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= Return to the Nightosphere / Daddy 's Little Monster =
" Return to the Nightosphere " and " Daddy 's Little Monster " are the fifth and sixth episodes of the fourth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . " Return to the Nightosphere " was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , whereas " Daddy 's Little Monster " was written and storyboarded by Rebecca Sugar and Cole Sanchez . Both episodes ' stories were developed by series creator Pendleton Ward , Patrick McHale , and Kent Osborne . Originally airing on Cartoon Network on April 30 , 2012 , both episodes feature the return of Martin Olson as Hunson Abadeer .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In " Return to the Nightosphere " , Finn and Jake discover that they are trapped in the Nightosphere , a hellish dimension ruled by Hunson Abadeer , Marceline 's ( voiced by Olivia Olson ) father , although they cannot seem to remember how they arrived . " Daddy 's Little Monster " features Finn and Jake discovering that Hunson Abadeer has turned Marceline into a giant demon . The duo manage to save Marceline .
" Daddy 's Little Monster " features two songs : " Not Just Your Little Girl " and " Political Rap " . The latter of the two , which went on to become particularly popular with fans of the series on the Internet , was written by Moynihan and intended for the episode " Return to the Nightosphere " . Together with other episodes of Cartoon Network programming , the episodes helped make the network the number one television destination for boys aged 2 – 11 , 6 – 11 , and 9 – 14 on Monday nights . Both episodes received largely positive critical reviews .
= = Plot = =
= = = " Return to the Nightosphere " = = =
Finn and Jake awake in a prison cell full of bananas , confused and unaware of how they arrived at their location . A demonic prison guard tells them that they are in the Nightosphere , the hellish realm ruled by Marceline 's ( voiced by Olivia Olson ) father , Hunson Abadeer ( voiced by Martin Olson ) . The two set off to locate Marceline 's father and navigate back to their home dimension . Traversing the Nightosphere , Finn and Jake learn that they need to seek an audience with Hunson Abadeer if they want to leave . Eventually , they reach a line composed of demons who seek petitions from their demonic overlord . Just then , a storm cloud appears in a mist , slaying all the demons present ; Finn and Jake barely escape death .
Afterwards , the two follow the cloud to a castle . There , the cloud condenses into a demonic form , presumably Hunson Abadeer . While running through the castle , Finn and Jake find a portal back to Ooo , and the two jump in , with Abedeer in pursuit . Finn wounds the demon with his sword . At that moment it is revealed that the demon is not Hunson Abadeer , but rather Marceline , who has for some unknown reason , been transformed into a hideous demon . She musters enough strength to forbid Finn and Jake from coming back to the Nightosphere , and , after the two are teleported back to their dimension , she closes the portal .
= = = " Daddy 's Little Monster " = = =
In the tree fort , Jake charges his cell phone and discovers footage that he filmed prior to Finn and him waking up in a jail cell in the Nightosphere ; apparently , Marceline had invited Finn and Jake to party in the Nightosphere , wherein she was given a demonic amulet by Hunson , which turned her into a being of pure evil .
Determined to save Marceline , Finn and Jake disguise themselves as demons and sneak back into the Nightosphere by creating a portal that sends them to the seat of government for Marceline 's regime . Marceline , in her evil demon form , listens to the requests of her subjects , often ignoring what they seek and instead punishing them with macabre torture . Finn and Jake are spotted by Marceline , who gives chase . After narrowly avoiding their demonic friend , the duo run into the now @-@ benign Hunson Abadeer , who explains that he only wanted Marceline to follow in his footsteps and rule the hellish realm .
Finn and Jake later rile up the apathetic demon masses by performing a " political rap " , which instigates anarchy . Finn manages to rip the amulet off of Marceline , which renders her unconscious . To escape the rebellious demon masses , Finn puts the amulet on and pushes Marceline and Jake through the portal . Hunson Abadeer arrives on the scene and rips the amulet from Finn 's neck , sending Finn falling back through the portal . Marceline is initially disappointed in her father for tricking her into ruling the Nightosphere to make him proud , but they reconcile when Hunson reassures Marceline that he is proud of her , no matter what she does , and that he actually enjoys Finn and Jake .
= = Production = =
" Return to the Nightosphere " was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , whereas " Daddy 's Little Monster " was written and storyboarded by Rebecca Sugar and Cole Sanchez . Both episodes ' stories were developed by series creator Pendleton Ward , Patrick McHale , and Kent Osborne . Both episodes were directed by Larry Leichliter , with Nick Jennings serving as art director .
For " Return to the Nightosphere " , Moynihan designed a special pan , showcasing the landscape of the Nightosphere . His drawings , however , got lost three times during production , although they were finally located . Moynihan later noted on the season four DVD commentary for the episode that he had an ambition to design extremely long pans ; he had created a similar one for the second season episode " Death in Bloom " . As for " Daddy 's Little Monster " , an original version of the episode featured Hunson Abadeer pretending to be sick so that Marceline would feel sorry and take over his job , however this was later discarded . The beginning of the episode features Finn and Jake reviewing footage captured on Jake 's camera phone . Ward noted that it was difficult to keep the action lively , while also framing the scene as if it were stationary phone footage .
" Daddy 's Little Monster " features several songs , including " Not Just Your Little Girl " , written by Sugar . Sugar and Sanchez originally tried writing the song — which was originally to be called the " Cone Zone " — together , but Sugar eventually completely rewrote it . When it came time to storyboard the episode , Sanchez with the help of former storyboard artist and then @-@ creative director Adam Muto , storyboarded the scene , and Ward asked Sugar to record a quick demo of the song for reference . She filmed herself recording the demo , but jokingly noted that she asked " Pen and Cole to face the other way " out of embarrassment . The political rap featured in " Daddy 's Little Monster " , written by Moynihan , was originally intended for " Return to the Nightosphere " , but was cut for time . Sugar , however , liked the song so much that she insisted it be added to " Daddy 's Little Monster " . Moynihan was pleased with the largely positive critical reception the rap had from fans of the series .
Martin Olson , the father of voice actress Olivia Olson , reprises his role as Hunson Abadeer in this episode , as well as " Daddy 's Little Monster " ; Olson had previously appeared in the second season premiere " It Came from the Nightosphere " and the third season episode " Memory of a Memory " . The episode was also the first to give a name to Marceline 's father : Hunson Abadeer . According to Moynihan , the name was inspired by the name that his brother had given their family 's car when they were growing up . The two later used it for a band that only recorded one song . To create the demonic effect of Marceline talking while possessed with the amulet , Olivia Olson and her father were required to say their lines in tandem . She later explained : " We were going back @-@ and @-@ forth , line to line … We were screaming back and forth at each other , and trying to match pitches and stuff . Then , hearing the after product of both of our voices blended together was pretty fun . "
= = Reception = =
" Return to the Nightosphere " and " Daddy 's Little Monster " first aired on Cartoon Network on April 30 , 2012 . Together with other episodes of Cartoon Network programming , the episodes helped make the network the number one television destination for boys aged 2 – 11 , 6 – 11 , and 9 – 14 on Monday nights , according to Nielsen ratings . The episodes first saw physical release as part of the complete fourth season DVD in October 2014 .
Phil Dyess @-@ Nugent of The A.V. Club awarded both " Return to the Nightosphere " and " Daddy 's Little Monster " an " A " , noting that , " If the last few episodes of Adventure Time … struck anyone as being a little short on adventure , or , at least , action , tonight ’ s epic two @-@ parter went a long way toward making up for it . " He applauded the installments embracement of dark humor , as well as its fixation with striking visual designs , describing the titular Nightosphere as " a goofed @-@ up Hieronymous Bosch landscape " . In regards to " Daddy 's Little Monster " , Dyess @-@ Nugent noted that the high @-@ point was the " freestyle political rap " that Finn and Jake ad @-@ lib to get the demons to help them .
In an interview with The Mary Sue on August 2 , 2013 , Olivia Olson claimed that both " Return to the Nightosphere " and " Daddy 's Little Monster " were the most fun episodes for her to record , largely due to the manner in which she and her father had to record their lines in tandem .
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= Giffnock =
Giffnock ( / ˈɡɪfnək / ; Scots : Giffnock ; Scottish Gaelic : Giofnag , Scottish Gaelic pronunciation : [ kʲifnak ] ) is an affluent suburban town in East Renfrewshire set in the Central Lowlands of Scotland . It lies 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) east of Barrhead , 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 0 km ) east @-@ southeast of Paisley and 5 @.@ 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 5 km ) northwest of East Kilbride , at the southwest of the Greater Glasgow conurbation . Giffnock is mentioned in documents as early as the seventeenth century as a scattered agricultural settlement . In the late eighteenth century , Archibald Montgomerie , the Earl of Eglinton , was forced to partition the land into a number of smaller properties .
The urbanisation and development of Giffnock began in the mid to late nineteenth century with the construction of several sandstone quarries , and this prompted the development of the first railway link with nearby Glasgow . Large @-@ scale quarrying continued in Giffnock for almost a century . However , the quarrying ceased by the 1920s , and other uses were found for the quarries . An additional railway service began at the start of the twentieth century , closely followed by the arrival of Glasgow Corporation Tramways . Giffnock 's relative closeness to Glasgow coupled with the local industry and good transports links helped it to develop into a suburban town , as many wealthy merchants chose to construct villas in its smog @-@ free environs and commute daily to the city .
Although heavy industry died out in the area during the early twentieth century , as part of Scotland 's densely populated Central Belt , Giffnock has continued to grow as a dormitory town , supported by its position within the Greater Glasgow area , from roughly 1 @,@ 425 residents in the early twentieth century to 16 @,@ 178 in 2001 . Expansion continues due to several new housing developments ; however , much of the land is now urbanised or designated parkland , leaving little room for further expansion .
= = History = =
The Scottish Gaelic name for Giffnock is Giofnag and is of partially Brythonic and Gaelic origin . ' Cefn ' ( i.e. ' Giff ' ) comes from the Brythonic meaning ' ridge ' and the Gaelic cnoc ( i.e. ' nock ' ) meaning " hill " . In Gaelic , oc or og is a diminutive , and thus when added to cefn gives Giffnock the meaning of " Little Ridge " .
The first written mention of Giffnock came in 1530 , when James V presented Rockend ( Ruken ) Mill and the surrounding lands to Hugh Montgomerie , 1st Earl of Eglinton . The settlement of Giffnock first appeared as Gisnock , in an atlas created by Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu in 1654 , the first atlas of Scotland . Giffnock was primarily a scattered farming community until the late 1780s , when Archibald Montgomerie , 11th Earl of Eglinton was forced to partition the land into a number of small properties for sale to raise finances .
= = = Industry = = =
In 1835 , the first sandstone quarry in Giffnock opened . Before long , the town became known for this industry , and at its peak , there were four quarries in Giffnock , three surface quarries and one underground quarry , which together employed over 1 @,@ 000 men . The quarries produced two types of sandstone : " liver rock " and " moor rock " . " Liver rock " was particularly popular with masons thanks to its lack of stratification , which made the stone easy to work with . In 1854 , a coal mining firm managed by civil engineers Hugh Baird and Robert Stevenson took over the running of the quarries and by 1866 the Busby Railway was built , allowing them to transport the stone by rail . Originally , a lower level line was laid from Giffnock railway station into the Orchard Quarry to facilitate the extraction of the stone .
Sandstone from the Giffnock quarries was primarily used within the nearby city of Glasgow and can be found in older parts of the University of Glasgow and the interior of Kelvingrove Art Gallery . A small amount of trade was done with Belfast , and some of the finer " liver rock " was even transported as far as America and South Africa to build both buildings and monuments .
Quarrying in Giffnock continued until 1912 when , due to flooding and the high cost of extracting stone , work ceased . Numerous ventures tried to revitalise the quarries for other purposes , including the cultivation of mushrooms in the tunnels . As the pits began to fill with water , it became an issue that needed to be resolved . In the early 1930s , William Bearmore & Co began tipping slag from the production of steel into the Giffnock quarries . The slag tipping continued until 1969 , when Derek Crouch Limited began scrap metal extraction , which lasted until the late 1970s . Today the ground is a wasteland .
Coal mining was also carried out in Giffnock , between 1850 and 1926 . The coal produced was of a very poor quality and was of little value to householders . The main use of Giffnock coal was with commercial and industrial customers such as Busby Gas Works .
= = = Urbanisation and expansion = = =
The opening of Giffnock railway station in 1866 allowed business people to build sandstone villas and commute daily to the city . At the time , it was much more desirable to live in Giffnock than to live in the smog @-@ polluted city . By the early 1890s , residential Giffnock began to grow around the railway station and Eastwood Toll , and by 1892 gas was introduced to the area . Gas street lamps were erected by Busby and District Gas Company in 1893 ; however , these were supported by a voluntary subscription that many households refused to pay , leaving many areas unlit . It was not until October 1896 , when Eastwood Parish Council took over street lighting , that the area was consistently lit at night .
In 1903 , a second railway station was opened in Giffnock , Whitecraigs railway station . The station lay on the Lanarkshire and Ayrshire Railway , originally built to provide a through route from the Lanarkshire coalfields to ports such as Ardrossan on the Ayrshire coast .
The growth of Giffnock was furthered in 1905 by the arrival of the first Glasgow Corporation Tramways tram in the town . The addition of this tram link and the nearby Whitecraigs railway station helped the popularity of Giffnock as a weekend destination and lead to the opening of Rouken Glen park in 1906 by Archibald Corbett ( later Lord Rowallan ) , the M.P. for Tradeston . The Giffnock tramline was one of Glasgow Corporation Tramways 's most profitable routes ; up to 15 @,@ 000 travelled to Giffnock on a Sunday to visit Rouken Glen .
During the great housing boom of the late 1930s , Giffnock began to grow rapidly . Between 1930 and 1940 , as many as 3 @,@ 000 dwellings were constructed , and the population rose dramatically , from 1 @,@ 425 to 3 @,@ 471 in 1939 and 9 @,@ 144 in 1951 .
On 7 May 1941 , during the Greenock Blitz of World War II , the Nazi German Luftwaffe dropped a group of bombs over Giffnock , but only two houses were destroyed . On 10 May 1941 , Rudolf Hess , a prominent Nazi politician and deputy to Adolf Hitler parachuted out of his Messerschmitt Bf 110D near Waterfoot . Hess had flown solo to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate peace with the United Kingdom . He was detained by the Home Guard in the battalion headquarters in the Giffnock Scout hall , where he was questioned by Major Donald , the Assistant Group Officer of the Glasgow Royal Observer Corps before being transferred to Maryhill Barracks in Glasgow the following day . The wreckage of Hess 's aircraft was salvaged by 63 Maintenance Unit ( MU ) between 11 and 16 May 1941 . Part of the aeroplane is now in London 's Imperial War Museum .
Proposals were put forward in 2008 to expand the town with the building of 178 houses on Braidbar Quarries next to Huntly Park , involving the Park closing for a period of two years . However , following 2 @,@ 000 objections from local people and the opposition of the Scottish Government 's reporter , East Renfrewshire Council abandoned the plans in October 2011 .
= = Governance = =
Giffnock is represented by several tiers of elected government . Giffnock Community Council forms the lowest tier of governance whose statutory role is to communicate local opinion to local and central government . It is one of ten community councils of the East Renfrewshire council area .
East Renfrewshire Council , the unitary local council , is based in Giffnock and is the Executive , deliberative and legislative body responsible for local governance . The Scottish Parliament is responsible for devolved matters such as education , health and justice , while reserved matters are dealt with by the Parliament of the United Kingdom .
Giffnock forms part of the county constituency of East Renfrewshire , electing one member of parliament ( MP ) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Kirsten Oswald of the SNP was elected as MP for East Renfrewshire in the 2015 General Election . Before the constituency 's creation in 2005 , Giffnock lay in the Eastwood Constituency . For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament , Giffnock forms part of the Eastwood Constituency , which is represented by Kenneth Macintosh MSP , of the Labour party .
= = Geography = =
At 55 ° 48 ′ 9 ″ N 4 ° 17 ′ 43 ″ W ( 55 @.@ 803 ° , − 4 @.@ 30 ° ) Giffnock is situated in Scotland 's Central Lowlands . The community lies 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) east of Barrhead , 5 @.@ 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 5 km ) northwest of East Kilbride and 4 @.@ 3 miles ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) south @-@ southwest of Glasgow . The territory of Giffnock is contiguous with Glasgow and forms part of Greater Glasgow , the United Kingdom 's fifth largest conurbation .
Giffnock is situated on the plateau that encircles Glasgow . It is at edge of the area that defines the basin that Glasgow has developed within . The underlay is composed mainly of sedimentary rocks and freestone from the Strathclyde and Clackmannan groups of early to mid Carboniferous age ( 354 to 316 million years ) . The relatively soft and easily eroded rocks have resulted in the landform in the area being mostly flat with gentle undulations . The area of Giffnock is typically around 45 metres ( 148 ft ) to 50 metres ( 160 ft ) above sea level , with the highest point in the area reaching 60 metres ( 200 ft ) .
Giffnock experiences a temperate maritime climate , like much of the British Isles , with relatively cool summers and mild winters . Regular but generally light precipitation occurs throughout the year .
Giffnock 's built environment is characterised by its mixture of nineteenth and twentieth century single and two story dwellings , most of which are semi @-@ detached or terraced . Towards the south of Giffnock the properties are generally grander two story detached villas , commonly built with local sandstone many of which are now listed buildings . Giffnock is a postal district within the post town of Glasgow in the G postcode area . Giffnock consists of postcode district G46 , which also extends beyond the town boundary to include neighbouring settlements Kennishead , Thornliebank , Deaconsbank , Carnwadric and Arden .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the census locality ( town and sub @-@ area ) of Giffnock had a total resident population of 16 @,@ 178 , or 18 % of the total of East Renfrewshire . The median age of males and females living in Giffnock was 39 and 43 respectively , compared to 37 and 39 years for those in the whole of Scotland . Fifty six percent were married , 3 @.@ 5 % were cohabiting couples , 6 @.@ 9 % were lone parent families and 28 @.@ 7 % of households were made up of individuals .
The place of birth of the towns residents was 94 @.@ 4 % United Kingdom ( including 87 @.@ 8 % from Scotland ) , 0 @.@ 6 % Republic of Ireland , 0 @.@ 9 % from other European Union countries and 4 @.@ 2 % from elsewhere in the world . Compared with the average demography of Scotland , Giffnock has higher proportions of people born outside the Europe and people over pensionable age .
Of residents 16 – 74 , 39 @.@ 6 % were in full @-@ time employment , 12 @.@ 1 % in part @-@ time employment , 8 @.@ 9 % self @-@ employed and 2 % unemployed compared with Scotland as a whole which has 40 @.@ 3 % , 11 @.@ 1 % , 6 @.@ 6 % and 4 % respectively . Additionally , in Giffnock 4 @.@ 2 % students have jobs while 5 @.@ 2 % do not , 16 % are retired , 5 @.@ 7 % look after their home or family , 3 @.@ 9 % are permanently sick or disabled , and 2 @.@ 4 % are economically inactive for other reasons .
= = Transport = =
The area has a number of high @-@ volume road links to neighbouring Glasgow . The A77 main Glasgow to Kilmarnock road passes through the centre of the town and crosses the A727 from Paisley to East Kilbride at the Eastwood Toll . The nearest motorway is the M77 , of which Junction 4 at Darnley is the interchange for Giffnock .
Giffnock lies within the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport Passenger transport executive and is served by three railway stations , all of which are managed by First ScotRail :
Giffnock railway station , opened on 1 January 1866 , lies on the East Kilbride branch of the Glasgow South Western Line , which runs from Glasgow Central station 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ northeast .
Whitecraigs railway station , opened on 1 May 1903 , lies on the Neilston branch of the Cathcart Circle 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ southwest of Glasgow Central .
Williamwood railway station , opened on 1 May 1903 , lies on the Neilston branch of the Cathcart Circle 5 @.@ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ southwest of Glasgow Central .
The closest airport is Glasgow International , 6 @.@ 8 miles ( 10 @.@ 9 km ) northwest of Giffnock . This is followed by Glasgow Prestwick International airport and then Edinburgh International Airport .
Giffnock is serviced by a number of bus routes by various operators . The main bus link to the city is the number 38 line operated by FirstGroup , which runs at least every 10 minutes throughout the day .
= = Education = =
The first evidence of education in Giffnock is of a small private school that operated in the lodge house at the Redhurst Hotel . Due to the increased population , the first public school opened in 1902 in the Tower Rooms of Giffnock United Free Church , known now as the Orchardhill Parish Church .
Giffnock has a number of high schools , including St Ninian 's High School , a co @-@ educational Roman Catholic High School which was built in 1984 and is Scotland 's top @-@ performing state school . St Ninian 's was the first state @-@ funded school in Scotland to abandon the Standard Grade examination system in favour of the Higher Still system , using Access 3 , Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2 for pupils in third and fourth year , while maintaining Highers in fifth year and Advanced Highers in sixth year . The school roll was 1784 as of September 2011 .
Furthermore , Giffnock has a library and three primary schools : Giffnock Primary School , Braidbar Primary school and Robslee Primary School , non @-@ denominational feeder primary schools for Woodfarm High School .
= = Culture and community = =
= = = Religion = = =
Until the end of the nineteenth century , Giffnock had no church buildings , and religious meetings took place in the waiting room of Giffnock Railway Station and , later , in the clubhouse at Eastwood Golf Course . Orchardhill Parish Church , designed by HE Clifford and completed in 1899 , was the first church built within Giffnock . Now a category B listed building , the Church is built in a Gothic revival style of architecture and is built mainly of locally quarried stone . Also located in Giffnock is Giffnock Synagogue , founded in 1938 and home to the largest Jewish religious congregation in Scotland .
= = = Recreation = = =
In 1936 the Tudor Cinema was constructed in Giffnock by Alex Frutin . It opened in December as a " superb suburban cinema " . The Tudor was an Art Deco style building and is considered Glasgow 's first " entertainment complex " , featuring a ballroom and restaurant as well as the 2 @,@ 400 @-@ seat cinema .
Giffnock has numerous parks , including Rouken Glen , Huntly Park and Eastwood Park , where the East Renfrewshire Council offices are based . There remains some ancient woodland in Giffnock , which could be as old as 8 @,@ 000 years .
The lands of Rouken Glen Park originally belonged to the Scottish Crown . Ownership shifted to the Earl of Eglinton when James V presented the land to Hugh Montgomerie , 1st Earl of Eglinton on the marriage of his son in 1530 . The area of the estate was farmed until the end of the 18th century and , in 1858 , the estate was purchased by local merchant Walter Crum . Alexander Crum inherited the estate in 1879 and is responsible for the layout of Rouken Glen as it is today . On his sudden death in August 1893 , the house passed into the hands of his brother , William Graham Crum , who later sold the estate to Archibald Cameron Corbett , MP ( later Lord Rowallan ) on 19 May 1905 . In 1906 the estate was given to the City of Glasgow by Lord Rowallan , with the provision that it be for the " citizens of Glasgow for all time " . Rouken Glen Park was officially opened on Saturday , 25 May 1906 by Lord Rowallan .
Eastwood Park Leisure Centre has a 25 @-@ metre ( 82 ft ) swimming pool , two additional smaller pools and two gyms . Activities in the leisure centre include casual swimming , swimming lessons , pool fun sessions , fitness classes , a sauna and gym sessions . Greenbank Garden , an 18th @-@ century house and garden owned by the National Trust for Scotland , is located between Clarkston and Newton Mearns , near Giffnock . The house has a 2 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 ha ) walled garden , sixteen rooms and barns and stables . This building is protected as a Category A listed building .
= = = Sport = = =
One of the United Kingdom 's most successful athletics clubs , Giffnock North AAC , was originally formed as a football club in 1943 . Now they are one of the largest athletics clubs in the United Kingdom and 3 time winner of the Scottish athletics ' Club of the Year ' award .
In 1905 the Whitecraigs Golf Club was founded . The course was originally designed by Willie Fernie , who was The Open Championship winner in 1883 and also designed the Ailsa course at Turnberry . Alterations to the course were made in the 1930s by James Braid , who won The Open Championship five times between 1901 and 1910 .
Many golfing events have been hosted by the Whitecraigs Golf Club . The club was visited by the United States Ryder Cup teams of 1929 and 1933 . The teams included many golfing legends such as Walter Hagen , Gene Sarazen and Horton Smith . Whitecraigs hosted the World Seniors ' Golf Championship in 1976 . In 1983 , Jack Nicklaus visited the club to play an exhibition match and run a clinic .
Whitecraigs Rugby Club is a rugby union team based at Newton Mearns , near Giffnock . As of the 2011 – 2012 season , the team competes in the Scottish Premiership Division A.
= = Public services = =
Giffnock forms part of the Western water and sewerage regions of Scotland . Waste management is provided by the East Renfrewshire local council . Water supplies are provided by Scottish Water , a government @-@ owned corporation of the Scottish Government . Giffnock 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Scottish Power . The NHS board is NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde . Strathclyde Fire and Rescue is the statutory fire and rescue service . The nearest fire station is in the neighbouring settlement of Clarkston
Policing in Giffnock is provided by Police Scotland . The Strathclyde Partnership for Transport , a public body in Scotland , has direct operational responsibilities , such as supporting ( and in some cases running ) local bus services and managing integrated ticketing in Giffnock and other areas from the former Strathclyde region . Transport Scotland manages the local rail network .
= = Notable people = =
Gordon Brown , politician and former Prime Minister
Aiden McGeady , Ireland international footballer
Andrew Robertson , Scotland international footballer
Calum Gallagher , footballer
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= Sheriff Hill =
Sheriff Hill is a suburb in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead in Tyne and Wear , England . It lies on the B1296 road 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Gateshead , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) south of Newcastle upon Tyne and 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of the historic city of Durham . According to the 2001 UK census it had a population of 5 @,@ 051 .
Historically part of Gateshead Fell in County Durham , Sheriff Hill was the site of a battle between William the Conqueror and Malcolm III of Scotland in 1068 . A road was built through Gateshead Fell in the early 13th century , attracting some settlers . A procession of bishops , sheriffs and noblemen known as the Sheriff 's March took place on the road in 1282 and continued biannually until the 1830s . By then , Gateshead Fell had been enclosed and a village had grown around the road , largely populated by an influx of tinkers , coalminers working at Sheriff Hill Colliery and workers at the local pottery , mill and sandstone quarry . By the turn of the 20th century these industries were in steep decline . The local authority built a large council estate at Sheriff Hill to alleviate dangerous overcrowding in Gateshead , effectively turning the area into a residential suburb . It ceased to be an independent village on 1 April 1974 when it was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead under the terms of the Local Government Act 1972 .
Now part of the local council ward of High Fell , the suburb is economically disadvantaged compared with other areas of the borough and nationally , with high levels of unemployment . Sheriff Hill was the site of one of Gateshead 's largest boarding schools but as of 2012 , the only remaining educational establishment is Glynwood Primary School . The suburb also contains the Queen Elizabeth Hospital – the largest hospital in Gateshead , a small dene and a small park . The principal landmark is St John the Evangelist Church , one of three Grade II listed buildings in the area and one of two remaining churches . The southern end of Sheriff 's Highway – the main road through the suburb , is more than 500 feet ( 150 m ) above sea level , making it the highest point in Gateshead .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Until the 19th century , Sheriff Hill was part of Gateshead Fell , a " windswept , barren and treacherous heath " that took its name from the town of Gateshead and the fell or common land contiguous with it . In 1068 , Malcolm III of Scotland marched across the Scottish border to challenge the authority of William the Conqueror . Malcolm , accompanied by native insurgents and foreign supporters , was met by William 's men in the area of Sheriff Hill and was decisively beaten . In the 13th century , a road through Gateshead Fell became the main trade route between Durham and Newcastle and as its importance grew , two public houses – the Old Cannon and The Three Tuns , were built along with a small number of houses .
The settlement 's name derives from the Sheriff 's March ; an ancient , biannual procession first held in 1278 . An inquisition at Tynemouth declared that the King of Scotland , the Archbishop of York , the Prior of Tynemouth , the Bishop of Durham and Gilbert de Umfraville , Earl of Angus should meet the justices before they entered Newcastle from the south . A procession was held before the meeting ; on the appointed day the procession started in Newcastle , crossed the River Tyne to Gateshead and made its way up the steep road . The meeting place was initially at Chile Well but subsequently the procession came to " light and go into the house " . The house was the Old Cannon public house , where drink was served at the sheriff 's expense . When the judges arrived , the procession returned to Newcastle .
In 1647 , Gateshead Fell was surveyed and was found to consist of 1 @,@ 300 acres ( 530 ha ) of land . A number of small , isolated settlements had developed around the road at modern @-@ day Deckham , Wrekenton , Low Fell and Sheriff Hill . The few cottages and properties at Sheriff Hill were of such poor quality that in 1713 , the total of ninety @-@ one cottages returned only £ 8 9s 6d in rent . The rental rate declined over the years and eventually , poverty rates were so high that several tenants paid no rent . The houses were extremely unappealing ; many were essentially mud huts – earth mounds carved into dwellings and roofed with sod . The length of the road that ran through Sheriff Hill was called Sodhouse Bank . By the middle of the 18th century , the area had become a wild and frightening place and when theologian John Wesley arrived in 1785 , he found a " pathless waste of white " .
= = = Industrial growth and enclosure = = =
The road through Gateshead Fell was turnpiked by the Durham to Tyne Bridge Road Act in 1747 . Although it had brought some early settlers to the area , the development of industry allowed the formative settlement to grow . In 1740 , John Warburton opened a pottery at Carr Hill which is credited with introducing white earthenware to Tyneside . Encouraged by Warburton 's success , Paul Jackson established the Sheriff Hill Pottery in 1771 at the northern end of the turnpike road and by 1775 was advertising his earthenware in the Newcastle Journal . Jackson 's pottery , which became a local centre of pottery production , attracted settlers to the area and became a source of pride to local residents .
In 1793 , Sheriff Hill Colliery , or " Ellison Main Colliery " , opened at the summit of Gateshead Fell on the boundary between Sheriff Hill and Low Fell . The colliery had two shafts – the Fanny and Isabella Pits – and provided employment for over 100 men and boys . In 1809 , an Act ordered the enclosure of Gateshead Fell . Commissioners were appointed to settle claims and apportion Gateshead Fell accordingly . Plans were laid for the requisition and construction of wells , quarries , drains , roads and watering places – including a well at Blue Quarries . New roads , today known as Blue Quarries Road , Church Road and Windy Nook Road , were built . The last allotment land disputes were settled in 1830 and Gateshead Fell was entirely enclosed , formally creating the villages of Sheriff Hill , Low Fell , Deckham , Carr Hill and Wrekenton . After the enclosure , Sheriff Hill was a rural settlement before becoming a village .
In 1819 , an explosion tore through the Sheriff Hill Colliery killing thirty @-@ five people . Other industries were flourishing in the area ; in 1823 " Heworth Windmill " or " Snowden 's Mill " , a gristmill worked by around thirty employees , was built and " Blue Quarries " , a sandstone quarry , was opened in 1820 and provided employment for stonemasons , quarrymen and their apprentices . While not as extensive as Kell 's Quarries at Windy Nook , Blue Quarries produced " Newcastle Grindstones " of excellent quality and world renown .
= = = Modern history = = =
By the turn of the 20th century , the industries at Sheriff Hill were in decline . In the 1890s the Old Mill closed , as did Sheriff Hill Pottery in 1909 . In the 1920s Blue Quarries was filled in and Sheriff Hill Colliery , the longest surviving industrial operation , closed in 1926 . The only surviving reminders of the suburb 's industrial past are street names such as " Pottersway " and " Blue Quarries Road " .
The industries that had disappeared were replaced by tracts of housing . While most of the sod cottages were torn down after enclosure , the remaining dwellings were in such poor condition that in 1883 , Gateshead 's Medical Health Officer described their standard as one of abject squalor . Some private housing estates were built in Sheriff Hill around 1900 , including the Egremont Estate – a distinctive estate dating from around 1910 where the houses have flat roofs with steps leading to them as an architectural feature , and also at Sourmilk Hill , where there are some irregularly arranged vernacular houses built from locally quarried stone and slate which give the area " the character of a small , rural farmstead " . These developments did little to alleviate the unsanitary conditions and the chronic overcrowding in the village and across the borough . In light of these problems Gateshead Council , after having previously refused in 1911 and 1917 , decided to purchase 65 acres ( 26 ha ) of land in Carr Hill and Sheriff Hill under the Housing Act 1919 at a cost of £ 19 @,@ 000 in February 1919 .
This led to the building of the first council housing estate in Gateshead . Alderman Hodkin laid the foundation stone on 27 October 1920 ; as work commenced the Alderman demonstrated the authority 's concerns , telling the local newspaper that : " we can build houses , but we cannot build homes . Only the people themselves can do that and I hope that the spirit of ‘ esprit de corps ’ will prevail and this will be a model estate " Demand was high – there were 427 applicants for the first twenty eight houses built – and the council built further tracts of housing in a broad triangle between Sodhouse Bank , Ermine Crescent and The Avenue , although central government withdrew its promised funding . By 1936 , most of the social housing available as of 2012 was in existence and provides accommodation to over half of the population of the suburb .
Sheriff Hill is now a residential suburb of Gateshead ; in 1974 it was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead by the implementation of the Local Government Act 1972 , before which it was considered part of County Durham . It is bordered by Low Fell to the west , Deckham to the north , Beacon Lough to the south and Windy Nook and Carr Hill to the east .
= = Government = =
Sheriff Hill comprises part of the High Fell council ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead . The ward covers approximately 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 sq mi ) , has a population of 8 @,@ 952 , and is represented on Gateshead Council by three councillors .
Sheriff Hill is represented in Parliament as part of the Gateshead constituency ; the sitting Member of Parliament ( MP ) is Labour representative Ian Mearns , who was elected at the May 2010 general election with a majority of 12 @,@ 549 votes over Liberal Democrat Frank Hindle . The swing from Labour to the Liberal Democrats was 3 @.@ 9 % .
Before May 2010 , the area was part of the Gateshead East and Washington West constituency , which was abolished in that year 's boundary changes . The MP for Gateshead East and Washington West from 2005 to 2010 was Sharon Hodgson , who campaigned in the newly formed constituency of Washington and Sunderland West . Hodgson succeeded Joyce Quin , who retired on 11 April 2005 .
Sheriff Hill is part of the North East England constituency of the European Parliament , which elects three MEPs to the parliament in Brussels . As of 2009 , the constituency 's MEPs are Stephen Hughesn of the Labour Party , Martin Callanan of the Conservative Party and Fiona Hall of the Liberal Democrats .
= = Geography and topography = =
Sheriff Hill is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Gateshead town centre and 255 miles ( 410 km ) from London . The underlying geology is predominantly sandstone , grindstone and clay . At the southern end of the suburb the land reaches an elevation of over 500 feet ( 150 m ) above sea level , which is the highest point in the borough . In 1829 , the view of Newcastle and the River Tyne from the hill was said to be " uncommonly grand " and it inspired local artist Thomas Miles Richardson to paint his first notable picture , " View of Newcastle from Gateshead Fell " in 1816 . In spite of the extensive rebuilding in the 20th century , the natural topography still affords panoramic views , particularly to the east towards the coast and north as far as the Cheviot Hills , from several vantage points .
= = = Climate = = =
Sheriff Hill , in common with much of the north east of England , has a temperate climate . The mean highest temperature is 12 @.@ 8 ° C ( 55 @.@ 0 ° F ) , which is slightly lower than the England average of 13 @.@ 1 ° C ( 55 @.@ 6 ° F ) . The mean lowest temperature , 7 @.@ 2 ° C ( 45 @.@ 0 ° F ) , is somewhat higher than the England average of 5 @.@ 6 ° C ( 42 @.@ 1 ° F ) . The total annual rainfall is 643 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 25 @.@ 32 in ) , significantly lower than the national average for England of 838 @.@ 7 millimetres ( 33 @.@ 02 in ) .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Sheriff Hill has a population of 5 @,@ 051 – 53 % of whom are female , slightly above the national average , and 47 % are male . 2 @.@ 5 % of the population are from a Black or other Minority Ethnic Group ( BME ) , compared to 9 @.@ 1 % of the national population . Of the BME group , 41 % are from the Asian or Asian – British ethnic group .
18 @.@ 9 % of all households are single @-@ parent households , the fifth highest proportion in Gateshead compared with the Gateshead average of 11 @.@ 5 % and the UK average of 9 @.@ 5 % . 32 @.@ 1 % of households have dependent children , compared with 29 @.@ 5 % nationally and 28 @.@ 4 % in Gateshead . The Index of Multiple Deprivation , which divides England into 32 @,@ 482 areas and considers quality of life indicators to measure deprivation , splits Sheriff Hill into two areas , one of which was in the top five percent of deprived areas in England in 2007 .
Sheriff Hill compares unfavourably with the wider Gateshead area in respect of adults with educational qualifications . 50 @.@ 7 % of adults in the suburb have no educational qualifications , compared with 38 @.@ 4 % across Gateshead and with the England average of 28 @.@ 9 % . 25 @.@ 2 % of adults have five or more GCSEs or equivalent at grades A * to C compared with 46 @.@ 6 % across England , and 11 @.@ 5 % of adults in the suburb have two or more A @-@ Levels or equivalent compared with the England average of 28 @.@ 2 % and 18 @.@ 6 % across Gateshead .
= = = Religion = = =
According to the 2001 UK census , 82 @.@ 7 % of residents in Sheriff Hill describe themselves as Christian . This is marginally higher than the regional average of 80 @.@ 1 % and substantially higher than the national average of 71 @.@ 7 % . The second most prevalent religion is Islam ; some 0 @.@ 57 % of residents identify as Muslim . Around 0 @.@ 1 % identify as Buddhist and the same proportion identify as Jewish . Just 0 @.@ 05 % identify as Hindu . All of these figures are below the national average . Of the remaining residents , 0 @.@ 1 % adhere to a religion other than those stated , 11 @.@ 2 % have " no religion " and 5 @.@ 1 % did not state any religion .
There are two churches in the suburb today . The Anglican Church of St John is located in Church Road and the Sheriff Hill Methodist Church , a member of United Methodist Free Churches , is located at the junction of Kells Lane and Sheriff 's Highway and is shown on the 1939 ordnance survey maps . It is a modern , brick building of semi @-@ circular design .
= = Economy = =
While the original settlement at Sheriff Hill developed through the growth of industry in the area , the suburb today is predominantly residential with no significant industry . The suburb was once considered affluent , but as of 2012 , almost half of the working age population are economically inactive and less than half of households own a car . The area has than higher levels of unemployment in comparison with Gateshead and England : at Broadway , Pottersway and the Avenue , only 23 @.@ 8 % of adults have full @-@ time employment and 10 @.@ 09 % have part @-@ time jobs . Around 3 @.@ 1 % of the population are self @-@ employed . Those in employment work outside the area , except those employed in the suburb 's public houses , betting shops or fast @-@ food outlets . Other small shops provide some local employment , but few are open for any length of time as they cannot compete with larger retailers elsewhere in Gateshead .
= = Health = =
Sheriff Hill was once the site of a lunatic asylum , which was opened in the 1830s and situated on Sour Milk Hill Lane . Sheriff Hill Lunatic Asylum tended 86 patients in 1844 and continued to attract admissions until its closure in 1860 . Soon after , work began on a 38 – bed isolation hospital at what is today Queen Elizabeth Avenue . The first building was completed in 1878 and others were added later . The 4 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) site was enclosed by a large stone wall tipped with barbed wire and broken glass , and by 1903 the hospital comprised a main block with an administrative building in the centre with a ward block on each side , another three @-@ ward block , a porter 's lodge , a steam disinfecting building , a laundry and a mortuary . The hospital had a maximum capacity of 78 patients , who were tended by two resident doctors and 10 nurses .
During the period 1918 to 1939 , the isolation hospital remained the sole medical provision in Sheriff Hill . Faced with an increase in population , Gateshead Council decided that a new general hospital should be built . In March 1938 , preliminary work started on the Queen Elizabeth Hospital on the site of the isolation hospital ; the foundations were laid in 1939 but the outbreak of World War II delayed the building work . The new hospital was opened by Queen Elizabeth , wife of King George VI , on 18 March 1948 . It is the largest hospital in Gateshead and has since been expanded , most notably with the opening of the North East NHS Surgery Centre in 2008 , which cost £ 13 @.@ 3 million .
According to official data , Sheriff Hill residents experience comparatively poor health ; 13 @.@ 7 % of the adult population are considered clinically obese , around 38 % of adults smoke compared with the UK average of 25 @.@ 9 % of adults , and 37 % of adults are binge drinkers . The average life expectancy for men is 77 @.@ 9 years , the same as the UK average , but for women is 78 years ; four years below the UK national average .
= = Education = =
In 1875 , Sheriff Hill Board School was opened on Church Road . The school was open to pupils aged 5 to14 , and the curriculum focused upon " the three Rs " and included some other subjects such as needlework and biblical instruction . Attendance was compulsory but truancy was rife – such was the scale of the problem that prizes and awards were presented to encourage attendance . The school closed in 1947 and was replaced by Glynwood Primary School and Ennerdale Junior School , which were opened by Alderman Grant on 28 November 1953 after a dedication by the Rector of Gateshead .
