and headwear . Characters are mostly presented two @-@ dimensionally and from only one angle . Their movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion , as they are purposely not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand @-@ drawn characters . Occasionally , some non @-@ fictional characters are depicted with photographic cutouts of their actual head and face in lieu of a face reminiscent of the show 's traditional style . Canadians on the show are often portrayed in an even more minimalist fashion ; they have simple beady eyes , and the top halves of their heads simply flap up and down when the characters speak .
When the show began using computers , the cardboard cutouts were scanned and re @-@ drawn with CorelDRAW , then imported into PowerAnimator , which was used with SGI workstations to animate the characters . The workstations were linked to a 54 @-@ processor render farm that could render 10 to 15 shots an hour . Beginning with season five , the animators began using Maya instead of PowerAnimator . The studio now runs a 120 @-@ processor render farm that can produce 30 or more shots an hour .
PowerAnimator and Maya are high @-@ end programs mainly used for 3D computer graphics , while co @-@ producer and former animation director Eric Stough notes that PowerAnimator was initially chosen because its features helped animators retain the show 's " homemade " look . PowerAnimator was also used for making some of the show 's visual effects , which are now created using Motion , a newer graphics program created by Apple , Inc. for their Mac OS X operating system . The show 's visual quality has improved in recent seasons , though several other techniques are used to intentionally preserve the cheap cutout animation look .
A few episodes feature sections of live @-@ action footage , while others have incorporated other styles of animation . Portions of the season eight ( 2004 ) premiere " Good Times with Weapons " are done in anime style , while the season 10 episode " Make Love , Not Warcraft " is done partly in machinima . The season 12 episode " Major Boobage " , a homage to the 1981 animated film Heavy Metal , implements scenes accomplished with rotoscoping .
= = = Voice cast = = =
Parker and Stone voice most of the male South Park characters . Mary Kay Bergman voiced the majority of the female characters until her suicide on November 11 , 1999 . Mona Marshall and Eliza Schneider succeeded Bergman , with Schneider leaving the show after its seventh season ( 2003 ) . She was replaced by April Stewart , who , along with Marshall , continues to voice most of the female characters . Bergman was originally listed in the credits under the alias Shannen Cassidy to protect her reputation as the voice of several Disney and other kid @-@ friendly characters . Stewart was originally credited under the name Gracie Lazar , while Schneider was sometimes credited under her rock opera performance pseudonym Blue Girl .
Other voice actors and members of South Park 's production staff have voiced minor characters for various episodes , while a few staff members voice recurring characters ; supervising producer Jennifer Howell voices student Bebe Stevens , co @-@ producer and storyboard artist Adrien Beard voices the school 's only black student , Token Black , writing consultant Vernon Chatman voices an anthropomorphic towel named Towelie , and production supervisor John Hansen voices Mr. Slave , the former gay lover of Mr. Garrison . Throughout the show 's run , the voices for toddler and kindergarten characters have been provided by various small children of the show 's production staff .
When voicing child characters , the voice actors speak within their normal vocal range while adding a childlike inflection . The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools , and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader .
Isaac Hayes voiced the character of Chef , a black , soul @-@ singing cafeteria worker who was one of the few adults the boys consistently trusted . Hayes agreed to voice the character after being among Parker and Stone 's ideal candidates which also included Lou Rawls and Barry White . Hayes , who lived and hosted a radio show in New York during his tenure with South Park , would record his dialogue on a digital audio tape while a respective episode 's director would give directions over the phone , then the tape would be shipped to the show 's production studio in California . After Hayes left the show in early 2006 , the character of Chef was killed off in the season 10 ( 2006 ) premiere " The Return of Chef " .
= = = = Guest stars = = = =
Celebrities who are depicted on the show are usually impersonated , though some celebrities do their own voices for the show . Celebrities who have voiced themselves include Michael Buffer , Brent Musburger , Jay Leno , Robert Smith , and the bands Radiohead and Korn . Comedy team Cheech & Chong voiced characters representing their likenesses for the season four ( 2000 ) episode " Cherokee Hair Tampons " , which was the duo 's first collaborative effort in 20 years . Malcolm McDowell appears in live @-@ action sequences as the narrator of the season four episode " Pip " .
Jennifer Aniston , Richard Belzer , Natasha Henstridge , Norman Lear , and Peter Serafinowicz have guest starred as other speaking characters . During South Park 's earliest seasons , several high @-@ profile celebrities inquired about guest @-@ starring on the show . As a joke , Parker and Stone responded by offering low @-@ profile , non @-@ speaking roles , most of which were accepted ; George Clooney provided the barks for Stan 's dog Sparky in the season one ( 1997 ) episode " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " , Leno provided the meows for Cartman 's cat in the season one finale " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " , and Henry Winkler voiced the various growls and grunts of a kid @-@ eating monster in the season two ( 1998 ) episode " City on the Edge of Forever " . Jerry Seinfeld offered to lend his voice for the Thanksgiving episode " Starvin ' Marvin " , but declined to appear when he was only offered a role as " Turkey # 2 " .
= = = Music = = =
Parker says that the varying uses of music is of utmost importance to South Park . Several characters often play or sing songs in order to change or influence a group 's behavior , or to educate , motivate , or indoctrinate others . The show also frequently features scenes in which its characters have disapproving reactions to the performances of certain popular musicians .
Adam Berry , the show 's original score composer , used sound synthesis to simulate a small orchestra , and frequently alluded to existing famous pieces of music . Berry also used signature acoustic guitar and mandolin cues as leitmotifs for the show 's establishing shots . After Berry left in 2001 , Jamie Dunlap and Scott Nickoley of the Los Angeles @-@ based Mad City Production Studios provided the show 's original music for the next seven seasons . Since 2008 , Dunlap has been credited as the show 's sole score composer . Dunlap 's contributions to the show are one of the few that are not achieved at the show 's own production offices . Dunlap reads a script , creates a score using digital audio software , and then e @-@ mails the audio file to South Park Studios , where it is edited to fit with the completed episode .
In addition to singing in an effort to explain something to the children , Chef would also sing about things relevant to what had transpired in the plot . These songs were original compositions written by Parker , and performed by Hayes in the same sexually suggestive R & B style he had utilized during his own music career . The band DVDA , which consists of Parker and Stone , along with show staff members Bruce Howell and D.A. Young , would perform the music for these compositions , and , until the character 's death on the show , were listed as " Chef 's Band " in the closing credits .
Rick James , Elton John , Meat Loaf , Joe Strummer , Ozzy Osbourne , Primus , Rancid , and Ween all guest starred and briefly performed in the season two ( 1998 ) episode " Chef Aid " . Korn debuted their single " Falling Away from Me " as guest stars on the season three ( 1999 ) episode " Korn 's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery " .
= = = = Title sequence = = = =
The show 's original theme song was a musical score performed by the band Primus , while the lyrics are alternately sung by the band 's lead singer , Les Claypool , and the show 's four central characters . Kenny 's muffled lines are altered after every few seasons . The original composition was originally slower but was sped up for the show , while an instrumental version of the original composition is often played during the show 's closing credits . The song 's melody is similar to the song " Coddingtown " , on Primus 's Brown Album . The opening theme song has been remixed three times during the course of the series , including a remix performed by Paul Robb . In 2006 , the theme music was remixed with the song " Whamola " by Colonel Les Claypool 's Fearless Flying Frog Brigade , from the album Purple Onion .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Episodes = = =
= = = International = = =
Internationally , South Park is broadcast in India , New Zealand , and several countries throughout Europe and Latin America on channels that are divisions of Comedy Central and MTV Networks , both subsidiaries of Viacom . In distribution deals with Comedy Central , other independent networks also broadcast the series in other international markets . In Australia , the show is broadcast on The Comedy Channel , SBS One ( Season 1 – 13 edited and 14 – 15 Uncut ) & SBS2 ( Season 16 Uncut ) . The series is broadcast uncensored in Canada in English on The Comedy Network and , later , Much . South Park also airs on TG4 in Ireland , STV in Scotland , Comedy Central and MTV in the UK ( previously on Channel 4 ) and B92 in Serbia .
= = = Syndication = = =
Broadcast syndication rights to South Park were acquired by Debmar @-@ Mercury and Tribune Entertainment in 2003 and 2004 respectively . Episodes further edited for content began running in syndication on September 19 , 2005 , and are aired in the United States with the TV @-@ 14 rating . 20th Television replaced Tribune as co @-@ distributor in early 2008 . The series is currently aired in syndication in 90 percent of the television markets across the U.S. and Canada , where it generates an estimated US $ 25 million a year in advertising revenue .
= = = Home media = = =
The first eighteen seasons of South Park are available in their entirety on DVD . Several other themed DVD compilations have been released by Rhino Entertainment and Comedy Central , while the three @-@ episode Imaginationland story arc was reissued straight @-@ to @-@ DVD as a full @-@ length feature in 2008 .
= = = Streaming = = =
In March 2008 , Comedy Central made every episode of South Park available for free full @-@ length on @-@ demand legal streaming on the official South Park Studios website . From March 2008 until December 2013 new episodes were added to the site the day following their debut , and an uncensored version was posted the following day . The episode stayed up for the remainder of the week , then taken down , and added to the site three weeks later .
Within a week , the site served more than a million streams of full episodes , and the number grew to 55 million by October 2008 . Legal issues prevent the U.S. content from being accessible outside the U.S. , so local servers have been set up in other countries . In September 2009 , a South Park Studios website with streaming episodes was launched in the UK . In Canada , episodes were available for streaming from The Comedy Network 's website , though due to digital rights restrictions , they are no longer available .
In July 2014 it was announced that Hulu had signed a three @-@ year deal purchasing exclusive online streaming rights to the South Park for a reported 80 million dollars . Following the announcement every episode remained available for free on the South Park Studios website , using the Hulu player . As of September 2014 , following the premiere of the eighteenth season , only 30 select episodes are featured for free viewing at a time on a rationing basis on the website , with new episodes being available for an entire month starting the day following their original airings . The entire series will be available for viewing on Hulu Plus .
In April 2010 , the season five episode " Super Best Friends " and the season fourteen episodes " 200 " and " 201 " ( which all depict the Muslim prophet Muhammad ) were removed from the site ; additionally , these episodes no longer air in reruns and are only available exclusively on DVD . These episodes remain unavailable following the 2014 purchase by Hulu .
= = = Re @-@ rendered episodes = = =
From its debut in 1997 until the season twelve finale in 2008 the series had been natively produced in 4 : 3 480i standard definition . In 2009 the series switched to being natively produced in 16 : 9 1080i high definition with the beginning of the thirteenth season .
All seasons originally produced in standard definition have been remastered by being completely re @-@ rendered scene @-@ by @-@ scene and frame @-@ by @-@ frame by South Park Studios from their original resolution to full 1080i high definition . Additionally , the original 4 : 3 aspect ratio has been converted to 16 : 9 as well . The re @-@ rendering process took South Park Studios several years , and resulted in the picture quality being in true HD as opposed to being up @-@ converted . The re @-@ rendered episodes from the earlier seasons also feature their original uncensored audio tracks , which have never previously been released to the public uncensored .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
When South Park debuted , it was a huge ratings success for Comedy Central and is seen as being largely responsible for the success of the channel , with Herzog crediting it for putting the network " on the map " .
The show 's first episode , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , earned a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 3 ( 980 @,@ 000 viewers ) , at the time considered high for a cable program . The show instantly generated buzz among television viewers , and mass viewing parties began assembling on college campuses . By the time the eighth episode , " Starvin ' Marvin " , aired — three months after the show debuted — ratings and viewership had tripled , and South Park was already the most successful show in Comedy Central 's history . When the tenth episode " Damien " aired the following February , viewership increased another 33 percent . The episode earned a 6 @.@ 4 rating , which at the time was over 10 times the average rating earned by a cable show aired in prime time . The ratings peaked with the second episode of season two , " Cartman 's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut " , which aired on April 22 , 1998 . The episode earned an 8 @.@ 2 rating ( 6 @.@ 2 million viewers ) and , at the time , set a record as the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports show in basic cable history . During the spring of 1998 , eight of the ten highest @-@ rated shows on basic cable were South Park episodes .
The success of South Park prompted more cable companies to carry Comedy Central and led it to its becoming one of the fastest @-@ growing cable channels . The number of households that had Comedy Central jumped from 9 @.@ 1 million in 1997 to 50 million in June 1998 . When the show debuted , the most Comedy Central had earned for a 30 @-@ second commercial was US $ 7 @,@ 500 . Within a year , advertisers were paying an average of US $ 40 @,@ 000 for 30 seconds of advertising time during airings of South Park in its second season , while some paid as much as US $ 80 @,@ 000 .
By the third season ( 1999 ) , the series ' ratings began to decrease . The third season premiere episode drew 3 @.@ 4 million viewers , a dramatic drop from the 5 @.@ 5 million of the previous season 's premiere . Stone and Parker attributed this drop in the show 's ratings to the media hype that surrounded the show in the previous year , adding that the third season ratings reflected the show 's " true " fan base . The show 's ratings dropped further in its fourth season ( 2000 ) , with episodes averaging just above 1 @.@ 5 million viewers . The ratings eventually increased , and seasons five through nine consistently averaged about 3 million viewers per episode . Though its viewership is lower than it was at the height of its popularity in its earliest seasons , South Park remains one of the highest @-@ rated series on Comedy Central . The season 14 ( 2010 ) premiere gained 3 @.@ 7 million viewers , the show 's highest @-@ rated season premiere since 1998 .
= = = Recognitions and awards = = =
In 2004 , Channel 4 voted South Park the third @-@ greatest cartoon of all time . In 2007 , Time magazine included the show on its list of the " 100 Best TV Shows of All Time " , proclaiming it as " America 's best source of rapid @-@ fire satire for [ the past ] decade " . The same year , Rolling Stone declared it to be the funniest show on television since its debut 10 years prior . In 2008 , South Park was named the 12th @-@ greatest TV show of the past 25 years by Entertainment Weekly , while AOL declared it as having the " most astute " characters of any show in history when naming it the 16th @-@ best television comedy series of all time . In 2011 , South Park was voted number one in the 25 Greatest Animated TV Series poll by Entertainment Weekly . The character of Cartman ranked 10th on TV Guide 's 2002 list of the " Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters " , 198th on VH1 's " 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons " , 19th on Bravo 's " 100 Greatest TV Characters " television special in 2004 , and second on MSNBC 's 2005 list of TV 's scariest characters behind Mr. Burns from The Simpsons . In 2006 , Comedy Central received a Peabody Award for South Park 's " stringent social commentary " and " undeniably fearless lampooning of all that is self @-@ important and hypocritical in American life " . In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America ranked South Park at number 63 among the " 101 Best @-@ Written Shows Ever " . Also in 2013 , TV Guide listed the show at number 10 among the " 60 Greatest Cartoons of All Time " .
South Park won the CableACE Award for Best Animated Series in 1997 , the last year the awards were given out . In 1998 , South Park was nominated for the Annie Award for Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Primetime or Late Night Television Program . It was also nominated for the 1998 GLAAD Award for Outstanding TV – Individual Episode for " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " .
South Park has been nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ten times ( 1998 , 2000 , 2002 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2009 , 2010 and 2013 ) . The show has won the award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming Less Than One Hour ) four times , for the 2005 episode " Best Friends Forever " , the 2006 episode " Make Love , Not Warcraft " , the 2009 episode " Margaritaville " , and the 2012 episode " Raising the Bar " . The " Imaginationland " trilogy of episodes won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming One Hour or More ) in 2008 .
= = = Criticism and controversy = = =
The show 's frequent depiction of taboo subject matter , general toilet humor , accessibility to younger viewers , disregard for conservative sensibilities , negative depiction of liberal causes , and portrayal of religion for comic effect have been the main sources for generating controversy and debate over the course of its run . As the series first became popular , students in several schools were barred from wearing South Park @-@ related T @-@ shirts , while several parent councils in the United Kingdom expressed concern when eight- and nine @-@ year @-@ old children voted the South Park character Cartman as their favorite personality in a 1999 poll . Parker and Stone assert that the show is not meant to be viewed by young children , and the show is certified with TV ratings that indicate its intention for mature audiences .
Parents Television Council founder L. Brent Bozell III and Action for Children 's Television founder Peggy Charren have both condemned the show , with the latter claiming it is " dangerous to the democracy " . Several other activist groups have protested the show 's parodies of Christianity and portrayal of Jesus Christ . Stone claims that parents who disapprove of South Park for its portrayal of how kids behave are upset because they " have an idyllic vision of what kids are like " , adding " [ kids ] don 't have any kind of social tact or etiquette , they 're just complete little raging bastards " .
The show further lampooned the controversy surrounding its use of profanity , as well as the media attention surrounding the network show Chicago Hope 's singular use of the word shit , with the season five premiere " It Hits the Fan " , in which the word shit is said 162 times without being bleeped for censorship purposes , while also appearing uncensored in written form . In the days following the show 's original airing , 5 @,@ 000 disapproving e @-@ mails were sent to Comedy Central . Despite its 43 uncensored uses of the racial slur nigger , the season 11 episode " With Apologies to Jesse Jackson " generated relatively little controversy , as most in the black community and the NAACP praised the episode for its context and its comedic way of conveying other races ' perceptions of how black people must feel when hearing the word .
Specific controversies regarding the show have included an April Fools ' Day prank played on its viewers in 1998 , its depiction of the Virgin Mary in the season nine ( 2005 ) finale " Bloody Mary " which angered several Catholics , its depiction of Steve Irwin with a stingray barb stuck in his chest in the episode " Hell on Earth 2006 " , which originally aired less than two months after Irwin was killed in the same fashion , and Comedy Central 's censorship of the depiction of Muhammad in the season 10 episode " Cartoon Wars Part II " in the wake of the Jyllands @-@ Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy .
The season nine ( 2005 ) episode " Trapped in the Closet " denounces Scientology as nothing more than " a big fat global scam " , while freely divulging church information that Scientology normally only reveals to members who make significant monetary contributions to the church . The episode also ambiguously parodies the rumors involving the sexual orientation of Scientologist Tom Cruise , who allegedly demanded any further reruns of the episode be canceled . Isaac Hayes , a Scientologist , later quit South Park because of his objection to the episode .
The season fourteen episodes " 200 " and " 201 " were mired in controversy for satirizing issues surrounding the depiction of the Islamic prophet , Muhammad . The website for the organization Revolution Muslim , a New York @-@ based radical Muslim organization , posted an entry that included a warning to creators Parker and Stone that they risk violent retribution for their depictions of Muhammad . It said that they " will probably wind up like Theo van Gogh for airing this show " . The posting provided the addresses to Comedy Central in New York and the production company in Los Angeles . The author of the post , Zachary Adam Chesser ( who prefers to be called Abu Talhah al @-@ Amrikee ) , said it was meant to serve as a warning to Parker and Stone , not a threat , and that providing the addresses was meant to give people the opportunity to protest . Despite al @-@ Amrikee 's claims that the website entry was a warning , several media outlets and observers interpreted it as a threat . Support for the episode has come in the form of Everybody Draw Mohammed Day , a movement started on Facebook that encourages people to draw Muhammad on May 20 . The " 200 " episode , which also depicted the Buddha snorting cocaine , prompted the government of Sri Lanka to ban the series outright .
= = Influence = =
= = = Cultural = = =
Commentary made in episodes has been interpreted as statements Parker and Stone are attempting to make to the viewing public , and these opinions have been subject to much critical analysis in the media and literary world within the framework of popular philosophical , theological , social , and political concepts . Since South Park debuted , college students have written term papers and doctoral theses analyzing the show , while Brooklyn College offers a course called " South Park and Political Correctness " .
Soon after one of Kenny 's trademark deaths on the show , other characters would typically shout " Oh my God , they killed Kenny ! " . The exclamation quickly became a popular catchphrase , while the running gag of Kenny 's recurring deaths are one of the more recognized hallmarks among viewers of modern television . Cartman 's exclamations of " Respect my authori @-@ tah ! " and " Screw you guys ... I 'm going home ! " became catchphrases as well , and during the show 's earlier seasons , were highly popular in the lexicon of viewers . Cartman 's eccentric intonation of " Hey ! " was included in the 2002 edition of The Oxford Dictionary of Catchphrases .
In the season two episode " Chef Aid " , attorney Johnnie Cochran uses what 's called in the show the Chewbacca defense , which is a legal strategy that involves addressing plot holes related to Chewbacca in the film Return of the Jedi rather than discussing the trial at hand during a closing argument in a deliberate attempt to confuse jurors into thinking there is reasonable doubt . The term " Chewbacca defense " has been documented as being used by criminologists , forensic scientists , and political commentators in their various discussions of similar methods used in legal cases and public forums .
Another season two episode , " Gnomes " , revolves around a group of " underpants gnomes " who , as their name suggests , run a corporation stealing people 's underpants . When asked about their business model , various gnomes reply that theirs is a three @-@ step process : Phase 1 is " collect underpants " . Phase 3 is " profit " . However , the gnomes are unable to explain what is to occur between the first and final steps , and " Phase 2 " is accompanied by a large question mark on their corporate flow chart . Using " ? ? ? ? " and " PROFIT ! " as the last two steps in a process ( usually jokingly ) has become a widely popular Internet meme because of this . Especially in the context of politics and economics , " underpants gnomes " has been used by some commentators to characterize a conspicuous gap of logic or planning .
When Sophie Rutschmann of the University of Strasbourg discovered a mutated gene that causes an adult fruit fly to die within two days after it is infected with certain bacteria , she named the gene kep1 in honor of Kenny .
= = = Political = = =
While some conservatives have condemned the show for its vulgarity , a growing population of people who hold center @-@ right political beliefs , including teenagers and young adults , have embraced the show for its tendency to mock liberal viewpoints and lampoon liberal celebrities and icons . Political commentator Andrew Sullivan dubbed the group South Park Republicans , or South Park conservatives . Sullivan classified the group as " extremely skeptical of political correctness but also are socially liberal on many issues " , though he says the phrase applied to them is meant to be more of a casual indication of beliefs than a strong partisan label . Brian C. Anderson describes the group as " generally characterized by holding strong libertarian beliefs and rejecting more conservative social policy " , and notes that although the show makes " wicked fun of conservatives " , it is " at the forefront of a conservative revolt against liberal media . "
Parker and Stone downplay the show 's alignment with any particular political affiliation , and deny having a political agenda when creating an episode . The two claim the show 's higher ratio of instances lampooning liberal orthodoxies stems simply from their preference to make fun of liberals more than conservatives . While Stone has been quoted saying , " I hate conservatives , but I really fucking hate liberals " , Stone and Parker have explained that their drive to lampoon a given target comes first from the target 's insistence on telling other people how to behave . The duo explains that they perceive liberals as having both delusions of entitlement to remain free from satire , and a propensity to enforce political correctness while patronizing the citizens of Middle America . Parker and Stone are uncomfortable with the idea of themselves or South Park being applied with any kind of partisan classification . Parker said he rejects the " South Park Republican " and " South Park conservative " labels as a serious notion , feeling that either tag implies that one only adheres to strictly conservative or liberal viewpoints . Canadian columnist Jaime J. Weinman observes that the most die @-@ hard conservatives who identified themselves as " South Park Republicans " began turning away from the label when the show ridiculed Republicans in the season nine ( 2005 ) episode " Best Friends Forever . "
= = Film = =
In 1999 , less than two years after the series first aired , a feature @-@ length film was released . The film , a musical comedy , was directed by Parker , who co @-@ wrote the script with Stone and Pam Brady . The film was generally well received by critics , and earned a combined US $ 83 @.@ 1 million at the domestic and foreign box office . The film satirizes the controversy surrounding the show itself and gained a spot in the 2001 edition of Guinness World Records for " Most Swearing in an Animated Film " . The song " Blame Canada " from the film 's soundtrack earned song co @-@ writers Parker and Marc Shaiman an Academy Award nomination for Best Music , Original Song .
Parker and Stone said in a 2008 interview that a theatrically released sequel would most likely be what concludes the series . In 2011 , when asked on the official South Park website whether a sequel would be made , they said " the first South Park movie was so potent , we 're all still recovering from the blow . Unfortunately , at the current moment , there are no plans for a second South Park movie . But you never know what the future may bring , crazier things have happened ... " In 2011 , Time called South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut the sixth greatest animated feature of all @-@ time . In 2013 , Warner Bros. Entertainment relinquished to Paramount Pictures its rights to co @-@ finance a potential future South Park film during their negotiations to co @-@ finance the Christopher Nolan science fiction film Interstellar . Previous efforts to create a second South Park film were complicated due to both studios retaining certain rights to the property .
= = Media and merchandise = =
= = = Shorts = = =
As a tribute to the Dead Parrot sketch , a short that features Cartman attempting to return a dead Kenny to a shop run by Kyle aired during a 1999 BBC television special commemorating the 30th anniversary of Monty Python 's Flying Circus . South Park parodied Scientology in a short that aired as part of the 2000 MTV Movie Awards . The short was entitled " The Gauntlet " and also poked fun at John Travolta , a Scientologist . The four main characters were featured in the documentary film The Aristocrats , listening to Cartman tell his version of the film 's titular joke . Short clips of Cartman introducing the starting lineup for the University of Colorado football team were featured during ABC 's coverage of the 2007 matchup between the University of Colorado and the University of Nebraska . In 2008 , Parker , as Cartman , gave answers to a Proust Questionnaire conducted by Julie Rovner of NPR . The Snakes & Arrows Tour for Rush in 2007 used an intro from Cartman , Stan , Kyle , and Kenny preceding " Tom Sawyer " . As Parker , Stone and producer Frank Agnone are Los Angeles Kings fans , special South Park pre @-@ game videos have been featured at Kings home games at Staples Center , and the club even sent the Stanley Cup to visit South Park Studios after winning the 2012 finals . Parker and Stone have also created Denver Broncos and Denver Nuggets @-@ themed shorts , featuring Cartman , for home games at Pepsi Center .
= = = Music = = =
Chef Aid : The South Park Album , a compilation of original songs from the show , characters performing cover songs , and tracks performed by guest artists was released in 1998 , while Mr. Hankey 's Christmas Classics , a compilation of songs performed by the characters in the episode of the same name as well as other Christmas @-@ themed songs was released in 1999 , as was the soundtrack to the feature film . The song " Chocolate Salty Balls " ( performed by Hayes as Chef ) was released as a single in the UK in 1998 to support the Chef Aid : The South Park Album and became a number one hit .
= = = Video games = = =
Following the early success of the series , three video games based on the series were released by Acclaim Entertainment . A first @-@ person shooter simply titled South Park was released in 1998 for the PC , Nintendo 64 , and PlayStation . This was followed in 1999 by South Park : Chef 's Luv Shack , a party video game featuring quizzes and mini @-@ games , on the Dreamcast , PlayStation , Nintendo 64 , and PC . In 2000 , South Park Rally , a racing game , was released on the Dreamcast , PlayStation , Nintendo 64 , and PC . Parker and Stone had little to do with the development of these games , apart from providing voice acting , and have publicly criticized Acclaim and the quality of the South Park games they produced .
There was a South Park game for the Game Boy Color in development at Acclaim but it was cancelled by Parker and Stone because they thought the game wasn 't right for the system as the main demograpic was kids . Parker and Stone have the prototype cartridge of the game , making it the first South Park video game ever made . Only one screenshot was published in Nintendo Power issue 114 in 1998 .
Another South Park game was in development for the PlayStation 2 , Xbox , and GameCube in 2004 but was cancelled for unknown reasons . A prototype of the game was found in an Xbox development kit in 2015 .
In 2010 , the decision was made to form a small group called South Park Digital Studios , which would , among other things , work on creating new South Park games , that would involve the studio and the show 's creators more heavily . The first such title is South Park Let 's Go Tower Defense Play ! , a tower defense game developed by Doublesix , which was released in 2009 for the Xbox Live Arcade service on the Xbox 360 console . Another Xbox Live Arcade game , South Park : Tenorman 's Revenge , is a platformer which was released in the spring of 2012 . South Park : The Stick of Truth is a role @-@ playing video game that was written by Parker and Stone , and was originally scheduled to be released on March 5 , 2013 for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 consoles , and Microsoft Windows ; the game was eventually released on March 4 , 2014 to positive reviews . A sequel to The Stick of Truth has been announced and will be titled South Park : The Fractured But Whole .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Merchandising related to the show is an industry which generates several million dollars a year . In 1998 , the top @-@ selling specialty T @-@ shirt in the United States was based on South Park , and US $ 30 million in T @-@ shirt sales was reached during the show 's first season .
A South Park pinball machine was released in 1999 by Sega Pinball . The companies Fun 4 All , Mezco Toyz , and Mirage have produced various South Park action figures , collectibles , and plush dolls .
Comedy Central entered into an agreement with Frito @-@ Lay to sell 1 @.@ 5 million bags of Cheesy Poofs , Cartman 's favorite snack from the show , at Walmart until the premiere of the second half of the fifteenth season on October 5 , 2011 .
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= Betty Williams ( Coronation Street ) =
Elizabeth " Betty " Williams ( née Preston , previously Turpin ) was a long @-@ standing fictional character from the British ITV soap opera Coronation Street , portrayed by former music hall star Betty Driver . Driver was cast as Betty in 1969 , after first auditioning for the role of Hilda Ogden . The character arrived in Coronation Street to help her sister Maggie Cooke run the corner shop , and has since had a number of storylines which have seen her become twice widowed , and mother to an illegitimate son . Working as a barmaid in the soap 's Rovers Return Inn , Betty created a signature dish , known as Betty 's hotpot .
In 1995 , a real @-@ life range of hotpots and pies based on the dish were launched by Hollands Pies , and in 2007 , the world 's largest Lancashire hotpot was created , based on Betty 's recipe . Driver died in October 2011 and Betty was subsequently written out , with the character dying off @-@ screen of illness in April 2012 .
= = Creation = =
Betty Driver , who had been performing since she was 8 years old , retired from acting in her late forties to run hotels in Cheshire and Derbyshire . It was here that she was spotted by one of her customers , producer of Coronation Street , Harry Kershaw , who persuaded her to audition for the role of Hilda Ogden in 1964 ; she eventually had to turn the role down as she was tied into an advertising contract with Procter & Gamble and they refused to release her . The part of Hilda eventually went to Jean Alexander . Driver has commented , " Harry Kershaw , producer of Coronation Street , persuaded me to audition for Hilda Ogden – just think I could have been wearing curlers for 30 years . " In 1969 , she was cast as the new character , Betty Turpin . Commenting on her casting in 1999 , Driver said , " [ Kershaw ] said , ' Betty , how would you like to pull pints for us on television ? ' , and that was it . I suppose I expected I 'd be there for perhaps a few months . But it just went on and on and , well , they 've never managed to get rid of me . "
Following her first appearance in 1969 , Driver remained in the role of Betty continuously . She suggested in 1999 that if she gave up she would die " within a month from sheer boredom " . In a 2006 interview she laughed off the notion of retirement , saying : " From day one on The Street everyone has been very kind to me . In fact , I 'm godmother to Bill Roache 's son . So as long as they want me , I 'm happy to stay . The Street is like home and they really are my family . " She confirmed her intention to remain on the show in 2010 , when the character celebrated her 90th birthday . In May 2010 , the News of the World reported that Driver had decided to retire , just prior to the actress 's 90th birthday . Driver was distressed by the rumour , and assured producer Phil Collinson of her intention to remain with the soap , and was told that Betty was very much a part of plans for the series ' upcoming 50th anniversary celebrations . Driver died on 15 October 2011 , having appeared in over 2 @,@ 800 episodes of Coronation Street .
= = Development = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Betty was born at 6 Tile Street , Weatherfield on 4 February 1920 to Harold and Margaret Preston . During World War II , she had an affair with serviceman Ted Farrell ( Gerald Sim ) , resulting in a son , Gordon ( Bill Kenwright ; Geoffrey Leesley ) . Ted left her to return to his family and Gordon was adopted by Betty 's sister Maggie ( Irene Sutcliffe ) and her husband Les Clegg ( John Sharp ) . Betty celebrated the end of the war with her sweetheart Billy Williams ( Frank Mills ) , to whom she had lost her virginity . The two lost touch , and in 1949 , Betty married policeman Cyril Turpin ( William Moore ) .
= = = Storylines = = =
Betty and her husband Cyril move to Coronation Street in June 1969 , helping her sister Maggie to run the local corner shop following the breakup of Maggie 's marriage to Les Clegg . Maggie , however , resents Betty 's interference and persuades landlord Jack Walker ( Arthur Leslie ) to give Betty a job as a barmaid at The Rovers Return Inn public house . Betty clashes with the landlady Annie ( Doris Speed ) , who fears that Jack may find her attractive , and fires Betty as a result . Betty takes a job in a rival pub , and returns only when Annie apologises . Betty becomes close friends with fellow barmaid Bet Lynch ( Julie Goodyear ) , who on occasion lodges with her , uses Betty as a chaperone on dates , and frequently seeks her advice in running her life .
Cyril 's employment as a policeman causes Betty problems when Keith Lucas ( David Webb ) , a man he has previously arrested , begins stalking her . She initially refrains from telling Cyril , fearing that he will get into trouble . When Cyril finds out , he attacks Lucas with a piece of lead piping and has to leave the police force . Betty has a breakdown when Cyril dies of a heart attack in 1974 , leaving her only £ 859 . The same year the truth about her illegitimate son is revealed , and when the community discovers this , Betty finds it difficult to face them . She busies herself by taking in lodgers , and acquiring a ginger cat named Marmaduke for extra companionship . Betty builds a relationship with Gordon , though he upsets her occasionally , particularly when he neglects to invite her to his wedding .
Betty is mugged in 1982 by Raymond Attwood ( Joe Searby ) from Ken Barlow 's ( William Roache ) youth club ; she ends up in hospital with a broken arm . This leads to a reunion with Ted , the man who fathered Gordon , though he is unaware of his son 's existence . Ted visits Betty in hospital after reading about her mugging in a newspaper . Betty agonises over whether to tell Ted about Gordon , but decides against it , preferring not to stir up the past .
On the fiftieth anniversary of VE Day in 1995 , Betty is reunited with her wartime sweetheart Billy . The two marry several months later , and Gordon gives his mother away . They live happily together until Billy also dies of a heart attack in 1997 . Betty becomes famous in Weatherfield for her hotpots , which come under scrutiny in the early 1990s when it is believed that they are contaminated . She is cleared of all wrongdoing when it is discovered that beer , not food , is responsible for a spate of stomach upsets . Betty acts as lady mayoress alongside mayor Alf Roberts ( Bryan Mosley ) when his wife Audrey ( Sue Nicholls ) has no interest in fulfilling her civic duties . This includes accompanying him to receive his OBE from the Queen , much to Audrey 's chagrin .
In 1999 , Betty celebrates 30 years of working at The Rovers Return with a party attended by all the regulars . She considers retiring in 2002 and briefly moves to Wimbledon to be with Gordon and his wife Caroline ( Elaine Donnelly ; Sarah Thurstan ) . Feeling that Caroline does not want her there , Betty considers moving into a retirement home , however is convinced to stay in Weatherfield by her close friend Emily Bishop ( Eileen Derbyshire ) . Around the time of Betty 's fortieth anniversary at the Rovers Return , she is sacked by new manager Poppy Morales ( Sophiya Haque ) after clashing with her on several occasions . Landlord Steve McDonald ( Simon Gregson ) eventually tires of Poppy 's poor treatment of the staff and fires her . Betty is re @-@ instated , and plays the fairy godmother in the 2009 Rovers Return Christmas pantomime performance of Cinderella . In early February 2010 , Betty has a party in The Rovers celebrating both her 90th birthday and the fact that she is the oldest barmaid in Weatherfield ; however it backfires when 91 @-@ year @-@ old Enid Crump ( June Broughton ) crashes the party and claims she is the oldest barmaid not Betty . Later Enid becomes sick after Steve serves her a 3 @-@ month old hotpot . Betty and Steve are left terrified when they realise that the hotpot could kill her , but she later recovers . During the Tram Crash of December 2010 Betty comforts Claire Peacock ( Julia Haworth ) after her husband Ashley ( Steven Arnold ) is tragically crushed to death by the rubble .
Betty is last seen in May 2011 , trying in vain to stop David ( Jack P. Shepherd ) and Kylie Platt ( Paula Lane ) from coming behind the bar to speak with Becky . Although Betty is mentioned and referred to by various characters since , her subsequent absence was not explained until in February 2012 , when Audrey asks Stella Price ( Michelle Collins ) how Betty is , to which Stella replies that Betty is " still a bit under the weather " . On 16 April 2012 Rita and Emily arrange to visit a convalescing Betty and go to meet Gordon , who has agreed to drive them there . However , when Gordon does arrive , he brings with him the unexpected news that Betty has died , peacefully in her sleep the night before . The residents of the street all gather in the Rovers Return and hold an impromptu memorial to Betty , with all of her old friends reminiscing about her . Gordon , with some persuasion from Emily decides to have his mother buried in Weatherfield after initially contemplating London . It is later revealed that Annie Walker left The Rovers Return to Betty in her will however Betty never acted on this , Gordon assured landlady Stella Price that he is not interested in the pub and it will remain in her possession . Despite being one of the street 's longest serving characters , her funeral was held off @-@ screen . After the wake and lock @-@ up , Stella hung a photo of Betty on the wall over The Rovers Return , for all to see and remember her . This photo was sadly destroyed during the 2013 Rovers Return fire , started by Karl Munro but , following the refurbishment , Rita managed to obtain an identical copy which remains hanging on the wall in the same place .
= = = Personality = = =
In his 1998 book The Women of Coronation Street , Daran Little describes Betty as an archetypal mother figure . He compares her to one of Coronation Street 's original characters Minnie Caldwell ( Margot Bryant ) , as she is " warm and comforting [ ... ] loves cats and has had her share of lodgers " ; however , Little notes that " while Minnie wandered through life in a haze , Betty is sharp @-@ witted , blessed with insight and wisdom " . Discussing her evolving characterisation , Little writes : " She hasn 't always been the incarnation of lovable joviality : when she arrived in the Street in 1969 , she was loud , brash and a vicious @-@ tongued gossip . "
Betty 's two passions in life are darts and food . Playing darts brings out her competitive side , and she enjoys beating her male customers . Cyril frequently protests when Betty attempts to diet , as he prefers her " homely and comfortable " figure . Ultimately , Betty stops trying to lose weight , stating : " I had to chose [ sic ? ] between losing a few pounds or losing my marital partner . If my Cyril had wanted to marry a skinny rabbit he 'd have married one . " Betty breaks down when Cyril dies from a heart attack , with Little noting that : " Cyril had been the stabilizing force in Betty 's life , and without him she relied heavily on her job and friends at the Rovers – she couldn 't face life alone at home " . Little has observed that Betty " has a finely tuned sense of right and wrong and has never been afraid to stand up for her beliefs " , citing Betty 's shock at being mugged in 1982 , and calling the NSPCC to report a female neighbour whose children were left outside until nightfall while their mother entertained her boyfriend .
In 2010 , Driver discussed her character , saying , " Coronation Street characters tend to fit into one of two camps . Those who have drama after drama and those who muddle through life , often in the background , as sturdy and dependable as the famous cobbles . Betty falls into the latter group . There have been moments of drama , intrigue and even romance – but it has been her presence behind the bar , cutting up pieces of lamb and chunks of potato , that has endeared her to the viewers . " When asked about Betty 's " sharp tongue " , Driver suggested , " Not really sharp . [ Betty 's ] just straightforward . [ She 's ] not nasty to anybody but [ she doesn 't ] suffer fools gladly . "
= = = Barmaid of The Rovers Return = = =
Betty was the longest @-@ serving barmaid of the soap 's public house , The Rovers Return . She first served behind the bar in 1969 and had been shown to work there for 42 years , as of 2011 . There have been brief breaks however , as storylines have led to the character being fired or quitting her post . She was fired by Annie Walker ( Doris Speed ) , who accused her of theft , and she quit her post in 1995 when Jack ( Bill Tarmey ) and Vera Duckworth ( Liz Dawn ) took over as landlords . In the summer of 2009 , Betty was sacked again temporarily by manager Poppy Morales . A Coronation Street insider reassured The Sun that Betty was not being written out of the show , however , stating : " She ’ ll be here for a long time to come – she ’ ll just be on the other side of the bar for a change " . In a storyline that aired in February 2010 , Betty – at 90 years old – was named Manchester 's Oldest Barmaid . In a plot twist , a 91 @-@ year @-@ old rival came forward , resulting in Betty fearing she killed her , when the rival consumes a two @-@ month @-@ old hotpot .
= = Reception = =
ITV describe Betty as a " linchpin " of the soap opera , stating that : " She ’ s as much a part of Coronation Street as the cobble stones . " Former executive producer , Brian Park , suggested in 1997 that characters such as Betty " are essential ingredients . They 're like the big clock on the mantelpiece . " Park elaborated on his opinion of Betty when he left the serial as producer in 1998 , saying , " I don 't mean it disrespectfully but [ ... ] people like Betty Driver , who plays Betty Williams [ ... ] are what I call the mantelpiece ornaments . She 'll probably never hold down a major storyline but she 's part of the weave . "
The character is one of the longest @-@ serving in British soap , coming third behind Ken Barlow and Emily Bishop in a 1998 survey assessing character episode appearances in Coronation Street 's history . In 1999 , when Betty was celebrating 30 years on @-@ screen , Alison Boshoff of the Daily Mail praised the character 's never changing style : " for 30 years , one favourite fixture of Coronation Street has remained exactly the same [ ... ] barmaid Betty Turpin . With her neatly @-@ set hair , comfortable , bustling manner , and brilliant smile , she has been dispensing homespun advice – and , of course , those celebrated hotpots – at the Rovers Return for more than a generation . " Commenting on her 30th anniversary with the show , Betty Driver said , " It is just amazing that I 've been here for 30 years . I suppose I have never really counted up the time I 've been with the show , because I still enjoy it so much and am always looking forward rather than back . Really , it has been a wonderful experience and I feel very glad I was able to stick around for so long . "
In 2007 , Coronation Street bosses told The Sun newspaper that there were no plans to retire the character of Betty , despite actress Betty Driver being 87 at the time , the oldest cast member in the soap . The character was described as " highly valued " , with executive producer Kieran Roberts saying , " She is still going strong and enjoying the role . Betty is one of the Street ’ s great traditional characters who seem to have been there forever . It ’ s always been our aim to keep a great mix of contemporary stories with older , more traditional characters . Comedy and tragedy combined with very clever writing has always been a trademark of the Street . " Actor Rob James @-@ Collier , who played Liam Connor in the soap , has deemed Betty to be one of Coronation Street 's two best characters , alongside Jack Duckworth ( Bill Tarmey ) . He explained : " Betty Driver , who plays Betty can have no more than a couple of lines in a scene , but she ’ ll steal it off all the other actors with just a comedy reaction . It ’ s simple , and also fantastic . "
Driver was awarded a lifetime achievement award at The British Soap Awards in May 2010 , to honour her role as Betty who had , at that time , featured in Coronation Street for 41 years . Due to illness , Driver was unable to collect the award in person , but she recorded a video message thanking everyone at ITV .
= = = Betty 's hotpot = = =
During her time on Coronation Street , the character has become synonymous with her signature dish at the Rovers Return Inn , Betty 's hotpot . ITV have described the dish as " the stuff of legends " , and in 1995 , pie manufacturer Holland 's Pies launched a real @-@ life range of hotpots and pies based on the dish , called " Betty 's Kitchen " . The idea for the range originated with the firm 's marketing director , Dilys Day , who explained : " I was brought up on hotpot and Coronation Street . So when I joined Holland 's a year ago , it seemed right to put the two together with Betty 's hotpot . " Day added that : " We are all very excited about Betty 's Kitchen products . Holland 's is a strong northern brand , with mass market appeal and wholesome , honest values - the same can be said for The Street . "
In his book Marketing Communication , Richard J. Varey used the product range as an example of a company capitalising on a form of product placement or " stealth advertising " , writing that " Viewers don 't realize that they are , in effect , watching an advertisement " . Betty Driver said of the range 's launch : " Betty Turpin 's hotpots have become something of an institution at the Rover 's and she 's very proud of her reputation for good , wholesome food . I think it is a lovely idea that people will be able to buy them in supermarkets now . " Driver discussed her astonishment at the general level of interest in her character 's hotpots , disclosing : " I was on a cruise on the QE2 a few weeks ago , and everyone was asking me about it . Then one day , they served hot pot on the menu and everyone thought it was mine ! "
In 2007 , Liverpool Daily Post editor Larry Neild was selected to join Liverpool 's ' Health is Wealth ' commission , researching the effects of food deprivation on poor health , after writing a scathing column in which he suggested that the commission ’ s chairman , Sue Woodward , chief executive of ITV Granada , should set a good example in Coronation Street by banning Betty ’ s hotpot . In October of the same year , allegedly the world ’ s biggest Lancashire hotpot was created , based on Betty ’ s traditional hotpot recipe from Coronation Street . The hotpot was cooked in a specially crafted 12 ft by 7 ft tin , weighing 200 kilos . 2008 saw Betty 's hotpot come under scrutiny in the soap , after Street resident Jerry Morton suffered a heart attack . Jerry 's ex @-@ wife Teresa Bryant blamed the fatty meat in Betty 's hotpots for hardening his arteries , and local butcher Ashley Peacock suggested that ostrich meat may be an up @-@ and @-@ coming new alternative , much to Betty 's outrage . Despite her character 's culinary skill , Driver claims she " couldn 't cook a hotpot to save [ her ] life " .
= = In other media = =
In 1998 , a straight to video , Coronation Street spin @-@ off film was released , featuring Betty . It was entitled The Women Of Coronation Street and featured clips of the show 's most famous females . The video hailed the brief return of Coronation Street favourite Hilda Ogden , who had not been seen in the soap since 1987 ; Betty travelled to meet her at her new home . A spokesperson for Granada Television commented , " It shows what happens when Betty [ Williams ] goes up to visit Hilda Ogden at her home in Derbyshire . She used to do cleaning work for a doctor and when he died , he left her the house in gratitude . It 'll be a souvenir fans want to keep . "
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= A Moral Reckoning =
A Moral Reckoning : The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and Its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair is a 2003 book by Daniel Jonah Goldhagen , previously the author or Hitler 's Willing Executioners ( 1996 ) . Goldhagen examines the Roman Catholic Church ’ s role in the Holocaust , and offers a review of scholarship in English addressing what he argues is antisemitism throughout the history of the Church , which he claims contributed substantially to the persecution of the Jews during World War II .
Goldhagen recommends several significant steps which might be taken by the Church to make reparation for its alleged role . A Moral Reckoning received mixed reviews and was the subject of considerable controversy regarding allegations of inaccuracies and anti @-@ Catholic bias .
= = Background = =
Goldhagen , the son of a Holocaust survivor , first engaged in serious academic discourse concerning the Holocaust following a lecture he attended as a student of Harvard University in 1983 . He gained prominence in the field with the publication of 1996 's Hitler 's Willing Executioners , which met acclaim and controversy , particularly in Germany . The Journal for German and International Politics awarded him the Democracy Prize in 1997 . In awarding the prize for the first time since 1990 , the Journal wrote " Because of the penetrating quality and the moral power of his presentation , Daniel Goldhagen has greatly stirred the consciousness of the German public . "
Invited by The New Republic to review several books concerning Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust . Goldhagen was inspired to write a review of the literature concerning the question of the " culture of antisemitism " in the Catholic Church prior to Vatican II and its impact on the Holocaust . His impressions first appeared as a lengthy essay in the January 21 , 2002 edition of The New Republic entitled " What Would Jesus Have Done ? Pope Pius XII , the Catholic Church , and the Holocaust " before their publication by Knopf in extended book form as A Moral Reckoning .
= = Overview = =
In the New York Times , book reviewer Geoffrey Wheatcroft said that A Moral Reckoning ( 2003 ) presents an indictment of the Roman Catholic Church comparable to Goldhagen ’ s indictment of Germany in Hitler ’ s Willing Executioners ( 1996 ) , saying that “ both as an international institution under the leadership of Pope Pius XII ( 1939 – 58 ) , and at national levels in many European countries , the Church was deeply implicated in the appalling genocide . . . . Just as Germans had been carefully taught to hate the Jews , to the point that they could readily torment and kill them , so had Catholics ” ; that author Goldhagen “ sees a deep vein of Jew @-@ hatred ingrained within Catholic tradition ; and he does not think that there was any difference of kind , between that old religious Jew @-@ hatred and the murderous racial antisemitism of the twentieth century ” .
In a 2003 , in The Atlantic magazine , interviewer Jennie Rothenberg Gritz quoted Goldhagen saying that “ moral issues ” are the “ principal substance ” of A Moral Reckoning , that his concern was a “ consideration of culpability and repair ” . In a letter to the editor of The New York Times , Goldhagen said that “ the book ’ s real content ” is in “ setting forth general principles for moral repair from which I derive concrete proposals for the Church ” . Donald Dietrich , author of God and Humanity in Auschwitz : Jewish @-@ Christian Relations and Sanctioned Murder , and a Boston College professor of Theology specializing in Holocaust studies , said that Goldhagen “ asks the Catholic Church a question : ‘ What must a religion of love and goodness do to confront its history of hatred and harm , to make amends with its victims , and to right itself so that it is no longer the source of hatred and harm that , whatever its past , it would no longer endorse ? ’ He has attempted to analyze the moral culpability of Catholics and their leaders , to judge the actors , and to discern how today ’ s Catholics can make material , political and moral restitution ” .
Goldhagen 's book suggests that the Church owes financial reparation and support to Jews and the State of Israel and should change its doctrine and the accepted Biblical canon to excise statements he labels as antisemitic and to indicate that " The Jews ' way to God is as legitimate as the Christian way " . Failing this , the author proposes disclaimers in every Christian Bible to annotate antisemitic passages and acknowledge them as having led to injury against Jews .
= = Legal controversy = =
In 2002 , the book 's German publisher — Siedler Verlag , a sister company of Random House — was sued by the archdiocese of Munich as a result of the misidentification of a photograph , falsely asserting the presence of Michael Cardinal von Faulhaber , whom Rabbi David G. Dalin calls " a famous opponent of the Nazis " , at a Nazi rally . The picture actually depicted Apostolic Nuncio to Germany Cesare Orsenigo participating in a May Day labor parade in Munich — not a Nazi rally in Berlin .
In October 2002 , the district court of Munich required the publisher to withdraw the book or correct the copies , but in spite of the disclosure of the error in Germany , the book was released in English by Knopf with the error intact . A representative of the archdiocese said with regards to the mislabeled photograph that " The implication is that Cardinal Faulhaber was an associate of the Nazis . When one writes about these things , one should be more precise about the truth " .
Goldhagen , who acknowledged that the photo wrongly identified the figure and location , described the lawsuit as a crude diversionary tactic to displace focus from the real issues . Goldhagen stated that the photograph was misidentified by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , from which the picture was obtained . Religious commentator and former priest Paul Collins characterized the mislabeling of the photograph as inexcusable , while The New York Times reported that most historians agreed that " a single mislabeled photo in a 346 @-@ page book is a minor error " .
= = Critical reception = =
Although A Moral Reckoning was favorably reviewed in The Spectator , Kirkus Reviews , The San Francisco Chronicle , and given a generally favorable overview ahead of an interview in The Atlantic , it was also subject to substantial criticism , even among some of those reviewers who found aspects of the work praiseworthy . The International Social Science Review , which described the book as a " seminal work " and a " valuable introduction to and synthesis of the literature on church and state during the Holocaust " , also indicated that the message of the book is " diluted by stylistic problems " . New York Times reviewer Geoffrey Wheatcroft praised Goldhagen 's assembly of " an impressive body of evidence " but criticized his repetitiveness , his " misinterpreting the record " and his use of it to promote a particular view , which Wheatcroft deems appropriate for an advocate but reprehensible in a historian . Dietrich , whose review lauded Goldhagen for asking " many of the proper seminal questions " , mirrored Wheatcroft 's concerns about repetitiveness , misunderstandings and polemics , specifically suggesting that " [ r ] eaders must be sure to also review the footnotes since in many cases he contextually and theologically nuances his book ’ s claims only there " .
John Cornwell , author of Hitler ’ s Pope : The Secret History of Pius XII ( 1999 ) , praised Daniel Goldhagen ’ s “ excellent job in exposing the propagandistic hagiography of recent defenders of Pius XII , especially their tendency to confuse diplomatic eulogy with historical fact ” , but said that Goldhagen errs in identifying a key Vatican figure an antisemite , a misrepresentation he thinks “ can only provide ammunition for the Pius XII lobby ” . The journalist Gritz noted that Goldhagen “ does not cushion his criticisms of the Church in diplomatic language ” , that “ even philosophy professor John K. Roth , who favorably reviewed A Moral Reckoning in The Los Angeles Times , said that the adjectives “ unpretentious . . . indecisive . . . moderate . . . patient ” do not come to mind when reading Goldhagen . Another book review in The New York Times said that A Moral Reckoning is an “ impressive and disturbing bill of indictment against ” the Roman Catholic Church , yet its imbalanced perspective results in “ turning history into a kind of cudgel ” .
In summer of 2002 , before its publication , Ronald Rychlak , author of Hitler , the War , and the Pope , decried it as factually incorrect , releasing a lengthy catalog of corrections to Goldhagen 's essay " What Would Jesus Have Done ? " After the book 's publication , Rychlak published a review in the journal Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions , again pointing out factual errors , and criticizing the book 's tone and conclusions . Following the book 's publication , Rabbi Dalin and Joseph Bottum , later co @-@ authors along with William Doino of The Pius War : Responses to the Critics of Pius XII , in separate articles for The Weekly Standard denounced it as failing " to meet even the minimum standards of scholarship " and " filled with factual errors " . In his review , Paul Collins indicated that the purpose of the book was undermined by poor editing , incoherence and redundancy . Mark Riebling of National Review , who described himself as an admirer of Goldhagen 's first book , called A Moral Reckoning " a 352 @-@ page exercise in intellectual bad manners " and " a spree of intellectual wilding " .
In reply to the charge of historical inaccuracy , Daniel Goldhagen said that the “ central contours ” of A Moral Reckoning : The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair ( 2002 ) are accurate , because the book ’ s title and first page communicate its purpose of moral analysis , not historical analysis . He stated that he has invited to no avail European Church representatives to present their own historical account in discussing morality and reparation .
Opponents labelled Goldhagen as a “ anti @-@ Catholic ” , as promoting an anti @-@ Catholic agenda . Bottum wrote that its “ errors of fact combine to create a set of historical theses about the Nazis and the Catholic Church so tendentious that not even Pius XII ’ s most determined belittlers have dared to assert them . And , in Goldhagen ’ s final chapters , the bad historical theses unite to form a complete anti @-@ Catholicism the likes of which we haven ’ t seen since the elderly H.G. Wells decided Catholicism was the root of all evil ” . In the Catholic News Service , Eugene J. Fisher , the Associate Director of the Secretariat for Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops , said that Goldhagen avoided original research , as “ such methodological and factual considerations would definitely get in the way of the demonic portrait of the Church that he seeks to paint ” .
In the book The New Anti @-@ Catholicism : The Last Acceptable Prejudice , Philip Jenkins said that A Moral Reckoning , along with anti @-@ Catholic conspiracy theories and other “ anti @-@ Church historical polemic ” , belongs to the pseudohistory category of books about anti @-@ Catholic “ mythic history ” , historical manipulation , and national demonization , such as the Black Legend about Spain , said that publishers publish such books because the sell many copies , not because they mean to “ destroy or calumniate Catholicism ” . Furthermore , Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights president William A. Donohue , said that Daniel Goldhagen “ hasn ’ t a clue about Catholicism ” , that he “ separates himself ” from other critics of Pope Pius XII “ by demanding that the Catholic Church implode : he wants the Church to refigure its teachings , liturgy , and practices to such an extent that no one would recognize a trace of Catholicism in this new construction . That is why Goldhagen is not simply against Pope Pius XII : he is an inveterate anti @-@ Catholic bigot ” . Moreover , Rabbi Dalin accused Goldhagen of engaging in a “ misuse of the Holocaust to advance [ his ] . . . anti @-@ Catholic agenda ” .
= = Partial publication history = =
Goldhagen , Daniel Jonah ( October 29 , 2002 ) . A Moral Reckoning . Alfred A. Knopf. p . 384 . ISBN 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 41434 @-@ 7 . 1st edition hardcover .
Goldhagen , Daniel Jonah ( November 3 , 2002 ) . A Moral Reckoning . Little , Brown. p . 384 . ISBN 0 @-@ 349 @-@ 11693 @-@ 8 . Hardcover .
Goldhagen , Daniel Jonah ( December 11 , 2003 ) . A Moral Reckoning . Abacus. p . 496 . ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 72446 @-@ 7 . Paperback .
Goldhagen , Daniel Jonah ( December 30 , 2003 ) . A Moral Reckoning . Vintage Books. p . 416 . ISBN 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 71417 @-@ 0 . Paperback .
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= Saskatchewan Highway 1 =
Highway 1 is the Saskatchewan section of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway mainland route . The total distance of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway in Saskatchewan is 651 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 404 @.@ 6 mi ) . The highway traverses Saskatchewan from the western border with Alberta , from Highway 1 , to the Manitoba border where it continues as PTH 1 . The Trans – Canada Highway Act was passed on December 10 , 1949 . The Saskatchewan segment was completed August 21 , 1957 . The speed limit along the majority of the route is 110 kilometres per hour ( 70 – mph ) with urban area thoroughfares slowing to a speed of 90 – 100 kilometres per hour ( 55 – 65 mph ) . Portions of the highway — the section through Swift Current , an 8 @-@ kilometer section east of Moose Jaw , and the Regina Ring Road — are controlled @-@ access . Highway 1 serves as a major east @-@ west transport route for commercial traffic . It is the main link between southern Saskatchewan 's largest cities , and also serves as the province 's main link to the neighbouring provinces of Alberta ( to the west ) and Manitoba ( to the east ) .
The four @-@ lane divided highway passes through three major urban centres of Saskatchewan , Regina , Moose Jaw and Swift Current . A site in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network , an internationally acclaimed shorebird conservation strategy , is at the village of Chaplin approximately equal distance between Swift Current and Moose Jaw . Located southwest of the Trans – Canada is the Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park , which features Fort Walsh and the highest elevation of Saskatchewan . Highway 1 traverses ranch lands , the Missouri Coteau topographical area , and rolling prairie agricultural plains .
The highway generally runs west to east along the route , following parallel with the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway route . The Trans – Canada Highway traverses historical settlement areas . The transcontinental railroad of 1885 brought settlers to southern Saskatchewan . Commemorative historical sites along the Trans – Canada Highway mark the historical changes of the 72 years since the CPR came through .
On November 9 , 2011 , the section between Moose Jaw and Regina was designated " Saskatchewan 's Highway of Heroes " to honour province 's soldiers who died in service
= = Origins = =
The Minister of Mines and Resources held the first Federal @-@ Provincial Conference regarding the Trans @-@ Canada Highway in December , 1948 . With consent from all provinces , the Trans – Canada Highway Act was passed on December 10 , 1949 . Following this a second Federal @-@ Provincial Conference was held to bring together the final details for the agreement . The Highway Act aims for the completion of the Trans – Canada Highway route by December , 1956 . The third Federal @-@ Provincial Conference hold April 25 , 1950 saw Ontario , Manitoba , British Columbia , Prince Edward Island , Saskatchewan and Alberta sign the agreement which provided federal funding for the proposed transcontinental highway . The shortest and most practical routes could be chosen by each province respectively , given that provinces adjacent to one another agree on the meeting locations . The transcontinental hard @-@ surfaced two lane highway was to have pavement widths of 22 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) and 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) ; shoulder widths , low gradients and curvature ; bridge clearances and sight distances ; few railway grade crossings ; and be able to bear load capacities of 9 tons an axle . As of 1950 , 4 @,@ 119 mi ( 6 @,@ 629 km ) have been agreed to . By 1955 , the The Trans – Canada Highway program had only seen 4 @,@ 580 mi ( 7 @,@ 371 km ) of highway completed in areas outside of Quebec . 1 @,@ 523 mi ( 2 @,@ 451 @.@ 0 km ) of the paved 2 @,@ 853 miles ( 4 @,@ 591 @.@ 5 km ) of the Canadian highway Trans – Canada highway system had been completed by November 1 , 1955 to Trans – Canada Highway standards . Premier T.C. Douglas presided over the opening ceremonies on August 21 , 1957 , opening the 650 km ( 403 @.@ 9 mi ) Saskatchewan segment of the Trans – Canada Highway
The Special Projects Branch of the Department of Resources and Development administers the Trans – Canada highway Act checking specifications , and prior construction . The contributions from the Dominion Government to the provinces may be up to 50 per cent of the cost of construction approved by the Governor in council . The actual construction is controlled by each Provincial Highway Department respectively . The estimated length of mileage for Saskatchewan is 461 mi ( 741 @.@ 9 km ) of the total 4 @,@ 933 mi ( 7 @,@ 939 km ) .
1957 saw the Saskatchewan portion of the Trans – Canada Highway come to completion , the first province to finish their section in Canada . The year 1962 saw the entire Canadian 7 @,@ 821 km ( 4 @,@ 860 mi ) highway completed which came to a total expenditure of $ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( about $ 18 @.@ 26 billion today ) . The last of the highway between Moosomin and Wapella was twinned and opened on November 6 , 2008 providing a completely twinned corridor . The total cost of twinning was $ 217 million with the Canadian government contributing $ 59 million .
= = History = =
An Indian trail used by fur traders , and Red River carts pulling settlers effects was the first path between Moosomin and Fort Ellice , Manitoba . The transcontinental CPR paralleled this trail when coming through in the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Provincial Highway 4 , the precursor of the Trans – Canada Saskatchewan Highway 1 followed the surveyed grade of the transcontinental CPR between the Alberta and Manitoba border . Travel along Provincial Highway 4 before the 1940s would have been travelling on the square following the township road allowances , barbed wire fencing and rail lines . As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel , the first highway was designed on 90 degree right angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads . Two horse then eight horse scrapers maintained these early dirt roads .
One of the problems that came about was when the Manitoba survey met the Saskatchewan survey . The Manitoba survey allowed for 100 feet ( 30 m ) road allowances placed east and west every 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . This system was followed west of Manitoba until just north of Indian Head . Whereas , the Saskatchewan survey conducted in 1887 , allowed for 66 feet ( 20 m ) road allowances and placed roads east and west every 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . The two surveys needed a 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) correction which took years to smooth out .
Agriculture is Saskatchewan 's main industry and taking grain to elevators was first accomplished by horse and cart , to be replaced around World War I by truck travel . Long haul trucking flourished between 1950 and 1970 , and the trans – Canada was completed across Canada by 1970 . Since the 1970s , 17 times the number of grain trucks and 95 per cent of goods transported now are hauled by truck across the Saskatchewan .
= = Speed limits = =
From the Alberta border ( eastbound from Medicine Hat and Calgary , Highway 1 is a four – lane divided highway with a speed limit of 110 kilometre per hour ( 70 mph ) . ( Short stretches through the infrequent urban areas are at 90 – 100 kilometre per hour ( 55 – 65 mph ) though ] . Moose Jaw has 4 lane traffic bypassing the main portion of the city with a strictly enforced 80 Kilometer per hour speed limit with photo radar . At Regina , the highway meets the city in the south and has two official courses : through the city along Albert Street north to Victoria Avenue , then east , or on the Trans – Canada Bypass around the southeastern portion of the city . The bypass section is a controlled @-@ access highway and is often called the Ring Road . Traffic continuing east along the Trans – Canada Highway exits at Victoria Avenue . After Regina , Highway 1 continues onward to Brandon and Winnipeg .
= = Communities = =
= = = Alberta to Swift Current = = =
Travelling west along the highway on the Alberta side , Highway 1 reaches Medicine Hat , Brooks , and Calgary . Travelling east , the highway begins near Walsh , Alberta and crosses into Saskatchewan entering into the Rural Municipality ( R.M. ) of Maple Creek which was established December 10 , 1917 . ( A rural municipality ( R.M. ) was an elected governing system providing essential services such as police , fire , health , education and infrastructure services for rural residents . Historically , community residents could pay taxes or supply a couple days per quarter section labour constructing roads , bridges , and fireguards instead of paying taxes . ) Maple Creek , a town of 2 @,@ 198 residents ( 2006 census ) , was established in 1883 and is located 8 kilometres south of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway 1 via Highway 21 .
The next R.M. is Piapot No 110 and a ghost town of Sidewood an early ranching area of Saskatchewan . Sidewood served residents between 1911 and 1952 . Piapot No 110 first provided infrastructure improvements for this rural area in 1913 and is now an administrative division for a rural population of 392 residents . The small village of Piapot has a southerly access to Highway 1 also via Highway 614 .
The village of Tompkins , and the town of Gull Lake are among the communities of R.M. of Gull Lake No 139 . Both Tompkins with its 173 residents and Gull Lake serving 965 residents have their own municipal government . Gull Lake is an older community establishing its post office April 1 , 1889 . The south Saskatchewan region , an early ranching area was home to the 76 Ranch . The ranch house , constructed in 1888 , is now the Gull Lake School Division office . Within Gull Lake No 139 , which was created in 1913 , are several wind turbine generators which can be seen when traversing the Trans – Canada Highway .
In 1913 the road system consisted of miles of prairie trails . The roads gradually improved with the assistance of jointly funded Provincial and Municipal road programs such as the Grid Road program , the Main Farm Access program , and the Super Grid system which led to the eventual formation of Municipal Maintenance Areas . The RM 's of Gull Lake , Carmichael , and Webb formed Maintenance Area No. 1 , the first in the Province .
A neighbouring village of Webb with its population of 44 is situated within the next R.M. of Webb No 138 just 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Highway 1 . Webb No 138 incorporated on December 13 , 1909 providing road construction and maintenance . The post office was set up in Webb on March 1 , 1908 .
= = = Swift Current to Moose Jaw = = =
Swift Current No 137 becomes the next R.M. to travel through and here the unincorporated areas of Beverley and Java are the next communities along the route . Both of these communities are enumerated as a part of RM bringing its population to 1 @,@ 587 residents . December 12 , 1910 saw the incorporation of the RM of Swift Current No 137 . The highway runs through three cities on the way from Alberta to Manitoba , of which Swift Current is the first . Swift Current was first established in the North West Territories in 1883 and has risen to a population of 14 @,@ 946 .
The original route of this highway was via Chaplin Street through Swift Current . The Trans @-@ Canada became a four lane expressway in 1968 , and the new route went past Swift Current to the north . Motels , shopping malls and fast food enterprises located along the highway route . Subdivisions and neighbourhoods now extend past the highway , so again highway 1 traverses Swift Current .
Excelsior No 166 R.M. is the next rural governing body out of Swift Current which encompasses the community of Waldeck directly on Highway 1 at the junction of Saskatchewan Highway 628 . Rush Lake is 4 kilometres north of the highway . 1903 first saw Rush Lake become established , soon followed in 1906 by Waldeck , and 1909 for the RM in this area .
The town of Herbert with its post office established in 1904 has 742 residents now . Herbert once renowned as having ‘ The World ’ s Choicest Wheat Lands ’ is at the junction of the Trans – Canada and Saskatchewan Highway 612 . Morse , as well as Ernfold are unincorporated areas which adds their populations to the 435 residents of R.M. Morse No 165 . Morse is immediately north of Highway 1 at the intersection with Highway 644 . The Morse Museum and Cultural Center celebrates pioneer history in a 1912 brick school house . Saskatchewan 's third biggest grain marketing point in Saskatchewan as of 1912 , continued on this route by setting a record for shipping 2 @-@ 1 / 4 million bushels of wheat in 1915 . Morse has erected large cattails for their roadside attraction . Ernfold is at the western edge of the separation of the east and west bound lanes of the Trans – Canada . The western route is about 15 @.@ 3 km ( 9 @.@ 5 mi ) in length , and the eastern route is about 14 @.@ 7 km ( 9 @.@ 1 mi ) long , before the highway comes together again .
Uren is the first community arrived at within Chaplin No 164 . Uren bustled between 1911 and 1961 . Chaplin , at the intersection of Route 1 and Highways 19 and 58 , was established in 1907 . It is an unincorporated area which adds its population to the 138 residents ( 2006 census ) of Chaplin No 164 . An American Avocet as well as Piping Plover are large statues built by the roadside commemorating the world famous bird sanctuary at Chaplin , Saskatchewan . Valjean , and Secretan are also too small to have their own municipal governments and they are located along the highway proper . Valjean supported a post office between 1912 and 1968 , whereas Secretan 's post office survived from 1911 to 1970 .
Wheatlands No 163 established in 1909 features the communities of Parkbeg as well as Mortlach . Parkbeg , an unincorporated area , had a post office established in the North West Territories in 1896 . Parkbeg is now located on Trans – Canada 1 east , a segment which is 16 @.@ 5 kilometres in length . The Trans – Canada west is 13 @.@ 3 mi ( 21 @.@ 4 km ) long and is about 2 km ( 1 mi ) north of Parkbeg . Mortlach , a village of 254 people , is about 0 @.@ 8 mi ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) south of the highway and established its post office just months before Saskatchewan became a province in 1905 . Four major pipelines , TransCanada , Conoco , South Saskatchewan Pipeline , and Trans Gas find their home in Wheatlands RM .
There is only one community along the highway within R.M. Caron No 162 , which is Caronport . The village of Caronport , 919 residents in 2006 , did not receive a post office until 1947 , but the RM was serving the area since 1912 . Local Improvement District ( L.I.D. ) # 9 started making area improvements as early as 1904 .
= = = Moose Jaw to Regina = = =
Moose Jaw , also called " Little Chicago " , is a city of 32 @,@ 132 along the Trans – Canada . Capone 's Car , Moose Family and Mac the Moose are all large roadside attractions of Moose Jaw . Moose Jaw Trolley Company ( 1912 ) is still an operating electric cable trolleys offering tours of Moose Jaw . Temple Gardens Mineral Spa Resort , Tunnels of Moose Jaw , and History of Transportation Western Development Museum. are major sites of interest of this city . The juncture of the Moose Jaw River and Thunder Creek produced the best source of water for steam engines , and Moose Jaw became the CPR divisional point . AgPro Inland Grain Terminal operated by Saskatchewan Wheat Pool . These large capacity concrete grain terminals are replacing the smaller grain elevators which were numerous along the highway , sentinels of most communities along the route . Improved technology for harvest , transport and road construction have made the large inland terminals more viable economically . The rural governing body around Moose Jaw is Moose Jaw No. 161 which serves 1 @,@ 228 residents ( 2006 census ) which includes the Moose Jaw , Canadian Forces Base . Meat @-@ processing plants , salt , potash , urea fertilizer , anhydrous ammonia and ethanol producers abound in this area with easy transport access to the Trans – Canada Highway . Belle Plaine , an unincorporated area , is within Pense No 160 . The RM serves only 490 residents as of 2006 .
= = = Regina to Manitoba = = =
Sherwood No 159 is the R.M. of the western perimeter around the capital city of Regina . Regina , Saskatchewan 's capital city is the second largest city of the province of Saskatchewan with the 2006 census counting its population at 179 @,@ 246 people . Sherwood R.M. provides essential services to 1 @,@ 075 residents . As Regina expands , it annexes land from Sherwood No 159 .
Edenwold No 158 is the R.M. east of Regina comprising White City , as well as Balgonie along the highway proper . Edenwold No 158 serves 3 @,@ 611 residents . As Regina grows eastward , it annexes land from this RM . White City a town of 1 @,@ 113 residents could also be considered a census subdivision of Regina . Balgonie an unincorporated area first established its post office in 1883 . It is now situated at the intersections of Saskatchewan Highway 46 , 364 , 10 , and the Trans – Canada .
St. Joseph 's is a hamlet on Highway 1 and is a part of South Qu 'appelle No 157 , the next R.M. along the way . The town of Qu 'Appelle ( 624 residents in 2006 ) had historic beginnings with fur trading posts in this area , and is located within this R.M .. Qu 'Appelle was first named Troy , and was an administrative centre of the North West Territories .
Originally roadwork was done by horsepower , and the municipality owned its horses and equipment . It was found that roadwork under the supervision of a councilor cost half as much as that under a road commission system . There were problems with labor . One cold November payday the whole crew quit , with not one left to even feed the horses . In 1909 a foreman shot one of his crew ; the [ Indian Head ] council minutes make no further comment .
Indian Head , a town with a population of 1 @,@ 634 , is within Indian Head No 156 along with the ghost town of Dingley and the town Sintaluta . Sintaluta has a population of 98 . Indian Head has erected a large sculpture of an Indian Head at the side of the road .
Indian Head features the historical Bell Farm which was a large farming enterprise of 53 @,@ 000 acres ( 214 @.@ 5 km2 ) . Pioneer homesteaders in the early 20th century farmed quarter section homesteads which were 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 6 km2 ) in size . This was a 1 / 2 mile by 1 / 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km by 0 @.@ 8 km ) farm .
Wolseley , a town of 782 , is within the area of Wolseley No 155 . The town of Wolseley is home to heritage properties such as the Provincial Court House building was constructed in 1893 and is the oldest surviving Court House building in the province . The Town Hall / Opera House , built in 1906 is a classic building and is used for all sorts of community events . A 1904 Queen Anne revival @-@ style home is now the Grenfell ' Adare ' Museum . This home built by Mr. Edward Fitzgerald was built on a large property which has been annexed by Grenfell .
Elcapo No 154 contains the urban communities of Grenfell , Oakshela and Broadview . Grenfell has a population of 947 , and Broadview 611 . Grenfell is home to a 14 @,@ 700 tonne inland concrete terminal as well as a large grain elevator located at the CPR line . Oakshela , an unincorporated area , is the only municipality served by the RM . The town of Broadview was an 1882 Canadian Pacific Railway divisional point . The Broadview Museum houses heritage of Broadview and area .
The town of Whitewood , 869 residents in 2006 , was first established as Whitewood Station , North West Territories in 1883 . Dr. Rudolph Meyer led a group of French Counts to the area of Whitewood in the 1880s to develop a community similar to the communities for nobility in Europe . Merchant 's Bank Heritage Center is a heritage building of Whitewood which celebrates its link to the French Counts of St. Hubert . The next RM along the way is Willowdale No. 153 which nestles Percival , and Burrows within its population . Burrows is located at the junction of Highway 637 .
Wapella , an incorporated town , located within the Martin , 339 rural residents .
Next along the way are Moosomin , Saskatchewan , Rotave , and Fleming , Saskatchewan all within the Moosomin No 121 R.M. The town of Moosomin , Saskatchewan hosts 2 @,@ 257 residents at the junction of Saskatchewan Highway 8 , 1 , and 709 .
The building of these roads is under the personal supervision of the rural councillors of the R.M. The Provincial Government each year makes a substantial grant to the Municipality for permanent trunk road building .
The Trans – Canada highway across Saskatchewan finally finishes up before the Manitoba @-@ Saskatchewan border at Moosomin No. 121 .
= = Geophysical features = =
Highway 1 travels through geographical sites of interest as well as conservation areas . The highway begins in a mixed grassland ecoregion known as Maple Creek Plain . The Great Sand Hills are north of Highway 1 and the Cypress Hills region is south of the highway . The Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park features Fort Walsh and the highest elevation of Saskatchewan . Cypress Hills is accessed just 62 kilometres south west of Highway 1 . This area is known for its rolling with some steep hills and ravines .
Piapot Creek , Bear Creek and Skull Creek are near the Bench also known as the Cypress Hills plateau . After leaving the Maple Creek Plain , there is the Gull Lake Plain . Oil producing wells dot the landscape along with clumps of trees , sand hills , prairie grasses and wind turbines producing wind energy .
Swift Current was originally founded at Riviere Au Courant which translates in English to Swift Current . The Swift Current Plateau is a prairie grasslands area . The Chaplin Plain is the next grassland ecoregion , and Highway 1 is just to the north of Chaplin Lake which is situated on a huge bed of salt , producing a saline lake . The Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve a large shorebird conservation area is located on Chaplin Lake , and is renowned internationally . This area between Swift Current to Moose Jaw is considered to be part of the Missouri Coteau topographical area ( extending south to the United States ) .
The area to the south of Parkbeg is termed the Coteau Hills . Besant Regional Park and Campground is located west of Caronport . The Dirt Hills , a grasslands ecoregion are west of Moose Jaw . The city of Moose Jaw arose at the junction of Moose Jaw River and Thunder Creek . The Wakamow Valley ( administered by the Wakamow Valley Authority ) has been developed with trails , playgrounds , and picnic areas . Nicole Flats Nature Area ( Buffalo Pound Provincial Park ) is a preserved feature of the area . Both Moose Jaw and Regina are situated upon moist mixed grassland ecoregions , specifically called the Regina Plain . Regina is located south of the junction of the Wascana and Qu 'Appelle Rivers , and the area is now called Wascana Lake . Aspen parkland prairie is east of Regina . The Moose Mountain upland ecoregion is east of Regina and south of the Qu 'Appelle River .
Fairly Lake is located within the town of Wolseley . The lake was created because the CPR dammed up Wolf Creek to provide water for steam locomotives . Grenfell Regional Park is located west of Grenfell .
Echo Valley , and Katepwa Point are two neighbouring provincial parks near Broadview . Kipling Plain gives rise to the topographical feature called the Squirrel Hills and further to the east the Wood Hills . Moosomin Regional Park , is located to the south of the Trans – Canada highway in the Pipestone Valley on the shores of Moosomin Lake . The Melville Plain is the remaining ecoregion along the Trans – Canada highway before the Manitoba border .
= = Plans = =
Pinkie Road is a proposed 4 lane twinned highway connector road linking two National Highway System routes as a part of the Asia @-@ Pacific Gateway and Corridor Initiative ( APGCI ) . Highway 1 and Saskatchewan Highway 11 will be linked by this new route west of Regina .
= = Intersections from west to east = =
= = Books = =
Prairie Memories . Webb History Book Committee . Webb , Saskatchewan : Webb History Book Committee , 1982 .
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= Tropical Depression Fourteen ( 1987 ) =
Tropical Depression Fourteen was the last tropical depression of the 1987 Atlantic hurricane season and was the third most destructive storm of the year . The depression formed on October 31 , 1987 in the Caribbean Sea , heading along a northward path into the southern Gulf of Mexico and into Florida until the system was absorbed on November 4 . The path and damage from the depression followed a similar path to Hurricane Floyd earlier in October . The depression peaked in intensity with wind speeds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) on November 1 with a minimal barometric pressure reading of 1004 millibars ( 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) . However , certain barometric readings have considered that the depression may have become a tropical storm .
The depression in the time affected several cities and parishes in Jamaica and Cuba , along with causing significant rainfall in southern Florida . Jamaica was the area hardest hit by the depression , claiming the lives of six people and causing about $ 1 @.@ 802 million ( 1987 USD , $ 3 million in 2009 USD ) in damage . The depression caused floods that washed out villages , roads and bridges and caused dozens of landslides on the island . The island also had several rivers overflow including the Rio Minho and Rio Dogna . The damage caused by the tropical depression was comparable to previous flood in June 1986 .
= = Meteorological history = =
Prior to the formation of Tropical Depression Fourteen , the southern Caribbean Sea was under a large area of low pressure . On October 30 , satellite imagery showed that the area of pressure was beginning to form into a tropical disturbance . A reconnaissance aircraft was scheduled for the next morning to investigate the forming system , but by 1400 UTC on October 31 , the National Hurricane Center in Miami , Florida had upgraded the system to a tropical depression based on the imagery and surface data . At this time , the specialists at the Hurricane Center believed that this was its most developed stage of its lifetime .
The depression began a movement to the northwest upon formation and on the night of October 31 , the depression ran into a newly @-@ forming upper @-@ level low near the Yucatan Peninsula . The interaction with the upper @-@ level low caused shearing in the depression , and broke apart the previous low @-@ level circulation that was developing . By the morning of November 1 , the depression was nothing more than a swirl of low @-@ level clouds near the center of circulation . After this , the depression could no longer attain the circulation it had previously developed . During the period of November 2 and 3 , the depression moved to the northeast , crossing over the islands of Jamaica , Cayman and Cuba and then entering the southern parts of the Gulf of Mexico .
On occasion , the convection of the system would flare up , and in the early morning hours of November 3 , the Naval Air Station at Boca Chica , Florida reported winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , which would mean the depression may have attained tropical storm status . A similar report was filed at the Air Force Station at Cudjoe Key . After another reconnaissance flight was sent out to study the system , and recorded that surface area temperatures had dropped , the flight @-@ level winds had reached 92 mph ( 147 km / h ) and the surface area pressure had reached 998 millibars ( 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) . In the evening and overnight hours of November 3 , the tropical depression continued to the northeast , making landfall in Florida at a location near Tampa Bay . The depression crossed Florida , weakening significantly , and becoming extratropical . After emerging from land in the Atlantic Ocean on November 5 , the depression had become a low pressure area once again and was last spotted that day near the Carolina Capes .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The flash flood warnings released in relation to Tropical Depression Fourteen were centered in the area of Jamaica , who would later received rainfall in excess of 9 inches ( 230 mm ) as the center of the depression moved across the island . In the United States , the National Hurricane Center issued two tropical storm warnings in Florida . The first was from the middle and lower islands of the Florida Keys to the area of Dry Tortugas on November 1 . The warning lasted only 24 hours , with the warning ending on November 2 . The second issued tropical storm warning was from the area of Fort Myers Beach to Cedar Key on November 3 . This also lasted only 24 hours and was discontinued on November 3 . Forecasters also suggested on November 2 that boaters should avoid the area in or around Key Largo .
Wind gusts from Tropical Depression Fourteen exceeded 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) near the Cudjoe Key Air Force Base on November 3 . The Naval Air Station at Boca Chica reported gusts around 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and sustained winds of about 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) on November 2 . The highest recorded winds over Cuba reached 25 mph ( 30 km / h ) in the capital city of Havana . There were no gusts reported in Cuba however . In Jamaica , gusts to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) were reported in the city of Kingston and sustained winds of about 45 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Ships also reported tropical storm force winds , reaching as high as 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) with seas of 32 @.@ 5 feet ( 9 @.@ 9 m ) .
As the depression was moving to the west of the island of Jamaica , it caused significant rainfall on several parts of the island . Over a three @-@ day period from October 31 to November 2 , the rainfall reached as high as 10 @.@ 21 inches ( 259 mm ) at the capital city of Kingston , with a daily high of 6 @.@ 38 inches ( 162 mm ) on November 1 . The significant rainfall caused major damage and issues on the island , with an estimated 1 @,@ 000 + people being displaced from their homes and being placed into government shelters . Several residential communities were totally underwater from the rainfall , with local roads being washed away from landslides and floodwater , but these were restored quickly . The government of Jamaica also reported that three bridges were washed away from the heavy rain and resulting floods . According to the government , the country received $ 587 @,@ 500 ( 1987 USD ) of damage to the highways and streets , $ 11 @,@ 000 ( 1987 USD ) to the utilities around the island , $ 836 @,@ 000 ( 1987 USD ) to the agriculture system and about $ 372 @,@ 000 to the health system . The total damage reached $ 1 @.@ 802 million ( 1987 USD , $ 3 million in 2009 USD ) on the island of Jamaica alone . There were also six recorded fatalities from the system .
In Cuba , the reported rainfall amounts reached about 4 @.@ 75 inches ( 121 mm ) in the community of Bahia Honda , along with 2 @.@ 03 inches ( 52 mm ) in the capital of Havana , and 2 @.@ 75 inches ( 70 mm ) in the community of Saua La Grande . Although by the time the depression had reached the United States was undeveloped , the remains caused significant rainfall in several states in southeastern United States , with a peak of 10 @.@ 23 inches ( 260 mm ) at the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge in Florida . The city of Miami reported rainfall totals of 4 @.@ 42 inches ( 112 mm ) and 5 @.@ 90 inches ( 150 mm ) in the community of Tavarnier . Rainfalls above 1 inch ( 25 mm ) were reported in eastern Georgia , southern South Carolina , eastern Mississippi and eastern Alabama . Rainfalls in other areas went unrecorded . Outside the damage in Jamaica , the damage to Cuba and the United States were minimal , with no other reported casualties .
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= Niels Bohr =
Niels Henrik David Bohr ( Danish : [ nels ˈb ̥ oɐ ̯ ˀ ] ; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962 ) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory , for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922 . Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research .
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom , in which he proposed that energy levels of electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level ( or orbit ) to another . Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models , its underlying principles remain valid . He conceived the principle of complementarity : that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties , like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles . The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr 's thinking in both science and philosophy .
Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen , now known as the Niels Bohr Institute , which opened in 1920 . Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers , Oskar Klein , George de Hevesy and Werner Heisenberg . He predicted the existence of a new zirconium @-@ like element , which was named hafnium , after the Latin name for Copenhagen , where it was discovered . Later , the element bohrium was named after him .
During the 1930s , Bohr helped refugees from Nazism . After Denmark was occupied by the Germans , he had a famous meeting with Heisenberg , who had become the head of the German nuclear weapon project . In September 1943 , word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans , and he fled to Sweden . From there , he was flown to Britain , where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project , and was part of the British mission to the Manhattan Project . After the war , Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear energy . He was involved with the establishment of CERN and the Research Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission , and became the first chairman of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1957 .
= = Early years = =
Bohr was born in Copenhagen , Denmark , on 7 October 1885 , the second of three children of Christian Bohr , a professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen , and Ellen Adler Bohr , who came from a wealthy Danish Jewish family prominent in banking and parliamentary circles . He had an elder sister , Jenny , and a younger brother Harald . Jenny became a teacher , while Harald became a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played for the Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London . Bohr was a passionate footballer as well , and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen @-@ based Akademisk Boldklub ( Academic Football Club ) , with Bohr as goalkeeper .
Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School , starting when he was seven . In 1903 , Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University . His major was physics , which he studied under Professor Christian Christiansen , the university 's only professor of physics at that time . He also studied astronomy and mathematics under Professor Thorvald Thiele , and philosophy under Professor Harald Høffding , a friend of his father .
In 1905 , a gold medal competition was sponsored by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters to investigate a method for measuring the surface tension of liquids that had been proposed by Lord Rayleigh in 1879 . This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet . Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his father 's laboratory in the university ; the university itself had no physics laboratory . To complete his experiments , he had to make his own glassware , creating test tubes with the required elliptical cross @-@ sections . He went beyond the original task , incorporating improvements into both Rayleigh 's theory and his method , by taking into account the viscosity of the water , and by working with finite amplitudes instead of just infinitesimal ones . His essay , which he submitted at the last minute , won the prize . He later submitted an improved version of the paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society .
Harald became the first of the two Bohr brothers to earn a master 's degree , which he earned for mathematics in April 1909 . Niels took another nine months to earn his . Students had to submit a thesis on a subject assigned by their supervisor . Bohr 's supervisor was Christiansen , and the topic he chose was the electron theory of metals . Bohr subsequently elaborated his master 's thesis into his much @-@ larger Doctor of Philosophy ( dr. phil . ) thesis . He surveyed the literature on the subject , settling on a model postulated by Paul Drude and elaborated by Hendrik Lorentz , in which the electrons in a metal are considered to behave like a gas . Bohr extended Lorentz 's model , but was still unable to account for phenomena like the Hall effect , and concluded that electron theory could not fully explain the magnetic properties of metals . The thesis was accepted in April 1911 , and Bohr conducted his formal defence on 13 May . Harald had received his doctorate the previous year . Bohr 's thesis was groundbreaking , but attracted little interest outside Scandinavia because it was written in Danish , a Copenhagen University requirement at the time . In 1921 , the Dutch physicist Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen would independently derive a theorem from Bohr 's thesis that is today known as the Bohr – van Leeuwen theorem .
In 1910 , Bohr met Margrethe Nørlund , the sister of the mathematician Niels Erik Nørlund . Bohr resigned his membership in the Church of Denmark on 16 April 1912 , and he and Margrethe were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall in Slagelse on 1 August . Years later , his brother Harald similarly left the church before getting married . Bohr and Margrethe had six sons . The oldest , Christian , died in a boating accident in 1934 , and another , Harald , died from childhood meningitis . Aage Bohr became a successful physicist , and in 1975 was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics , like his father . Hans became a physician ; Erik , a chemical engineer ; and Ernest , a lawyer . Like his uncle Harald , Ernest Bohr became an Olympic athlete , playing field hockey for Denmark at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London .
= = Physics = =
= = = Bohr model = = =
In September 1911 , Bohr , supported by a fellowship from the Carlsberg Foundation , travelled to England . At the time , it was where most of the theoretical work on the structure of atoms and molecules was being done . He met J. J. Thomson of the Cavendish Laboratory and Trinity College , Cambridge . He attended lectures on electromagnetism given by James Jeans and Joseph Larmor , and did some research on cathode rays , but failed to impress Thomson . He had more success with younger physicists like the Australian William Lawrence Bragg , and New Zealand 's Ernest Rutherford , whose 1911 Rutherford model of the atom had challenged Thomson 's 1904 plum pudding model . Bohr received an invitation from Rutherford to conduct post @-@ doctoral work at Victoria University of Manchester , where Bohr met George de Hevesy and Charles Galton Darwin ( whom Bohr referred to as " the grandson of the real Darwin " ) .
Bohr returned to Denmark in July 1912 for his wedding , and travelled around England and Scotland on his honeymoon . On his return , he became a privatdocent at the University of Copenhagen , giving lectures on thermodynamics . Martin Knudsen put Bohr 's name forward for a docent , which was approved in July 1913 , and Bohr then began teaching medical students . His three papers , which later became famous as " the trilogy " , were published in Philosophical Magazine in July , September and November of that year . He adapted Rutherford 's nuclear structure to Max Planck 's quantum theory and so created his Bohr model of the atom .
Planetary models of atoms were not new , but Bohr 's treatment was . Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point , he advanced the theory of electrons travelling in orbits around the atom 's nucleus , with the chemical properties of each element being largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms . He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher @-@ energy orbit to a lower one , in the process emitting a quantum of discrete energy . This became a basis for what is now known as the old quantum theory .
In 1885 , Johann Balmer had come up with his Balmer series to describe the visible spectral lines of a hydrogen atoms :
<formula>
where λ is the wavelength of the absorbed or emitted light and RH is the Rydberg constant . Balmer 's formula was corroborated by the discovery of additional spectral lines , but for thirty years , no one could explain why it worked . In the first paper of his trilogy , Bohr was able to derive it from his model :
<formula>
where me is the electron 's mass , e is its charge , h is Planck 's constant and Z is the atom 's atomic number ( 1 for hydrogen ) .
The model 's first hurdle was the Pickering series , lines which did not fit Balmer 's formula . When challenged on this by Alfred Fowler , Bohr replied that they were caused by ionised helium , helium atoms with only one electron . The Bohr model was found to work for such ions . Many older physicists , like Thomson , Rayleigh and Hendrik Lorentz , did not like the trilogy , but the younger generation , including Rutherford , David Hilbert , Albert Einstein , Enrico Fermi , Max Born and Arnold Sommerfeld saw it as a breakthrough . The trilogy 's acceptance was entirely due to its ability to explain phenomena which stymied other models , and to predict results that were subsequently verified by experiments . Today , the Bohr model of the atom has been superseded , but is still the best known model of the atom , as it often appears in high school physics and chemistry texts .
Bohr did not enjoy teaching medical students . He decided to return to Manchester , where Rutherford had offered him a job as a reader in place of Darwin , whose tenure had expired . Bohr accepted . He took a leave of absence from the University of Copenhagen , which he started by taking a holiday in Tyrol with his brother Harald and aunt Hanna Adler . There , he visited the University of Göttingen and the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich , where he met Sommerfeld and conducted seminars on the trilogy . The First World War broke out while they were in Tyrol , greatly complicating the trip back to Denmark and Bohr 's subsequent voyage with Margrethe to England , where he arrived in October 1914 . They stayed until July 1916 , by which time he had been appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen , a position created especially for him . His docentship was abolished at the same time , so he still had to teach physics to medical students . New professors were formally introduced to King Christian X , who expressed his delight at meeting such a famous football player .