Situated on Glynwood Gardens and Southend Road , the schools were later merged ; Glynwood School survives as the sole educational establishment in Sheriff Hill . As of 2010 , the school is larger than average and the proportion of children entitled to and claiming free school meals is well above the UK average . The pupils at Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2 are taught subjects from the National Curriculum and achievement is broadly inline with the national average . After inspecting the school in 2010 , OFSTED found it to be a " good " school and praised it for the high quality of teaching and for generating a positive and caring learning environment for pupils .
= = Leisure and recreation = =
Hodkin Park , at Sheriff 's Highway , is one of many small parks in Gateshead . It is named in honour of Alderman Daniel Hodkin , Gateshead 's deputy mayor in 1920 and a member of the Housing Committee which built council housing at Sheriff Hill . Hodkin Park was locally listed by Gateshead Council in 2004 in recognition of its significance to the local community . At the northern end of Sheriff 's Highway there is a dene , shown as the " Quarry Plantation " on Ordnance Survey maps of 1858 . In 2005 , Gateshead Council carried out maintenance work on the dene , including the pruning of shrubbery and the installation of several sets of steps , to encourage residents to use the area .
Sheriff Hill contains several public houses because of its origin as a mining village with a population of tinkers , and because before Durham Road through Low Fell was opened in 1827 , Sodhouse Bank ( now Sheriff 's Highway ) was the route to the Great North Road . The Old Cannon , at the northern end of Sheriff 's Highway , has existed since medieval times and its present name has been used since 1782 , and possibly earlier . The Three Tuns , which is listed in trade directories in 1778 , was the social hub of Sheriff Hill in the 19th century and used by miners and quarrymen , who engaged in cock fighting and cuddy races – informal races between pit donkeys where bets were placed – on open ground in Kells Lane . In 1867 it was the scene of a reception to celebrate the passing of Lord Russell 's Reform Act , and reform meetings and benefit societies were subsequently held there . In recent times it has hosted a number of niche events , including an international pie festival in 2010 and an international sausage festival in 2011 . Both the Old Cannon and The Three Tuns were locally listed by Gateshead Council in 2004 . Other public houses in Sheriff Hill include the Queens Head , listed in trade directories since 1848 , ( which as of 2016 is being converted into a 14 bedroom property ) and the Travellers Rest , which was once called the " Golden Quiot " .
Sheriff Hill Methodist Church plays an important social role in the community ; it has hosted biannual jumble sales for many years and an annual Christmas Fayre is held at the church to mark the start of Christmas in Sheriff Hill .
= = Landmarks = =
Part of Sheriff Hill was designated a Conservation Area in 1999 . The suburb has three Grade II listed buildings . The Church of St John was conceived in 1809 when an Enclosure Act decreed that a church be built on Gateshead Fell . The church was completed on 30 August 1825 at a cost of £ 2742 . The church is a neat , plain , Gothic structure built from ashlar and slate , and was Grade II listed in 1950 . The principal features are the tower and spire , which rise to 148 feet ( 45 m ) . Coupled with the natural terrain of the land , the top of the spire reaches over 500 feet ( 150 m ) above sea level , making it the highest point in the metropolitan borough and one of the highest churches in England ; it is visible for several miles in all directions , making it a prominent landmark and sea mark .
Field House on Windy Nook Road was built in the 19th century in rubble stone and Welsh slate . It has been described as a remnant of Sheriff Hill 's rural past and was listed on 13 January 1983 . Thornlea on Church Road is one of the oldest buildings in the suburb . It is built in stone ashlar with a low hipped slate roof and the doorpiece has two intact Greek Ionic columns . Much of the original grounds have survived intact , as have the original walls of locally quarried stone . It was listed on 13 January 1988 . Additionally , Sheriff Hill has ten locally listed buildings . These are the Zion Methodist Chapel , six stone cottages at Sheriff 's Highway , The Three Tuns and Old Cannon public houses , and houses at 13 – 14 Egremont Drive .
The elevation of Sheriff Hill affords dramatic views of the surrounding landscape across the Team Valley to the west and the Cheviot Hills to the north .
= = Transport = =
Sheriff Hill is situated on the B1296 Old Durham Road , a wide and busy route that was formerly an alignment of the Great North Road , which was diverted through Low Fell . The section of Old Durham Road that traverses the suburb is called Sheriff 's Highway . The journey time to Gateshead town centre by car or bus is approximately ten minutes , and approximately fifteen minutes to the centre of Newcastle upon Tyne . −
The nearest mainline railway station is Newcastle Central Station , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away . The nearest airport is Newcastle International Airport , 7 @.@ 9 miles ( 12 @.@ 7 km ) away .
Sheriff Hill is served by several bus services , including Waggonway 28 , the Fab 56 which continues into Sunderland and the Fab 57 , which terminates at the Ellen Wilkinson Estate and is part of the 93 / 94 Loop network . All buses serving Sheriff Hill are operated by Go North East under the administration of Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Executive , known as " Nexus " .
= = Public services = =
Home Office policing in Sheriff Hill is provided by Northumbria Police ; the nearest police station is at High West Street , Gateshead . Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Tyne and Wear Fire and Rescue Service and Sheriff Hill is served by the Gateshead East station on Dryden Road in Low Fell . Health provision is provided by the Queen Elizabeth Hospital , which is a National Health Service ( NHS ) hospital administered by the Gateshead Health NHS Foundation Trust . The area is served by an ambulance station adjacent to the hospital on Old Durham Road and ambulance services are provided by the North East Ambulance Service .
Public transport services are co @-@ ordinated by the Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Executive . Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority , Gateshead Council , which provides refuse collections , which became fortnightly in March 2012 . Sheriff Hill 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Northern Powergrid . Northumbrian Water supplies drinking water , which is sourced from Kielder Reservoir , and also has responsibility for waste water services .
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= Carolina in My Mind =
" Carolina in My Mind " is a song written and performed by singer @-@ songwriter James Taylor , which first appeared on his 1968 self @-@ titled debut album . Taylor wrote it while overseas recording for the Beatles ' label Apple Records , and the song 's themes reflect his homesickness at the time . Released as a single , the song earned critical praise but not commercial success . It was re @-@ recorded for Taylor 's 1976 Greatest Hits album in the version that is most familiar to listeners . It has been a staple of Taylor 's concert performances over the decades of his career .
The song was a modest hit on the country charts in 1969 for North Carolinian singer George Hamilton IV . Strongly tied to a sense of geographic place , " Carolina in My Mind " has been called an unofficial state anthem for North Carolina . It is also an unofficial song of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , being played at athletic events and pep rallies and sung by the graduating class at every university commencement . The association of the song with the state is also made in written works of both fiction and non @-@ fiction . It has become one of Taylor 's most critically praised songs and one that has great popularity and significance for his audience .
= = Song and recordings = =
The song references Taylor 's years growing up in North Carolina . Taylor wrote it while overseas recording for the Beatles ' label Apple Records . He started writing the song at producer Peter Asher 's London flat on Marylebone High Street , resumed work on it while on holiday on the Mediterranean island of Formentera , and then completed it while stranded on the nearby island of Ibiza with Karin , a Swedish girl he had just met . The song reflects Taylor 's homesickness at the time , as he was missing his family , his dog and his state .
The original recording of the song was done at London 's Trident Studios during the July to October 1968 period , and was produced by Asher . The song 's lyric " holy host of others standing around me " makes reference to the Beatles , who were recording The Beatles in the same studio where Taylor was recording his album . Indeed , the recording of " Carolina in My Mind " featured a credited appearance by Paul McCartney on bass guitar and an uncredited one by George Harrison on backing vocals . The other players were Freddie Redd on organ , Joel " Bishop " O 'Brien on drums , and Mick Wayne providing a second guitar alongside Taylor 's . Taylor and Asher also did backing vocals and Asher added a tambourine . Richard Hewson arranged and conducted a string part ; an even more ambitious 30 @-@ piece orchestra part was recorded but not used . The song itself earned critical praise , with Jon Landau 's April 1969 review for Rolling Stone calling it " beautiful " and one of the " two most deeply affecting cuts " on the album and praising McCartney 's bass playing as " extraordinary " . Taylor biographer Timothy White calls the song " the album 's quiet masterpiece . "
The song was first released on Taylor 's eponymous debut album in December 1968 ( February 1969 in the United States ) , and was later released as a single in the UK in February 1969 and in the United States in March 1969 . However , owing to the same problems which plagued the release of the album ( namely , Taylor 's inability to promote it due to his hospitalization for drug addiction ) , the single 's original release reached only No. 118 on US pop charts and failed to chart in the UK . Indeed , Taylor had fallen back into addiction during the London recording sessions , and his line about being surrounded by Beatles had been immediately followed by " Still I 'm on the dark side of the moon . " Following the success of Taylor 's second album , Sweet Baby James , and its hit single " Fire and Rain " , " Carolina in My Mind " was reissued by Apple as a single in October 1970 and rose to No. 67 on the U.S. charts . ( A previously unreleased acoustic demo of " Carolina in My Mind " was issued as a bonus track on the 2010 Apple Records remastering of James Taylor . )
Different versions of both this song and " Something in the Way She Moves " were remade by Taylor for use on his 1976 Greatest Hits album because of the difficulty of obtaining licensing rights from Apple during the 1970s and because of uncertainty about where the Apple masters were . The new recordings were done in October 1976 at The Sound Factory in Los Angeles and production was again done by Peter Asher .
This rendition of " Carolina in My Mind " had a slower tempo than the original , and accompanying Taylor on acoustic guitar were experienced LA session musicians Dan Dugmore on pedal steel ( highlighted in the descending note sequences at the song 's conclusion ) , Lee Sklar on bass , Russ Kunkel on drums , Clarence McDonald on piano , Andrew Gold on harmonium , and Byron Berline on fiddle . Backing vocals were handled by Gold and Taylor . Greatest Hits became a diamond record , selling more than 11 million copies in the United States by 2001 , and this is the version of " Carolina in My Mind " that became best known . The remake earned even more critical praise than the original . Bill Janovitz of Allmusic said of the 1976 recording that it " accent [ ed ] the languid , plaintive and wistful country melancholy of the song , " while in the 1979 Rolling Stone Record Guide , critic Stephen Holden said that the " stunning " remake showed how much Taylor 's singing had strengthened in the intervening years . Biographer White believed that the song benefited from the removal of the original 's orchestration .
The 1976 re @-@ recording was also included on Taylor 's 2003 compilation The Best of James Taylor .
= = Later appearances = =
" Carolina in My Mind " became a staple of Taylor 's concert repertoire , appearing in the set list of virtually every Taylor tour . A 1992 performance of it was included near the end of Taylor 's first live album , 1993 's Live . The audience reaction demonstrates that the song has great popularity despite never being a hit single : there is immediate cheering as the first notes are picked out on Taylor 's acoustic guitar , and further cheering as soon as he starts to sing . By this era Taylor 's always @-@ excellent touring band was using four backing singers . Arnold McCuller , David Lasley , Kate Markowitz , and Valerie Carter featured strongly in the arrangement , continuing the emphasis on the song 's harmonies that had begun with the 1976 remake . Their part was especially prominent in the concluding refrains as the final words , " in my mind " , were prolonged for emphasis at the end of the song : i @-@ i @-@ i @-@ i @-@ in my mind .
The song has been included in a number of Taylor 's concert video releases , including 1980 's James Taylor : In Concert at the Blossom Music Center , 1988 's James Taylor : In Concert at Boston 's Colonial Theatre , and 2002 's Pull Over . It was performed in collaboration with the Dixie Chicks in 2002 for the CMT Crossroads program . In 2004 , Taylor and the Chicks again performed the song together during the Vote for Change tour , with Taylor dedicating it to former North Carolina Senator and U.S. vice @-@ presidential candidate John Edwards . On the 2006 A Musicares Person of the Year Tribute Honoring James Taylor tribute show and video release , " Carolina in My Mind " was performed by Alison Krauss and Jerry Douglas . The song was then included in Taylor 's 2006 – 2007 One Man Band Tour ; accompanied only by Larry Goldings on piano and harmonium , Taylor introduced the song with visual material and by relating its composition on Formentera and other locations . He talked about the Karin of the lyrics , whom he had known only briefly and never seen since , and related various humorous notions about how to find her again . One such performance was documented on the 2007 album and video release One Man Band . Another live performance appeared on Taylor 's 2010 live CD / DVD combo release with Carole King , Live at The Troubadour . James Taylor appeared on The Colbert Report on January 19 , 2012 , and sang " Carolina in My Mind " along with Stephen Colbert , and then performed it on the final day of the 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte , North Carolina , where he greeted " fellow Tar Heels and Democrats " .
= = Other versions = =
While " Carolina in My Mind " did not gain much attention from the public upon its original release , it did from other artists . It was a No. 29 hit on the American country charts and No. 3 hit in Canada in 1969 for North Carolinian singer George Hamilton IV . The Everly Brothers also released it as a single in 1969 , under the variant title " Carolina on My Mind " , but it failed to chart ; this was later collected on their 1994 box set Heartaches and Harmonies . Evie Sands also touched upon it in her 1969 album Any Way That You Want Me .
The song was recorded by Melanie on her hit April 1970 album Candles in the Rain ; the arrangement and vocal phrasing are different from Taylor 's , and Allmusic writes that her version " exist [ s ] on an entirely separate plane from the original " . It was also recorded in more conventional folk rock form by John Denver on his May 1970 album Take Me to Tomorrow . Philadelphia @-@ based pop group Crystal Mansion released a version in October 1970 that reached No. 73 on the U.S. pop singles chart . Dawn included a version of it on their 1970 debut album Candida . About the same time , Glen Campbell was performing the song as a sped @-@ up country duet with Linda Ronstadt on his popular television series The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour ; this was later collected on his 2007 video release Good Times Again .
The song subsequently became so identified with Taylor that other artists recorded it less frequently , but still by the late 2000s there were some 60 albums ( including compilation reappearances and albums from Taylor himself ) that featured it .
= = Sense of place = =
" Carolina in My Mind " is strongly associated with its geographical place and has been called an unofficial state anthem of North Carolina . Taylor had grown up in Carrboro , outside Chapel Hill , where his father taught at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine . Taylor later reflected : " Chapel Hill , the piedmont , the outlying hills , were tranquil , rural , beautiful , but quiet . Thinking of the red soil , the seasons , the way things smelled down there , I feel as though my experience of coming of age there was more a matter of landscape and climate than people . " More broadly , the song has been associated with The South . Author James L. Peacock sees it akin to Stephen Foster 's " My Old Kentucky Home " and other songs and works of literature in establishing " the South 's sense of place " , even if that sense is sometimes an exercise in projected nostalgia . Author Ken Emerson also sees a connection to that quintessential American songwriter , with the Taylor song resembling Foster 's " Sitting By My Own Cabin Door " in its sense of longing for home amid personal and contextual dislocation . Recognizing the association with the state , the Chapel Hill Museum opened an ongoing exhibit " Carolina in My Mind : The James Taylor Story " in 2003 that includes memorabilia from Taylor 's years in the area and a video documentary .
" Carolina in My Mind " is also an unofficial song of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . It is played at athletic events and pep rallies , and is sung by the graduating class at every university graduation . In October 2006 , Taylor returned to the campus to receive the school 's Carolina Performing Arts Lifetime Achievement Award . University chancellor James Moeser said to Taylor , " We love you . We love what you do and how you represent this university . " Taylor said , " It 's strange but somehow compelling to come home and sing it . It draws a line through my own personal history and connects me again to a place that I go to in my dreams , a landscape that will forever be a part of me . " The song is also frequently covered by popular UNC campus a cappella groups , including the Clef Hangers . The Clef Hangers ' Fall Concert 2007 performances of the song featured future American Idol season 8 finalist Anoop Desai handling the lead vocal on the closing part of the song . The Clef Hangers , joined by university chancellor Holden Thorp , again performed it in March 2009 at the first anniversary memorial service for murdered student president Eve Carson .
The 82nd Airborne Division of the United States Army , stationed at Fort Bragg in North Carolina , sponsors a group of singing soldiers known as the 82nd Airborne Division All @-@ American Chorus . They recorded a version of the song on their 2009 album A Soldier 's Heart .
Some of the song 's lyrics are used as an epigraph in the 2001 Celebrate the States series volume on North Carolina and in the 1983 reference book America the Quotable . News providers have used " Carolina in My Mind " as a title for stories about the state 's politics , economy , and outdoor activities . The song 's geographical association also appears in fiction , including in Carly Alexander 's 2004 novel The Eggnog Chronicles and North Carolinian Sharyn McCrumb 's 2006 novel St. Dale .
Although it was North Carolina that inspired the song , it is popular in South Carolina too , tying for first place on a South Carolina Information Highway 's construction of a soundtrack regarding the state . It has been used as the theme for the television coverage of the annual Family Circle Cup tennis event in South Carolina .
" Carolina in My Mind " is also popular among the Carolinian diaspora ; prize @-@ winning North Carolinian writer Jill McCorkle , living in Massachusetts , refers to it as " the chosen anthem of misplaced Carolinians . " In Kathy Reichs ' initial Temperance Brennan novel , Déjà Dead , the protagonist ( like the author ) is from North Carolina but working in Montreal as a forensic anthropologist , and alludes to the song as part of a Carolinian reverie in the midst of a horrid murder case . One person who had moved to California said , " Still to this day I get nostalgic whenever I hear it on the radio . It 's a song that makes anyone who grew up in North Carolina homesick . In a way , it 's become an anthem song for people who left the state . "
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= Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... =
Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( English : Sometimes there 's Happiness , Sometimes there 's Sorrow ) , also known as K3G , is a 2001 Indian drama film written and directed by Karan Johar and produced by his father , Yash Johar . Written specifically to evoke nostalgia among the expatriate Indian audiences , the film stars Amitabh Bachchan , Jaya Bachchan , Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol , Hrithik Roshan and Kareena Kapoor in leading roles , with Rani Mukerji appearing in an extended cameo appearance . The music was composed by Jatin Lalit , Sandesh Shandilya and Aadesh Shrivastava , with lyrics penned by Sameer and Anil Pandey . The background score was composed by Babloo Chakravarty . The film tells the story of an Indian family , which faces troubles and misunderstandings over their adopted son 's marriage to a girl belonging to a lower socio @-@ economic group than them .
Development of the film began in 1998 , soon after the release of Karan 's debut film Kuch Kuch Hota Hai ( 1998 ) . Principal photography began on 16 October 2000 in Mumbai and continued in London and Egypt . Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... was promoted with the tag @-@ line " It 's All About Loving Your Parents " . Initially scheduled to release during the Diwali festivities of 2001 , the film eventually released in India , United Kingdom and North America on 14 December 2001 . In 2003 , it became the first Indian film to be given a theatrical release in Germany . Upon release , the film met with mixed reviews from film critics and received polarising reactions to Karan Johar 's " larger @-@ than @-@ life " directorial style , some seeing it as an " oddly hollow film " .
Made on a budget of ₹ 400 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 9 million ) , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... emerged as a major commercial success , both domestically and internationally , with a lifetime gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 35 billion ( US $ 20 million ) . Outside India , the film was the highest grossing Indian film ever , until its record was broken by Karan 's next directorial , Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna ( 2006 ) . Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... won several awards at popular award ceremonies the following year , including five Filmfare Awards .
= = Plot = =
Yashvardhan " Yash " Raichand ( Amitabh Bachchan ) is a rich businessman living in India with his wife Nandini ( Jaya Bachchan ) and two sons Rahul and Rohan . Rahul is the elder son and was adopted by Yash and Nandini at birth . This is known to everyone in the Raichand household , except Rohan . When grown up , Rahul ( Shahrukh Khan ) comes across the vivacious Punjabi @-@ speaking Anjali Sharma ( Kajol ) , and they eventually fall in love , but their love is forbidden , because Anjali is from a working @-@ class background . Yash and Nandini soon send Rohan to a Boarding School , which all the males in their family have attended . Yash announces his desire for Rahul to marry Naina ( Rani Mukherji ) , but Naina learns that Rahul is in love with Anjali , and encourages him to pursue her . When Yash comes to know of this , he is enraged , and Rahul promises not to marry Anjali . En route to tell her of his promise , he discovers that her father ( Alok Nath ) has died , and decides to marry her despite his father 's hostility . Yash learns of the marriage and disowns Rahul , whereupon Nandini and Rahul share a tearful goodbye . Nandini sends Sayeeda ( Farida Jalal ) , Rahul and Rohan 's nanny , to watch over him . Rahul visits Rohan in the Boarding School and begs of Rohan never to ask where he went or why he left , and asks that he take care of Nandini .
Ten years later , Rohan ( Hrithik Roshan ) returns home from the Boarding School , and learns from his grandmothers ( Achala Sachdev and Sushma Seth ) that Rahul was adopted , and the reason why Rahul left the house , whereupon Rohan vows to reunite the family . He learns that Rahul , Anjali , and her younger sister Pooja moved to London , and tells his parents that he wishes further studies in London , his parents agree to let him go . In London , Rahul is now a wealthy businessman . He and Anjali now have their own son , Krish . Pooja ( Kareena Kapoor ) , now a popular fashion @-@ obsessed diva , is a student at King 's College London . Rohan enrolls there too . He and Pooja meet again and he tells her that he has come to London to bring his brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law back home . Pooja tells Rahul that Rohan is her friend 's brother who currently has nowhere to stay . After some persuasion , Rahul agrees to let Rohan stay . At Krish 's school function , he leads his class in singing the Indian National Anthem , and later recites advice which Rohan had given him . Rahul having given Rohan this advice ten years back , he now realises that Rohan is his brother .
Rohan begs Rahul to come home , but he refuses . Pooja convinces Rohan to invite his parents to London ; Rahul and Nandini are overjoyed to see one another , but Rahul still refuses to talk to his father . Soon , Yash learns that his mother is on her death bed , and that her last wish is for Yash , Rahul , and Rohan to light her funeral pyre together . Therefore , the entire family attends the funeral , and Nandini tells Yash that she thought he was wrong for disowning Rahul . Rohan and Pooja convince Rahul to talk to Yash , who allows him and Anjali into the house . Rohan and Pooja are married and the family hold a belated celebration of Rahul and Anjali 's wedding .
= = Cast = =
Amitabh Bachchan as Yashvardhan " Yash " Raichand , a New Delhi @-@ based businessman . Fiercely dominating , he insists on controlling the life of his wife and sons . Amitabh Bachchan was Karan 's first choice for the portrayal of Yash Raichand . Karan added , " As I wrote the film , I realised that Yashvardhan Raichand is the backbone of the film and I could only see one actor playing the role — Amitabh Bachchan . " Bachchan , on his part , agreed to do the film without a script narration . Karan mentioned that he was initially scared to direct a star of the stature of Bachchan , but the latter " soon became an actor instead of a superstar " .
Jaya Bachchan as Nandini Raichand , Yash 's wife . She shares a close bond with her sons , but remains in the shadow of her husband . According to Karan Johar , Jaya Bachchan was the " obvious " choice for the character of Nandini , and added that her " acting prowess and stature " were the other reasons for him preferring to cast her . The film also marked the return of Amitabh and Jaya Bachchan together on screen after a gap of 18 years . Of her character , she said that Nandini was an extension of her own self . She elaborated , " My personal feelings towards Shah Rukh are similar to what I was supposed to portray in the film . There 's something about him that makes me want to mother him . " She added that she modelled her character on Karan 's mother , Hiroo Johar , who " is a very emotional and sentimental person . "
Shah Rukh Khan as Rahul Raichand , Yash and Nandini 's adopted son . He feels indebted to his parents and tries to fulfill all their wishes . However , he falls in love with Anjali and invites the wrath of Yash . When Karan offered the role to Shah Rukh , he immediately agreed to do it and accommodated his dates , despite having several other commitments . Khan described the character of Rahul by saying , " I love the vulnerability and the honesty in his eyes . He has the appeal of a boy next door . Besides , his intensity and ability to convey emotions without words is amazing . "
Kajol as Anjali Sharma Raichand , Rahul 's love @-@ interest and later , wife . She is a fun @-@ loving Punjabi woman living in the Chandni Chowk area of Delhi . Belonging to a lower socio @-@ economic group than the Raichand family , she is not accepted by Yash as his daughter @-@ in @-@ law . Karan was initially hesitant to cast Kajol in the film , as he felt that she would refuse the offer due to her recent marriage . Kajol , however , was moved to tears during the script narration and agreed to do the film . In an interview to Filmfare , Kajol said , " One tiny fact that Karan forgot to mention during his narration was just how much Punjabi my character spoke in the film . I nearly died when I saw the lines of dialogue on the first day of shooting . " However , she learnt the right pronunciation and diction with the help of Yash Johar and the crew members .
Hrithik Roshan as Rohan Raichand , Yash and Nandini 's biological son . He wants his elder brother , Rahul , to return home . Karan signed Roshan to play the character of Rohan after watching a rough cut of the latter 's debut film , Kaho Naa ... Pyaar Hai ( 2000 ) . Roshan described his character as a " buffer " in a film that primarily focused on Amitabh Bachchan and Shah Rukh Khan .
Kareena Kapoor as Pooja " Poo " Sharma , Anjali 's younger sister . She is a sophisticated girl , who helps Rohan in his plan to reunite Rahul with his parents . After spotting Kapoor at a party organised by Bombay Times , Karan decided to cast her immediately for the role of the glamorous diva , Poo . Kapoor stated that in her opinion , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... was primarily Kajol 's film , and that her own character was a supporting one . In order to prepare for her role , she worked hard on her dancing skills , as she didn 't want audiences to know that she couldn 't dance well .
Rani Mukerji as Naina Kapoor , a socialite girl who loves Rahul and wants to marry him , and Yashvardhan approves of her . Following the success of Karan 's previous film , Kuch Kuch Hota Hai ( 1998 ) , which starred Khan , Kajol and Mukerji , he wanted her presence in this film too . He thus cast Mukerji in a guest appearance . Initially , Karan wanted her presence in the film to be a surprise , but an accidental slip by Sony Music during the promotional activities led to her discovery .
Farida Jalal as Sayeeda / Daijan ( DJ ) , Rahul and Rohan 's nanny . On the insistence of Nandini , she follows Rahul and Anjali to London .
Simone Singh as Rukhsaar , Sayeeda 's daughter and Anjali 's best friend
Alok Nath as Bauji Sharma , Anjali and Pooja 's father
Kavish Majumdar as the younger Rohan Raichand
Malvika Raaj as the younger Pooja Sharma
Aryan Khan ( Shah Rukh Khan 's real @-@ life son ) as the younger Rahul ( special appearance )
Jugal Hansraj as Rohan 's friend ( special appearance )
Achala Sachdev and Sushma Seth were cast as Yash and Nandini 's mothers , respectively . The film also featured Johnny Lever as Haldiram ( a shopkeeper in Chandni Chowk ) , Himani Shivpuri as Haldiram 's wife , Jibraan Khan as Krish Raichand ( Rahul and Anjali 's son ) , Amar Talwar as Mr. Kapoor ( Yash 's friend and Naina 's father ) . Ramona Sunavala , Jeroo Writer and Vikas Sethi feature as Poo 's friends Sonya , Tanya and Robbie , respectively . Additionally , Ashutosh Singh features as Ashfaque , Rukshaar 's husband . Shilpa Mehta , Shashikala and Parzan Dastur were cast as Ashfaque 's mother , grandmother and nephew , respectively .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After the success of Karan 's debut film , Kuch Kuch Hota Hai ( 1998 ) , he began work on a story dealing with the concept of " generations " . The idea initially revolved around two daughters @-@ in @-@ law . However , on the advice of filmmaker Aditya Chopra , who thought that the male characters would be too weak , Karan decided to tweak the story @-@ line to make it the story of two brothers .
The inspiration behind Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... came from Yash Chopra 's Kabhi Kabhie ( 1976 ) . On being inspired by the classic , Karan quoted , " What appealed to me was the fact that the love story stretched out across generations . It began with youth and went on as the people grew older . You could say that Kabhi Kabhie is the starting point for my new film , that I am inspired by it . But the film , I am sure , will be very different . It will look different , feel different . " Similarly , Karan added an extra " e " to the second Kabhi in the title of his film , due to numerological reasons . In an interview with The Times of India , Karan dispelled comparisons with Kuch Kuch Hota Hai and said that while his debut film was " frothy and bubble @-@ gummish " , this one was " more classy and sophisticated " . He added that there would be " plenty of drama " in this film too , but handled more maturely .
Before principal photography could begin , Karan and the contracted costume designers ( Manish Malhotra , Shabina Khan and Rocky S. ) shopped in several locations of USA , London , Milan , and New Delhi to get the right look for each of the cast members . Additionally , Karan had only one expectation from the contracted actors ; to " look good and do their job " . He did not organise any rehearsals for them , except for a scene involving a climatic encounter between Amitabh Bachchan and Roshan . Additional production people hired included choreographer Farah Khan , production designer Sharmishta Roy and cinematographer Kiran Deohans .
= = = Filming = = =
The first schedule of the film began in Mumbai on 16 October 2000 , with the picturisation of the song " Bole Chudiyan " involving Roshan , Kapoor , Khan and Kajol . Amitabh and Jaya Bachchan joined the schedule on 20 October . Due to the immense stress caused by the presence of these actors , Karan fainted on the sets . However , he continued directing the rest of the song while lying in bed .
For the first half of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... , the production design team led by Sharmishtha Roy , recreated Chandni Chowk in a studio at Film City of Mumbai . In order to lend authenticity , the team took several pictures of the original area and also shopped in the various alleys of Chandni Chowk . Roy later won Filmfare Award for Best Art Direction her work . The inside of a palatial mansion was developed from scratch in the same studio to double as the home of the Raichand family . In order to lend authenticity to the house of the multi @-@ multimillionaires , several expensive paintings were hung from the walls . A total of 18 – 19 elaborate sets were constructed by Roy , as Karan wanted the look of the film to be " larger @-@ than @-@ life " .
The second half of the film was shot in the city of London . Karan chose to set the film there due to his fondness for the city . He added , " I could have based my plot in New York City or anywhere else . But London is kind of close to my heart . I like to weave my films around London . " Shooting locations include the Wales Millennium Centre , Bluewater Complex , Kent , Blenheim Palace , St Paul 's Cathedral and the banks of River Thames . The outdoor scenes of the Raichand family mansion were shot at Waddesdon Manor . The crew faced enormous difficulties while filming an emotional scene between Jaya Bachchan and Khan at the Bluewater Complex , as a massive crowd had gathered there to watch them at work . The situation , eventually , got worse and the complex officials asked them to wrap up the shoot within two hours .
Another song sequence ( " Suraj Hua Maddham " ) involving Khan and Kajol was shot with the backdrop of the Pyramids of Giza in the city of Cairo in Egypt . Due to the lighting conditions , the crew could shoot only between 7 and 9 am in the morning . As a result , the song took several days to film . In addition , Kajol suffered from a minor injury while filming for the song , as she had experienced a bad fall .
= = Soundtrack = =
The music of the film was composed by Jatin Lalit , Sandesh Shandilya and Aadesh Shrivastava . The lyrics were provided by Sameer , except for " Suraj Hua Maddham " which was penned by Anil Pandey . A total of 11 tracks are present in the album , which was released by Sony Music on 16 October 2001 . Explaining the album , Karan Johar said , " I wanted music that had all kinds of tunes — pop , romantic , bhangra – but one sound . It had to be larger than life . " He added that Jatin @-@ Lalit came up with three " haunting melodies " , while Shandilya and Shrivastava came up with the pop and bhangra songs , respectively . A legal suit was filed against Johar for using the song " It 's Raining Men " in the film without obtaining prior permission .
Upon release , the soundtrack of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... emerged as a major success by selling 2 @.@ 5 million units within 30 days . Additionally , it became the largest selling album of the year in India . Writing for Rediff , Sukanya Varma praised most of the compositions , while being critical of the song " Say Shava Shava " due to the " overdose of Punjabi emotions " . She summed up by saying , " The music of K3G has a presence . Hate it or love it , you certainly won 't ignore it . " Planet Bollywood gave it 8 of 10 stars , calling " Suraj Hua Maddham " the best song , and the best reason to buy the album . In 2002 , Sony released another album titled Klub K3G , featuring remixes by Indian electronic music producers Akshai Sarin , Harshdeep Sidhu , Prempal Hans and others .
= = Release and reception = =
Initially scheduled for a theatrical release during the Diwali celebrations of 2001 , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... released a month later on 14 December . Due to the long duration of the film , theatres screened three shows daily , instead of four . Additionally , due to a massive rush in advance bookings , several theatres increased their ticket prices .
The use of " Jana Gana Mana " by Rabindranath Tagore during the film was met with criticism from a certain section of the audiences , and politicians of the Bharatiya Janata Party , for being " out @-@ of @-@ context " and " insulting the national pride " . Subsequently , a writ was issued against Dharma Productions in the Allahabad High Court by a petitioner based in Uttar Pradesh . However , the court did not entertain the complainant 's petition .
= = = Critical reception = = =
= = = = India = = = =
In India , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... met with polarised reactions from film critics . While certain critics praised the visual richness and the performances of the cast , certain others were negative about the lengthy run time and criticised the script strength and inconsistencies . Khalid Mohamed of The Times of India applauded the film and reviewed , " K3G is the complete commercial banquet delivered with fabulous finesse by Karan Johar . So , go indulge yourself . Cry your heart out and surprisingly , you 'll feel life 's finally alive and kicking in Mumbai 's dream world . " Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . He praised the emotional sequences , as well as the choreography , production design , costumes , and cinematography . He added that Karan Johar was the real star , for creating many memorable sequences . Rakesh Budhu of Planet Bollywood gave the film 8 out of 10 stars , saying " Dharma Productions has kept its promise in giving us a lovable film to remember in coming times . " He pointed out several flaws in the script , but added that the positive aspects of the film managed to outweigh the negative ones . He quoted , " K3G is one heck of an entertainer and was worth the wait " . In the film review section of his book Bollywood : An Insider 's Guide , Fuad Omar showered overwhelming praise on the film and called it a " masterpiece from the first frame to the last " . In summary he said , " Overall Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... is without a doubt the most enthralling , entertaining , emotional and complete vision and definition of Hindi cinema I have ever seen . It is simply the perfect Hindi film . "
Contrary to the positive reviews , Anjum N. , writing for Rediff , said that despite an extraordinary cast and a big budget , " Karan Johar disappoints . " He praised Amitabh and Jaya Bachchan 's performance and noted Hrithik Roshan for holding his own against the veteran actors . However , in summary he called the film " a bad remix of Mohabbatein and Kuch Kuch Hota Hai " . Writing for The Hindu , Ziya Salam praised Kajol 's performance and Karan 's ability to " keep the viewer occupied " . She commented , " Watch Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... not because of the hype which preceded its release but because in these meagre times not many have come up with better fare . The film at least partially redeems the hope surrounding it . Again , just like its name . Some joy , some disappointment . " Namarata Joshi of Outlook gave a mixed review and said that while the film " makes you laugh and cry alternately " , the shenanigans were nevertheless " fake and affected " and " monochromatic despite the profusion of colours " .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
Overseas too , the reviews were mostly mixed , with several critics praising the technical production details of the film , while being somewhat less enthusiastic about the story line . Shamaila Khan of BBC gave the film 9 out of 10 stars and praised the performances of Khan , Kajol and Kapoor . She summed up by saying , " ( K3G is ) a well made film , with some magical moments ( hilarious and weepy ) and possibly the world 's best looking family ! " Derek Elley of Variety said that it " is a highly enjoyable , often dazzlingly staged vehicle dragged down by a sluggish final half @-@ hour " . He also praised the cinematography , and the picturisation of the song , " Say Shava Shava " . Corey K. Creekmur , of the University of Iowa , said that there were many ignored or illogical plot points and inconsistencies between the moral messages meant to be portrayed and the manner in which they came off on screen . Overall , he called the film a letdown .
= = = Box Office = = =
Upon release , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... broke all opening records . The film opened to around ₹ 70 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 0 million ) nett collections in its first weekend in India , with the first week total at around ₹ 140 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 1 million ) . The domestic opening week collections were 70 % higher than the previous record and never before had opening records been eclipsed by such large margins . It also set new records for the second and third weeks , by collecting ₹ 105 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) and ₹ 80 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) respectively . The film went on to become the second highest grosser of 2001 domestically , netting ₹ 550 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 2 million ) in India , and earning " Blockbuster " status .
The film was released in around 125 prints in the overseas markets , grossing a total of $ 8 @.@ 9 million at the end of its theatrical run . It performed very well in the United Kingdom , with a gross of $ 689 @,@ 000 in its opening weekend . It thus debuted at the third position at the British box @-@ office . The total earnings of the film reached over $ 3 @.@ 2 million in the UK . The film also had the biggest opening ever for a Bollywood film in North America , with a gross of $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 73 screens . However , according to a report by Rediff , the numbers were so high that the official reporting agency did not believe it , and asked for evidence that could not be furnished until after the reporting deadline had passed . If reported on time , the film would have opened at the number 10 spot in the North American box @-@ office . However , according to figures from Box Office Mojo , the film debuted at the 32nd place at the American box office during the week of 4 January 2002 . It eventually gathered a total of $ 2 @.@ 9 million there . Additionally , in 2003 , the film became the first from India to be given a theatrical release in Germany .
Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... earned a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 35 billion ( US $ 20 million ) . It was the highest grossing film of the year worldwide , surpassing Gadar : Ek Prem Katha which was the top grosser in the domestic market . Its record of being the highest grosser abroad was broken only by Johar 's next directorial , Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna ( 2006 ) . When adjusted for inflation , the film is still among the highest grossers worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... received fifteen nominations at the Filmfare Awards , ultimately winning five awards . In an interview with Filmfare , Karan Johar said that he wasn 't dejected to have not won too many awards at the ceremony , as he felt that Lagaan was " a classic " and deserved to win .
The film won several awards at the International Indian Film Academy Awards ( IIFA ) , and some at the Zee Cine Awards and Screen Awards ceremonies , among others . Among the cast members , Kajol and Jaya Bachchan won several awards in the Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress category , respectively . At the 13th annual Valenciennes International Film Festival , the film won five major awards , including three Best Film awards and Best Actress for Kajol .
= = Analysis = =
Film critics and academics have analysed Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... in several ways . In the book , Encyclopedia of Religion and Film , Eric Mazur described several " mythological subtexts " in the film . While mentioning the opening scene of the film , which features the Raichand family worshiping " Hindu deities during the annual Diwali holiday " , he explained that the scene allowed the Hindu audiences to participate in the darshan along with the characters .
Author Rajani Mazumdar compared Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... to Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! ( 1994 ) and added that the film dealt with themes of family and moral values through a " spectacular stage that moves across global locations " . She further stated that the buildup to the story was juxtaposed with the backdrop of two contrasting places – the Raichand home and the interiors of Chandni Chowk . While the Raichand house is described as " expensive , almost like a museum " , Chandni Chowk is shown as a world of crowds , chaos and festivities . She also made a note of the use of frontal camera angles in order to ensure that the " spectators eye travels throughout the interior expanse " .
Writer Sangita Gopal analysed the " intensification of the aesthetic effects of Hindi cinema " in the narrative scheme of the film . During the confrontation scene between Yash and Rahul Raichand , a " thundering background score " coupled with " 360 ° panning shots " were used to build up melodrama . She added that while such scenes simply began by reprising previous face @-@ offs in several melodramatic Hindi films ( such as Mohabbatein of 2000 ) , they gradually shifted " to a more realist register as the framework moves from a sociology to a psychology of the family " . Mazur mentioned the use of " dream sequences " in the film as a means of escapism . He referred to the song " Suraj Hua Maddham " as an extradiegetic sequence that allowed Rahul and Anjali to be physically intimate " in ways that they could not in the real world of the film . " He added that the characters conveyed a plethora of emotions not through extensive dialogue but through the exchange of glances , which were demonstrated by extreme close @-@ ups on their eyes .
Writing for the book Movie Blockbusters , Andrew Willis commented that the film was specifically written to appeal to the Indian diaspora . He explained that the film was aimed at invoking nostalgia among the large section of NRI 's in Canada , United Kingdom and North America . In the second half of the film , Rahul and Anjali move to London , where they enjoy an affluent lifestyle , among several non @-@ Indian neighbours and friends . However , there is a perpetual dissatisfaction among them , especially Anjali , in living away from home . Additionally , she dresses up in a traditional sari and performs the duties of a loyal housemaker . She also frets about her son and younger sister being " too influenced " by Western culture . The film , thus tries to form an emotional connection with the expatriate Indian audiences .
According to Eckstein several sequences convey a " culturally conservative " and " idealistic image " of India , while maintaining that the diaspora living in Britain lead a life of " involuntary exile " . Western ideology is equated with economic success , with emphasis on Western consumerism such as Starbucks and Burger King . Creekmur believes that Rohan was the only character in the film who could navigate multiple cultural spaces with ease . He seems totally at ease both at his ancestral home in India and in London . Though the tagline for the film was " It 's all about loving your parents " , Creekmur was skeptical and suggested " the film seems to actually admonish stern fathers to trust and love their children — mothers , aunties , and grandmothers , of course , love their children unconditionally even while respecting the idiotic wishes of vain patriarchs . "
= = Other media = =
During the production and filming process , a book entitled The Making of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham was written by Niranjan Iyengar . It features materials and interviews concerning the producer , director , photographer , art director , cast and crew that Iyengar gathered over an 18 @-@ month period during the production of the film . The book was released a few days prior to the theatrical release of the film .
Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... has been released on VHS and DVD ( one and two disc version ) formats , beginning in 2002 , and in the Blu @-@ ray format beginning in 2010 . The two disc DVD version of the film contains a 45 @-@ minute documentary entitled The Making of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham along with deleted scenes , a theatrical trailer , and several television promos .
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= Xu Lai ( actress ) =
Xu Lai ( Chinese : 徐来 ; Wade – Giles : Hsü Lai ; 1909 – 4 April 1973 ) was a Chinese film actress , socialite , and World War II secret agent . Known as the " Standard Beauty " , she was active in the film industry for only three years , and quit acting after the suicide of the great star Ruan Lingyu in 1935 . Her first husband was Li Jinhui , the " Father of Chinese pop music " .
During the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Xu and her second husband , Lieutenant General Tang Shengming , ostensibly served under the Japanese @-@ controlled Nanking puppet regime , but secretly worked as agents for the Republic of China resistance based in Chungking .
With the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War , Xu and Tang defected to the People 's Republic of China , but were severely persecuted during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) . Xu Lai died in prison in 1973 ; her husband survived and lived until 1987 .
= = Early life = =
Xu Lai was born 1909 to a poor family in Shanghai . Her original name was Xu Xiaomei ( 徐小妹 ) and she was also called Xu Jiefeng ( 徐洁凤 ) . Due to poverty , she began working at a British @-@ owned egg factory in Zhabei at the age of 13 , but was later able to attend school after her family fortunes improved .
In 1927 , Xu attended the China Song and Dance School run by Li Jinhui , who is now considered the " Father of Chinese pop music " . She also joined Li 's Bright Moon Song and Dance Troupe and toured many cities in China and Southeast Asia . She married Li , who was 18 years her senior , in 1930 , and gave birth to a daughter named Xiaofeng .
= = Film career = =
In 1932 , Xu Lai was recruited by Zhou Jianyun , a cofounder of the Mingxing Film Company , to join the studio . She became famous after starring in the 1933 silent film Remnants of Spring ( 残春 ) , in which she appeared in probably the earliest female bath scene in the history of Chinese cinema . Later that year she starred in A Feather on Mount Tai ( 泰山鸿毛 ) . In 1934 , she starred in Cheng Bugao 's popular patriotic films Romance of Mount Hua ( 华山艳史 ) and Go Northwest ( 到西北去 ) .
Xu Lai , together with Wang Renmei and Li Lili , her former colleagues at the Bright Moon Troupe , were the earliest stars to portray the vibrant , wholesome , and sexy " country girl " prototype , which became one of the most popular figures in Chinese cinema , and later inherited by the cinema of Hong Kong .
Xu became widely known as the " Standard Beauty " , and a ceremony was held to crown her the " Beauty Queen of the Far East " . The Shanghai Chinese Women 's Association strongly disapproved of her " coronation " . Among the objections raised was that she " shocked the public by exhibiting herself in the nude " , referring to her bath scene .
The suicide of actress Ruan Lingyu in 1935 , which caused three other women to commit suicide during her 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long funeral procession , had a major impact on Xu Lai . She quit acting after finishing her last film , The Boatman 's Daughter ( 船家女 ) , directed by Shen Xiling . It was critically acclaimed and considered her best film .
The sudden death of her daughter Xiaofeng , also in 1935 , caused a breakdown of her marriage with Li Jinhui and the couple divorced in November of that year . It was an acrimonious divorce and Li requested compensation for the investment he had made in training her .
= = Secret agent = =
In 1936 , Xu Lai married Tang Shengming ( 唐生明 ) , a Kuomintang Lieutenant General from a prominent Hunanese family . Tang was a notorious playboy and a close friend of Dai Li , chief of the Bureau of Investigation and Statistics ( Juntong ) , the secret service of the Republic of China . Xu 's assistant Zhang Suzhen ( 张素贞 ) , a Juntong secret agent , became Tang 's concubine , and Shanghai tabloids often reported salacious stories of the three sharing the same bed . Tang made sure that Xu Lai introduced Dai Li to the " movie queen " Hu Die , who later became the spy chief 's mistress .
A year after her wedding , the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War erupted . The Imperial Japanese Army attacked Shanghai in August 1937 , and the national capital Nanking in December . Tang 's older brother , General Tang Shengzhi , was the chief commander of the doomed defense of Nanking , which resulted in the Nanking Massacre . Tang Shengming , meanwhile , was the deputy commander of Changsha and chief commander of Changde , both in Hunan province .
In 1940 , Tang Shengming surrendered to the Japanese and was recruited to serve in the Reorganized National Government of China ( the Wang Jingwei regime ) , a puppet government established by Japan in occupied Nanking . Tang was appointed the commander of public security of Jiangsu province , while Xu was his socialite wife who became a close friend with the wives of Wang Jingwei , Chen Gongbo , and Zhou Fohai , the top leaders of the puppet regime . They were widely condemned by the Chinese public as traitors , and Tang Shengzhi publicly renounced all relationship with his brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law .
After the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II , the Kuomintang government revealed that Tang Shengming and Xu Lai had been sent by Dai Li to serve as secret agents in the Wang Jingwei regime . The couple took great personal risks to obtain intelligence about Japanese spies and troop movements and pass it to the resistance . Xu Lai reportedly discovered the identity of a Japanese spy while playing mahjong with Zhou Fohai 's wife , and personally delivered messages to Chinese agents in Shanghai in urgent situations .
= = After 1949 = =
In 1949 , as it was becoming clear that Mao Zedong 's Communists were winning the Chinese Civil War , Xu Lai moved her family from Shanghai to British Hong Kong , while Tang Shengming went to Changsha to join the surrender of Hunan Governor Cheng Qian to the Communists . His brother Tang Shengzhi also surrendered . In 1950 , Tang Shengming was appointed deputy commander of 21st Group Army of the People 's Liberation Army and fought battles against the Kuomintang troops in Guangdong and Guangxi provinces .
In 1956 , Tang was appointed a counsellor of the State Council of the People 's Republic of China , and Xu Lai moved with her husband to Beijing .
When the Cultural Revolution started in 1966 , Mao 's wife Jiang Qing , who had been a minor actress in Shanghai during the 1930s , began persecuting many of her former colleagues who were familiar with her " bourgeois " past . Xu Lai and her husband were both imprisoned for unfounded criminal charges . On 4 April 1973 , Xu died in prison after years of torture and maltreatment , at the age of 64 . Tang survived the tumultuous period , and lived until 1987 .
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= Marcus Morton =
Marcus Morton ( 1784 – February 6 , 1864 ) was an American lawyer , jurist , and politician from Taunton , Massachusetts . He served two terms as Governor of Massachusetts and several months as Acting Governor following the death in 1825 of William Eustis . He served for 15 years as an Associate Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court , all the while running unsuccessfully as a Democrat for governor . He finally won the 1839 election , acquiring exactly the number of votes required for a majority win over Edward Everett . After losing the 1840 and 1841 elections , he and was reelected in another narrow victory in 1842 .
The Massachusetts Democratic Party was highly factionalized , which contributed to Morton 's long string of defeats . His brief periods of ascendancy , however , resulted in no substantive Democratic @-@ supported reforms , since the dominant Whigs reversed most of the changes enacted during his terms . An opponent of the extension of slavery , he split with longtime friend John C. Calhoun over that issue , and eventually left the party for the Free Soil movement . He was considered by Martin Van Buren as a potential vice presidential running mate in 1848 .
= = Early years = =
Morton was born in East Freetown , Massachusetts in 1784 , the only son of Nathaniel and Mary ( Cary ) Morton . Sources report his day of birth to be either February or December 19 . His father was a farmer who was politically active , serving for a time on the Governor 's Council . Morton received his early education at home , and was placed at age fourteen in the academy of Reverend Calvin Chaddock at Rochester , Massachusetts .
In 1801 Morton was admitted to Brown University with the sophomore class , and graduated in 1804 . During his time at Brown came to adopt Jeffersonian ideas , making an outspoken anti @-@ Federalist speech at his commencement . He then read law at Taunton for a year in the office of Judge Seth Padelford , after which he entered Tapping Reeve 's law school in Litchfield , Connecticut . There he was a schoolmate of John C. Calhoun , who served as a mentor and friend for many years . Moving back to Taunton , he was admitted to the Norfolk County bar in 1807 and opened a practice . In December of that year he married Charlotte Hodges , with whom he had twelve children . He later received honorary law degrees from Brown ( 1826 ) , and Harvard ( 1840 ) .
= = Entry into politics = =
Morton honed his partisan skills in Taunton , frequently speaking out against Federalism , which dominated Massachusetts politics . In 1808 Governor James Sullivan offered him the post of district attorney for Bristol County , but he demurred because the office was still held by his teacher , Judge Padelford . He did , however , accept the post when it was offered to him in 1811 by Elbridge Gerry .
Morton was nominated by the Democratic @-@ Republicans to run for Congress in 1814 , but lost by a wide margin to Laban Wheaton in what was then seen as a strongly Federalist district . Two years later he was , to some surprise , victorious in a rematch with Wheaton despite Federalist strength in other races . Morton was reelected in 1818 , but narrowly lost to Francis Baylies in 1820 . In Congress he supported Andrew Jackson , whose actions in the Seminole Wars were being scrutinized , and opposed the Missouri Compromise . Morton was personally opposed to slavery , but did not often let it inform his political decisions until later in life ; he preferred instead to focus his efforts on other priorities . Despite this , his written statements on slavery were to become a matter of contentious debate when party factions within the Democratic Party sought to use them against him in the 1840s . In these early years he was also a proponent of free trade ; like many Massachusetts politicians , he later adopted a strong protectionist stance , calling the early period " the lamest ... of my life " .
= = Supreme Judicial Court and runs for governor = =
In 1823 Morton was elected to the Massachusetts Governor 's Council , and the following year was elected Lieutenant Governor , serving under Republican Governor William Eustis . When Eustis died in office in February 1825 , Morton served as acting governor until the election a few months later . Since the 1824 election had virtually eliminated the Federalist Party as a force in the state , Federalists and wealthy Republicans were coalescing into what became known as the National Republican Party ( predecessor to the Whigs ) . Morton disagreed with this trend ( calling the National Republicans " aristocratic " ) , preferring Jacksonian @-@ style Democracy instead , and refused to stand for election as governor in 1825 . He was , however , prevailed to run again for lieutenant governor , and he won the post , serving under Levi Lincoln Jr . , who had been nominated by both the Republicans and a rump Federalist coalition . Morton was unhappy with what he termed Whig elitism ( he accused Lincoln in 1830 of being a " tool of monied aristocracy " ) , and resigned the lieutenant governorship . Lincoln promptly appointed Morton as an associate justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ( SJC ) , a post he would hold until 1840 .
= = = Jurisprudence = = =
Morton was the only Democrat on the SJC , all the other justices having been appointed by Federalists . Despite this , Morton wrote a few notable decisions . He wrote the court 's decision in Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge , a case that eventually went to the United States Supreme Court . The plaintiffs were proprietors of the Charles River Bridge , a toll bridge constructed between Boston and Charlestown in 1786 , and the defendants were proprietors of a competing bridge to which the state had issued a charter in 1828 . The plaintiffs argued that the defendant 's charter infringed on their charter , in which they claimed the state granted them an exclusive right to control the crossing . The SJC split 2 – 2 , and dismissed the case so that it could be heard by the Supreme Court . Morton wrote the decision favoring the defendants , pointing out that if the state was going to grant an exclusive right , it had to do so explicitly , and it had not done so in this case . This reasoning was upheld in 1837 by the Taney Supreme Court .
In 1838 Morton was the lone dissenter in Commonwealth v. Kneeland , the last time in the nation that someone was convicted of blasphemy . Abner Kneeland , a vitriolic former Universalist minister turned pantheist , had made statements Christians found offensive . Convicted by the trial court , Kneeland had appealed , and two more highly politicized trials ended in hung juries before the conviction was upheld in appeals . The full SJC took up the case in March 1836 . Kneeland , representing himself , argued that the statements he made did not rise to level specified by the statute , and argued that the statute violated the First Amendment to the United States Constitution . Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw , writing for the court majority , found that Kneeland 's speech satisfied the legal definition of blasphemy , and by narrow construction found that the law did not violate the state constitution 's protections of free speech and religion . In his dissent Morton argued for a more liberal reading of the Article 2 of the state constitution ( which addressed religious freedoms ) , and argued that every person " has a constitutional right to discuss the subject of God , to affirm or deny his existence . I cannot agree that a man may be punished for wilfully doing what he has a legal right to do . " Governor Edward Everett refused to pardon Kneeland , who served sixty days in prison . The case is now one of the most frequently cited American cases on blasphemy .
= = = Perennial candidate for governor = = =
The political situation in the late 1820s and 1830s was quite fluid . The Democrats were highly factionalized , with three major groups vying with one another for control of the party apparatus . Morton 's support base consisted mainly of farmers , industrial and shipyard laborers , and recent immigrants . A second faction , dominated by Theodore Lyman , consisted of merchants and wealthy coastal interests opposed to Whig interests . The third faction , which successfully controlled the party apparatus in its early years , was headed by David Henshaw , who had split from the John Quincy Adams camp over political aspects of the bridge controversy . Henshaw was the principal party organizing force , while Morton became a perennial gubernatorial candidate , running for the office each year from 1828 to 1843 . The party was supported in its organizing efforts by Morton 's friend John Calhoun , who served as Vice President under Adams and Jackson . Morton generally did no overt campaigning , sensitive to maintaining the appearance of neutrality as a judge .
Morton was never able to make significant electoral inroads on Lincoln 's majorities in the years the latter held the governor 's seat ( 1825 – 34 ) . This was principally because opposition to the National Republicans was fragmented , exemplified by the Free Bridge Party and the Anti @-@ Masonic Party , the latter of which in particular siphoned off significant numbers of Democratic votes in the 1832 election . Despite attempts by both the National Republicans and the Democrats to woo the Anti @-@ Masons into their fold , neither was able to . Morton was mildly anti @-@ Mason , but Henshaw was a Freemason , and Morton apparently did not recognize the potential power of the Anti @-@ Masons despite their significant electoral showing . As a result , the Democrats lacked the voting strength to unseat the National Republicans . The Democrats were also splintered in 1832 and 1833 , when the Working Men 's Party drew support by attacking both of the larger parties for their lack of attention to labor issues . Morton was sufficiently disheartened by his repeated failures that he considered abandoning his quest for the governorship in 1832 ; Henshaw convinced him to soldier on . In 1831 Morton broke ranks with his friend John Calhoun over the latter 's support for nullification , which Morton believed was based on his support for slavery . This also caused fractures in the Massachusetts Democratic Party , with Henshaw siding with Calhoun and the southern Democrats .
The closest Morton came to victory before 1839 was in the 1833 election , when Lincoln stepped down . In a four @-@ way race involving Worcester Congressman John Davis ( running as a National Republican ) and John Quincy Adams ( running as an Anti @-@ Mason ) as his principal opponents ( along with a Working Men 's candidate ) , none of the candidates received the required majority . The state legislature chose Davis , the largest vote @-@ getter , after Adams withdrew in Davis ' favor .
By the late 1830s activists for the abolition of slavery had grown into a potent political force in the state . Both Whigs and Democrats ( including Morton ) had avoided the issue in pursuit of other political objectives , but abolitionists began regularly requesting formal statements from candidates for office on the subject . Morton was known to be personally opposed to slavery , and this gained him votes in the 1837 and 1838 elections despite the vacillating answers he gave to such requests . His opponent in those elections , Edward Everett , was also opposed to slavery , but had in 1826 made a speech sympathetic to the rights of slaveholders , which was used against him . Morton 's faction within the Democratic Party also gained strength due to the organizational skill of historian George Bancroft , and successful moves spearheaded by Morton to change the methods by which lower @-@ level party leaders were chosen . David Henshaw resigned from the politically important post as the collector of the Port of Boston in 1837 , starting a struggle within the party for this valuable patronage plum . Morton was one several potential recipients , but eventually dropped out , suggesting it go instead to George Bancroft . Bancroft , from the western part of the state , attracted support from the Working Men into the Democratic fold .
= = Governor = =
In the 1839 election , an unrelated issue came up that finally gave Morton a victory . The Whig legislature had passed a bill promoted by temperance activists that banned the sale of liquor in quantities less than 15 US gallons ( 57 l ) ; this effectively outlawed service over a bar . The bill was seen by many as an instance of class elitism by the Whigs . The vote was so close that a recount was performed , and ballots were carefully scrutinized . One ballot counted for Morton contained the scrawl " Maccus Mattoon " ; despite efforts by Whig partisans to deny that the writer intended to vote for Morton , no person with that name was found anywhere in the state . Everett graciously refused to persist in contesting the balloting , and Morton was certified the winner with 51 @,@ 034 votes ( exactly half those cast ) to 50 @,@ 725 for Everett ( with another 307 votes being scattered ) .
With a hostile Whig @-@ dominated legislature , Morton 's reform agenda went nowhere . Proposals such as reductions in the poll tax and the number of capital crimes were defeated , but the Democrats were able to introduce some fiscal discipline and produced the first budget surplus in some years . The Whigs attacked his proposals as poor economic policy , and regrouped to focus on defeating him in 1840 . They convinced John Davis to return from the U.S. Senate to run against him , and Morton went down to defeat by a wide margin . He made some gains in the 1841 rematch . In 1842 the candidate of the upstart Liberty Party , an abolitionist party , secured enough votes to send the election to the state legislature . Because of the third party there were also a large number of vacancies in the state senate which was to choose the winner . The Liberty Party hoped to use its position in the balance of power to control the outcome , but a single Whig defector in the vote to fill the senate led to a Democratic majority in the chamber . The senate then went on to choose Morton as governor .
Morton once again called for a series of reforms , repeating those from 1840 , and including a proposal to transfer the tax burden from real to personal property . He was criticized by the Whigs for omitting any mention of slavery in his inaugural address . During his term the leaders of the various Democratic factions squabbled over executive and party appointments , and the death of President William Henry Harrison shortly after taking office brought on further party divisions as potential presidential nominees canvassed the state for support . As a consequence , much of the reform agenda was either not implemented at all , or only minimally , despite a nominally working Democratic @-@ Liberty coalition majority in the legislature . George Bancroft bemoaned the lost opportunity : " Never had a party a better opening than we have in Massachusetts , if all would but profit by our position . But they will not . "
In the 1843 election Morton was set against George N. Briggs , a Whig lawyer from rural Berkshire County , who was chosen to counter Morton 's appeal to rural voters . The Liberty candidate again won enough votes to deny either Briggs ( who won a 3 @,@ 000 vote plurality ) or Morton a majority , and the election was sent to the legislature . The legislature had been returned to Whig control , and thus elected Briggs . The Whigs promptly undid most of the few reforms that were enacted during Morton 's term .
= = Later years = =
Following his 1843 defeat , Morton finally decided to stop running for governor , yielding the nomination in 1844 to George Bancroft . In September 1844 he traveled to neighboring Rhode Island , where he agitated for the release of Thomas Wilson Dorr , the leader of Dorr 's Rebellion who had been sentenced to hard labor . Democratic sympathies for Dorr were used as ammunition against them by the Whigs in subsequent elections .
In 1845 President James K. Polk appointed Morton collector of the port of Boston ; he served four years . Approval of his nomination in the U.S. Senate became somewhat controversial , with southern Senators objecting to him because of earlier statements he had made in opposition to slavery . Even before his appointment was approved , he began using the politically important post in an effort to bring the state party membership more in line with his vision , but only succeeded in widening the already existing fractures in the party organization . The divide resulted in a delay of his confirmation due to political intrigues by the Henshaw faction , and caused a permanent break in political relations between Morton and Bancroft . After an acrimonious state convention in 1847 ( in which the Henshaw faction refused to allow platform items opposing slavery ) , Morton quit the party for the burgeoning Free Soil movement . Morton would refuse to support the Democrat @-@ Free Soil coalition that in 1850 saw the election of Democrat George S. Boutwell as governor and Free Soiler Charles Sumner as U.S. Senator .
In 1848 Morton was invited by Martin Van Buren to run as the Vice Presidential nominee on the Free Soil ticket . Morton refused , arguing that Van Buren ( a New Yorker ) needed geographic diversity . Van Buren finally chose Wisconsin 's Henry Dodge , but the party convention chose Massachusetts 's Charles Francis Adams . Morton campaigned for Van Buren , who ended up polling third .
Morton was a delegate to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1853 , and was elected on the Free Soil ticket to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1858 , serving one term .
= = Death and legacy = =
Morton died at his home in Taunton in 1864 and was buried in its Mount Pleasant Cemetery . His home in Taunton later became the original building of Morton Hospital and Medical Center . It was demolished in the 1960s during hospital expansion .
His son , also named Marcus , followed him onto the state 's supreme court , eventually serving as its Chief Justice . His daughter , Frances , was the mother of novelist Octave Thanet .
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= Schutzstaffel =
The Schutzstaffel ( SS ; also stylized as with Armanen runes ; German pronunciation : [ ˈʃʊtsˌʃtafəl ] ; literally " Protection Squadron " ) was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( NSDAP ; Nazi Party ) in Nazi Germany . It began with a small guard unit known as the Saal @-@ Schutz ( Hall @-@ Protection ) made up of NSDAP volunteers to provide security for party meetings in Munich . In 1925 , Heinrich Himmler joined the unit , which had by then been reformed and given its final name . Under his direction ( 1929 – 45 ) , it grew from a small paramilitary formation to one of the most powerful organizations in Nazi Germany . From 1929 until the regime 's collapse in 1945 , the SS was the foremost agency of surveillance and terror within Germany and German @-@ occupied Europe .
The two main constituent groups were the Allgemeine SS ( General SS ) and Waffen @-@ SS ( Armed SS ) . The Allgemeine SS was responsible for enforcing the racial policy of Nazi Germany and general policing , whereas the Waffen @-@ SS consisted of combat units of troops within Nazi Germany 's military . A third component of the SS , the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( SS @-@ TV ) , ran the concentration camps and extermination camps . Additional subdivisions of the SS included the Gestapo and the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ) organizations . They were tasked with the detection of actual or potential enemies of the Nazi state , the neutralization of any opposition , policing the German people for their commitment to Nazi ideology , and providing domestic and foreign intelligence .
The SS was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of an estimated 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews in the Holocaust . Members of all of its branches committed war crimes and crimes against humanity during World War II ( 1939 – 45 ) . The SS was also involved in commercial enterprises and exploited concentration camp inmates as slave labor . After Nazi Germany 's defeat , the SS and the NSDAP were judged by the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg to be criminal organizations . Ernst Kaltenbrunner , the highest @-@ ranking surviving SS officer , was found guilty of crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg trials and hanged in 1946 .
= = Origins = =
= = = Forerunner of the SS = = =
By 1923 , the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) had created a small volunteer guard unit known as the Saal @-@ Schutz ( Hall @-@ Protection ) to provide security at their meetings in Munich . That same year , party leader Adolf Hitler ordered the formation of a small bodyguard unit dedicated to his personal service . He wished it to be separate from the " suspect mass " of the party , including the paramilitary Sturmabteilung ( " Storm Battalion " ; SA ) , which he did not trust . The new formation was designated the Stabswache ( Staff Guard ) . Originally the unit was composed of eight men , commanded by Julius Schreck and Joseph Berchtold , and was modeled after the Erhardt Naval Brigade , a Freikorps of the time . The unit was renamed Stoßtrupp ( Shock Troops ) in May 1923 .
The Stoßtrupp was abolished after the failed 1923 Beer Hall Putsch , an attempt by the NSDAP to seize power in Munich . In 1925 , Hitler ordered Schreck to organize a new bodyguard unit , the Schutzkommando ( Protection Command ) . It was tasked with providing personal protection for Hitler at NSDAP functions and events . That same year , the Schutzkommando was expanded to a national organization and renamed successively the Sturmstaffel ( Storm Squadron ) , and finally the Schutzstaffel ( Protection Squad ; SS ) . Officially , the SS marked its foundation on 9 November 1925 ( the second anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch ) . The new SS was to provide protection for NSDAP leaders throughout Germany . Hitler 's personal SS protection unit was later enlarged to include combat units .
= = = Early commanders = = =
Schreck , a founding member of the SA and a close confidant of Hitler , became the first SS chief in March 1925 . On 15 April 1926 , Joseph Berchtold succeeded him as chief of the SS . Berchtold changed the title of the office to Reichsführer @-@ SS ( Reich Leader @-@ SS ) . Berchtold was considered more dynamic than his predecessor , but became increasingly frustrated by the authority the SA had over the SS . This led to him transferring leadership of the SS to his deputy , Erhard Heiden , on 1 March 1927 . Under Heiden 's leadership , a stricter code of discipline was enforced than would have been tolerated in the SA .
Between 1925 and 1929 , the SS was considered to be a small Gruppe ( battalion ) of the SA . Except in the Munich area , the SS was unable to maintain any momentum in its membership numbers , which declined from 1 @,@ 000 to 280 as the SA continued its rapid growth . As Heiden attempted to keep the SS from dissolving , Heinrich Himmler became his deputy in September 1927 . Himmler displayed good organizational abilities compared to Heiden . The SS established a number of Gaus ( regions or provinces ) . The SS @-@ Gaus consisted of SS @-@ Gau Berlin , SS @-@ Gau Berlin Brandenburg , SS @-@ Gau Franken , SS @-@ Gau Niederbayern , SS @-@ Gau Rheinland @-@ Süd , and SS @-@ Gau Sachsen .
= = = Himmler appointed = = =
With Hitler 's approval , Himmler assumed the position of Reichsführer @-@ SS in January 1929 . There are differing accounts of the reason for Heiden 's dismissal from his position as head of the SS . The party announced that it was for " family reasons " . Under Himmler , the SS expanded and gained a larger foothold . He considered the SS an elite , ideologically driven National Socialist organization , a " conflation of Teutonic knights , the Jesuits , and Japanese Samurai " . His ultimate aim was to turn the SS into the most powerful organization in Germany and most influential branch of the party . He expanded the SS to 3 @,@ 000 members in his first year as its leader .
In 1929 , the SS @-@ Hauptamt ( main SS office ) was expanded and reorganized into five main offices dealing with general administration , personnel , finance , security , and race matters . At the same time , the SS @-@ Gaus were expanded into three SS @-@ Oberführerbereiche areas , namely the SS @-@ Oberführerbereich Ost , SS @-@ Oberführerbereich West , and SS @-@ Oberführerbereich Süd . The lower levels of the SS remained largely unchanged . Although officially still considered a sub @-@ organization of the SA and answerable to the Stabschef ( SA Chief of Staff ) , it was also during this time that Himmler began to establish the independence of the SS from the SA . The SS grew in size and power due to its exclusive loyalty to Hitler , as opposed to the SA , which was seen as semi @-@ independent and a threat to Hitler 's hegemony over the party , mainly because they demanded a " second revolution " beyond the one that brought the NSDAP to power . By the end of 1933 , the membership of the SS reached 209 @,@ 000 . Under Himmler 's leadership the SS continued to gather greater power as more and more state and party functions were assigned to its jurisdiction . Over time the SS became answerable only to Hitler , a development typical of the organizational structure of the entire Nazi regime , where legal norms were replaced by actions undertaken under the Führerprinzip ( leader principle ) , where Hitler 's will was considered to be above the law .
In the latter half of 1934 , Himmler oversaw the creation of SS @-@ Junkerschule ( Junker schools ) , institutions where SS officer candidates received leadership training , political and ideological indoctrination , and military instruction . The training stressed ruthlessness and toughness as part of the SS value system , which helped foster a sense of superiority among the men and taught them self @-@ confidence . The first schools were established at Bad Tölz and Braunschweig , with additional schools opening at Klagenfurt and Prague during the war .
= = = Ideology = = =
The SS was regarded as the NSDAP 's elite unit . In keeping with the racial policy of Nazi Germany , in the early days all SS officer candidates had to provide proof of Aryan ancestry back to 1750 and for other ranks to 1800 . Once the war started and it became more difficult to confirm ancestry , the regulation was amended to just proving the candidate 's grandparents were Aryan , as spelled out in the Nuremberg Laws . Other requirements were complete obedience to the Führer and a commitment to the German people and nation . Himmler also tried to institute physical criteria based on appearance and height , but these requirements were only loosely enforced , and over half the SS men did not meet the criteria . Inducements such as higher salaries and larger homes were provided to members of the SS , since they were expected to produce more children than the average German family as part of their commitment to NSDAP doctrine .
Commitment to SS ideology was emphasized throughout the recruitment , membership process , and training . Members of the SS were indoctrinated in the racial policy of Nazi Germany , and were taught that it was necessary to remove from Germany people deemed by that policy as inferior . Esoteric rituals and the awarding of regalia and insignia for milestones in the SS man 's career suffused SS members even further with Nazi ideology . Members were expected to renounce their Christian faith , and Christmas was replaced with a solstice celebration . Church weddings were replaced with SS Ehewein , a pagan ceremony invented by Himmler . These pseudo @-@ religious rites and ceremonies often took place near SS @-@ dedicated monuments or in special SS @-@ designated places . In 1933 , Himmler bought Wewelsburg , a castle in Westphalia . He initially intended it to be used as an SS training centre , but its role came to include hosting SS dinners and neo @-@ pagan rituals .
The SS ideology included the application of brutality and terror as a solution to military and political problems . The SS stressed total loyalty and obedience to orders unto death . Hitler used this as a powerful tool to further his aims and those of the NSDAP . The SS was entrusted with the commission of atrocities , illegal activities , and war crimes . Himmler once wrote that an SS man " hesitates not for a single instant , but executes unquestioningly ... " any Führer @-@ Befehl ( Führer order ) . Their official motto was " Meine Ehre heißt Treue " ( My Honour is Loyalty ) .
As part of its race @-@ centric functions during World War II , the SS oversaw the isolation and displacement of Jews from the populations of the conquered territories , seizing their assets and deporting them to concentration camps and ghettos , where they were used as slave labor or immediately killed . Chosen to implement the Final Solution for Jews and other groups deemed inferior or enemies of the state , the SS led the killing , torture , and enslavement of approximately 12 million people . Most victims were Jews or of Polish or other Slavic extraction . A significant number of victims were members of other racial or ethnic groups such as the Romani people . The SS was involved in killing people viewed as threats to race hygiene or NSDAP ideology , including the mentally or physically handicapped , homosexuals , and political dissidents . Members of trade unions and those perceived to be affiliated with groups that opposed the regime ( religious , political , social , and otherwise ) , or those whose views were contradictory to the goals of the NSDAP government , were rounded up in large numbers ; these included clergy of all faiths , Jehovah 's Witnesses , Freemasons , Communists , and Rotary Club members . According to the judgments rendered at the Nuremberg trials as well as many war crimes investigations and trials conducted since then , the SS was responsible for the majority of Nazi war crimes . In particular , it was the primary organization which carried out the Holocaust .
= = Pre @-@ war Germany = =
After Hitler and the NSDAP came to power on 30 January 1933 , the SS were considered a state organization and a branch of the government . Law enforcement gradually became the purview of the SS , and many SS organizations became de facto government agencies .
The SS established a police state within Nazi Germany , using the secret state police and security forces under Himmler 's control to suppress resistance to Hitler . In his role as Minister President of Prussia , Hermann Göring had in 1933 created a Prussian secret police force , the Geheime Staatspolizei or Gestapo , and appointed Rudolf Diels as its head . Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA , Göring handed over its control to Himmler on 20 April 1934 . Also on that date , in a departure from long @-@ standing German practice that law enforcement was a state and local matter , Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia . Himmler named his deputy and protégé Reinhard Heydrich chief of the Gestapo on 22 April 1934 . Heydrich also continued as head of the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ; security service ) .
The Gestapo 's transfer to Himmler was a prelude to the Night of the Long Knives , in which most of the SA leadership were arrested and subsequently executed . The SS and Gestapo carried out most of the killings . On 20 July 1934 , Hitler detached the SS from the SA , which was no longer an influential force after the purge . The SS became an independent elite corps of the NSDAP , answerable only to Hitler . Himmler 's title of Reichsführer @-@ SS now became his actual rank , equivalent to the rank of field marshal in the army ( his previous rank was Obergruppenführer ) . As Himmler 's position and authority grew , so did his de facto rank .
On 17 June 1936 , all police forces throughout Germany were united under the purview of Himmler and the SS . Himmler and Heydrich thus became two of the most powerful men in the country 's administration . Police and intelligence forces brought under their administrative control included the SD , Gestapo , Kriminalpolizei ( Kripo ; criminal investigative police ) , and Ordnungspolizei ( Orpo ; regular uniformed police ) . In September 1939 , the security and police agencies , including the Sicherheitspolizei ( SiPo ; security police ) and SD ( but not the Orpo ) , were consolidated into the Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA ) , headed by Heydrich . This further increased the collective authority of the SS .
In September 1939 , the authority of the SS expanded further when the senior SS officer in each military district also became its chief of police . Most of these SS and police leaders held the rank of SS @-@ Gruppenführer or above , and answered directly to Himmler in all SS matters within their district . Their role was to police the population and oversee the activities of the SS men within their district . By declaring an emergency , they could bypass the district administrative offices for the SS , SD , SiPo , SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( SS @-@ TV ; concentration camp guards ) , and Orpo , thereby gaining direct operational control of these groups .
During Kristallnacht ( 9 – 10 November 1938 ) , SS security services clandestinely coordinated violence against Jews as the SS , Gestapo , SD , Kripo , SiPo and regular police did what they could to ensure that while Jewish synagogues and community centers were destroyed , Jewish @-@ owned businesses and housing remained intact so that they could later be seized . In the end , thousands of Jewish businesses , homes , and graveyards were vandalized and looted , particularly by members of the SA . Some 500 to 1 @,@ 000 synagogues were destroyed , mostly by arson . On 11 November , Heydrich reported a death toll of 36 people , but later assessments put the number of deaths at up to two thousand . On Hitler 's orders , around 30 @,@ 000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps by 16 November . It is likely that as many as 2 @,@ 500 of these people died in the following months . It was at this point that the SS state began in earnest its campaign of terror against political and religious opponents , who they imprisoned without trial or judicial oversight for the sake of " security , re @-@ education , or prevention " .
= = = Hitler 's personal bodyguards = = =
As the SS grew in size and importance , so too did Hitler 's personal protection units . Three main SS groups were assigned to protect Hitler . In 1933 , his larger personal bodyguard unit ( previously the 1st SS @-@ Standarte ) was called to Berlin to replace the Army Chancellery Guard , assigned to protect the Chancellor of Germany . Sepp Dietrich commanded the new unit , previously known as SS @-@ Stabswache Berlin ; the name was changed to SS @-@ Sonderkommando Berlin . In November 1933 , the name was changed to Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler . In April 1934 , Himmler modified the name to Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler ( LSSAH ) . The LSSAH guarded Hitler 's private residences and offices , providing an outer ring of protection for the Führer and his visitors . LSSAH men manned sentry posts at the entrances to the old Reich Chancellery and the new Reich Chancellery . The number of LSSAH guards was increased during special events . At the Berghof , Hitler 's residence in the Obersalzberg , a large contingent of the LSSAH patrolled an extensive cordoned security zone .
From 1941 , forward , the Leibstandarte became four distinct entities , the Waffen @-@ SS division ( unconnected to Hitler 's personal protection but a formation of the Waffen @-@ SS ) , the Berlin Chancellory Guard , the SS security regiment assigned to the Obersalzberg , and a Munich @-@ based bodyguard unit which protected Hitler when he visited his personal apartment and the Brown House NSDAP headquarters in Munich . Although the unit was nominally under Himmler , Dietrich was the real commander and handled day @-@ to @-@ day administration .
Two other SS units composed the inner ring of Hitler 's personal protection . The SS @-@ Begleitkommando des Führers ( Escort Command of the Führer ) , formed in February 1932 , served as Hitler 's protection escort while he was travelling . This unit consisted of eight men who served around the clock protecting Hitler in three eight @-@ hour shifts . Later the SS @-@ Begleitkommando was expanded and became known as the Führerbegleitkommando ( Führer Escort Command ; FBK ) . It continued under separate command and remained responsible for Hitler 's personal protection . The Führer Schutzkommando ( Führer Protection Command ; FSK ) was a protection unit founded by Himmler in March 1933 . Originally it was charged with protecting Hitler only while he was inside the borders of Bavaria . In early 1934 , they replaced the SS @-@ Begleitkommando for Hitler 's protection throughout Germany . The FSK was renamed the Reichssicherheitsdienst ( Reich Security Service ; RSD ) in August 1935 . Johann Rattenhuber , chief of the RSD , for the most part took his orders directly from Hitler . The current FBK chief acted as his deputy . Wherever Hitler was in residence , members of the RSD and FBK would be present . RSD men patrolled the grounds and FBK men provided close security protection inside . The RSD and FBK worked together for security and personal protection during Hitler 's trips and public events , but they operated as two groups and used separate vehicles . By March 1938 , both units wore the standard field grey uniform of the SS . The RSD uniform had the SD diamond on the lower left sleeve .
= = = Concentration camps founded = = =
The SS was closely associated with Nazi Germany 's concentration camp system . On 26 June 1933 , Himmler appointed SS @-@ Oberführer Theodor Eicke as commandant of Dachau concentration camp , one of the first Nazi concentration camps . It was created to consolidate the many small camps that had been set up by various police agencies and the NSDAP to house political prisoners . The organizational structure Eicke instituted at Dachau stood as the model for all later concentration camps . After 1934 , Eicke was named commander of the SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( SS @-@ TV ) , the SS formation responsible for running the concentration camps under the authority of the SS and Himmler . Known as the " Death 's Head Units " , the SS @-@ TV was first organized as several battalions , each based at one of Germany 's major concentration camps . Leadership at the camps was divided into five departments : commander and adjutant , political affairs division , protective custody , administration , and medical personnel . By 1935 , Himmler secured Hitler 's approval and the finances necessary to establish and operate additional camps . Six concentration camps housing 21 @,@ 400 inmates ( mostly political prisoners ) existed at the start of the war in September 1939 . By the end of the war , hundreds of camps of varying size and function had been created , holding nearly 715 @,@ 000 people , most of whom were targeted by the regime because of their race . The concentration camp population rose in tandem with the defeats suffered by the Nazi regime ; the worse the catastrophe seemed , the greater the fear of subversion , prompting the SS to intensify their repression and terror .
= = SS in World War II = =
By the outbreak of World War II , the SS had consolidated into its final form , which comprised three main organizations : the Allgemeine SS , SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände , and the Waffen @-@ SS , which was founded in 1934 as the SS @-@ Verfügungstruppe ( SS @-@ VT ) and renamed in 1940 . The Waffen @-@ SS evolved into a second German army alongside the Wehrmacht and operated in tandem with them , especially with the Heer ( German Army ) . Although SS ranks generally had equivalents in the other services , the SS rank system did not copy the terms and ranks used by the Wehrmacht 's branches . Instead it used the ranks established by the post @-@ World War I Freikorps and the SA . This was primarily done to emphasize the SS as being independent from the Wehrmacht .
= = = Invasion of Poland = = =
In the September 1939 invasion of Poland , the LSSAH and SS @-@ VT fought as separate mobile infantry regiments . The LSSAH became notorious for torching villages without military justification . Members of the LSSAH committed atrocities in numerous towns , including the murder of 50 Polish Jews in Błonie and the massacre of 200 civilians , including children , who were machine gunned in Złoczew . Shootings also took place in Bolesławiec , Torzeniec , Goworowo , Mława , and Włocławek . Some senior members of the Wehrmacht were not convinced the units were fully prepared for combat . Its units took unnecessary risks and had a higher casualty rate than the army . Generaloberst Fedor von Bock was quite critical ; following an April 1940 visit of the SS @-@ Totenkopf division , he found their battle training was " insufficient " . Hitler thought the criticism was typical of the army 's " outmoded conception of chivalry . " In its defence , the SS insisted that its armed formations had been hampered by having to fight piecemeal and were improperly equipped by the army .
After the invasion , Hitler entrusted the SS with extermination actions codenamed Operation Tannenberg and AB @-@ Aktion to remove potential leaders who could form a resistance to German occupation . The killings were committed by Einsatzgruppen ( task forces ; deployment groups ) , assisted by local paramilitary groups . Men for the Einsatzgruppen units were drawn from the SS , the SD , and the police . Some 65 @,@ 000 Polish civilians , including activists , intelligentsia , scholars , teachers , actors , former officers , and others , were killed by the end of 1939 . When the army leadership registered complaints about the brutality being meted out by the Einsatzgruppen , Heydrich informed them that he was acting " in accordance with the special order of the Führer . " The first systematic mass shooting of Jews by the Einsatzgruppen took place on 6 September 1939 during the attack on Kraków .
Satisfied with their performance in Poland , Hitler allowed further expansion of the armed SS formations , but insisted new units remain under the operational control of the army . While the SS @-@ Leibstandarte remained an independent regiment functioning as Hitler 's personal bodyguards , the other regiments — SS @-@ Deutschland , SS @-@ Germania , and SS @-@ Der Führer — were combined to form the SS @-@ Verfügungs @-@ Division . A second SS division , the SS @-@ Totenkopf , was formed from SS @-@ TV concentration camp guards , and a third , the SS @-@ Polizei , was created from police volunteers . The SS gained control over its own recruitment , logistics , and supply systems for its armed formations at this time . The SS , Gestapo , and SD were in charge of the provisional military administration in Poland until the appointment of Hans Frank as Governor @-@ General on 26 October 1939 .