= = = Institute of Physics = = =
In April 1917 , Bohr began a campaign to establish an Institute of Theoretical Physics . He gained the support of the Danish government and the Carlsberg Foundation , and sizeable contributions were also made by industry and private donors , many of them Jewish . Legislation establishing the Institute was passed in November 1918 . Now known as the Niels Bohr Institute , it opened its doors on 3 March 1921 with Bohr as its director . His family moved into an apartment on the first floor . Bohr 's institute served as a focal point for researchers into quantum mechanics and related subjects in the 1920s and 1930s , when most of the world 's best known theoretical physicists spent some time in his company . Early arrivals included Hans Kramers from the Netherlands , Oskar Klein from Sweden , George de Hevesy from Hungary , Wojciech Rubinowicz from Poland and Svein Rosseland from Norway . Bohr became widely appreciated as their congenial host and eminent colleague . Klein and Rosseland produced the Institute 's first paper even before it opened .
The Bohr model worked well for hydrogen , but could not explain more complex elements . By 1919 , Bohr was moving away from the idea that electrons orbited the nucleus , and he developed heuristics to describe them . The rare earth elements posed a particular classification problem for chemists , because they were so chemically similar . An important development came in 1924 with Wolfgang Pauli 's discovery of the Pauli exclusion principle , which put Bohr 's models on a firm theoretical footing . Bohr was then able to declare that the as @-@ yet @-@ undiscovered element 72 was not a rare earth element , but an element with chemical properties similar to those of zirconium . He was immediately challenged by the French chemist Georges Urbain , who claimed to have discovered a rare earth element 72 , which he called " celtium " . At the Institute in Copenhagen , Dirk Coster and George de Hevesy took up the challenge of proving Bohr right and Urbain wrong . Starting with a clear idea of the chemical properties of the unknown element greatly simplified the search process . They went through samples from Copenhagen 's Museum of Mineralogy looking for a zirconium @-@ like element , and soon found it . The element , which they named hafnium , Hafnia being the Latin name for Copenhagen , turned out to be more common than gold .
In 1922 , Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics " for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them " . The award thus recognised both the Trilogy and his early leading work in the emerging field of quantum mechanics . For his Nobel lecture , Bohr gave his audience a comprehensive survey of what was then known about the structure of the atom , including the correspondence principle , which he had formulated . This states that the behaviour of systems described by quantum theory reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers .
The discovery of Compton scattering by Arthur Holly Compton in 1923 convinced most physicists that light was composed of photons , and that energy and momentum were conserved in collisions between electrons and photons . In 1924 , Bohr , Kramers and John C. Slater , an American physicist working at the Institute in Copenhagen , proposed the Bohr – Kramers – Slater theory ( BKS ) . It was more a programme than a full physical theory , as the ideas it developed were not worked out quantitatively . BKS theory became the final attempt at understanding the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation on the basis of the old quantum theory , in which quantum phenomena were treated by imposing quantum restrictions on a classical wave description of the electromagnetic field .
Modelling atomic behaviour under incident electromagnetic radiation using " virtual oscillators " at the absorption and emission frequencies , rather than the ( different ) apparent frequencies of the Bohr orbits , led Max Born , Werner Heisenberg and Kramers to explore different mathematical models . They led to the development of matrix mechanics , the first form of modern quantum mechanics . The BKS theory also generated discussion of , and renewed attention to , difficulties in the foundations of the old quantum theory . The most provocative element of BKS – that momentum and energy would not necessarily be conserved in each interaction , but only statistically – was soon shown to be in conflict with experiments conducted by Walther Bothe and Hans Geiger . In light of these results , Bohr informed Darwin , " there is nothing else to do than to give our revolutionary efforts as honourable a funeral as possible . "
= = = Quantum mechanics = = =
The introduction of spin by George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit in November 1925 was a milestone . The next month , Bohr travelled to Leiden to attend celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Hendrick Lorentz receiving his doctorate . When his train stopped in Hamburg , he was met by Wolfgang Pauli and Otto Stern , who asked for his opinion of the spin theory . Bohr pointed out that he had concerns about the interaction between electrons and magnetic fields . When he arrived in Leiden , Paul Ehrenfest and Albert Einstein informed Bohr that Einstein had resolved this problem using relativity . Bohr then had Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit incorporate this into their paper . Thus , when he met Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan in Göttingen on the way back , he had become , in his own words , " a prophet of the electron magnet gospel " .
Heisenberg first came to Copenhagen in 1924 , then returned to Göttingen in June 1925 , shortly thereafter developing the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics . When he showed his results to Max Born in Göttingen , Born realised that they could best be expressed using matrices . This work attracted the attention of the British physicist Paul Dirac , who came to Copenhagen for six months in September 1926 . Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger also visited in 1926 . His attempt at explaining quantum physics in classical terms using wave mechanics impressed Bohr , who believed it contributed " so much to mathematical clarity and simplicity that it represents a gigantic advance over all previous forms of quantum mechanics " .
When Kramers left the Institute in 1926 to take up a chair as professor of theoretical physics at the Utrecht University , Bohr arranged for Heisenberg to return and take Kramers 's place as a lektor at the University of Copenhagen . Heisenberg worked in Copenhagen as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr from 1926 to 1927 .
Bohr became convinced that light behaved like both waves and particles , and in 1927 , experiments confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis that matter ( like electrons ) also behaved like waves . He conceived the philosophical principle of complementarity : that items could have apparently mutually exclusive properties , such as being a wave or a stream of particles , depending on the experimental framework . He felt that it was not fully understood by professional philosophers .
In Copenhagen in 1927 Heisenberg developed his uncertainty principle , which Bohr embraced . In a paper he presented at the Volta Conference at Como in September 1927 , he demonstrated that the uncertainty principle could be derived from classical arguments , without quantum terminology or matrices . Einstein preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new quantum physics to which he himself had contributed . Philosophical issues that arose from the novel aspects of quantum mechanics became widely celebrated subjects of discussion . Einstein and Bohr had good @-@ natured arguments over such issues throughout their lives .
In 1914 , Carl Jacobsen , the heir to Carlsberg breweries , bequeathed his mansion to be used for life by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science , literature or the arts , as an honorary residence ( Danish : Æresbolig ) . Harald Høffding had been the first occupant , and upon his death in July 1931 , the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters gave Bohr occupancy . He and his family moved there in 1932 . He was elected president of the Academy on 17 March 1939 .
By 1929 , the phenomenon of beta decay prompted Bohr to again suggest that the law of conservation of energy be abandoned , but Enrico Fermi 's hypothetical neutrino and the subsequent 1932 discovery of the neutron provided another explanation . This prompted Bohr to create a new theory of the compound nucleus in 1936 , which explained how neutrons could be captured by the nucleus . In this model , the nucleus could be deformed like a drop of liquid . He worked on this with a new collaborator , the Danish physicist Fritz Kalckar , who died suddenly in 1938 .
The discovery of nuclear fission by Otto Hahn in December 1938 ( and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner ) generated intense interest among physicists . Bohr brought the news to the United States where he opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with Fermi on 26 January 1939 . When Bohr told George Placzek that this resolved all the mysteries of transuranic elements , Placzek told him that one remained : the neutron capture energies of uranium did not match those of its decay . Bohr thought about it for a few minutes and then announced to Placzek , Léon Rosenfeld and John Wheeler that " I have understood everything . " Based on his liquid drop model of the nucleus , Bohr concluded that it was the uranium @-@ 235 isotope and not the more abundant uranium @-@ 238 that was primarily responsible for fission with thermal neutrons . In April 1940 , John R. Dunning demonstrated that Bohr was correct . In the meantime , Bohr and Wheeler developed a theoretical treatment which they published in a September 1939 paper on " The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission " .
= = Philosophy = =
Bohr read the 19th @-@ century Danish Christian existentialist philosopher , Søren Kierkegaard . Richard Rhodes argued in The Making of the Atomic Bomb that Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard through Høffding . In 1909 , Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard 's Stages on Life 's Way as a birthday gift . In the enclosed letter , Bohr wrote , " It is the only thing I have to send home ; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better ... I even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read . " Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard 's language and literary style , but mentioned that he had some disagreement with Kierkegaard 's philosophy . Some of Bohr 's biographers suggested that this disagreement stemmed from Kierkegaard 's advocacy of Christianity , while Bohr was an atheist .
There has been some dispute over the extent to which Kierkegaard influenced Bohr 's philosophy and science . David Favrholdt argued that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr 's work , taking Bohr 's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value , while Jan Faye argued that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure .
= = Nazism and Second World War = =
The rise of Nazism in Germany prompted many scholars to flee their countries , either because they were Jewish or because they were political opponents of the Nazi regime . In 1933 , the Rockefeller Foundation created a fund to help support refugee academics , and Bohr discussed this programme with the President of the Rockefeller Foundation , Max Mason , in May 1933 during a visit to the United States . Bohr offered the refugees temporary jobs at the Institute , provided them with financial support , arranged for them to be awarded fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation , and ultimately found them places at institutions around the world . Those that he helped included Guido Beck , Felix Bloch , James Franck , George de Hevesy , Otto Frisch , Hilde Levi , Lise Meitner , George Placzek , Eugene Rabinowitch , Stefan Rozental , Erich Ernst Schneider , Edward Teller , Arthur von Hippel and Victor Weisskopf .
In April 1940 , early in the Second World War , Nazi Germany invaded and occupied Denmark . To prevent the Germans from discovering Max von Laue 's and James Franck 's gold Nobel medals , Bohr had de Hevesy dissolve them in aqua regia . In this form , they were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the war , when the gold was precipitated and the medals re @-@ struck by the Nobel Foundation . Bohr kept the Institute running , but all the foreign scholars departed .
= = = Meeting with Heisenberg = = =
Bohr was aware of the possibility of using uranium @-@ 235 to construct an atomic bomb , referring to it in lectures in Britain and Denmark shortly before and after the war started , but he did not believe that it was technically feasible to extract a sufficient quantity of uranium @-@ 235 . In September 1941 , Heisenberg , who had become head of the German nuclear energy project , visited Bohr in Copenhagen . During this meeting the two men took a private moment outside , the content of which has caused much speculation , as both gave differing accounts . According to Heisenberg , he began to address nuclear energy , morality and the war , to which Bohr seems to have reacted by terminating the conversation abruptly while not giving Heisenberg hints about his own opinions . Ivan Supek , one of Heisenberg 's students and friends , claimed that the main subject of the meeting was Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker , who had proposed trying to persuade Bohr to mediate peace between Britain and Germany .
In 1957 , Heisenberg wrote to Robert Jungk , who was then working on the book Brighter than a Thousand Suns : A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists . Heisenberg explained that he had visited Copenhagen to communicate to Bohr the views of several German scientists , that production of a nuclear weapon was possible with great efforts , and this raised enormous responsibilities on the world 's scientists on both sides . When Bohr saw Jungk 's depiction in the Danish translation of the book , he drafted ( but never sent ) a letter to Heisenberg , stating that he never understood the purpose of Heisenberg 's visit , was shocked by Heisenberg 's opinion that Germany would win the war , and that atomic weapons could be decisive .
Michael Frayn 's 1998 play Copenhagen explores what might have happened at the 1941 meeting between Heisenberg and Bohr . A BBC television film version of the play was first screened on 26 September 2002 , with Stephen Rea as Bohr , and Daniel Craig as Heisenberg . The same meeting had previously been dramatised by the BBC 's Horizon science documentary series in 1992 , with Anthony Bate as Bohr , and Philip Anthony as Heisenberg .
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
In September 1943 , word reached Bohr and his brother Harald that the Nazis considered their family to be Jewish , since their mother , Ellen Adler Bohr , had been a Jew , and that they were therefore in danger of being arrested . The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September . The next day , Bohr persuaded King Gustaf V of Sweden to make public Sweden 's willingness to provide asylum to Jewish refugees . On 2 October 1943 , Swedish radio broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum , and the mass rescue of the Danish Jews by their countrymen followed swiftly thereafter . Some historians claim that Bohr 's actions led directly to the mass rescue , while others say that , though Bohr did all that he could for his countrymen , his actions were not a decisive influence on the wider events . Eventually , over 7 @,@ 000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden .
When the news of Bohr 's escape reached Britain , Lord Cherwell sent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain . Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in a de Havilland Mosquito operated by the British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) . The Mosquitos were unarmed high @-@ speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small , valuable cargoes or important passengers . By flying at high speed and high altitude , they could cross German @-@ occupied Norway , and yet avoid German fighters . Bohr , equipped with parachute , flying suit and oxygen mask , spent the three @-@ hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft 's bomb bay . During the flight , Bohr did not wear his flying helmet as it was too small , and consequently did not hear the pilot 's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly Norway . He passed out from oxygen starvation and only revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over the North Sea . Bohr 's son Aage followed his father to Britain on another flight a week later , and became his personal assistant .
Bohr was warmly received by James Chadwick and Sir John Anderson , but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of sight . He was given an apartment at St James 's Palace and an office with the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons development team . Bohr was astonished at the amount of progress that had been made . Chadwick arranged for Bohr to visit the United States as a Tube Alloys consultant , with Aage as his assistant . On 8 December 1943 , Bohr arrived in Washington , D.C. , where he met with the director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . He visited Einstein and Pauli at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey , and went to Los Alamos in New Mexico , where the nuclear weapons were being designed . For security reasons , he went under the name of " Nicholas Baker " in the United States , while Aage became " James Baker " . In May 1944 the Danish resistance newspaper De frie Danske reported that they had learned that ' the famous son of Denmark Professor Niels Bohr ' in October the previous year had fled his country via Sweden to London and from there travelled to Moscow from where he could be assumed to support the war effort .
Bohr did not remain at Los Alamos , but paid a series of extended visits over the course of the next two years . Robert Oppenheimer credited Bohr with acting " as a scientific father figure to the younger men " , most notably Richard Feynman . Bohr is quoted as saying , " They didn 't need my help in making the atom bomb . " Oppenheimer gave Bohr credit for an important contribution to the work on modulated neutron initiators . " This device remained a stubborn puzzle , " Oppenheimer noted , " but in early February 1945 Niels Bohr clarified what had to be done . "
Bohr recognised early that nuclear weapons would change international relations . In April 1944 , he received a letter from Peter Kapitza , written some months before when Bohr was in Sweden , inviting him to come to the Soviet Union . The letter convinced Bohr that the Soviets were aware of the Anglo @-@ American project , and would strive to catch up . He sent Kapitza a non @-@ committal response , which he showed to the authorities in Britain before posting . Bohr met Churchill on 16 May 1944 , but found that " we did not speak the same language " . Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter : " It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes . "
Oppenheimer suggested that Bohr visit President Franklin D. Roosevelt to convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Soviets in the hope of speeding up its results . Bohr 's friend , Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter , informed President Roosevelt about Bohr 's opinions , and a meeting between them took place on 26 August 1944 . Roosevelt suggested that Bohr return to the United Kingdom to try to win British approval . When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Hyde Park on 19 September 1944 , they rejected the idea of informing the world about the project , and the aide @-@ mémoire of their conversation contained a rider that " enquiries should be made regarding the activities of Professor Bohr and steps taken to ensure that he is responsible for no leakage of information , particularly to the Russians " .
In June 1950 , Bohr addressed an " Open Letter " to the United Nations calling for international cooperation on nuclear energy . In the 1950s , after the Soviet Union 's first nuclear weapon test , the International Atomic Energy Agency was created along the lines of Bohr 's suggestion . In 1957 he received the first ever Atoms for Peace Award .
= = Later years = =
With the war now ended , Bohr returned to Copenhagen on 25 August 1945 , and was re @-@ elected President of the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences on 21 September . At a memorial meeting of the Academy on 17 October 1947 for King Christian X , who had died in April , the new king , Frederick IX , announced that he was conferring the Order of the Elephant on Bohr . This award was normally awarded only to royalty and heads of state , but the king said that it honoured not just Bohr personally , but Danish science . Bohr designed his own coat of arms which featured a taijitu ( symbol of yin and yang ) and a motto in Latin : contraria sunt complementa , " opposites are complementary " .
The Second World War demonstrated that science , and physics in particular , now required considerable financial and material resources . To avoid a brain drain to the United States , twelve European countries banded together to create CERN , a research organisation along the lines of the national laboratories in the United States , designed to undertake Big Science projects beyond the resources of any one of them alone . Questions soon arose regarding the best location for the facilities . Bohr and Kramers felt that the Institute in Copenhagen would be the ideal site . Pierre Auger , who organised the preliminary discussions , disagreed ; he felt that both Bohr and his Institute were past their prime , and that Bohr 's presence would overshadow others . After a long debate , Bohr pledged his support to CERN in February 1952 , and Geneva was chosen as the site in October . The CERN Theory Group was based in Copenhagen until their new accommodation in Geneva was ready in 1957 . Victor Weisskopf , who later became the Director General of CERN , summed up Bohr 's role , saying that " there were other personalities who started and conceived the idea of CERN . The enthusiasm and ideas of the other people would not have been enough , however , if a man of his stature had not supported it . "
Meanwhile , Scandinavian countries formed the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1957 , with Bohr as its chairman . He was also involved with the founding of the Research Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission , and served as its first chairman from February 1956 .
Bohr died of heart failure at his home in Carlsberg on 18 November 1962 . He was cremated , and his ashes were buried in the family plot in the Assistens Cemetery in the Nørrebro section of Copenhagen , along with those of his parents , his brother Harald , and his son Christian . Years later , his wife 's ashes were also interred there . On 7 October 1965 , on what would have been his 80th birthday , the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen was officially renamed to what it had been called unofficially for many years : the Niels Bohr Institute .
= = Accolades = =
Bohr received numerous honours and accolades . In addition to the Nobel Prize , he received the Hughes Medal in 1921 , the Matteucci Medal in 1923 , the Franklin Medal in 1926 , the Copley Medal in 1938 , the Order of the Elephant in 1947 , the Atoms for Peace Award in 1957 and the Sonning Prize in 1961 . In 1923 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences . The Bohr model 's semicentennial was commemorated in Denmark on 21 November 1963 with a postage stamp depicting Bohr , the hydrogen atom and the formula for the difference of any two hydrogen energy levels : <formula> . Several other countries have also issued postage stamps depicting Bohr . In 1997 , the Danish National Bank began circulating the 500 @-@ krone banknote with the portrait of Bohr smoking a pipe . An asteroid , 3948 Bohr , was named after him , as was the Bohr lunar crater , and bohrium , the chemical element with atomic number 107 .
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= Eureka : A Prose Poem =
Eureka ( 1848 ) is a lengthy non @-@ fiction work by American author Edgar Allan Poe ( 1809 – 1849 ) which he subtitled " A Prose Poem " , though it has also been subtitled as " An Essay on the Material and Spiritual Universe " . Adapted from a lecture he had presented , Eureka describes Poe 's intuitive conception of the nature of the universe with no antecedent scientific work done to reach his conclusions . He also discusses man 's relationship with God , whom he compares to an author . It is dedicated to the German naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt ( 1769 – 1859 ) . Though it is generally considered a literary work , some of Poe 's ideas anticipate 20th century scientific discoveries and theories . Indeed a critical analysis of the scientific content of Eureka reveals a non @-@ causal correspondence with modern cosmology due to the assumption of an evolving Universe , but excludes the anachronistic anticipation of relativistic concepts such as black holes .
Eureka was received poorly in Poe 's day and generally described as absurd , even by friends . Modern critics continue to debate the significance of Eureka and some doubt its seriousness , in part because of Poe 's many incorrect assumptions and his comedic descriptions of well @-@ known historical minds . It is presented as a poem , and many compare it with his fiction work , especially science fiction stories such as " The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar " . His attempts at discovering the truth also follow his own tradition of " ratiocination " , a term used in his detective fiction tales . Poe 's suggestion that the soul continues to thrive even after death also parallels with works in which characters reappear from beyond the grave such as " Ligeia " . The essay is oddly transcendental , considering Poe 's disdain for that movement . He considered it his greatest work and claimed it was more important than the discovery of gravity .
= = Overview = =
Eureka is Poe 's last major work and his longest non @-@ fiction work at nearly 40 @,@ 000 words in length . The work has its origins in a lecture Poe presented on February 3 , 1848 , titled " On The Cosmography of the Universe " at the Society Library in New York . He had expected an audience of hundreds ; only 60 attended and were confused by the topic . Poe had hoped the profits from the lecture would cover expenses for the production of his new journal The Stylus .
Eureka is Poe 's attempt at explaining the universe , using his general proposition " Because Nothing was , therefore All Things are " . In it , Poe discusses man 's relationship to God and the universe or , as he offers at the beginning : " I design to speak of the Physical , Metaphysical and Mathematical – of the Material and Spiritual Universe : of its Essence , its Origin , its Creation , its Present Condition and its Destiny " . In keeping with this design , Poe concludes " that space and duration are one " and that matter and spirit are made of the same essence . Poe suggests that people have a natural tendency to believe in themselves as infinite with nothing greater than their soul — such thoughts stem from man 's residual feelings from when each shared an original identity with God . Ultimately individual consciousnesses will collapse back into a similar single mass , a " final ingathering " where the " myriads of individual Intelligences become blended " . Likewise , Poe saw the universe itself as infinitely expanding and collapsing like a divine heartbeat which constantly rejuvenates itself , also implying a sort of deathlessness . In fact , because the soul is a part of this constant throbbing , after dying , all people , in essence , become God .
= = Analysis = =
Eureka presents themes and sentiments similar to some of those in Poe 's fiction work , including attempts at breaking beyond the obstacle of death and specifically characters who return from death in stories like " The Fall of the House of Usher " and " Ligeia " . Similar to his theories on a good short story , Poe believes the universe is a self @-@ contained , closed system . In coming to his conclusions , Poe uses ratiocination as a literary device , through his character C. Auguste Dupin , as if Poe himself were a detective solving the mystery of the universe . Eureka , then , is the culmination of Poe 's interest in capturing truth through language , an extension of his interest in cryptography .
Eureka seems to continue the science fiction traditions he used in works like " MS. Found in a Bottle " and " The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar " . He further emphasizes the connection between his theory and fiction by saying that the universe itself is a written work : " The Universe is a plot of God " , Poe says , and " the plots of God are perfect " . Even so , Poe admits the difficulty in explaining these theories comes in part from the limitations of language , often apologizing for or explaining his use of " common " or " vulgar " terms .
Poe 's decision to refer to the piece as a " prose poem " goes against some of his own " rules " of poetry which he laid out in " The Philosophy of Composition " and " The Poetic Principle " . In particular , Poe called the ideal poem short , at most 100 lines , and utilizing the " most poetical topic in the world " : the death of a beautiful woman . Poe himself suggested that the work be judged only as a work of art , not of science , possibly dismissing the seriousness of Eureka . Though he is using mathematical and scientific terms , he may really be talking about aesthetics and suggesting there is a close connection between science and art . This is an ironic sentiment when compared to his message in the poem " To Science " where he shows a distaste for modern science encroaching on spirituality and the artist 's imagination . Poe also discusses several astronomy @-@ related topics in Eureka , including the speed of the stars , the diameters of planets and distance between them , the weight of Earth , and the orbit of the newly discovered " Leverrier 's planet " ( later named Neptune ) .
The work ventures into transcendentalism , relying strongly on intuition , a movement and practice he had despised . Though he criticized the transcendental movement for what he referred to as incoherent mysticism , Eureka is more mystical than most transcendental works . Eureka has also been compared to the theories of Mary Baker Eddy , founder of Christian Science and Joseph Smith , founder of the Latter Day Saint movement .
The essay is written in a progressive manner that anticipates its audience . For example , Poe uses more metaphors further into the work in the belief that the reader becomes more interested . Poe 's voice crescendos throughout , starting as the modest seeker of truth , moving on to the satirist of logic , and finally ending as the master scholar .
= = = Allusions = = =
" Eureka " - The title itself references the famed remark made by Archimedes , meaning , " I have found it . " Archimedes used the term after taking a bath and discovering the concept of displacement .
Epicurus - Poe refers to the Ancient Greek philosopher with the term " Epicurean atoms " . Epicurus believed that reality is composed solely of atoms , or indivisible units of mass , and void . It has been suggested that Poe 's exultation of the " false scientist " Epicurus is an indication that Eureka is really a satire .
Aristotle - Poe refers to the famous student of Plato as " Aries Tottle " , whom he claims is Turkish and whose ideas come out of his nose like sneezes .
Francis Bacon - The name " Hog " is a reference to the English philosopher and originator of the Baconian method .
Euclid - Referred to as " Tuclid " , a student of Aries Tottle .
Immanuel Kant - Poe describes Kant as the " Dutchman " who originated transcendentalism .
The comical presentation of these well @-@ known historical theorists , including the puns on their names , suggests Poe intended Eureka to be a burlesque . Alternatively , his criticism of these men indicate Poe 's need to challenge their conclusions before making his own .
= = Influence and significance = =
Eureka has been read in many ways , in part because Poe 's sincerity in the work is questionable . It has been considered prophetically scientific , intuitively romantic , and even calculatingly ironic . Lacking scientific proof , Poe said it was not his goal to prove what he says to be true , but to convince through suggestion .
Though modern critics have dismissed Eureka for having no scientific worth or merit , Poe 's work presages modern science with his own concept of the Big Bang . He postulated that the universe began from a single originating particle or singularity , willed by a " Divine Volition " . This " primordial particle " , initiated by God , divides into all the particles of the universe . These particles seek one another because of their originating unity ( gravity ) resulting in the end of the universe as a single particle . Poe also expresses a cosmological theory that anticipated black holes and the Big Crunch theory as well as the first plausible solution to Olbers ' paradox ( the night sky is dark despite the vast number of stars in the universe ) . In 1987 astronomer Edward Robert Harrison published a book , Darkness at Night , on this paradox . This book clarified why lack of energy explains the paradox , and lays out how Harrison discovered that Poe 's Eureka anticipated this conclusion .
Many of Poe 's conclusions , however , are speculative due to his rejection of analytic logic and emphasis on intuition and inspiration . Further , Eureka contains many scientific errors . In particular , Poe 's suggestions opposed Newtonian principles regarding the density and rotation of planets . He also says that Johannes Kepler came to his conclusions not through science but through guesswork . For this reason , it has been suggested that what Poe demands is true in Eureka is not actually about this universe , but a parallel fictitious one Poe creates . If this is the case , as interpreted by poet Richard Wilbur , Poe is criticizing this world , suggesting it has fallen away from God by elevating scientific reason above poetic intuition .
More modern critics also suggest Eureka is a sign of Poe 's declining mental health at the end of his life . Astrophysicist Arthur Stanley Eddington disputed this notion , declaring that " Eureka is not a work of dotage or disordered mind " . In the text , Poe wrote that he was aware he might be considered a madman . The lecture on which the essay was based was delivered only a few days after the anniversary of the death of his wife Virginia , suggesting a connection between the event and his new theories . Poe seems to dismiss death in Eureka , thereby ignoring his own anxiety over the problem of death .
Some modern critics believe Eureka is the key to deciphering meaning in all Poe 's fiction , that all his works involve similar theories .
= = Critical reception = =
Response to Eureka was overwhelmingly unfavorable . Poe 's friend Marie Louise Shew , who had helped his wife Virginia on her death @-@ bed , broke off their friendship because it offended her religious beliefs .
After the publication of Eureka , a vehement anonymous censure was published in the Literary Review . This was believed by Poe to have been written by John Henry Hopkins , Jr . ( 1820 – 1889 ) , a young theological student , who had previously criticized the work as pantheistic and " a damnable heresy " that " conscience would compel him to denounce " . Literary critic George Edward Woodberry in 1885 thought the essay was based on a crude understanding of the science a student learns in school " rendered ridiculous " by absurdity and the density of his ignorance . Thomas Dunn English , a writer , lawyer , and doctor who frequently criticized Poe , wrote a news article for the John @-@ Donkey with the headline , " Great Literary Crash " . The article explained that a shelf of books crashed because someone had " imprudently " stacked an edition of Eureka on it and that it was a miracle that the whole building did not fall down because of it .
The lecture upon which Eureka was based also received negative reviews . Poe 's friend Evert A. Duyckinck wrote to his brother that the lecture bored him to death and that it was " full of a ludicrous dryness of scientific phrase — a mountainous piece of absurdity . " A local newspaper called it " hyperbolic nonsense " . though one publication , the Courier and Enquirer , called it " a nobler effort than any other Mr. Poe has yet given the world " . Audience members said it was not persuasive or simply too long . Even so , Poe considered Eureka to be his masterpiece . He believed the work would immortalize him because it would be proven to be true . In the Preface , Poe said : " It is as a Poem only that I wish this work to be judged after I am dead . "
After its publication he wrote to his aunt Maria Clemm saying , " I have no desire to live since I have done Eureka . I could accomplish nothing more . " He confided in a friend that he believed his contemporary generation was unable to understand it but that it would be appreciated , if ever , two thousand years later .
Some critics , however , responded favorably to Eureka . French writer Paul Valéry praised it for both its poetic and scientific merit , calling it an abstract poem based on mathematical foundations . Albert Einstein in a letter written in 1934 , noted that Eureka was eine schöne Leistung eines ungewöhnlich selbständigen Geistes ( a beautiful achievement of an unusually independent mind ) .
= = Publication history = =
Eureka was published in a small hardcover edition in March 1848 by Wiley & Putnam priced at 75 cents . Poe persuaded George Palmer Putnam , who had previously taken a chance on Poe by printing his only novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket in England , to publish Eureka after claiming this work was more important than Isaac Newton 's discovery of gravity . Putnam paid Poe fourteen dollars for the work . Poe suggested an initial printing of at least one million copies ; Putnam settled on 750 , of which 500 were sold that year . Other accounts say that Poe requested 50 @,@ 000 copies , and 500 were printed . Poe was given in advance the full payment of $ 14 from the publisher .
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= Digital terrestrial television in Australia =
Digital terrestrial television in Australia commenced on 1 January 2001 in Sydney , Melbourne , Brisbane , Adelaide and Perth using DVB @-@ T standards . The phase out of analog PAL transmissions began in 2010 and was completed by 10 December 2013 .
Digital terrestrial television brought a number of enhancements over the previous analog television , primarily higher @-@ quality picture and sound , as well as datacasting and multi @-@ view services such as video program guides , high definition , and now @-@ and @-@ next program information . There are a number of additional channels , datacasting , as well as high definition services , available to digital terrestrial television viewers in Australia . Digital @-@ only content is subject to availability and differs greatly in various television markets .
Although approximately 96 % of the population had access to at least one digital service , take up was initially sluggish , with only 28 % of Australia 's 7 @.@ 8 million households having adopted free @-@ to @-@ air digital television by March 2007 . However , by August 2010 , 75 % of Australian households had made the switch . Analog transmissions began to be phased out in 2010 , and ceased to be available nationwide by the end of 2013 .
From 2009 , the free @-@ to @-@ air digital television platform has been promoted under the Freeview brand name .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
Planning for digital terrestrial television in Australia can be traced back to 1993 , when a group of specialists was drawn from the then @-@ Australian Broadcasting Authority , Department of Transport and Communications , in addition to broadcasters and manufacturers . The ABA Specialist Group was intended to bring together studies taking place in a number of Australian forums and investigate potential options and policies relating to digital television .
In 1995 the group released a report , Digital Terrestrial Broadcasting in Australia , containing the preliminary conclusions of the group . It found that premature regulation of the new platform might stifle the market @-@ driven development of the service , that it should be based upon existing standards , and should not restrict the ability of broadcasters to tailor local content . It was too early at the time to make decisions relating to what standard should be used , when transmissions should commence , and whether analog television should be phased out .
The final report , of the same name , was released in 1997 . It recommended that Australia should adopt a single system following detailed trials of potential systems , that it should be implemented with high definition capabilities from the outset , that each licensed commercial or public service should have access to a full 7 MHz channel for its services , and that the eventual termination of analog PAL services should be driven by market factors and subject to regular review . The year 2000 was highlighted as a potential target date for the commencement of permanent digital terrestrial broadcasting .
= = = = Response = = = =
The Australian Broadcasting Authority 's response , titled Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting , recommended that the Australian Government support the early introduction of digital broadcasting as a free @-@ to @-@ air service with the loan of a 7 MHz channel for each broadcaster , in order to enable high @-@ definition television from the outset . The Federation of Australian Commercial Television Stations supported this , as well as freedom for its members to launch multi @-@ channel services . At the same time , the Australian Subscription Television and Radio Association , questioned the commercial viability of HDTV , was opposed to the idea of multi @-@ channeling , and argued for a competitive system that would allow the entry of new players .
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation stated that it wished to run up to four multichannels at different times of the day or alternatively offer an HDTV service . It claimed that up to $ 100 million would be needed to prepare for these services , half of which would need to be government @-@ funded . Other interested parties , such as internet service provider OzEmail argued for the provision of spectrum for interactive services , while Telstra , shareholder in the subscription television provider Foxtel , supported ASTRA 's argument for a competitive bidding process for digital spectrum .
= = = Legislation = = =
On 24 March 1998 , Minister for Communications , the Information Economy and the Arts , Senator Richard Alston , announced the government 's decisions for the introduction of digital television . The plan allowed commercial and public broadcasters 7 MHz of spectrum free of charge for 8 years to simulcast services in both digital and analog , after which it was to be returned to the Commonwealth . Digital terrestrial television was to commence on 1 January 2001 in metropolitan areas , with expansion to regional areas to have been completed by the start of 2004 .
Following this , commercial broadcasters would be required to provide minimum levels of high definition content , would be required to pay fees if they chose to provide datacast services and would be prohibited from using their spectrum for multichanneling of subscription services . In addition , the prohibition on new free @-@ to @-@ air broadcasters would be extended until December 2008 .
Amendments were subsequently made to the Broadcasting Services Act 1992 and the Radiocommunications Act 1992 , which set out ownership and programming conditions for broadcasting licences ( administered by the ABA ) and regulated the usage of spectrum , respectively .
On 18 June 1998 , the Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting Selection Panel announced the choice of the European DVB @-@ T system for digital terrestrial television . The panel was a group of representatives from the country 's public , commercial and regional broadcasters , the Department of Communications , the Information Economy and the Arts , as well as the Australian Broadcasting Authority .
= = = Launch = = =
When digital television launched on 1 January 2001 , the majority of households did not know of or were unable to buy a set top box in order to receive the signal . Digital Broadcasting Australia was established in late 2000 to help make the transition to digital television as seamless for consumers as possible . It included representatives from free @-@ to @-@ air broadcasters , manufacturers , suppliers , and retailers and was intended to provide information about commencement dates , coverage , and the functionality and availability of equipment .
= = Content = =
= = = Additional channels = = =
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation launched the ABC Kids Channel and Fly TV in August 2001 . The two multichannels , available only through digital means , showed a range of programming targeted at children and teenage viewers . Similarly , the Special Broadcasting Service launched the SBS World News Channel in 2002 , a digital @-@ only service offering a number of foreign @-@ language news programmes seen in its morning WorldWatch timeslot .
Funding issues meant that in May 2003 the Australian Broadcasting Corporation closed ABC Kids and Fly TV . In the same year , Tasmanian Digital Television became the first digital @-@ only commercial station to be launched in the country , under Section 38A of the Broadcasting Services Act . The new station was a joint venture between existing commercial networks Southern Cross Broadcasting and WIN Television . Tasmanian Digital Television , affiliated to Network Ten , was initially available only in Hobart , before expanding to Launceston and , by early 2009 , the remainder of the state . The introduction of this fifth channel resulted in significantly higher digital television takeup in Tasmania than other parts of the country .
ABC2 , the Australian Broadcasting Corporation 's second attempt at a digital @-@ only channel launched on 7 March 2005 . The service showed a range of repeated news , current affairs , children 's and educational programs originally shown on ABC1 as well as a number of original programs launched later on , such as Australia Wide , Short and Curly and Late Night Legends .
In the other market areas where there are only 1 or 2 broadcasters , digital @-@ only stations were created that transmit programming from the unrepresented broadcaster ( s ) in that area . These digital @-@ only stations are owned by joint @-@ venture , or by the sole broadcaster , depending on the area .
During September 2007 , the three commercial networks announced the introduction of high @-@ definition only channels later that year , becoming the first new commercial television channels to launch in metropolitan areas of Australia since 1988 . The Seven Network 's 7HD was the first to launch on 15 October and became available through Prime Television on 29 October . This was followed by the launch of Ten HD on 16 December . The majority of the programming on the high @-@ definition channels was simulcast from the parent channel .
From 2009 , commercial broadcasters were allowed to transmit an alternate standard definition channel . On 26 March 2009 , Channel Ten launched One , its SD multichannel as a 24 @-@ hour sports channel . One is also broadcast on Ten 's HD channel , replacing Ten HD . Nine later launched GO ! , as a general entertainment channel skewed towards younger viewers in August 2009 . Seven introduced 7Two on 1 November 2009 .
In July 2010 ABC launched its proposed news channel , ABC News 24 . In addition , the Seven and Nine networks launched their third channels in September 2010 : 7mate from Seven and channel GEM from Nine . Network Ten launched their third channel , Eleven , in early 2011 .
In November 2015 , Nine launched their fourth channel , 9Life , along with a relaunch of 9HD . In February 2016 , Seven launched their fourth channel , 7flix .
In March 2016 , Ten relaunched their HD channel , Ten HD . In May 2016 , Seven relaunched their HD channel , 7HD .
= = = Amateur digital television = = =
VK3RTV is an experimental Amateur Television repeater located on Mt Dandenong to the east of Melbourne . In late September 2009 the former single analog channel was converted to a 2 channel digital system . The output of the transmitter is on 446 @.@ 5 MHz which can be received on some set top boxes and digital televisions . Both channels are transmitted in standard definition .
Amateur Radio Operators are restricted in terms of the content they may transmit in that the transmission of entertainment is not allowed . However , Amateur Radio Operators are nonetheless able to transmit a wide range of educational material related to amateur radio & electronics .
= = = Datacasting = = =
A number of broadcasters , primarily commercial networks , have provided a number of digital @-@ only datacast or multivew services on separate channels - in particular during major sporting events . The Seven Network , for instance , provided two additional channels as part of its coverage of the 2003 Rugby World Cup - one providing alternate commentary , the other with statistics and game information . Seven also ran a similar service during its coverage ot the 2004 Summer Olympics showing news headlines , a medal tally , and event results . Similarly in 2005 for the Melbourne Cup , Australian Open , Australian Open Golf , and the One Day International series from the United Kingdom , the Seven Network provided a multi @-@ view datacast service . As well as this , the Nine Network and NBN Television both provided a multi @-@ view service with additional text information during Pompeii : The Last Day .
Digital Forty Four , a trial datacasting service , began in Sydney in 2003 . The service included at launch an electronic program guide , ABC News , Sport and Weather datacast service , the Australian Christian Channel , shopping channel Expo and a number of federal parliament audio streams . The service , licensed by the Australian Communications and Media Authority , ceased broadcasting at midnight on the night of 30 April 2010 .
Three metropolitan networks once provided video program guide datacast channels in addition to their standard and high definition channels . During ABC2 , ABC3 and ABC HD 's downtime , the ABC shows program information and weather , with music from ABC DiG radio .
Other channels were launched , such as TV4ME , Ishop tv , Extra , Gold , TVSN , Spree TV , Aspire TV and Fresh Ideas TV .
= = = High @-@ definition = = =
At a minimum , all digital television broadcasters in Australia provide a 576i standard @-@ definition service , in addition to high definition . The 576p50 format is also considered a HDTV format , as it has higher vertical resolution through the use of progressive scanning . When Australia started DVB @-@ T in 2001 several networks broadcast high @-@ definition in a 576p format as this could give better quality on 50 Hz scanning CRT TVs and was not as demanding on MPEG @-@ 2 @-@ bit @-@ rate . Since many modern television sets have an interlace to progressive scan conversion there is little difference in picture quality . MPEG @-@ 2 encoders have also improved so the more conventional 720p and 1080i formats are now used .
WIN Television in South Australia and Griffith , as well as Southern Cross in Port Pirie are the only stations that broadcast in digital but do not provide a high @-@ definition service . This is due to multiple services using the same digital frequency : WIN Television , WIN Ten and WIN Nine in SA , WIN Television and Prime in Griffith or GTS / BKN , SC10 , SC9 and ELEVEN in Port Pirie .
All other commercial stations have 1080i high definition services which , since 2015 , simulcast their main channel from standard definition . Prior to this , HD broadcasts are shown as a multichannel providing some differing content from the main SD channel . For instance , ABC Television has a 720p high definition service , which used to run as ABC @-@ HD ( simulcasting ABC1 ) , but now operates as ABC News 24 . Currently , SBS Television , the Nine Network and its regional station NBN Television , Network Ten , and WIN Television broadcast a 1080i high definition simulcast of their respective main channel . The Seven Network also has a relaunched HD channel , yet it isn 't implemented as the primary channel 's HD simulcast across all metropolitan stations to allow the games of the Australian Football League be broadcast in HD . Only the Melbourne and Adelaide stations received its channel on its purpose ; Sydney , Perth and Brisbane stations , meanwhile , continues to air digital multichannel 7mate in high definition through 7HD , with the former downgraded to standard definition by default .
Quotas on high definition content — a minimum of 1040 hours per year — were imposed by the Australian government in July 2003 on broadcasters in Sydney , Melbourne , Brisbane , Adelaide and Perth . The same requirement was extended in April 2005 to stations in Darwin , regional New South Wales and regional Queensland , and in January 2006 in Mildura . As of 13 July 2007 commercial television networks in Australia were permitted to provide a separate standard definition and high definition channel . As of January 2009 , they were permitted 2 standard definition channels in addition to the high definition channel — the networks planned to launch these via Freeview ( Australia ) . However , in August 2015 , the government finally lifted the SD Primary Channel mandate , allowing broadcasters to simulcast their respective main channel programmes in high definition .
= = Transition to digital television = =
The transition from analog to digital television was co @-@ ordinated by the Digital Switchover Taskforce operating under the federal Department of Broadband , Communications and the Digital Economy .
Until the switch @-@ off in the respective areas , free @-@ to @-@ air broadcasts were simulcast , along with digital @-@ only channels like ABC2 . Cable television networks began simulcasting in 2004 and analog cable services were switched off in April 2007 .
= = = Freeview = = =
In November 2008 , all free @-@ to @-@ air broadcasters ( both metropolitan and regional ) joined to launch the Freeview brand name as a consistent marketing platform for digital broadcasting to compete against subscription television in Australia , with the actual Freeview service commencing in March 2009 .
= = = Government labelling scheme = = =
In April 2009 , the government released a new labelling scheme for digital television devices , to help people buy the correct equipment in the transition from analog to digital television . Televisions had the following labels :
Digital TV Capable - for analog TVs which required a set top box
Digital TV Ready ( Standard Definition ) - for TVs able to receive SD broadcasts
Digital TV Ready ( High Definition ) - for TVs able to receive HD broadcasts
The government labelling standards were in addition to the Freeview labelling standards endorsed by the major commercial and public broadcasters and which contributed to confusion between Freeview and government digital TV standards . Freeview devices had to meet the High Definition Digital TV Ready standard .
= = = Controversy = = =
Perth community station Access 31 's closure was partially blamed on viewers and revenue lost to increasing digital television viewership . The analog @-@ only station had been campaigning with other community television stations for support from the Federal Government that allowed them access to the digital broadcast spectrum . On 4 November 2009 Communications Minister Stephen Conroy approved a Digital TV only licence for West TV in Perth , which allows them to broadcast as a digital @-@ only community television station as a replacement for the now defunct Access 31 . Digital services were available in most areas , however parts of Western Australia and Central Australia had yet to begin transmissions in 2007 .
= = = Household assistance scheme = = =
To aid the digital television switchover , households receiving government assistance payments were eligible to have a set @-@ top @-@ box provided free of charge to convert to digital television . In addition to set top boxes , the assistance included any necessary cabling or antenna upgrades needed to achieve a reliable digital signal .
= = Analog switchoff = =
In October 2008 , the Digital Switchover Taskforce announced the timetable for analog @-@ switchoff , as follows
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= Yield ( album ) =
Yield is the fifth studio album by the American alternative rock band Pearl Jam , released on February 3 , 1998 . Following a short promotional tour for its previous album , No Code ( 1996 ) , Pearl Jam recorded Yield throughout 1997 at Studio Litho and Studio X in Seattle , Washington . The album was proclaimed as a return to the band 's early , straightforward rock sound , and marked a more collaborative effort from the band as opposed to relying heavily on frontman Eddie Vedder to compose the songs . The lyrics deal with contemplative themes , albeit seen in a more positive manner compared to the band 's earlier work .
Yield received positive reviews and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 . While like No Code the album soon began dropping down the charts , Yield eventually outsold its predecessor . The band did more promotion for the album compared to No Code , including a return to full @-@ scale touring and the release of a music video for the song " Do the Evolution " . The record has been certified platinum by the RIAA in the United States . The album is Pearl Jam 's last release with drummer Jack Irons , who left the band during the album 's promotional tour .
= = Recording = =
For its fifth album , Pearl Jam again worked with producer Brendan O 'Brien , whom the band had worked with on its previous three records . Yield was recorded throughout 1997 in Seattle , Washington at Studio X and Studio Litho , the latter of which is owned by guitarist Stone Gossard . The album was then mixed by O 'Brien at his mixing facility at Southern Tracks in Atlanta , Georgia . The album would be the last collaboration with O 'Brien for several years . They would not work with the producer again until he was brought on board in 2008 to remix their debut album Ten and to produce 2009 's Backspacer .
Compared with Vitalogy and No Code , Yield represented more of a team effort between all members of the group . Lead vocalist Eddie Vedder had made the final decisions for the albums Vitalogy and No Code ; however , at the end of the No Code recording sessions , Vedder suggested to bassist Jeff Ament that it would be better for the other members to write and bring in more complete songs so Vedder would be under less pressure to finish the songs . Ament said that " everybody took that to heart , " and O 'Brien added that most of the songs came to the studio finished . Ament also said that Vedder 's reaction to the rest of the band 's new material kept " everybody energized about their place in the band . " Vedder worked with the other band members on their own material before work was started on his . Guitarist Mike McCready noticed a change in Vedder 's attitude during the recording of Yield , stating , " I used to be afraid of him and not want to confront him on things ... We talk more now , and hang out ... He seems very , very centered now . "
Vedder said that the band was able to " team up " and have a " partnership " while the album was being recorded . The band spent a large amount of time rehearsing the songs to get the best takes possible . Gossard commented that there was more " contouring " and " honing " of demo material than on previous records . Regarding the recording sessions , drummer Jack Irons said , " We didn 't put any time limit on it . It was like , ' When this record 's done , we call it a record . ' We took out time to come up with ideal sounds and feel for every song , so that each had its own identity . We would cut a track and go back and listen to it and openly discuss it . " Ament stated that " Yield was a superfun record to make . And so much of it was Ed kind of sitting back . " He added that " everybody really got a little bit of their say on the record ... because of that , everybody feels like they 're an integral part of the band . " The band discussed the album 's production on the documentary Single Video Theory .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Overall , Yield resembles the straightforward rock approach of the band 's early work . Gossard said , " The songs were a little bit more structured . I don 't know if it was poppier , but it seemed more professional . " O 'Brien noted that during the Yield sessions , the band made a conscious effort to create more accessible songs . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly stated that the band has " turned in an intermittently affecting album that veers between fiery garage rock and rootsy , acoustic @-@ based ruminations . Perhaps mindful of their position as the last alt @-@ rock ambassadors with any degree of clout , they 've come up with their most cohesive album since their 1991 debut , Ten . " " Given to Fly " , the album 's first single , was noted for its similarity to Led Zeppelin 's " Going to California " from the 1971 album , Led Zeppelin IV .
Lyrically , Yield continued with the more contemplative type of writing found on No Code . Vedder said that while " in the past we got really angry and we cried out against many things in our songs " , he considered that when " you become an adult you have to express your energy in a different way , more calm . " This led to songs that while not eschewing " the bad side of life " , ended up " facing it from a more positive point of view , looking for a way to solve it . In the past we said : what a shit , this stinks , that sucks , everything sucks ... Now it 's time to say : stop , let 's look for a solution , let 's be positive . " Several songs on the album were inspired by literary works , including Mikhail Bulgakov 's novel The Master and Margarita ( " Pilate " ) , Daniel Quinn 's novel Ishmael ( " Do the Evolution " ) , and the writings of Charles Bukowski ( " In Hiding " ) . Gossard wrote the lyrics for the songs " No Way " and " All Those Yesterdays " , and Ament , making his first lyrical contributions to a Pearl Jam album , wrote the lyrics for the songs " Pilate " and " Low Light " . Ament said , " [ to ] watch Eddie put his heart into singing lyrics that I wrote , was an experience I can 't put into words . "
Gossard said " No Way " expresses the idea that people just need to live " and quit trying to prove something . " According to Vedder , " Given to Fly " is about " rising above anybody 's comments about what you do and still giving your love away , " " Do the Evolution " is about " someone who 's drunk with technology , who thinks they 're the controlling living being on this planet , " " MFC " takes place in a car and is about " getting the fuck out of a problem , " and " In Hiding " is about " taking a fast from life . " Ament said that " Pilate " concerned a question he was asking himself , dealing with a recurring dream Ament had with being old sitting with his dog on the porch , while " Low Light " was the answer , and that it deals with " a kind of gratefulness at finding that place of calm and peace at my center and getting a glimpse of the person I could choose to be . "
= = Packaging and title = =
The album 's cover art shows an empty road underneath a bright blue sky with a yield sign on the right @-@ hand side of the road . The front cover art image was taken from a photograph of a road outside Billings , Montana , while the inside cover depicts the yield sign in the middle of the ocean . The cover of the cassette version mirrored the image . A yield sign is hidden in every picture of the liner notes booklet . At the 1999 Grammy Awards , Yield received a nomination for Best Recording Package . Ament said that the cover came from the idea on " how cool to have a yield sign where there 's nothing to yield to " , and the place was a road on the way to his Montana home which he considered perfect for the photo .
The album title is rooted in the idea of " yielding to nature , " a theme central to Daniel Quinn 's novel Ishmael . The band members read the book while working on the album . Regarding the title , McCready said , " I think the title Yield has to do with maybe being more comfortable within ourselves , with this band .... we 're all a little bit older and a little more relaxed and maybe just kind of yielding to those anxieties and not trying to fight it so much ... That 's what it kind of feels to me – yielding , letting something else happen and going with it . " Vedder said , " Let 's say that hypothetically speaking , the title does mean something ... You can fight so much , and then you have to think , ' What are the real battles ? ' ' What 's really important ? ' You get to a certain point , and it 's really hard to remember what music is and to remember what drives you . "
The indie rock band BOAT parodied the album 's cover art , among several others , on its 2011 release Dress Like Your Idols .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Yield was released on February 3 , 1998 , on CD , vinyl , cassette and MiniDisc . Epic promoted the album more than No Code , with marketing vice @-@ president Steve Barnett claiming it was the first time since debut album Ten that the label " had the lead time to do the job right . " The album leaked on the internet in December 1997 as Syracuse , New York radio station WKRL @-@ FM played an advance copy of the record , leading fans who taped the broadcast to release the tracks online . Two singles were released from Yield . The lead single " Given to Fly " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 21 , reached number three on the Modern Rock charts , and spent a total of six weeks at number one on the Mainstream Rock charts . The album 's other commercially released single , " Wishlist " , charted on the Hot 100 at number 47 . Album tracks " In Hiding " and " Do the Evolution " also charted on the rock charts . The band hired comic book artist Todd McFarlane to create an animated video for " Do the Evolution " . It was the band 's first music video since 1992 . At the 1999 Grammy Awards , " Do the Evolution " received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance and its music video received a nomination for Best Music Video , Short Form .
Yield sold 358 @,@ 000 copies during its first week of release , and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 album chart . It was held off the top spot by the Titanic soundtrack . Yield became Pearl Jam 's first album not to peak at number one on the Billboard charts since Ten in 1991 . However , Yield has been certified platinum by the RIAA , and eventually outsold its predecessor No Code with 1 @.@ 9 million copies in the United States as of 2013 according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = = Critical response = = =
Yield received mostly positive reviews from music critics , being proclaimed as a return to the band 's early , straightforward rock sound . Rolling Stone staff writer Rob Sheffield gave Yield four out of five stars , saying that " before , the band 's best songs were the change @-@ of @-@ pace ballads ... Yield marks the first time Pearl Jam have managed to sustain that mood for a whole album . " He added that " Vedder is singing more frankly than ever about his life as an adult , " and that the album " shows that Pearl Jam have made the most out of growing up in public . " Spin gave the album eight out of ten stars . The review said that Pearl Jam have " come back with an album full of gracefully ambivalent anthems . All commodities should be this unstable , and have this much blood pumping through them . " In his review for The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A- , saying , " Like nobody less than Nirvana ... they voice the arena @-@ rock agon more vulnerably and articulately than any Englishman standing . Rarely if ever has a Jesus complex seemed so modest . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated that the band " applies its introspection to spiritual possibilities and its guitars to chomping , snarling , exuberant riffs . " He said " the songs sound bolder and more confident , even when they invoke private crises . " Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B , saying that " the overall tone is less pretentious than in the past , reflecting a looser , even marginally whimsical , worldview . " Holly Bailey of Pitchfork Media called it " the most lyrically powerful album Pearl Jam have ever produced , " and stated that " Yield proves that Pearl Jam , and even rock music , is still alive and kicking . " NME gave Yield a score of seven out of ten . In the review , it is stated , " Here 's where Pearl Jam put on their diverse boots and stomp across their bluesy roots , careering through various styles and pop @-@ mongous strops . "
However , AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album two and a half out of five stars , saying that it " emphasizes the relative lack of exceptional material . " Writing for Select in March 1998 , Eddy Lawrence concluded that Yield is an abandonment of the " anthemic qualities " present in Pearl Jam 's previous work , claiming , in relation to the band 's grunge roots , that the album " makes you realise how ' 60s fans felt watching the first generation of rock heroes die . " He went on to state that " Yield 's retroisms represent no leap forward for the band as a whole , and the oft @-@ times mildly diverting tunes are , ironically , less challenging than their strong @-@ willed early output . "
= = Tour = =
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in Oceania and North America in 1998 . Both were met with financial success , and the Australian shows in Melbourne sold out in just 17 minutes . After finishing the Australian concerts , Irons left the band due to dissatisfaction with touring . Pearl Jam 's sound engineer Brett Eliason stated , " We went and did Hawaii and Australia with Jack . When we came back , Jack wasn 't in a position to carry on . He made that decision more or less by himself . He can be a really great drummer but he had difficulty on tour putting out the energy for the length of shows they were doing . I don 't know if he thought they 'd put things on hold for him . " He was replaced on an initially temporary basis with former Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron . Cameron said , " I got a phone call out of the blue , from Mr. Ed Ved , Stoney and Kelly . I was ambushed . It was really short notice . He called and said ' hey what are you doing this summer ? ' " Cameron learned over 80 songs in two weeks . Regarding his entrance , Cameron stated that " The guys made me feel real welcome and it wasn 't a struggle to get it musically , but my style was a little bit different , I think , than what they were used to . And they 've been through so many different drummers , I don 't even know if they knew what they wanted . So , I just kind of played the way I played and then eventually we kind of figured out what worked best for the band . "
Pearl Jam 's summer tour of North America marked the band ’ s return to full @-@ scale touring and the use of Ticketmaster , to which the band had previously protested . Pearl Jam once again began using it in order to " better accommodate concertgoers . " The band still kept Ticketmaster venues at a minimum , stadiums in particular as manager Kelly Curtis joked that unlike U2 , " the band doesn 't have a lemon " . The first leg of the tour focused on the West Coast of the United States and the Midwest , and then the band moved to the East Coast for the tour 's second leg. and after it was completed the band released its first live album , Live on Two Legs , which featured select performances from the tour . McCready stated that the band released the live album due to the strength of Pearl Jam 's shows on the tour .
On October 20 , 2014 at the BMO Harris Bradley Center in Milwaukee , during the Lightning Bolt Tour , Pearl Jam played the entire album in order as part of their set .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder , except where noted .
^ I Contains a sample of " Happy When I 'm Crying " , a song written by Irons and released on Pearl Jam 's 1997 fan club Christmas single .
^ II " All Those Yesterdays " contains the hidden track " Hummus " at 5 : 04 .
= = = Outtakes = = =
The album 's singles featured two B @-@ sides from the Yield recording sessions that were not included on the album : " Leatherman " , about the eponymous 19th century vagabond was a B @-@ side on the " Given to Fly " single , and " U " was featured on the " Wishlist " single , being later re @-@ recorded for the 2003 Lost Dogs collection of rarities . " Whale Song " , sung by Irons , was also recorded during the Yield sessions and was eventually included on the 1999 Music for Our Mother Ocean , Vol . 3 compilation as well as Lost Dogs . " Happy When I 'm Crying " was recorded around this time and was released on the band 's 1997 fan club Christmas single .
= = Personnel = =
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= Khalil al @-@ Wazir =
Khalil Ibrahim al @-@ Wazir ( Arabic : خليل إبراهيم الوزير , also known by his kunya Abu Jihad أبو جهاد — " father of struggle " ; October 10 , 1935 – April 16 , 1988 ) was a Palestinian leader and co @-@ founder of the secular nationalist party Fatah . As a top aide of Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) Chairman Yasser Arafat , al @-@ Wazir had considerable influence in Fatah 's military activities , eventually becoming the commander of Fatah 's armed wing al @-@ Assifa .
Al @-@ Wazir became a refugee when his family was expelled from Ramla during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War , and began leading a minor fedayeen force in the Gaza Strip . In the early 1960s he established connections for Fatah with Communist regimes and prominent third @-@ world leaders . He opened Fatah 's first bureau in Algeria . He played an important role in the 1970 – 71 Black September clashes in Jordan , by supplying besieged Palestinian fighters with weapons and aid . Following the PLO 's defeat by the Jordanian Army , al @-@ Wazir joined the PLO in Lebanon .
Prior to and during Israel 's 1982 invasion of Lebanon , al @-@ Wazir planned numerous attacks inside Israel against both civilian and military targets . He prepared Beirut 's defense against incoming Israeli forces . Nonetheless , the Israeli military prevailed and al @-@ Wazir was exiled from Lebanon with the rest of the Fatah leadership . He settled in Amman for a two @-@ year period and was then exiled to Tunis in 1986 . From his base there , he started to organize youth committees in the Palestinian territories ; these eventually became the backbone of the Palestinian forces in the First Intifada . However , he did not live to command the uprising . On April 16 , 1988 , he was assassinated at his home in Tunis , by Israeli commandos .
= = Early life = =
Khalil al @-@ Wazir was born in 1935 to Muslim parents in the city of Ramla , Palestine , then under British Mandatory rule . His father , Ibrahim al @-@ Wazir , worked as a grocer in the city . Al @-@ Wazir and his family were expelled in July 1948 , along with another 50 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 Palestinians from Lydda and Ramla , following Israel 's capture of the area during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . They settled in the Bureij refugee camp in the Gaza Strip , where al @-@ Wazir attended a secondary school run by UNRWA . While in high school , he began organizing a small group of fedayeen to harass Israelis at military posts near the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula .
In 1954 he came into contact with Yasser Arafat in Gaza ; al @-@ Wazir would become Arafat 's right @-@ hand man later in his life . During his time in Gaza , al @-@ Wazir became a member of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood , and was briefly imprisoned for his membership with the organization , as it was prohibited in Egypt . In 1956 , a few months after his release from prison , he received military training in Cairo . He also studied architectural engineering at the University of Alexandria , but he did not graduate . Al @-@ Wazir was detained once again in 1957 for leading raids against Israel and was exiled to Saudi Arabia , finding work as a schoolteacher . He continued to teach after moving to Kuwait in 1959 .
= = Formation of Fatah = =
Al @-@ Wazir used his time in Kuwait to further his ties with Arafat and other fellow Palestinian exiles he had met in Egypt . He and his comrades founded Fatah , a secular Palestinian nationalist guerrilla and political organization , sometime between 1959 – 60 . He moved to Beirut after being put in charge of editing the newly formed organization 's monthly magazine Filastinuna , Nida ' al @-@ Hayat ( " Our Palestine , the Call to Life " ) , as he was " the only one with a flair for writing . "
He settled in Algeria in 1962 , after a delegation of Fatah leaders , including Arafat and Farouk Kaddoumi , were invited there by Algerian President Ahmed Ben Bella . Al @-@ Wazir remained there , opened a Fatah office and military training camp in Algiers and was included in an Algerian @-@ Fatah delegation to Beijing in 1964 . During his visit , he presented Fatah 's ideas to various leaders of the People 's Republic of China , including premier Zhou Enlai , and thus inaugurated Fatah 's good relationship with China . He also toured other East Asian countries , establishing relations with North Korea and the Viet Cong . Al @-@ Wazir supposedly " charmed Che Guevara " during Guevara 's speech in Algiers . With his guerrilla credentials and his contacts with arms @-@ supplying nations , he was assigned the role of recruiting and training fighters , thus establishing Fatah 's armed wing al @-@ Assifa ( the Storm ) . While in Algiers , he recruited Abu Ali Iyad who became his deputy and one of the high @-@ ranking commanders of al @-@ Assifa in Syria and Jordan .
= = = Syria and post @-@ Six @-@ Day War = = =
Al @-@ Wazir and the Fatah leadership settled in Damascus , Syria in 1965 , in order take advantage of the large number of Palestine Liberation Army ( PLA ) members there . On May 9 , 1966 , he and Arafat were detained by Syrian police loyal to air marshal Hafez al @-@ Assad after an incident where a pro @-@ Syrian Palestinian leader , Yusuf Orabi was thrown out of the window of a three @-@ story building and killed . Al @-@ Wazir and Arafat were either considering uniting Fatah with Orabi 's faction — the Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Palestine — or winning Orabi 's support against Arafat 's rivals within the Fatah leadership . An argument occurred , eventually leading to Orabi 's murder ; however , al @-@ Wazir and Arafat had already left the scene shortly before the incident . According to Aburish , Orabi and Assad were " close friends " and Assad appointed a panel to investigate what happened . The panel found both Arafat and al @-@ Wazir guilty , but Salah Jadid , then Deputy Secretary @-@ General of the President of Syria , pardoned them .
After the defeat of a coalition of Arab states in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War , major Palestinian guerrilla organizations that participated in the war or were sponsored by any of the involved Arab states , such as the Arab Nationalist Movement led by George Habash and the Palestine Liberation Army of Ahmad Shukeiri , lost considerable influence among the Palestinian population . This made Fatah the dominant faction of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) . They gained 33 of 105 seats in the Palestinian National Council ( PNC ) ( the most seats allocated to any guerrilla group ) , thus strengthening al @-@ Wazir 's position . During the Battle of Karameh , in March 1968 , he and Salah Khalaf held important command positions among Fatah fighters against the Israeli Defense Forces ( IDF ) , which developed his credentials as a military strategist . This eventually led to him staking command of al @-@ Assifa , holding major positions in the PNC , and the Supreme Military Council of the PLO . He was also put in charge of guerrilla warfare operations in both the occupied Palestinian territories and Israel proper .
= = Black September and the Lebanon War = =
During the Black September clashes in Jordan , al @-@ Wazir supplied the encircled Palestinian forces in Jerash and Ajlun with arms and aid , but the conflict was decided in Jordan 's favor . After Arafat and thousands of Fatah fighters retreated to Lebanon , al @-@ Wazir negotiated an agreement between King Hussein and the PLO 's leading organizer , calling for better Palestinian conduct in Jordan . Then , along with the other PLO leaders , he relocated to Beirut .
Al @-@ Wazir did not play a major role in the Lebanese Civil War ; he confined himself primarily to strengthening the Lebanese National Movement , the PLO 's main ally in the conflict . During the fall of the Tel al @-@ Zaatar camp to the Lebanese Front , al @-@ Wazir blamed himself for not organizing a rescue effort .
During his time in Lebanon , al @-@ Wazir was responsible for coordinating high @-@ profile operations . He allegedly planned the Savoy Operation in 1975 , in which eight Fatah militants raided and took hostages in the Savoy hotel in Tel Aviv , killing eight of them , as well as three Israeli soldiers . The Coastal Road massacre , in March 1978 , was also planned by al @-@ Wazir . In this attack , six Fatah members hijacked a bus and killed 35 Israeli civilians .
When Israel besieged Beirut in 1982 , al @-@ Wazir , disagreed with the PLO 's leftist members and Salah Khalaf ; he proposed that the PLO pull out of Beirut . Nevertheless , al @-@ Wazir and his aide Abu al @-@ Walid planned Beirut 's defense and helped direct PLO forces against the IDF . PLO forces were eventually defeated and then expelled from Lebanon , with most of the leadership relocating to Tunis , although al @-@ Wazir and 264 other PLO members were received by King Hussein of Jordan .
= = Establishing a movement in the Palestinian territories = =
Dissatisfied at the decisive defeat of Palestinian forces during the 1982 Lebanon War , al @-@ Wazir concentrated on establishing a solid Fatah base in the Palestinian territories . In 1982 , he began to sponsor youth committees in the territories . These organizations would grow and initiate the First Intifada in December 1987 ( the word Intifada in Arabic , literally translated as " shaking off " , is generally used to describe an uprising or revolt ) .
The Intifada began as an uprising of Palestinian youth against the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . On June 7 , 1986 , about a year before the Intifada started , al @-@ Wazir was deported from Amman to Baghdad , eventually moving to Tunisia days after King Hussein declared that efforts in establishing a joint strategy for the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict between Jordan and the PLO were over .
The first stage of the Intifada was a response to an incident at the Erez checkpoint , where an Israeli military vehicle hit a group of Palestinian laborers , killing four of them . However , within weeks , following persistent requests by al @-@ Wazir , the PLO attempted to direct the uprising , which lasted until 1991 , or 1993 , according to various authorities . Al @-@ Wazir had been assigned by Arafat the responsibility of the Palestinian territories within the PLO command . According to author Said Aburish , he had " impressive knowledge of local conditions " in the Israeli @-@ occupied territories , apparently knowing " every village , school , and large family in Gaza and the West Bank " . He provided the uprising with financial backing and logistical support , thus becoming its " brain in exile . " Al @-@ Wazir activated every cell he had set up in the territories since the late 1970s in an effort to militarily back the stone @-@ throwers who formed the backbone of the Palestinian revolt . He also used the opportunity to reform the PLO . According to author Yezid Sayigh , al @-@ Wazir believed that the Intifada should not have been sacrificed to Arafat solely for use as a diplomatic or political tool .
= = Assassination = =
Al @-@ Wazir was assassinated in his home in Tunis at 2 a.m. UTC on April 16 , 1988 at the age of 52 . He was shot at close range multiple times in the presence of his wife and son Nidal . Al @-@ Wazir was assassinated by an Israeli commando team , reportedly ferried from Israel by boat , aided ashore by Mossad intelligence operatives , and using the IDs of Lebanese fisherman who had been kidnapped to gain access to the PLO compound . Israel accused al @-@ Wazir of escalating the violence of the Intifada , which was ongoing at the time of his assassination . Specifically , he was believed to be the architect of the triple bomb attack at a shopping mall . He was buried in the Yarmouk refugee camp in Damascus on April 21 ; Arafat led the funeral procession .
In 1997 , the Maariv newspaper reported on the assassination of al @-@ Wazir . The report claimed that Ehud Barak led a seaborne command center on a navy missile boat off the shore of Tunis that oversaw al @-@ Wazir 's assassination . Up until 1 November 2012 , Israel however did not take official responsibility for his killing and government spokesman Moshe Fogel and aides to Barak declined to comment on the issue . According to the report , Barak , who was then a deputy military chief , coordinated the planning by the Mossad , as well as the army 's intelligence branch , the air force , navy and the elite Sayeret Matkal commando unit . Mossad intelligence agents watched al @-@ Wazir 's home for months before the raid . The Washington Post reported on 21 April that the Israeli cabinet approved al @-@ Wazir 's assassination on 13 April and that it was coordinated between the Mossad and the IDF .
In 2013 , Israel unofficially confirmed that it was responsible for his assassination , after an interview by Israeli correspondent Ronen Bergman of Nahum Lev , the Sayeret Matkal officer who led the raid , was cleared for publication - its release had been blocked by military censors for more than a decade . In that interview , Lev gave Bergman a detailed account of the operation .
The United States Department of State condemned his killing as an " act of political assassination " , and the UN Security Council approved Resolution 611 condemning " the aggression perpetrated against the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Tunisia " , without specifically mentioning Israel .
= = Personal life = =
Al @-@ Wazir married his cousin Intissar al @-@ Wazir in 1962 and had five children with her . They had three sons , named Jihad , Bassem and Nidal , and two daughters , named Iman and Hanan al @-@ Wazir . Intissar and her children returned to Gaza following the Oslo Accords between Israel and the PLO and in 1996 she became the first female minister in the Palestinian National Authority . His son Jihad al @-@ Wazir is currently the Governor of the Palestinian Monetary Authority .
After Hamas ' takeover of the Gaza Strip in 2007 , looters raided al @-@ Wazir 's home , reportedly stealing his personal belongings . Intissar al @-@ Wazir said that the looting " occurred in broad daylight and under the watchful eye of Hamas militiamen . "
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= Herne Hill railway station =
Herne Hill railway station is in the London Borough of Lambeth , South London , England , on the boundary between London fare zones 2 and 3 . Train services are provided by Thameslink to London Blackfriars , Farringdon , St. Pancras International and Luton Airport on the Thameslink route and by Southeastern to London Victoria ( via Brixton ) and Orpington on the Chatham Main Line .
The station building on Railton Road was opened in 1862 by the London , Chatham and Dover Railway . Initial service was only to Victoria , but by 1869 services ran to the City of London , King 's Cross , Kingston via Wimbledon , and Kent , including express trains to Dover Harbour for continental Europe . The arrival of the railways transformed Herne Hill from a wealthy suburb with large residential estates into a densely populated urban area .
= = Description = =
Herne Hill railway station sits at the bottom of the hill that gives the area its name and is close to Brockwell Park . The section of Railton Road outside the station is mixed usage for pedestrians and vehicles .
The Chatham Main Line and Sutton Loop railway lines through Herne Hill are elevated above road level on a brick viaduct that runs north – south . The station 's 1862 Gothic , polychrome brick building is on the western side of the viaduct , with access the station also from the east via a foot tunnel from Milkwood Road . The building houses a ticket office and newsagent , and was Grade II listed in 1998 : the listing notes the station 's arched doorways , Welsh slate roof and decorative brickwork . It was described by Cherry and Pevsner as a " handsome group " and featured on the cover of a book about London 's railway architecture .
The four tracks are served by two island platforms ; northbound trains call at the western platform and southbound trains the eastern platform , providing cross @-@ platform interchange between the two routes .
There are flat junctions at each end of the station : Herne Hill North Junction , where the lines to Loughborough Junction and Brixton diverge ; and Herne Hill South Junction , where the lines to West Dulwich and Tulse Hill diverge . Thameslink and Southeastern services cross each other 's paths at the junctions , constraining capacity on both routes . The station also has a turnback siding on its eastern side , adjacent to Milkwood Road .
= = History = =
The area now known as Herne Hill had been a rural part of the Manor of Milkwell since the 13th century . Two tributaries of the River Effra met at the undeveloped site of the future station ; it was known as Island Green until the 18th century .
In 1783 a timber merchant , Samuel Sanders , bought Herne Hill from the Manor . Sanders granted leases for large plots of land to wealthy families – John Ruskin spent his childhood at an estate on Herne Hill . The Effra was covered over in the 1820s ; and the area had become an upper @-@ class suburb by the mid @-@ 19th century ( a contemporary author referred to the hill as " the Elysium " for merchants ) . The opening of the railway station , which provided convenient and cheap access to central London , started the urbanisation of Herne Hill . All of the large estates were eventually cleared to make way for many smaller houses . An 1870 railway travel guide noted the population of Herne Hill was 701 ; the contemporaneous development of new residential streets would increase the population by 3 @,@ 000 .
= = = Construction = = =
A railway line through Herne Hill was proposed in 1852 by the Mid Kent and London and South Western Junction Railways Company . No construction work was undertaken at that time and the company had ceased to exist by 1860 .
In the late 1850s , the East Kent Railway had ambitions to run passenger trains between Kent and London , but it did not own any railway lines in inner London . It reached an agreement with the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway ( LB & SCR ) in 1858 to use its West End and Crystal Palace line to access Battersea and ( from 1860 ) Victoria . This arrangement incurred costly access fees , but it was necessary until the company obtained Parliamentary authority to build in London .
On 6 August 1860 , the Metropolitan Extensions Act granted the London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ; the successor to the East Kent company ) the powers to build three inner London lines : Beckenham Junction to Herne Hill ( 4 miles 21 chains or 6 @.@ 9 kilometres ) ; Herne Hill to Farringdon ( 4 mi 32 chains or 7 @.@ 1 km ) ; and Herne Hill to Battersea to connect with the lines into Victoria ( 2 mi 65 chains or 4 @.@ 5 km ) . The route from Beckenham Junction to Battersea closely resembled that of the 1852 proposal , going via Clapham , Brixton , Herne Hill , Dulwich and Sydenham .
Herne Hill station and the first section to be completed , from Victoria to Herne Hill via Stewarts Lane and Brixton , opened on 25 August 1862 . The station was designed by architect John Taylor and railway engineers Joseph Cubitt and J.T. Turner . The building was intended to impress : it had tea rooms offering buffets , decorative brickwork and a tower ( which also served the practical function of concealing the water tank for steam locomotives ) . The Building News described the station in 1863 as " spacious and convenient ... and of the very best quality " . It also stated that " an unusual amount of decorative taste has been displayed " in the station 's construction ; even the viaduct was praised as " one of the most ornamental pieces of work we have ever seen attempted on a railway " for its fine brickwork . The station 's design prompted the journal to write a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ word editorial bemoaning the comparatively poor architectural quality of other contemporary civil engineering projects . An architectural critic later noted the station was " eulogised " by journals upon its opening and that its architecture was still seen as exemplary at the end of the 19th century .
There were initially two platforms , up and down . The up platform was accessed from the upper floor of the station building via a stairway outside the building . The station 's original signal box , elevated above the railway viaduct at the junction between Norwood Road and Half Moon Lane , was a prominent feature in Herne Hill for many years .
The land for the station was compulsorily purchased from the estate of Thomas Vyse ( died 1861 ) , manufacturer of straw hats and owner of the Abbey , an estate at 70 Herne Hill ; the station and much of the viaduct were built on part of the Abbey 's grounds . A new road ( Station Road ) was built from the junction of Norwood Road and Half Moon Lane , Herne Hill 's main thoroughfare , to the station .
The line from Beckenham Junction reached Herne Hill from the south in July 1863 , connecting the station to the LCDR 's lines in Kent , and finally allowing the LCDR to avoid using the LB & SCR 's tracks to access Victoria from Kent . On 6 October 1863 , the City Branch opened from Herne Hill as far as Elephant & Castle , via Camberwell and Walworth Road ( the platforms at Loughborough Junction , now the closest station to Herne Hill , opened in 1872 ) . By June 1864 , the City Branch had been extended to Blackfriars Bridge railway station ( on the south bank of the River Thames ) via Borough Road . Blackfriars Railway Bridge was then built across the Thames and a terminus for trains from the south opened at Ludgate Hill on 1 June 1865 .
Snow Hill tunnel opened on 1 January 1866 , enabling trains from Herne Hill to reach Farringdon and completing the Metropolitan Extension . Later that year , the LCDR completed work to widen the railway viaduct between Herne Hill and Blackfriars Bridge , which included doubling the number of lines north of Loughborough Junction from two to four . In 1868 , the LB & SCR opened a suburban line from London Bridge to Sutton via Tulse Hill . A 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) extension from Tulse Hill to Herne Hill opened on 1 January 1869 .
= = = Early services = = =
From July 1863 , LCDR trains between Victoria and Kent ran through Herne Hill , and to continental Europe via a connecting steamboat from Dover Harbour to Calais ; these boat trains left Victoria and Ludgate Hill simultaneously and were joined at Herne Hill . Express journeys from Herne Hill to Dover , a distance of 74 mi ( 119 @.@ 1 km ) , took 1 hour 36 minutes , at an average speed of 46 @.@ 25 mph ( 74 @.@ 4 km / h ) . Services to London were split at Herne Hill to give passengers easier access to the City of London and beyond ; the LCDR began operating direct services to King 's Cross and Barnet ( now High Barnet tube station ) from Herne Hill when Snow Hill tunnel opened .
A popular workmen 's train ( one penny per journey ) ran between Ludgate Hill and Victoria via Herne Hill from 1865 . Trains left from both termini at 04 : 55 and returned at 18 : 15 . The LCDR was compelled to operate this service by Parliament to compensate for the large number of working @-@ class homes destroyed in Camberwell during the construction of the City Branch . Regular one @-@ way fares to Ludgate Hill were eightpence , sixpence and fourpence for first , second and third class respectively ( or return for one shilling , ninepence and sevenpence respectively ) , with journey times of 15 minutes on express trains and 26 minutes when calling at all stops .
Both the Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) and the London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) helped fund the Metropolitan Extensions ( £ 320 @,@ 000 and £ 310 @,@ 000 respectively ; £ 27 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 and £ 26 @,@ 260 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) in return for the right to use the LCDR 's tracks . The GNR ran trains between Hatfield and Herne Hill from August 1866 until March 1868 ( when the trains were diverted to Victoria via Loughborough Junction ) ; this was a busy all @-@ stops service , with 15 trains leaving Hatfield and 14 leaving Herne Hill every day . The LSWR began running trains between Ludgate Hill and Wimbledon via Herne Hill when the Tulse Hill extension was completed . Some of these services went as far as Kingston until the mid @-@ 1890s .
= = = Changes from 1870 to 1923 = = =
By 1870 , a track had been added to the east of the station and two sidings had been added to the west ; one of the western sidings was a bay platform for passenger trains , which was accessed from the platform adjoining the upper floor . Interlocking signalling was in use at Herne Hill by 1880 .
The LCDR enlarged the station in 1884 to meet growing demand : the viaduct was widened to allow for the construction of a second island platform and two lines to the east ( the easternmost line was used only for freight ) ; and the foot tunnel under the viaduct was opened . In 1885 , the LCDR decided to use Blackfriars Bridge railway station solely as a goods yard but lacked the space to sort wagons at the site . It purchased 14 acres ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) of land between Herne Hill and Loughborough Junction for this purpose . The Herne Hill Sorting Sidings had some 35 sidings , the longest of which was 940 ft ( 286 @.@ 5 m ) . A stationmaster 's house was built at 239 Railton Road in the mid @-@ 1880s as the site offered a good view of the station ( it is now privately owned ) . In 1888 , Railton Road was extended to the Norwood Road / Half Moon Lane junction and Station Road ceased to exist .
At the beginning of 1899 , the LCDR and the neighbouring South Eastern Railway ( SER ) combined their operations as the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) , jointly owned by the two railways . The SECR ran the trains , but the lines and stations continued to be owned by the LCDR or SER .
In 1900 , it was suggested in The Contemporary Review that the City Branch should be replaced with an electric deep @-@ level railway ( i.e. a ' tube ' line ) between Herne Hill and Farringdon in order to remove Blackfriars Railway Bridge , which the author considered to be a blight on the Thames .
A late @-@ night service from Ludgate Hill ( departing 01 : 15 ) to Beckenham Junction via Herne Hill began in 1910 . The intention was to satisfy journalists on Fleet Street who regularly complained in print about the poor quality of service on the line ; those working on the morning papers often worked beyond midnight and missed the last train .
Services to Farringdon from Herne Hill were discontinued in 1916 with the closure of Snow Hill tunnel to passengers , and trains from the south terminated at Holborn Viaduct . The LCDR amalgamated with the LB & SCR , SER and several other railways to form the Southern Railway at the start of 1923 .
= = = Modernisation = = =
Work began on electrifying the former LCDR suburban routes in 1924 . Herne Hill station was extensively remodelled as part of these works : the eastern island platform was lengthened ; the original island platform was demolished and replaced by one further west , allowing two tracks to be laid between the island platforms ; the western sidings were removed ; and the upper floor was closed to passengers .
On 12 July 1925 , a 660 @-@ volt third @-@ rail system came into operation on both routes through Herne Hill , from Victoria to Orpington on the Chatham Main Line and along the entire length of the City Branch . Electric trains ran every 20 minutes on both routes during the day and were kept overnight at the sorting sidings north of the station .
The distinctive signal box overlooking Norwood Road and a similar signal box at the northern end of the station were demolished in 1956 and replaced by a single signal box adjacent to the north junction . The replacement signal box was in use from June 1956 until December 1981 , when its functions were transferred to Victoria ; the building still exists and is used by railway staff . The signalling at Herne Hill was upgraded from semaphores to colour lights on 8 March 1959 as part of the Kent Coast electrification plan .
By 1959 , the pattern of commuter services at Herne Hill had taken the shape it held into the 21st century : all @-@ stops trains from Victoria to Orpington and from the City of London to Wimbledon and Sutton ( but , unlike the modern Sutton Loop , via West Croydon ) . However , there was a decline in the number of electric trains on the Chatham Main Line through Herne Hill in the years after the war . Immediately after electrification in 1925 , six trains used the route between Herne Hill and Shortlands in each direction during every off @-@ peak hour . By 1960 , it had dropped to two trains in each direction .
The Herne Hill Sorting Sidings closed on 1 August 1966 and the freight line to the east of the station was taken out of service . Nothing of the sidings remains : residential accommodation has been built along Shakespeare Road ( on the western sidings ) and commercial premises have been built along Milkwood Road ( on the eastern sidings ) .
= = = From 1988 = = =
In 1988 , Snow Hill tunnel re @-@ opened and the former LCDR City Branch formed the basis of the new Thameslink route . Network Rail began a major upgrade of the route in 2009 . A key objective of the Thameslink Programme was allowing more trains to travel between central London and Brighton , which was prevented by a bottleneck between London Bridge and Blackfriars on a viaduct through the historic Borough Market . Network Rail initially suggested widening the viaduct and demolishing part of the market , but the public backlash against this plan prompted Network Rail to consider permanently routing all Thameslink trains to / from Brighton via Herne Hill , avoiding London Bridge and the market . This would have required the grade separation of the two lines through Herne Hill , which would have been achieved by constructing a new viaduct immediately to the east of the existing viaduct and using a fly @-@ over to connect the southern end of the new viaduct to the line between Tulse Hill and North Dulwich ( taking the tracks over the Chatham Main Line and towards Tulse Hill ) . This proposal was rejected in 2004 because of its environmental impact on Herne Hill and the larger number of interchanges offered on the London Bridge route ; the Borough Market viaduct was widened instead . From December 2008 to May 2012 , Thameslink trains serving Herne Hill did not run most weekends or after 22 : 30 every week @-@ night because of construction work on the Thameslink route through central London as part of the Thameslink Programme .
During the initial planning in the late 1980s for High Speed 1 , British Rail considered building the line to serve a low @-@ level station at King 's Cross via south London . An option for this route was via Herne Hill , which would have required quadrupling the tracks on the Chatham Main Line between Shortlands and Herne Hill and on the City Branch to Loughborough Junction ; it was estimated that this would have led to the loss of 90 – 180 homes in Lambeth . Although both a different route and London terminus for HS1 were eventually chosen ( St Pancras via East London ) , Eurostar services linking London Waterloo to Brussels and Paris passed through Herne Hill without stopping from 1994 until the completion of HS1 in November 2007 . This marked the end of rail services to the continent via Herne Hill , which had been started by the LCDR in 1863 when the line between Victoria and Dover via Herne Hill was completed .
The upper floor of the station , which had not been used by passengers since 1925 , was converted into 3 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 278 @.@ 7 m2 ) of office space in 1991 and rented as ' Tower House ' ( after the station 's distinctive tower ) . The disused freight line to the east of the station was partly reopened in 2009 as a siding for use by Thameslink trains to compensate for the loss of sidings when the Moorgate Thameslink branch was closed . The line 's connection to the south junction was severed during these works . The station had become fully accessible by 2010 : lifts were installed to provide step @-@ free access to the platforms in 2008 and a unisex disabled @-@ accessible toilet was opened on the southbound platforms in 2010 .
= = = Accidents and disruption = = =
Trains through Herne Hill were affected by World War II . Trains on the City Branch were reduced from September 1939 to once every 30 minutes during the week and hourly at weekends ; and the line was cut twice during the Blitz . On the second occasion , the railway bridge over Hinton Road ( immediately south of Loughborough Junction ) was destroyed . The route between Holborn Viaduct and Herne Hill was disrupted by 62 incidents during the war .
On 6 November 1947 , a steam train approaching from West Dulwich passed a signal at danger in heavy fog and crashed into an electric train crossing the station 's south junction towards Tulse Hill . One passenger on the electric train was killed and nine others were hospitalised .
A minor accident occurred on 30 June 1957 . A light engine travelling towards Tulse Hill was waiting to cross the south junction when it was struck from behind by an express passenger train from Victoria that had passed a signal at danger . The driver of the light engine and two passengers from the express were hospitalised but quickly discharged .
A second fatal collision occurred at the sorting sidings , just north of the station , on 1 April 1960 in fog that reduced visibility to 60 ft ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) . A steam locomotive was waiting on the southbound track outside Herne Hill for a proceed signal when the signalman cleared an electric passenger train behind the steam locomotive to proceed down the same track . The steam locomotive was struck from behind , destroying it and killing the electric train 's driver .
= = Future = =
= = = Services = = =
The route through the station will be busier from December 2014 to 2018 as Thameslink trains serving London Bridge will be diverted via Herne Hill – an additional four trains per hour in both directions . This is due to the redevelopment of London Bridge that will temporarily close it to Bedford @-@ Brighton trains . The additional trains will not call at Herne Hill ; they will run fast between London Blackfriars and East Croydon . It would not be possible for the 12 @-@ car peak trains to call at Herne Hill as the platforms are too short and it would not be viable to use selective door operation as the carriages not on the platforms would foul the junctions .
Network Rail , in its July 2011 London & South East route utilisation strategy , recommended that all services from Herne Hill towards Blackfriars should terminate in the bay platforms at Blackfriars after London Bridge 's redevelopment is completed in 2018 and the diverted Thameslink trains return there . Passengers from Herne Hill would then have had to change at Blackfriars to travel further north . Network Rail made this recommendation because more services will be using the route between St Pancras and London Bridge from 2018 ; sending trains from Herne Hill to the terminating platforms on the western side of Blackfriars ( instead of the through tracks on the eastern side of the station ) would have removed the need for them to cross in front of trains to / from Denmark Hill and trains to / from London Bridge at junctions south of Blackfriars .
In January 2013 , the Department for Transport ( DfT ) announced that trains serving the Sutton Loop Line ( also known as the Wimbledon Loop ) will continue to travel across London after 2018 . The number of trains calling at Herne Hill on the route will remain unchanged , with four trains per hour . The DfT has also decided the Sutton / Wimbledon Loop will remain part of the Thameslink franchise until at least late 2020 ; as such , the route will eventually be served by the new Thameslink trains .
In the longer term , Network Rail has forecast that by 2031 there will be 900 more passengers attempting to travel on the route between Herne Hill and Blackfriars during the busiest peak hour every weekday than can be accommodated on the trains . It is anticipated that eight @-@ car trains with higher capacity ( similar to the Class 378 trains used on inner London metro routes ) will eventually be required to address this shortfall .
= = = Station infrastructure = = =
The route from Victoria to Orpington via Herne Hill is projected to be amongst the most congested and overcrowded in South East London by 2026 . Network Rail is considering grade @-@ separating the two lines passing through Herne Hill so that trains would not cross each other 's paths at the station 's junctions ; this restricts the number of services that can pass through the station . A 2008 route utilisation strategy for South London concluded that this improvement will not be required before 2020 but recommended safeguarding the required land . Grade @-@ separation is supported by Southeastern and First Capital Connect believed it should be given more consideration , but Network Rail has stated that it would be difficult to carry out the work because the station is on a viaduct and surrounded by buildings . The 2011 route utilisation strategy , which examined options for congestion relief at Herne Hill before 2031 , did not suggest grade @-@ separation as an option in the 2011 – 2031 period .
This project would also enable the platforms at Herne Hill to be lengthened to accommodate 12 @-@ car trains as the current northern junction , which prevents them from being extended , would be removed . However , longer trains could not be used on the Sutton / Wimbledon Loop without also rebuilding Tulse Hill and Elephant & Castle .
The congestion within the station itself has been noted by Network Rail and it is keeping the situation under review . Transport for London ( TfL ) has recommended that specific improvement works ( new entrance doors , removal of interior wall , wider stairs to platforms and second station entrance ) be carried out between 2014 and 2019 .
TfL has also suggested there may be potential for the turnback siding adjacent to Milkwood Road to be converted for passenger use . This would require substantial changes to the station as there is no direct access to the platforms from Milkwood Road and the current subway for accessing the platforms does not extend east of the southbound platform .
= = = Incorporation into London Overground = = =
The Mayor of London published a long @-@ term vision for the London Overground in February 2012 . It recommends that all London suburban rail services should eventually be devolved to TfL and that suburban services currently provided by Southeastern be devolved before 2020 to demonstrate the benefits of this approach . Southeastern 's suburban services include the route between Victoria and Orpington via Herne Hill . TfL had announced that it would bid in late 2012 to have more involvement in these services after the expiration of Southeastern 's franchise in early 2014 , but the DfT announced in March 2013 that Southeastern 's franchise was being extended until mid @-@ 2018 .
= = = Victoria line extension = = =
TfL has considered extending the Victoria line to Herne Hill to provide faster turnaround at the southern end of the line . The extension is not a priority for TfL as it has a weaker business case than other infrastructure projects .
= = Service pattern = =
The station is managed by Southeastern train operating company . The off @-@ peak service pattern as of January 2015 in trains per hour ( tph ) is :
2 to Luton via London Blackfriars
2 to St Albans via London Blackfriars
4 to London Victoria via Brixton
4 to Orpington via Beckenham Junction
2 to Sutton via Wimbledon
2 to Sutton via Mitcham Junction
On Sundays , northbound Sutton / Wimbledon Loop trains alternate between terminating at Blackfriars and Luton . Late @-@ night Sutton / Wimbledon Loop services ( 21 : 57 onwards ) run to Bedford from Monday @-@ Saturday and terminate at Blackfriars on Sunday .
= = Connections = =
London Buses routes 3 , 37 , 68 , 196 , 201 , 322 , 468 and 690 and night routes N3 and N68 serve the station .
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= Parthian Empire =
The Parthian Empire ( / ˈpɑːrθiən / ; 247 BC – 224 AD ) , also known as the Arsacid Empire ( / ˈɑːrsəsɪd / ) , was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran and Iraq . Its latter name comes from Arsaces I of Parthia who , as leader of the Parni tribe , founded it in the mid @-@ 3rd century BC when he conquered the region of Parthia in Iran 's northeast , then a satrapy ( province ) in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire . Mithridates I of Parthia ( r. c . 171 – 138 BC ) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids . At its height , the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates , in what is now central @-@ eastern Turkey , to eastern Iran . The empire , located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han Empire of China , became a center of trade and commerce .
The Parthians largely adopted the art , architecture , religious beliefs , and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire , which encompassed Persian , Hellenistic , and regional cultures . For about the first half of its existence , the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture , though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions . The Arsacid rulers were titled the " King of Kings " , as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire ; indeed , they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed , albeit largely autonomous , satraps . The court did appoint a small number of satraps , largely outside Iran , but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates . With the expansion of Arsacid power , the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris ( south of modern Baghdad , Iraq ) , although several other sites also served as capitals .
The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the Seleucids in the west and the Scythians in the east . However , as Parthia expanded westward , they came into conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia , and eventually the late Roman Republic . Rome and Parthia competed with each other to establish the kings of Armenia as their subordinate clients . The Parthians soundly defeated Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC , and in 40 – 39 BC , Parthian forces captured the whole of the Levant except Tyre from the Romans . However , Mark Antony led a counterattack against Parthia , although his successes were generally achieved in his absence , under the leadership of his lieutenant Ventidius . Also , various Roman emperors or their appointed generals invaded Mesopotamia in the course of the several Roman @-@ Parthian Wars which ensued during the next few centuries . The Romans captured the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon on multiple occasions during these conflicts , but were never able to hold on to them .