= = = Battle of France = = =
On 10 May 1940 , Hitler launched the Battle of France , a major offensive against France and the Low Countries . The SS supplied two of the 89 divisions employed . The LSSAH and elements of the SS @-@ VT participated in the ground invasion of the Battle of the Netherlands . Simultaneously , airborne troops were dropped to capture key Dutch airfields , bridges , and railways . In the five @-@ day campaign , the LSSAH linked up with army units and airborne troops after a number of clashes with Dutch defenders .
SS troops did not take part in the thrust through the Ardennes and the river Meuse . Instead , the SS @-@ Totenkopf was summoned from the army reserve to fight in support of Generalmajor Erwin Rommel 's 7th Panzer Division as they advanced toward to the English Channel . On 21 May , the British launched an armored counterattack against the flanks of 7th Panzer Division and SS @-@ Totenkopf . The Germans then trapped the British and French troops in a huge pocket at Dunkirk . On 27 May , 4 Company , SS @-@ Totenkopf perpetrated the Le Paradis massacre , where 97 men of the 2nd Battalion , Royal Norfolk Regiment were machine gunned after surrendering , with survivors finished off with bayonets . Two men survived . By 28 May the SS @-@ Leibstandarte had taken Wormhout , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Dunkirk . There , soldiers of the 2nd Battalion were responsible for the Wormhoudt massacre , where 80 British and French soldiers were murdered after they surrendered . According to historian Charles Sydnor , the " fanatical recklessness in the assault , suicidal defense against enemy attacks , and savage atrocities committed in the face of frustrated objectives " exhibited by the SS @-@ Totenkopf division during the invasion were typical of the SS troops as a whole .
At the close of the campaign , Hitler expressed his pleasure with the performance of the SS @-@ Leibstandarte , telling them : " Henceforth it will be an honour for you , who bear my name , to lead every German attack . " The SS @-@ VT was renamed the Waffen @-@ SS in a speech made by Hitler in July 1940 . Hitler then authorized the enlistment of " people perceived to be of related stock " , as Himmler put it , to expand the ranks . A number of Danes , Dutch , Norwegians , Swedes , and Finns volunteered to fight in the Waffen @-@ SS under the command of German officers . They were brought together to form the new division SS @-@ Wiking . In January 1941 , the SS @-@ Verfügungs Division was renamed SS @-@ Reich Division ( Motorized ) , and was renamed as the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich when it was reorganized as a Panzergrenadier division in 1942 .
= = = Campaign in the Balkans = = =
In April 1941 , the Germany Army invaded Yugoslavia and Greece . The LSSAH and Das Reich were attached to separate army Panzer Corps . Fritz Klingenberg , a company commander in the Das Reich , led his men across Yugoslavia to the capital , Belgrade , where a small group in the vanguard accepted the surrender of the city on 13 April . A few days later Yugoslavia surrendered . SS police units immediately began taking hostages and carrying out reprisals , a practice that became common . In some cases , they were joined by the Wehrmacht . Similar to Poland , the war policies of the Nazis in the Balkans resulted in brutal occupation and racist mass murder . Serbia became the second country ( after Estonia ) declared Judenfrei ( free of Jews ) .
In Greece , the Wehrmacht and Waffen @-@ SS encountered resistance from the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) and Greek Army . The fighting was intensified by the mountainous terrain , with its heavily defended narrow passes . The LSSAH was at the forefront of the German push . The BEF evacuated by sea to Crete , but had to flee again in late May when the Germans arrived . Like Yugoslavia , the conquest of Greece brought its Jews into danger , as the Nazis immediately took a variety of measures against them . Initially confined in ghettos , most were transported to Auschwitz concentration camp in March 1943 , where they were killed in the gas chambers on arrival . Of Greece 's 80 @,@ 000 Jews , only 20 percent survived the war .
= = War in the east = =
On 22 June 1941 , Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . The expanding war and the need to control occupied territories provided the conditions for Himmler to further consolidate the police and military organs of the SS . Rapid acquisition of vast territories in the East placed considerable strain on the SS police organizations as they struggled to adjust to the changing security challenges .
The 1st and 2nd SS Infantry Brigades , which had been formed from surplus concentration camp guards of the SS @-@ TV , and the SS Cavalry Brigade moved into the Soviet Union behind the advancing armies . At first they fought Soviet partisans , but by the autumn of 1941 , they left the anti @-@ partisan role to other units and actively took part in the Holocaust . While assisting the Einsatzgruppen , they formed firing parties that participated in the liquidation of the Jewish population of the Soviet Union .
On 31 July 1941 , Göring gave Heydrich written authorization to ensure the cooperation of administrative leaders of various government departments to undertake genocide of the Jews in territories under German control . Heydrich was instrumental in carrying out these exterminations , as the Gestapo was ready to organize deportations in the West and his Einsatzgruppen were already conducting extensive killing operations in the East . On 20 January 1942 , Heydrich chaired a meeting , called the Wannsee Conference , to discuss the implementation of the plan .
During battles in Soviet Union in 1941 and 1942 , the Waffen @-@ SS suffered enormous casualties . The LSSAH and Das Reich lost over half their troops to illness and combat casualties . In need of recruits , Himmler began to accept soldiers that did not fit the original SS racial profile . In early 1942 , SS @-@ Leibstandarte , SS @-@ Totenkopf , and SS @-@ Das Reich were withdrawn to the West to refit and were converted to Panzergrenadier divisions . The SS @-@ Panzer Corps returned to the Soviet Union in 1943 and participated in the Third Battle of Kharkov in February and March .
= = = The Holocaust = = =
The SS was built on a culture of violence , which was exhibited in its most extreme form by the mass murder of civilians and prisoners of war on the Eastern Front . Augmented by personnel from the Kripo , Orpo ( Order Police ) , and Waffen @-@ SS , the Einsatzgruppen reached a total strength of 3 @,@ 000 men . Einsatzgruppen A , B , and C were attached to Army Groups North , Centre , and South ; Einsatzgruppe D was assigned to the 11th Army . The Einsatzgruppe for Special Purposes operated in eastern Poland starting in July 1941 . The historian Richard Rhodes describes them as being " outside the bounds of morality " ; they were " judge , jury and executioner all in one " , with the authority to kill anyone at their discretion . Following Operation Barbarossa , these Einsatzgruppen units , together with the Waffen @-@ SS and Order Police , engaged in the mass killing of the Jewish population in occupied eastern Poland and the Soviet Union . The greatest extent of Einsatzgruppen action occurred in 1941 and 1942 in Ukraine and Russia . Before the invasion there were five million registered Jews throughout the Soviet Union , with three million of those residing in the territories occupied by the Germans ; by the time the war ended , over two million of these had been murdered .
The extermination activities of the Einsatzgruppen generally followed a standard procedure , with the Einsatzgruppen chief contacting the nearest Wehrmacht unit commander to inform him of the impending action ; this was done so they could coordinate and control access to the execution grounds . Initially the victims were shot , but this method proved impracticable for an operation of this scale . Also , after Himmler observed the shooting of 100 Jews at Minsk in August 1941 , he grew concerned about the impact such actions were having on the mental health of his SS men . He decided that alternate methods of killing should be found , which led to introduction of gas vans . However , these were not popular with the men , because removing the dead bodies from the van and burying them was a horrible ordeal . Prisoners or auxiliaries were often assigned to do this task so as to spare the SS men the trauma .
= = = Anti @-@ partisan operations = = =
In response to the army 's difficulties in dealing with Soviet partisans , Hitler decided in July 1942 to transfer anti @-@ partisan operations to the police . This placed the matter under Himmler 's purview . As Hitler had ordered on 8 July 1941 that all Jews were to be regarded as partisans , the term " anti @-@ partisan operations " was used as a euphemism for the extermination of Jews as well as actual combat against resistance elements . In July 1942 Himmler ordered that the term " partisan " should no longer be used ; instead resisters to Nazi rule would be described as " bandits " .
Himmler set the SS and SD to work on developing additional anti @-@ partisan tactics and launched a propaganda campaign . Sometime in June 1943 , Himmler issued the Bandenbekämpfung ( bandit fighting ) order , simultaneously announcing the existence of the Bandenkampfverbände ( bandit fighting formations ) , with SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Erich von dem Bach @-@ Zelewski as its chief . Employing troops primarily from the SS police and Waffen @-@ SS , the Bandenkampfverbände had four principal operational components : propaganda , centralized control and coordination of security operations , training of troops , and battle operations . Once the Wehrmacht had secured territorial objectives , the Bandenkampfverbände first secured communications facilities , roads , railways , and waterways . Thereafter , they secured rural communities and economic installations such as factories and administrative buildings . An additional priority was securing agricultural and forestry resources . The SS oversaw the collection of the harvest , which was deemed critical to strategic operations . Any Jews in the area were rounded up and killed . Communists and people of Asiatic descent were killed presumptively under the assumption that they were Soviet agents .
= = = Death camps = = =
After the start of the war , Himmler intensified the activity of the SS within Germany and in Nazi occupied Europe . An increasing numbers of Jews and German citizens deemed politically suspect or social outsiders were arrested . As the Nazi regime became more oppressive , the concentration camp system grew in size and lethal operation , and grew in scope as the economic ambitions of the SS intensified .
Intensification of the killing operations took place in late 1941 when the SS began construction of stationary gassing facilities to replace the use of Einsatzgruppen for mass killings . Victims at these new extermination camps were killed with the use of carbon monoxide gas from automobile engines . During Operation Reinhard , run by officers from the Totenkopfverbände , who were sworn to secrecy , three death camps were built in occupied Poland : Bełżec ( operational by March 1942 ) , Sobibór ( operational by May 1942 ) , and Treblinka ( operational by July 1942 ) , with squads of Trawniki men ( Eastern European collaborators ) overseeing hundreds of Sonderkommando prisoners , who were forced to work in the gas chambers and crematoria before being murdered themselves . On Himmler 's orders , by early 1942 the concentration camp at Auschwitz was greatly expanded to include the addition of gas chambers , where victims were killed using the pesticide Zyklon B.
For administrative reasons , all concentration camp guards and administrative staff became full members of the Waffen @-@ SS in 1942 . The concentration camps were placed under the command of the SS @-@ Wirtschafts @-@ Verwaltungshauptamt ( SS Main Economic and Administrative Office ; WVHA ) under Oswald Pohl . Richard Glücks served as the Inspector of Concentration Camps , which in 1942 became office " D " under the WVHA . Exploitation and extermination became a balancing act as the military situation deteriorated . The labor needs of the war economy , especially for skilled workers , meant that some Jews escaped the genocide . On 30 October 1942 , due to severe labor shortages , Himmler ordered that large numbers of able @-@ bodied people in the Soviet occupied territories should be taken prisoner and sent to Germany as forced labor .
By 1944 , the SS @-@ TV had been organized into three divisions : staff of the concentration camps in Germany and Austria , in the occupied territories , and of the extermination camps in Poland . By 1944 , it became standard practice to rotate SS members in and out of the camps , partly based on manpower needs , but also to provide easier assignments to wounded Waffen @-@ SS members . This rotation of personnel meant that nearly the entire SS knew what was going on inside the concentration camps , making the entire organization liable for war crimes and crimes against humanity .
= = Business empire = =
In 1934 , Himmler founded the first SS business venture , Nordland @-@ Verlag , a publishing house that released propaganda material and SS training manuals . Thereafter , he purchased Allach Porcelain , which then began to produce SS memorabilia . Because of the labor shortage and a desire for financial gain , the SS started exploiting concentration camp inmates as slave labor . Most of the SS businesses lost money until Himmler placed them under the administration of Pohl 's Verwaltung und Wirtschaftshauptamt Hauptamt ( Administration and Business office ; VuWHA ) in 1939 . Even then , most of the enterprises were poorly run and did not fare well , as SS men were not selected for their business experience , and the workers were starving . In July 1940 Pohl established the Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe GmbH ( German Businesses Ltd ; DWB ) , an umbrella corporation under which he took over administration of all SS business concerns . Eventually the SS founded nearly 200 holding companies for their businesses .
In May 1941 the VuWHA founded the Deutsche Ausrüstungswerke GmbH ( German Equipment Works ; DAW ) , which was created to integrate the SS business enterprises with the burgeoning concentration camp system . Himmler subsequently established four major new concentration camps in 1941 : Auschwitz , Gross @-@ Rosen , Natzweiler @-@ Struthof , and Neuengamme . Each had at least one factory or quarry nearby where the inmates were forced to work . Himmler took a particular interest in providing laborers for IG Farben , which was constructing a synthetic rubber factory at Auschwitz III – Monowitz . The plant was almost ready to commence production when it was overrun by Soviet troops in 1945 . Life expectancy of inmates at Monowitz averaged about three months . This was typical of the camps , as inmates were underfed and lived under disastrously bad living conditions . Their workload was intentionally made impossibly high , under the policy of extermination through labor .
In 1942 , Himmler consolidated all of the offices for which Pohl was responsible into one , creating the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office ( Wirtschafts- und Verwaltungshauptamt ; WVHA ) . The entire concentration camp system was placed under the authority of the WVHA . The SS owned Sudetenquell GbmH , a mineral water producer in Sudetenland . By 1944 , the SS had purchased 75 percent of the mineral water producers in Germany and were intending to acquire a monopoly . Several concentration camps produced building materials such as stone , bricks , and cement for the SS @-@ owned Deutsche Erd- und Steinwerke ( German Earth And Stone Works ; DEST ) . In the occupied Eastern territories , the SS acquired a monopoly in brick production by seizing all 300 extant brickworks . The DWB also founded the Ost @-@ Deutsche Baustoffwerke ( East German Building Supply Works ; GmbH or ODBS ) and Deutsche Edelmöbel GmbH ( German Noble Furniture ) . These operated in factories the SS had confiscated from Jews and Poles .
The SS owned experimental farms , bakeries , meat packing plants , leather works , clothing and uniform factories , and small arms factories . Under the direction of the WVHA , the SS sold camp labor to various factories at a rate of three to six Reichsmarks per prisoner per day . The SS confiscated and sold the property of concentration camp inmates , confiscated their investment portfolios and their cash , and profited from their dead bodies by selling their hair to make felt and melting down their dental work to obtain gold from the fillings . The total value of assets looted from the victims of Operation Reinhard alone ( not including Auschwitz ) was listed by Odilo Globocnik as 178 @,@ 745 @,@ 960 @.@ 59 Reichsmarks . Items seized included 2 @,@ 909 @.@ 68 kilograms of gold worth 843 @,@ 802 @.@ 75 RM , as well as 18 @,@ 733 @.@ 69 kg of silver , 1 @,@ 514 kg of platinum , 249 @,@ 771 @.@ 50 American dollars , 130 diamond solitaires , 2 @,@ 511 @.@ 87 carats of brilliants , 13 @,@ 458 @.@ 62 carats of diamonds , and 114 kg of pearls . According to Nazi legislation , Jewish property belonged to the state , but many SS camp commandants and guards stole items such as diamonds or currency for personal gain , or took seized foodstuffs and liquor to sell on the black market .
= = Military reversals = =
On 5 July 1943 , the Germans launched the Battle of Kursk , an offensive designed to eliminate the Kursk salient . The Waffen @-@ SS by this time had been expanded to 12 divisions , and most took part in the battle . Due to stiff Soviet resistance , Hitler halted the attack by the evening of 12 July . On 17 July he called off the operation and ordered a withdrawal . Thereafter , the Germans were forced onto the defensive as the Red Army began the liberation of Western Russia . The losses incurred by the Waffen @-@ SS and the Wehrmacht during the Battle of Kursk occurred nearly simultaneously with the Allied assault into Italy , opening a two @-@ front war for Germany .
= = = Normandy landings = = =
Alarmed by the raids on St Nazaire and Dieppe in 1942 , Hitler had ordered the construction of fortifications he called the Atlantic Wall all along the Atlantic coast , from Spain to Norway , to protect against an expected Allied invasion . Concrete gun emplacements were constructed at strategic points along the coast , and wooden stakes , metal tripods , mines , and large anti @-@ tank obstacles were placed on the beaches to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks . In addition to several static infantry divisions , eleven panzer and Panzergrenadier divisions were deployed nearby . Four of these formations were Waffen @-@ SS divisions . In addition , the SS @-@ Das Reich was located in Southern France , the LSSAH was in Belgium refitting after fighting in the Soviet Union , and the newly formed panzer division SS @-@ Hitlerjugend , consisting of 17- and 18 @-@ year @-@ old Hitler Youth members supported by combat veterans and experienced NCOs , was stationed west of Paris . The creation of the SS @-@ Hitlerjugend was a sign of Hitler 's desperation for more troops , especially ones with unquestioning obedience .
The Normandy landings took place beginning 6 June 1944 . 21st Panzer Division under Generalmajor Edgar Feuchtinger , positioned south of Caen , was the only panzer division close to the beaches . The division included 146 tanks and 50 assault guns , plus supporting infantry and artillery . At 02 : 00 , Generalleutnant Wilhelm Richter , commander of the 716th Static Infantry Division , ordered 21st Panzer Division into position to counter @-@ attack . However , as the division was part of the armoured reserve , Feuchtinger was obliged to seek clearance from OKW before he could commit his formation . Feuchtinger did not receive orders until nearly 09 : 00 , but in the meantime on his own initiative he put together a battle group ( including tanks ) to fight the British forces east of the Orne . SS @-@ Hitlerjugend began to deploy in the afternoon of 6 June , with its units undertaking defensive actions the following day . They also took part in the Battle for Caen ( June – August 1944 ) . On 7 – 8 and 17 June , members of the SS @-@ Hitlerjugend shot and killed twenty Canadian prisoners of war in the Ardenne Abbey massacre .
The Allies continued to make progress in the liberation of France , and on 4 August Hitler ordered a counter @-@ offensive ( Operation Lüttich ) from Vire towards Avranches . The operation included LSSAH , Das Reich , 2nd , and 116th Panzer Divisions , with support from infantry and elements of the 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division Götz von Berlichingen under SS @-@ Oberstgruppenführer Paul Hausser . These forces were to mount an offensive near Mortain and drive west through Avranches to the coast . The Allied forces were prepared for this offensive , and an air assault on the combined German units proved devastating . On 21 August , 50 @,@ 000 German troops , including most of the LSSAH , were encircled by the Allies in the Falaise Pocket . Remnants of the LSSAH which escaped were withdrawn to Germany for refitting . Paris was liberated on 25 August , and the last of the German forces withdrew over the Seine by the end of August , ending the Normandy campaign .
= = = Battle for Germany = = =
Waffen @-@ SS units which had survived the summer campaigns were withdrawn from the front line to refit . Two of them , the 9th SS and 10th SS Panzer Divisions , did so in the Arnhem region of Holland in early September 1944 . Coincidentally , on 17 September , the Allies launched in the same area Operation Market Garden , a combined airborne and land operation designed to seize control of the lower Rhine . The 9th and 10th Panzers were among the units that repulsed the attack .
In December 1944 , Hitler launched the Ardennes Offensive , also known as the Battle of the Bulge , a significant counterattack against the western Allies through the Ardennes with the aim of reaching Antwerp while encircling the Allied armies in the area . The offensive began with an artillery barrage shortly before dawn on 16 December . Spearheading the attack were two panzer armies composed largely of Waffen @-@ SS divisions . The battle groups found advancing through the forests and wooded hills of the Ardennes difficult in the winter weather , but they initially made good progress in the northern sector . They soon encountered strong resistance from the US 2nd and 99th Infantry Divisions . By 23 December , the weather improved enough that the Allied air forces could attack the German forces and their supply columns , causing fuel shortages . In increasingly difficult conditions , the German advance slowed and was stopped . Hitler 's failed offensive cost 700 tanks and most of their remaining mobile forces in the west , as well as most of their irreplaceable reserves of manpower and materiel .
During the battle , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Joachim Peiper left a path of destruction , which included Waffen @-@ SS soldiers under his command murdering American POWs and unarmed Belgian civilians in the Malmedy massacre . Captured SS soldiers who were part of Kampfgruppe Peiper were tried during the Malmedy massacre trial following the war for this massacre and several others in the area . Many of the perpetrators were sentenced to hang , but the sentences were commuted . Peiper was imprisoned for eleven years for his role in the killings .
In the east , the Red Army resumed their offensive on 12 January 1945 . German forces were outnumbered twenty to one in aircraft , eleven to one in infantry , and seven to one in tanks on the Eastern Front . By the end of the month , the Red Army had made bridgeheads across the Oder , the last geographic obstacle before Berlin . The western Allies continued to advance as well , but not as rapidly as the Red Army . The Panzer Corps conducted a successful defensive operation on 17 – 24 February at the Hron River , stalling the Allied advance towards Vienna . The 1st and 2nd SS Panzer Corps made their way towards Austria , but were slowed by damaged railways .
Budapest fell on 13 February . Hitler ordered Dietrich 's 6th SS Panzer Army to move into Hungary to protect the Nagykanizsa oilfields and refineries , which he deemed the most strategically valuable fuel reserves on the Eastern Front . Frühlingserwachsen ( Operation Spring Awakening ) , the final German offensive in the east , took place in early March . German forces attacked near Lake Balaton , with 6th SS Panzer Army advancing north towards Budapest and 2nd Panzer Army moving east and south . Dietrich 's forces at first made good progress , but as they drew near the Danube , the combination of muddy terrain and strong Soviet resistance brought them to a halt . By 16 March the battle was lost . Enraged by the defeat , Hitler ordered the Waffen @-@ SS units involved to remove their cuff titles as a mark of disgrace . Dietrich refused to carry out the order .
By this time , on both the Eastern and Western Front , the activities of the SS were becoming clear to the Allies , as the concentration and extermination camps were being overrun . Allied troops were filled with disbelief and repugnance at the evidence of Nazi brutality in the camps .
On 9 April 1945 Königsberg fell to the Red Army , and on 13 April Dietrich 's SS unit was forced out of Vienna . The Battle of Berlin began at 03 : 30 on 16 April with a massive artillery barrage . Within the week , fighting was taking place inside the city . Among the many elements defending Berlin were French , Latvian , and Scandinavian Waffen @-@ SS troops . Hitler , now living in the Führerbunker under the Reich Chancellery , still hoped that his remaining SS soldiers could rescue the capital . In spite of the futility of the situation , members of the SS patrolling the city continued to shoot or hang soldiers and civilians for what they considered to be acts of cowardice or defeatism . The Berlin garrison surrendered on 2 May , two days after Hitler committed suicide . As members of SS expected little mercy from the Red Army , they attempted to move westward to surrender to the western Allies instead .
= = SS units and branches = =
= = = Reich Main Security Office = = =
Heydrich held the title of Chef des Sicherheitspolizei und SD ( Chief of the Security Police and SD ) until 27 September 1939 , when he became chief of the newly established Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA ) . From that point forward , the RSHA was in charge of SS security services . It had under its command the SD , Kripo , and Gestapo , as well as several offices to handle finance , administration , and supply . Heinrich Müller , who had been chief of operations for the Gestapo , was appointed Gestapo chief at this time . Arthur Nebe was chief of the Kripo , and the two branches of SD were commanded by a series of SS officers , including Otto Ohlendorf and Walter Schellenberg . The SD was considered an elite branch of the SS , and its members were better educated and typically more ambitious than those within the ranks of the Allgemeine SS . Members of the SD were specially trained in criminology , intelligence , and counter @-@ intelligence . They also gained a reputation for ruthlessness and unwavering commitment to Nazi ideology .
Heydrich was attacked in Prague on 27 May 1942 by a British @-@ trained team of Czech and Slovak soldiers who had been sent by the Czechoslovak government @-@ in @-@ exile to kill him in Operation Anthropoid . He died from his injuries a week later . Himmler ran the RSHA personally until 30 January 1943 , when Heydrich 's positions were taken over by Ernst Kaltenbrunner .
= = = SS @-@ Sonderkommandos = = =
Beginning in 1938 and throughout World War II , the SS enacted a procedure where offices and units of the SS could form smaller sub @-@ units , known as SS @-@ Sonderkommandos , to carry out special tasks , including large @-@ scale murder operations . The use of SS @-@ Sonderkommandos was widespread . According to former SS Sturmbannführer Wilhelm Höttl , not even the SS leadership knew how many SS @-@ Sonderkommandos were constantly being formed , disbanded , and reformed for various tasks , especially on the Eastern Front .
A SS @-@ Sonderkommando unit led by SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Herbert Lange murdered 1 @,@ 201 psychiatric patients at the Tiegenhof psychiatric hospital in the Free City of Danzig , 1 @,@ 100 patients in Owińska , 2 @,@ 750 patients at Kościan , and 1 @,@ 558 patients at Działdowo , as well as hundreds of Poles at Fort VII , where the mobile gas van and gassing bunker were developed . In 1941 – 42 , SS @-@ Sonderkommando Lange set up and managed the first extermination camp , at Chełmno , where 152 @,@ 000 Jews were killed using gas vans .
After the battle of Stalingrad in February 1943 , Himmler realised that Germany would likely lose the war , and ordered the formation of Sonderkommando 1005 , a special task force under SS @-@ Standartenführer Paul Blobel . The unit 's assignment was to visit mass graves on the Eastern Front to exhume bodies and burn them in an attempt to cover up the genocide . The task remained unfinished at the end of the war , and many mass graves remain unmarked and unexcavated .
The Eichmann Sonderkommando was a task force headed by Adolf Eichmann that arrived in Budapest on 19 March 1944 , the same day that Axis forces invaded Hungary . Their task was to take a direct role in the deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz . The SS @-@ Sonderkommandos enlisted the aide of antisemitic elements from the Hungarian gendarmerie and pro @-@ German administrators from within the Hungarian Interior Ministry . Round @-@ ups began on 16 April , and from 14 May , four trains of 3 @,@ 000 Jews per day left Hungary and travelled to the camp at Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau , arriving along a newly built spur line that terminated a few hundred metres from the gas chambers . Between 10 and 25 percent of the people on each train were chosen as forced laborers ; the rest were killed within hours of arrival . Under international pressure , the Hungarian government halted deportations on 6 July 1944 , by which time over 437 @,@ 000 of Hungary 's 725 @,@ 000 Jews had died .
= = = Einsatzgruppen = = =
The Einsatzgruppen had its origins in the ad hoc Einsatzkommando formed by Heydrich following the Anschluss in Austria in March 1938 . Two units of Einsatzgruppen were stationed in the Sudetenland in October 1938 . When military action turned out not to be necessary because of the Munich Agreement , the Einsatzgruppen were assigned to confiscate government papers and police documents . They secured government buildings , questioned senior civil servants , and arrested as many as 10 @,@ 000 Czech communists and German citizens . The Einsatzgruppen also followed Wehrmacht troops and killed potential partisans . Similar groups were used in 1939 for the occupation of Czechoslovakia .
Hitler felt that the planned extermination of the Jews was too difficult and important to be entrusted to the military . In 1941 the Einsatzgruppen were sent into the Soviet Union to begin large @-@ scale genocide of Jews , Romani people , and communists . Historian Raul Hilberg estimates that between 1941 and 1945 the Einsatzgruppen and related agencies killed more than two million people , including 1 @.@ 3 million Jews . The largest mass shooting perpetrated by the Einsatzgruppen was at Babi Yar outside Kiev , where 33 @,@ 771 Jews were killed in a single operation on 29 – 30 September 1941 . In the Rumbula massacre ( November – December 1941 ) , 25 @,@ 000 victims from the Riga ghetto were killed . Another mass shooting early in 1942 claimed the lives of over 10 @,@ 000 Jews in Kharkov .
The last Einsatzgruppen were disbanded in mid @-@ 1944 ( although some continued to exist on paper until 1945 ) due to the German retreat on both fronts and the consequent inability to continue extermination activities . Former Einsatzgruppen members were either assigned duties in the Waffen @-@ SS or concentration camps . Twenty @-@ four Einsatzgruppen commanders were tried for war crimes following the war .
= = = SS Court Main Office = = =
The SS Court Main Office ( Hauptamt SS @-@ Gericht ) was an internal legal system for conducting investigations , trials , and punishment of the SS and police . It had more than 600 lawyers on staff in the main offices in Berlin and Munich . Proceedings were conducted at 38 regional SS courts throughout Germany . It was the only authority authorized to try SS personnel , except for SS members who were on active duty in the Wehrmacht ( in such cases , the SS member in question was tried by a standard military tribunal ) . Its creation placed the SS beyond the reach of civilian legal authority . Himmler personally intervened as he saw fit regarding convictions and punishment . The historian Karl Dietrich Bracher describes this court system as one factor in the creation of the Nazi totalitarian police state , as it removed objective legal procedures , rendering citizens defenseless against the " summary justice of the SS terror . "
= = = SS Cavalry = = =
Shortly after Hitler seized power in 1933 , most horse riding associations were taken over by the SA and SS . Members received combat training to serve in the Reiter @-@ SS ( SS Cavalry Corps ) . The first SS cavalry regiment , designated SS @-@ Totenkopf Reitstandarte 1 , was formed in September 1939 . Commanded by then SS @-@ Standartenführer Hermann Fegelein , the unit was assigned to Poland , where they took part in the extermination of Polish intelligentsia . Additional squadrons were added in May 1940 , for a total of fourteen .
The unit was split into two regiments in December 1939 , with Fegelein in charge of both . By March 1941 their strength was 3 @,@ 500 men . In July 1941 , they were assigned to the Pripyat swamps punitive operation , tasked with rounding up and exterminating Jews and partisans . The two regiments were amalgamated into the SS Cavalry Brigade on 31 July , twelve days after the operation started . Fegelein 's final report , dated 18 September 1941 , states that they killed 14 @,@ 178 Jews , 1 @,@ 001 partisans , and 699 Red Army soldiers , with 830 prisoners taken . The historian Henning Pieper estimates the actual number of Jews killed was closer to 23 @,@ 700 . The SS Cavalry Brigade took serious losses in November 1941 in the Battle of Moscow , with casualties of up to 60 per cent in some squadrons . Fegelein was appointed as commander of the 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer on 20 April 1943 . This unit saw service in the Soviet Union in attacks on partisans and civilians . In addition , SS Cavalry regiments served in Croatia and Hungary .
= = = SS Medical Corps = = =
The SS Medical Corps were initially known as the Sanitätsstaffel ( sanitary units ) . After 1931 , the SS formed the headquarters office Amt V as the central office for SS medical units . An SS medical academy was established in Berlin in 1938 to train Waffen @-@ SS physicians . SS medical personnel did not often provide actual medical care ; their primary responsibility was medicalized genocide . At Auschwitz , about three @-@ quarters of new arrivals , including almost all children , women with small children , all the elderly , and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be completely fit were killed within hours of arrival . In their role as Desinfektoren ( disinfectors ) , SS doctors also made selections among existing prisoners as to their fitness to work , and supervised the killing of those deemed unfit . Inmates in deteriorating health were examined by SS doctors , who decided whether or not they would be able to recover in less than two weeks . Those too ill or injured to recover in that time frame were killed .
At Auschwitz , the actual delivery of gas to the victims was always handled by the SS , on the order of the supervising SS doctor . Many of the SS doctors also conducted inhumane medical experiments on camp prisoners . The most infamous SS doctor , Josef Mengele , served as a medical officer at Auschwitz under the command of Eduard Wirth of the camp 's medical corps . Mengele undertook selections even when he was not assigned to do so in the hope of finding subjects for his experiments . He was particularly interested in locating sets of twins . In contrast to most of the doctors , who viewed undertaking selections as one of their most stressful and horrible duties , Mengele undertook the task with a flamboyant air , often smiling or whistling a tune . After the war , many SS doctors were charged with war crimes for their inhumane medical experiments and for their role in gas chamber selections .
= = = Other SS units = = =
= = = = Ahnenerbe = = = =
The Ahnenerbe ( Ancestral Heritage Organization ) was founded in 1935 by Himmler , and became part of the SS in 1939 . It was an umbrella agency for more than fifty organizations tasked with studying the German racial identity and ancient Germanic traditions and language . The agency sponsored archaeological expeditions in Germany , Scandinavia , the Middle East , Tibet , and elsewhere to search for evidence of Aryan roots , influence , and superiority . Further planned expeditions were postponed indefinitely at the start of the war .
= = = = SS @-@ Frauenkops = = = =
The SS @-@ Frauenkops was an auxiliary reporting and clerical unit , which included the SS @-@ Helferinnenkorps ( Women Helper Corps ) , made up of female volunteers . Members were assigned as administrative staff and supply personnel , and served in command positions and as guards at women 's concentration camps . Like their male equivalents in the SS , females participated in atrocities against Jews , Poles , and others .
In 1942 , Himmler set up the Reichsschule für SS Helferinnen ( Reich school for SS helpers ) in Oberehnheim to train women in communications so that they could free up men for combat roles . Himmler also intended to replace all female civilian employees in his service with SS @-@ Helferinnen members , as they were selected and trained according to NSDAP ideology . The school was closed on 22 November 1944 due to the Allied advance .
= = = = SS @-@ Mannschaften = = = =
The SS @-@ Mannschaften ( Auxiliary @-@ SS ) were not considered regular SS members , but were conscripted from other branches of the German military , the NSDAP , SA , and the Volkssturm for service in concentration camps and extermination camps .
= = Foreign legions and volunteers = =
Beginning in 1940 , Himmler opened up Waffen @-@ SS recruiting to ethnic Germans that were not German citizens . In March 1941 , the SS Main Office established the Germanische Leitstelle ( Germanic Guidance Office ) to establish Waffen @-@ SS recruiting offices in Nazi @-@ occupied Europe . The majority of the resulting foreign Waffen @-@ SS units wore a distinctive national collar patch and preceded their SS rank titles with the prefix Waffen instead of SS . Volunteers from Scandinavian countries filled the ranks of two divisions , the SS @-@ Wiking and SS @-@ Nordland . Belgian Flemings joined Dutchmen to form the SS @-@ Nederland legion , and their Walloon compatriots joined the SS @-@ Wallonien . By the end of 1943 about a quarter of the SS were ethnic Germans from across Europe , and by June 1944 , half the Waffen @-@ SS were foreign nationals .
Additional Waffen @-@ SS units were added from the Ukrainians , Albanians from Kosovo , Serbians , Croatians , Turkic , Caucasians , Cossack , and Tatars . The Ukrainians and Tatars , who had suffered persecution under Stalin , were likely motivated primarily by opposition to the Soviet government rather than ideological agreement with the SS . The exiled Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Amin al @-@ Husseini was made an SS @-@ Gruppenführer by Himmler in May 1943 . He subsequently used antisemitism and anti @-@ Serb racism to recruit a Waffen @-@ SS division of Bosnian Muslims , the SS @-@ Handschar . The year @-@ long Soviet occupation of the Baltic states at the beginning of World War II resulted in volunteers for Latvian and Estonian Waffen @-@ SS units . The Estonian Legion had 1 @,@ 280 volunteers under training by the end of 1942 . Eventually , approximately 25 @,@ 000 men served in the Estonian SS division , with thousands more conscripted into Police Front battalions and border guard units . Most of the Estonians were fighting primarily to regain their independence and as many as 15 @,@ 000 of them died fighting alongside the Germans . In early 1944 , Himmler even contacted Pohl to suggest releasing Muslim prisoners from concentration camps to supplement his SS troops .
The Indian Legion was a Wehrmacht unit formed in August 1942 chiefly from disaffected Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army captured in the North African Campaign . In August 1944 it was transferred to the auspices of the Waffen @-@ SS as the Indische Freiwilligen @-@ Legion der Waffen @-@ SS . There was also a French volunteer division , SS @-@ Charlemagne , which was formed in 1944 mainly from the remnants of the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism and French Sturmbrigade .
= = Ranks and uniforms = =
The SS established its own symbolism , rituals , customs , ranks and uniforms to set itself apart from other organizations . Before 1929 , the SS wore the same brown uniform as the SA , with the addition of a black tie and a black cap with a Totenkopf ( death 's head ) skull and bones symbol , moving to an all @-@ black uniform in 1932 . In 1935 , the SS combat formations adopted a service uniform in field grey for everyday wear . The SS also developed its own field uniforms , which included reversible smocks and helmet covers printed with camouflage patterns . Uniforms were manufactured in hundreds of licensed factories , with some workers being prisoners of war performing forced labor . Many were produced in concentration camps .
Hitler and the NSDAP understood the power of emblems and insignia to influence public opinion . The stylized lightning bolt logo of the SS was chosen in 1932 . The logo is a pair of runes from a set of 18 Armanen runes created by Guido von List in 1906 . It is similar to the ancient Sowilō rune , which symbolizes the sun , but was renamed as " Sig " ( victory ) in List 's iconography . The Totenkopf symbolized the wearer 's willingness to fight unto the death , and also served to frighten the enemy .
= = SS membership estimates 1925 – 45 = =
After 1933 a career in the SS became increasingly attractive to Germany 's social elite , who began joining the movement in great numbers , usually motivated by political opportunism . By 1938 about one @-@ third of the SS leadership were members of the upper middle class . The trend reversed after the first Soviet counter @-@ offensive of 1942 .
= = SS offices = =
By 1942 all activities of the SS were managed through twelve main offices .
Personal Staff Reichsführer @-@ SS
SS Main Office ( SS @-@ HA )
SS @-@ Führungshauptamt ( SS Main Operational Office ; SS @-@ FHA )
Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA )
SS Main Economic and Administrative Office ( WVHA )
Ordnungspolizei Hauptamt ( Main Office of the Order Police )
SS Court Main Office
SS @-@ Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt ( SS Office of Race and Settlement ; RuSHA )
SS Personnel Main Office
Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle ( Racial German Assistance Main Office ; VOMI )
SS Education Office
Main Office of the Reich Commissioner for the Consolidation of German Nationhood ( RKFDV )
= = Austrian SS = =
The term " Austrian SS " is often used to describe that portion of the SS membership from Austria , but it was never a recognized branch of the SS . In contrast to SS members from other countries , who were grouped into either the Germanic @-@ SS or the Foreign Legions of the Waffen @-@ SS , Austrian SS members were regular SS personnel . It was technically under the command of the SS in Germany , but often acted independently concerning Austrian affairs . The Austrian SS was founded in 1930 and by 1934 was acting as a covert force to bring about the Anschluss with Germany , which occurred in March 1938 . Early Austrian SS leaders were Kaltenbrunner and Arthur Seyss @-@ Inquart . Austrian SS members served in every branch of the SS . Political scientist David Art of Tufts University notes that Austrians constituted 8 percent of the Third Reich 's population and 13 percent of the SS ; he states that 40 percent of the staff and 75 percent of commanders at death camps were Austrian .
After the Anschluss , the Austrian SS was folded into SS @-@ Oberabschnitt Donau . The third regiment of the SS @-@ Verfügungstruppe ( Der Führer ) and the fourth Totenkopf regiment ( Ostmark ) were recruited in Austria shortly thereafter . On Heydrich 's orders , mass arrests of potential enemies of the Reich began immediately after the Anschluss . Mauthausen was the first concentration camp opened in Austria following the Anschluss . Before the invasion of the Soviet Union , Mauthausen was the harshest of the camps in the Greater German Reich .
The Hotel Metropole was transformed into Gestapo headquarters in Vienna in April 1938 . With a staff of 900 ( 80 percent of whom were recruited from the Austrian police ) , it was the largest Gestapo office outside Berlin . An estimated 50 @,@ 000 people were interrogated or tortured there . The Gestapo in Vienna was headed by Franz Josef Huber , who also served as chief of the Central Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna . Although its de facto leaders were Adolf Eichmann and later Alois Brunner , Huber was nevertheless responsible for the mass deportation of Austrian Jews .
= = Post @-@ war activity and aftermath = =
Following Nazi Germany 's collapse , the SS ceased to exist . Numerous members of the SS , many of them still committed Nazis , remained at large in Germany and across Europe . On 21 May 1945 , the British captured Himmler , who was in disguise and using a false passport . At an internment camp near Lüneburg , he committed suicide by biting down on a cyanide capsule . Several other leading members of the SS fled , but some were quickly captured . Kaltenbrunner , chief of the RSHA and the highest @-@ ranking member of the SS upon Himmler 's suicide , was captured and arrested in the Bavarian Alps . He was among the 24 defendants put on trial at the International Military Tribunal in 1945 – 46 .
Some SS members were subject to summary execution , torture , and beatings at the hands of freed prisoners , displaced persons , or Allied soldiers . American soldiers of the 157th Regiment , who entered the concentration camp at Dachau in April 1945 and saw the human deprivation and cruelty committed by the SS , shot some of the remaining SS camp guards . On 15 April 1945 , British troops entered Bergen @-@ Belsen . They placed the SS guards on starvation rations , made them work without breaks , forced them to deal with the remaining corpses , and stabbed them with bayonets or struck them with their rifle butts if they slowed their pace . Some members of the US Army Counter Intelligence Corps delivered captured SS camp guards to displaced persons camps , where they knew they would be subject to summary execution .
= = = International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg = = =
The Allies commenced legal proceedings against captured Nazis , establishing the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in 1945 . The first war crimes trial of 24 prominent figures such as Göring , Albert Speer , Joachim von Ribbentrop , Alfred Rosenberg , Hans Frank , and Kaltenbrunner took place beginning in November 1945 . They were accused of four counts : conspiracy , waging a war of aggression , war crimes , and crimes against humanity in violation of international law . Twelve received the death penalty , including Kaltenbrunner , who was convicted of crimes against humanity and executed on 16 October 1946 . The former commandant at Auschwitz , Rudolf Höss , who testified on behalf of Kaltenbrunner and others , was tried and executed in 1947 .