Frequent civil wars between Parthian contenders to the throne proved more dangerous to the Empire 's stability than foreign invasion , and Parthian power evaporated when Ardashir I , ruler of Estakhr in Fars , revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler , Artabanus V , in 224 AD . Ardashir established the Sassanid Empire , which ruled Iran and much of the Near East until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century AD , although the Arsacid dynasty lived on through the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia , the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia , and the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania ; all eponymous branches of the Parthian Arsacids .
Native Parthian sources , written in Parthian , Greek and other languages , are scarce when compared to Sassanid and even earlier Achaemenid sources . Aside from scattered cuneiform tablets , fragmentary ostraca , rock inscriptions , drachma coins , and the chance survival of some parchment documents , much of Parthian history is only known through external sources . These include mainly Greek and Roman histories , but also Chinese histories , prompted by the market for Chinese goods in Parthia . Parthian artwork is viewed by historians as a valid source for understanding aspects of society and culture that are otherwise absent in textual sources .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and establishment = = =
Before Arsaces I of Parthia founded the Arsacid Dynasty , he was chieftain of the Parni , an ancient Central @-@ Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within the confederation of the Dahae . The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language , in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia . The latter was a northeastern province , first under the Achaemenid , and then the Seleucid empires . After conquering the region , the Parni adopted Parthian as the official court language , speaking it alongside Middle Persian , Aramaic , Greek , Babylonian , Sogdian and other languages in the multilingual territories they would conquer .
Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain . A.D.H. Bivar concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to Andragoras , the appointed satrap who rebelled against them . Hence , Arsaces I " backdated his regnal years " to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased . However , Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe . Homa Katouzian and Gene Ralph Garthwaite claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities , yet Curtis and Maria Brosius state that Andragoras was not overthrown by the Arsacids until 238 BC .
It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I. Bivar and Katouzian affirm that it was his brother Tiridates I of Parthia , who in turn was succeeded by his son Arsaces II of Parthia in 211 BC . Yet Curtis and Brosius state that Arsaces II was the immediate successor of Arsaces I , with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC , and Brosius in 217 BC . Bivar insists that 138 BC , the last regnal year of Mithridates I , is " the first precisely established regnal date of Parthian history . " Due to these and other discrepancies , Bivar outlines two distinct royal chronologies accepted by historians . Later on , some of the Parthian Kings would claim Achaemenid descent . The claim has recently received support from numismatic and other written evidence suggesting that both Achaemenid and Parthian kings suffered from the hereditary disease neurofibromatosis .
For a time , Arsaces consolidated his position in Parthia and Hyrcania by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by Ptolemy III Euergetes ( r . 246 – 222 BC ) of Egypt . This conflict with Ptolemy , the Third Syrian War ( 246 – 241 BC ) , also allowed Diodotus I to rebel and form the Greco @-@ Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia . The latter 's successor , Diodotus II , formed an alliance with Arsaces against the Seleucids , but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of Seleucus II Callinicus ( r . 246 – 225 BC ) . After spending some time in exile among the nomadic Apasiacae tribe , Arsaces led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia . Seleucus II 's successor , Antiochus III the Great ( r . 222 – 187 BC ) , was unable to immediately retaliate because his troops were engaged in putting down the rebellion of Molon in Media .
Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 210 or 209 BC . He was unsuccessful , but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II . The latter was granted the title of king ( Greek : basileus ) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior . The Seleucids were unable to further intervene in Parthian affairs following increasing encroachment by the Roman Republic and the Seleucid defeat at Magnesia in 190 BC . Phriapatius of Parthia ( r. c . 191 – 176 BC ) succeeded Arsaces II , and Phraates I of Parthia ( r. c . 176 – 171 BC ) eventually ascended the throne . Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference .
= = = Expansion and consolidation = = =
Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia 's control past the Gates of Alexander and occupied Apamea Ragiana , the locations of which are unknown . Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor Mithridates I of Parthia ( r. c . 171 – 138 BC ) , whom Katouzian compares to Cyrus the Great ( d . 530 BC ) , founder of the Achaemenid Empire .
Relations between Parthia and Greco @-@ Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II , when Mithridates ' forces captured two eparchies of the latter kingdom , then under Eucratides I ( r. c . 170 – 145 BC ) . Turning his sights on the Seleucid realm , Mithridates invaded Media and occupied Ecbatana in 148 or 147 BC ; the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a rebellion there led by Timarchus . This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia , where Mithridates had coins minted at Seleucia in 141 BC and held an official investiture ceremony . While Mithridates retired to Hyrcania , his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa . By this time , Parthian authority extended as far east as the Indus River .
Whereas Hecatompylos had served as the first Parthian capital , Mithridates established royal residences at Seleucia , Ecbatana , Ctesiphon and his newly founded city , Mithradatkert ( Nisa , Turkmenistan ) , where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and maintained . Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty . Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until the reign of Gotarzes I of Parthia ( r. c . 90 – 80 BC ) . It became the site of the royal coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids , according to Brosius .
The Seleucids were unable to retaliate immediately as general Diodotus Tryphon led a rebellion at the capital Antioch in 142 BC . However , by 140 BC Demetrius II Nicator was able to launch a counter @-@ invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia . Despite early successes , the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania . There Mithridates treated his captive with great hospitality ; he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius .
Antiochus VII Sidetes ( r . 138 – 129 BC ) , a brother of Demetrius , assumed the Seleucid throne and married the latter 's wife Cleopatra Thea . After defeating Diodotus Tryphon , Antiochus initiated a campaign in 130 BC to retake Mesopotamia , now under the rule of Phraates II of Parthia ( r. c . 138 – 128 BC ) . The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the Great Zab , followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed . Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa , where he minted coins . After advancing his army into Media , the Parthians pushed for peace , which Antiochus refused to accept unless the Arsacids relinquished all lands to him except Parthia proper , paid heavy tribute , and released Demetrius from captivity . Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to Syria , but refused the other demands . By Spring 129 BC , the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus , whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter . While attempting to put down the revolts , the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus in battle . His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin ; his son Seleucus was made a Parthian hostage and a daughter joined Phraates ' harem .
While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west , another threat arose in the east . In 177 – 176 BC the nomadic confederation of the Xiongnu dislodged the nomadic Yuezhi from their homelands in what is now Gansu province in Northwest China ; the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the Saka ( Scythian ) tribes . The Saka were forced to move further west , where they invaded the Parthian Empire 's northeastern borders . Mithridates was thus forced to retire to Hyrcania after his conquest of Mesopotamia .
Some of the Saka were enlisted in Phraates ' forces against Antiochus . However , they arrived too late to engage in the conflict . When Phraates refused to pay their wages , the Saka revolted , which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers , yet they too abandoned Phraates and joined sides with the Saka . Phraates II marched against this combined force , but he was killed in battle . The Roman historian Justin reports that his successor Artabanus I of Parthia ( r. c . 128 – 124 BC ) shared a similar fate fighting nomads in the east . He claims Artabanus was killed by the Tokhari ( identified as the Yuezhi ) , although Bivar believes Justin conflated them with the Saka . Mithridates II of Parthia ( r. c . 124 – 90 BC ) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in Sistan .
Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia , the Parthian governor of Babylonia , Himerus , was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer Characene , then ruled by Hyspaosines from Charax Spasinu . When this failed , Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BC and occupied Seleucia . Yet by 122 BC , Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made the kings of Characene vassals under Parthian suzerainty . After Mithridates extended Parthian control further west , occupying Dura @-@ Europos in 113 BC , he became embroiled in a conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia . His forces defeated and deposed Artavasdes I of Armenia in 97 BC , taking his son Tigranes hostage , who would later become Tigranes II " the Great " of Armenia ( r. c . 95 – 55 BC ) .
The Indo @-@ Parthian Kingdom , located in modern @-@ day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC . Bivar claims that these two states considered each other political equals . After the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited the court of Vardanes I of Parthia ( r. c . 40 – 47 AD ) in 42 AD , Vardanes provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo @-@ Parthia . When Apollonius reached Indo @-@ Parthia 's capital Taxila , his caravan leader read Vardanes ' official letter , perhaps written in Parthian , to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality .
Following the diplomatic venture of Zhang Qian into Central Asia during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) , the Han Empire of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II 's court in 121 BC . The Han embassy opened official trade relations with Parthia via the Silk Road yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu . The Parthian Empire was enriched by taxing the Eurasian caravan trade in silk , the most highly priced luxury good imported by the Romans . Pearls were also a highly valued import from China , while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices , perfumes , and fruits . Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts ; in 87 AD Pacorus II of Parthia sent lions and Persian gazelles to Emperor Zhang of Han ( r . 75 – 88 AD ) . Besides silk , Parthian goods purchased by Roman merchants included iron from India , spices , and fine leather . Caravans traveling through the Parthian Empire brought West Asian and sometimes Roman luxury glasswares to China .
= = = Rome and Armenia = = =
The Yuezhi Kushan Empire in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia 's eastern border . Thus , from the mid @-@ 1st century BC onwards , the Arsacid court focused on securing the western border , primarily against Rome . A year following Mithridates II 's subjugation of Armenia , Lucius Cornelius Sulla , the Roman proconsul of Cilicia , convened with the Parthian diplomat Orobazus at the Euphrates river . The two agreed that the river would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome , although several historians have argued that Sulla only had authority to communicate these terms back to Rome .
Despite this agreement , in 93 or 92 BC Parthia fought a war in Syria against the tribal leader Laodice and her Seleucid ally Antiochus X Eusebes ( r . 95 – 92 ? BC ) , killing the latter . When one of the last Seleucid monarchs , Demetrius III Eucaerus , attempted to besiege Beroea ( modern Aleppo ) , Parthia sent military aid to the inhabitants and Demetrius was defeated .
Following the rule of Mithridates II , Gotarzes I ruled Babylonia , while Orodes I ( r. c . 90 – 80 BC ) ruled Parthia separately . This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia , allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia . This land would not be restored to Parthia until the reign of Sanatruces of Parthia ( r. c . 78 – 71 BC ) . Following the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War , Mithridates VI of Pontus ( r . 119 – 63 BC ) , an ally of Tigranes II of Armenia , requested aid from Parthia against Rome , but Sanatruces refused help . When the Roman commander Lucullus marched against the Armenian capital Tigranocerta in 69 BC , Mithridates VI and Tigranes II requested the aid of Phraates III of Parthia ( r. c . 71 – 58 ) . Phraates did not send aid either , and after the fall of Tigranocerta he reaffirmed with Lucullus the Euphrates as the boundary between Parthia and Rome .
Tigranes the Younger , son of Tigranes II of Armenia , failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father . He fled to Phraates III and convinced him to march against Armenia 's new capital at Artaxarta . When this siege failed , Tigranes the Younger once again fled , this time to the Roman commander Pompey . He promised Pompey that he would act as a guide through Armenia , but , when Tigranes II submitted to Rome as a client king , Tigranes the Younger was brought to Rome as a hostage . Phraates demanded Pompey return Tigranes the Younger to him , but Pompey refused . In retaliation , Phraates launched an invasion into Corduene ( southeastern Turkey ) where , according to two conflicting Roman accounts , the Roman consul Lucius Afranius forced the Parthians out by either military or diplomatic means .
Phraates III was assassinated by his sons Orodes II of Parthia and Mithridates III of Parthia , after which Orodes turned on Mithridates , forcing him to flee from Media to Roman Syria . Aulus Gabinius , the Roman proconsul of Syria , marched in support of Mithridates to the Euphrates , but had to turn back to aid Ptolemy XII Auletes ( r . 80 – 58 ; 55 – 51 BC ) against a rebellion in Egypt . Despite losing his Roman support , Mithridates managed to conquer Babylonia , and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BC . In that year , Orodes ' general , known only as Surena after his noble family 's clan name , recaptured Seleucia , and Mithridates was executed .
Marcus Licinius Crassus , one of the triumvirs who was now proconsul of Syria , launched an invasion into Parthia in 53 BC in belated support of Mithridates . As his army marched to Carrhae ( modern Harran , southeastern Turkey ) , Orodes II invaded Armenia , cutting off support from Rome 's ally Artavasdes II of Armenia ( r . 53 – 34 BC ) . Orodes persuaded Artavasdes to a marriage alliance between the crown prince Pacorus I of Parthia ( d . 38 BC ) and Artavasdes ' sister .
Surena , with an army entirely on horseback , rode to meet Crassus . Surena 's 1 @,@ 000 cataphracts , armed with lances , and 9 @,@ 000 horse archers were outnumbered roughly four to one by Crassus ' army , comprising seven Roman legions and auxiliaries including mounted Gauls and light infantry . Despite outnumbering Surena 's forces , Crassus had just taken his men on a long march and was unfamiliar with the desert terrain and conditions he faced . Arranging his infantry in a large square formation , Crassus deployed his cavalry against Parthian forces . The Roman cavalry did not hold a candle to Surena 's forces , and Crassus 's infantry soon found themselves trying to withstand the iron rain of Parthian missiles . Hoping to withstand the siege , the Roman 's hunkered down , but Surena used a baggage train of about 1 @,@ 000 camels , the Parthian horse archers were given constant supplies of arrows . They employed the " Parthian shot " tactic , where the horsemen would fake a retreat , only to turn and fire upon their opponents . This tactic , combined with the use of heavy composite bows on flat plain devastated Crassus ' infantry . With some 20 @,@ 000 Romans dead , approximately 10 @,@ 000 captured , and roughly another 10 @,@ 000 escaping west , Crassus fled into the Armenian countryside . At the head of his army , Surena approached Crassus , offering a parley , which Crassus accepted . However , he was killed when one of his junior officers , suspecting a trap , attempted to stop him from riding into Surena 's camp .
Crassus ' defeat at Carrhae was one of the worst military defeats of Roman history . Parthia 's victory cemented its reputation as a formidable if not equal power with Rome . With his camp followers , war captives , and precious Roman booty , Surena traveled some 700 km ( 430 mi ) back to Seleucia where his victory was celebrated . However , fearing his ambitions even for the Arsacid throne , Orodes had Surena executed shortly thereafter .
Emboldened by the victory over Crassus , the Parthians attempted to capture Roman @-@ held territories in Western Asia . Crown prince Pacorus I and his commander Osaces raided Syria as far as Antioch in 51 BC , but were repulsed by Gaius Cassius Longinus , who ambushed and killed Osaces . The Arsacids sided with Pompey in his civil war against Julius Caesar and even sent troops to support the anti @-@ Caesarian forces at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC . Quintus Labienus , a general loyal to Cassius and Brutus , sided with Parthia against the Second Triumvirate in 40 BC ; the following year he invaded Syria alongside Pacorus I. The triumvir Mark Antony was unable to lead the Roman defense against Parthia due to his departure to Italy , where he amassed his forces to confront his rival Octavian and eventually conducted negotiations with him at Brundisium . After Syria was occupied by Pacorus ' army , Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade Anatolia while Pacorus and his commander Barzapharnes invaded the Roman Levant . They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais ( modern Acre , Israel ) , with the lone exception of Tyre . In Judea , the pro @-@ Roman Jewish forces of high priest Hyrcanus II , Phasael , and Herod were defeated by the Parthians and their Jewish ally Antigonus II Mattathias ( r . 40 – 37 BC ) ; the latter was made king of Judea while Herod fled to his fort at Masada .
Despite these successes , the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive . Publius Ventidius Bassus , an officer under Mark Antony , defeated and then executed Labienus at the Battle of the Cilician Gates ( in modern Mersin Province , Turkey ) in 39 BC . Shortly afterward , a Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the Battle of Amanus Pass . As a result , Pacorus I temporarily withdrew from Syria . When he returned in the spring of 38 BC , he faced Ventidius at the Battle of Mount Gindarus , northeast of Antioch . Pacorus was killed during the battle , and his forces retreated across the Euphrates . His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II chose Phraates IV of Parthia ( r. c . 38 – 2 BC ) as his new heir .
Upon assuming the throne , Phraates IV eliminated rival claimants by killing and exiling his own brothers . One of them , Monaeses , fled to Antony and convinced him to invade Parthia . Antony defeated Parthia 's Judaean ally Antigonus in 37 BC , installing Herod as a client king in his place . The following year , when Antony marched to Erzurum , Artavasdes II of Armenia once again switched alliances by sending Antony additional troops . Antony invaded Media Atropatene ( modern Iranian Azerbaijan ) , then ruled by Parthia 's ally Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene , with the intention of seizing the capital Praaspa , the location of which is now unknown . However , Phraates IV ambushed Antony 's rear detachment , destroying a giant battering ram meant for the siege of Praaspa ; after this , Artavasdes abandoned Antony 's forces . The Parthians pursued and harassed Antony 's army as they fled to Armenia . Eventually , the greatly weakened force reached Syria . After this , Antony lured Artavasdes II into a trap with the promise of a marriage alliance . He was taken captive in 34 BC , sent back to Rome , and executed . Antony attempted to strike an alliance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene , whose relations with Phraates IV had recently soured . This was abandoned when Antony and his forces withdrew from Armenia in 33 BC ; they escaped a Parthian invasion while Antony 's rival Octavian attacked his forces to the west . Following Antony 's suicide in Egypt , the Parthian ally Artaxias II reassumed the throne of Armenia .
= = = Peace with Rome , court intrigue and contact with Chinese generals = = =
Following the defeat of Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC , Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named Augustus by the Roman Senate , becoming the first Roman emperor . Around this time , Tiridates II of Parthia briefly overthrew Phraates IV , who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads . Tiridates fled to the Romans , taking one of Phraates ' sons with him . In negotiations conducted in 20 BC , Phraates arranged for the release of his kidnapped son . In return , the Romans received the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC , as well as any surviving prisoners of war . The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince . Augustus hailed the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia ; this propaganda was celebrated in the minting of new coins , the building of a new temple to house the standards , and even in fine art such as the breastplate scene on his statue Augustus of Prima Porta .
Along with the prince , Augustus also gave Phraates IV an Italian slave @-@ girl , who later became Queen Musa of Parthia . To ensure that her child Phraataces would inherit the throne without incident , Musa convinced Phraates IV to give his other sons to Augustus as hostages . Again , Augustus used this as propaganda depicting the submission of Parthia to Rome , listing it as a great accomplishment in his Res Gestae Divi Augusti . When Phraataces took the throne as Phraates V of Parthia ( r. c . 2 BC – 4 AD ) , Musa married her own son and ruled alongside him . The Parthian nobility , disapproving of both the incestuous relationship and the notion of a king with non @-@ Arsacid blood , forced the pair into exile in Roman territory . Phraates ' successor Orodes III of Parthia lasted just two years on the throne , and was followed by Vonones I of Parthia , who had adopted many Roman mannerisms during time in Rome . The Parthian nobility , angered by Vonones ' sympathies for the Romans , backed a rival claimant , Artabanus III of Parthia ( r. c . 10 – 38 AD ) , who eventually defeated Vonones and drove him into exile in Roman Syria .
During the reign of Artabanus III , two Jewish commoners and brothers , Anilai and Asinai from Nehardea ( near modern Fallujah , Iraq ) , led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia . After defeating the latter , the two were granted the right to govern the region by Artabanus III , who feared further rebellion elsewhere . Anilai 's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a gentile . Following this , Anilai became embroiled in an armed conflict with a son @-@ in @-@ law of Artabanus , who eventually defeated him . With the Jewish regime removed , the native Babylonians began to harass the local Jewish community , forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia . When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35 – 36 AD , the Jews were expelled again , this time by the local Greeks and Aramaeans . The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon , Nehardea , and Nisibis .
Although at peace with Parthia , Rome still interfered in its affairs . The Roman emperor Tiberius ( r . 14 – 37 AD ) became involved in a plot by Pharasmanes I of Iberia to place his brother Mithridates on the throne of Armenia by assassinating the Parthian ally King Arsaces of Armenia . Artabanus III tried and failed to restore Parthian control of Armenia , prompting an aristocratic revolt that forced him to flee to Scythia . The Romans released a hostage prince , Tiridates III of Parthia , to rule the region as an ally of Rome . Shortly before his death , Artabanus managed to force Tiridates from the throne using troops from Hyrcania . After Artabanus ' death in 38 AD , a long civil war ensued between the rightful successor Vardanes I of Parthia and his brother Gotarzes II of Parthia . After Vardanes was assassinated during a hunting expedition , the Parthian nobility appealed to Roman emperor Claudius ( r . 41 – 54 AD ) in 49 AD to release the hostage prince Meherdates to challenge Gotarzes . This backfired when Meherdates was betrayed by the governor of Edessa and Izates bar Monobaz of Adiabene ; he was captured and sent to Gotarzes , where he was allowed to live after having his ears mutilated , an act that disqualified him from inheriting the throne .
In 97 AD , the Chinese general Ban Chao , the Protector @-@ General of the Western Regions , sent his emissary Gan Ying on a diplomatic mission to reach the Roman Empire . Gan visited the court of Pacorus II of Parthia at Hecatompylos before departing towards Rome . He traveled as far west as the Persian Gulf , where Parthian authorities convinced him that an arduous sea voyage around the Arabian Peninsula was the only means to reach Rome . Discouraged by this , Gan Ying returned to the Han court and provided Emperor He of Han ( r . 88 – 105 AD ) with a detailed report on the Roman Empire based on oral accounts of his Parthian hosts . William Watson speculates that the Parthians would have been relieved at the failed efforts by the Han Empire to open diplomatic relations with Rome , especially after Ban Chao 's military victories against the Xiongnu in eastern Central Asia . However , Chinese records maintain that a Roman embassy , perhaps only a group of Roman merchants , arrived at the Han capital Luoyang in 166 AD , during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius ( r . 161 – 180 AD ) and Emperor Huan of Han ( r . 146 – 168 AD ) .
= = = Continuation of Roman hostilities and Parthian decline = = =
After the Iberian king Pharasmanes I had his son Rhadamistus ( r . 51 – 55 AD ) invade Armenia to depose the Roman client king Mithridates , Vologeses I of Parthia ( r. c . 51 – 77 AD ) planned to invade and place his brother , the later Tiridates I of Armenia , on the throne . Rhadamistus was eventually driven from power , and , beginning with the reign of Tiridates , Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia — with brief interruptions — through the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia . Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire , the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings . However , not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians , it as well continued through the Georgian kings with the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia , and for many centuries afterwards in Caucasian Albania through the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania .
When Vardanes II of Parthia rebelled against his father Vologeses I in 55 AD , Vologeses withdrew his forces from Armenia . Rome quickly attempted to fill the political vacuum left behind . In the Roman – Parthian War of 58 – 63 AD , the commander Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo achieved some military successes against the Parthians while installing Tigranes VI of Armenia as a Roman client . However , Corbulo 's successor Lucius Caesennius Paetus was soundly defeated by Parthian forces and fled Armenia . Following a peace treaty , Tiridates I traveled to Naples and Rome in 63 AD . At both sites the Roman emperor Nero ( r . 54 – 68 AD ) ceremoniously crowned him king of Armenia by placing the royal diadem on his head .
A long period of peace between Parthia and Rome ensued , with only the invasion of Alans into Parthia 's eastern territories around 72 AD mentioned by Roman historians . Whereas Augustus and Nero had chosen a cautious military policy when confronting Parthia , later Roman emperors invaded and attempted to conquer the eastern Fertile Crescent , the heart of the Parthian Empire along the Tigris and Euphrates . The heightened aggression can be explained in part by Rome 's military reforms . To match Parthia 's strength in missile troops and mounted warriors , the Romans at first used foreign allies ( especially Nabataeans ) , but later established a permanent auxilia force to complement their heavy legionary infantry . The Romans eventually maintained regiments of horse archers ( sagittarii ) and even mail @-@ armored cataphracts in their eastern provinces . Yet the Romans had no discernible grand strategy in dealing with Parthia and gained very little territory from these invasions . The primary motivations for war were the advancement of the personal glory and political position of the emperor , as well as defending Roman honor against perceived slights such as Parthian interference in the affairs of Rome 's client states .
Hostilities between Rome and Parthia were renewed when Osroes I of Parthia ( r. c . 109 – 128 AD ) deposed the Armenian king Tiridates and replaced him with Axidares , son of Pacorus II , without consulting Rome . The Roman emperor Trajan ( r . 98 – 117 AD ) had the next Parthian nominee for the throne , Parthamasiris , killed in 114 AD , instead making Armenia a Roman province . His forces , led by Lusius Quietus , also captured Nisibis ; its occupation was essential to securing all the major routes across the northern Mesopotamian plain . The following year , Trajan invaded Mesopotamia and met little resistance from only Meharaspes of Adiabene , since Osroes was engaged in a civil war to the east with Vologases III of Parthia . Trajan spent the winter of 115 – 116 at Antioch , but resumed his campaign in the spring . Marching down the Euphrates , he captured Dura @-@ Europos , the capital Ctesiphon and Seleucia , and even subjugated Characene , where he watched ships depart to India from the Persian Gulf .
In the last months of 116 AD , Trajan captured the Persian city of Susa . When Sanatruces II of Parthia gathered forces in eastern Parthia to challenge the Romans , his cousin Parthamaspates of Parthia betrayed and killed him : Trajan crowned him the new king of Parthia . Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east .
On Trajan 's return north , the Babylonian settlements revolted against the Roman garrisons . Trajan was forced to retreat from Mesopotamia in 117 AD , overseeing a failed siege of Hatra during his withdrawal . His retreat was — in his intentions — temporary , because he wanted to renew the attack on Parthia in 118 AD and " make the subjection of the Parthians a reality , " but Trajan died suddenly in August 117 AD .
During his campaign , Trajan was granted the title Parthicus by the Senate and coins were minted proclaiming the conquest of Parthia . However , only the 4th @-@ century AD historians Eutropius and Festus allege that he attempted to establish a Roman province in lower Mesopotamia .
Trajan 's successor Hadrian ( r . 117 – 138 AD ) reaffirmed the Roman @-@ Parthian border at the Euphrates , choosing not to invade Mesopotamia due to Rome 's now limited military resources . Parthamaspates fled after the Parthians revolted against him , yet the Romans made him king of Osroene . Osroes I died during his conflict with Vologases III , the latter succeeded by Vologases IV of Parthia ( r. c . 147 – 191 AD ) who ushered in a period of peace and stability . However , the Roman – Parthian War of 161 – 166 AD began when Vologases invaded Armenia and Syria , retaking Edessa . Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r . 161 – 180 AD ) had co @-@ ruler Lucius Verus ( r . 161 – 169 AD ) guard Syria while Marcus Statius Priscus invaded Armenia in 163 AD , followed by the invasion of Mesopotamia by Avidius Cassius in 164 AD .
The Romans captured and burnt Seleucia and Ctesiphon to the ground , yet they were forced to retreat once the Roman soldiers contracted a deadly disease ( possibly smallpox ) that soon ravaged the Roman world . Although they withdrew , from this point forward the city of Dura @-@ Europos remained in Roman hands .
When Roman emperor Septimius Severus ( r . 193 – 211 AD ) invaded Mesopotamia in 197 AD during the reign of Vologases V of Parthia ( r. c . 191 – 208 AD ) , the Romans once again marched down the Euphrates and captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon . After assuming the title Parthicus Maximus , he retreated in late 198 AD , failing as Trajan once did to capture Hatra during a siege .
Around 212 AD , soon after Vologases VI of Parthia ( r. c . 208 – 222 AD ) took the throne , his brother Artabanus V of Parthia ( d . 224 AD ) rebelled against him and gained control over a greater part of the empire . Meanwhile , the Roman emperor Caracalla ( r . 211 – 217 AD ) deposed the kings of Osroene and Armenia to make them Roman provinces once more . He marched into Mesopotamia under the pretext of marrying one of Artabanus ' daughters , but — because the marriage was not allowed — made war on Parthia and conquered Arbil east of the Tigris river .
Caracalla was assassinated the next year on the road to Carrhae by his soldiers . After this debacle , the Parthians made a settlement with Macrinus ( r . 217 – 218 ) where the Romans paid Parthia over two @-@ hundred million denarii with additional gifts .
But the Parthian Empire , weakened by internal strife and wars with Rome , was soon to be followed by the Sassanid Empire . Indeed , shortly afterward , Ardashir I , the local Iranian ruler of Persis ( modern Fars Province , Iran ) from Estakhr began subjugating the surrounding territories in defiance of Arsacid rule . He confronted Artabanus V at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 AD , perhaps at a site near Isfahan , defeating him and establishing the Sassanid Empire . There is evidence , however , that suggests Vologases VI continued to mint coins at Seleucia as late as 228 AD .
The Sasanians would not only assume Parthia 's legacy as Rome 's Persian nemesis , but they would also attempt to restore the boundaries of the Achaemenid Empire by briefly conquering the Levant , Anatolia , and Egypt from the Eastern Roman Empire during the reign of Khosrau II ( r . 590 – 628 AD ) . However , they would lose these territories to Heraclius — the last Roman emperor before the Arab conquests . Nevertheless , for a period of more than 400 years , they succeeded the Parthian realm as Rome 's principal rival .
= = = Native and external sources = = =
Local and foreign written accounts , as well as non @-@ textual artifacts have been used to reconstruct Parthian history . Although the Parthian court maintained records , the Parthians had no formal study of history ; the earliest universal history of Iran , the Khwaday @-@ Namag , was not compiled until the reign of the last Sassanid ruler Yazdegerd III ( r . 632 – 651 AD ) . Indigenous sources on Parthian history remain scarce , with fewer of them available than for any other period of Iranian history . Most contemporary written records on Parthia contain Greek as well as Parthian and Aramaic inscriptions . The Parthian language was written in a distinct script derived from the Imperial Aramaic chancellery script of the Achaemenids , and later developed into the Pahlavi writing system .
The most valuable indigenous sources for reconstructing an accurate chronology of Arsacid rulers are the metal drachma coins issued by each ruler . These represent a " transition from non @-@ textual to textual remains , " according to historian Geo Widengren . Other Parthian sources used for reconstructing chronology include cuneiform astronomical tablets and colophons discovered in Babylonia . Indigenous textual sources also include stone inscriptions , parchment and papyri documents , and pottery ostraca . For example , at the early Parthian capital of Mithradatkert / Nisa in Turkmenistan , large caches of pottery ostraca have been found yielding information on the sale and storage of items like wine . Along with parchment documents found at sites like Dura @-@ Europos , these also provide valuable information on Parthian governmental administration , covering issues such as taxation , military titles , and provincial organization .
The Greek and Latin histories , which represent the majority of materials covering Parthian history , are not considered entirely reliable since they were written from the perspective of rivals and wartime enemies . These external sources generally concern major military and political events , and often ignore social and cultural aspects of Parthian history . The Romans usually depicted the Parthians as fierce warriors but also as a culturally refined people ; recipes for Parthian dishes in the cookbook Apicius exemplifies their admiration for Parthian cuisine . Apollodorus of Artemita and Arrian wrote histories focusing on Parthia , which are now lost and survive only as quoted extracts in other histories . Isidore of Charax , who lived during the reign of Augustus , provides an account of Parthian territories , perhaps from a Parthian government survey . To a lesser extent , people and events of Parthian history were also included in the histories of Justin , Strabo , Diodorus Siculus , Plutarch , Cassius Dio , Appian , Josephus , Pliny the Elder , and Herodian .
Parthian history can also be reconstructed via the Chinese historical records of events . In contrast to Greek and Roman histories , the early Chinese histories maintained a more neutral view when describing Parthia , although the habit of Chinese chroniclers to copy material for their accounts from older works ( of undetermined origin ) makes it difficult to establish a chronological order of events . The Chinese called Parthia Ānxī ( Chinese : 安息 ) , perhaps after the Greek name for the Parthian city Antiochia in Margiana ( Greek : Αντιόχεια της Μαργιανήs ) . However , this could also have been a transliteration of " Arsaces " , after the dynasty 's eponymous founder . The works and historical authors include the Shiji ( also known as the Records of the Grand Historian ) by Sima Qian , the Han shu ( Book of Han ) by Ban Biao , Ban Gu , and Ban Zhao , and the Hou Han shu ( Book of Later Han ) by Fan Ye . They provide information on the nomadic migrations leading up to the early Saka invasion of Parthia and valuable political and geographical information . For example , the Shiji ( ch . 123 ) describes diplomatic exchanges , exotic gifts given by Mithridates II to the Han court , types of agricultural crops grown in Parthia , production of wine using grapes , itinerant merchants , and the size and location of Parthian territory . The Shiji also mentions that the Parthians kept records by " writing horizontally on strips of leather , " that is , parchment .
= = Government and administration = =
= = = Central authority and semi @-@ autonomous kings = = =
Compared with the earlier Achaemenid Empire , the Parthian government was notably decentralized . An indigenous historical source reveals that territories overseen by the central government were organized in a similar manner to the Seleucid Empire . They both had a threefold division for their provincial hierarchies : the Parthian marzbān , xšatrap , and dizpat , similar to the Seleucid satrapy , eparchy , and hyparchy . The Parthian Empire also contained several subordinate semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms , including the states of Caucasian Iberia , Armenia , Atropatene , Gordyene , Adiabene , Edessa , Hatra , Mesene , Elymais , and Persis . The state rulers governed their own territories and minted their own coinage distinct from the royal coinage produced at the imperial mints . This was not unlike the earlier Achaemenid Empire , which also had some city @-@ states , and even distant satrapies who were semi @-@ independent but " recognised the supremacy of the king , paid tribute and provided military support " , according to Brosius . However , the satraps of Parthian times governed smaller territories , and perhaps had less prestige and influence than their Achaemenid predecessors . During the Seleucid period , the trend of local ruling dynasties with semi @-@ autonomous rule , and sometimes outright rebellious rule , became commonplace , a fact reflected in the later Parthian style of governance .
= = = Nobility = = =
The King of Kings headed the Parthian government . He maintained polygamous relations , and was usually succeeded by his first @-@ born son . Like the Ptolemies of Egypt , there is also record of Arsacid kings marrying their nieces and perhaps even half @-@ sisters ; Queen Musa married her own son , though this was an extreme and isolated case . Brosius provides an extract from a letter written in Greek by King Artabanus II in 21 AD , which addresses the governor ( titled " archon " ) and citizens of the city of Susa . Specific government offices of Preferred Friend , Bodyguard and Treasurer are mentioned and the document also proves that " while there were local jurisdictions and proceedings to appointment to high office , the king could intervene on behalf of an individual , review a case and amend the local ruling if he considered it appropriate . "
The hereditary titles of the hierarchic nobility recorded during the reign of the first Sassanid monarch Ardashir I most likely reflect the titles already in use during the Parthian era . There were three distinct tiers of nobility , the highest being the regional kings directly below the King of Kings , the second being those related to the King of Kings only through marriage , and the lowest order being heads of local clans and small territories .
By the 1st century AD , the Parthian nobility had assumed great power and influence in the succession and deposition of Arsacid kings . Some of the nobility functioned as court advisers to the king , as well as holy priests . Of the great noble Parthian families listed at the beginning of the Sasanian period , only two are explicitly mentioned in earlier Parthian documents : the House of Suren and the House of Karen . The historian Plutarch noted that members of the Suren family , the first among the nobility , were given the privilege of crowning each new Arsacid King of Kings during their coronations . Later on , some of the Parthian kings would claim Achaemenid descent . This has recently been corroborated via the possibility of an inherited disease ( neurofibromatosis ) demonstrated by the physical descriptions of rulers and from evidence of familial disease on ancient coinage .
= = = Military = = =
The Parthians , like their neighbors to the north on the steppes ( the Scythians ) , were able to succeed in battle often due to their use of horse archers . Capable of shooting in virtually any direction while riding at speed , these archers could inflict heavy damage while maintaining a position of relative safety themselves . Even when fleeing , the archers could turn and fire backward at their enemies , a practice from which the term " Parthian Shot " emerged . The term has come to be used for sharp words dealt while taking leave ; one can easily see that the negative connotations of this phrase suggest a Roman origin , as they would have been the ones getting hit by those shots .
The Parthian Empire had no standing army , yet were able to quickly recruit troops in the event of local crises . There was a permanent armed guard attached to the person of the king , comprising nobles , serfs and mercenaries , but this royal retinue was small . Garrisons were also permanently maintained at border forts ; Parthian inscriptions reveal some of the military titles granted to the commanders of these locations . Military forces could also be used in diplomatic gestures . For example , when Chinese envoys visited Parthia in the late 2nd century BC , the Shiji maintains that 20 @,@ 000 horsemen were sent to the eastern borders to serve as escorts for the embassy , although this figure is perhaps an exaggeration .
The main striking force of the Parthian army was its cataphracts , heavy cavalry with man and horse decked in mailed armor . The cataphracts were equipped with a lance for charging into enemy lines , but were not equipped with bows and arrows which were restricted to horse archers . Due to the cost of their equipment and armor , cataphracts were recruited from among the aristocratic class who , in return for their services , demanded a measure of autonomy at the local level from the Arsacid kings . The light cavalry was recruited from among the commoner class and acted as horse archers ; they wore a simple tunic and trousers into battle . They used composite bows and were able to shoot at enemies while riding and facing away from them ; this technique , known as the Parthian shot , was a highly effective tactic . The heavy and light cavalry of Parthia proved to be a decisive factor in the Battle of Carrhae where a Parthian force defeated a much larger Roman army under Crassus . Light infantry units , composed of levied commoners and mercenaries , were used to disperse enemy troops after cavalry charges .
The size of the Parthian army is unknown , as is the size of the empire 's overall population . However , archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower . Dense population centers in regions like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans , whose armies could afford to live off the land .
= = = Currency = = =
Usually made of silver , the Greek drachma coin , including the tetradrachm , was the standard currency used throughout the Parthian Empire . The Arsacids maintained royal mints at the cities of Hecatompylos , Seleucia , and Ecbatana . They most likely operated a mint at Mithridatkert / Nisa as well . From the empire 's inception until its collapse , drachmas produced throughout the Parthian period rarely weighed less than 3 @.@ 5 g or more than 4 @.@ 2 g . The first Parthian tetradrachms , weighing in principle around 16 g with some variation , appear after Mithridates I conquered Mesopotamia and were minted exclusively at Seleucia .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Hellenism and the Iranian revival = = =
Although Greek culture of the Seleucids was widely adopted by peoples of the Near East during the Hellenistic period , the Parthian era witnessed an Iranian cultural revival in religion , the arts , and even clothing fashions . Conscious of both the Hellenistic and Persian cultural roots of their kingship , the Arsacid rulers styled themselves after the Persian King of Kings and affirmed that they were also philhellenes ( " friends of the Greeks " ) . The word " philhellene " was inscribed on Parthian coins until the reign of Artabanus II . The discontinuation of this phrase signified the revival of Iranian culture in Parthia . Vologases I was the first Arsacid ruler to have the Parthian script and language appear on his minted coins alongside the now almost illegible Greek . However , the use of Greek @-@ alphabet legends on Parthian coins remained until the collapse of the empire .
Greek cultural influence did not disappear from the Parthian Empire , however , and there is evidence that the Arsacids enjoyed Greek theatre . When the head of Crassus was brought to Orodes II , he , alongside Armenian king Artavasdes II , were busy watching a performance of The Bacchae by the playwright Euripides ( c . 480 – 406 BC ) . The producer of the play decided to use Crassus ' actual severed head in place of the stage @-@ prop head of Pentheus .
On his coins , Arsaces I is depicted in apparel similar to Achaemenid satraps . According to A. Shahbazi , Arsaces " deliberately diverges from Seleucid coins to emphasize his nationalistic and royal aspirations , and he calls himself Kārny / Karny ( Greek : Autocratos ) , a title already borne by Achaemenid supreme generals , such as Cyrus the Younger . " In line with Achaemenid traditions , rock @-@ relief images of Arsacid rulers were carved at Mount Behistun , where Darius I of Persia ( r . 522 – 486 BC ) made royal inscriptions . Moreover , the Arsacids claimed familial descent from Artaxerxes II of Persia ( r . 404 – 358 BC ) as a means to bolster their legitimacy in ruling over former Achaemenid territories , i.e. as being " legitimate successors of glorious kings " of ancient Iran . Artabanus III named one of his sons Darius and laid claim to Cyrus ' heritage . The Arsacid kings chose typical Zoroastrian names for themselves and some from the " heroic background " of the Avesta , according to V.G. Lukonin . The Parthians also adopted the use of the Babylonian calendar with names from the Achaemenid Iranian calendar , replacing the Macedonian calendar of the Seleucids .
= = = Religion = = =
The Parthian Empire , being culturally and politically heterogeneous , had a variety of religious systems and beliefs , the most widespread being those dedicated to Greek and Iranian cults . Aside from a minority of Jews and early Christians , most Parthians were polytheistic . Greek and Iranian deities were often blended together as one . For example , Zeus was often equated with Ahura Mazda , Hades with Angra Mainyu , Aphrodite and Hera with Anahita , Apollo with Mithra , and Hermes with Shamash . Aside from the main gods and goddesses , each ethnic group and city had their own designated deities . As with Seleucid rulers , Parthian art indicates that the Arsacid kings viewed themselves as gods ; this cult of the ruler was perhaps the most widespread .
The extent of Arsacid patronism of Zoroastrianism is debated in modern scholarship . The followers of Zoroaster would have found the bloody sacrifices of some Parthian @-@ era Iranian cults to be unacceptable . However , there is evidence that Vologeses I encouraged the presence of Zoroastrian magi priests at court and sponsored the compilation of sacred Zoroastrian texts which later formed the Avesta . The Sassanid court would later adopt Zoroastrianism as the official state religion of the empire .
Although Mani ( 216 – 276 AD ) , the founding prophet of Manichaeism , did not proclaim his first religious revelation until 228 / 229 AD , Bivar asserts that his new faith contained " elements of Mandaean belief , Iranian cosmogony , and even echoes of Christianity ... [ it ] may be regarded as a typical reflection of the mixed religious doctrines of the late Arsacid period , which the Zoroastrian orthodoxy of the Sasanians was soon to sweep away . "
There is scant archaeological evidence for the spread of Buddhism from the Kushan Empire into Iran proper . However , it is known from Chinese sources that An Shigao ( fl . 2nd century AD ) , a Parthian nobleman and Buddhist monk , traveled to Luoyang in Han China as a Buddhist missionary and translated several Buddhist canons into Chinese .
= = = Art and architecture = = =
Parthian art can be divided into three geo @-@ historical phases : the art of Parthia proper ; the art of the Iranian plateau ; and the art of Parthian Mesopotamia . The first genuine Parthian art , found at Mithridatkert / Nisa , combined elements of Greek and Iranian art in line with Achaemenid and Seleucid traditions . In the second phase , Parthian art found inspiration in Achaemenid art , as exemplified by the investiture relief of Mithridates II at Mount Behistun . The third phase occurred gradually after the Parthian conquest of Mesopotamia .
Common motifs of the Parthian period include scenes of royal hunting expeditions and the investiture of Arsacid kings . Use of these motifs extended to include portrayals of local rulers . Common art mediums were rock @-@ reliefs , frescos , and even graffiti . Geometric and stylized plant patterns were also used on stucco and plaster walls . The common motif of the Sassanid period showing two horsemen engaged in combat with lances first appeared in the Parthian reliefs at Mount Behistun .
In portraiture the Parthians favored and emphasized frontality , meaning the person depicted by painting , sculpture , or raised @-@ relief on coins faced the viewer directly instead of showing his or her profile . Although frontality in portraiture was already an old artistic technique by the Parthian period , Daniel Schlumberger explains the innovation of Parthian frontality :
'Parthian frontality ' , as we are now accustomed to call it , deeply differs both from ancient Near Eastern and from Greek frontality , though it is , no doubt , an offspring of the latter . For both in Oriental art and in Greek art , frontality was an exceptional treatment : in Oriental art it was a treatment strictly reserved for a small number of traditional characters of cult and myth ; in Greek art it was an option resorted to only for definite reasons , when demanded by the subject , and , on the whole , seldom made use of . With Parthian art , on the contrary , frontality becomes the normal treatment of the figure . For the Parthians frontality is really nothing but the habit of showing , in relief and in painting , all figures full @-@ face , even at the expense ( as it seems to us moderns ) of clearness and intelligibility . So systematic is this use that it amounts to a complete banishment de facto of the side @-@ view and of all intermediate attitudes . This singular state of things seems to have become established in the course of the 1st century A.D.
Parthian art , with its distinct use of frontality in portraiture , was lost and abandoned with the profound cultural and political changes brought by the Sassanid Empire . However , even after the Roman occupation of Dura @-@ Europos in 165 AD , the use of Parthian frontality in portraiture continued to flourish there . This is exemplified by the early 3rd @-@ century AD wall murals of the Dura @-@ Europos synagogue , a temple in the same city dedicated to Palmyrene gods , and the local Mithraeum .
Parthian architecture adopted elements of Achaemenid and Greek architecture , but remained distinct from the two . The style is first attested at Mithridatkert / Nisa . The Round Hall of Nisa is similar to Hellenistic palaces , but different in that it forms a circle and vault inside a square space . However , the artwork of Nisa , including marble statues and the carved scenes on ivory rhyton vessels , is unquestionably influenced by Greek art .
A signature feature of Parthian architecture was the iwan , an audience hall supported by arches or barrel vaults and open on one side . Use of the barrel vault replaced the Hellenic use of columns to support roofs . Although the iwan was known during the Achaemenid period and earlier in smaller and subterranean structures , it was the Parthians who first built them on a monumental scale . The earliest Parthian iwans are found at Seleucia , built in the early 1st century AD . Monumental iwans are also commonly found in the ancient temples of Hatra and perhaps modeled on the Parthian style . The largest Parthian iwans at that site have a span of 15 m ( 50 ft ) .
= = = Clothing and apparel = = =
The typical Parthian riding outfit is exemplified by the famous bronze statue of a Parthian nobleman found at Shami , Elymais . Standing 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 ft ) , the figure wears a V @-@ shaped jacket , a V @-@ shaped tunic fastened in place with a belt , loose @-@ fitting and many @-@ folded trousers held by garters , and a diadem or band over his coiffed , bobbed hair . His outfit is commonly seen in relief images of Parthian coins by the mid @-@ 1st century BC .