Additional SS trials and convictions followed . Many defendants attempted to exculpate themselves using the excuse that they were merely following superior orders , which they had to obey unconditionally as part of their sworn oath and duty . The courts did not find this to be a legitimate defense . A trial of 40 SS officers and guards from Auschwitz took place in Kraków in November 1947 . Most were found guilty , and 23 received the death penalty . In addition to those tried by the Western allies , an estimated 37 @,@ 000 members of the SS were tried and convicted in Soviet courts . Sentences included hangings and long terms of hard labor . Piotr Cywiński , the director of the Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau Museum , estimates that of the 70 @,@ 000 members of the SS involved in crimes in concentration camps , only about 1 @,@ 650 to 1 @,@ 700 were tried after the war . The International Military Tribunal declared the SS a criminal organization in 1946 .
= = = Escapes = = =
After the war , many former Nazis fled to South America , especially to Argentina , where they were welcomed by Juan Perón 's regime . In the 1950s , former Dachau inmate Lothar Hermann discovered that Buenos Aires resident Ricardo Klement was in fact Adolf Eichmann , who had in 1948 obtained false identification and a landing permit for Argentina through an organization directed by Bishop Alois Hudal , an Austrian cleric with Nazi sympathies then residing in Italy . Eichmann was captured in Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 by Mossad , the Israeli intelligence agency . At his trial in Jerusalem in 1961 , he was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging . Eichmann was quoted as having stated , " I will jump into my grave laughing , because the fact that I have the death of five million Jews [ or Reich enemies , as he later claimed to have said ] on my conscience gives me extraordinary satisfaction . " Franz Stangl , the commandant of Treblinka , also escaped to South America with the assistance of Hudal 's network . He was deported to Germany in 1967 and was sentenced to life in prison in 1970 . He died in 1971 .
Mengele , worried that his capture would mean a death sentence , fled Germany on 17 April 1949 . Assisted by a network of former SS members , he traveled to Genoa , where he obtained a passport under the alias " Helmut Gregor " from the International Committee of the Red Cross . He sailed to Argentina in July . Aware that he was still a wanted man , he moved to Paraguay in 1958 and Brazil in 1960 . In both instances he was assisted by former Luftwaffe pilot Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel . Mengele suffered a stroke while swimming and drowned in 1979 .
Thousands of Nazis , including former SS members such as Trawniki guard Jakob Reimer and Circassian collaborator Tscherim Soobzokov , fled to the United States under the guise of refugees , sometimes using forged documents . Other SS men , such as Soobzokov , SD officer Wilhelm Höttl , Eichmann aide Otto von Bolschwing , and accused war criminal Theodor Saevecke , were employed by American intelligence agencies against the Soviets . As CIA officer Harry Rositzke noted , " It was a visceral business of using any bastard so long as he was anti @-@ Communist ... The eagerness or desire to enlist collaborators means that sure , you didn 't look at their credentials too closely . " Similarly , the Soviets used SS personnel after the war ; Operation Theo , for instance , disseminated " subversive rumours " in Allied @-@ occupied Germany .
Simon Wiesenthal and others have speculated about the existence of a Nazi fugitive network code @-@ named ODESSA ( an acronym for Organisation der ehemaligen SS @-@ Angehörigen , Organization of former SS members ) that allegedly helped war criminals find refuge in Latin America . British writer Gitta Sereny , who conducted interviews with SS men , considers the story untrue and attributes the escapes to postwar chaos and Hudal 's Vatican @-@ based network . While the existence of ODESSA remains unproven , Sereny notes that " there certainly were various kinds of Nazi aid organizations after the war — it would have been astonishing if there hadn 't been . "
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= John William Finn =
John William Finn ( 23 July 1909 – 27 May 2010 ) was a sailor in the United States Navy who , as a chief petty officer , received the United States military 's highest decoration , the Medal of Honor , for his actions during the attack on Pearl Harbor in World War II . As a chief aviation ordnanceman stationed at Naval Air Station Kaneohe Bay , he earned the medal by manning a machine gun from an exposed position throughout the attack , despite being repeatedly wounded . He continued to serve in the Navy and in 1942 was commissioned an ensign . In 1947 he was reverted to chief petty officer , eventually rising to lieutenant before his 1956 retirement . In his later years he made many appearances at events celebrating veterans . At the time of his death , Finn was the oldest living Medal of Honor recipient and the last living recipient from the attack on Pearl Harbor .
= = Early life = =
Born on 24 July 1909 , in Compton , California , Finn dropped out of school after the seventh grade . He enlisted in the Navy in July 1926 , shortly before his seventeenth birthday , and completed recruit training in San Diego . After a brief stint with a ceremonial guard company , he attended General Aviation Utilities Training at Naval Station Great Lakes , graduating in December . By April 1927 he was back in the San Diego area , having been assigned to Naval Air Station North Island . He initially worked in aircraft repair before becoming an aviation ordnanceman and working on anti @-@ aircraft guns . He then served on a series of ships : the USS Lexington ( CV @-@ 2 ) , the USS Houston ( CA @-@ 30 ) , the USS Jason ( AC @-@ 12 ) , the USS Saratoga ( CV @-@ 3 ) , and the USS Cincinnati ( CL @-@ 6 ) .
Finn was promoted to chief petty officer ( E @-@ 7 , the highest enlisted rank in the Navy at that time ) in 1935 after only nine years of active duty . He later commented on his promotions , " Everybody thought I was a boy wonder . I was just in the right place at the right time . " As a chief , Finn served with patrol squadrons in San Diego , Washington , and Panama .
= = Attack on Pearl Harbor = =
By December 1941 , Finn was stationed at Naval Air Station Kaneohe Bay on the island of Oahu in Hawaii . As a chief aviation ordnanceman , he was in charge of twenty men whose primary task was to maintain the weapons of VP @-@ 11 , a PBY Catalina flying boat squadron . At 7 : 48 a.m. on the morning of Sunday , 7 December 1941 , Finn was at his home , about a mile from the aircraft hangars , when he heard the sound of gunfire . Finn recalled how a neighbor was the first to alert him , when she knocked on his door saying , " They want you down at the squadron right away ! " He drove to the hangars , catching sight of Japanese planes in the sky on the way , and found that the airbase was being attacked , with most of the PBYs already on fire .
Finn 's men were trying to fight back by using the machine guns mounted in the PBYs , either by firing from inside the flaming planes or by detaching the guns and mounting them on improvised stands . Finn later explained that one of the first things he did was to take control of a machine gun from his squadron 's painter . " I said , ' Alex , let me take that gun ' ... knew that I had more experience firing a machine gun than a painter . "
Finding a movable tripod platform used for gunnery training , Finn attached the .50 caliber machine gun and pushed the platform into an open area , from which he had a clear view of the attacking aircraft . He fired on the Japanese planes for the next two hours , even after being seriously wounded , until the attack had ended . In total , he received 21 distinct wounds , including a bullet through his right foot and an injury to his left shoulder , which caused him to lose feeling in his left arm .
" I got that gun and I started shooting at Jap planes , " Finn said in a 2009 interview . " I was out there shooting the Jap planes and just every so often I was a target for some , " he said , " In some cases , I could see their [ the Japanese pilots ' ] faces . "
Despite his wounds , Finn returned to the hangars later that day . After receiving medical treatment , he helped arm the surviving American planes . His actions earned him the first Medal of Honor to be awarded in World War II . He was formally presented with the decoration on 14 September 1942 , by Admiral Chester Nimitz , for courage and valor beyond the call of duty . The ceremony took place in Pearl Harbor on board the USS Enterprise ( CV @-@ 6 ) .
In 1942 Finn was commissioned , and served as a Limited Duty Officer with the rank of ensign . In 1947 he was reverted to his enlisted rank of chief petty officer , eventually becoming a lieutenant with Bombing Squadron VB @-@ 102 and aboard the USS Hancock ( CV @-@ 19 ) . He retired from the Navy as a lieutenant in September 1956 .
= = Later life and legacy = =
From 1956 until shortly before his death , Finn resided on a 90 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 36 km2 ) ranch in Live Oak Springs , near Pine Valley , California . He and his wife became foster parents to five Native American children , causing him to be embraced by the Campo Band of Diegueño Mission Indians , a tribe of Kumeyaay people in San Diego . His wife , Alice Finn , died in 1998 . John Finn was a member of the John Birch Society .
In his retirement he made many appearances at events honoring veterans . On 25 March 2009 , he attended National Medal of Honor Day ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery . With the aid of walking sticks , he stood beside U.S. President Barack Obama during a wreath @-@ laying ceremony at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier . Later that day , Finn was a guest at the White House . It was his first visit to the White House , and his first time meeting a sitting President .
On June 27 , 2009 , a crowd of over 2 @,@ 000 made up of family , friends and well @-@ wishers came to Pine Valley to celebrate Finn 's 100th birthday . The Association of Aviation Ordnancemen presented him with an American flag which had flown on each of the 11 aircraft carriers then in active service .
When called a hero during a 2009 interview Finn responded :
That damned hero stuff is a bunch [ of ] crap , I guess . [ ... ] You gotta understand that there 's all kinds of heroes , but they never get a chance to be in a hero 's position .
Finn died at age 100 on the morning of 27 May 2010 , at the Chula Vista Veterans Home . He was buried besides his wife at the Campo Indian Reservation 's cemetery , after a memorial service in El Cajon . He was the last surviving Medal of Honor recipient from the attack on Pearl Harbor , the oldest living recipient , and the only aviation ordnanceman to have ever received the medal . Upon his death , fellow World War II veteran Barney F. Hajiro became the oldest living Medal of Honor recipient .
= = = Namesake = = =
The headquarters building for Commander , Patrol and Reconnaissance Force , United States Pacific Fleet at Marine Corps Base Hawaii Kaneohe was named in Finn 's honor , and in 2009 a boat used to bring visitors to the USS Arizona Memorial was also named after him . In that same year , part of Historic U.S. Route 80 , was named " John Finn Route " . Three buildings in the former Naval Training Center San Diego were named the John and Alice Finn Office Plaza . On 15 February 2012 , the U.S. Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus announced that an Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer would be named the USS John Finn ( DDG @-@ 113 ) in his honor .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Finn received the following awards and decorations :
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
For extraordinary heroism , distinguished service , and devotion above and beyond the call of duty . During the first attack by Japanese airplanes on the Naval Air Station , Kaneohe Bay , Territory of Hawaii , on December 7 , 1941 , he promptly secured and manned a .50 caliber machine gun mounted on an instruction stand in a completely exposed section of the parking ramp , which was under heavy enemy machine gun strafing fire . Although painfully wounded many times , he continued to man this gun and to return the enemy 's fire vigorously and with telling effect throughout the enemy strafing and bombing attacks and with complete disregard for his own personal safety . It was only by specific orders that he was persuaded to leave his post to seek medical attention . Following first @-@ aid treatment , although obviously suffering much pain and moving with great difficulty , he returned to the squadron area and actively supervised the rearming of returning planes . His extraordinary heroism and conduct in this action are considered to be in keeping with the highest traditions of the Naval Service .
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= Miodrag Tomić =
Miodrag Tomić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Миодраг Томић ; 17 May [ O.S. 5 May ] 1888 – 20 February 1962 ) was a Serbian and Yugoslav military pilot who flew during the Balkan Wars and World War I.
Tomić belonged to the first class of six Serbian pilots trained in France in 1912 . In August 1914 , he participated in the first aerial dogfight of the war , when he exchanged gunfire with an Austro @-@ Hungarian plane over western Serbia . In the winter of 1915 , during the Serbian Army 's retreat across Albania to the Greek island of Corfu , he evacuated General Petar Bojović from Scutari by plane , delivered mail by air and transported the Serbian Government 's gold and hard currency reserves from Niš to keep them from falling into enemy hands . Following the occupation of Serbia by the Central Powers , Tomić went to France and flew over the Western Front , where he had one confirmed kill . He returned to the Balkans in late 1916 , conducted combat missions over Bulgarian @-@ occupied Macedonia and shot down one enemy plane . Tomić continued flying after the war and became head of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force 's pursuit squadron in Novi Sad . During World War II , he was captured by the Germans and detained as a prisoner of war . Tomić left Yugoslavia following the war and settled in the United States with his wife . He died in Chicago in 1962 .
= = Early life , education and the Balkan Wars = =
Miodrag Tomić was born on 17 May [ O.S. 5 May ] 1888 in the village of Stragari , near Kragujevac . Matrilineally , he was a descendant of Serbian warlord Tanasko Rajić , who was killed fighting the Turks during the First Serbian Uprising . Tomić finished primary school and gymnasium in Kragujevac . In 1905 , he enrolled into non @-@ commissioned officers ' school . He graduated successfully and became a member of King Peter 's Royal Guard . Serbia had been the first country in the Balkans to take interest in aerial warfare . Shortly after Austria @-@ Hungary 's annexation of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina in 1908 , Serbia purchased two German reconnaissance balloons . In 1912 , prior to the First Balkan War , it sent six soldiers to France to receive pilots ' training and ordered eleven French planes . On 29 April 1912 , Tomić was sent to France to attend Louis Blériot 's flying school in Étampes , near Paris . He graduated on 1 October 1912 , after four months of training , and was issued diploma # 1026 . This made him one of Serbia 's first military pilots .
By the time Tomić had returned home , Serbia was embroiled in the Balkan Wars . On 24 December 1912 , the Serbian Aviation Command was established in Niš . Tomić was actively involved in the Siege of Scutari . On 29 March 1913 , Sergeant Tomić and Lieutenant Živojin Stanković spent forty @-@ five minutes flying over Scutari at a height of 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) and spying on Turkish positions . In July 1913 , Tomić flew several flights over Bulgaria , conducting reconnaissance missions and dropping small bombs . At the end of the Balkan Wars , the Royal Serbian Army promoted Tomić to the rank of second lieutenant .
= = World War I = =
At the outbreak of World War I , the Royal Serbian Army had only three planes , one of which was piloted by Tomić . His plane was quite primitive even for 1914 . Misha Glenny , a journalist who has written extensively on the Balkans , likens it to " a box kite on perambulator wheels " . At the beginning of the war , Tomić was attached to the 1st Danube Division . On the afternoon of 12 August 1914 , he flew a reconnaissance mission over Šabac , and disclosed to the Serbian High Command that , contrary to initial reports , the Austro @-@ Hungarians had not set up pontoon bridges on the Sava and were attempting to cross the river with boats . On 15 August , Tomić encountered an enemy plane while conducting a reconnaissance flight over Austria @-@ Hungary . The Austro @-@ Hungarian aviator initially waved at Tomić , who waved back . The enemy pilot then took a revolver and began shooting at Tomić 's plane . Tomić produced a pistol of his own and fired back . He swerved away from the Austro @-@ Hungarian plane and the two aircraft eventually parted ways . This incident is considered the first recorded dogfight of the war . Within weeks , all Serbian and Austro @-@ Hungarians aircraft were armed . The Serbs equipped each of their planes with 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) Schwarzlose MG M.07 / 12 machine guns , six 100 @-@ round boxes of ammunition and several bombs . The first armed Serbian plane was given the name OЛУЈ ( Oluj ) , or " storm " . It was mostly flown by Tomić .
Tomić was ordered to form an aerial unit of the Šumadija Division on 16 August . On 22 October , he became the first Serbian pilot to face enemy anti @-@ aircraft fire when his Blériot XI was targeted by Austro @-@ Hungarian field batteries . The first Serbian escadrille was formed in Belgrade the same day . Tomić went on to participate in multiple combat missions , dropping explosive ordnance on Austro @-@ Hungarian military positions and supply lines . In May 1915 , a number of French pilots came to Serbia to help the country 's war effort . Tomić was assigned to Požarevac airfield following the arrival of the French and flew missions over the Banat . A soldier named Milutin Mihailović was assigned to fly with him as a military observer . On 9 June , Tomić downed one German plane . Six days later , he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant . He shot down another German plane on 23 June . In total , Tomić and Mihailović flew nineteen combat missions over the Banat between early May and late August 1915 .
In October 1915 , Serbia was invaded by a combined Austro @-@ Hungarian , Bulgarian and German force . The Serbian Army was overwhelmed within weeks and forced to retreat across Albania to the Greek island of Corfu . The small Serbian Air Force withdrew from its headquarters in Banjica to Kruševac via Mladenovac , Smederevska Palanka and Jagodina . In Kruševac , Tomić and lieutenant Živojin Stanković were tasked with destroying four obsolete airplanes to keep them from falling into enemy hands . Upon completing the task , Tomić and Stanković manned two small biplanes and headed for Peć . Tomić successfully reached Kosovo , but Stanković did not . His plane crashed near the town of Kuršumlija , leaving him seriously injured . Tomić continued south , successfully transporting the Serbian Government 's gold reserves out of Niš and ensuring they did not fall into the hands of the Central Powers . He also flew important mail in and out of Serbia , and evacuated the country 's hard currency reserves . In Kosovo , Tomić contracted typhus . On 19 November , he and aerial mechanic Miloje Milekić landed in Prizren . They spent the next two days wandering the countryside and walking through knee @-@ deep snow . During the day , the air temperature reached − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) . The two stayed near their plane , waiting for orders from the Serbian High Command . On 21 November , Tomić and Milekić received orders to destroy their plane and go to Albania on foot . They decided against destroying the Blériot XI and took off the following morning , headed for Durrës . The Blériot XI was designed to fly for a maximum of four hours , but Tomić managed to keep it flying for the duration of the four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour flight to Durrës and landed safely on a field near the town . Locals soon discovered the plane and escorted Tomić and Milekić to Serbian envoy Panta Gavrilović . Tomić recovered from his ordeal and later evacuated General Petar Bojović from Scutari to Lezhë . Heavy winds over the town caused Tomić 's plane to crash on 23 January 1916 . He escaped unharmed .
While the Serbian Army recovered on Corfu , Tomić was assigned to the Western Front and flew with a French escadrille — Escadrille 389 . During his time in France , he successfully downed one German plane . Colonel Dushé , the C.O. of the Serbian Air Force , commended Tomić on 16 November 1916 . Tomić soon returned to the Balkans , ready to conduct aerial missions on the Salonika Front . He flew a Nieuport 23 fighter on a number of combat missions over Bulgarian @-@ occupied Macedonia as part of Escadrille 387 . At about 10 a.m. on 17 April 1917 , Tomić and his escadrille attacked a group of fourteen Bulgarian planes conducting a bombing raid against the Serbian rear . His plane sustained serious damage during the encounter ; it was struck by a number of incendiary bullets and its fuel line was severed . Unable to continue flying , Tomić was forced to land near Demir Kapija . In another aerial confrontation on 8 July , he successfully shot down a Bulgarian plane . This was Tomić 's first recorded kill in Salonika , and his fourth overall . He was commended for this feat on 12 July , by order of the Serbian High Command . Following the Allied breakthrough in Macedonia , Tomić and his escadrille landed at Novi Sad , after which he was promoted to the rank of captain .
= = World War II , emigration and death = =
Tomić remained in the armed forces after the war , serving with the Royal Yugoslav Air Force and becoming the commander of the Novi Sad pursuit squadron . In the 1920s , he achieved the rank of colonel . He married a woman named Danica , who later also became a pilot . In April 1941 , Tomić was captured as a prisoner of war during the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia . Following World War II , he and his wife immigrated to the United States . Tomić died in Chicago on 20 February 1962 , and was survived by his sister in Yugoslavia . He is buried in Libertyville , Illinois .
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= Iore =
Iore , often stylized IORE , is a class of 26 electric locomotives built by Adtranz and its successor Bombardier Transportation for the Swedish mining company LKAB 's railway division Malmtrafik . The class is a variation of Adtranz 's Octeon modular product platform , thus related to Bombardier 's later TRAXX platform . The locomotives haul iron ore freight trains on the Iron Ore Line and Ofoten Line in Sweden and Norway , respectively . The 8 @,@ 600 @-@ tonne ( 8 @,@ 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 9 @,@ 500 @-@ short @-@ ton ) 68 @-@ car trains are hauled by two single @-@ ended Co ′ Co ′ locomotives , each with a power output of 5 @,@ 400 kW ( 7 @,@ 200 hp ) . Each operates with 600 kilonewtons ( 130 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ) tractive effort and has a maximum speed of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Delivery of the first series of 18 locomotives was made from 2000 to 2004 , and they replaced some of the aging Dm3 and El 15 units . In 2007 , eight more vehicles ( 4 double units ) were ordered , with production to be completed by 2011 , by which time , another four double units were ordered . These units are scheduled to be delivered from 2013 to 2014 .
= = History = =
The Ofoten Line and the Iron Ore Line are two railroad lines which were built to allow iron ore to be hauled from the LKAB 's mines in Kiruna , Svappavaara and Malmberget in Sweden to Luleå on the Baltic Sea in Sweden and to Narvik on the Norwegian Sea in Norway . Historically , these lines were operated by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) in Norway and the Swedish State Railways ( SJ ) in Sweden , but in 1996 the operations , but not the infrastructure , were transferred to the new company Malmtrafik i Kiruna ( MTAB ) , a joint venture between LKAB , NSB and SJ , and its Norwegian subsidiary Malmtrafikk ( MTAS ) . At the time , the line was using El 15 and Dm3 locomotives .
In 1998 , LKAB estimated a steady 35 % increase in iron ore production until 2005 , and requested that the governments grant sufficient funding to upgrade the lines from 25 @-@ tonne ( 25 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 28 @-@ short @-@ ton ) to 30 @-@ tonne ( 30 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 33 @-@ short @-@ ton ) maximum permitted axle load . Combined with new locomotives , this would give increased efficiency in hauling the ore from the mines . The upgrade was estimated to cost 180 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) for the Ofoten Line alone .
In March 1998 , LKAB awarded the contract to build 750 new 100 @-@ tonne hopper cars to Transnet of South Africa . In August , an agreement was reached whereby LKAB would pay NOK 100 million of the NOK 130 million needed to upgrade the Ofoten Line . The contract to deliver 18 locomotives was signed with Adtranz Switzerland on 15 September 1998 . In 1999 , LKAB bought SJ 's and NSB 's share in MTAB .
The first two sections were delivered by Adtranz in August 2000 , and was subjected to intensive tests before the manufacture of the rest of the series . Commissioning concluded in December 2000 , the locomotive started regular service on 10 January 2001 , and started operation with the new hopper cars and 30 @-@ tonne ( 30 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 33 @-@ short @-@ ton ) axle load on 7 March 2001 . In May 2001 , Bombardier Transportation took over Adtranz . Bombardier delivered the rest of the Iore series from 2002 to 2005 . In March 2004 , LKAB decided not to purchase additional hopper cars from Transnet , and instead purchased 750 heavier cars from K @-@ Industrier . Since 1969 , the ore trains have been using the Soviet SA3 coupler . However , LKAB wanted to also try Janney couplers ( also known as AAR coupler , used in much heavier trains in USA and South Africa ) , as the SA3 couplers were not much tested with the new weights . While the first pair of locomotives had Janney couplers , the rest of the first batch were equipped with SA3 couplers to handle the existing hopper cars , and later retrofitted with Janney couplers . In 2004 , the El 15 locomotives were sold to Hector Rail .
On 23 August 2007 , LKAB ordered another four twin units , with delivery in 2010 and 2011 , and costing € 52 million . These will replace all remaining Dm3 locomotives by 2011 , and LKAB convert all the ore trains to 68 cars . This will increase the capacity from 28 to 33 million tonnes per year , and at the same time reduce the number of departures per day from 21 to 15 .
The name Iore is a mixture between the term Iron ore , and the fictional character Eeyore from Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh , spelled I @-@ or in Swedish .
= = Specifications = =
The Iore class was a cold @-@ adapted and heavy @-@ haul derivation from Adtranz 's Octeon modular electric locomotive platform , which was launched in 1998 on the basis of Adtranz 's latest models for Deutsche Bahn at the time . Adtranz and later Bombardier Transportation conducted the final assembly of the locomotives at Kassel , Germany . When Bombardier Transportation introduced the brand name TRAXX for its updated modular locomotive platform , the type designation TRAXX H80 AC was applicable to the Iore class , however , it was excluded from the TRAXX family by the time of the second batch order in 2007 . The manufacturer has also referred to the locomotive type as the Bombardier Kiruna .
Each Iore consists of twin units with one driver 's cab at each . They normally operate in fixed units of two , making a pair capable of hauling a 8 @,@ 600 @-@ tonne ( 8 @,@ 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 9 @,@ 500 @-@ short @-@ ton ) ore train . Technically an Iore section is also capable to operate as single locomotive , an option that is seldom used in operation . The units are fed with 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC via a pantograph . The power is transformed and then converted via a single water @-@ cooled gate turn @-@ off ( GTO ) thyristor based converter per bogie . The converters belong to the Camilla family , which was developed by ABB 's Swiss branch as successor for its oil @-@ cooled converters , and found previous use in the FS Class E464 . The converters operate independently , with their own cooling and control systems and are shut down automatically in case of failure . The converters consist of seven line @-@ replaceable unit modules to minimize maintenance costs . Each locomotive has six three @-@ phase asynchronous alternating current traction motors , each rated at 918 kW ( 1 @,@ 231 hp ) and each powering a single axle . This gives a Co ′ Co ′ wheel arrangement . The tractive effort of each locomotive is 600 kN ( 130 @,@ 000 lbf ) and the maximum dynamic braking effort is 375 kN ( 84 @,@ 000 lbf ) . There is also a boost function , allowing a temporary traction effort of 700 kN ( 160 @,@ 000 lbf ) . The units are capable of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) in single runs , 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) with empty trains and 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) with loaded trains .
The locomotives are 22 @.@ 905 m ( 75 ft 1 @.@ 8 in ) long , 4 @.@ 465 m ( 14 ft 7 @.@ 8 in ) tall and 2 @.@ 950 m ( 9 ft 8 @.@ 1 in ) wide . The distance between the bogie centers is 12 @.@ 890 m ( 42 ft 3 @.@ 5 in ) and the bogie wheel @-@ base is 1 @.@ 920 m ( 6 ft 3 @.@ 6 in ) . The wheel diameter is 1 @.@ 250 m ( 4 ft 1 @.@ 2 in ) when new and 1 @.@ 150 m ( 3 ft 9 @.@ 3 in ) when worn . Each locomotive weighs 180 tonnes ( 180 long tons ; 200 short tons ) , of which 38 tonnes ( 37 long tons ; 42 short tons ) is electrical equipment . Each locomotive has 30 tonnes ( 30 long tons ; 33 short tons ) of dead weight to increase the locomotive 's weight to the maximum axle weight , and further weight increase has been achieved by making the walls 4 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide with armored steel . The extra wall thickness also provides for increased structural strength , to withstand collisions with snowdrifts and elk . The sides of the walls were built as flat as possible to reduce the sticking of blowing snow and ice formation .
The auxiliary system is powered via a separate transformer winding feeding three independent insulated gate bipolar transistor ( IGBT ) converters each providing a three @-@ phase 400 volt system . The locomotive is designed with an open system architecture that can be adapted later . Diagnostic information is available to the driver and can be sent to the control center via GSM @-@ R. The locomotive has a large and bright cab with space for up to three people . The second series of locomotives have an improved driver 's chair , which has been retrofitted on the older trains . The machine room has a center hallway . All high @-@ current equipment is located behind a door which can only be opened with a special key . This key is locked in such a way that it cannot be accessed without grounding the locomotive , and similarly the locomotive cannot be ungrounded again until the key is back in place .
= = Operation = =
LKAB operates iron ore mines in Kiruna , Svappavaara and Malmberget in Norrbotten County , Sweden . Most of the output is transported by rail to the ice @-@ free Port of Narvik , a route named the Northern Circuit . A minority of the ore is transported to Luleå on the Southern Circuit . Located on the Baltic Sea , ore is shipped to Baltic customers , or delivered to furnaces operated by SSAB in Luleå and Oxelösund . The Iron Ore and Ofoten Lines are 536 km ( 333 mi ) long , including the branch to Svappavaara , with the route from Kiruna to Narvik being 170 km ( 110 mi ) , and from Malmberget to Luleå being 220 km ( 140 mi ) . Operations are handled by LKAB 's subsidiary Malmtrafik i Kiruna ( MTAB ) in Sweden , and Malmtrafikk ( MTAS ) in Norway . As of 2010 , six pairs of the first batch Iore locomotives operate 11 to 13 trains daily in each direction on the Northern Circuit , and the remaining three pairs of the first batch operate five to six trains on the Southern Circuit . The four pairs of second @-@ batch locomotives will replace Dm3 locomotives on the Northern Circuit by 2011 .
The trains hauled by Iore are 68 cars long and weigh 8 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 8 @,@ 500 long tons ; 9 @,@ 500 short tons ) . From Riksgränsen on the national border to the Port of Narvik , the trains use only a fifth of the power they regenerate . The regenerated energy is sufficient to power the empty trains back up to the national border . Although the trains and hopper cars are all owned by LKAB , the line is owned by the Swedish Transport Administration and the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The Iron Ore and Ofoten Lines are also used by passenger and container trains .
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= General Dynamics F @-@ 111C =
The General Dynamics F @-@ 111C ( nicknamed " Pig " ) is a variant of the F @-@ 111 Aardvark medium @-@ range interdictor and tactical strike aircraft , developed by General Dynamics to meet Australian requirements . The design was based on the F @-@ 111A model but included longer wings and strengthened undercarriage . The Australian government ordered 24 F @-@ 111Cs to equip the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in 1963 , but the aircraft were not delivered until 1973 because of long @-@ running technical problems . During 1979 and 1980 four of these aircraft were converted to the RF @-@ 111C reconnaissance variant . Four ex @-@ United States Air Force ( USAF ) F @-@ 111As were purchased by Australia and converted to F @-@ 111C standard in 1982 to replace F @-@ 111Cs destroyed during accidents . Australia also operated 15 F @-@ 111Gs between 1993 and 2007 , mainly for conversion training . The RAAF retired its remaining F @-@ 111Cs in December 2010 .
The F @-@ 111Cs gave the RAAF a powerful strike capability but were never used in combat . The aircraft went through modernisation programs in the 1980s and 1990s , and the RAAF acquired improved weapons to maintain their ability to penetrate hostile airspace . Despite this , by the 2000s the F @-@ 111Cs were becoming outdated and expensive to maintain , leading to a decision to retire them in 2010 rather than 2020 as originally planned . The F @-@ 111s were replaced by 24 Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets pending delivery of F @-@ 35 Lightning IIs in development .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
In June 1960 , the United States Air Force issued a requirement for an F @-@ 105 Thunderchief replacement . The U.S. Navy began a program to develop a new air defence fighter for use on its large aircraft carriers . On 14 February 1961 , newly appointed United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara formally directed that the services study the development of a single aircraft that would satisfy both requirements . The Tactical Fighter Experimental ( TFX ) requirements were based largely on the Air Force 's needs . A request for proposals ( RFP ) for the TFX was provided to industry in October 1961 . After four rounds of proposals , General Dynamics ( GD ) was selected over Boeing ; GD signed the TFX contract in December 1962 .
The USAF F @-@ 111A and Navy F @-@ 111B variants used the same airframe structural components and TF30 @-@ P @-@ 1 turbofan engines . They featured side @-@ by @-@ side crew seating in an escape capsule , as required by the Navy . Because of conflict between the Air Force and Navy over whose requirements had precedence , McNamara intervened in 1961 , declaring that the Air Force desires would override suggestions by the Navy . The F @-@ 111A variant first flew on 21 December 1964 from Carswell AFB , Texas . It was followed by the F @-@ 111B , which first flew on 18 May 1965 .
As F @-@ 111 development continued , stall issues arose in certain parts of the flight regime ; these were addressed by modifying the engine inlet in 1965 – 66 , ending with the " Triple Plow I " and " Triple Plow II " designs . The F @-@ 111B was cancelled by the Navy in 1968 due to weight and performance deficiencies . The improved F @-@ 111E , F @-@ 111D , F @-@ 111F models were subsequently developed for the USAF . The FB @-@ 111A strategic bomber and the EF @-@ 111 electronic warfare versions were also later developed for the USAF . Production ended in 1976 , with a total of 563 F @-@ 111 variants built , well below the prediction of 1 @,@ 500 .
= = = Replacing the Canberra = = =
The Menzies government first publicly discussed the need for replacing the English Electric Canberra in 1954 , only a year after the RAAF began receiving the bomber . The non @-@ supersonic Canberra lacked radar and electronic countermeasures , all disadvantages based on Korean War experience . The RAAF believed that it needed a new strategic bomber to fulfill the nation 's obligations to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve in Malaysia , ANZUS , and SEATO . Air Staff Requirement 36 that year mandated an all @-@ weather attack aircraft by 1959 capable of delivering a variety of bombs and missiles . A study recommended one of the British V bombers , but Prime Minister Robert Menzies ' Minister of Defence Frederick Shedden decided in 1956 that at £ 1 million each they were too expensive .
Air Marshal Valston Hancock , Chief of the Air Staff , stated in April 1960 that Australia needed a replacement for the Canberra . Although in mid @-@ 1962 the Menzies government again decided to not replace the Canberra , Indonesia 's increasingly aggressive statements regarding Malaysia soon caused Australia to reevaluate the decision . The Sydney Morning Herald reported in October 1962 that the Indonesian Air Force 's Soviet Tupolev Tu @-@ 16 bombers could reach Sydney or any other Australian city with a light bomb load , while the Canberras could not fly in all weather and had a range of 900 miles ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) , insufficient to reach Djakarta . The opposition Labor Party , led by Arthur Calwell , used the report to criticize Menzies . The government denied that the Tu @-@ 16 could reach Sydney , but Minister for Air Frederick Osborne acknowledged that the Canberras were " the weakest link in our armoury at the present moment " . He stated , however , that the available foreign bombers were unsuitable for the RAAF . The American Boeing B @-@ 52 Stratofortress and Convair B @-@ 58 Hustler , for example , were too large for existing Australian runways . More suitable aircraft such as the British BAC TSR @-@ 2 and the American TFX ( later the F @-@ 111 ) would soon be available , Osborne said .
= = = Hancock study = = =
In May 1963 Menzies announced an A £ 200 million increase in defence spending over the next five years , and proposed to send a team led by Hancock overseas to evaluate Canberra replacements . Early candidates were the French Dassault Mirage IV , the TSR @-@ 2 , and the U.S. North American A @-@ 5 Vigilante , McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II and the TFX . From June to August , Hancock 's team visited France , Britain and the United States to evaluate the competitors , and determined that the TFX would be the aircraft best suited for the role . The Mirage IV had insufficient range and the A £ 108 million price was too expensive . The F @-@ 4 and the A @-@ 5 were immediately available , but the less expensive F @-@ 4 would need air @-@ to @-@ air refueling to reach Indonesia from Australia . The TSR @-@ 2 was behind schedule and over budget , was the most expensive at A £ 122 million for 24 aircraft , and British government support for the program was uncertain . While the TFX was also controversial in the United States , its promised performance specifications and per @-@ aircraft cost were superior to that of the TSR @-@ 2 . As he did not expect TFX to be available before 1970 , however , Hancock recommended buying 36 A @-@ 5 aircraft for A £ 88 million to counteract the perceived imminent threat from Indonesia .
The Menzies government was reluctant to choose as interim replacement the A @-@ 5 or the F @-@ 4 , which could not be deployed until 1966 and would cost A $ 120 – 180 million . Waiting for the TSR @-@ 2 or TFX in 1969 or 1970 seemed to pose great risk , but when considering Hancock 's findings in September 1963 it wanted to be able to offer a substantial response to the Labor party 's criticism of its defence strategy . The British and American governments competed on behalf of their nations ' unbuilt bombers , as both believed that export sales would increase domestic support for the aircraft . The Menzies government viewed the British promise to deploy a squadron of V bombers in Australia for interim defense until the TSR @-@ 2 was ready as unacceptable for both technical and political reasons . Beyond its cost , the Royal Air Force had not ordered the TSR @-@ 2 ; the Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Louis Mountbatten , who opposed it , advised the Australians against buying the aircraft and the RAAF feared being the only customer .
= = = Decision = = =
The government determined that it did not need to go ahead with an immediate replacement for the Canberra and preferred Hancock 's original choice of the TFX as a long @-@ term solution , leading to the Menzies government 's announcement on 24 October that it was ordering 24 F @-@ 111s for US $ 125 million , enough for two squadrons . The announcement came during the campaigning for the 1963 general election . Calwell 's Labor party had on 22 October reiterated its pre @-@ campaign promise that it would replace the Canberras as soon as it formed a government . The government 's announcement , and the consequent improvement of its chances against Labor , likely also benefited the United States ; the purchase helped rebut American critics of the TFX , and the Kennedy administration preferred Menzies ' defence policies to the opposition 's . The contract was signed the following year through the U.S. Department of Defense . The British government 's cancellation of the TSR @-@ 2 in April 1965 showed that Australia 's decision to not order it was correct .
= = = Procurement , delays , and renaming = = =
The U.S. offered two squadrons of Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojets for free lease pending the delivery of the F @-@ 111 ; Australia declined the offer in June 1964 — despite the aircraft having been demonstrated around the country just before the 1963 election as an interim Canberra replacement , likely another sign of the American preference for Menzies — because the B @-@ 47 did not offer significant improvements over the Canberra and , like the V bombers , would require longer runways .
The immensely complex and ambitious F @-@ 111 design and construction process forced the Australian government to quickly adopt sophisticated American procurement and project management methods . Although Australia originally planned to buy the American F @-@ 111A design , RAAF liaison officers requested country @-@ specific changes such as a long @-@ distance radio , Aeronautical Research Laboratories in Melbourne participated in an intake redesign and provided metal fatigue expertise , and an Australian test pilot evaluated the Australian version 's longer wings and performance in tropical conditions . The differences from the F @-@ 111A caused it to be designated the F @-@ 111C in 1966 .
= = = Delivery = = =
The first F @-@ 111C was officially delivered in 1968 , finally giving Australia an aircraft that could fly to Jakarta , drop bombs , and return without refueling . ( The RAAF only acquired air @-@ to @-@ air refueling for the F / A @-@ 18 , possibly to avoid causing difficulties with other Asian countries by increasing the F @-@ 111C 's already great range . ) Training began in 1967 , with RAAF personnel seeing terrain @-@ following radar and other sophisticated equipment for the first time . However , development delays and structural problems delayed acceptance of aircraft by the RAAF until 1973 . These issues were mainly to do with the wing attach points , and the redesign of the F @-@ 111 engine intakes . Completion of contractual requirements to the satisfaction of Australia also took time , damaging the morale of the hundreds of trained RAAF personnel who had little to do . The program costs , during 1963 – 1967 , grew at an alarming rate ; estimates by the USAF at the start of the program was placed at US $ 124 @.@ 5 million , but by April 1967 had risen to $ 237 @.@ 75 million . While the initial price of US $ 5 @.@ 21 million per aircraft was capped at US $ 5 @.@ 95 million , R & D , labor , and other costs were not . The rising price , three unexplained losses of USAF F @-@ 111As in Vietnam during their first month of deployment , and the British and U.S. Navy 's orders ' cancellations caused further controversy in Australia during 1968 . By 1973 , however , when the F @-@ 111A had accumulated 250 @,@ 000 flight hours , it had the best safety record among contemporary aircraft , which presaged the F @-@ 111C 's own excellent record .
Four aircraft were modified to RF @-@ 111C reconnaissance configuration during 1979 – 80 , retaining their strike capability . The RF @-@ 111C carried a reconnaissance pack with four cameras and an infrared linescanner unit . Four ex @-@ USAF F @-@ 111As were refitted to F @-@ 111C standard and delivered to Australia as attrition replacements in 1982 . There F @-@ 111Cs were equipped to carry Pave Tack FLIR / laser pods in the mid @-@ 1980s . They underwent an extensive Avionics Upgrade Program through 1998 . Under this program , the F @-@ 111C was upgraded to digital avionics . This included twin mission computers , modern digital databus , digital weapon management system , new AN / APQ @-@ 171 terrain @-@ following radar , new AN / APQ @-@ 169 attack radar , and twin ring @-@ laser gyro INS .
In late 2001 , wing fatigue problems were discovered in one of the F @-@ 111C fleet . As a result , a decision was made in May 2002 to replace the wings with spares taken from ex @-@ USAF F @-@ 111Fs stored at the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center ( AMARC ) . The short span wings underwent a refurbishment in Australia , which included extending the span , in effect making the wings the same as the F @-@ 111C and F @-@ 111G models . Following the Avionics Upgrade Program , Australian F @-@ 111s received weapons system and various other upgrades .
= = Design = =
The F @-@ 111 was an all @-@ weather attack aircraft capable of low @-@ level penetration of enemy defences to deliver ordnance on the target . It featured variable geometry wings , an internal weapons bay and a cockpit with side @-@ by @-@ side seating . The cockpit formed part of an escape crew capsule . The F @-@ 111 had a three @-@ point undercarriage arrangement with a two @-@ wheel nose gear and two single @-@ wheel main undercarriage . Most F @-@ 111 variants included a terrain @-@ following radar system connected to the autopilot . The aircraft were powered by two Pratt & Whitney TF30 afterburning turbofan engines .