Examples of clothing in Parthian inspired sculptures have been found in excavations at Hatra , in northwestern Iraq . Statues erected there feature the typical Parthian shirt ( qamis ) , combined with trousers and made with fine , ornamented materials . The aristocratic elite of Hatra adopted the bobbed hairstyles , headdresses , and belted tunics worn by the nobility belonging to the central Arsacid court . The trouser @-@ suit was even worn by the Arsacid kings , as shown on the reverse images of coins . The Parthian trouser @-@ suit was also adopted in Palmyra , Syria , along with the use of Parthian frontality in art .
Parthian sculptures depict wealthy women wearing long @-@ sleeved robes over a dress , with necklaces , earrings , bracelets , and headdresses bedecked in jewelry . Their many @-@ folded dresses were fastened by a brooch at one shoulder . Their headdresses also featured a veil which was draped backwards .
As seen in Parthian coinage , the headdresses worn by the Parthian kings changed over time . The earliest Arsacid coins show rulers wearing the soft cap with cheek flaps , known as the bashlyk ( Greek : kyrbasia ) . This may have derived from an Achaemenid @-@ era satrapal headdress and the pointy hats depicted in the Achaemenid reliefs at Behistun and Persepolis . The earliest coins of Mithridates I show him wearing the soft cap , yet coins from the latter part of his reign show him for the first time wearing the royal Hellenistic diadem . Mithridates II was the first to be shown wearing the Parthian tiara , embroidered with pearls and jewels , a headdress commonly worn in the late Parthian period and by Sassanid monarchs .
= = = Language = = =
As culturally and religiously tolerant the Parthians were , they adopted Greek as their official language , while Aramaic remained the lingua franca in the empire . The native Parthian language , Middle Persian , and Akkadian were also used .
= = = Writing and literature = = =
It is known that during the Parthian period the court minstrel ( gōsān ) recited poetic oral literature accompanied by music . However , their stories , composed in verse form , were not written down until the subsequent Sasanian period . In fact , there is no known Parthian @-@ language literature that survives in original form , since it was written down in the following centuries . It is believed that such stories as the romantic tale Vis and Rāmin and epic cycle of the Kayanian dynasty were part of the corpus of oral literature from Parthian times , although compiled much later . Although literature of the Parthian language was not committed to written form , there is evidence that the Arsacids acknowledged and respected written Greek literature .
= = = Kurdish and Parthian relation = = =
Some linguists see the Kurdish language as the contemporary equivalent of the Parthian language . Professor Gernot Windfuhr recognized the Kurdish language as a derivation of the Parthian language . Professor David Neil MacKenzie classified the Kurdish language as a neo Northwestern @-@ Iranian language and Parthian as an old Northwestern @-@ Iranian language .
= = Chronological table of Parthian kings = =
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= Steam ( software ) =
Steam is a digital distribution platform developed by Valve Corporation offering digital rights management ( DRM ) , multiplayer gaming and social networking services . Steam provides the user with installation and automatic updating of games on multiple computers , and community features such as friends lists and groups , cloud saving , and in @-@ game voice and chat functionality . The software provides a freely available application programming interface ( API ) called Steamworks , which developers can use to integrate many of Steam 's functions into their products , including networking , matchmaking , in @-@ game achievements , micro @-@ transactions , and support for user @-@ created content through Steam Workshop .
Though initially developed for use on Microsoft Windows , versions for OS X and Linux operating systems were later released . Applications whose main functions are chatting and shopping have also been released for iOS and Android mobile devices . The Steam website also replicates much of the storefront and social network features of the stand @-@ alone application .
As of September 2015 , there are 6 @,@ 464 Windows games , 2 @,@ 323 OS X games , and 1 @,@ 500 Linux games available on Steam . The service has over 125 million registered accounts . Steam has had as many as 12 @.@ 5 million concurrent users as of November 2015 . The Steam platform is considered to be the largest digital distribution platform for PC gaming ; in November 2009 , Stardock estimated it at 70 % and then later , in October 2013 , it was estimated by Screen Digest that 75 % of games bought online were downloaded through Steam . In 2015 , users purchased titles through Steam or through Steam keys from third @-@ party vendors totaling around $ 3 @.@ 5 billion representing 15 % of the global PC game sales for the year , based on estimations made by the tracking website Steam Spy . The success of the Steam platform has led to the development of a line of Steam Machine micro @-@ consoles and personal computers meeting minimum specifications , and SteamOS , a Linux @-@ based operating system built around the Steam client .
= = History = =
= = = Initial release = = =
Before implementing Steam , Valve Corporation had problems updating its online games , such as Counter @-@ Strike ; providing patches would result in most of the online user base disconnecting for several days . Valve decided to create a platform that would update games automatically and implement stronger anti @-@ piracy and anti @-@ cheat measures . Valve also recognized , through user polls at the time of its announcement in 2002 , that at least 75 % of their users had access to high @-@ speed Internet connections , which would only grow with planned Internet expansion in the following years , and recognized that they could deliver game content faster to players than through retail channels . Valve approached several companies , including Microsoft , Yahoo ! , and RealNetworks to build a client with these features , but were declined .
Steam 's development began in 2002 . Working titles for the product included " Grid " and " Gazelle " . It was first revealed to the public on March 22 , 2002 , at the Game Developers Conference , where it was presented purely as a distribution network . To demonstrate the ease of integrating Steam with a game , Relic Entertainment created a special version of Impossible Creatures . However , the game was not released on Steam until 2015 . Valve partnered with several companies , including AT & T , Acer , and GameSpy Industries . The first mod released on the system was Day of Defeat .
The Steam client was first made available for public beta testing in January 2003 during the beta period for Counter @-@ Strike 1 @.@ 6 , for which it was mandatory to install and use . At the time , Steam 's primary function was streamlining the patch process common in online computer games . Steam was an optional component for all other games . 80 @,@ 000 – 300 @,@ 000 gamers tested the system when it was in its beta period . The system and website choked under the strain of thousands of users simultaneously attempting to play the latest version of Counter @-@ Strike . In 2004 , the World Opponent Network was shut down and replaced by Steam . The online features of games which required World Opponent Network ceased to work unless they were converted to Steam .
Around that time , Valve began negotiating contracts with several publishers and independent developers to release their products , including Rag Doll Kung Fu and Darwinia , on Steam . Canadian publisher Strategy First announced in December 2005 that it would partner with Valve for digital distribution of current and future titles . In 2002 , the managing director of Valve , Gabe Newell , said he was offering mod teams a game engine license and distribution over Steam for US $ 995 . Valve 's Half @-@ Life 2 was the first game to require installation of the Steam client to play , even for retail copies . This decision was met with concerns about software ownership , software requirements , and issues with overloaded servers demonstrated previously by the Counter @-@ Strike rollout . During this time users faced multiple issues attempting to play the game .
= = = Profitability = = =
Beginning with Rag Doll Kung Fu in October 2005 , third @-@ party games became available for purchase and download on Steam , and Valve announced that Steam had become profitable because of some highly successful Valve games . Although digital distribution could not yet match retail volume , profit margins for Valve and developers were far larger on Steam . Large developer @-@ publishers , including id Software , Eidos Interactive , and Capcom , began distributing their games on Steam in 2007 . By May that year , 13 million accounts had been created on the service , and 150 games were for sale on the platform .
= = Client functionality = =
= = = Software delivery and maintenance = = =
Steam 's primary service is to allow its users to download games and other software that they have in their virtual software libraries to their local computers as game cache files ( GCFs ) . Steam provides digital rights management ( DRM ) for software titles by providing " custom executable generation " for executable files that are unique for each user ; this allows the user to install the software on multiple computing devices via Steam or through software backups without limitations . The user is required to be running Steam while connected to the Internet for authentication prior to playing a game or have previously set up Steam in an " offline " mode while connected to the Internet , storing their credentials locally to allow play without an Internet connection . Steam 's DRM is available to software developers through Steamworks ; the service allows developers and publishers to include other forms of DRM and other authentication services than Steam ; for example , some games on Steam require the use of Games for Windows – Live and some titles from publisher Ubisoft require the use of their UPlay gaming service .
In September 2008 , Valve added support for Steam Cloud , a service that can automatically store saved game and related custom files on Valve 's servers ; users can access this data from any machine running the Steam client . Games must use the appropriate features of Steamworks for Steam Cloud to work . Users can disable this feature on a per @-@ game and per @-@ account basis . In May 2012 , the service added the ability for users to manage their game libraries from remote clients , including computers and mobile devices ; users can instruct Steam to download and install games they own through this service if their Steam client is currently active and running . Some games sold through retail channels can be redeemed as titles for users ' libraries within Steam by entering a product code within the software . For games that incorporate Steamworks , users can buy redemption codes from other vendors and redeem these in the Steam client to add the title to their libraries . Steam also offers a framework for selling and distributing downloadable content ( DLC ) for games .
In September 2013 , Steam introduced the ability to share most games with family members and close friends by authorizing machines to access one 's library . Authorized players can install the game locally and play it separately from the owning account . Users can access their saved games and achievements providing the main owner is not playing . When the main player initiates a game while a shared account is using it , the shared account user is allowed a few minutes to either save their progress and close the game or purchase the game for his or her own account . Within Family View , introduced in January 2014 , parents can adjust settings for their children 's tied accounts , limiting the functionality and accessibility to the Steam client and purchased titles .
In accordance with its Acceptable Use Policy , Valve retains the right to block and unblock customers ' access to their games and Steam services when Valve 's Anti @-@ Cheat ( VAC ) software determines that the user is cheating in multiplayer games , selling accounts to others or trading games to exploit regional price differences . Blocking such users initially removed access to his or her other games , leading to some users with high @-@ value accounts losing access because of minor infractions of the AUP . Valve later changed its policy to be similar to that of Electronic Arts ' Origin platform , in which blocked users can still access their games but are heavily restricted , limited to playing in offline mode and unable to participate in Steam Community features . Customers also lose access to their games and Steam account if they refuse to accept changes to Steam 's end user license agreements ; this occurred in August 2012 . In April 2015 , Valve added Game Bans to its service , allowing developers to set bans on players for their games but enacted and enforced at the Steam level , allowing developers to police their own gaming communities in customizable manner .
= = = Storefront features = = =
The Steam client includes a digital storefront called the Steam Store through which users can purchase computer games . Once the game is bought , a software license is permanently attached to the user 's Steam account , allowing him or her to download the software on any compatible device . Game licenses can be given to other accounts under certain conditions . Content is delivered from an international network of servers using a proprietary file transfer protocol . Steam sells its products in US and Canadian dollars , euros , pounds sterling , Brazilian reais , Russian rubles , Indonesian rupiah and Indian rupees depending on the user 's location . From December 2010 , the client supports the Webmoney payment system , which is popular in many European , Middle Eastern , and Asian countries . Starting in April 2016 , Steam began accepting payments in Bitcoin , valued based on the user 's geolocation , with transactions handled by BitPay . The Steam storefront validates the user 's region ; the purchase of titles may be restricted to specific regions because of release dates , game classification , or agreements with publishers . Since 2010 , the Steam Translation Server project offers Steam users to assist with the translation of the Steam client , storefront , and a selected library of Steam games for twenty @-@ seven languages . Steam also allows users to purchase downloadable content for games , and for some specific game titles such as Team Fortress 2 , the ability to purchase in @-@ game inventory items . In February 2015 , Steam began to open similar options for in @-@ game item purchases for third @-@ party games .
The Steam store also enables users to redeem store product keys to add software from their library . The keys are sold by third @-@ party providers such as Humble Bundle ( in which a portion of the sale is given back to the publisher or distributor ) , distributed as part of a physical release to redeem the game , or given to a user as part of promotions , often used to deliver Kickstarter and other crowd funding rewards . There has been a grey market around Steam keys , where less reputable buyers purchase a large number of Steam keys for a game when it is offered for a low cost , and then resell these keys to users or other third @-@ party sites at a higher price , generating profit for themselves . This has caused some of these third @-@ party sites , like G2A , to be embroiled in this grey market . It is possible for publishers to have Valve to track down where specific keys have been used and cancel them , removing the product from the user 's libraries , leaving the user to seek any recourse with the third @-@ party they purchased from . Other legitimate storefronts , like Humble Bundle , have set a minimum price that must be spent to obtain Steam keys as to discourage mass purchases that would enter the grey market .
In 2013 , Steam began to accept player reviews of games . Other users can subsequently rate these reviews as helpful , humorous , or otherwise unhelpful , which are then used to highlight the most useful reviews on the game 's Steam store page . Steam will also aggregate these reviews and enable users to sort products based on this feedback while browsing the store . In May 2016 , Steam further broke out these aggregations between all reviews overall and those made more recently in the last 30 days , a change Valve acknowledges to how game updates , particularly those in Early Access , can alter the impression of a game to users .
During mid @-@ 2011 , Valve began to offer free @-@ to @-@ play games , such as Global Agenda , Spiral Knights and Champions Online ; this offer was linked to the company 's move to make Team Fortress 2 a free @-@ to @-@ play title . Valve included support via Steamworks for microtransactions for in @-@ game items in these titles through Steam 's purchasing channels , in a similar manner to the in @-@ game store for Team Fortress 2 . Later that year , Valve added the ability to trade in @-@ game items and " unopened " game gifts between users . Steam Coupons , which was introduced in December 2011 , provides single @-@ use coupons that provide a discount to the cost of items . Steam Coupons can be provided to users by developers and publishers ; users can trade these coupons between friends in a similar fashion to gifts and in @-@ game items . Steam Market , a feature introduced in beta in December 2012 that would allow users to sell virtual items to others via Steam Wallet funds , further extended the idea . Valve levies a transaction fee of 15 % on such sales and game publishers that use Steam Market pay a transaction fee . For example , Team Fortress 2 — the first game supported at the beta phase — incurred both fees . Full support for other games was expected to be available in early 2013 . In April 2013 , Valve added subscription @-@ based game support to Steam ; the first game to use this service was Darkfall Unholy Wars .
In October 2012 , Steam introduced non @-@ gaming applications , which will be sold through the service . Creativity and productivity applications can access the core functions of the Steamworks API , allowing them to use Steam 's simplified installation and updating process , and incorporate features including cloud saving and Steam Workshop . Developers of non @-@ gaming software may submit their applications to the Steam Greenlight service to judge interest for later inclusion on the Steam storefront . The Steam store allows game soundtracks to be purchased to be played via Steam Music or integrated with the user 's other media players . Valve has also added the ability for publishers to rent and sell digital movies via the service , with initially most being video game documentaries . Following Warner Bros. Entertainment offering the Mad Max films alongside the September 2015 release of the 2015 video game based on the series , Lionsgate entered into agreement with Valve to rent over one hundred feature films from its catalog through Steam starting in April 2016 , with more films to follow later . With the onset of Steam Machines as announced in March 2015 , the Steam storefront also includes the ability to purchase Steam Machine @-@ related hardware via the Steam store .
In conjunction with developers and publishers , Valve frequently provides discounted sales on games on a daily and weekly basis , sometimes oriented around a publisher or genre theme , and may allow games to be played for free during the days of these sales . The site had offered a large selection of games at discount during its annual Summer and Holiday sales , including gamification of these sales to incentive users to purchase more games .
= = = = Storefront policies = = = =
In June 2015 , Valve created a formal process to allow purchasers to request full refunds on games they had purchased on Steam for any reason , with refunds guaranteed within the first two weeks and if the player had not spent more than two hours in the game . Prior to June 2015 , Valve has had a no @-@ refunds policy but in some circumstances it has offered refunds if third @-@ party content fails to work or improperly reports on certain features . For example , the Steam version of From Dust was originally stated to have a single , post @-@ installation online DRM check with its publisher Ubisoft , but the released version of the game required a DRM check with Ubisoft 's servers each time it was used . At the request of Ubisoft , Valve offered refunds to customers who bought the game while Ubisoft worked to release a patch that would remove the DRM check altogether . On The War Z 's release , players found that the game was still in an alpha @-@ build state and lacked many of the features advertised on its Steam store page . Though the developers Hammerpoint Interactive altered the description after launch to reflect the current state of the game software , Valve removed the title from sale and offered refunds to those who had bought it . Valve also removed Earth : Year 2066 from the Early Access program and offered refunds after discovering that the game 's developers had reused assets from other games and used developer tools to erase negative complaints about the title . The lack of a formal refund policy led the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission to sue Valve in 2014 for a violations of Australian consumer laws that required stores to offer refunds for faulty or broken products . The Commission won the lawsuit in March 2016 , though recognizing Valve changed its policy in the interim , with fines to be determined at a later date .
Valve will remove games if they no longer meet Valve 's business terms for developers . Grand Theft Auto : Vice City was removed from Steam because of a claim from the Recording Industry Association of America over an expired license for one of the songs on the soundtrack . Near the launch of Electronic Arts ' ( EA ) own digital storefront Origin , Valve removed Crysis 2 and Dragon Age II from Steam because the terms of service prevented games from having their own in @-@ game storefront for downloadable content . In the case of Crysis 2 , a " Maximum Edition " that contained all the available downloadable content for the game and removed the in @-@ game storefront was re @-@ added to Steam . Valve will also remove games that are formally stated to be violating copyright or other intellectual property when given such complaints . In June 2016 , Valve removed Orion by Trek Industries when Activision filed a Digital Millennium Copyright Act ( DMCA ) complaint about the game after it was discovered that one of the game 's artists had taken , among other assets , gun models directly from Call of Duty : Black Ops 3 and Call of Duty : Advanced Warfare . Games that are removed can still be downloaded and played by those that have already purchased these titles .
= = = Security = = =
The popularity of Steam has led to the service 's being attacked by hackers in the past . A notable attempt occurred on November 6 , 2011 , when Valve temporarily closed the community forums , citing potential hacking threats to the service . On November 10 , Valve reported that the hack had compromised one of its customer databases , potentially allowing the perpetrators to access customer information — including encrypted password and credit card details . At that time , Valve was not aware whether the intruders actually accessed this information or discovered the encryption method , but nevertheless warned users to be alert for fraudulent activity .
Valve added Steam Guard functionality to the Steam client in March 2011 to protect against the hijacking of accounts via phishing schemes , one of the largest support issues Valve had at the time . Steam Guard was advertised to take advantage of the identity protection provided by Intel 's second @-@ generation Core processors and compatible motherboard hardware , which allows users to lock their account to a specific computer . Once locked , activity by that account on other computers must first be approved by the user on the locked computer . Support APIs for Steam Guard are available to third @-@ party developers through Steamworks . Steam Guard also offers two @-@ factor , risk @-@ based authentication that uses a one @-@ time verification code sent to a verified email address associated with the Steam account ; this was later expanded to include two @-@ factor authentication through the Steam mobile application , known as Steam Guard Mobile Authenticator . If Steam Guard is enabled , the verification code is sent each time the account is used from an unknown machine .
By 2015 , between Steam @-@ based game inventories , trading cards , and other virtual goods attached to a user 's account , Valve has stated that the potential monetary value has drawn hackers to try to access user accounts for financial benefit , and continue to encourage users to secure accounts with Steam Guard ; when trading was introduced in 2011 . Valve reported that in December 2015 , around 77 @,@ 000 accounts per month are hijacked , enabling the hijackers to empty out the user 's inventory of items through the trading features . At that time , the company announced that in an effort to improve security , new restrictions would be added in March 2016 under which 15 @-@ day holds will be placed on traded items unless they activate , and authenticate with Steam Guard Mobile Authenticator .
ReVuln , a commercial vulnerability research firm , published a paper in October 2012 that said the Steam browser protocol was posing a security risk by enabling malicious exploits through a simple user click on a maliciously crafted steam : / / URL in a browser . The report was taken up by various online publications . This was the second serious vulnerability of gaming @-@ related software following a recent problem with Ubisoft 's copy protection system " Uplay " ; the German IT platform " Heise online " recommended strict separation of gaming and sensitive data , for example using a PC dedicated to gaming , gaming from a second Windows installation , or using a computer account with limited rights dedicated to gaming .
In July 2015 , a bug in the software allowed anyone to reset the password to any account by using the " forgot password " function of the client . High profile professional gamers and streamers lost access to their accounts . In December 2015 , Steam 's content delivery network was misconfigured in response to a DDoS attack , causing cached store pages containing personal information to be temporarily exposed for 34 @,@ 000 users .
= = = User interface = = =
Since November 2013 , Steam allows for users to review their purchased titles and organize them into categories set by the user and add to favorite lists for quick access . Players can add non @-@ Steam games to their libraries , allowing the game to be easily accessed from the Steam client and providing support where possible for Steam Overlay features . The Steam interface allows for user @-@ defined shortcuts to be added . In this way , third @-@ party modifications and games not purchased through the Steam Store can use Steam features . Valve sponsors and distributes some modifications free @-@ of @-@ charge ; and modifications that use Steamworks can also use VAC , Friends , the server browser , and any Steam features supported by their parent game . For most games launched from Steam , the client provides an in @-@ game overlay that can be accessed by a keystroke . From the overlay , the user can access his or her Steam Community lists and participate in chat , manage selected Steam settings , and access a built @-@ in web browser without having to exit the game . Since the beginning of February 2011 as a beta version , the overlay also allows players to take screenshots of the games in process ; it automatically stores these and allows the player to review , delete , or share them during or after his or her game session . As a full version on February 24 , 2011 , this feature was reimplemented so that users could share screenshots on websites of Facebook , Twitter , and Reddit straight from a user 's screenshot manager .
Steam 's " Big Picture " mode was announced in 2011 ; public betas started in September 2012 and were integrated into the software in December 2012 . Big Picture mode is a 10 @-@ foot user interface , which optimizes the Steam display to work on high @-@ definition televisions , allowing the user to control Steam with a gamepad or with a keyboard and mouse . Newell has stated that Big Picture mode is a step towards a dedicated Steam entertainment hardware unit . SteamVR , a virtual reality ( VR ) Big Picture interface , was introduced in beta in January 2014 . The SteamVR mode enables the user to operate the Big Picture mode and play any game in their Steam library with a virtual theater displayed through the VR headset , the equivalent of looking at a 225 @-@ inch television screen , according to Valve . The mode was first introduced in beta for the Oculus Rift headset and later expanded in March 2015 to support the HTC Vive , a VR unit developed jointly with Valve , with the feature to be publicly released shortly after the Vive 's public launch in April 2016 . In @-@ Home Streaming was introduced in May 2014 ; this allows users to stream games installed on one computer to another — regardless of platform — on the same home network .
The Steam client , as part of a social network service , allows users to identify friends and join groups using the Steam Community feature . Users can use text chat and peer @-@ to @-@ peer VoIP with other users , identify which games their friends and other group members are playing , and join and invite friends to Steamworks @-@ based multiplayer games that support this feature . Users can participate in forums hosted by Valve to discuss Steam games . Each user has a unique page that shows his or her groups and friends , game library including earned achievements , game wishlists , and other social features ; users can choose to keep this information private . In January 2010 , Valve reported that 10 million of the 25 million active Steam accounts had signed up to Steam Community . In conjunction with the 2012 Steam Summer Sale , user profiles were updated with Badges reflecting the user 's participation in the Steam community and past events . Steam Trading Cards were introduced in beta in May 2013 and were fully supported by June 2013 . By playing specific games , players would earn virtual trading cards , which they could trade with friends and use towards gaining rewards on the service such as game discounts , downloadable content , or in @-@ game items , and customize their user profile page . The Steam client has become an OpenID provider , allowing third @-@ party websites to use a Steam user 's identity without requiring the user to expose his or her Steam credentials . In order to prevent abuse , access to most community features is restricted until a one @-@ time payment of at least US $ 5 is made to Valve . This requirement can be fulfilled by making any purchase of US $ 5 or more on Steam , or by adding at least US $ 5 to the wallet .
Through Steamworks , Steam provides a means of server browsing for multiplayer games that use the Steam Community features , allowing users to create lobbies with friends or members of common groups . Steamworks also provides Valve Anti @-@ Cheat ( VAC ) , Valve 's proprietary anti @-@ cheat system ; game servers automatically detect and report users who are using cheats in online , multiplayer games . In August 2012 , Valve added new features — including dedicated hub pages for games that highlight the best user @-@ created content , top forum posts , and screenshots — to the Community area . In December 2012 , a feature called Game Guides , where users can upload text and images detailing games and game strategies in the same manner as GameFAQs was added . Starting in beta in December 2014 and publicly released in January 2015 , the Steam client allows players to broadcast video streams to the public or Steam friends while playing video games .
In September 2014 , Steam Music , a built @-@ in music player , was added to the Steam client , allowing users to play through music stored on their computer or to stream from a locally networked computer .
= = = Developer features = = =
Valve offers Steamworks , an application programming interface ( API ) that provides development and publishing tools to take advantage of Steam client 's features , free @-@ of @-@ charge to game and software developers . Steamworks provides networking and player authentication tools for both server and peer @-@ to @-@ peer multiplayer games , matchmaking services , support for Steam community friends and groups , Steam statistics and achievements , integrated voice communications , and Steam Cloud support , allowing games to integrate with the Steam client . The API also provides anti @-@ cheating devices and digital copy management . Developers of software available on Steam are able to track sales of their titles through the Steam store . In February 2014 , Valve announced that it will allow developers to set up their own sales for their titles independent of any sales that Valve may set for titles .
Steam Greenlight , announced in July 2012 and released the following month , is a way for Steam users to help choose which games are added to the service . Developers are able to submit information about their games , as well as early builds or beta versions , for consideration by users . Users can pledge support for these games , and Valve will help to make top @-@ pledged games available on the Steam service . In response to complaints during its first week that finding games to support was made difficult by a flood of inappropriate or false submissions , Valve required developers to pay US $ 100 to list a game on the service to reduce illegitimate submissions . The fee will be donated to the charity Child 's Play . A later modification allowed developers to put conceptual ideas on the Greenlight service to garner interest in potential projects free @-@ of @-@ charge ; votes from such projects are only visible to the developer . Valve also allowed non @-@ gaming software to be voted onto the service through Greenlight .
The first game to be released via Steam Greenlight was McPixel . The initial process offered by Steam Greenlight was panned because while developers favored the concept , the rate of games that are eventually approved by Valve is very small . Valve has acknowledged that this is a problem and believes it can improve upon it ; Valve 's Tom Bui said , " we aren 't where we want to be yet " . In January 2013 , Newell stated that Valve recognized that its role in Greenlight has been perceived as a bottleneck , something it plans to eliminate in the future through an open marketplace infrastructure . On the eve of Greenlight 's first anniversary , Valve simultaneously approved 100 titles through the Greenlight process to demonstrate this change of direction . Valve stated in January 2014 that it plans to phase out the Greenlight process in favor of providing developers with easier means to put their games onto the Steam service . The September 2014 " Discovery Update " added tools that would allow existing Steam users to be curators for game recommendations , and sorting functions that presented more popular titles and recommended titles specific to the user , as to allow more games to be introduced on Steam without the need of Steam Greenlight , while providing some means to highlight user @-@ recommended games .
Valve added the ability for developers to sell games under an early access model with a special " Early Access " section of the Steam store , starting in March 2013 . This program allows developers to release functional but yet @-@ incomplete products such as beta versions to the service to allow users to buy the titles and help provide testing and feedback towards the final production . Early access also helps to provide funding to the developers to help complete their titles .
= = = Steam Workshop = = =
The Steam Workshop is a Steam account @-@ based hosting service for videogame user @-@ created content . Depending on the title , new levels , art assets , gameplay modifications , or other content may be published to or installed from the Steam Workshop through an automated , online account @-@ based process . The Workshop was originally used for distribution of new items for Team Fortress 2 ; it was redesigned to extend support for any game , including modifications for The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim , in early 2012 . A May 2012 patch for Portal 2 , enabled by a new map @-@ making tool through the Steam Workshop , introduced the ability to share user @-@ created levels . Independently @-@ developed games , including Dungeons of Dredmor , are able to provide Steam Workshop support for user @-@ generated content . Dota 2 became Valve 's third published title available for the Steam Workshop in June 2012 ; its features include customizable accessories , skins , and voice packs .
Valve has provided some user @-@ developed Workshop content as paid @-@ for features in Valve @-@ developed games , including Team Fortress 2 and DOTA 2 ; as of January 2015 , over $ 57 million has been paid to content creators using the Workshop . Valve began allowing developers to use these advanced features in January 2015 ; the developer and content generator will share the profits of the sale of these items ; the feature went live in April 2015 , starting with various mods for Skyrim . This feature was pulled a few days afterward following negative user feedback and reports of pricing and copyright misuse . Valve has stated they are still interested in offering this type of functionality in the future , but will review the implementation to avoid these previous mistakes . In November 2015 , the Steam client was updated with the ability for game developers to offer in @-@ game items for direct sale via the store interface . The first game to use the item store was Rust in 2015 .
= = = Steam for Schools = = =
Steam for Schools is a function @-@ limited version of the Steam client that is available free @-@ of @-@ charge to educational institutions for use in classrooms . It is part of Valve 's initiative to support gamification of learning for classroom instruction ; it was released alongside free versions of Portal 2 and a standalone program called " Puzzle Maker " that allows teachers and students to create and manipulate levels . It features additional authentication security that allows teachers to share and distribute content via a Steam Workshop @-@ type interface but blocks access from students .
= = Supported platforms = =
Steam was released in 2003 exclusively for the Microsoft Windows operating system but has since been expanded to other platforms .
= = = OS X = = =
On March 8 , 2010 , Valve announced that Steam was developing a client for OS X. The announcement was preceded by a change in the Steam beta client to support the cross @-@ platform WebKit web browser rendering engine instead of the Trident engine of Internet Explorer . Before this announcement , Valve teased the release by e @-@ mailing several images to Mac community and gaming websites ; the images featured characters from Valve games with Apple logos and parodies of vintage Macintosh advertisements . Valve developed a full video homage to Apple 's 1984 Macintosh commercial to announce the availability of Half @-@ Life 2 and its episodes on the service ; some concept images for the video had previously been used to tease the Mac Steam client .
Steam for OS X was originally planned for release in April 2010 ; it was launched worldwide on May 12 , 2010 , following a successful beta period . In addition to the Steam client , several features were made available to developers , allowing them to take advantage of the cross @-@ platform Source engine , and platform and network capabilities using Steamworks . Through SteamPlay , the OS X client allows players who have purchased compatible products in the Windows version to download the Mac versions at no cost , allowing them to continue playing the game on the other platform . Some third @-@ party titles may require the user to re @-@ purchase them to gain access to the cross @-@ platform functionality . The Steam Cloud is cross @-@ platform compatible . Multiplayer games can also be cross @-@ compatible , allowing Windows and Mac players to play with each other .
= = = Linux = = =
Valve announced in July 2012 that it was developing a Steam client for Linux and modifying the Source engine to work natively on Linux , based on the Ubuntu distribution . This announcement followed months of speculation , primarily from the website Phoronix that had discovered evidence of Linux developing in recent builds of Steam and other Valve software . Newell stated that getting Steam and games to work on Linux is a key strategy for Valve ; Newell called the closed nature of Microsoft Windows 8 , " a catastrophe for everyone in the PC space " , and that Linux would maintain " the openness of the platform " . Valve is extending support to any developers that want to bring their games to Linux , by " making it as easy as possible for anybody who 's engaged with us — putting their games on Steam and getting those running on Linux " , according to Newell .
The team developing the Linux client had been working for a year before the announcement to validate that such a port would be possible . As of the official announcement , a near @-@ feature @-@ complete Steam client for Linux had been developed and successfully run on Ubuntu . Internal beta testing of the Linux client started in October 2012 ; external beta testing occurred in early November the same year . Open beta clients for Linux were made available in late December 2012 , and the client was officially released in mid @-@ February 2013 . Valve 's Linux group will focus on improving the Steam client and will assure that its selected first Source game , Left 4 Dead 2 , will run at an acceptable frame rate and degree of connectivity with the Windows and OS X versions . From there , it will work on porting other games to Ubuntu and expanding to other Linux distributions . In early August 2012 , Valve said it had successfully completed the Left 4 Dead 2 port . Following Valve 's announcement , Devolver Digital announced that it will port Serious Sam 3 : BFE with Steamworks support to the Ubuntu Linux distribution . Linux games will also be eligible for SteamPlay availability ; The Cave was announced as one of the first titles to take advantage of this . Versions of Steam working under Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux were released by October 2013 . On June 5 , 2014 , the number of Linux @-@ compatible games on Steam reached 500 while on March 11 , 2015 the number of native games available via Steam for Linux / SteamOS had surpassed 1000 .
= = = Consoles = = =
At E3 2010 , Newell announced that Steamworks would arrive on the PlayStation 3 with Portal 2 . It would provide automatic updates , community support , downloadable content and other unannounced features . Steamworks made its debut on consoles with Portal 2 's PlayStation 3 release . Several features — including cross @-@ platform play and instant messaging , Steam Cloud for saved games , and the ability for PS3 owners to download Portal 2 from Steam ( Windows and Mac ) at no extra cost — were offered . Valve 's Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive also supports Steamworks and cross @-@ platform features on the PlayStation 3 , including using keyboard and mouse controls as an alternative to the gamepad . Valve said it " hope [ s ] to expand upon this foundation with more Steam features and functionality in DLC and future content releases " .
The Xbox 360 does not have support for Steamworks . Newell said that they would have liked to bring the service to the console through the game Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive , which would have allowed Valve to provide the same feature set that it did for the PlayStation 3 , but later said that cross @-@ platform play would not be present in the final version of the game . Valve attributes the inability to use Steamworks on the Xbox 360 to limitations in the Xbox Live regulations of the ability to deliver patches and new content . Valve 's Erik Johnson stated that Microsoft requires that new content must be certified and validated before distribution , which would limit the usefulness of Steamworks ' delivery approach .
= = = Mobile platforms = = =
Valve released an official Steam client for iOS and Android devices in late January 2012 , following a short beta period . The application allows players to log in to their accounts to browse the storefront , manage their games , and communicate with friends in the Steam community . The application also incorporates a two @-@ factor authentication system that works with Steam Guard , further enhancing the security of a user 's account . Newell stated that the application was a strong request from Steam users and sees it as a means " to make [ Steam ] richer and more accessible for everyone " . A mobile Steam client for Windows Phone devices was released in June 2016 .
= = = Steam Machine = = =
Prior to 2013 , industry analysts believed that Valve was developing hardware and tuning features of Steam with apparent use on its own hardware . These computers were pre @-@ emptively dubbed as " Steam Boxes " by the gaming community and expected to be a dedicated machine focused upon Steam functionality and maintaining the core functionality of a traditional video game console . During the week beginning on September 23 , 2013 , Valve unveiled a console operating system called SteamOS built atop the Linux operating system , a console input device called the Steam Controller , and the final concept of the Steam Machine hardware , which were tentatively scheduled to be released in 2014 but now will be released in late 2015 . Unlike other consoles , the Steam Machine has no set hardware ; its technology is implemented at the discretion of the manufacturer and is fully customizable in the same lieu as a personal computer . The Steam client enables users to purchase this hardware directly .
= = Market share and impact = =
Valve does not release any sales figures for its Steam service ; it only provides the data to companies with games on Steam , which they cannot release without permission because of a non @-@ disclosure agreement with Valve . However , Stardock , the previous owner of competing platform Impulse , estimated that as of 2009 , Steam had a 70 % share of the digital distribution market for video games . In early 2011 , Forbes reported that Steam sales constituted 50 – 70 % of the US $ 4 billion market for downloaded PC games and that Steam offered game producers gross margins of 70 % of purchase price , compared with 30 % at retail . Steam 's success has led to some criticism because of its support of DRM and for being an effective monopoly . Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman commented on the issue following the announcement that Steam would come to Linux ; he said that while he supposes that its release can boost GNU / Linux adoption leaving users better off than with Microsoft Windows , he stressed that he sees nothing wrong with commercial software but that the problem is that Steam is unethical for not being free software and that its inclusion in GNU / Linux distributions teaches the users that the point is not freedom and thus works against the software freedom that is his goal .
In November 2011 , CD Projekt the developer of The Witcher 2 : Assassins of Kings revealed that Steam was responsible for 200 @,@ 000 ( 80 % ) of the 250 @,@ 000 online sales of the game . Steam was responsible for 58 @.@ 6 % of gross revenue for Defender 's Quest during its first three months of release across six digital distribution platforms — comprising four major digital game distributors and two methods of purchasing and downloading the game directly from the developer .
Because Steam is nearly required to play most games for personal computers , its customer service has been highly criticized by its users , with users citing poor response times or lack of response in regards to issues such as being locked out of one 's library or having a non @-@ working game redemption key . In March 2015 , Valve had been given a failing " F " grade from the Better Business Bureau due to a large number of complaints in Valve 's handling of Steam , leading Valve 's Erik Johnson to state that " we don 't feel like our customer service support is where it needs to be right now " . Johnson stated the company plans to better integrate customer support features into the Steam client and be more responsive to such issues . In December 2015 , the French consumer group UFC Que Choisir initiated a lawsuit against Valve for several of their Steam policies that conflict or run afoul of French law .
= = = Sector competition = = =
From its inception in 2003 through to nearly 2009 , Steam had a mostly uncontested hold over the PC digital distribution market before major competitors emerged with the largest competitors in the past being services like Games for Windows – Live and Impulse , both of which were shut down in 2013 and 2014 , respectively . Sales via the Steam catalog are estimated to be between 50 and 75 percent of the total PC gaming market . Steam ’ s critics often refer to the service as a monopoly , and claim that placing such a percentage of the overall market can be detrimental to the industry as a whole and that sector competition can only yield positive results for the consumer . Several developers also noted that Steam 's influence on the PC gaming market is powerful and one that smaller developers cannot afford to ignore or work with , but believe that Valve 's corporate practices for the service make it a type of " benevolent dictator " , as Valve attempts to make the service as amenable to developers .
As Steam has grown in popularity many other competing services have been surfacing trying to emulate their success . The most notable major competitors are Electronic Arts ' ( EA ) Origin service , Ubisoft 's Uplay , Blizzard Entertainment 's Battle.net and GOG.com. Battle.net competes as a publisher exclusive platform , while GOG.com 's catalog includes many of the same titles as Steam but offers them in a DRM @-@ free platform . Upon launch of EA 's Origin in 2011 , several EA @-@ published titles were no longer available for sale , and users feared that future EA titles would be limited to Origin 's service . Newell expressed an interest in EA games returning to the Steam catalog though noted the situation was complicated . Newell stated , " We have to show EA it ’ s a smart decision to have EA games on Steam , and we ’ re going to try to show them that . " Ubisoft still publishes their games on the Steam platform , however most games published since the launch of Uplay require this service to run after launching the game from Steam .
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= J. R. Celski =
J.R. Celski ( / ˈsɛlski / , born July 17 , 1990 ) is an American short track speed skater and three @-@ time medalist in the Winter Olympics . Celski holds the World Record in the 500 m ( 39 @.@ 937 ) and is the first person to skate under 40 seconds in this distance . Celski also holds the Junior World Record in the 1000 m with a time of 1 : 25 @.@ 304 .
At the 2010 Winter Olympics , Celski won bronze in the 1500 m and the 5000 m relay . Five months before the Olympics , Celski suffered a gruesome injury when he fell during a race and his right skate blade gashed his left thigh and was uncertain if he would be able to skate again .
Celski 's breakthrough performance was at the 2009 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships where he won five medals ( two gold , one silver , two bronze ) . Overall , Celski has won three gold medals , four silver medals , and four bronze medals at the World Championships . He also has one bronze medal at the World Team Championships and four medals ( two gold , two bronze ) at the World Junior Championships .
= = Career = =
= = = 2009 World Junior Championships = = =
In the 1500 m , Celski won silver behind Um Cheon @-@ Ho with a time of 2 : 16 @.@ 780 . In his second event , the 500 m , Celski won with a time of 41 @.@ 462 breaking the previous Junior World Record . Celski finished third overall with 58 points . Celski then combined with Eduardo Alvarez , Jonathan Sermeno , and Robert Lawrence in the 3000 m relay to finish first with a time of 4 : 06 @.@ 032 .
= = = 2009 World Championships = = =
In the 1500 m , Celski placed third behind Lee Ho @-@ Suk and Kwak Yoon @-@ Gy with a time of 2 : 14 @.@ 974 . In the 1000 m , Celski placed third behind Lee Ho @-@ Suk and Apolo Ohno with a time of 1 : 26 @.@ 348 . In his third event , the 3000 m , Celski won with a time of 4 : 48 @.@ 444 . Celski finished second overall with 65 points . Celski then combined with Ryan Bedford , Jordan Malone , and Apolo Ohno in the 5000 m relay to finish first with a time of 6 : 51 @.@ 400 .
= = = 2010 Winter Olympics = = =
= = = = Trials = = = =
The U.S. Short Track Speed Skating Olympic Trials were held September 8 – 12 , 2009 in Marquette , Michigan . Celski finished second overall and was leading in points after the first two nights of the trials , but was injured during a crash in the semifinals of the 500 m race where his right skate sliced into his left leg ; he did not skate in the second 1000 m races . His injury required emergency surgery , 60 stitches , and five months of rehabilitation with the help of Eric Heiden . Celski was unsure if he would ever compete again . During the 1000 m time trial , Apolo Ohno , with a personal best of 1 : 24 @.@ 500 , came in second to Celski , who skated a personal best of 1 : 23 @.@ 981 . Celski , along with Ohno , Jordan Malone , Travis Jayner and Simon Cho were the top five finishers at the trials . Afterwards , Ohno said about the nominated team : " This is the strongest team we 've ever had . I feel really good about how we will do in the next Olympics " .
= = = = Games = = = =
At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , Celski won a pair of bronze medals . One in the 1500 m and another in the 5000 m relay . In the 1500 m final , Celski won the bronze medal after 2006 silver medalist Lee Ho @-@ Suk crashed into fellow Korean skater Sung Si @-@ Bak during the final turn of the last lap . Celski was in fifth place leading into the crash and as a result moved into third place . Apolo Ohno moved into second place . Celski was disqualified in the 1000 m semifinals after knocking Canadian skater Francois Hamelin to the ground . The 5000 m relay team for the United States finished with the bronze medal . The team , consisting of Apolo Ohno , Simon Cho , Travis Jayner , Jordan Malone and Celski , was in the fourth position for the majority of the race . With a strong push from Celski with two laps to go , Ohno as the anchor leg was able to pass the Chinese team for third place ; Canada won the gold and South Korea took silver .
= = = 2010 World Championships = = =
Celski advanced to finals of the 1500 m after winning 1st place in the heats , quarterfinals , and semifinals . During the finals , Celski was in the lead with about five laps to go , but in the last few laps , the three Korean skaters managed to overtake him , sweeping the podium with Kwak Yoon @-@ Gy in 1st . Celski finished in 4th place , in front of teammate Travis Jayner , who came in 6th . The next day , Celski competed in the 500 m . During the semifinals , Celski attempted a pass from fourth to third place , but during his pass , François @-@ Louis Tremblay of Canada , in second place at the time , fell , tripping Celski on his way down . Celski finished the race in 3rd , but was then disqualified , while Tremblay advanced . In the 1000 m , Celski finished third behind Lee Ho @-@ Suk and Kwak Yoon @-@ Gy with a time of 1 : 27 @.@ 515 . In the 3000 m , Celski again placed third behind Lee Ho @-@ Suk and Kwak Yoon @-@ Gy . Celski finished fourth overall with 39 points . Celski then combined with Jordan Malone , Travis Jayner , and Simon Cho in the 5000 m relay to finish second behind South Korea with a time of 6 : 46 @.@ 205 .
= = = 2014 Winter Olympics = = =
At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi J.R. Competed and placed 4th in the Men 's 1500m , 6th in the 500m , and 13th in the 1000m . J.R. earned a Silver medal in the Short Track Men 's 5000m Relay .
= = Appearances = =
On Tuesday , February 9 , 2010 J.R. appeared on the TV show The Biggest Loser where he introduced a pop @-@ challenge to the contestants of the show . During the segment J.R. offered words of encouragement , and showed the contestants how to use a slide board .
On Wednesday , February 5 , 2014 J.R. was featured in a one @-@ hour special on NBC television titled How to Raise an Olympian . The program , hosted by Meredith Vieira , chronicles the journeys of seven U.S. Olympians and features interviews from parents and coaches along with home video and photos from each athlete 's childhood . The event was broadcast on television with livesocial @-@ media components to further each segment .
= = Personal life = =
Celski was born in Monterey , California where his father Robert Celski was serving in the U.S. Army . He was raised in Federal Way , Washington . His father , Robert , is of Polish descent and his mother , Sue , is of Filipino descent . Celski has two older brothers , Chris and David ; David serves as Captain in the United States Army , and Chris is a salesperson at Nordstrom . Celski attended Lakewood High School in Lakewood , California as well as Todd Beamer High School in Federal Way , Washington , graduating from Lakewood with high honors in the Merit Scholars Program . Before switching to speed skating after seeing the 2002 Winter Olympics , Celski was a national champion in @-@ line skater . He missed the minimum age requirement for the 2006 Winter Olympics by 17 days .
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= Sea otter =
The sea otter ( Enhydra lutris ) is a marine mammal native to the coasts of the northern and eastern North Pacific Ocean . Adult sea otters typically weigh between 14 and 45 kg ( 31 and 99 lb ) , making them the heaviest members of the weasel family , but among the smallest marine mammals . Unlike most marine mammals , the sea otter 's primary form of insulation is an exceptionally thick coat of fur , the densest in the animal kingdom . Although it can walk on land , the sea otter lives mostly in the ocean .
The sea otter inhabits offshore environments , where it dives to the sea floor to forage . It preys mostly on marine invertebrates such as sea urchins , various molluscs and crustaceans , and some species of fish . Its foraging and eating habits are noteworthy in several respects . First , its use of rocks to dislodge prey and to open shells makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools . In most of its range , it is a keystone species , controlling sea urchin populations which would otherwise inflict extensive damage to kelp forest ecosystems . Its diet includes prey species that are also valued by humans as food , leading to conflicts between sea otters and fisheries .
Sea otters , whose numbers were once estimated at 150 @,@ 000 – 300 @,@ 000 , were hunted extensively for their fur between 1741 and 1911 , and the world population fell to 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 individuals living in a fraction of their historic range . A subsequent international ban on hunting , conservation efforts , and reintroduction programs into previously populated areas have contributed to numbers rebounding , and the species now occupies about two @-@ thirds of its former range . The recovery of the sea otter is considered an important success in marine conservation , although populations in the Aleutian Islands and California have recently declined or have plateaued at depressed levels . For these reasons , the sea otter remains classified as an endangered species .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific description of the sea otter is contained in the field notes of Georg Steller from 1751 , and the species was described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758 . Originally named Lutra marina , it underwent numerous name changes before being accepted as Enhydra lutris in 1922 . The generic name Enhydra , derives from the Ancient Greek en / εν " in " and hydra / ύδρα " water " , meaning " in the water " , and the Latin word lutris , meaning " otter " .
The sea otter was formerly sometimes referred to as the " sea beaver " , being the marine fur @-@ bearer similar in commercial value to the terrestrial beaver . Rodents ( of which the beaver is one ) are not closely related to otters , which are carnivores . It is not to be confused with the marine otter , a rare otter species native to the southern west coast of South America . A number of other otter species , while predominantly living in fresh water , are commonly found in marine coastal habitats . The extinct sea mink of northeast North America is another mustelid that had adapted to a marine environment .
= = = Evolution = = =
The sea otter is the heaviest ( the giant otter is longer , but significantly slimmer ) member of the family Mustelidae , a diverse group that includes the 13 otter species and terrestrial animals such as weasels , badgers , and minks . It is unique among the mustelids in not making dens or burrows , in having no functional anal scent glands , and in being able to live its entire life without leaving the water . The only member of the genus Enhydra , the sea otter is so different from other mustelid species that , as recently as 1982 , some scientists believed it was more closely related to the earless seals . Genetic analysis indicates the sea otter and its closest extant relatives , which include the African speckle @-@ throated otter , European otter , African clawless otter and oriental small @-@ clawed otter , shared an ancestor approximately 5 million years ago ( Mya ) .
Fossil evidence indicates the Enhydra lineage became isolated in the North Pacific approximately 2 Mya , giving rise to the now @-@ extinct Enhydra macrodonta and the modern sea otter , Enhydra lutris . The sea otter evolved initially in northern Hokkaidō and Russia , and then spread east to the Aleutian Islands , mainland Alaska , and down the North American coast . In comparison to cetaceans , sirenians , and pinnipeds , which entered the water approximately 50 , 40 , and 20 Mya , respectively , the sea otter is a relative newcomer to a marine existence . In some respects , though , the sea otter is more fully adapted to water than pinnipeds , which must haul out on land or ice to give birth .
One related species has been described , Enhydra reevei , from the Pleistocene of East Anglia . The holotype , a lower carnassial , was in the Norwich Castle Museum but seems to be lost . Only one more specimen , an extremely worn lower carnassial , is known .
= = = Subspecies = = =
The three recognized subspecies , which vary in body size and in some skull and dental characteristics , are :
The reintroduction effort off the Oregon coast was not successful . However , reintroductions in 1969 and 1970 off the Washington coast were very successful and sea otters have been expanding their range since . They have now entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca and can be found almost as far east as Pillar Point . Individuals have even been seen in the San Juan Islands and northern Puget Sound .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The sea otter is one of the smallest marine mammal species , but it is the heaviest mustelid . Male sea otters usually weigh 22 to 45 kg ( 49 to 99 lb ) and are 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 3 ft 11 in to 4 ft 11 in ) in length , though specimens to 54 kg ( 119 lb ) have been recorded . Females are smaller , weighing 14 to 33 kg ( 31 to 73 lb ) and measuring 1 @.@ 0 to 1 @.@ 4 m ( 3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 7 in ) in length . For its size , the male otter 's baculum is very large , massive and bent upwards , measuring 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in length and 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) at the base .
Unlike most other marine mammals , the sea otter has no blubber and relies on its exceptionally thick fur to keep warm . With up to 150 @,@ 000 strands of hair per square centimeter ( nearly one million per sq in ) , its fur is the densest of any animal . The fur consists of long , waterproof guard hairs and short underfur ; the guard hairs keep the dense underfur layer dry . Cold water is kept completely away from the skin and heat loss is limited . The fur is thick year @-@ round , as it is shed and replaced gradually rather than in a distinct molting season . As the ability of the guard hairs to repel water depends on utmost cleanliness , the sea otter has the ability to reach and groom the fur on any part of its body , taking advantage of its loose skin and an unusually supple skeleton . The coloration of the pelage is usually deep brown with silver @-@ gray speckles , but it can range from yellowish or grayish brown to almost black . In adults , the head , throat , and chest are lighter in color than the rest of the body .
The sea otter displays numerous adaptations to its marine environment . The nostrils and small ears can close . The hind feet , which provide most of its propulsion in swimming , are long , broadly flattened , and fully webbed . The fifth digit on each hind foot is longest , facilitating swimming while on its back , but making walking difficult . The tail is fairly short , thick , slightly flattened , and muscular . The front paws are short with retractable claws , with tough pads on the palms that enable gripping slippery prey . The bones show osteosclerosis , increasing their density to reduce buoyancy .
The sea otter propels itself underwater by moving the rear end of its body , including its tail and hind feet , up and down , and is capable of speeds of up to 9 km / h ( 5 @.@ 6 mph ) . When underwater , its body is long and streamlined , with the short forelimbs pressed closely against the chest . When at the surface , it usually floats on its back and moves by sculling its feet and tail from side to side . At rest , all four limbs can be folded onto the torso to conserve heat , whereas on particularly hot days , the hind feet may be held underwater for cooling . The sea otter 's body is highly buoyant because of its large lung capacity – about 2 @.@ 5 times greater than that of similar @-@ sized land mammals – and the air trapped in its fur . The sea otter walks with a clumsy , rolling gait on land , and can run in a bounding motion .
Long , highly sensitive whiskers and front paws help the sea otter find prey by touch when waters are dark or murky . Researchers have noted when they approach in plain view , sea otters react more rapidly when the wind is blowing towards the animals , indicating the sense of smell is more important than sight as a warning sense . Other observations indicate the sea otter 's sense of sight is useful above and below the water , although not as good as that of seals . Its hearing is neither particularly acute nor poor .
An adult 's 32 teeth , particularly the molars , are flattened and rounded , designed to crush rather than cut food . Seals and sea otters are the only carnivores with two pairs of lower incisor teeth rather than three ; the adult dental formula is 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 12 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 2
The sea otter has a metabolic rate two or three times that of comparatively sized terrestrial mammals . It must eat an estimated 25 to 38 % of its own body weight in food each day to burn the calories necessary to counteract the loss of heat due to the cold water environment . Its digestive efficiency is estimated at 80 to 85 % , and food is digested and passed in as little as three hours . Most of its need for water is met through food , although , in contrast to most other marine mammals , it also drinks seawater . Its relatively large kidneys enable it to derive fresh water from sea water and excrete concentrated urine .
A sea otter has two types of fur , the underfur and the guard hair . The shape of these different hair fibers connect to trap air between them . This allows them to maintain their body heat without the blubber other sea mammals use .
= = Behavior = =
The sea otter is diurnal . It has a period of foraging and eating in the morning , starting about an hour before sunrise , then rests or sleeps in mid @-@ day . Foraging resumes for a few hours in the afternoon and subsides before sunset , and a third foraging period may occur around midnight . Females with pups appear to be more inclined to feed at night . Observations of the amount of time a sea otter must spend each day foraging range from 24 to 60 % , apparently depending on the availability of food in the area .
Sea otters spend much of their time grooming , which consists of cleaning the fur , untangling knots , removing loose fur , rubbing the fur to squeeze out water and introduce air , and blowing air into the fur . To casual observers , it appears as if the animals are scratching , but they are not known to have lice or other parasites in the fur . When eating , sea otters roll in the water frequently , apparently to wash food scraps from their fur .
= = = Foraging = = =
The sea otter hunts in short dives , often to the sea floor . Although it can hold its breath for up to five minutes , its dives typically last about one minute and no more than four . It is the only marine animal capable of lifting and turning over rocks , which it often does with its front paws when searching for prey . The sea otter may also pluck snails and other organisms from kelp and dig deep into underwater mud for clams . It is the only marine mammal that catches fish with its forepaws rather than with its teeth .
Under each foreleg , the sea otter has a loose pouch of skin that extends across the chest . In this pouch ( preferentially the left one ) , the animal stores collected food to bring to the surface . This pouch also holds a rock , unique to the otter , that is used to break open shellfish and clams . There , the sea otter eats while floating on its back , using its forepaws to tear food apart and bring it to its mouth . It can chew and swallow small mussels with their shells , whereas large mussel shells may be twisted apart . It uses its lower incisor teeth to access the meat in shellfish . To eat large sea urchins , which are mostly covered with spines , the sea otter bites through the underside where the spines are shortest , and licks the soft contents out of the urchin 's shell .
The sea otter 's use of rocks when hunting and feeding makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools . To open hard shells , it may pound its prey with both paws against a rock on its chest . To pry an abalone off its rock , it hammers the abalone shell using a large stone , with observed rates of 45 blows in 15 seconds . Releasing an abalone , which can cling to rock with a force equal to 4 @,@ 000 times its own body weight , requires multiple dives .
= = = Social structure = = =
Although each adult and independent juvenile forages alone , sea otters tend to rest together in single @-@ sex groups called rafts . A raft typically contains 10 to 100 animals , with male rafts being larger than female ones . The largest raft ever seen contained over 2000 sea otters . To keep from drifting out to sea when resting and eating , sea otters may wrap themselves in kelp .
A male sea otter is most likely to mate if he maintains a breeding territory in an area that is also favored by females . As autumn is the peak breeding season in most areas , males typically defend their territory only from spring to autumn . During this time , males patrol the boundaries of their territories to exclude other males , although actual fighting is rare . Adult females move freely between male territories , where they outnumber adult males by an average of five to one . Males that do not have territories tend to congregate in large , male @-@ only groups , and swim through female areas when searching for a mate .
The species exhibits a variety of vocal behaviors . The cry of a pup is often compared to that of a seagull . Females coo when they are apparently content ; males may grunt instead . Distressed or frightened adults may whistle , hiss , or in extreme circumstances , scream .
Although sea otters can be playful and sociable , they are not considered to be truly social animals . They spend much time alone , and each adult can meet its own needs in terms of hunting , grooming , and defense .
= = = Reproduction and lifecycle = = =
Sea otters are polygynous : males have multiple female partners . However , temporary pair @-@ bonding occurs for a few days between a female in estrus and her mate . Mating takes place in the water and can be rough , the male biting the female on the muzzle – which often leaves scars on the nose – and sometimes holding her head under water .
Births occur year @-@ round , with peaks between May and June in northern populations and between January and March in southern populations . Gestation appears to vary from four to twelve months , as the species is capable of delayed implantation followed by four months of pregnancy . In California , sea otters usually breed every year , about twice as often as those in Alaska .
Birth usually takes place in the water and typically produces a single pup weighing 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 3 kg ( 3 to 5 lb ) . Twins occur in 2 % of births ; however , usually only one pup survives . At birth , the eyes are open , ten teeth are visible , and the pup has a thick coat of baby fur . Mothers have been observed to lick and fluff a newborn for hours ; after grooming , the pup 's fur retains so much air , the pup floats like a cork and cannot dive . The fluffy baby fur is replaced by adult fur after about 13 weeks .
Nursing lasts six to eight months in Californian populations and four to twelve months in Alaska , with the mother beginning to offer bits of prey at one to two months . The milk from a sea otter 's two abdominal nipples is rich in fat and more similar to the milk of other marine mammals than to that of other mustelids . A pup , with guidance from its mother , practices swimming and diving for several weeks before it is able to reach the sea floor . Initially , the objects it retrieves are of little food value , such as brightly colored starfish and pebbles . Juveniles are typically independent at six to eight months , but a mother may be forced to abandon a pup if she cannot find enough food for it ; at the other extreme , a pup may nurse until it is almost adult size . Pup mortality is high , particularly during an individual 's first winter – by one estimate , only 25 % of pups survive their first year . Pups born to experienced mothers have the highest survival rates .
Females perform all tasks of feeding and raising offspring , and have occasionally been observed caring for orphaned pups . Much has been written about the level of devotion of sea otter mothers for their pups – a mother gives her infant almost constant attention , cradling it on her chest away from the cold water and attentively grooming its fur . When foraging , she leaves her pup floating on the water , sometimes wrapped in kelp to keep it from floating away ; if the pup is not sleeping , it cries loudly until she returns . Mothers have been known to carry their pups for days after the pups ' deaths .
Females become sexually mature at around three or four years of age and males at around five ; however , males often do not successfully breed until a few years later . A captive male sired offspring at age 19 . In the wild , sea otters live to a maximum age of 23 years , with average lifespans of 10 – 15 years for males and 15 – 20 years for females . Several captive individuals have lived past 20 years , and a female at the Seattle Aquarium died at the age of 28 years . Sea otters in the wild often develop worn teeth , which may account for their apparently shorter lifespans .
There are several documented cases in which male sea otters have forcibly copulated with juvenile harbor seals , sometimes resulting in death .
The forced copulation does not stop with the baby harbor seals , however , as there are documented cases of sea otters raping other animals as well . For instance , a sea otter named " Whiskers " was observed luring a Husky , " Tuk " , into the water , killing it , and raping its dead body .
= = Population and distribution = =
Sea otters live in coastal waters 15 to 23 meters ( 50 to 75 ft ) deep , and usually stay within a kilometer ( ⅔ mi ) of the shore . They are found most often in areas with protection from the most severe ocean winds , such as rocky coastlines , thick kelp forests , and barrier reefs . Although they are most strongly associated with rocky substrates , sea otters can also live in areas where the sea floor consists primarily of mud , sand , or silt . Their northern range is limited by ice , as sea otters can survive amidst drift ice but not land @-@ fast ice . Individuals generally occupy a home range a few kilometers long , and remain there year @-@ round .
The sea otter population is thought to have once been 150 @,@ 000 to 300 @,@ 000 , stretching in an arc across the North Pacific from northern Japan to the central Baja California Peninsula in Mexico . The fur trade that began in the 1740s reduced the sea otter 's numbers to an estimated 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 members in 13 colonies . In about two @-@ thirds of its former range , the species is at varying levels of recovery , with high population densities in some areas and threatened populations in others . Sea otters currently have stable populations in parts of the Russian east coast , Alaska , British Columbia , Washington , and California , with reports of recolonizations in Mexico and Japan . Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 107 @,@ 000 sea otters .
= = = Russia = = =
Currently , the most stable and secure part of the sea otter 's range is Russia . Before the 19th century , around 20 @,@ 000 to 25 @,@ 000 sea otters lived near the Kuril Islands , with more near Kamchatka and the Commander Islands . After the years of the Great Hunt , the population in these areas , currently part of Russia , was only 750 . By 2004 , sea otters had repopulated all of their former habitat in these areas , with an estimated total population of about 27 @,@ 000 . Of these , about 19 @,@ 000 are at the Kurils , 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 500 at Kamchatka and another 5 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 500 at the Commander Islands . Growth has slowed slightly , suggesting the numbers are reaching carrying capacity .
= = = Alaska = = =
Alaska is the heartland of the sea otter 's range . In 1973 , the population in Alaska was estimated at between 100 @,@ 000 and 125 @,@ 000 animals . By 2006 , though , the Alaska population had fallen to an estimated 73 @,@ 000 animals . A massive decline in sea otter populations in the Aleutian Islands accounts for most of the change ; the cause of this decline is not known , although orca predation is suspected . The sea otter population in Prince William Sound was also hit hard by the Exxon Valdez oil spill , which killed thousands of sea otters in 1989 .
= = = British Columbia = = =
Along the North American coast south of Alaska , the sea otter 's range is discontinuous . A remnant population survived off Vancouver Island into the 20th century , but it died out despite the 1911 international protection treaty , with the last sea otter taken near Kyuquot in 1929 . From 1969 to 1972 , 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island .
This population expanded to over 3 @,@ 200 in 2004 , and their range on the island 's west coast expanded from Cape Scott in the north to Barkley Sound to the south . In 1989 , a separate colony was discovered in the central British Columbia coast . It is not known if this colony , which numbered about 300 animals in 2004 , was founded by transplanted otters or by survivors of the fur trade .
The status of the sea otters has improved since 2004 with a report of 4 @,@ 700 in 2008 that improved their status to " special concern " in Canada . They currently occupy much of the exposed west coast of Vancouver Island and parts of the central mainland BC coast .
= = = Washington = = =
In 1969 and 1970 , 59 sea otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington . Annual surveys between 2000 and 2004 have recorded between 504 and 743 individuals , and their range is in the Olympic Peninsula from just south of Destruction Island to Pillar Point . In Washington , sea otters are found almost exclusively on the outer coasts . They can swim as close as six feet off shore along the Olympic coast . Reported sightings of sea otters in the San Juan Islands and Puget Sound almost always turn out to be North American river otters , which are commonly seen along the seashore . However , biologists have confirmed isolated sightings of sea otters in these areas since the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = = California = = =
The historic population of California sea otters was estimated at 16 @,@ 000 before the fur trade began . California 's sea otters are the descendants of a single colony of about 50 southern sea otters discovered near Bixby Bridge in Big Sur in 1938 . Their principal range has gradually expanded and extends from Pigeon Point in San Mateo County to Santa Barbara County .
For southern sea otters to be considered for removal from threatened species listing , the population would have to exceed 3 @,@ 090 for three consecutive years . The most recent ( spring 2014 ) United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) California sea otter survey count is 2 @,@ 944 , almost flat for the last five years . There has been some contraction from the northern ( now Pigeon Point ) and southern limits of the sea otter 's range apparently related to lethal shark bites . The 2013 USGS survey found 2 @,@ 941 California sea otters , a slight increase from 2012 but a portion of the increase is artificial because the count included , for the first time , the SNI population which had recovered to 59 individuals . The California sea otter census in 2012 was 2 @,@ 792 , down from the peak spring 2007 census of 3 @,@ 026 sea otters , but up from the recent low of 2 @,@ 711 in 2010 .
In the late 1980s , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) relocated about 140 Californian sea otters to San Nicolas Island ( SNI ) in southern California , in the hope of establishing a reserve population should the mainland be struck by an oil spill . To the surprise of biologists , the San Nicolas sea otters mostly swam back to the mainland . By 2005 , only 30 sea otters remained at San Nicolas , although they were slowly increasing as they thrived on the abundant prey around the island . The plan that authorized the translocation program had predicted the carrying capacity would be reached within five to 10 years . The spring 2014 SNI count was 68 sea otters , continuing a 5 @-@ year positive trend of over 16 % per year .
When the FWS implemented the translocation program , it also attempted to implement " zonal management " of the Californian population . To manage the competition between sea otters and fisheries , it declared an " otter @-@ free zone " stretching from Point Conception to the Mexican border . In this zone , only San Nicolas Island was designated as sea otter habitat , and sea otters found elsewhere in the area were supposed to be captured and relocated . These plans were abandoned after many translocated otters died and also as it proved impractical to capture the hundreds of otters which ignored regulations and swam into the zone . However , after engaging in a period of public commentary in 2005 , the Fish and Wildlife Service failed to release a formal decision on the issue . Then , in response to lawsuits filed by lthe Santa Barbara @-@ based Environmental Defense Center and the Otter Project , on December 19 , 2012 the USFWS declared that the " no otter zone " experiment was a failure , and will protect the otters re @-@ colonizing the coast south of Point Conception as threatened species .
Sea otters were once numerous in San Francisco Bay . Historical records revealed the Russian @-@ American Company sneaked Aleuts into San Francisco Bay multiple times , despite the Spanish capturing or shooting them while hunting sea otters in the estuaries of San Jose , San Mateo , San Bruno and around Angel Island . The founder of Fort Ross , Ivan Kuskov , finding otters scarce on his second voyage to Bodega Bay in 1812 , sent a party of Aleuts to San Francisco Bay , where they met another Russian party and an American party , and caught 1 @,@ 160 sea otters in three months . By 1817 , sea otters in the area were practically eliminated and the Russians sought permission from the Spanish and the Mexican governments to hunt further and further south of San Francisco . Remnant sea otter populations may have survived in the bay until 1840 , when the Rancho Punta de Quentin was granted to Captain John B. R. Cooper , a sea captain from Boston , by Mexican Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado along with a license to hunt sea otters , reportedly then prevalent at the mouth of Corte Madera Creek .
Although the southern sea otter 's range has continuously expanded from the remnant population of about 50 individuals in Big Sur since protection in 1911 , however from 2007 to 2010 , the otter population and its range contracted and since 2010 has made little progress . As of spring 2010 , the northern boundary had moved from about Tunitas Creek to a point 2 km southeast of Pigeon Point , and the southern boundary has moved from approximately Coal Oil Point to Gaviota State Park . Recently , a toxin called microcystin , produced by a type of cyanobacteria ( Microcystis ) , seems to be concentrated in the shellfish the otters eat , poisoning them . Cyanobacteria are found in stagnant freshwater enriched with nitrogen and phosphorus from septic tank and agricultural fertilizer runoff , and may be flushed into the ocean when streamflows are high in the rainy season . A record number of sea otter carcasses were found on California 's coastline in 2010 , with increased shark attacks an increasing component of the mortality . Great white sharks ( Carcharodon carcharias ) do not consume relatively fat @-@ poor sea otters but shark @-@ bitten carcasses have increased from 8 % in the 1980s to 15 % in the 1990s and to 30 % in 2010 and 2011 .
Otters were observed twice in Southern California in 2011 , once near Laguna Beach and once at Zuniga Point Jetty , near San Diego . These are the first documented sightings of otters this far south in 30 years .
= = = Oregon = = =
The last native sea otter in Oregon was probably shot and killed in 1906 . In 1970 and 1971 , a total of 95 sea otters were transplanted from Amchitka Island , Alaska to the Southern Oregon coast . However , this translocation effort failed and otters soon again disappeared from the state .
In 2004 , a lone male sea otter took up residence at Simpson Reef off of Cape Arago for six months . This male is thought to have originated from a colony in Washington , but disappeared after a coastal storm .
The most recent sighting of a sea otter off the Oregon coast took place on 18 February 2009 , in Depoe Bay , Oregon . The lone male sea otter could have traveled from either California or Washington .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet = = =
Sea otters consume over 100 different prey species . In most of its range , the sea otter 's diet consists almost exclusively of marine benthic invertebrates , including sea urchins , fat innkeeper worms , a variety of bivalves such as clams and mussels , abalone , other mollusks , crustaceans , and snails . Its prey ranges in size from tiny limpets and crabs to giant octopuses . Where prey such as sea urchins , clams , and abalone are present in a range of sizes , sea otters tend to select larger items over smaller ones of similar type . In California , they have been noted to ignore Pismo clams smaller than 3 inches ( 7 cm ) across .
In a few northern areas , fish are also eaten . In studies performed at Amchitka Island in the 1960s , where the sea otter population was at carrying capacity , 50 % of food found in sea otter stomachs was fish . The fish species were usually bottom @-@ dwelling and sedentary or sluggish forms , such as Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus and family Tetraodontidae . However , south of Alaska on the North American coast , fish are a negligible or extremely minor part of the sea otter 's diet . Contrary to popular depictions , sea otters rarely eat starfish , and any kelp that is consumed apparently passes through the sea otter 's system undigested .
The individuals within a particular area often differ in their foraging methods and prey types , and tend to follow the same patterns as their mothers . The diet of local populations also changes over time , as sea otters can significantly deplete populations of highly preferred prey such as large sea urchins , and prey availability is also affected by other factors such as fishing by humans . Sea otters can thoroughly remove abalone from an area except for specimens in deep rock crevices , however , they never completely wipe out a prey species from an area . A 2007 Californian study demonstrated , in areas where food was relatively scarce , a wider variety of prey was consumed . Surprisingly , though , the diets of individuals were more specialized in these areas than in areas where food was plentiful .
= = = As a keystone species = = =
Sea otters are a classic example of a keystone species ; their presence affects the ecosystem more profoundly than their size and numbers would suggest . They keep the population of certain benthic ( sea floor ) herbivores , particularly sea urchins , in check . Sea urchins graze on the lower stems of kelp , causing the kelp to drift away and die . Loss of the habitat and nutrients provided by kelp forests leads to profound cascade effects on the marine ecosystem . North Pacific areas that do not have sea otters often turn into urchin barrens , with abundant sea urchins and no kelp forest .
Reintroduction of sea otters to British Columbia has led to a dramatic improvement in the health of coastal ecosystems , and similar changes have been observed as sea otter populations recovered in the Aleutian and Commander Islands and the Big Sur coast of California However , some kelp forest ecosystems in California have also thrived without sea otters , with sea urchin populations apparently controlled by other factors . The role of sea otters in maintaining kelp forests has been observed to be more important in areas of open coast than in more protected bays and estuaries .
In addition to promoting growth of kelp forests , sea otters can also have a profound effect in rocky areas that tend to be dominated by mussel beds . They remove mussels from rocks , liberating space for competitive species and thereby increasing the diversity of species in the area .
= = = Predators = = =
Predation of sea otters does occur , although it is not common . Many predators find the otter , with their pungent scent glands , distasteful . Young predators may kill an otter and not eat it . Leading mammalian predators of this species include orcas and sea lions ; bald eagles also prey on pups by snatching them from the water surface . On land , young sea otters may face attack from bears and coyotes . In California , bites from sharks , particularly great white sharks , have been estimated to cause 10 % of sea otter deaths and are one of the reasons the population has not expanded further north . The great white shark is believed to be their primary predator , and dead sea otters have been found with injuries from shark bites , although there is no evidence that sharks actually eat them . An exhibit at the San Diego Natural History Museum states that cat feces from urban runoff carry Toxoplasma gondii parasites to the ocean and kill sea otters .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Fur trade = = =
Sea otters have the thickest fur of any mammal . Their beautiful fur is a main target for many hunters . Archaeological evidence indicates that for thousands of years , indigenous peoples have hunted sea otters for food and fur . Large @-@ scale hunting , part of the Maritime Fur Trade , which would eventually kill approximately one million sea otters , began in the 18th century when hunters and traders began to arrive from all over the world to meet foreign demand for otter pelts , which were one of the world 's most valuable types of fur .
In the early 18th century , Russians began to hunt sea otters in the Kuril Islands and sold them to the Chinese at Kyakhta . Russia was also exploring the far northern Pacific at this time , and sent Vitus Bering to map the Arctic coast and find routes from Siberia to North America . In 1741 , on his second North Pacific voyage , Bering was shipwrecked off Bering Island in the Commander Islands , where he and many of his crew died . The surviving crew members , which included naturalist Georg Steller , discovered sea otters on the beaches of the island and spent the winter hunting sea otters and gambling with otter pelts . They returned to Siberia , having killed nearly 1 @,@ 000 sea otters , and were able to command high prices for the pelts . Thus began what is sometimes called the " Great Hunt " , which would continue for another hundred years . The Russians found the sea otter far more valuable than the sable skins that had driven and paid for most of their expansion across Siberia . If the sea otter pelts brought back by Bering 's survivors had been sold at Kyakhta prices they would have paid for one tenth the cost of Bering 's expedition . In 1775 at Okhotsk , sea otter pelts were worth 50 – 80 rubles as opposed to 2 @.@ 5 rubles for sable .
Russian fur @-@ hunting expeditions soon depleted the sea otter populations in the Commander Islands , and by 1745 , they began to move on to the Aleutian Islands . The Russians initially traded with the Aleuts inhabitants of these islands for otter pelts , but later enslaved the Aleuts , taking women and children hostage and torturing and killing Aleut men to force them to hunt . Many Aleuts were either murdered by the Russians or died from diseases the hunters had introduced . The Aleut population was reduced , by the Russians ' own estimate , from 20 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 . By the 1760s , the Russians had reached Alaska . In 1799 , Emperor Paul I consolidated the rival fur @-@ hunting companies into the Russian @-@ American Company , granting it an imperial charter and protection , and a monopoly over trade rights and territorial acquisition . Under Aleksandr I , the administration of the merchant @-@ controlled company was transferred to the Imperial Navy , largely due to the alarming reports by naval officers of native abuse ; in 1818 , the indigenous peoples of Alaska were granted civil rights equivalent to a townsman status in the Russian Empire .
Other nations joined in the hunt in the south . Along the coasts of what is now Mexico and California , Spanish explorers bought sea otter pelts from Native Americans and sold them in Asia . In 1778 , British explorer Captain James Cook reached Vancouver Island and bought sea otter furs from the First Nations people . When Cook 's ship later stopped at a Chinese port , the pelts rapidly sold at high prices , and were soon known as " soft gold " . As word spread , people from all over Europe and North America began to arrive in the Pacific Northwest to trade for sea otter furs .
Russian hunting expanded to the south , initiated by American ship captains , who subcontracted Russian supervisors and Aleut hunters in what are now Washington , Oregon , and California . Between 1803 and 1846 , 72 American ships were involved in the otter hunt in California , harvesting an estimated 40 @,@ 000 skins and tails , compared to only 13 ships of the Russian @-@ American Company , which reported 5 @,@ 696 otter skins taken between 1806 and 1846 . In 1812 , the Russians founded an agricultural settlement at what is now Fort Ross in northern California , as their southern headquarters . Eventually , sea otter populations became so depleted , commercial hunting was no longer viable . It had stopped the Aleutian Islands , by 1808 , as a conservation measure imposed by the Russian @-@ American Company . Further restrictions were ordered by the Company in 1834 . When Russia sold Alaska to the United States in 1867 , the Alaska population had recovered to over 100 @,@ 000 , but Americans resumed hunting and quickly extirpated the sea otter again . Prices rose as the species became rare . During the 1880s , a pelt brought $ 105 to $ 165 in the London market , but by 1903 , a pelt could be worth as much as $ 1 @,@ 125 . In 1911 , Russia , Japan , Great Britain ( for Canada ) and the United States signed the Treaty for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals , imposing a moratorium on the harvesting of sea otters . So few remained , perhaps only 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 individuals in the wild , that many believed the species would become extinct .
= = = Recovery and conservation = = =
During the 20th century , sea otter numbers rebounded in about two @-@ thirds of their historic range , a recovery that is considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation . However , the IUCN still lists the sea otter as an endangered species , and describes the significant threats to sea otters as oil pollution , predation by orcas , poaching , and conflicts with fisheries – sea otters can drown if entangled in fishing gear . The hunting of sea otters is no longer legal except for limited harvests by indigenous peoples in the United States . Poaching was a serious concern in the Russian Far East immediately after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 ; however , it has declined significantly with stricter law enforcement and better economic conditions .
The most significant threat to sea otters is oil spills . They are particularly vulnerable , as they rely on their fur to keep warm . When their fur is soaked with oil , it loses its ability to retain air , and the animals can quickly die from hypothermia . The liver , kidneys , and lungs of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming . The Exxon Valdez oil spill of 24 March 1989 killed thousands of sea otters in Prince William Sound , and as of 2006 , the lingering oil in the area continues to affect the population . Describing the public sympathy for sea otters that developed from media coverage of the event , a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service spokesperson wrote :
As a playful , photogenic , innocent bystander , the sea otter epitomized the role of victim ... cute and frolicsome sea otters suddenly in distress , oiled , frightened , and dying , in a losing battle with the oil .
The small geographic ranges of the sea otter populations in California , Washington , and British Columbia mean a single major spill could be catastrophic for that state or province . Prevention of oil spills and preparation for the rescue of otters in the event of one are major areas of focus for conservation efforts . Increasing the size and range of sea otter populations would also reduce the risk of an oil spill wiping out a population . However , because of the species ' reputation for depleting shellfish resources , advocates for commercial , recreational , and subsistence shellfish harvesting have often opposed allowing the sea otter 's range to increase , and there have even been instances of fishermen and others illegally killing them .
In the Aleutian Islands , a massive and unexpected disappearance of sea otters has occurred in recent decades . In the 1980s , the area was home to an estimated 55 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 sea otters , but the population fell to around 6 @,@ 000 animals by 2000 . The most widely accepted , but still controversial , hypothesis is that killer whales have been eating the otters . The pattern of disappearances is consistent with a rise in predation , but there has been no direct evidence of orcas preying on sea otters to any significant extent .
Another area of concern is California , where recovery began to fluctuate or decline in the late 1990s . Unusually high mortality rates amongst adult and subadult otters , particularly females , have been reported . Necropsies of dead sea otters indicate diseases , particularly Toxoplasma gondii and acanthocephalan parasite infections , are major causes of sea otter mortality in California . The Toxoplasma gondii parasite , which is often fatal to sea otters , is carried by wild and domestic cats and may be transmitted by domestic cat droppings flushed into the ocean via sewage systems . Although disease has clearly contributed to the deaths of many of California 's sea otters , it is not known why the California population is apparently more affected by disease than populations in other areas .
Sea otter habitat is preserved through several protected areas in the United States , Russia and Canada . In marine protected areas , polluting activities such as dumping of waste and oil drilling are typically prohibited . An estimated 1 @,@ 200 sea otters live within the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary , and more than 500 live within the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary .
= = = Economic impact = = =
Some of the sea otter 's preferred prey species , particularly abalone , clams , and crabs , are also food sources for humans . In some areas , massive declines in shellfish harvests have been blamed on the sea otter , and intense public debate has taken place over how to manage the competition between sea otters and humans for seafood .
The debate is complicated because sea otters have sometimes been held responsible for declines of shellfish stocks that were more likely caused by overfishing , disease , pollution , and seismic activity . Shellfish declines have also occurred in many parts of the North American Pacific coast that do not have sea otters , and conservationists sometimes note the existence of large concentrations of shellfish on the coast is a recent development resulting from the fur trade 's near @-@ extirpation of the sea otter . Although many factors affect shellfish stocks , sea otter predation can deplete a fishery to the point where it is no longer commercially viable . Scientists agree that sea otters and abalone fisheries cannot exist in the same area , and the same is likely true for certain other types of shellfish , as well .
Many facets of the interaction between sea otters and the human economy are not as immediately felt . Sea otters have been credited with contributing to the kelp harvesting industry via their well @-@ known role in controlling sea urchin populations ; kelp is used in the production of diverse food and pharmaceutical products . Although human divers harvest red sea urchins both for food and to protect the kelp , sea otters hunt more sea urchin species and are more consistently effective in controlling these populations . The health of the kelp forest ecosystem is significant in nurturing populations of fish , including commercially important fish species . In some areas , sea otters are popular tourist attractions , bringing visitors to local hotels , restaurants , and sea otter @-@ watching expeditions .
= = = Role in human cultures = = =
For many maritime indigenous cultures throughout the North Pacific , especially the Ainu in the Kuril Islands , the Koryaks and Itelmen of Kamchatka , the Aleut in the Aleutian Islands , the Haida of Haida Gwaii and a host of tribes on the Pacific coast of North America , the sea otter has played an important role as a cultural , as well as material , resource . In these cultures , many of which have strongly animist traditions full of legends and stories in which many aspects of the natural world are associated with spirits , the sea otter was considered particularly kin to humans . The Nuu @-@ chah @-@ nulth , Haida , and other First Nations of coastal British Columbia used the warm and luxurious pelts as chiefs ' regalia . Sea otter pelts were given in potlatches to mark coming @-@ of @-@ age ceremonies , weddings , and funerals . The Aleuts carved sea otter bones for use as ornaments and in games , and used powdered sea otter baculum as a medicine for fever .
Among the Ainu , the otter is portrayed as an occasional messenger between humans and the creator . The sea otter is a recurring figure in Ainu folklore . A major Ainu epic , the Kutune Shirka , tells the tale of wars and struggles over a golden sea otter . Versions of a widespread Aleut legend tell of lovers or despairing women who plunge into the sea and become otters . These links have been associated with the many human @-@ like behavioral features of the sea otter , including apparent playfulness , strong mother @-@ pup bonds and tool use , yielding to ready anthropomorphism . The beginning of commercial exploitation had a great impact on the human , as well as animal , populations the Ainu and Aleuts have been displaced or their numbers are dwindling , while the coastal tribes of North America , where the otter is in any case greatly depleted , no longer rely as intimately on sea mammals for survival .
Since the mid @-@ 1970s , the beauty and charisma of the species have gained wide appreciation , and the sea otter has become an icon of environmental conservation . The round , expressive face and soft , furry body of the sea otter are depicted in a wide variety of souvenirs , postcards , clothing , and stuffed toys .
= = = H1N1 host = = =
According to the U.S. Geological Survey and the CDC , northern sea otters , off the coast of Washington state , are infected with the H1N1 flu virus and " may be a newly identified animal host of influenza viruses " .
= = = Aquariums and zoos = = =
Sea otters can do well in captivity , and are featured in over 40 public aquariums and zoos . The Seattle Aquarium became the first institution to raise sea otters from conception to adulthood with the birth of Tichuk in 1979 , followed by three more pups in the early 1980s . In 2007 , a YouTube video of two sea otters holding paws drew 1 @.@ 5 million viewers in two weeks , and had over 20 million views as of January 2015 . Filmed five years previously at the Vancouver Aquarium , it was YouTube 's most popular animal video at the time , although it has since been surpassed . The lighter @-@ colored otter in the video is Nyac , a survivor of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill . Nyac died in September 2008 , at the age of 20 . Milo , the darker one , died of lymphoma in January , 2012
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= Texas Recreational Road 11 =
Recreational Road 11 ( RE 11 ) is a Recreational Road located in Concho County , in the western portion of the U.S. state of Texas . The highway is approximately 4 @.@ 3 miles ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) in length , and connects a recreational area on the O.H. Ivie Reservoir to Farm to Market Road 1929 ( FM 1929 ) . The roadway travels through mainly rural areas along the coast of the lake . Segments of road first appeared in the location of RE 11 around 1940 . Portions of the highway were designated as part of Ranch to Market Road 2134 ( RM 2134 ) in 1953 , but was removed as part of that highway due to the construction of the O.H. Ivie Reservoir . RE 11 was designated in December 1996 .
= = Route description = =
RE 11 begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with FM 1929 , to the north of a small farm . The roadway proceeds as a two @-@ lane , paved road , traveling northward through rural areas on a large peninsula on the lake . The road continues north , traveling through scrub land before it intersects the Ray Stoker Jr . Highway , and bends slightly northeast for a short distance . After continuing north , the roadway bends northeast , as it intersects the former route of RM 2134 . The highway intersects a small road leading to a residential community on the lake , before continuing northeast , where it intersects County Road 4763 ( CR 4763 ) , which leads to a small residential area . It turns north and continues for a short distance , after which the highway bends northwest , and proceeds to its northern terminus , a boat @-@ launch ramp on the coast of the lake . The highway is maintained by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) . No portion of the highway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The first segments of road appeared in the location of what would become RE 11 by 1940 . The southern road segment began at an at @-@ grade intersection , near the location of RE 11 , and traveled northward , before traveling slightly westward and terminating at a dead end . The road was graded and drained , and had a gravel surface , with a cattle guard near the middle of it . The northern segment of road traveled near the location of RE 11 . This road was also graded and drained , and had three cattle guards located along its course . By 1951 , a gate had been added to the southern road segment , and the northern segment had several turns straightened and lengthened . On October 28 , 1953 , RM 2134 was designated from Millersview along a road to the northern segment of what would become RE 11 . On August 24 , 1955 , the highway was designated along the northern segment of road , to the Colorado River . The designation was made official on October 1 , 1955 .
By 1956 , the surface of RM 2134 had been upgraded to stone , and the northern portion had been additionally straightened . On December 1 , 1957 , FM 2134 was extended northeastward across the Colorado River to the community of Voss . By 1961 , the portion designated as RM 2134 had been upgraded to a bituminous surface , made of asphalt and crushed rock . The other road segment had been upgraded to a metal surface . In addition , a new bridge had been constructed along the RM 2134 portion , and it had been straightened generally along the present location of RE 11 . In 1985 , plans were approved for the construction of the Stacey Reservoir . The construction was finished in 1990 , and the lake was instead named the O.H. Ivie Reservoir . The construction of the lake destroyed a large portion of RM 2134 , and caused the removal of the highway to FM 1929 . RE 11 was designated on its current location on October 31 , 1996 , and was officially approved on December 20 , 1996 . The route remains the most recently designated recreational road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Concho County .
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= Dudley Clarke =
Brigadier Dudley Wrangel Clarke CB , CBE ( 27 April 1899 – 7 May 1974 ) was an officer in the British Army , known as a pioneer of military deception operations during the Second World War . His ideas for combining fictional orders of battle , visual deception and double agents helped define Allied deception strategy during the war , for which he has been referred to as " the greatest British deceiver of WW2 " . Clarke was also instrumental in the founding of three famous military units , namely the British Commandos , the Special Air Service and the US Rangers .
Born in Johannesburg and brought up near London , Clarke joined the Royal Artillery as an officer in 1916 , but transferred to the Royal Flying Corps after finding he was too young to fight in France . He spent the First World War learning to fly , first in Reading and then Egypt . Clarke returned to the Royal Artillery in 1919 and had a varied career doing intelligence work in the Middle East . In 1936 he was posted to Palestine , where he helped organise the British repression of the 1936 Arab uprising . During the Second World War , Clarke joined John Dill 's staff and proposed and helped implement , an idea for commando raids into France – an early form of the British Commandos .
In 1940 , Archibald Wavell called Clarke to Cairo and placed him in charge of strategic deception . As cover he was employed to set up a regional organisation for MI9 , a British escape and evasion department . The following year Clarke received a war establishment and set up Advanced Headquarters ' A ' Force with a small staff to plan deception operations . Once satisfied with the department 's structure , he pursued intelligence contacts in Turkey and Spain . In late 1941 Clarke was called to London , where his deception work had come to the attention of Allied high command . Shortly afterwards , while in Madrid , he was arrested wearing women 's clothing , in circumstances that remain unclear . He was released and after being questioned by the governor of Gibraltar , allowed to return to Cairo .
During Clarke 's absence , deception hierarchy in Middle East Command had become muddled . Colonel Ralph Bagnold had taken over deception planning , pushing ' A ' Force aside . Clarke was sent to El Alamein , where Allied forces were on the retreat , to work on deception plans . Upon his return , Bagnold was sidelined and ' A ' Force reinstated as the primary deception department . Throughout 1942 Clarke implemented Operation Cascade , an order of battle deception which added many fictional units to the Allied formations . Cascade was a success ; by the end of the war the enemy accepted most of the formations as real . From 1942 to 1945 , Clarke continued to organise deception in North Africa and southern Europe . After the war he was asked to record the history of ' A ' Force . He retired in 1947 and lived the rest of his life in relative obscurity . As well as pursuing a literary career that produced two histories and a thriller , he worked for the Conservative Party and was a director of Securicor . He died in London in 1974 .
= = Early life = =
Clarke was born in Johannesburg on 27 April 1899 . His father , Ernest Clarke , grew up in Kingston upon Hull and moved to South Africa in the late 19th century , where he became embroiled in the Jameson Raid . Ernest managed to avoid prison for his part in the raid and , via a co @-@ conspirator , obtained a job at a gold mining company . Once settled , Ernest married Madeline Gardiner , and a short while later , Dudley was born . During the Second Boer War , the Clarke family was trapped in the siege of Ladysmith . Although an infant at the time of the siege , Clarke later tried to claim a campaign medal . Soon afterwards , the family returned to England , moving to Watford , where Clarke 's brother , the screenwriter T. E. B. Clarke , was born in 1907 .
From an early age , Clarke wanted a career in the armed forces . In 1912 , he attended Charterhouse School , where he was exposed to the glamorous parties and smart uniforms of the nearby military presence at Aldershot , including the newly formed Royal Flying Corps .
= = First World War and inter @-@ war period = =
I 've always been a little proud of the fact that , when Britain went to war with Germany on 4th August 1914 , I was already in uniform and under arms ... I was only fifteen and a half and no more than a private in the Charterhouse Contingent of the Officers Training corps
Eager to be in active service , Clarke applied to sit the Army Entrance Exam in 1915 , as soon as he had reached the minimum age of sixteen and a half . To his own surprise ( he had petitioned the Charterhouse headmaster for a recommendation , allowing him to bypass the exam , on the expectation of failing ) , he passed and in early 1916 attended the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich . In November 1916 , Clarke was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery . When his regiment deployed to France , Clarke had to stay behind because , aged 17 , he was too young to fight . Frustrated , he applied to join the Royal Flying Corps and transferred to the School of Military Aeronautics in Reading in November 1917 . The following April he was posted to Egypt to complete his flight training , where he stayed until January 1919 . Despite his promotion to the rank of lieutenant , Clarke transferred back to the Royal Artillery on his return to England .
After the war , Clarke had a varied military career that began with a posting to Mesopotamia in 1919 . During the Iraqi revolt of 1920 , he helped evacuate Europeans from the region by boat . While on extended leave in Turkey in 1922 , he became involved in the Chanak Crisis , a threatened Turkish attack on British and French troops . Clarke volunteered to help the local British force and was tasked with feeding misinformation to Turkish nationalists – a first taste of the activities that would define his later military career . In 1925 , during another period of leave , Clarke covered the Rif War for the Morning Post .
Over the inter @-@ war period , Clarke became involved in the theatre and drama establishments of his postings . In 1923 , he re @-@ formed the Royal Artillery Officers Dramatic Club and was responsible for the Royal Artillery 's display at the 1925 Royal Tournament . In 1933 and 1934 , he wrote and directed two Christmas pantomimes .
= = = Palestine = = =
In 1936 , Clarke was posted , at his request , to Palestine , just in time to participate in the 1936 Arab uprising . The British presence in Jerusalem was minimal at that time , comprising two regiments of infantry and a motley collection of air and armour under the command of Colonel Jack Evetts . Clarke , as one of only two staff officers , was faced with organising an effective response to guerrilla warfare . He first set to work improving communications between the small Royal Air Force contingent and the army . It was here that he met Tony Simonds , an intelligence officer sent to the region with express orders to set up an intelligence network . Clarke and Simonds worked to feed reliable information to British forces .