The F @-@ 111 's internal weapons bay could also carry bombs , a removable 20 mm M61 cannon , or auxiliary fuel tanks . The F @-@ 111C was equipped to carry the AN / AVQ @-@ 26 Pave Tack targeting system on a rotating carriage that kept the pod protected within the weapons bay when not in use . Pave Tack is a FLIR and laser rangefinder / designator that allowed the F @-@ 111 to designate targets and drop laser @-@ guided bombs on them . RF @-@ 111Cs carried a pallet of sensors and cameras for reconnaissance use . F @-@ 111Cs were also equipped to launch the AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missile and the AGM @-@ 142 Popeye stand @-@ off missile .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Entry into service = = =
The Australian government ordered 24 F @-@ 111C aircraft to replace the RAAF 's English Electric Canberras in the bombing and tactical strike role . While the first aircraft was officially handed over on 4 September 1968 , structural issues delayed the entry into service of the F @-@ 111C . Twenty @-@ four USAF F @-@ 4 Phantom IIs were leased as an interim measure . The Phantoms were delivered in September and October 1970 to No. 82 Wing at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . During its next three years in RAAF service , one F @-@ 4 was lost . By June 1973 , the remaining 23 Phantoms were returned to the U.S. Like the F @-@ 111 , the F @-@ 4 was a two @-@ seat , multi @-@ role , supersonic aircraft . Much more sophisticated than the Canberra , capable of air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground attack roles ; it had inertial navigation , a gun and radar . Experience with the F @-@ 4 likely contributed to the RAAF 's success with the F @-@ 111 . The RAAF proposed keeping the F @-@ 4 and using it with the F @-@ 111 , but the government decided that the cost was too great .
The F @-@ 111C entered Australian service after the technical problems were resolved , and the first F @-@ 111C was accepted at Nellis Air Force Base on 15 March 1973 . On 31 March , the RAAF Washington Flying Unit was formed at McClellan Air Force Base in California with the mission of ferrying the first 12 F @-@ 111Cs to Australia . This unit was commanded by Group Captain John Newham , who later served as Chief of the Air Staff between 1985 and 1988 . The RAAF 's first six F @-@ 111Cs arrived at Amberley on 1 July 1973 , and three subsequent groups of six F @-@ 111s arrived on 27 July , 28 September and 4 December . F @-@ 111Cs were allocated to No. 1 Squadron and No. 6 Squadron , under the control of No. 82 Wing . No. 1 Squadron was the RAAF 's strike squadron , and maintained a nominal strength of 12 F @-@ 111s . No. 6 Squadron mainly served as the F @-@ 111 operational conversion unit , though it also operated the RF @-@ 111 aircraft at times and could serve in the strike role if required . Once in RAAF service , all F @-@ 111 maintenance was undertaken at Amberley . From 1973 to 2001 No. 482 Squadron conducted intermediate maintenance of the aircraft , while heavy maintenance was the responsibility of No. 3 Aircraft Depot . No. 482 Squadron also operated the RAAF 's F @-@ 111 flight simulator . From 2001 onwards , Boeing Australia performed all F @-@ 111 maintenance under a contract with the Australian government .
After entering service the F @-@ 111 proved highly successful . Although it never saw combat , the F @-@ 111C was the fastest , longest range combat aircraft in Southeast Asia . Aviation historian Alan Stephens has written that they were " the preeminent weapons system in the Asia @-@ Pacific region " throughout their service and provided Australia with " a genuine , independent strike capability " . Stewart Wilson , in his book Lincoln , Canberra and F @-@ 111 in Australian Service , described the F @-@ 111C as " an unqualified success ... , providing Australia with a potent strike capability in an aircraft which , a quarter of century after its first flight remains second to none . " Former Indonesian defense minister Benny Murdani told his counterpart Kim Beazley that when others became upset with Australia during cabinet meetings , Murdani told them " Do you realise the Australians have a bomber that can put a bomb through that window on to the table here in front of us ? "
= = = Gulf War and East Timor = = =
During late 1990 and early 1991 the Australian government considered deploying F @-@ 111Cs to expand the Australian contribution to the 1991 Gulf War , which mainly comprised a Royal Australian Navy task group . The Department of Defence and Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 's ( DFAT ) preferred option if the government decided to expand Australia 's commitment was to deploy at least two RF @-@ 111s , though these aircraft would need to have their electronic warfare equipment upgraded to operate in this war zone . Due to the small size of the RF @-@ 111 force , the loss of any of these aircraft in combat would have inflicted a heavy blow on Australia 's reconnaissance capability . The second preference in the advice put to the government was to deploy a squadron of four to eight F @-@ 111Cs , though Defence did not support this . In the event , the government decided to not expand the Australian force . As a result , the F @-@ 111Cs ' contribution to the war was limited to conducting intensive exercises with the Naval ships as they sailed through Australian waters en route to the Persian Gulf .
The Australian @-@ led INTERFET intervention into East Timor in September 1999 marked the closest Australia 's F @-@ 111s came to combat . F @-@ 111s from both No. 1 and No. 6 Squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , on 28 August to support the international forces , and remained there until 17 December 1999 . This was a maximum effort for No. 82 Wing , and up to 10 F @-@ 111Cs were available at Tindal ; No. 1 Squadron 's commitment peaked at six aircraft and about 100 personnel . No. 75 Squadron also maintained 12 F / A @-@ 18s at its home base of Tindal to support INTERFET if needed . From 20 September , when INTERFET began to arrive in East Timor , the F @-@ 111s were maintained at a high level of readiness to conduct reconnaissance flights or air strikes if the situation deteriorated . For the latter role two F @-@ 111s armed with concrete @-@ filled bombs fitted with precision guidance kits were kept available at all times . INTERFET did not encounter significant resistance , however , and F @-@ 111 operations were limited to reconnaissance missions conducted by RF @-@ 111Cs from 5 November . Each of these sorties were made after gaining approval from the Indonesian government and normally focused on bridges and communications installations . The last RF @-@ 111C flight over East Timor took place on 9 December . War games had the F @-@ 111s achieving complete success if a strike was necessary against Indonesian military headquarters near the capital .
= = = Other roles and controversies = = =
The Royal Australian Air Force 's F @-@ 111 fleet was at times controversial . The long delay to the delivery of the aircraft was a significant political issue in the late 1960s and early 1970s . This occurred around the same time that massive delays and cost blowouts to the Sydney Opera House were making headlines , prompting some commentators to dub the F @-@ 111 the " Flying Opera House " . In 1983 the Hawke government tasked an RF @-@ 111 to take surveillance photos of the Franklin Dam project in Tasmania . The use of an RAAF aircraft to " spy " on its own territory led to the minister responsible , Senator Gareth Evans , earning the nickname " Biggles " ( after the famous hero pilot of a number of books by Captain W.E. Johns ) . Another aspect of the F @-@ 111 which drew criticism was the poor work conditions for F @-@ 111 ground crew involved in sealing / de @-@ sealing F @-@ 111 fuel tanks resulted in a class action lawsuit and the Australian government paying out more than A $ 20 million in damages . The health issues with chemical exposure included permanent brain damage to a number of ground crew before conditions were improved .
A number of ex @-@ USAF aircraft were delivered to Australia as attrition replacements and to enlarge the fleet . Four aircraft modified to the F @-@ 111C standard were delivered in 1982 . The government bought 15 F @-@ 111Gs to supplement its F @-@ 111Cs in 1992 and delivered in 1994 . Additional stored ex @-@ USAF F @-@ 111s were reserved as a spare parts sources . In Australian military and aviation circles , the F @-@ 111 Aardvark was affectionately known as the " Pig " , due to its long snout and terrain @-@ following ability .
Seven of the 28 F @-@ 111Cs and one of the 15 F @-@ 111Gs were destroyed in accidents during their service with the RAAF . These accidents took the lives of 10 air crew . The accidents occurred from 1977 to 1999 .
In mid @-@ 2006 , an RAAF F @-@ 111 was chosen to scuttle the North Korean ship Pong Su which had been involved in one of Australia 's largest drug hauls in recorded history . The ship had been sitting in Snails Bay , off Birchgrove , while the government considered its fate , and it was decided in March 2006 it would be scuttled by air attack . The Pong Su was sunk on 23 March 2006 by two GBU @-@ 10 Paveway II laser @-@ guided bombs .
= = = Retirement = = =
In 2007 , Australia decided to retire all of its RAAF F @-@ 111s . The drawdown of the RAAF 's F @-@ 111 fleet began with the retirement of the F @-@ 111G models operated by No. 6 Squadron in late 2007 . One of the reasons given for the F @-@ 111s ' retirement was that they required an average of 180 hours maintenance for every flight hour . In March 2008 , after a review , the new Labor government confirmed its purchase of the 24 F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets as an " interim " measure until the delivery of the F @-@ 35s ; in 2010 , the government signed the acquisition contract . The final RAAF F @-@ 111 aircrew conversion took place in 2009 , with four pilots and two Air Combat Officers ( ACOs ) qualifying . The RAAF retired its last F @-@ 111s on 3 December 2010 , after the final flight by aircraft from No. 6 Squadron over southern Queensland .
Australia is currently a partner in the development of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II stealth fighter , with plans for the country to procure up to 100 examples to replace the F @-@ 111 as well as the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet .
Between 21 and 24 November 2011 , 23 of the RAAF 's F @-@ 111C and F @-@ 111Gs which had not been selected for preservation were buried at the Swanbank landfill site outside of Ipswich , Queensland . The RAAF had considered scrapping these aircraft , but concluded that it would be cheaper to bury them . The remaining ex @-@ RAAF F @-@ 111s will be placed on display .
= = Variants = =
= = = F @-@ 111C = = =
The F @-@ 111C was the export version for Australia , combining the F @-@ 111A design with the longer F @-@ 111B wings and the strengthened FB @-@ 111A undercarriage .
= = = RF @-@ 111C = = =
Four F @-@ 111C aircraft were modified to RF @-@ 111C reconnaissance configuration . These aircraft met the RAAF 's requirement for aircraft to reinstate its photographic reconnaissance capacity . While the original order for F @-@ 111s specified that 18 would be strike variants and six reconnaissance variants , the RAAF later agreed to accept all 24 as strike aircraft and later retrofit six with reconnaissance pallets . In 1971 the USAF dropped plans to fit some of its F @-@ 111s as reconnaissance aircraft , but sold the design of the reconnaissance pallet to Australia for $ 3 million . At this time the RAAF decided to fit the pallet to four rather than six aircraft . The reconnaissance pallet contains four cameras and an infrared linescanner unit and is fitted in the F @-@ 111 's weapons bay . The RF @-@ 111Cs retained their strike capability .
The first F @-@ 111C , A8 @-@ 126 selected for conversion to the RF @-@ 111C variant was modified at General Dynamics plant at Fort Worth , Texas between October 1978 and 18 April 1979 . After four months of test flights , the aircraft returned to Australia in August 1979 where it conducted further tropical weather trials at Darwin . The other three aircraft were modified by the RAAF 's No. 3 Aircraft Depot at RAAF Base Amberley in 1980 , using kits purchased from General Dynamics . The RF @-@ 111C variant proved to be highly successful , and was considered to be among the best tactical reconnaissance aircraft in the world . Three of the four RF @-@ 111Cs remained in RAAF service until 2010 . The other aircraft was retired in 2006 after suffering damage from landing on its belly after one of its main wheels separated during take off ; although the aircraft was repairable it was judged not worthwhile doing so due to the impending retirement of the entire F @-@ 111 fleet . The RAAF does not have an aircraft with the RF @-@ 111C 's intelligence , surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities since they were retired .
= = Operators = =
Australia
Royal Australian Air Force
No. 82 Wing – RAAF Base Amberley
No. 1 Squadron F @-@ 111C ( 1973 – 2009 )
No. 6 Squadron F @-@ 111C ( 1973 – 2010 ) , F @-@ 111G ( 1993 – 2007 )
Aircraft Research and Development Unit RAAF ( during trials )
= = Aircraft on display = =
11 F @-@ 111Cs were retained as heritage assets . Five will be placed on display at RAAF bases .
A8 @-@ 125 , RAAF Museum
A8 @-@ 126 , Aviation Heritage Centre , RAAF Base Amberley
A8 @-@ 132 , RAAF Base Edinburgh
A8 @-@ 138 , RAAF Base Amberley , to become a gate guard
A8 @-@ 142 , RAAF Base Wagga
On 4 October 2012 , six more cosmetically restored and repainted aircraft were unveiled at RAAF Base Amberley for display at private aviation museums . Ownership is retained by the Australian government and aircraft undergo continual maintenance and non @-@ destructive testing . They were loaned to :
Australian Aviation Heritage Centre Northern Territory Darwin , Northern Territory
Evans Head Memorial Aerodrome Heritage Aviation Association , Evans Head , New South Wales
A8 @-@ 148 – Fighter World , RAAF Base Williamtown .
A8 @-@ 109 - Historical Aircraft Restoration Society , Illawarra Regional Airport
Queensland Air Museum , Caloundra Airport
South Australian Aviation Museum
The Australian Flying Corps and Royal Australian Air Force Association would also receive a crew module of A8 @-@ 131 . The crew modules of A8 @-@ 135 , A8 @-@ 136 and A8 @-@ 137 are also held at the Aviation Heritage Centre , RAAF Base Amberley .
A8 @-@ 130 was put on display at the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor in September 2013
= = Specifications ( F @-@ 111C ) = =
Data from Wilson and Pittaway
General characteristics
Crew : 2 ( pilot and weapons system operator )
Length : 22 @.@ 4 metres ( 73 ft ) ( )
Wingspan : * * Spread : 21 @.@ 33 metres ( 70 @.@ 0 ft )
Swept : 10 @.@ 35 metres ( 34 @.@ 0 ft ) ( )
Height : 5 @.@ 22 metres ( 17 @.@ 1 ft ) ( )
Wing area : * * Spread : 657 @.@ 4 ft ² ( 61 @.@ 07 m ² )
Swept : 525 ft ² ( 48 @.@ 77 m ² )
Airfoil : NACA 64 – 210 @.@ 68 root , NACA 64 – 209 @.@ 80 tip
Empty weight : 21 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 47 @,@ 200 lb ) ( )
Loaded weight : 40 @,@ 550 kilograms ( 89 @,@ 400 lb ) ( )
Max. takeoff weight : 49 @,@ 896 kilograms ( 110 @,@ 002 lb ) ( )
Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney TF30 @-@ P @-@ 100
Lat turbofans
Dry thrust : 17 @,@ 900 lbf ( 79 @.@ 6 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 25 @,@ 100 lbf ( 112 kN ) each
Zero @-@ lift drag coefficient : 0 @.@ 0186
Drag area : 9 @.@ 36 ft ² ( 0 @.@ 87 m ² )
Aspect ratio : spread : 7 @.@ 56 , swept : 1 @.@ 95
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 2 @.@ 5 ( 1 @,@ 650 mph , 2 @,@ 655 km / h )
Combat radius : 1 @,@ 330 mi ( 1 @,@ 160 nmi , 2 @,@ 140 km )
Ferry range : 4 @,@ 200 mi ( 3 @,@ 700 nmi , 6 @,@ 760 km )
Service ceiling : 66 @,@ 000 ft ( 20 @,@ 100 m )
Rate of climb : 25 @,@ 890 ft / min ( 131 @.@ 5 m / s )
Wing loading : * * Spread : 126 @.@ 0 lb / ft ² ( 615 @.@ 2 kg / m ² )
Swept : 158 lb / ft ² ( 771 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 61
Lift @-@ to @-@ drag ratio : 15 @.@ 8
Armament
Guns : 1 × M61 Vulcan 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) Gatling cannon with 2 @,@ 050 rounds ( seldom fitted )
Hardpoints : 9 in total ( 8 × under @-@ wing , 1 × underfuselage between engines )
Armament capacity : 31 @,@ 500 lb ( 14 @,@ 300 kg ) ordnance mounted externally on hardpoints and internally in fuselage weapons bay
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= Operation Badr ( 1973 ) =
Operation Badr ( Arabic : عملية بدر ; ʻAmaliyat Badr ) or Plan Badr ( خطة بدر ; Khitat Badr ) was the code name for the Egyptian military operation to cross the Suez Canal and seize the Bar @-@ Lev Line of Israeli fortifications on October 6 , 1973 . Launched in conjunction with a Syrian assault on the Golan Heights , this attack marked the start of the Yom Kippur War .
Operation Badr was preceded by training exercises starting in 1968 , operational planning from 1971 onwards and a deception operation . In the opening stages of the attack , known as The Crossing ( العبور ; al- ' obour ) , combat engineers used water cannons to rapidly clear numerous passages through the sand wall lining the east bank of the canal , laid bridges and operated ferries , allowing armor to cross . Egyptian infantry assaulted the Bar @-@ Lev fortifications and were counterattacked by Israeli armor and infantry .
The attack surprised the Israelis , and by October 7 the crossing was complete , and the east bank of the canal was occupied by five Egyptian infantry divisions . The infantry proceeded to establish defensive positions in bridgeheads spanning the 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) front . Following a lull in the fighting on October 7 , Israeli armor reserves arrived at the front and launched a counterattack opposite the city of Ismailia . The Egyptian forces were successful in employing anti @-@ tank weapons to repel the Israeli armor and advanced once more . By the end of October 8 , Egypt occupied a strip of territory along the entire east bank of the canal to a depth of approximately 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) .
In addition to the canal crossing , Egypt laid a successful naval blockade against Israel in the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea . The 1973 war is commemorated in a special Egyptian museum , the 6th of October Panorama in Cairo and in Damascus .
= = Prelude : 1967 – 1970 = =
At the end of the Six Day War , Israel held the entire Sinai peninsula , with the exception of Port Fouad . Israel 's victory in the Six Day War brought about a sense of security within Israel ; the occupied territory added strategic depth to the country 's defense . Consequently , Israel and Egypt ignored United Nations Security Council Resolution ( UNSCR ) 242 , which called for withdrawal from occupied territories in return for Arab recognition , and negotiations between the countries ceased . Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir aimed to maintain the status quo and believed that her country 's military strength would secure peace with Arab nations on their terms . Egypt , on the other hand , refused to recognize Israel or even negotiate with directly , preferring talks via third parties .
The 1967 war severely depleted Egypt 's military strength , as most of their air force and a large quantity of equipment was destroyed . Soviet assistance helped the Egyptian military to start the rebuilding of their armed forces shortly after the war , and by September 1968 Egyptian ground forces sufficiently recovered to challenge the Israeli presence east of the Suez canal . The War of Attrition began with Egyptian artillery barrages and commando raids into the Sinai , which were countered by deep @-@ striking Israeli airstrikes and heli @-@ borne raids into Egypt . Egypt 's inability to challenge Israeli air superiority led to the deployment of Soviet @-@ operated air @-@ defense assets to protect parts of Egypt 's interior , deterring the Israelis from launching their deep penetration raids and allowing the Egyptians to rebuild their air defenses . The defensive upgrades incurred increasing Israeli air losses , leading to an August 1970 ceasefire that lasted until 1973 . Nasser died in September 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat .
= = Egyptian strategy = =
President Sadat believed that Egypt 's economic , political , social and military problems were a result of the Six Day War . He believed the solution to these problems lay with erasing the humiliation of the 1967 defeat , which required regaining the Sinai . In 1971 Sadat began the coordinated political and military groundwork to achieve this . In February , he proposed a phased Israel withdrawal from the Sinai , which would involve a reopening of the Suez Canal , and Israeli fulfillment of the UNSCR 242 , including resolving the Palestinian refugee problem . In return Egypt would sign a peace treaty with Israel and reestablish relations with the United States . However Israeli insistence on retention of territory necessary for its security ended diplomatic efforts .
Simultaneously , Sadat sought to improve Egypt 's military capabilities , and in March began the first of four trips to the Soviet Union to obtain arms and munitions to cover those expended in the War of Attrition . He publicly stated his desire to go to war and marked 1971 the " year of decision " . However , the Soviets failed to deliver the promised supplies , and Sadat ruled out an offensive that year . As 1971 drew to a close , Sadat 's threats were dismissed as hollow Arab rhetoric . Added to their already weak political position , Arab leaders reached a consensus in 1972 that a diplomatic solution to the conflict was hopeless . American mediation steadily declined , ceasing entirely by mid @-@ 1973 .
By 1972 the United States and the Soviet Union were focused on détente . The Arabs were worried , as it meant their military situation vis @-@ à @-@ vis Israel would remain at a disadvantage . Believing diplomatic avenues had reached a dead end , Sadat focused on taking decisive military action . A renewed conflict with Israel would disrupt Soviet @-@ American détente , force superpower intervention and make the solution of the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict a center @-@ stage issue to Israel , the US and the USSR .
A number of Egyptian commanders wanted to carry out a general war to regain at least a significant part of the Sinai . This view was notably held by the Minister of War , General Mohammed Ahmed Sadek . However , in January 1972 Sadek acknowledged that Egypt 's Armed Forces were not ready for a land reclamation war before some five to ten years . Sadek cited studies in opposition of a limited offensive ; Egyptian analyses estimated 17 @,@ 000 casualties in a canal crossing , while Soviet estimates placed casualty figures at 35 @,@ 000 troops . Sadek stressed the immense losses that would be sustained would overshadow any military and political gains from a limited offensive , which required following up by liberating all or most of the Sinai .
For political reasons , Sadat dismissed Sadek 's arguments . The government 's political position was perilous as the Egyptian public , angered by the " No War , No Peace " situation with Israel , demanded action . The economy , already suffering from the loss of the Suez Canal revenues and the Sinai oil fields , could not cope with the country being on a war footing for an extended period . War was a desperate option , and a limited offensive under the current circumstances was the only solution .
At a session of the Arab League 's Joint Defence Council on January 27 – 30 , 1973 , Egypt presented a report stressing that an attack against Israel would have to be carried out simultaneously from Egypt , Syria and Jordan because of the Israeli air superiority . According to the report , Egypt and Syria 's air forces , if reinforced with 16 air squadrons from other Arab countries would achieve numerical superiority . However , the Israelis offset this by superior training , avionics , aircraft payload and weaponry . A simultaneous Arab attack could dilute the effectiveness of the Israeli Air Force ( IAF ) , and would force Israeli ground forces to fight a two @-@ front war .
During that month , Syrian President Hafez al @-@ Assad indicated his intentions of going to war against Israel . Egypt and Syria agreed to coordinate military action via negotiations , and the respective Ministers of War formulated a common military strategy . Egypt enlisted the political support of several more Arab countries , some producers of oil . Sadat discussed the possibility of using oil as an economic weapon to pressure Western governments into adopting more pro @-@ Arab policies . During the war , oil @-@ producing Arab nations , primarily Libya and Saudi Arabia , initiated an oil embargo , and several sent token forces to the front lines .
Sadat bred caution into his commanders , even warning his later Minister of War , Ahmed Ismail Ali , " not to lose the army as had happened in 1967 . " On 3 June 1971 he outlined his vision of a limited war :
I want us to plan [ the offensive ] within our capabilities , nothing more . Cross the canal and hold even ten centimeters of the Sinai . I 'm exaggerating , of course , but that will help me greatly and alter completely the political situation internationally and within Arab ranks .
Sadat 's strategy was designed to achieve political success without needing a comprehensive military victory , and hence , and in view of the Egyptian military 's marked inferiority to the Israeli Defense Forces , this required only a limited war .
= = Background = =
= = = Planning and Preparations = = =
Major General Mohammed Fawzi , who was Sadek 's predecessor as defense minister , regularly held command simulations . These exercises had unrealistic objectives and operational aims that were considerably outside the capabilities of the Egyptian military . When Lieutenant General Saad El Shazly became Chief of Staff on 16 May 1971 , no offensive plans yet existed . Rather , there was a defensive plan code named Operation 200 , and a more aggressive alternative named Operation Granite . Although Granite incorporated raids and assaults into the Sinai , it was essentially defensive . In his assessment of the military 's capabilities , he concluded the air force was the weakest arm . It was outmatched by its Israeli counterpart in various aspects , and Israeli pilots were also more experienced . A pivotal equipment advantage for the IAF was the F @-@ 4 Phantom II , a third generation fighter / bomber . By the outbreak of the war in October 1973 , the IDF had 122 F @-@ 4E and 6 RF @-@ 4Es ( R denotes the reconnaissance variant ) in service .
To compensate for the weaknesses of Egyptian air power , the Egyptians developed their air defenses . They fielded immobile SA @-@ 2 and SA @-@ 3 SAMs , the backbone of the air defenses , as well as mobile SA @-@ 6 SAMs and ZSU @-@ 23 @-@ 4 SPAAGs ( Self Propelled Anti @-@ Air Gun ) , portable infantry SA @-@ 7s , in addition to thousands of conventional anti @-@ air artillery . These air defenses would provide a protective " umbrella " over Egyptian ground forces . However , the SA @-@ 2 and SA @-@ 3 systems , being immobile , could only be moved over a nine @-@ hour period at best , exposing the air defenses to degradation in case of a redeployment to keep up with advancing forces . On the other hand , the SA @-@ 6 systems were available in limited numbers insufficient to provide adequate protection to advancing armored forces .
Due to these restrictions , Shazly supported a limited war to retake only the east bank of the canal , as opposed to Sadek . However , Sadek authorized the planning of two offensive plans , starting in July 1971 . The first was Operation 41 , which involved an offensive along the entire Suez Canal with the objective of seizing the key passes of the Sinai . The plan was developed in cooperation with Soviet advisers . As it was , the objectives of the operation were outside the capabilities of the Egyptian military and Shazly saw it only as a means of inducing the Soviets to supply more arms and equipment . The plan would also encourage the Syrians to join in an attack against Israel . Operation 41 was completed by September 1971 , and the following month , Sadat and Sadek flew to Moscow to conclude Egypt 's largest arms deal yet , receiving 100 MiG @-@ 21 fighters , 10 Tu @-@ 16 bombers , SA @-@ 6 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) missiles and heavy artillery . Operation 41 was renamed Granite Two .
The second plan — codenamed the " High Minarets " — called for a crossing at five separate areas along the length of the canal . The Egyptians would advance 10 – 15 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 3 mi ) , then establish defensive positions . By restricting their advance , Egyptian ground forces would remain within range of their own SAM defences , which would provide a protective " umbrella " , negating the Israeli advantage in the air . In this way the High Minarets was planned in accordance with the capabilities of the Egyptian Army . The plan 's outline was completed by September 1971 in absolute secrecy .
As Sadek continued to refuse the concept of a limited war , tensions rose between him and Sadat . Following a heated meeting of senior commanders , the Minister of War was sacked . His replacement , Major General Ahmed Ismail , was in favor of a limited offensive . The High Minarets continued to be developed as the only viable offensive plan , with the spring of 1973 being a possible launch date . Based on intelligence estimates , the main Israeli counterattacks would take place 6 – 8 hours after the assault began by three armored divisions , while armored support for the crossing would not be available before at least 12 hours . To deal with this , Egyptian infantry would be supplied with large numbers of anti @-@ tank guided missiles ( ATGM ) and rocket propelled grenades ( RPG ) . The portable anti @-@ tank weapons were principally the RPG @-@ 7 and the less numerous wire @-@ guided AT @-@ 3 Sagger , as well as hundreds of recoilless rifles and conventional weapons . The manually guided Sagger missile had a long range and a powerful warhead but suffered from low velocity in flight , allowing the target ( such as a tank ) time to take evasive maneuver or return fire . Its minimum range of 500 – 800 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 2 @,@ 600 ft ) created a significant area of dead ground , which was to be covered by the RPG , along with the B @-@ 10 and B @-@ 11 recoilless rifles . In addition , there were RPG @-@ 43 anti @-@ tank grenades . Assault infantry were equipped with night vision devices , infrared scopes , and welder 's goggles to counter a tactic often used by the Israelis ; mounting xenon floodlights on tanks and vehicles to blind enemy infantry at night . To allow the infantry to carry an assortment of heavy weaponry — ATGMs , RPGs , flamethrowers , machine guns , and mines — before the bridges were laid , was achieved by two steps . Firstly , five different field kits were created that were lighter , accommodated larger water bottles and could carry 24 hours ' food supply . Each field kit was specifically designed to meet the needs of the various assault teams . The other solution was to use four @-@ wheel wooden carts to transport equipment , weaponry and ammunition . Over 2 @,@ 200 such carts would be used in the crossing , providing the capacity to transport nearly 330 tons ( 150 @,@ 000 lb ) of matériel . Rope ladders with wooden steps would be deployed to lift ammunition and heavy equipment , such as the B @-@ 11 recoilless rifle , to the top of the sand wall .
The High Minarets called for assault infantry to establish bridgeheads 5 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) deep and 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) wide . The relatively short perimeter would increase fire density , and initially the attack would receive supporting fire from sand ramparts on the western bank . Once reinforcements and armor crossed , the bridgeheads would be deepened to 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . This had to be accomplished within 18 hours of the start of the operation . Airborne and seaborne forces would conduct attacks and ambushes to delay Israeli reserves heading for the Bar Lev line .
The spring of 1973 passed with no offensive being launched . On 21 August of that year , in complete secrecy , six senior Syrian commanders , using false names and passports , arrived from Latakia at Alexandria harbor in a Soviet passenger liner carrying holiday makers . Among the Syrian commanders were , principally , the Minister of Defense General Mustafa Tlass and the Chief of Staff General Yusuf Shakkour . For the next two days , they convened with their Egyptian counterparts at Egyptian Naval Headquarters in Ras el Tin Palace . By August 23 , two documents were ratified by Shazly and Shakkour concluding that the Egyptian and Syrian armed forces were ready for war . All that remained was to choose a date ; either September 7 – 11 or October 5 – 10 . The date was to be chosen jointly by Presidents Sadat and Hafez al @-@ Assad , and they were required to communicate their decision to their commanders fifteen days before the date of attack .
When 27 August , fifteen days before 7 September , passed without a reply from either Sadat or Assad , it was clear no offensive would take place in September . During 28 and 29 August , Sadat met with Assad in Damascus , where they agreed to start the war in October . They specified October 6 as D @-@ Day , and informed Ahmed Ismail and Tlass on 22 September , who in turn relayed the decision to the Chiefs of Staff . At the request of Ahmed Ismail , Sadat produced a presidential directive for war . Therefore , it was only in September , less than a month before the attack , that the date October 6 was finally selected as D @-@ Day . The coordinated offensive would begin at 14 : 00 ( Cairo Local Time ) . October 6 was chosen for several reasons . The speed of the water current and the tide were optimal for a crossing operation , and for most of the night there was a full moon , facilitating bridge construction . The date coincided with Yom Kippur , the Jewish Day of Atonement . This was an important factor in choosing October 6 for an attack ; Jews fast on that day , abstain from the use of fire or electricity ( which meant transportation would be at a standstill ) , and much of the Israeli army would be demobilised . October also coincided with the month of Ramadan in the Muslim Calendar , which meant that Muslim soldiers would be fasting . It was in Ramadan that the Muslims won their first victory at the Battle of Badr in the year 634 . Opting for something more inspirational than the High Minarets as a name , Operation Badr was chosen by Egyptian commanders as the codename for the assault .
= = = Combat engineering = = =
In any crossing of the Suez Canal by Egyptian forces , success was highly dependent on the performance of the Egyptian Corps of Engineers , which had several daunting tasks to accomplish . Israeli engineers had constructed a massive artificial sand barrier spanning 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) of the canal 's east bank ( except for the Great Bitter Lake , where the width of the canal made a crossing unlikely ) . To prevent erosion , the sand barrier was supported by concrete , which was one meter ( 3 ⅓ ft ) above the water at high tide , and three meters ( 10 ft ) above water at low tide . The canal was 180 – 220 meters ( 590 – 720 ft ) wide and approximately 18 meters ( 59 ft ) deep . Engineers had to clear seventy passages through this sand wall , each seven meters ( 23 ft ) wide . This meant the removal of 1 @,@ 500 cubic meters ( 2 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of sand for each passage . Initially , conventional methods were tested for breaching the sand wall . It was found that , to clear a single passage required 60 men , 1 bulldozer , 600 lb of explosives and five to six hours , uninterrupted by enemy fire . Since the crossing sites would likely be congested and under enemy fire , these methods proved to be impractical and too costly .
The solution to this dilemma was simple but nonetheless ingenious . Late in 1971 , an Egyptian officer suggested the use of small , light , gasoline fueled pumps that could be ferried across the canal in inflatable rafts to blast through the sand barrier . The suggestion proved worthwhile , and the Egyptian Military ordered some 300 British @-@ made pumps . Tests showed that five of these pumps could remove 1 @,@ 500 cubic meters of sand in three hours . In 1972 another 150 more powerful German @-@ made pumps were purchased . A combination of three British @-@ made and two German @-@ made pumps made it possible to clear a passage in two hours .
Once the passages were cleared , engineers had to construct ten heavy bridges ( using MTU bridgelayers , TMM bridgelayers and pontoon bridges ) , five light bridges , ten pontoon bridges and 35 ferries . The passages had to be opened in five to seven hours , immediately followed by the ferries , then the bridges two hours later , all the while under enemy fire . Of the heavy bridges , the Egyptians had only two Soviet @-@ made PMP heavy folding bridges , which could be erected in a shorter time than most other bridges in their inventory , saving a few critical hours . These bridges were also much easier to repair . The speed with which the engineers cleared the passages and laid the bridges and ferries would affect the course of the entire operation . Engineers also had to man the boats that would cross the assault infantry initially . Finally , they had to breach the minefields around Israeli defenses for the assault infantry .
= = = Israeli defences = = =
The Israelis had constructed a series of fortifications along the canal called the Bar Lev Line , which was considered impregnable . The main obstacle of these defences was a massive artificial sand wall erected by Israeli engineers , 18 – 25 meters ( 59 – 82 ft ) high with a 45 – 60 degree incline , along the entire Suez Canal . The rampart were reinforced by concrete that also prevented any attempt by amphibious vehicles to climb the sand wall . To blast through the sand barrier the Israelis estimated would take at least twenty @-@ four , probably forty @-@ eight hours . Behind this rampart were a series of 22 fortifications comprising 35 strongpoints . On average , the fortifications were 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) apart . A strongpoint was several stories deep into the sand and provided protection from a 1000 @-@ pound ( ~ ½ ton ) bomb . Strongpoints incorporated trenches , barbed wire , minefields 200 meters deep , numerous bunkers and troop shelters , and firing positions for tanks . Each strongpoint had an underground reservoir filled with crude oil . The oil could be pumped into the Suez Canal via a pipe system , and ignited to create temperatures reaching 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 ° F ) . A second defensive line , 300 – 500 meters ( 980 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) behind the main line , was concentrated at likely crossing areas , and designed to be occupied by armored forces , incorporating tank firing positions . A third defensive line , 3 – 5 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 1 mi ) behind the Bar Lev Line ( the defenses on the canal ) , had its defences concentrated on the main roads and principal routes of advance for an attacker . Behind the main line on the canal were concentration areas for armor and infantry , supply depots , numerous artillery positions and so forth .
The Israeli command developed a basic defensive plan codenamed Dovecote ( Shovach Yonim ) , the details of which were known to the Egyptians . The plan divided the Bar Lev Line into three sectors : the northern sector defended Arish on the coast to El @-@ Qantarah el @-@ Sharqiyya , the central sector defended Ismailia to Abu @-@ Ageila , and the southern sector defended the area from the Great Bitter Lake to the end of the Suez Canal , and prevented a thrust to the Mitla and Gedy Passes . The 252nd Armored Division , led by Major General Albert Mandler , was charged with the defense of the Bar Lev Line , and incorporated three armored brigades . Positioned 5 – 9 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 6 mi ) behind the series of fortifications was a brigade of 110 – 120 tanks , led by Colonel Reshef , split into three battalions of 36 – 40 tanks each , with one battalion to a sector . In case of an Egyptian attack , the brigade was to move forward to occupy tank platforms and firing positions along the Bar Lev Line . A further 20 – 35 kilometers ( 12 – 22 mi ) behind the canal were two additional armored brigades led by Colonels Gabi Amir and Dan Shomron , each with around 120 tanks . One brigade was to reinforce the forward armored brigade , while the other brigade counterattacked against the main Egyptian assault .
The Sinai garrison numbered 18 @,@ 000 men . The overall commander was Shmuel Gonen , who served as head of the Israeli Southern Command . Of the garrison stationed in the Sinai , one infantry brigade occupied the strongpoints on the canal on October 6 , while a further 8 @,@ 000 could be deployed to the line within 30 minutes to two hours along with the armor .
= = = Deception and final days to war = = =
Positioning the Second and Third Armies with their bridging equipment along the canal in preparation for Operation Badr would put the Israelis on high alert . Without the element of surprise Egyptian forces would suffer high losses in the attack ( estimates for casualties already ran in the thousands ) . The Directorate of Military Intelligence ( abbreviated Aman ) , which formulated Israel 's intelligence estimate and was known for its competency , was tasked with detecting troop movements and activity along Egyptian and Syrian forces ; military activity which would be particularly intensive in the last days preceding the assault .
The deception plan mounted by the Egyptians , which included their intelligence services , relied on producing a series of events and incidents , militarily and politically , internationally and nationally , aimed at convincing Israeli intelligence analysts that the Arab world was not preparing for war . Among the plan 's requirements was that senior echelon commanders preserve superficial normality while working secretly on the final preparations for the offensive .
The core of the Egyptian deception plan was based on the prevalent Israeli mentality following their lightning @-@ quick victory over Arab forces in the 1967 Six Day War . This mentality is clearly illustrated in the following Israeli saying :
In his thesis of the Yom Kippur War , USMC Major Michael C. Jordan explains that this quote and the prevailing opinion it represented pre @-@ October 1973 :
... also reflects the contempt Israelis held for the military abilities of Arab neighbors Egypt and Syria . The 1967 preemptive victory was so complete and won so cheaply , Israelis viewed their military forces as invincible , their intelligence service as unmatched , and their Arab foes as inferior and incapable .
The Israelis expected a forty @-@ eight @-@ hour warning beforehand from their intelligence services . At any rate , they were confident that any Arab attack would be swiftly decimated by the IAF .
The Egyptians sought to exploit this Israeli belief to their advantage . Ever since assuming office , Sadat had continually threatened Israel with war , engaging in brinkmanship , until his threats became ignored by Israel and the world . In order to position their forces for the attack against Israel , the Egyptians announced an exercise by the canal . Exercises had been conducted numerous times before , and in May and August 1973 false alarms had caused the Israeli army to mobilise in response to these exercises , costing Israel some $ 10 million on each occasion . This time , when the Egyptians began exercises on October 1 to last until October 7 , Aman disregarded the heightened military activity as training maneuvers . Troop movements on the Syrian front were detected as well , but Aman concluded that the Syrians would not go to war without the Egyptians .
The pretext of exercises allowed the Egyptians to conceal their preparations . These were further facilitated by the fact that the Egyptian Second and Third Field Armies were normally stationed along the Suez Canal for defence . Troops , armor , and crucially , the bridging equipment , were moved to their concentration areas over a period of fifteen nights up to the night of October 5 / 6 , with a peak of activity during the final five nights .
Ever since it occupied the Sinai in 1967 , Israel had openly declared it would remain in Sharm el @-@ Sheikh to ensure the sea lanes to the port of Eilat through the Straits of Tiran remained opened ( the closing of the Straits to Israeli shipping in 1967 was one of the causes of the Six Day War ) . Egypt aimed to nullify Sharm el @-@ Sheikh 's importance to Israel by imposing a naval blockade at the straits of Bab @-@ el @-@ Mandeb , almost 2 @,@ 500 kilometers ( 1 @,@ 600 mi ) from Israel . To this end , arrangements were made with Pakistan to receive Egyptian vessels for repair early in 1973 . Approval was sought , and obtained , from Sudan and Yemen to receive the submarines on their way to Pakistan in Port Sudan and Aden as a friendly visit . Pakistan 's approval to receive Egyptian vessels for repairs were made public . On 1 October , a force containing several submarines , destroyers and missile boats set sail on a route planned to ensure their arrival at Bab @-@ el @-@ Mandeb on October 6 . The fleet was fully equipped for combat , and the force was ordered to maintain complete radio silence ; which meant there was no way of recalling the submarines . The commanding officers , unaware of their real mission , were issued sealed envelopes detailing their orders and mission , and were instructed to open the envelopes on 6 October , only a few hours before the war was to begin , whereupon they would break their radio silence . Once the fleet had set sail that day , 1 October , " the war had effectively begun " .
The military sought to maintain an impression of normality . Just before Ramadan was to begin on 26 September , the Ministry of War publicly announced that military personnel could register to take leave to perform a Umrah ( pilgrimage ) in Mecca . Egyptian newspapers announced that sailboat races would be held , participants of which included several high @-@ ranking officers of the Egyptian Navy . In addition , a visit planned for October 8 ( two days after the scheduled attack ) by the Romanian Minister of Defense to Egypt was also publicized by the Ministry of War , and a program for his visit was announced . This coincidental visit would be promptly canceled once war broke out on 6 October , but it proved useful as part of the deception plan .
On 27 September , a large batch of reservists were given orders for mobilization . To lull suspicion , the Cabinet Ministers of the Egyptian Government were invited to an open tour of General Headquarters , where all planning and coordination of the operation took place . Another batch of reservists were called up on September 30 . To quell suspicion once more , the Egyptians publicly announced on 4 October the demobilization of the reservists who had been called up on 27 September , but only demobilized 20 @,@ 000 men .