Toward the end of 1936 , more troops were dispatched to Palestine . Lieutenant General John Dill was placed in command , and Clarke became his chief of staff . In 1937 , Dill was replaced by Major General Archibald Wavell , the commander who would later give Clarke free rein in Middle Eastern deception operations . In the preface to Clarke 's 1948 book , Seven Assignments , Wavell wrote about their time together in Palestine :
When I commanded in Palestine in 1937 – 38 , I had on my staff two officers in whom I recognised an original , unorthodox outlook on soldiering ... One was Orde Wingate , the second was Dudley Clarke .
= = Second World War = =
At the outbreak of the Second World War Clarke was promoted to lieutenant colonel and began working on intelligence tasks . He worked with Wavell in the Middle East to research possible Allied supply lines , undertook two trips to Norway ( in an effort to maintain its neutrality ) , and conducted secret missions in Calais and Ireland .
In May 1940 Clarke became a military assistant to General Sir John Dill ( then Chief of the General Staff ) at the War Office . On 30 May 1940 , inspired by childhood recollections of similar Boer forces as well as experiences during the Arab uprising in Palestine , Clarke sketched out an idea for small amphibious raiding parties , called Commandos . On 5 June , while Dill was inspecting the troops evacuated from Dunkirk , Clarke suggested the idea to him , and the prime minister approved the plan on the following day . Clarke , under Brigadier Otto Lunde , was tasked with setting up a new department , MO9 , and began to recruit soldiers for what would later become the British Commandos . The first raid into France , Operation Collar , took place on 24 June 1940 . Clarke obtained permission to accompany the 120 @-@ strong force , but was not allowed to go ashore . The attempt was not a major success , with only one of the four units managing to kill enemy troops . While waiting on the beach for his men to return , Clarke 's boat was apparently spotted by a German patrol . Somehow Clarke was injured in the ear during , he said , an exchange of fire . Ernest Chappell , who was also on the beach , said that the patrol had not opened fire .
= = = 1941 : Cairo = = =
In Cairo , Archibald Wavell , Clarke 's old commander in Palestine , was commanding the North African campaign . He believed that deception was a key part of warfare . On 13 December he summoned Clarke to Egypt , telling high command he wished to set up " a special section of Intelligence for Deception " . While awaiting Clarke 's arrival , Wavell initiated a successful deception against the Italian forces at Sidi Barrani . Clarke reached Cairo on 18 December , to be greeted by Tony Simonds – another old hand from Palestine . Wavell put Clarke in charge , albeit under great secrecy , of broad strategic deception operations in North Africa . He held this position , under subsequent Mediterranean commanders , for the next five years .
On his arrival in Cairo , Clarke began to build a network of useful contacts . He befriended Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Raymund Maunsell , who operated Security Intelligence Middle East ( SIME ) , the agency in charge of counter @-@ espionage in the region . Maunsell later worked closely with Clarke , helping to feed misinformation to the enemy via double agents . Clarke 's first deception was a scheme to mislead Italian forces into expecting an invasion of Italian Somaliland instead of Eritrea , the real Allied target . Operation Camilla fooled the Italian leadership completely but instead of diverting troops as the British hoped , they withdrew their forces into Eritrea . From this failure Clarke learned a first lesson , one he would teach to many other deception officers during the war : that the key to deception was not to make your enemy think what you wish but to get them to do what you want .
Clarke had not forgotten his previous pet scheme : the Commandos . In January 1941 , he met the American Colonel William J. Donovan while the latter was touring the region . Clarke 's description of the 1940 British unit inspired Donovan to emulate the idea . Clarke suggested the name " Rangers " , after the frontier force Rogers ' Rangers in the film Northwest Passage , for Donovan 's unit . In May of the following year the United States Army Rangers were founded .
In February , Clarke suffered from an attack of jaundice that put him out of action for about six weeks . He was visited regularly by Maunsell who was , by that time , a firm friend .
= = = = ' A ' Force = = = =
At first Clarke worked alone and in secret , under the official title " Intelligence Officer ( special duties ) to the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief " . He had neither staff nor official mandate , and worked from a " converted bathroom " at the British Army headquarters , Cairo . His cover role was to establish a regional department for MI9 , the less secret organisation tasked with helping Allied servicemen in escape and evasion tactics . Far from being a token cover , Clarke ran MI9 's Middle East department , in tandem with his deception work , until August 1944 . Clarke 's one @-@ man show in deception was not to last long .
In January 1941 Clarke began Operation Abeam , fabricating the existence of a British paratrooper regiment in the region . It would be two years before such troops reached the Mediterranean , but Clarke hoped to play on Italian fears of an airborne assault . He created a fictional 1st Special Air Service Brigade , using faked documents , photographs and reports , which leaked back to the Italians . He even dressed two soldiers in " 1 SAS " uniforms and set them to wander around Cairo , Port Said and Alexandria hinting at missions in Crete or Libya .
By March , Clarke had another scheme in the works , a deception cover for Operation Cordite , the 6th Infantry Division invasion of Rhodes . His work interviewing locals about the Greek island could not be associated with the 6th so he adopted the guise of ' A ' Force . The name was intentionally vague , designed to add to the mythology of his fictional airborne unit . Although at first only a cover name , the department soon became real and took control of deception in the region . On 28 March 1941 Clarke requisitioned No. 6 Sharia Kasr @-@ el @-@ Nill , Cairo – opposite 6th Division HQ and below a brothel – and in April received an official mandate for his department . " Advanced Headquarters ' A ' Force " moved into their new offices on 8 April 1941 and Clarke began to recruit his staff .
Clarke 's airborne SAS had another legacy . In May 1941 David Stirling , an injured member of the early 8 Commando , envisioned a new special forces unit consisting of small commando teams intended to operate behind enemy lines . Clarke gave the project his full backing , and the unit was named " L " Detachment , Special Air Service – in part to help solidify the existence of the larger fictional force in the minds of the enemy . Stirling 's force later evolved into the modern @-@ day Special Air Service . Clarke therefore had a hand in the formation of three famed military units .
Phantom forces , of which the SAS was only Clarke 's first , played a crucial part in deception operations during the war – including along the Western Front in 1944 – but for the rest of April 1941 he worked hard to build his department .
= = = = Consolidating deception = = = =
Clarke 's " War Establishment " granted him three officers , several enlisted men and a small array of vehicles . A recruitment drive paid off in the form of highly experienced staff . To help with visual deception he brought in Victor Jones and Jasper Maskelyne . He also recruited a Scots Guards officer , Captain Ogilvie @-@ Grant , to manage the MI9 escape and evasion work , which had been adopted as cover for the whole of ' A ' Force . Finally , the services of Major E. Titterington , originally a member of Maunsell 's SIME , were obtained for help in creating forged documents ; eventually Titterington 's operation expanded to form a subsection of ' A ' Force devoted to forgeries .
With his office organised , Clarke was happy to leave day @-@ to @-@ day management to his staff . He then embarked on a trip to Turkey , where he worked to establish a network of misinformation as well as carry out his MI9 role . There he met two important figures in Turkish intelligence – Brigadier Allan Arnold , the British military attaché , and Commander Vladimir Wolfson , a Royal Navy attaché – and worked with them to open channels of misinformation to the enemy . In Wolfson , Clarke had found an important resource and , in his own words , began " a long and profitable partnership for Deception and MI9 matters in Turkey which was to last for the rest of the war " . Clarke left Istanbul on 16 May , travelling covertly back to Egypt via Syria and Lebanon in order to reconnoitre the ground that British forces would have to invade when entering the country . He arrived in Cairo on 21 May .
Despite Clarke and Wavell 's successes in deception , the North African campaign was turning against the Allies . In 1941 Erwin Rommel had taken command of Axis forces and won early victories . Churchill replaced Wavell with Claude Auchinleck . Clarke 's new commander was impressed with Wavell 's setup , so ' A ' Force and the rest of Middle Eastern Command continued to operate as before .
= = = = Lisbon and London = = = =
Clarke travelled to Lisbon on 22 August 1941 aiming , as with his earlier Turkey trip , to open up lines of deception into Axis forces . He spent around a month in the area , posing as a flamboyant journalist , before being summoned back to London . His successful deception activities in the Middle East had caught the attention of high command , and Clarke was asked to write a paper about his experiences .
While in London , Clarke met many of his counterparts on the Western Front . He attended meetings of the Twenty Committee and Chiefs of Staff Committee ( which was chaired by his old commander , John Dill ) . The paper on deception met with approval in the establishment and it was decided that a department similar to ' A ' Force should be created in London . Clarke was offered the job , reporting directly to the Chiefs of Staff and War Cabinet . He declined , citing loyalty to the Middle East , but his decision was in large part due to the greater operational freedom and status he enjoyed in North Africa . The London Controlling Section was formed and , after some disorganisation , prospered under John Bevan , with whom Clarke would later work closely .
Pleased with his success in London , Clarke returned to Lisbon on 12 October posing as a journalist for The Times named " Wrangal Craker " . His aim was to carry on the semi @-@ undercover work of spreading rumours and misinformation to the Germans . Later that month , in Madrid , he was arrested while dressed as a woman . Guy Liddell , wartime counter @-@ espionage head at MI5 , said of the incident : " I 'm afraid to say that after his stay in Lisbon as a bogus journalist he has got rather over @-@ confident about his powers as an agent . " Clarke was released , apparently at the behest of a German contact who believed him to be " an important agent who was ready to assist the Germans " , and made his way to Gibraltar .
Clarke 's run of bad luck continued . He was ordered back to London to explain the Madrid incident to his superiors but , after setting out on the ship Ariosto , the convoy was torpedoed by a U @-@ boat on 24 October . The Ariosto was one of three ships sunk in the engagement , although he escaped harm and returned to Gibraltar . Rather than attempting another trip to London , Clarke was interviewed by the Governor of Gibraltar , Lord Gort , who judged Clarke 's answers acceptable and concluded that " we can reasonably expect that this escapade and its consequences will have given him sufficient shock to make him more prudent in the immediate future " . It is unclear why Clarke was wearing a dress , but reports of the incident indicated he had been following a lead and gone a little too far in his spy @-@ craft . Photographs of his disguise , obtained from the Spanish police , circulated in London and were viewed mostly with amusement . He was allowed to return to Cairo and reached Egypt on 18 November . Although he escaped disciplinary action over the incident , it was the last time Clarke attempted his own espionage work .
= = = 1942 : El Alamein = = =
Back in Cairo , Clarke discovered that much had changed during his absence . The recently promoted Colonel Ralph Bagnold had been appointed " Chief Deception Officer " at Middle Eastern HQ and had taken charge of tactical deception . Clarke was annoyed at what he saw as a power grab and at the sudden high profile of deception operations ( Bagnold 's promotion was widely publicised ) . Over the next few months Bagnold secured more and more of the day @-@ to @-@ day management of deception operations leaving ' A ' Force , and Clarke , in a training and advisory capacity .
Despite this , Clarke 's services were in high demand as the opening months of 1942 saw Allied forces in North Africa suffering serious defeats . On 2 February Auchinleck dispatched Clarke to Libya with urgent orders to assist in halting the German advances . Before leaving for the Eighth Army headquarters in Gazala , Clarke left a note , which he later described as " begging for the whole question of deception machinery in the Command to be reviewed completely afresh during his absence . " Once on the ground he found a shaken army conducting a hesitant withdrawal , and in urgent need of delaying tactics to slow the German advance . After brainstorming with his team in Cairo , Clarke envisioned Bastion , a deception operation to convince Rommel that his advance on Gazala was heading into a trap . The plan , which involved Victor Jones creating a strong fictional force of 300 tanks on the British right hand flank , was in full swing during February . The operation appears to have had limited effect . Rommel delayed his advance until May , when British forces were routed at the Battle of Gazala and the Germans resumed their push toward Egypt .
Upon his return to Cairo , on 15 February , Clarke was pleased to find that Auchinleck had restored ' A ' Force as the sole deception organisation at HQ . Bagnold 's enterprise was entirely sidelined and he moved on to other things . Clarke , who in March was promoted to full colonel , said that Bastion had taught him much : " We learnt more Lessons from it than from almost any other plan and it helped us evolve three important principles . " By the end of March , Clarke considered the much @-@ expanded ' A ' Force , and his theory of deception , to have matured beyond the basic trial and error of the previous years .
= = = = Operation Cascade = = = =
In March 1942 Clarke had begun to draft ideas for an ambitious order @-@ of @-@ battle deception . He had found that the process of convincing the enemy of the existence of a notional force was long and tedious . Operation Cascade was intended to create the fiction of a much increased Allied force in North Africa , including eight divisions , three new brigades , and even the 1st SAS . At first the plan was intended to deter the Axis from extending an offensive against the USSR southward into the region .
After a slow start , in early 1942 , Cascade began to take effect . As early as May , Axis intelligence began to overestimate Allied strength by nearly 30 % . In July the operation expanded . Clarke introduced more and more fictitious divisions and by the end of the year the Germans had accepted many of them as real formations . By 1944 , when the operation was superseded , it had completely fooled the enemy . Cascade was a major success for Clarke ; it supported most of the subsequent major deceptions for the remainder of the war ( by providing established fictional units ) and proved that deception on a grand scale was a realistic strategy .
= = = = El Alamein deceptions , August 1942 = = = =
In May , before Cascade had become fully operational , Rommel defeated the British Army in Libya . Auchinleck rallied his forces at El Alamein and asked Clarke to draft plans for delaying the Axis advance , giving the Allies time to withdraw . Operation Sentinel was designed to convince Rommel , using camouflage , fakery and radio deception , that substantial British armour sat between him and the retreating Eighth Army . In spite of his success at El Alamein Auchinleck was replaced by Harold Alexander on 8 August , Clarke 's third commander in under two years . Bernard Montgomery was handed control of the Eighth Army and instructed to push Rommel back . Montgomery knew Clarke , having taught him infantry tactics at the Staff College in 1931 , and instructed him to prepare deception plans for the Second Battle of El Alamein . The plan involved major camouflage activity , Operation Bertram , radio deception , Operation Canwell and a disinformation campaign , Operation Treatment . On 9 September Clarke was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) . The citation recognised his efforts in setting up A @-@ Force , but referred to its less clandestine MI9 escape and evasion work .
Clarke had his mind on other things besides awards and El Alamein . He delegated much of the ongoing planning to ' A ' Force staff , as the department was now well established . Instead he flew to London and Washington in October to discuss strategic deception for Operation Torch , the forthcoming British @-@ American invasion of the French North African colonies , leaving Charles Richardson ( a planning officer at Eight Army HQ ) and Geoffrey Barkas ( Director of Camouflage , Middle East Command ) to implement Operation Bertram . For the first time deception experts from across the theatres of war worked together . John Bevan of the London Controlling Section hosted an October conference for Clarke , Peter Flemming from India , and representatives from Washington . The meeting agreed on plans for a disinformation campaign , which would attempt to convince German high command that the Allied targets in Africa were Dakar and Sicily ( the far eastern and western limits of the theatre ) . Four days after Montgomery 's success at El Alamein , on 8 November , Allied forces landed in Morocco and Algeria to the surprise of German forces there . On 14 October Clarke , along with Bevan and Flemming , met Churchill to discuss all the Allied deception strategies .
= = = 1943 : Barclay = = =
1943 would be the peak of deception operations for Clarke and ' A ' Force – in 1944 the focus switched to the Western Front . Until then he was very busy between Operation Barclay and the continuing Cascade . The main Allied push that year was toward Sicily , as decided by high command in January . Barclay was the elaborate deception with which Clarke was tasked , an operation to mislead the Axis into expecting attacks on the far eastern and western extremities of the northern Mediterranean theatre – namely the Balkan Peninsula and southern France .
On 15 March Clarke again met Bevan , in Algiers , to discuss strategy for Barclay . Building on Cascade he added the Twelfth Army to his fictional order of battle , and began to make them look like a convincing threat to Crete and the Greek mainland . For this new deception ' A ' Force had strong support from London – in April the famed Operation Mincemeat was used to help bolster Clarke 's deceptive thrust toward Crete .
By this point ' A ' Force had much expanded beyond the small flat in Cairo , adding representatives with the army in Sicily and offices in Algiers and Nairobi . Clarke roved around the region acting as overseer of the department 's operations . On 14 October he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) , the citation ( marked " not for publication " ) praised Clarke 's ongoing work , referring to him as " irreplaceable " . In December 1943 , he was promoted to the rank of brigadier . Although the promotion did not include perks associated with higher ranks ( such as a car and driver ) Clarke used his charisma to obtain them anyway .
= = = 1944 : Monty 's double = = =
In 1944 the Allies finally focused on France and the Western Front . Bevan and the London Controlling Section were tasked with inventing an elaborate masquerade to cover the Normandy invasion , a vindication of the theory pioneered by Clarke and Wavell : that every real operation should have a complementary deception .
The focus on France left Clarke supporting the Allied push through Italy . He noted that " the peculiar circumstances of the Mediterranean Theater made it a sheer impossibility to have a hiatus of more than a week or two duration between Deception Plans . " In quick succession ' A ' Force executed deceptions that included the operations Oakenfield and Zeppelin . Later that spring Clarke was inspired by a war film , Five Graves to Cairo , to create Operation Copperhead . Bernard Montgomery had recently been moved to England to take command of the ground forces intended for the Normandy invasion . To confuse the Germans , Clarke located a look @-@ alike , pre @-@ war actor Lieutenant M. E. Clifton James , and brought him to the Mediterranean under much ceremony .
Through 1944 ' A ' Force was slowly winding down . Clarke was involved in planning Operation Bodyguard , a major cover plan for the Allied landing in Normandy , and he was tasked with executing the ( largely political ) deceptions in the Middle Eastern region . However , by the end of the summer ' A ' Force 's usefulness in operations had reached its end . On 13 October Clarke held a party ( true to form , at a Cairo cinema ) for the remaining members of the department . Command of the remaining tactical deceptions was transferred to Caserta . Clarke , along with a skeleton staff , remained in Egypt to tie up the loose ends of various operations and to begin his history of the department . In April 1945 , Clarke left Cairo for London ; on 18 June he called a meeting of the remaining ' A ' Force members at the Great Central Hotel where the department was disbanded .
Clarke was mentioned in despatches on 19 October 1944 , relating to his work setting up ' A ' Force .
The planning and implementation of deception measures which have played a major part in the successes achieved in this theatre have been due in large measure to the originality of thought , imagination and initiative displayed by this officer .
The citation was announced in The London Gazette on 22 February 1945 . Clarke received a further honour that year , when on 19 June he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) . On 2 April 1946 he was awarded the American Legion of Merit .
= = After the war = =
Following the end of the war Clarke spent some time writing war histories . Until his retirement from the army in 1947 , with the rank of brigadier , he recorded the history of ' A ' Force . The document was never published and remained classified till the 1970s . His first complete book was published in 1948 . Seven Assignments recorded Clarke 's activities during the early wartime period of 1939 and 1940 ( before the Middle East posting ) . It was not his first attempt at a book . In 1925 Clarke had found a publisher for his coverage for the Rif rebellion , but the work was never finished .
Following Seven Assignments Clarke then took a job at Conservative Central Office , as Head of Public Opinion Research , where he worked until 1952 . During this later career he also served as a director of Securicor . In 1952 he resumed his literary career with the publication of The Eleventh at War , a history of the 11th Hussars . The following year he submitted a publisher 's proposal for The Secret War , a full account of deception during the Second World War , but was prevented from writing it by the Official Secrets Act . His final book was fiction , a thriller entitled Golden Arrow , published in 1955 .
Clarke lived out his retirement in relative obscurity , despite the belief of his former commander , Field Marshal Harold Alexander , that " he did as much to win the war as any other single officer " . Clarke died on 7 May 1974 , his address at the time was an apartment in Raleigh House , Dolphin Square , London . Most of his war work in military deception remained an obscure secret until the end of the 20th century and the publication of Michael Howard 's 1990 official history , Strategic Deception in the Second World War .
= = Legacy = =
Clarke was widely regarded as an expert in military deception , and viewed by some of his peers as nearly legendary in status . In his 2004 book , The Deceivers , historian Thaddeus Holt identifies Clarke as " the master of the game " , having been immersed in his deception activities for the entire war . Clarke evolved deception , almost from scratch , as a vital part of Allied strategy . The organisation that he and Wavell established proved a model for the other theatres of war , and his successes directly led to the creation of the London Controlling Section in 1941 . He also misled German intelligence for several years – to the extent that they overestimated Allied strength in North Africa by a quarter of a million men . The journalist Nicholas Rankin , writing in 2008 , referred to Clarke as " the greatest British deceiver of WW2 , a special kind of secret servant . "
From the start of his Cairo posting Clarke learned the art of deception by trial and error . From mistakes during Camilla he learned to focus on what he wanted the enemy to do rather than on what he wanted them to think . From another early operation ( K @-@ Shell , the spreading of rumours about a new Allied super @-@ shell which eventually petered out after the media picked up the story ) , he learned the value of conducting deception only when there was a clear objective , rather than because it was possible . From Bastion he discovered the difficulty of running a large deception on a short timescale . From these lessons Clarke evolved his principles of deception .
Clarke also had a good appreciation of the complex interplay between Operations and intelligence in deception operations . He understood how to manipulate enemy intelligence agencies to build up the story he was trying to sell , and saw the importance of getting Operations , on his own side , to fit into those stories .
= = Personal life = =
Clarke is described as a charismatic , charming and theatrical character with a streak of creativity , a personality reflected in the escapades of his life and career . His self @-@ deprecating humour and work ethic made Clarke a popular figure within the army , where he was considered to have odd " old world " habits and " an uncanny habit of suddenly appearing in a room without anyone having noticed him enter " . Clarke was considered to possess an " original intellect " , and to have odd habits , but was never seen as eccentric ( a trait that was frowned on within the army establishment ) . Despite having middle @-@ class origins , he aspired to the fringes of the upper @-@ class establishment , in his words : " one of those in the inner circle , watching the wheels go round at the hub of the British Empire at some great moment in history . "
From his time in Egypt during the First World War , Clarke fell in love with the country and he returned there as often as possible . He had a great respect for the inhabitants , writing that they had " the endearing qualities of humour and fortitude " . Another particular love was film . In Cairo , during the Second World War , he was a regular at the cinema , a location that suited his photographic memory and preference for working at night ; he often conducted meetings there . Films influenced his work in other ways , for instance in the inspiration he took from Northwest Passage to name the US Rangers .
Clarke was inventive as well as frugal . While at flight school in Reading , and without any money to fund his recreation , he built " an apparatus composed of a bootlace , a lanyard and some straps off my valise , by which I am enabled to turn out the light without getting out of bed " .
The incident in Madrid , and Clarke 's love of theatrics , raised awkward questions about his sexuality . His arrest was somewhat hushed up at the time , which may have raised more questions than it prevented . There is no indication that Clarke was homosexual . He was involved in two bad relationships with women . In 1922 he met a Slavic woman called Nina in Wiesbaden , but she disappeared after Clarke smuggled currency to her friend in Bulgaria . Then in the late 1920s a woman in Sussex , who " meant everything in the world " to him , refused an offer of marriage . He often claimed to hate children and never married . Despite this Clarke was known for having beautiful female acquaintances , to whom his friends referred as " Dudley 's Duchesses " .
= = Books = =
Clarke , Dudley ( 1948 ) . Seven Assignments . J. Cape .
Clarke , Dudley ( 1952 ) . The Eleventh at War : Being the Story of the XIth Hussars ( Prince Albert 's Own ) Through the Years 1934 – 1945 . M. Joseph .
Clarke , Dudley ( 1955 ) . Golden Arrow .
= = = News articles = = =
Wilkes , David ( 22 May 2013 ) . " The name 's Bond , Jane Bond : Riddle of the WW2 spy arrested in Spain ... dressed as a woman " . The Daily Mail ( London ) . Retrieved 2013 @-@ 05 @-@ 23 .
= = = = London Gazette = = = =
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 35697 @.@ p . 3946 . 8 September 1942 .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 36209 @.@ p . 4539 . 12 October 1943 .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 36950 @.@ p . 3223 . 20 February 1945 .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 37138 @.@ p . 1041 . 19 June 1945 .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 37521 @.@ p . 1726 . 2 April 1946 .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 46307 @.@ p . 6650 . 4 June 1974 .
= = = = War record = = = =
" Recommendation for Award : Officer of the Order of the British Empire " . The National Archives . 9 September 1942 .
" Recommendation for Award : Commander of the Order of the British Empire " . The National Archives . 14 October 1943 .
" Recommendation for Award : Mention in Despatches " . The National Archives . 19 October 1944 .
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= HMS Havant ( H32 ) =
HMS Havant was an H @-@ class destroyer originally ordered by the Brazilian Navy with the name Javary in the late 1930s , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of World War II in September 1939 . The ship was initially assigned to escort duties in the Western Approaches , but was transferred to the Home Fleet when the Norwegian Campaign began in April 1940 . She was only peripherally involved in the campaign as she escorted ships carrying troops that occupied Iceland and the Faeroe Islands as well as convoys to Narvik . Havant was evacuating troops from Dunkirk when she was badly damaged by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers on 1 June and had to be scuttled .
= = Description = =
Havant displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Havant carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship was designed for four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Havant had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to 3 sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well .
= = Service = =
Javary was ordered by Brazil on 8 December 1937 from J. Samuel White , Cowes . The ship was laid down on 30 March 1938 and launched on 17 July 1939 . She was purchased by the British on 5 September and renamed HMS Havant . The ship was commissioned on 19 December and arrived at Portland Harbour on 8 January 1940 to begin working up . She made one unsuccessful anti @-@ submarine sweep 4 – 9 February with the destroyers Ardent and Whitshed after she was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Western Approaches Command at Plymouth . Havant had degaussing equipment fitted and minor repairs were made through March .
The ship was en route to Greenock to escort a convoy to Gibraltar on 7 April when she was transferred to the Home Fleet as a result of the impending German invasion of Norway . Along with her sister Hesperus , Havant escorted the heavy cruiser Suffolk on 13 April as the latter ship carried a detachment of Royal Marines to occupy the Faeroe Islands . The ship then escorted convoys to Narvik until 7 May . A week later she escorted the ocean liners Lancastria and Franconia as they carried troops to occupy Iceland .
Havant joined the Dunkirk evacuation on 29 May and rescued over 2 @,@ 300 men by 1 June . That morning she had embarked 500 troops and then went alongside the destroyer Ivanhoe , which had been disabled by German dive bombers earlier that morning . The ship loaded all of the troops and wounded from Ivanhoe and sailed for Dover under heavy air attack . Shortly afterwards , Stukas hit Havant with two bombs in her engine room and another exploded beneath her hull . Eight crewmen were killed and 25 were wounded in the attack . At least 25 soldiers were also killed . She was severely damaged and had to be scuttled by the minesweeper HMS Saltash after an attempt to tow her failed .
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= 2014 – 15 York City F.C. season =
The 2014 – 15 season was the 93rd season of competitive association football and 78th season in the Football League played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their seventh @-@ place finish in 2013 – 14 and loss to Fleetwood Town in the play @-@ offs meant it was their third successive season in League Two . The season ran from 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2015 .
Nigel Worthington made eight signings in his second summer transfer window as York manager . With the team only one place above the relegation zone by mid @-@ October 2014 , Worthington resigned and was replaced by former Scunthorpe United manager Russ Wilcox . After a six @-@ match unbeaten run from late @-@ March to mid @-@ April 2015 , York ensured survival from relegation before finishing in 18th @-@ position in the 24 @-@ team 2014 – 15 League Two . York were knocked out of the 2014 – 15 FA Cup , League Cup and Football League Trophy in their opening round matches .
32 players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were 13 different goalscorers . Defender Keith Lowe missed only one of the 50 first @-@ team matches over the season . Jake Hyde finished as leading scorer with 10 goals , of which nine came in league competition and one came in the FA Cup . The winner of the Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Lowe .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
The 2013 – 14 season was Nigel Worthington 's first full season as manager of York City , after leading the team to safety from relegation in 2012 – 13 following his appointment in March 2013 . Having only been above the relegation zone on goal difference come the start of 2014 , the team went on a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run from February onwards . This saw York reach the play @-@ offs with a seventh @-@ place finish in the 2013 – 14 Football League Two table . York were beaten 1 – 0 on aggregate by Fleetwood Town in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , the decisive goal being scored by former York player Matty Blair at Bootham Crescent in the first leg .
After 2013 – 14 ended York released Tom Allan , Calvin Andrew , Chris Dickinson , Shaq McDonald , Sander Puri and Adam Reed , with David McGurk retiring from professional football . Ryan Bowman and Lanre Oyebanjo left the club to sign for Torquay United and Crawley Town respectively , but Michael Coulson signed a new contract . Worthington made eight signings before the season kicked @-@ off , those being goalkeeper Jason Mooney from Tranmere Rovers , defenders Femi Ilesanmi from Dagenham & Redbridge , Marvin McCoy from Wycombe Wanderers and Dave Winfield from Shrewsbury Town , midfielders Lindon Meikle from Mansfield Town , Anthony Straker from Southend United and Luke Summerfield from Shrewsbury , and striker Jake Hyde from Barnet .
New home and away kits were brought in for the first time in two years . The home kit included red shirts with a white collar and white trims on the sleeves , white shorts and red socks . The away kit comprised light blue shirts with a white collar , a white double @-@ chevron decoration at the top and white sleeves , light blue shirts and light blue socks . Benenden Health continued as shirt sponsors for the third successive season .
= = Review = =
= = = August = = =
York started the season by playing away to Tranmere Rovers , who were new to League Two after being relegated from League One after 2013 – 14 . Keith Lowe gave York the lead with a header from Meikle 's corner in the 67th @-@ minute , before Tranmere equalised through James Rowe in stoppage time as the match ended a 1 – 1 draw . This was followed by a 1 – 0 home defeat to Doncaster Rovers in the first round of the League Cup , after Harry Forrester scored for the League One side in stoppage time . Hyde scored from a Straker corner on his debut to give York the lead over Northampton Town in a home match , before the visitors made the score 1 – 1 in the 90th @-@ minute from a Marc Richards free kick . Cambridge United took a two @-@ goal lead at York , before Hyde scored a header shortly before half time and Wes Fletcher scored a penalty in the 83rd @-@ minute , seeing the match end a 2 – 2 draw . York then played away to Exeter City , who were also without a win this season , and drew 1 – 1 ; Exeter took the lead in the 8th @-@ minute before Lowe equalised with a header from a Summerfield corner in the 82nd @-@ minute . August ended with a fifth successive league draw after York were held 0 – 0 at home by Wycombe Wanderers , who wad won three of their first four league matches .
= = = September = = =
York were knocked out of the Football League Trophy in the first round after being beaten 2 – 0 away by Barnsley , with the League One team scoring twice in the second half . Their first win of the season came after beating Stevenage 3 – 2 away . Coulson and Fletcher scored in the first half for York before Stevenage levelled the score after the break , and Fletcher scored the winning goal with a 75th @-@ minute penalty . This was followed by York 's first league defeat of the season , losing 2 – 0 away to league leaders Burton Albion . Goalkeeper Michael Ingham made four excellent saves in York 's 0 – 0 draw at home to Luton Town . Danny Parslow was loaned to Conference Premier club Grimsby Town for one month , having failed to appear in the team after recovering from a long @-@ term injury . York played Southend United at home , who took the lead early in the first half before Russell Penn equalised in first half stoppage time . The visitors scored twice during the second half before Winfield scored a consolation goal in the 85th @-@ minute , seeing the match finish a 3 – 2 defeat . York lost the second match in succession for the first time in 2014 – 15 after being beaten 2 – 0 away to Dagenham & Redbridge , the home team scoring in each half through Joss Labadie . Striker Ryan Brunt was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Conference Premier club Bristol Rovers , with York 's existing strikers having failed to score in five of the last seven matches .
= = = October = = =
York 's run of two straight losses ended after drawing 0 – 0 at home to Portsmouth , in which Brunt missed a header from four yards in the third @-@ minute of stoppage time . Sheffield United 's 19 @-@ year @-@ old striker Diego De Girolamo , an Italy under @-@ 20 international , joined on a one @-@ month youth loan as a result of injuries to Coulson , Fletcher and Hyde . De Girolamo scored seven minutes into his debut away at Newport County with a low finish , but after Penn was sent off for a second bookable offence the home team scored three goals in the second half , York losing the match 3 – 1 . With York one place above the relegation zone Worthington resigned as manager , and was quoted saying " In recent weeks , performances have not been up to my high standards and I take full responsibility for this " . Steve Torpey , who was Worthington 's assistant manager , took over as caretaker manager before Russ Wilcox was appointed as manager two days after Worthington 's departure . Wilcox had been sacked as Scunthorpe United manager a week earlier with them second from bottom in the League One table , having led them to promotion the previous season as League Two runners @-@ up .
Wilcox 's first match in charge was a 1 – 0 home defeat to Shrewsbury Town , who scored their goal in the 87th @-@ minute through James Collins , and this result saw York move into the relegation zone in 23rd place . Coulson gave York a 77th @-@ minute lead away to Morecambe with a low shot from the edge of the penalty area , before the home side equalised in stoppage time . Former Australia under @-@ 20 goalkeeper Alex Cisak was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Premier League club Burnley . He debuted in York 's 1 – 1 home draw with Mansfield Town , in which York took the lead in the 20th @-@ minute when De Girolamo turned and scored from close range having been set up by a Penn cross , before the away team equalised during the second half through Daniel Carr . Former Jamaica international striker Deon Burton , who played under Wilcox at Scunthorpe , was signed from the Lincolnshire club on a one @-@ month loan .
= = = November = = =
York recorded their first victory since early @-@ September 2014 after winning 1 – 0 away against Cheltenham Town , De Girolamo scoring from a Coulson pass in the 43rd @-@ minute . De Girolamo was recalled early from his loan spell by Sheffield United as they wanted him for their two upcoming cup fixtures , after he had scored three times in four York matches . Bournemouth 's Guadeloupe international defender Stéphane Zubar joined on loan until 4 January 2015 , with Parslow being loaned back to Grimsby until the same date . York drew 1 – 1 at home with their divisional rivals AFC Wimbledon in the first round of the FA Cup ; Hyde gave York the lead in the 8th @-@ minute after scoring from Coulson 's low cross , before Andy Frampton equalised for the away team on 22 @-@ minutes . Burton was ruled out for two to three months with a medial ligament injury suffered in this match , resulting in his loan at the club being curtailed . York signed 19 @-@ year @-@ old Middlesbrough defender Brad Halliday on a one @-@ month loan as cover and competition for McCoy . Fellow strugglers Oxford United won 1 – 0 at York , James Roberts scoring from three yards after Danny Hylton flicked on a Brian Howard corner in the 35th @-@ minute , and Wilcox surmised the result saying " The lads are working as hard as they possibly can but I 'm just looking for a little bit more now " .
York were knocked out of the FA Cup after losing 3 – 1 away to AFC Wimbledon in a first round replay ; after Fletcher had given York a fifth @-@ minute lead with a 30 yard volley the home side scored three times in the second half . In York 's 3 – 1 away win over bottom @-@ placed Hartlepool United the home team took the lead through Scott Fenwick in the first half , before Lowe scored two headers in the space of two minutes and Hyde scored with a shot from outside the penalty area in the second half . Cisak 's loan was extended , having conceded just three goals in four appearances , while De Girolamo rejoined on a second youth loan , both until 4 January 2015 . Striker Carlton Morris joined on a youth loan from Norwich City until 4 January 2015 , after scoring once in 10 appearances while on loan with League Two rivals Oxford earlier in the season . Hyde scored in the fourth @-@ minute of stoppage time to give York a 1 – 1 draw away to Plymouth Argyle ; his goal came after reacting first to goalkeeper Luke McCormick 's parry of De Girolamo 's header .
= = = December = = =
York 's first fixture of the month was a 3 – 2 home defeat to AFC Wimbledon , who had not won away since mid @-@ August 2014 , and they took the lead in the first half with a Jake Goodman goal . During the second half De Girolamo equalised with a 15 yard shot , and AFC Wimbledon scored two goals in quick succession through Sean Rigg and Matt Tubbs , before Zubar scored for York from a few yards out to finish the scoring . Halliday made his senior debut in this match , and was named man of the match with an impressive performance at right @-@ back , before his loan was extended until 17 January 2015 . Cameron Murray was loaned to Northern Premier League Premier Division club Frickley Athletic , where he made only one start during a one @-@ month period . York went 2 – 0 down after 62 minutes when playing away against Bury , but fought back to draw 2 – 2 with Hyde scoring a header from a Coulson cross before Summerfield equalised with a 20 yard free kick . York achieved their first home win of the season by beating Accrington Stanley 1 – 0 , meaning the club record of most home consecutive matches without a win , set at 14 in 1981 – 82 , was not equalled . The winning goal was scored in the 35th @-@ minute by Lowe with a header from Coulson 's cross . This was followed by a 3 – 0 away victory over Carlisle United , marking the first time York had achieved successive wins in 2014 – 15 . Josh Carson scored shortly before half @-@ time from Fletcher 's flick on , and in the second half Summerfield scored with a curling shot from 20 yards before Coulson shot into the top corner .
= = = January = = =
York 's first result of 2015 was a 0 – 0 home draw with Plymouth , and despite playing 70 minutes with 10 men after Zubar was sent off the team created a number of chances . Cisak was recalled by Burnley after his loan expired and York replaced him with Peterborough United 's former Austria under @-@ 21 international goalkeeper Bobby Olejnik , who joined on loan for the rest of the season . After De Girolamo 's loan expired Sheffield United wanted to strengthen their striking options before considering letting him return to York . Morris ' loan was extended for a second month after making four substitute appearances for York , and Parslow had his loan at Grimsby extended to the end of the season . York were beaten 1 – 0 away to league leaders Wycombe and Olejnik made a number of saves on his debut to keep the team in the match . Zubar 's loan was extended until the end of the season ahead of him starting a four @-@ match suspension , before Jarvis was loaned to Conference Premier club Aldershot Town for the rest of the season having not played for York since October 2014 .
Halliday 's loan was extended for the rest of the season ahead of his return from a three @-@ match suspension , having establish himself at right @-@ back ahead of McCoy before his sending off against Accrington . Having made only five appearances for York Mooney was loaned to Conference Premier side Alfreton Town for the rest of the season . York entered their home match against Stevenage with the visitors on a five @-@ match unbeaten run , and lost 2 – 0 with the away team scoring in each half . Striker Emile Sinclair was signed on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract after having his contract at Northampton cancelled , where he had fallen down the pecking order . Walsall 's Malvind Benning was signed on a one @-@ month loan to provide competition for Ilesanmi at left @-@ back . Sinclair scored in the 70th @-@ minute of his debut against Burton with a close range finish , before the away team equalised late in the match through Adam McGurk . Straker joined Scottish Premiership team Motherwell on loan for the rest of the season having played infrequently under Wilcox . York created a number of chances away to Southend before losing 1 – 0 , Shaq Coulthirst scoring an 88th @-@ minute penalty .
= = = February = = =
Murray 's contract was cancelled to allow him to join Northern Premier League Division One North club Scarborough Athletic . York dropped into the relegation zone in 23rd place after being beaten 2 – 0 at home by fellow strugglers Dagenham & Redbridge , who scored in each half through Jamie Cureton . Having only made appearances as a substitute during two months with York , Morris returned to Norwich after his loan expired . York took a 2 – 0 lead away at Luton , Carson and Sinclair scoring within five minutes of each other early in the second half . However , Hyde was sent off for a tackle on Nathan Doyle before Mark Cullen scored twice for Luton , the match finishing a 2 – 2 draw . Winfield , who had made only five appearances for York , signed for AFC Wimbledon on a one @-@ month loan . York moved out of the relegation zone and above their opponents Tranmere after a 2 – 0 home victory , which was the team 's first win in eight matches . Fletcher scored both goals in each half , the first coming after he met Halliday 's low cross at the back post and the second came after collecting Coulson 's pass , cutting inside and shooting into the far corner .
De Girolamo returned to York for a third youth loan spell , this time for the rest of the season , with Wilcox commenting that " it is great to get a player of his calibre back in the building " . York dropped to within a point of the relegation zone after losing 3 – 0 away to Northampton , the home team taking the lead in the fourth @-@ minute through Chris Hackett . Brendan Moloney scored their second goal shortly after half @-@ time , and after Olejnik saved a Marc Richards penalty Northampton finished the scoring through Ivan Toney . York were held by Exeter to a 0 – 0 draw at home , and stayed above the relegation zone on goal difference .
= = = March = = =
York moved two points above the relegation zone with a 3 – 0 away win over Cambridge , Fletcher giving York the lead on 43 @-@ minutes after collecting a loose ball on the edge of the penalty area and scoring with a powerful shot . Coulson scored soon after the second half began when his deep cross dropped into the far corner of the goal , and Hyde finished the scoring in the 55th @-@ minute when diverting Fletcher 's shot from inside the six @-@ yard box . York went behind away to AFC Wimbledon when Deji Oshilaja scored a header in the 19th @-@ minute , before Hyde scored an equaliser after goalkeeper Joe McDonnell dropped Sinclair 's cross in the 43rd @-@ minute . However , Jack Smith scored the winning goal for the home team with a volley in the 90th @-@ minute , meaning the match ended in a 2 – 1 win for AFC Wimbledon . Shaq Coulthirst , who scored Southend 's winning goal against York in January , joined on loan from Tottenham Hotspur for the rest of the season , after Fletcher was ruled out for six weeks with a hamstring injury . York drew 0 – 0 at home to relegation rivals Carlisle , and the team 's best chances came in the 74th @-@ minute when Coulson and Sinclair had shots cleared off the line . Having made nine appearances for York , Benning was recalled by Walsall due to an injury to Andy Taylor . Tom Soares scored early as York were beaten 1 – 0 at home by Bury , resulting in the team only being above the relegation zone on goal difference .
De Girolamo left York to join League Two rivals Northampton on loan for the rest of the season , explaining that " Northampton play attractive football and express myself by getting on the ball a lot " . Winfield was recalled from his loan at AFC Wimbledon , having made seven appearances for them , after Zubar injured his thigh during the Bury match . Richard Cresswell was appointed as Wilcox 's first team coach , having previously held a consultancy role at the club since April 2014 . York were held to a 2 – 2 draw away to Accrington ; after Summerfield gave York the lead with a deflected 20 yard shot in the 63rd @-@ minute , Sean Maguire equalised after pouncing on a loose ball 6 minutes later . In the 76th @-@ minute Hyde put York back in the lead with a close @-@ range finish before Josh Windass scored for Accrington with a 20 yard free kick in the 90th @-@ minute . This result meant York were one point above the relegation zone , but just two points from the bottom of the table . Ahead of the transfer deadline for loan signings , York signed two strikers on loan for the rest of the season ; Shaun Miller from Coventry City and Josh O 'Hanlon from Bournemouth . York moved three points above the relegation zone after beating Mansfield 4 – 1 away , Lowe opening the scoring with a header before Coulthirst scored with a low finish . Despite Olejnik being off sent off later in the first half for handling outside the penalty area , Hyde scored with a header shortly after half @-@ time . Matt Rhead pulled one back for Mansfield before Coulthirst finished the scoring in the 89th @-@ minute .
= = = April and May = = =
Mooney was recalled from his loan at Alfreton as a result of the one @-@ match suspension Olejnik received for his red card . Winfield scored a 73rd @-@ minute header from a Summerfield corner as York beat their relegation rivals Cheltenham 1 – 0 at home . York moved six points of the relegation zone after drawing 0 – 0 away to Oxford . Winfield was sent off in the first half of York 's 1 – 0 home win over relegation @-@ threatened Hartlepool , Summerfield scoring the winning goal during the second half with a deflected 30 yard shot . York ensured their safety from relegation after beating Morecambe 2 – 1 at home , moving 11 points clear of the relegation zone in 18th @-@ place . Morecambe took the lead through Paul Mullin before Zubar converted Summerfield 's corner with a far post header , and Penn scored the winning goal with a long @-@ range strike into the top left @-@ hand corner .
York were beaten for the first time in seven matches after losing 1 – 0 away to promotion contenders Shrewsbury , with Mark Ellis scoring their goal in the first half . York 's final home match of the season ended in a 2 – 0 defeat to play @-@ off chasing Newport , who scored twice in the second half with goals scored by David Tutonda and Lee Minshull , and Hyde had a penalty saved in between the goals . They finished the season after drawing 1 – 1 away to Portsmouth ; Halliday equalised in the 85th @-@ minute after capitalising on a slip from Dan Butler , 3 minutes after Matt Tubbs had given the home team the lead . York 's final league position in League Two was 18th , their lowest placing since promotion into that division three years ago . At an awards night held at York Racecourse , Lowe was voted by the club 's supporters as the Clubman of the Year for 2014 – 15 .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
York were in lower mid @-@ table for most of the season , and rose as high as 11th in the table during September 2014 and dropped to 23rd during October and February 2015 . The team had the second lowest number of victories in the League Two season with 11 ; only the two relegated teams , Cheltenham and Tranmere , recorded fewer wins with nine each . For the fourth time in nine seasons , York achieved a better record away than at home in the league . The team won six matches , drew nine and lost eight away , compared to winning five , drawing 10 and losing eight at home . Lowe made the highest number of appearances during the season , appearing in 49 of York 's 50 matches . Hyde was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with nine league goals and 10 in total . He was the only player to reach double figures , and was followed by Fletcher with seven goals .
At the season 's end York released Fletcher , Jarvis , Lewis Montrose and Parslow . Carson , Ingham and Platt signed new contracts with the club . Over the close season York signed goalkeeper Scott Flinders from Hartlepool , defenders Taron Hare and Eddie Nolan from Scunthorpe , George Swan from Wolverhampton Wanderers , David Tutonda on loan from Cardiff City and Zubar on loan from Bournemouth , midfielder James Berrett from Yeovil Town , and strikers Vadaine Oliver from Crewe Alexandra and Reece Thompson from Frickley . Midfielder Callum Rzonca was promoted to the first team squad from the youth team after signing a professional contract with the club .
= = Match details = =
League positions are sourced by Statto , while the remaining information is referenced individually .
= = = Football League Two = = =
= = = League table ( part ) = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = League Cup = = =
= = = Football League Trophy = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .
= = = Out = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .
= = = Loan in = = =
= = = Loan out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
Source :
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .
Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .
Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward
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