From 1 October onwards , the order for war began to spread outside the circle of senior commanders in Egypt . Generals Saad Mamoun and Abdel Munim Wasel , commanders of the Second and Third Field Armies respectively , were informed of the decision to implement Operation Badr . On 3 October , they informed their divisional commanders . Brigade commanders were told on 4 October , battalion and company commanders on 5 October , while platoon commanders and troops were told on 6 October , six hours before the start of the attack .
Sadat also played his role the deception plan ; in September he had attended the Non @-@ Aligned conference in Algeria , and upon his return was rumored to be ill . Sadat remained , for several days leading up to 6 October , out of public sight . Egyptian intelligence planted false stories of his illness in the press and initiated a search for a home in Europe , where Sadat would receive treatment , adding to the rumor 's credibility .
Implementing the deception operation did not go through entirely without incident . Initially the Soviets were kept in the dark about Egyptian intentions to go to war . Instead , on October 2 , they were told that an Israeli raid was expected . Over the next two days the director of the Defense Intelligence Service , General Fouad Nassar , informed the Chief Soviet Liaison Officer , General Samakhodsky , that the raid was expected to be a large @-@ scale attack , coupled with an air strike . Though Samakhodsky appeared at first to believe Nassar 's story , it became clear to the Egyptians that the Soviets were suspicious . In particular Soviet advisors serving with Egyptian and Syrian units were by October 3 reporting the unusually heightened activities of the Egyptian and Syrian forces . Both Sadat and Assad decided to inform the Soviets of their intention to go to war on October 3 . Promptly , the Soviets requested permission to evacuate their personnel in Egypt , and both leaders reluctantly agreed . Egyptian commanders were taken completely by surprise , when , beginning late evening on October 4 , Soviet experts serving with field units , embassy personnel and their families were hurriedly evacuated . By October 5 , the evacuation was complete . This incident would be an important factor in convincing the Israelis that war was likely .
October 4 also provided another worrying incident to Egyptian commanders , who became aware that evening that EgyptAir , the country 's national airline , had canceled all its flights and was arranging the protection of its civil air fleet by dispersing its aircraft to refuges outside Egypt . The orders came from the Minister of Aviation , Ahmed Nuh . General Headquarters quickly intervened to reverse the dispersal orders , and by October 5 flights were back to their normal schedule . It was believed the incident was a breach of security and a leak on Egyptian plans for war . It was not clear to Egyptian commanders however , whether the Israelis were aware of the incident .
On September 13 , 1973 , an air battle took place between Syrian and Israeli fighters . It was an alarming skirmish in which twelve Syrian aircraft were shot down while the Israelis lost only one fighter . Tension ran high between both countries . The Egyptians in particular were very concerned ; on April 7 , 1967 , an air battle between Syria and Israel had escalated the military situation and was one of the causes of the Six Day War . Aware that war was to be launched only days later , the Syrians chose not to retaliate . The air battle aided the Syrians in concentrating their forces for the war , as the Israelis interpreted it to be a defensive reaction on the part of the Syrians . The Israelis closely monitored this buildup near the front , but their intelligence remained adamant that Syria would not go to war without Egypt , which the Israelis believed was currently occupied with internal issues .
Throughout September 1973 , Aman had received eleven warnings , including a warning from Jordan 's King Hussein , that Egypt and Syria were bent on waging war , but they were all disregarded , as Aman maintained the belief that the Arabs would not launch an attack . Mossad director Zvi Zamir remained of the opinion that war was not an Arab option .
However , there remained too many signs for the Israelis to ignore , chief among which was the hasty Soviet evacuation from Cairo and Damascus , and the constant buildup of forces on the Syrian front when Egypt , it was assumed , would not enter war . Though the Chief of Staff , David Elazar , was assured that the probability of war remained low , he took precautionary steps on October 5 . Elazar placed the entire military on alert , canceled all leaves , and ordered the Air Force to assume a full @-@ alert posture . He also ordered the 7th Armored Brigade to relocate from the Sinai to the Golan Heights . This raised Israeli numbers in the Golan Heights to 177 tanks and 44 artillery pieces on October 6 . To replace the 7th Armored Brigade , the Armor School , under the command of Colonel Gabi Amir , was ordered to activate its tank brigade for immediate airlift ; it was in the Sinai by October 6 , before the war began . Ultimately though , no orders for mobilization were issued to reservists ; Elazar and other senior commanders still expected a 24- to 48 @-@ hour warning from the intelligence services if the Arab nations were bent on war .
During the night of October 5 / 6 , Zvi Zamir went to Europe to meet personally with Ashraf Marwan , an Egyptian double agent . Marwan informed Zamir that a joint Egyptian @-@ Syrian attack was imminent . Combined with other warnings and incidents , Marwan 's warning finally convinced Zvi Zamir of the imminence of war . Eli Zeira , the director of Aman , sent a definite warning of war to the Israeli leadership at 04 : 30 on October 6 . Aman erred when it concluded the Arabs were to attack at 18 : 00 , an estimation in fact four hours late . Israel 's Prime Minister Golda Meir met with Defence Minister Moshe Dayan and General David Elazar at 08 : 05 for over an hour . Meir asked both men to present their views , which were conflicting : Dayan continued to believe war was not a certainty , while Elazar believed otherwise , arguing for a preemptive air strike against Syria . Dayan also proposed a partial mobilization of reserves , while Elazar favored a mobilization of the entire Air Force , and four armored divisions , totaling around 100 @,@ 000 – 120 @,@ 000 troops . Meir concluded the meeting by stating that no preemptive strike would be launched , in order to ensure the backing of the United States , but she sided with Elazar on the issue of mobilization , and orders were issued to reservists to mobilize .
Aman delivered its warning to Israeli commanders just nine and a half hours before the outbreak of hostilities , falling considerably short of the expected 24 – 48 hours warning period . The Arabs had won the intelligence war , achieving full surprise and gaining the initiative on the battlefield .
= = Course of the Operation = =
= = = October 6 – The Crossing = = =
Badr began at 14 : 00 on October 6 , 1973 . As the Israelis expected the attack to begin four hours later , only part of the troops and none of the armor assigned to man the Bar Lev Line were in position , except for a few platoons in the northernmost forts . Sixteen fortifications on the line were fully manned , and another two were partially manned .
The operation began with a major air strike involving more than 200 aircraft against three airbases , Hawk SAM batteries , three command centers , artillery positions and several radar stations , employing MiG @-@ 21s , MiG @-@ 17s , and Su @-@ 7s . This was in concert with artillery strikes starting at 14 : 05 from nearly 2 @,@ 000 pieces against the Bar @-@ Lev line , and against armor concentration areas and artillery positions , using field guns , howitzers , mortars , tank guns , B @-@ 10 and B @-@ 11 recoilless rifles . The self @-@ propelled 152 mm howitzers and 130 mm field guns were assigned counter @-@ battery fire missions against Israeli artillery . The 53 @-@ minute long fire preparation , one of the largest in history , was divided into four barrages . The first , fifteen minutes long , was aimed at enemy targets on the eastern bank up to a depth of 1 @.@ 5 kilometers . An estimated 10 @,@ 500 shells were fired against Israeli targets in the first minute alone .
With the start of the fire preparation , tank hunting detachments — groups of ten equipped with RPG @-@ 7 rockets , RPG @-@ 43 grenades , and AT @-@ 3 Sagger missiles — crossed the canal to deploy one kilometer deep , quickly occupying the tank ramparts , and proceeded to set up ambushes and lay mines . When the first barrage ended , Egyptian artillery began a second , 22 minute @-@ long barrage , against targets at a depth of 1 @.@ 5 – 3 kilometers . At this time , 14 : 20 , the first wave of assault infantry , 4 @,@ 000 men , began crossing the canal , crying " Allahu Akbar ... Allahu Akbar ... " ( God is Great ) . Around 2 @,@ 500 dinghies and wooden boats were used to transport the troops . Smoke canisters were used at the crossing points to provide cover . During the night of October 5 , engineers had blocked the underwater pipes on the opposite bank , preventing the Israelis from releasing flammable oil into the canal and igniting it . The first wave was lightly equipped , armed with RPG @-@ 7s , Strela 2 AA missiles and rope ladders to deploy on the sand wall . Among the first wave were combat engineers and several units of Sa 'iqa ( lit. lightening ; these were commando forces ) , who were tasked with setting up ambushes on reinforcement routes . The Sa 'iqa attacked command posts and artillery batteries in order to deny the Israelis control over their forces , while the engineers breached the minefields and barbed wire surrounding Israeli defenses . Immediately following them , military engineers transported the water pumps to the opposite bank and began setting them up . At this time Egyptian aircraft involved in the air strike began returning . Five aircraft were lost , although by the end of the day this rose to ten . The air strike put the Bir Gifgafa and Bir Thamada air bases out of operation for 48 hours , and damaged the Ras Nasrani and Bir Hasanah airbases . Around ten HAWK batteries , at least two 175mm artillery batteries , an electronic jamming center at Umm Khashib , and various radar stations were destroyed . This allowed the Egyptian Air Force to operate for the rest of the war without any ground @-@ based communications interference , as the only other jamming center in the Sinai was located at el @-@ Arish , considerably behind the front . Over a dozen AS @-@ 5 Kelt missiles were fired from Tu @-@ 16 bombers as well . Several were shot down , but at least five hit their targets , including two missiles fitted with anti @-@ radiation seekers that knocked out Israeli radars . The success of the air strike caused the Egyptians to cancel a planned second air strike . Another account however states that 18 Egyptian aircraft were lost , and these losses prompted the canceling of a second wave of airstrikes .
At the Great Bitter Lake , the Egyptian 130th Amphibious Brigade performed its own crossing . Composed of the 602nd and 603rd Mechanized Infantry Battalions with 1 @,@ 000 men , including a Sagger anti @-@ tank battalion , an anti @-@ air battalion , 20 PT @-@ 76 tanks and 100 amphibious armored personnel carriers , it was tasked with seeking and destroying enemy installations at the entrances of the Gedy and Mitla Passes . The sand rampart that lined the entire Suez Canal did not exist in the Bitter Lakes , and there were no Israeli defences or units to be encountered , and the brigade reached the opposite bank around 14 : 40 without any losses . The Egyptians discovered a minefield blocking their advance , and military engineers worked to clear a path .
Subsequently , at around 16 : 00 , the 603rd was regrouping outside the minefield when it was attacked by a company of tanks from Kibrit East ( codenamed Putzer by the Israelis ) , a fortification of the Bar Lev located on the Bitter Lake . The battalion had been reinforced with a tank hunting detachment from the 7th Division , and managed to destroy two tanks and three armored vehicles before the Israelis withdrew . Afterwards , its original assignment was canceled and it was ordered to capture the Kibrit East position ( Fort Putzer ) . It occupied the abandoned position on October 9 which the battalion — despite being cut off and coming under numerous attacks — held for the remainder of the war . As for the 602nd battalion , it began to move eastwards some time after dusk , and stumbled upon an Israeli battalion of 35 tanks along Artillery Road , some 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from the Bitter Lake . The battalion 's ten PT @-@ 76s with 76 mm guns were outmatched and outnumbered by the heavier Israeli M48 Pattons with 105 mm guns . The manually guided Saggers were difficult to operate at night , and Israeli tanks were employing blinding xenon floodlights . Caught in the open Sinai desert , the 602nd was defeated and lost many of its tanks and armored vehicles , along with significant casualties . The remaining troops retreated to Third Army lines . Some units may have reached their objectives , although this is disputed .
Egyptian troops raised their national flag on the eastern bank of the canal at 14 : 35 . By that time company and battalion @-@ size units of Israeli tanks and infantry began reaching the Bar Lev Line , but were prevented from reaching their positions by Egyptian ambushes . Those tanks that broke through came under fire from the west bank ramparts . At 14 : 45 , a second wave of infantry landed on the opposite bank . Subsequent waves of infantry arrived at fifteen @-@ minute intervals . However , after the fourth wave , fatigue and technical problems with the boats gradually widened the time intervals . The Egyptians abandoned their schedules , giving priority to anti @-@ tank teams and weaponry that could critically affect the battle . Amphibious vehicles were also used to cross equipment . The wooden carts were ferried to the east bank via boats , where they were initially lifted to the top of the sand wall with their loads . However , this method proved clumsy , and the carts were first emptied then lifted , after which they were re @-@ loaded and dragged to troops on the front line . The carts greatly facilitated the supply and transportation of matériel on the east bank .
Meanwhile , Israeli Southern Command attempted to pinpoint the main Egyptian effort to launch a counterattack with Dan Shomron 's reserve armored brigade , when , in fact , there was no main effort . As a result , Southern Command wasted several critical hours without taking decisive action . Tactical errors also showcased themselves when Reshef moved his tank brigade forward ; Israeli commanders neglected to conduct reconnaissance beforehand , causing their units to fall into Egyptian ambushes . In the confusion ensuing the surprise assault , no attempt was made at evacuating the Bar Lev garrison .
At 15 : 30 , Egyptian forces captured Fort Lahtzanit , the first fortification of the Bar Lev Line to fall , and by then the infantry had been reinforced with 82mm B @-@ 10 and 107mm B @-@ 11 rifles . At the same time , engineers began operating their water pumps against the sand wall , opening the first passage in less than an hour , and the Egyptians moved up their bridging units to the canal . By 16 : 30 eight waves had brought across the canal ten infantry brigades in all five bridgeheads , totaling 23 @,@ 500 men ( around 4 @,@ 700 at each bridgehead ) . Each bridgehead was on average six kilometers ( 3 ¾ mi ) wide and around two kilometers deep . The Egyptians had high @-@ velocity 85mm and 100mm rifled anti @-@ tank guns in action on the east bank by that time .
At 17 : 30 , three hours into the war , the twelfth and final infantry wave crossed , bringing the total in all five bridgeheads to 32 @,@ 000 men ( around 6 @,@ 400 in each bridgehead ) . By then Israeli armored losses had reached around 100 tanks . The magnitude of Israeli losses stemmed from their insistence to reach their comrades in the Bar Lev Line , and they repeatedly ran into aggressive ambushes by Egyptian soldiers .
Taking advantage of dusk , at 17 : 50 four Sa 'iqa battalions were airdropped deep into the Sinai by helicopters flying at low altitude . The Sa 'iqa were assigned the objective of hampering reserves en route from Israel . The helicopters left the range of friendly SAMs and were not assigned air cover , resulting in a number of them being shot down .
At 18 : 00 Egyptian armor and anti @-@ tank units on the west bank began moving to the crossing sites . Fifteen minutes later engineers completed the assembly of all 35 ferries and waited for the breaches to be opened . By 18 : 30 the bridgeheads were nearly five kilometers ( 3 mi ) deep . With Israeli artillery on the Bar Lev Line eliminated , the immobile SA @-@ 2 and SA @-@ 3 units were moved forward . From 22 : 30 to 01 : 30 after midnight , all bridges — eight heavy and four light — were laid , and along with the ferries , began transporting reinforcements to the opposite bank . In the far south of the canal , at 19th Division 's sector , the sand turned into mud making it difficult to clear . Consequently , four ferries and three bridges assigned to that division were deployed seven hours behind schedule . Periodically the bridges were relocated to confuse Israeli air strikes targeting them — the Egyptians had opened 60 passages but were operating only 12 bridges , allowing each bridge to be moved to one of five passages . Throughout the night and up to the following morning , tanks and vehicles kept crossing the canal . Military police were responsible for directing this enormous traffic , utilizing color @-@ coded signs .
= = = = Port Said Sector = = = =
The Port Said Sector was an independent military command in the Egyptian Military , unattached to the Second Army . It incorporated Port Said , Port Fouad and their vicinity . The sector contained two infantry brigades . Military operations in this area were directed against three fortifications : Budapest , Orkal and Lahtzanit . As with the rest of the front , the offensive here began with a fire preparation . However , high trajectory weapons were not employed because Egyptian aircraft were flying through the sector 's airspace , hence only direct fire guns were used to bombard Israeli positions .
Fort Lahtzanit , 19 kilometers ( 12 mi ) south of Port Fouad , was isolated by Egyptian infantry prior to the attack , preventing Israeli reinforcements from reaching it . At 15 : 00 , the Egyptians breached the minefield and barbed wire surrounding the fort , at which point approximately a company @-@ sized force of Egyptian troops assaulted the defenses . By 15 : 30 , the fort was declared under Egyptian control . The Egyptians proceeded to clear a few bunkers still occupied by Israeli soldiers , some of whom surrendered when they began facing flamethrowers . By 18 : 00 , the Egyptians had cleared the fort completely . ( see Battle of Fort Lahtzanit )
Fort Orkal , 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Port Fouad , was also isolated prior to an attack . The Egyptians approached by land from Port Fouad , and across the Suez Canal . The attack quickly ground to a halt as the force approaching from the north failed to breach the minefield , leaving the force attacking across the canal pinned down at the sand wall by enemy fire . Subsequently , an infantry company crossed and renewed the attack from the south , seizing several positions . Reinforcements soon allowed more positions to be captured . On October 7 , the remaining defenders made a break @-@ out attempt to join friendly forces , but they were intercepted and either killed or captured .
Located on a narrow strip of land southeast of Port Fouad , Fort Budapest was surrounded by water on two sides . The fort came under air and artillery strikes at 14 : 00 . A Sa 'iqa company cut off the only route to the fort for reinforcements , while a battalion attacked from Port Fouad , advancing along a narrow strip of land bereft of natural cover . The battalion 's attack bogged down at the minefield , which was 600 meters ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) deep . It soon came under air attacks , as the fort was outside of the SAM " umbrella " , and faced stiff resistance from the fort 's garrison . The battalion eventually broke off its attack and retreated , while the Sa 'iqa unit east of the fort prevented reinforcements from reaching the fort for four days before it too withdrew . Another attack on October 15 came close to succeeding but ultimately failed , and hence Fort Budapest became the only position of the Bar Lev Line to be remain in Israeli hands . ( see Battles of Fort Budapest )
= = = = Naval actions = = = =
By October 6 the Egyptian naval task force was at Bab @-@ el @-@ Mandeb where they broke radio silence . When Operation Badr began at 14 : 00 , Rear Admiral Fuad Abu Zikry authorized the fleet to proceed with the blockade via a codeword . Egyptian submarines and destroyers intercepted ships traveling through Bab @-@ el @-@ Mandeb destined for Eilat , and all Israeli maritime navigation in the Red Sea ceased . The blockade was a strategic success for Egypt , while the Israeli Navy and Air Force were incapable of lifting the blockade due to the long distance between Israel and Bab @-@ el @-@ Mandeb . Mines were laid at the entrance to the Gulf of Suez to prevent Israel from transporting oil from the Sinai fields to Eilat . Historian Gammal Hammad claims that a blockade was also enforced in the Mediterranean , while other sources dispute this . News of the blockade was censored in Israel .
Aside from the blockade , the Egyptian Navy carried out several other missions . Coastal artillery at Port Said participated in the fire preparation by bombarding Fort Budapest and Fort Orkal , while coastal artillery at Suez hit targets opposite the Third Army . Missile boats bombarded Rumana and Ras Beyron on the Mediterranean , Ras Masala and Ras Sidr on the Gulf of Suez , and Sharm el Sheikh . Naval frogmen raided the oil installations at Bala 'eem , disabling the massive driller .
Several naval engagements took place between Egyptian and Israeli missile boats off the coast between Port Said and Damietta , including one on October 8 , when a flotilla of ten Israeli missile boats attempted to shell coastal targets along the Nile delta . Four Egyptian Osa class missile boats confronted six of them , leading to Battle of Baltim in which three of the Egyptian missile boats were sunk within forty minutes , with no Israeli casualties . Egypt claimed to have sunk four Israeli " targets " , three they believed to be motor torpedo boats and one missile boat .
According to Chaim Herzog , Israel responded with a naval blockade of Egypt which damaged the Egyptian economy . However , the sea routes to Egypt 's principal ports — Alexandria on the Mediterranean and Port Safaga on the Red Sea — remained secure and open to shipping for the duration of the war .
= = = October 7 = = =
In the early hours of Sunday October 7 , just after midnight , Egyptian infantry , now with tank support , advanced to expand their bridgeheads . Israeli armored formations had experienced heavy losses in trying repeatedly to reach the Bar Lev Line and were disorganized and confused . Many Israeli units , however , stubbornly resisted the Egyptian advance . Twice during the night of October 6 to October 7 , groups of tanks and infantry penetrated the bridgeheads to reach the canal line , where they managed to damage two bridges and destroy a number of ferries . Surrounded on all sides , however , these units were soon destroyed . Before sunrise the bridgeheads had reached a depth of 6 – 9 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 6 mi ) , and the attacking Israeli units retreated . With sufficient numbers of armor finally on the east bank , reinforcements of infantry began to cross . Dawn on October 7 saw a total of 50 @,@ 000 men ( around 10 @,@ 000 to each bridgehead ) and 400 Egyptian tanks occupying five bridgeheads in the Sinai across the Suez Canal . Egyptian forces reorganised and entrenched themselves in anticipation of Israeli counterattacks .
David Elazar continued to instruct Gonen to evacuate soldiers from strongpoints which were not yet surrounded , even though by October 7 most Israeli defences were encircled . Egyptian losses up to the morning of October 7 were only 280 killed and 20 tanks destroyed . Israeli losses were far heavier ; the brigade in the Bar Lev Line was completely surrounded and most of its men were casualties while 200 were captured . Armored losses were 200 – 300 tanks destroyed . One source puts the losses at roughly 200 by morning , but several battalion @-@ sized attacks to regain the forts around El @-@ Qantarah , and to reach some of the central and southern forts incurred further casualties with over 50 tanks being destroyed . In subsequent days some of the defenders in the Bar Lev Line managed to break though Egyptian forces and return to their lines , or were extracted by Israeli forces in counterattacks that came later on .
As the magnitude of Israeli losses became clear , Gonen made the decision at noon to form a defensive line on the Lateral Road , 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) east of the canal , and ordered his divisional commanders to deploy accordingly . At noon , elements of Abraham Adan 's 162nd Division and Ariel Sharon 's 143rd Division began to reach the fronts . Consequently , Gonen divided the front into three divisional commands : Adan was deployed in the northern sector , Sharon in the central sector , and Mandler in the southern sector .
Air strikes continued throughout the day , and Southern Command received optimistic reports during the afternoon from the IAF , which claimed seven bridges knocked out of action , with the remaining ones to be destroyed by evening . In fact , several of the bridges that had been destroyed were decoys . The real bridges meanwhile , had their damaged sections quickly repaired and returned to service . Ten heavy bridges had been laid during the crossing ( two bridges in the south were laid but not operational ) . Now , on October 7 , five of these bridges were removed and placed with the two already in reserve , leaving each division with one heavy bridge and one light bridge .
Egyptian forces widened their bridgeheads that day to narrow the 14 – 15 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 3 mi ) gaps between them . Meanwhile , General Headquarters worked on organizing its forces on the east bank . Egyptian troops had crossed with 24 @-@ hours ' worth of supplies . By Sunday it became necessary to resupply these forces , but administrative and supply units were in disarray , and to the south problems with laying the bridges further handicapped supply efforts there . October 7 offered a relative lull from the intense fighting that had taken place , allowing the Egyptians to organize battlefield administration . At 19th Division 's bridgehead to the south , all efforts to lay three bridges there were abandoned due to difficulties with the terrain . Instead , supplies and reinforcement destined for the division were transferred over 7th Division 's bridges to the north , where engineers were more successful in laying the bridges .
Fighting throughout the front did not cease entirely for the rest of the day , most of it taking part around the besieged Israeli defences and strongpoints that still resisted . Meanwhile , the Sa 'iqa units airdropped into Sinai the previous day began engaging Israeli reserves heading for the front . The main areas of operation were the central mountain passes , the northern coastal routes , and near the Gulf of Suez . One battalion , transported in 18 helicopters , captured the Ras Sidr Pass south of Port Tawfiq , near the Gulf of Suez . En route four helicopters were shot down , but the survivors , including 9 crewmen , managed to regroup with the rest of the battalion . It held its position for the remainder of the war under extremely difficult conditions , preventing Israeli reserves from using the pass to reach the front . Two companies attempted to establish themselves in central Sinai , between Tasa and Bir Gifgafa . Israeli air interdiction resulted in six helicopter making a forced landing after being hit , while two helicopters turned and withdrew . The forced landings incurred many casualties , particularly due to burns , and the survivors trekked their way back to friendly lines . Only four helicopters reached the designated landing zone , and they could not be flown once more , indicating the suicidal nature of these operations . Albeit a third of their original force , the Sa 'iqa managed to block Israeli reserves for over eight hours . Both companies were almost completely destroyed , suffering around 150 dead , including 15 officers . Israeli estimates claim to have downed between ten and twenty helicopters on the first day of the war .
In northern Sinai , a company established itself along the coastal road between Romani and Baluza on October 6 . The following day , it ambushed Colonel Natke Nir 's armored brigade , part of Adan 's division , destroying around 18 tanks along with other vehicles . The coastal road was blocked for over five hours . Airborne Israeli infantry was committed to support the armor , and in the ensuing battle , another 12 tanks and 6 half @-@ tracks were destroyed . Some 30 soldiers of the brigade were killed , while the Sa 'iqa company lost 75 dead . In addition to delaying Israeli reserves , commandos carried out sabotage operations .
The report cards for these operations are highly controversial . Some sources claim the commandos suffered immense casualties and were inneffectual . However , it is clear that these operations inflicted damage and caused confusion and anxiety among the Israelis , who diverted resources to counter these threats , while reservists were slowed down . One Israeli divisional commander also commended the Egyptian Sa 'iqa .
El @-@ Qantarah also saw heavy fighting as troops from the 18th Division engaged Israeli forces within and around the town . By early morning the division commander , Brigadier General Fuad ' Aziz Ghali , was able to set up his command post there . Close quarter combat and even hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting took place as the Egyptians cleared the ghost town building by building . Fighting was intense , and by the end of October 7 , the town and its outskirts as well as two nearby fortifications of the Bar Lev Line were under Egyptian control .
= = = = Israeli conference at Umm Hashiba = = = =
David Elazar , encouraged by reports of IAF successes , decided to visit Israeli Southern Command . He was accompanied by his aide , Colonel Avner Shalev and the former Israeli Chief of Staff , Yitzhak Rabin . Elazar arrived at Gonen 's advance command post at Gebel Umm Hashiba at 18 : 45 ; chief among those attending were Gonen , Adan and Mandler . Sharon only arrived after the meeting had been concluded .
At the conference , in light of the little information available on Egyptian dispositions and intentions , and due to a shortage of infantry and artillery , the commanders agreed they could not relieve the surrounded strongpoints on the canal in the near future . There was a general consensus to attack Egyptian forces throwing them off balance , but disagreed on how to do so . Southern Command expected to have 640 tanks on Monday October 8 , of which 530 tanks would be distributed among three divisions : 200 tanks under Adan , 180 under Sharon , and 150 under Mandler after part of his losses were replaced . Estimates put the number of Egyptian tanks at 400 , when there were in fact 800 tanks across the canal by Sunday evening . In light of the apparent superiority , Gonen recommended a frontal attack at night with Adan 's 162nd Division crossing to the west bank at El @-@ Qantarah and Sharon 's 143rd Division crossing into Suez City . Adan however , lacking infantry , urged a cautious approach until more reserves reached the front .
Elazar favored caution as well , and decided on a limited attack on the morning of October 8 . Adan would attack southward against Second Army , remaining 3 – 5 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 1 mi ) away from the canal to avoid Egyptian anti @-@ tank weaponry . Sharon would continue the southward probes towards Ismailia as his division moved into its sector , concentrating at Tasa to support Adan if needed . Kept open was the question of an Israeli counter @-@ crossing should such the Egyptians collapse under Israeli counterattacks . Should Adan succeed , Sharon would attack Third Army 's bridgehead in a manner similar to Adan , and then cross to the west bank . Mandler would remain on the defensive , organizing his division which had been mauled by the fighting , and was down to a few dozen tanks . Elazar clearly emphasized that no canal crossing and no attempt to reach the strongpoints would occur without his approval . The meeting ended at 22 : 00 .
Thereafter , Sharon arrived after missing the entire conference . Speaking with Gonen and the other commanders after Elazar had left , Sharon recommended an immediate assault to relieve the beleaguered strongpoints . Gonen pointed out that this had been the Israeli course of action for the past 14 – 16 hours , to no avail . However he did not reject Sharon outright , and indeed told him to prepare for such an attack , promising a final decision on the matter before 6 : 00 at dawn . Nevertheless , Sharon would conform to the original plan for a limited attack on the following day .
= = = October 8 = = =
The five division @-@ size bridgeheads consolidated themselves on Monday , October 8 into two army @-@ size bridgeheads : the Second Army with its three divisions occupied El @-@ Qantarah in the north to Deversoir in the south , while the Third Army with two divisions occupied the southern end of the Bitter Lakes to a point southeast of Port Tawfiq ( at the far end of the canal ) . These two bridgeheads incorporated a total of 90 @,@ 000 men and 980 tanks , dug in and entrenched . Each division deployed , in accordance with Operation Badr , two infantry brigades in its forward echelon , and one mechanized infantry brigade in the second echelon . In reserve was one armored brigade . The Egyptians had established anti @-@ tank defences along their lines employing Sagger ATGMs , RPGs , B @-@ 10 and B @-@ 11 anti tank recoilless rifles .
At dawn a friendly fire incident occurred as the 2nd and 16th Divisions in Second Army were closing the gap between their bridgeheads . While cresting a ridge , two tank platoons from either division confronted each other at 460 meters ( 1 @,@ 510 ft ) . The tank crews were so agitated that they opened fire immediately . Each platoon lost two of its three tanks to direct hits within minutes , and several men were killed .
Shazly visited the front in the early morning before the Israeli attack to form an assessment of the situation . He arrived at Second Army Headquarters where he was briefed on the situation , then went to 2nd Division 's advanced headquarters , where he met Brigadier General Hasan Abu Sa 'ada and visited the frontline troops . Many of the soldiers had not slept for two nights , but the successful crossing was a moral booster , a tonic as he described it .
Shazly then went southward to 7th Division 's bridgehead in Third Army 's sector , where traffic was almost at a standstill . Shazly met with 7th division commander Brigadier General Badawy , who informed him of the bridge @-@ laying problems experienced by 19th Division 's engineers further south , leading all Third Army supplies and reinforcements to be sent over 7th Division 's already congested bridges , creating a solid traffic jam . Despite Sunday 's lull , the situation had not yet improved . This created complications , as soldiers and tank crews lost contact with their units and consequently had no idea of their designated positions . Many troops were low on supplies , and some even returned to the west bank of the canal to replenish their food and water supply .
After conferring with the chief engineers of the Second and Third field armies , Shazly became aware that IAF , despite heavy losses , had destroyed so many bridge sections that the Egyptians had lost the equivalent of three heavy bridges , leaving four bridges in reserve along with the five already laid in the canal . This gave rise to concerns about supply in the coming days and weeks . Shazly then discussed the possibility of constructing three bridges in the canal using earth and sand . This would make causeways impregnable against air strikes and artillery . The chief engineer of the Third Army , with whom he discussed the idea , was confidant that , given enough bulldozers , the causeways could be constructed in one week .
= = = = Israeli counterattack = = = =
Shortly after midnight on October 8 , optimistic field reports expecting an imminent Egyptian collapse caused Gonen to alter plans for the attack . Adan would now attack in the direction of the strongpoints at Firdan and Ismailia . The change was not formulated on precise tactical intelligence , and would come to cause some confusion among Israeli commanders for the rest of the day .
Adan 's 162nd Armoured Division was deployed along the Baluza – Tasa road to the north . His division was composed of Colonel Natke Nir 's armored brigade with 71 tanks , Gabi Amir 's brigade with 50 M60 tanks , and Aryeh Keren 's brigade with 62 tanks ( still en route to the area ) for a total of 183 tanks . Adan still planned to avoid Egyptian anti @-@ tank weaponry by having Amir 's brigade move southward between Lexicon and Artillery roads ( the former road ran immediately alongside the canal , and the latter was 10 – 15 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 3 mi ) east of it ) , to reach a position that would link the brigade to the Hizayon strongpoint opposite Firdan and the Purkan strongpoint opposite Ismailia . Nir would move in a similar manner to link up with Purkan . Keren would move east of Artillery Road and position his brigade opposite the Matzmed strongpoint at the northern end of the Bitter Lakes . A mechanized infantry brigade with 44 Super Shermans was expected to join in the attack by late morning . Little or no air support would come for the attack ; the IAF was concentrated on the Syrian front .
At 07 : 53 , minutes before the Israeli attack was to commence , Israeli forces near El @-@ Qantarah became heavily engaged with a brigade composing the 18th Division 's right flank , as Egyptian troops sought to secure the town and its vicinity . Fuad , the division commander supported the brigade with two companies of T @-@ 62 tanks . To prevent Israeli forces in the area from being outflanked , Gonen ordered Nir to remain near El @-@ Qantarah to help contain the Egyptian attack . This left Adan with only 50 tanks under Amir 's command to carry out the attack .
Amir began the drive south at 08 : 06 , and was ordered to prepare to reach the strongpoints on Adan 's signal . Keren was still en route to the area . Once his brigade arrived he would conduct an assault against 16th Division 's bridgehead in the direction of Matzmed . However , Amir made an error in navigation , and instead of moving 3 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the canal , he moved along Artillery road , 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) away . Consequently , Amir would be forced to conduct a frontal assault in an east @-@ west direction instead of the north @-@ south flanking maneuver which Adan had planned .
Amir 's brigade began to reach the plain between Artillery Road and the Firdan bridge at 09 : 00 . So far no Egyptian resistance of any significance had been encountered . The brigade had the objective of attacking 2nd Division 's bridgehead . Abu Sa 'ada , the division commander , had the 24th Armored Brigade as the divisional reserve , but he could only commit it in case of an Israeli penetration . Gonen wanted Adan to reach the Hizayon strongpoint , and contacted Elazar in Tel Aviv at 09 : 55 to request a crossing of the canal . Gonen either downplayed or ignored negative reports and only told Elazar of positive developments . Elazar , who was at a meeting , communicated with Gonen through his assistant and approved of a crossing , also giving permission for Sharon 's division to move south .
At 10 : 40 , Gonen ordered Adan to cross to the west bank and Sharon to move towards Suez City . Short of forces , Adan requested that Sharon send a battalion to protect his southern flank . Gonen consented , but Sharon would not comply , and consequently several critical positions would be lost to the Egyptians later on .
Just before the assault commenced , one of Amir 's battalions disengaged to restock on ammunition and fuel . The other battalion proceeded with the assault at 11 : 00 . Some 25 tanks carried out an assault planned to be performed by 121 tanks . The Israelis broke through the first Egyptian troops and advanced to within 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) of the canal . At this point the Israelis came under heavy fire from anti @-@ tank weaponry , artillery and tanks . The battalion lost 18 tanks within minutes , and most of its commanders were either killed or wounded .
By now Nir had disengaged at El @-@ Qantarah , leaving a battalion behind , and arrived opposite the Firdan bridge at 12 : 30 with two tank battalions . While Amir and Nir discussed plans for an attack , Keren arrived and Adan ordered him to support Nir and Amir by attacking towards Purkan . Meanwhile , Sharon left Tasa and headed for Suez City , leaving a single reconnaissance company to hold vital ridges such as Hamadia and Kishuf , but not the hills to the north , such as Hamutal . Instead , Keren 's brigade gained responsibility for these areas , but Sharon 's action further endangered Adan 's position .
Amir 's brigade was now down to one battalion , which was to attack with Nir 's brigade of 50 tanks . To Amir 's surprise , a reserve armored battalion of 25 tanks commanded by Colonel Eliashiv Shemshi arrived in the area , en route to Keren 's brigade . Short of forces , Amir , with Adan 's approval , commandeered Shemshi 's battalion , and ordered him to provide covering fire for Nir 's assault on the Firdan bridge .
At around 13 : 00 , a recon group from 2nd Division discovered around 75 tanks concentrating north east of the bridgehead . Ten minutes later the Egyptians intercepted a radio signal in Hebrew . Nir was informing his command that he was ready to attack within twenty minutes . With little time left , Abu Sa 'ada decided to take a risky move . Estimating , correctly , that the attack would come be directed between his two forward brigades , the weakest point in his lines , Abu Sa 'ada planned to draw Israeli forces into his bridgehead to within three kilometers of the canal before engaging them from all sides , committing all his anti @-@ tank reserves . At 13 : 30 , the attack was carried out by Amir and Nir 's brigades . A lack of coordination and communication difficulties between both brigades hampered the attack . Nir 's two battalions attacked at the same time in two echelons . The Egyptians allowed the Israelis to advance , then encircled them . When the attackers entered the prepared killing zone , Egyptian armor of the 24th Brigade opened fire on the advancing tanks , complemented by infantry anti @-@ tank weapons on either flank of the Israeli forces , while tank hunting detachments attacked from the rear . Within just 13 minutes , most of the Israeli force was destroyed — the Egyptians destroyed over 50 tanks and captured eight intact . Among the captured were Lieutenant Colonel Asaf Yaguri , a battalion commander , whose unit lost 32 killed . By the end of the attack Nir had just four operational tanks remaining , including his own . Gabi Amir 's battalion , attacking to Nir 's right , was forced to halt his advance after encountering stiff resistance . Amir requested air support several times , but did not receive any .
= = = = Egyptian advance = = = =
Operation Badr called for an enlargement of the bridgeheads on October 8 . To accomplish this , each of the five infantry divisions had to reorganize its forces . Mechanized infantry brigades in the second echelon of divisional lines were to advance between the two forward infantry brigades . Thus the mechanized brigade would form the first line , the two infantry brigades would form the second line , and the reserve armored brigade would constitute a third echelon .
During the afternoon of the 8th , Egyptian artillery barrages and air strikes took place along the entire front against opposing Israeli forces . The Israelis , who believed they were on the counter @-@ offensive , were surprised at the sight of advancing Egyptian troops . Not all advancing Egyptian units managed to reach the 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) mark necessary to control Artillery Road , but each division held positions more than 9 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) deep . In Second Army 's sector , the 16th Infantry Division was the most successful by occupying the strategic positions of Mashchir , Televiza , Missouri and Hamutal after fighting that lasted between 2 : 00 and 4 : 30 PM . Hamutal was 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from the canal and overlooked the juncture of Ismailia and Artillery Roads . Brigadier General ' Adil Yusri lost his leg while commanding his brigade 's attack on these positions . The deepest penetration was in Third Army 's sector , where the bridgehead reached a depth of nearly 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) . The Egyptians also captured several additional Bar Lev forts .
The Israelis now made an attempt to regain the lost ground . Keren 's brigade organized for an assault on Hamutal Hill . One battalion provided covering fire , while two battalions under Lieutenant Colonels Dan Spair and Amir ( not to be confused with the brigade commander Gabi Amir ) attacked with 27 tanks . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) from Egyptian positions , Dan Sapir was killed when his tank took a direct hit , disrupting his battalion 's attack . Amir 's battalion continued fighting until dusk after losing seven tanks .
Gonen , starting to realise the gravity of Adan 's position , ordered Sharon at 14 : 45 to pull back and return to his initial positions . The Erez Armored Brigade arrived to offer assistance to Keren , but poor coordination between the commanders led to the failure of further attempts to capture Hamutal Hill . By the end of the day Adan 's division alone had lost around 100 tanks .
= = Aftermath = =
Operation Badr was the opening battle of the Yom Kippur War in the Sinai , and the first major Arab victory against the Israelis in years .
By repelling a division @-@ sized counterattack on October 8 , and establishing bridgeheads on the east bank to a depth of around 15 kilometers , the Egyptians had accomplished the objectives of Operation Badr . At the start of the war , U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger believed that the better @-@ equipped Israelis would secure victory within a few days , and thus tried to delay a ceasefire in the United Nations Security Council . The counterattack on October 8 however , came against American expectations . Kissinger was taken aback when told of the extent of Israel 's losses on the morning of October 9 by Israeli Ambassador Simcha Dinitz , and asked " Explain to me , how could 400 tanks be lost to the Egyptians ? " Dinitz may have threatened Kissinger with the use of nuclear weapons against Egypt and Syria in order to underline the urgency of Israel 's situation and push the U.S. into initiating an airlift to replace Israel 's losses . Later that day Kissinger relayed U.S. President Richard Nixon 's decision to initiate Operation Nickel Grass — which aimed to replace all of Israel 's material losses — to Dinitz .
The prevailing view of Kissinger and many IDF officers on the Sinai Front was that the tide would quickly turn in their favor . The course of combat on October 8 thus came as a shock . At the end of the day Gonen , commented " It 's not the Egyptian Army of 1967 . " In a press conference at night on October 8 , not knowing that the counteroffensive had been defeated , Elazar claimed that the destruction of the Egyptian Army was underway , and that the IDF would soon " break their [ the Arabs military personnel 's ] bones . " He would later regret these statements . Israeli commanders began to doubt Gonen 's ability . In a meeting with Israeli commanders after midnight on October 9 , Elazar decided to suspend offensive operations until the Syrians had been neutralized , especially since there were just 400 tanks left in the Sinai . Disregarding this new order , Sharon division mounted a major brigade @-@ sized attack the following day . Despite initial successes , the Israelis had been repulsed by the end of the day with no gains , losing around 60 tanks in the process . Gonen was furious at Sharon , not only because of his violation of the decision to remain on the defensive , but also because he had repeatedly disobeyed direct orders from Gonen on a number of occasions . Elazar was equally livid , but rather than remove Sharon , an insubordinate but innovative commander with political connection to the opposition party , Elazar decided to replace Gonen , who had proven to be out of his depth , inept at being an operational commander . Former Chief of Staff Chaim Bar @-@ Lev was brought out of retirement to replace Gonen . To avoid the appearance of firing him , Gonen was retained as deputy to Bar @-@ Lev by Elazar . By October 10 , the front settled into a stalemate .
The success achieved by Operation Badr surprised Egyptian commanders , whose confidence soared . Sadat came under pressure to press the offensive towards the Sinai Passes , but remained unyielding , holding to the original goal of waging a limited war . Ahmed Ismail and Shazly were also on par with Sadat 's opinion . However , appeals from the Syrians , whose situation was desperate by October 9 , ultimately forced Sadat to change his mind for political reasons , against the protests of his commanders . Consequently , Egypt would lose the initiative to Israel when it launched its unsuccessful attack eastwards on October 14 .
= = = Political impact = = =
Soon after the war , many Israelis demanded an impartial inquiry to investigate what became known as the machdal ( the blunder ) , with a focus on the shortcomings of the government and the army , particularly their lack of preparedness for the attack and its ramifications . Golda Meir finally agreed to the formation of the Agranat Commission towards the end of November 1973 . War veterans and members of the public attacked Meir and Moshe Dayan , while Israeli generals criticised one another 's performance .
While Meir and the Israeli Labor Party won the elections held in late @-@ December , the release of the Agranat Commission 's findings in April 1974 and its failure to accuse the nation 's political leadership of any shortcomings — while recommending the dismissal of several senior officers — led to widespread public outrage . Meir resigned in response to public criticism , but Dayan remained steadfast . Eventually , the 1977 elections saw the end of Labor Party 's unchallenged reign over Israeli politics with the election of Menachem Begin and the Likud Party .
The 1973 war convinced the Israelis of the necessity of negotiations with the Arabs . This unprecedented willingness , coupled with Sadat 's diplomatic initiatives and intercession by the United States to break barriers of mistrust between Egypt and Israel , made possible the long series of discussions between both nations . The negotiations ultimately resulted in the 1978 Camp David Agreements , and the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel in 1979 . Thus , without resorting to another major war , Sadat had been able to regain the Sinai through diplomatic means .
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= Sorga Ka Toedjoe =
Sorga Ka Toedjoe ( [ ˈsɔrɡa kə ˈtudʒu ] ; vernacular Malay for Seventh Heaven ; also advertised under the Dutch title In Den Zevenden Hemel ) is a 1940 film from the Dutch East Indies ( present @-@ day Indonesia ) directed by Joshua and Othniel Wong for Tan 's Film . It follows an older couple ( Kartolo and Annie Landouw ) who are reunited after years of separation by another , younger couple ( Roekiah and Djoemala ) . The black @-@ and @-@ white film , the first production by Tan 's Film after the departure of Rd Mochtar , featured kroncong music and was targeted at lower @-@ class native audiences . It was a commercial and critical success . Roekiah and Djoemala took leading roles in three more films before Tan 's closed in 1942 . Sorga Ka Toedjoe is now thought lost .
= = Plot = =
Rasminah ( Roekiah ) is living with her blind aunt Hadidjah ( Annie Landouw ) in Puncak , a village south @-@ east of Buitenzorg ( now Bogor ) . Hadidjah has been separated from her husband , Kasimin , for several years , ever since she accused him of adultery . Although she regretted the incident almost immediately , it was too late ; a corpse resembling Kasimin was found floating in a river , and in her hurry to see the body Hadidjah was struck by a car , blinding her . Now she sings the kroncong song " Sorga Ka Toedjoe " , which Kasimin declared to be a symbol of his love , at 5 p.m. every day . Unknown to Hadidjah , Kasimin ( Kartolo ) is alive and well ; he also sings " Sorga Ka Toedjoe " every day at the same time .
Following an encounter with the rich and detestable Parta , who intends to take her as his second wife , Rasminah goes to the nearby city of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) to find a job . Several days later , having found work , she returns to Puncak to pick up Hadidjah and take her to Batavia . However , Parta and his cohort Doel are waiting in ambush . When Rasminah 's carriage is stuck in a rut , the two begin to chase after her . Rasminah runs into the woods and , after several close calls , finds shelter in a small house . There she rests the night , without seeing the owner .
The following morning , Rasminah is awakened by the sound of a guitar , played by the house 's owner , Hoesin ( Djoemala ) . Afraid that he is collaborating with Parta , she sneaks outside , only to be confronted by Parta and Doel . Retreating , she is chased by the pair . Hoesin intervenes and , after a fierce fight , defeats the two and chases them away . He then reassures Rasminah and escorts her home .
Over the following days Hoesin repeatedly visits Rasminah , and slowly the two begin to fall in love . When Rasminah takes her aunt to Batavia to live , Hoesin follows . They begin discussing their future together , but Rasminah insists that she will only marry when her aunt is reunited with Kasimin . After a lengthy search , in which he almost gives up hope , Hoesin finds Kasimin at a small plantation in the hills outside of the city – Hadidjah 's long @-@ lost husband previously operated his own orchard , but had been evicted by a conniving and greedy landlord only days before . Kasimin and Hadidjah are reunited , allowing Hoesin and Rasminah to begin their own preparations .
= = Production = =
Sorga Ka Toedjoe was directed by brothers Joshua and Othniel Wong for Tan 's Film , a company owned by the ethnic Chinese brothers Khoen Yauw and Khoen Hian . The Tan brothers , who owned a pair of cinemas , had been active in the industry since Njai Dasima in 1929 . The Wongs had worked for Tan 's since 1938 , when they directed the hit film Fatima , helping to reestablish the company after it had been dissolved in 1932 . Sorga Ka Toedjoe was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , with some scenes filmed at Telaga Warna , near Buitenzorg .
The film starred Roekiah , Rd Djoemala , Kartolo , and Annie Landouw and featured Titing , Ismail , and Ramli . Roekiah had regularly been paired on @-@ screen with Rd . Mochtar – despite being married to Kartolo – beginning with Terang Boelan . In 1938 the three had come to Tan 's , where they acted together in three films beginning with Fatima . However , after a wage dispute following Siti Akbari ( 1940 ) , Mochtar left the company . To replace him , Tan 's hired the tailor Djoemala as Roekiah 's romantic foil . Sorga Ka Toedjoe was their first film together .
Kartolo handled the film 's music , and many of the cast had experience singing kroncong ( traditional music with Portuguese influences ) . Before making their feature film debut in Albert Balink 's Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ; 1937 ) , Roekiah and Kartolo had found popularity with the stage musical troupe Palestina . Landouw had been a kroncong singer with Hugo Dumas ' Lief Java orchestra , and Titing was likewise an established singer .
= = Release and reception = =
Sorga Ka Toedjoe had its Surabaya premiere on 30 October 1940 , one of fourteen domestic productions released that year . By March 1941 it had reached Singapore , then part of the Straits Settlements . As with all of Tan 's productions , the film was targeted at lower @-@ class native audiences of all ages . It was advertised , sometimes under the Dutch title In Den Zevenden Hemel , as a " simple yet compelling film " which featured " good music , catchy songs , and beautiful scenery " . A novelisation of the film was released by the Yogyakarta @-@ based publisher Kolff @-@ Buning and included several production stills .
The film was a commercial success . Reviews were likewise positive . The Soerabaijasch Handelsblad gave the film high praise , stating that it had good dialogue and music as well as a " well chosen , romantic and not exaggerated " theme . According to the reviewer , Sorga Ka Toedjoe seemed to have been inspired by American films but still showed its Indies character . The reviewer also opined that Djoemala was as good as , if not better , than Mochtar . De Indische Courant praised the scenery and noted that the film criticised rich landlords who abused their power , while the Singapore Free Press praised Roekiah 's acting .
= = Legacy = =
After Sorga Ka Toedjoe , Tan 's Film produced a further four films , a much lower number than its competitors such as The Teng Chun 's Java Industrial Film and its subsidiaries . Three of these productions starred Roekiah and Djoemala in the leading roles , and featured Kartolo . Landouw , according to JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) , did not make another film . Tan 's was ultimately shut down in 1942 , following the Japanese occupation of the Indies .
The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , Kristanto records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Battle of Flores ( 1592 ) =
The Battle of Flores ( 1592 ) , also known as Cruising Voyage to the Azores of 1592 , or the Capture of the Madre de Deus describes a series of naval engagements that took place from 20 May to 19 August 1592 , during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War . The battle was part of an expedition by an English fleet initially led by Sir Walter Raleigh , and then by Martin Frobisher and John Burrough . The expedition involved the capture of a number of Portuguese and Spanish ships including the large Portuguese carrack Madre de Deus , after a long naval battle off the island of Flores in the Azores . The expedition , particularly the capture of the great carrack , was a financial and military success . The rich cargo aboard the carrack , which at the time equaled nearly half the size of the Kingdom of England 's royal annual revenue , was subject to mass theft when it arrived in Dartmouth , England , followed by quarrels over the shares of the prize . The expedition had formative consequences for the English both financially and on the future of English exploration .
= = Background = =
By virtue of the Iberian Union that joined the crowns of Portugal and Spain in 1580 , the Anglo @-@ Portuguese Treaty of 1373 had fallen in abeyance . As the Anglo – Spanish War was ongoing , Portuguese shipping was a fair target for the Royal Navy . Sir Walter Raleigh , having only just been released from the Tower of London , received a commission from Queen Elizabeth I for an expedition to the West Indies . He outfitted a sixteen ship naval squadron of which two , the Garland and Foresight belonged to the Queen .
= = = Expedition = = =
The expedition was a private venture much like the Drake @-@ Norris expedition , supported by limited assistance and subsidies from the crown . Its objective was to pillage Spanish and Portuguese ships within the Atlantic , off the Spanish coast or within the Caribbean and to make a profit from which the Queen 's portion would amount to a large sum .
Raleigh appointed Burrough as his vice @-@ admiral and was joined in commission with Frobisher , who had knowledge of maritime affairs . George Clifford , the Earl of Cumberland had the largest stake in the expedition and helped Raleigh to finance and gather the fleet . The majority of the fleet were owned by investors ; the ship Dainty for example was owned by John Hawkins , but was captained by John Norton . The fleet included notables such as William Monson , Robert Crosse , captain of the Foresight , Samuel Purchas , Richard Hawkins and Christopher Newport , captain of the Golden Dragon .
The expedition launched from Dartmouth , setting sail on 6 May 1592 after delays due to bad weather . The planned voyage to the West Indies was put on hold as supplies had already been depleted during the delay . Instead the fleet intended to head towards the Azores to intercept a Spanish treasure fleet or Portuguese carracks heading homeward from the East Indies . Initially Raleigh commanded , but on the following day , 7 May , the fleet was overtaken by Frobisher in the pinnace Disdain . Raleigh was given letters from the Queen ordering his immediate recall to England , and thus Frobisher took command . On 11 May a storm struck just off Cape Finisterre , scattering the majority of the fleet ; three small ships were sunk and Garland very nearly foundered .
Nearing Cape St Vincent on the Portuguese coast , the fleet split into two sections as ordered by Raleigh . One , under Burrough , headed to the Azores to lie in wait for Spanish and Portuguese ships . The other , under Frobisher in Garland with Clifford , cruised off Cape St. Vincent with the strategy to pin the Spanish fleet against their own lee coast .
= = = First engagements = = =
The fleet sailed further south , and by the end of May encountered the Santa Clara , an armed , 600 @-@ ton Spanish galleon , just off Cape St. Vincent . The English captured the ship after heavy resistance , taking whatever goods the Spanish had failed to retrieve from her burnt @-@ out hull . She was carrying a large amount of ironware valued at £ 7 @,@ 000 and was sailing to Sanlúcar de Barrameda where further freight was destined for the West Indies . With the capture , the fleet separated , leaving the prize and goods in the hands of Frobisher and Clifford .
As the fleet continued south from the Cape in early June , Burrough in the Roebuck took a Spanish flyboat after a long chase that brought him near the Spanish coast . The flyboat 's master revealed that a great fleet was prepared at Cadiz and Sanlúcar de Barrameda . Having received intelligence that Raleigh was fitted out with a strong force for the West Indies , Philip II of Spain had provided a large fleet to oppose Raleigh and to escort the rich East India carracks to port . Don Alonso de Bazán , brother to the Marquis of Santa Cruz and Captain General of the Armada , was to pursue and intercept Raleigh 's fleet . As Burrough 's men were burning the flyboat , part of the Spanish fleet was spotted , and Burrough , having rejoined his own fleet , soon sailed to the Azores .
Further north off Portugal , Frobisher 's position became untenable , although he captured a prize fresh from Brazil laden with sugar heading to Lisbon on 18 June and a few days later captured a Spanish caravel . Frobisher 's group returned to England from Cape St. Vincent having missed Alvaro de Bazán 's fleet further south .
= = Battle = =
Burrough did not have to wait long : on 25 June his scout ships spotted a large vessel approaching them near Corvo Island , the northernmost of the Azores .
= = = Santa Cruz = = =
The vessel , the 800 @-@ ton Portuguese carrack Santa Cruz , was pursued by three of Cumberland 's ships . A storm arrived and forced the English away from the lee shore , but Santa Cruz was beached on the coast of Corvo . The following morning , once the storm had passed , the Portuguese who had disembarked set up entrenchments nearby , taking off the cargo and burning the vessel . Burrough immediately dispatched 100 soldiers who waded ashore and easily dispersed those who guarded the shore ; after some resistance the site was captured , and the Portuguese fled . The cargo burnt inside the ship although some was salvaged by the English . Prisoners were taken , including the ship 's purser and two foreign gunners . Under threat of torture they confessed that within fifteen days , three other carracks would arrive at the island . The fleet of five carracks had departed from Goa and were headed for Lisbon and consisted of the Santa Cruz , Buen Jesus admiral , Madre de Deus , San Bernardo , and San Christophoro . Madre de Deus was the largest of the fleet , a thirty @-@ two gun vessel of 1 @,@ 600 tons and was one of the Portuguese crown 's greatest and one of the largest sailing ships ever built .
With the news , the English ships waited and raided the villages on Corvo for supplies . For the month of July the English ships formed a picket line spaced about six miles apart along a north / south axis . From the southern flank near Flores Island , the order of ships was Dainty , Golden Dragon , Roebuck , Tiger , Sampson , Prudence and Foresight . The Spanish fleet , which had been sighted briefly , seemed no longer a threat ; Alvaro de Bazan had made a major miscalculation : he disobeyed orders and headed further west , allowing the English to first reach the area of interception .
= = = Madre de Deus = = =
On 3 August Dainty sighted a large ship heading directly towards them and as it drew nearer , its enormous size became apparent . The carrack was far larger than Santa Cruz , fully three times the size of England 's biggest ship . Madre de Deus was attacked by the much smaller Dainty . Around midday Newport 's Golden Dragon , followed by Roebuck - bigger than Dainty , but only a fraction of the Madre , joined the fray . These were followed at two @-@ hour intervals by Foresight and Prudence in the evening . The Dainty had her foremast shot away and was out of the battle for five hours .
The English hoped to avoid sinking their opponent and to prevent her from running aground . The damage on Madre de Deus 's defences was becoming serious . With her bow rigging all but disabled , Burrough sent Roebuck which then crashed into Madre de Deus , followed by Foresight . Both moved directly under her main guns . The English boarded her in the dark at 10 pm . Golden Dragon , Sampson and Tiger and the repaired Dainty came up in support . The English took the ship after a bloody hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat .
The bloody decks of Madre De Deus were strewn with bodies , especially around the helm . The carrack was nearly destroyed when a cabin full of cartridges caught fire , and only quick English action saved the prize . Burrough spared Captain Fernão de Mendonça and the rest of the wounded , sending them ashore . Burrough was trying to keep his own Roebuck afloat , as it had sustained damage when it crashed into Madre . Only when Burrough came aboard and claimed the prize in the name of the Queen did pillaging stop . Sailors were stripped of " stolen " goods ; however , this proved only temporary .
The carrack was quickly repaired , heavily guarded by all ships , and the expedition set sail for England . Bazan now closed in on the English but he was too late ; for a hundred leagues he pursued the English in vain before returning to Spain . The fleet reached the English Channel in early September without incident .
= = Aftermath = =
As the fleet sailed back to England , Burrough produced an inventory - the report mentions
" Gods great favor towards our nation , who by putting this purchase into our hands hath manifestly discovered those secret trades & Indian riches , which hitherto lay strangely hidden , and cunningly concealed from us " .
Among these riches were chests filled with jewels and pearls , gold and silver coins , ambergris , bolts of the highest @-@ quality cloth , fine tapestries , 425 tons of pepper , 45 tons of cloves , 35 tons of cinnamon , 3 tons of mace and 3 of nutmeg , 2 @.@ 5 tons of benjamin ( a highly aromatic balsamic resin used for perfumes and medicines ) , 25 tons of the precious red dye cochineal and 15 tons of ebony.An inventory was taken :
" spices , drugs , silks , calicos , quilts , carpets and colors , & c . The spices were pepper , cloves , maces , nutmegs , cinnamon and greene ginger : the drugs were benjamin , frankincense , Galangal , mirabilis , aloes zocotrina , camphire : the silks , damasks , taffatas , alto bassos , that is , counterfeit , cloth of gold , unwrought China silk , sleeved silk , white twisted silk , curled cypresse . The calicos were book @-@ calicos , calico @-@ launes , broad white calicos , fine starched calicoes , course white calicos , brown broad calicos , brown course calicos . There were also canopies , and course diapertowels , quilts of course sarcenet and of calico , carpets like those of Turky ; whereunto are to be added the pearl , muske , civet , and amber @-@ griece . The rest of the wares were many in number , but less in value ; as elephants teeth , porcelain vessels of China , coco @-@ nuts , hides , ebenwood as black as jet , bested of the same , cloth of the rind 's of trees very strange for the matter , and artificial in workmanship " .
There was also a rutter and a document , printed at Macau in 1590 , containing valuable information on the China and Japan trade ; Hakluyt observed that it was " enclosed in a case of sweet Cedar wood , and lapped up almost an hundredfold in fine Calicut @-@ cloth , as though it had been some incomparable jewel " .
Madre de Deus entered Dartmouth harbor on 7 September , towering over the other ships and the town 's small houses as it sailed by . The only vessel guarding the great ship was Roebuck , as the other vessels had slipped off to Portsmouth to sell off some of the plunder . Nothing like Madre had ever been seen in England - the frame from the beakhead to the stern was 165 feet long . The breadth at the broadest deck , was just over 46 feet and her draft was twenty @-@ six feet at her arrival in Dartmouth . Her several decks ; consisted of a main orlop , three main decks , and a forecastle and a spar deck of two floors each . The length of the keel was 100 feet , the main @-@ mast was 121 feet , and its circumference at the partners was just over ten feet . The main @-@ yard was 106 feet long .
= = = Mass theft = = =
Madre de Deus attracted all manner of traders , dealers , cutpurses and thieves from miles around , from as far as London and beyond . At seeing this huge vessel , pandemonium broke out amongst the townspeople ; they visited the floating castle and sought out drunken sailors in taverns and pubs , buying , stealing , pinching and fighting for the takings . Local fishermen as well ventured aboard , further depleting the cargo .
English law at the time provided that a large share of the loot was owed to the sovereign . When Queen Elizabeth discovered the extent of the theft , she sent Raleigh to reclaim her money and punish the looters . He swore , " If I meet any of them coming up , if it be upon the wildest heath in all the way , I mean to strip them as naked as they were ever born , for Her Majesty has been robbed and that of the most rare things . " By the time Raleigh had restored order , a cargo estimated at half a million pounds nearly , almost half the wealth of the English treasury at the time and perhaps the second @-@ largest treasure ever after the Ransom of Atahualpa , had been reduced to £ 140 @,@ 000 . Still , ten freighters were needed to carry the treasure around the coast and up the River Thames to London . In all the expedition as a whole yielded Elizabeth a 20 @-@ fold return on her investment .
Both Burrough and Clifford however were disappointed in what they were given and they and other investors contested their share . Clifford received nothing , although as special compensation , the queen allotted him a sum in consideration of his money venture . For Burrough there was no compensation , and bitter quarrels continued , leading to a fatal duel two years later .
= = Consequences = =
Alonso de Bazan , despite having a greater fleet , failed to intercept any English ship , lost two large carracks and was disgraced by the King of Spain for his negligence . By contrast the English learned that the fleet should not divide itself as had been done before capturing Madre de Deus , making a more effective force . When later ships were brought into the Thames for unloading , the dockers were made to dress in " suits of canvas doublet without pockets " to reduce opportunities for theft .
The taste of the riches of the East galvanized English interest in the region . Madre de Deus 's rutter from Macau was a forerunner to voyages that would end up establishing the East India Company in 1600 . By 1603 the newly formed company itself would end up with a trading factory at Bantam .
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= Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow =
Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow , released in Japan as Castlevania : Akatsuki no Enbukyoku ( キャッスルヴァニア ～ 暁月の円舞曲 ～ , " Castlevania : Minuet of Dawn " ) , is a side @-@ scrolling platforming video game developed and published by Konami for the Game Boy Advance . It is the third and final installment of the Castlevania series on the Game Boy Advance and was released in North America on May 6 , 2003 and in Japan on May 8 , 2003 . Producer Koji Igarashi , who had led the production teams for previous Castlevania titles , led Aria of Sorrow 's development as well . Michiru Yamane also returned to compose the music for the game alongside Takashi Yoshida and Soshiro Hokkai . Director Junichi Murakami was new to the Castlevania series .
Aria of Sorrow is set in the year 2035 , when Dracula has long been sealed away after a battle in 1999 . The plot follows the journey of Soma Cruz , a teenager granted occult power as a result of being a potential vessel of Dracula 's reincarnation , as he battles dark figures that wish to inherit the undead lord 's power . The game incorporates the same combination of elements from platform games and role @-@ playing video games as in the previous game Castlevania : Symphony of the Night . Aria of Sorrow introduces several new features to the series , such as the " Tactical Soul " system and employs a futuristic storyline in contrast to the medieval setting of many other Castlevania games .
Although Aria of Sorrow sold poorly in Japan , selling only 27 @,@ 000 units nearly one month after its release , it was commercially successful in the United States , with more than 158 @,@ 000 units sold in the three months following its release . Aria of Sorrow received praise from several video game publications , with some considering it one of the best games in the Castlevania series since Symphony of the Night . Konami released a sequel to Aria of Sorrow , titled Castlevania : Dawn of Sorrow , on August 25 , 2005 in Japan . It incorporated many elements from its predecessor , including the " Tactical Soul " system . Aria of Sorrow was re @-@ released as part of Konami 's " Konami the Best " line on November 3 , 2005 in Japan , and in a dual pack with Harmony of Dissonance , titled the Castlevania Double Pack , in North America on January 11 , 2006 .
= = Gameplay = =
Aria of Sorrow features a 2D side @-@ scrolling style of gameplay where the player controls the onscreen character from a third @-@ person perspective to interact with people , objects , and enemies . Like previous games in the series and most role @-@ playing games , characters level up each time they earn a set number of experience points from defeating enemies ; each " level " gained increases the character 's statistics , thus improving their performance in battle . Statistic examples include hit points , the amount of damage a character can receive ; magic points , which determine the number of times a character can use magical attacks ; strength , the power of a character 's physical attacks ; and intelligence , the power of a character 's magical spells . Upon encountering an enemy , the player can use a variety of weapons to attack and defeat the enemy . Despite the game being set in 2035 , the available weapons are largely medieval , including swords , axes , and spears ; though a handgun is available . These weapons differ in their damage output , the range of the weapon , and the speed of the attack . Items and other accessories can be found by defeating enemies or by purchasing items from the game 's shop .
Similar to previous games in the series , Aria of Sorrow is set within Dracula 's castle , which is further subdivided into several areas that the player traverses . These areas feature different components , such as different enemies , varying terrain characteristics , and a unique piece of theme music . Similar to most platform games , progression between areas is limited by the abilities the player currently has . While the method in which the player progresses through the game is initially linear , the player 's options become more diverse as the number of character abilities increases .
= = = Tactical Soul = = =
Aria of Sorrow introduces a new ability system , Tactical Soul system , to the Castlevania series . It involves absorbing the souls of enemies in order to gain additional abilities . Except for human enemies and the game 's final opponent , all souls can be absorbed by the player . The rate at which enemies ' souls are obtained varies between enemies . Players can trade souls between two Aria of Sorrow cartridges using two Game Boy Advance consoles and a link cable .
Souls provide a variety of effects , and are separated into four categories : Bullet , Guardian , Enchant , and Ability souls . The player can only have one type of Bullet , Guardian , and Enchant soul equipped at any given time . Bullet souls are Soma Cruz 's replacement for Sub Weapons in this game , and enable the player to consume a set amount of magic points to use an ability , often some form of projectile . Guardian souls provide continuous effects , including transforming into mythical creatures and summoning familiars . Guardian souls continually drain magic points so long as they are activated . Enchant souls are continuously active so long as they are equipped , and provide increases in statistics or other innate abilities — such as the ability to walk on water . Ability souls give the player innate abilities , which are often required to traverse certain areas of the castle . Because the souls are automatically activated and stay active unless the player specifically disables them , they do not consume magic points .
= = = Additional modes = = =
Aria of Sorrow includes additional modes of play that display elements not seen in the game 's primary scenario . The New Game + option allows a player that has completed the game to replay the game with all equipment and souls the player had acquired in a previous file . Additionally , the player can opt to start the game in Hard Mode , offering the same gameplay at a higher difficulty level . Two other modes offer alternatives to the standard gameplay . Boss Rush mode involves the player facing all of the game 's bosses in quick succession , and is unlocked after the player completes the game once . Julius Mode is an additional mode of play unlocked with the same method . The player takes control of Julius Belmont , the member of the Belmont clan featured in the game .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Aria of Sorrow takes place in the fictional universe of the Castlevania series . The series ' premise is the conflict between the vampire hunters of the Belmont clan and the immortal vampire Dracula . Thirty @-@ six years before the start of Aria of Sorrow , Dracula was defeated once and for all by the Belmont clan , and his powers sealed into a solar eclipse . Shortly after Dracula 's death , a prophecy was made that Dracula 's reincarnation would come to his castle in 2035 and inherit all of Dracula 's powers . This prophecy acts as the driving force behind the plot of Aria of Sorrow , and is the primary motivation of the supporting characters to be present . The game takes place in Dracula 's castle , the most common setting for the series , with the castle divided into numerous areas that the player traverses over the course of the game .
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist and primary playable character of Aria of Sorrow is Soma Cruz , a transfer student studying in Japan who possesses the " power of dominance " , which allows him to absorb the souls of monsters and use their abilities . He is initially accompanied by his childhood friend , Mina Hakuba , the daughter of the priest of the Hakuba shrine . Over the course of the game , Soma meets additional characters that aid him in his quest : Genya Arikado , an enigmatic government agent and disguise for Alucard , the son of Dracula ; Yoko Belnades , a witch and member of the Belnades clan ; J , an amnesiac man drawn to Dracula 's castle ; and Hammer , a soldier of the United States Army ordered to investigate the events occurring at Dracula 's castle , although he abandons this mission and sets up a shop to sell Soma equipment ( potions , weapons and the like ) . Graham Jones , a missionary who believes he is Dracula 's reincarnation , serves as the game 's antagonist .
The characters were designed by Ayami Kojima , who had previously worked on the characters in Castlevania games such as Castlevania : Symphony of the Night and Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance . Due to the game being set in the future , Kojima 's designs are notably more contemporary , utilizing modern clothing , in contrast to the medieval attire that characters from previous games wore .
= = = Story = = =
The story begins in the year 2035 , when Soma Cruz is visiting Japan as a transfer student and living near the Hakuba shrine . During a solar eclipse , he visits the Hakuba shrine with his childhood friend Mina Hakuba . He and Mina are then drawn into the eclipse , landing in a mysterious castle , where they meet a government agent named Genya Arikado . Arikado reveals that they are in Dracula 's castle . After a group of monsters appear and are dispatched by Arikado , one of the monsters ' souls is absorbed by Soma . Arikado explains this as the awakening of Soma 's " power of dominance " . Arikado then directs Soma to enter the castle and seek " the master 's chamber " .
As Soma proceeds through the castle , he confronts several characters , each present due to a prophecy related to Dracula 's powers . Graham Jones , a missionary that has come to the castle , befriends Soma . Graham explains the nature of the castle and reveals that Dracula , long thought to be immortal , was destroyed for good in 1999 , and that his powers will be passed down onto his reincarnation . When Soma proceeds further into the castle , he meets the witch Yoko Belnades , who is present on the orders of the Roman Catholic Church . Yoko is looking for Graham , who she believes is dangerous and the inheritor of Dracula 's powers . She clarifies the nature of Soma 's powers , revealing that they are not necessarily evil , but inherent to Soma himself . Later , Soma encounters Hammer , a member of the United States Army ordered to come to the Hakuba shrine . He has forfeited his mission , however , in favor of selling goods . He becomes Soma 's vendor , selling numerous goods to aid Soma 's mission . A mysterious man then accosts Soma , asking about the nature of Soma 's dark power . When Soma continues to converse with him , the man reveals that he has amnesia , and the only thing he remembers is his name starts with " J " .
Soma meets Graham again , and questions him on Yoko 's suspicions . Graham claims he will receive Dracula 's powers , believing himself to be Dracula as he was born on the day Dracula was slain . Graham inquires as to the nature of Soma 's powers , to which Soma responds that he has " the power to rule , " causing Graham to panic and flee . Concerned , Soma confides this incident to Yoko , who recommends that Soma join her in stopping Graham . As Soma proceeds further through the castle , he comes upon a scene of Graham stabbing Yoko with a knife . Graham retreats , and Yoko warns Soma of Graham 's power . Arikado arrives , promises Soma he will look after Yoko , and demands that Soma pursue Graham . Soma meets " J " again , who reveals he is Julius Belmont , the man who defeated Dracula in 1999 . As he leaves , he remarks that he knows something about the current situation , but does not elaborate .
Soma ascends to the castle 's keep and confronts Graham in the throne room . Although Soma 's sole desire is to leave the castle , Graham is convinced that Soma must be killed for absorbing the souls of the castle 's monsters . Soma manages to defeat Graham , even after Graham uses his newfound powers to assume a demonic form . As Graham falls in defeat , Soma absorbs his powers , and realizes he is Dracula 's reincarnation . Arikado arrives and reveals a way for Soma to save himself by halting the flow of chaos into the castle . Soma proceeds to the Chaotic Realm , but Julius attacks him , believing that Soma is Dracula . Julius allows Soma to defeat him , as he sensed Soma 's soul fighting against Dracula 's influence . Before he leaves , Soma elicits a promise from Julius to kill him if he fully becomes Dracula . Soma travels through the Chaotic Realm and finally locates the source of chaos . Soma manages to defeat the manifestation of chaos and is sent congratulations by Yoko , Hammer , Julius , and Arikado . Soma awakens back in the Hakuba Shrine with Mina , pleased that the conflict is over .
= = Development = =
Aria of Sorrow was first unveiled at a press conference in San Francisco by executive producer Koji Igarashi on January 16 , 2003 . Igarashi had worked on previous Castlevania games such as Castlevania : Symphony of the Night and Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance . Aria of Sorrow was placed in production alongside Harmony of Dissonance , resulting in both games sharing similar programming engines and gameplay elements . Aria of Sorrow 's Ability souls , for example , provide the protagonist with innate abilities like the Relic items in Harmony of Dissonance . Nevertheless , Igarashi claimed he wished to try a " different route " for the series with Aria of Sorrow via placing the game in a futuristic setting . Ayami Kojima , who had previously collaborated with Igarashi on the designs for the characters of Symphony of the Night and Harmony of Dissonance , was brought into the project . Following the " different route " motif , the character designs were made more contemporary , using modern clothing over the more medieval look of the previous Castlevania installments . In developing the game 's back story , Igarashi partially based it on Nostradamus 's prediction of a " big evil lord in 1999 " and the 1999 solar eclipse in Eastern Europe .
One of Igarashi 's prominent concerns during development was addressing the criticism expressed concerning Harmony of Dissonance . Igarashi noted that the music in Harmony of Dissonance had not been well received and Michiru Yamane , who had previously worked on the acclaimed music for Symphony of the Night , was hired in order to compose for Aria of Sorrow . The development team worked on the game 's audio cycles , as well as delegating more cartridge space and processor cycles for the sound . Maintaining the visual quality of Harmony of Dissonance was a chief objective during development , as many reviewers had felt that Harmony of Dissonance had excelled in graphics at the cost of the audio . Furthermore , the staff tried to improve the series ' gameplay system while retaining fan @-@ favorite elements . Certain aspects that were missing in Harmony of Dissonance , such as hidden rooms , were incorporated into Aria of Sorrow . Igarashi added Soul trading via a link cable to assist players with collecting every soul in the game , which he believed would be cumbersome to accomplish alone .
= = Reception = =
Aria of Sorrow has received favorable reviews from several video game publications , with many comparing it to Castlevania : Symphony of the Night , widely considered the best game in the Castlevania series . Famitsu , considered to be one of the most respected video game news magazines in Japan , gave Aria of Sorrow a 36 / 40 , the highest score any game in the Castlevania series has received from Famitsu . It was rated by Nintendo Power as the 22nd best game made on a Nintendo System in their Top 200 Games list . In Japan , the game sold only 27 @,@ 000 units one month after its release , considered to be a poor showing for a major video game franchise . Conversely , the game was significantly more successful in the United States , with more than 158 @,@ 000 units in sales three months after its release .
As the third installment of the Castlevania series on the Game Boy Advance , many reviewers made note of the game 's differences as versus its predecessors , Castlevania : Circle of the Moon and Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance , with many considering it the definitive Castlevania game for the Game Boy Advance . GameSpy noted that Aria of Sorrow " managed to get just about everything right " as versus its predecessors , and lauded it as " the best portable Castlevania game yet created . " RPGFan claimed that Aria of Sorrow " [ showcased ] the true art of game development : to adapt and change as necessary yet remain consistent . " RPGamer considered Aria of Sorrow one of the best games ever released for the Game Boy Advance .
In 2007 IGN ranked it as the second best Game Boy Advance game of all time . Game Informer 's Tim Turi ranked it among the best Castlevania games on the Game Boy Advance . He praised its gameplay and visuals for setting a standard for future Castlevania games . GameZone ranked it as the seventh best Castlevania title and the best of the Game Boy Advance Castlevania titles .
The gameplay , specifically the Tactical Soul system , was a frequent subject of acclaim among reviewers . RPGFan called the Tactical Soul system " addictively [ sic ] fun " , and GameSpot lauded the simplicity and depth of the gameplay . RPGamer considered the gameplay " one hundred percent solid , " lauding the game 's controls and interaction with enemies , as well as the Tactical Soul system . RPGFan asserted that the game had " a chance to be the most revered installment of the series , hardly caught in the shadow of Symphony of the Night like its predecessors . " The game 's length and difficulty were brought into question by several reviewers . GameSpot noted that a single play through the game would only last ten hours , and that the player grew " practically unstoppable " over the course of the game . RPGamer echoed this assessment , deriding the fact that the game " never [ offered ] much of a challenge " , but noted that the " simplistic fun " of the gameplay rectified this .
The game 's graphics and audio were widely praised by reviewers . RPGFan extolled the game 's environments as " gorgeous and well layered , " and noted while the game did not achieve the level of graphical quality set by Symphony of the Night , it " made a damn good attempt at it . " GameSpy called the graphics " crisp , clear and colorful , " with " good animation on easily viewable sprites . " GameSpy additionally noted that the game 's audio , a particularly lambasted feature of Harmony of Dissonance , was " fitting and well @-@ composed . " Prior to the game 's release , IGN commented that the music was " pretty darn good . " GameSpot , although labeling the music as " mostly forgettable , " noted that it was far better than the audio of Harmony of Dissonance , and celebrated the individual audio used for enemies .
In terms of storyline and characters , RPGamer welcomed the characters ' depth , and the emphasis placed into the personalities and development of supporting characters , asserting that previous Castlevania games ignored the development of the supporting characters in exchange for concentrating on the protagonist . IGN called the game 's ending " incredibly unfulfilling and disappointing , " but lauded the change from the conventional plot of a Castlevania game , in which a member of the Belmont clan defeats Dracula with the aid of a host of supporting characters . GameSpy criticized the presence of a " weak female who needs protection " and an " effeminate @-@ looking man who does all the slaying " as stereotypical Castlevania elements , but noted that the " powerful and compelling scenario " the game had was the best in the series since Symphony of the Night .
= = Sequel and re @-@ release = =
Due to the success of Aria of Sorrow , the production of Castlevania : Dawn of Sorrow , a rare sequel in the Castlevania series , was announced on January 6 , 2005 . In an interview , Koji Igarashi noted that he felt that the Tactical Soul system used in Aria of Sorrow , as well as the storyline with Soma Cruz , were a waste to use in only one game , and contributed to his desire to make a sequel . As such , the Tactical Soul system was reintroduced in Dawn of Sorrow , as well as several new developments , such as an anime character design , as Ayami Kojima was not part of the production staff for Dawn of Sorrow . Though Aria of Sorrow was successful , its sales figures failed to meet expectations and prompted the switch to anime @-@ style designs . In 2005 , Igarashi expressed a desire to develop a game centered on the battle between Julius Belmont and Dracula , but commented that the project would be dependent on available production time . Aria of Sorrow was re @-@ released in both Japan and in the United States . On November 3 , 2005 , it was re @-@ released as part of Konami 's " Konami the Best " line in Japan . Aria of Sorrow was re @-@ released , along with Harmony of Dissonance , in the Castlevania : Double Pack in North America on January 11 , 2006 .
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= Mountjoy Prison helicopter escape =
The Mountjoy Prison helicopter escape occurred on 31 October 1973 when three Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) volunteers escaped from Mountjoy Prison in Dublin , Ireland , aboard a hijacked Alouette II helicopter , which briefly landed in the prison 's exercise yard . The escape made headlines around the world and was an embarrassment to the Irish coalition government of the time , led by Fine Gael 's Liam Cosgrave , which was criticised by opposition party Fianna Fáil . A manhunt involving twenty thousand members of the Irish Defence Forces and Garda Síochána was launched for the escapees , one of whom , Seamus Twomey , was not recaptured until December 1977 . The Wolfe Tones wrote a song celebrating the escape called " The Helicopter Song " , which topped the Irish popular music charts despite being banned by the government .
= = Background = =
Following the outbreak of the Troubles in 1969 , the Provisional IRA had conducted an armed campaign that sought to create a united Ireland by ending Northern Ireland 's status as part of the United Kingdom . As a result of increasing levels of violence in Northern Ireland , internment without trial was introduced there in August 1971 , and in the Republic of Ireland the coalition government led by Fine Gael 's Liam Cosgrave was attempting to curb IRA activity . Fine Gael had come to power on a law and order ticket , with a policy of " getting tough on crime " . Suspected IRA members were arrested and accused of IRA membership by a superintendent in the Garda Síochána , a crime under the Offences against the State Act . They were tried at the juryless Special Criminal Court in Dublin , where the traditional IRA policy of not recognising the court resulted in a fait accompli as no defence was offered and IRA membership carried a minimum mandatory one @-@ year sentence , resulting in internment in all but name . In September 1973 IRA Chief of Staff Seamus Twomey appeared at the Special Criminal Court charged with IRA membership , and stated " I refuse to recognise this British @-@ orientated quisling court " . He was found guilty and received a five @-@ year sentence . By October 1973 the IRA 's command structure was seriously curbed , with Twomey and other senior republicans J. B. O 'Hagan and Kevin Mallon all being held in Mountjoy Prison .
= = Planning of the escape = =
The IRA immediately began making plans to break Twomey , O 'Hagan and Mallon out of the prison . The first attempt involved explosives that had been smuggled into the prison , which were to be used to blow a hole in a door which would give the prisoners access to the exercise yard . From there , they would scale a rope ladder thrown over the exterior wall by members of the IRA 's Dublin Brigade who would have a getaway car waiting to complete the escape . The plan failed when the prisoners could not gain access to the exercise yard and the rope ladder was spotted , so the IRA began making new escape plans . The idea of using a helicopter in an escape had been discussed before , an idea to break Gerry Adams out of Long Kesh internment camp had been ruled out because of faster and more sophisticated British Army helicopters being stationed at a nearby base . The IRA 's GHQ staff approved the plan to break out Twomey , O 'Hagan and Mallon , and arrangements were made to obtain a helicopter . A man with an American accent calling himself Mr. Leonard approached the manager of Irish Helicopters at Dublin Airport , with a view to hiring a helicopter for an aerial photographic shoot in County Laois . After being shown the company 's fleet of helicopters , Leonard arranged to hire a five @-@ seater Alouette II for 31 October .
= = The escape = =
Leonard arrived at Irish Helicopters on 31 October and was introduced to the pilot of the helicopter , Captain Thompson Boyes . Boyes was instructed to fly to a field in Stradbally , in order to pick up Leonard 's photographic equipment . After landing Boyes saw two armed , masked men approaching the helicopter from nearby trees . Boyes was held at gunpoint and told he would not be harmed if he followed instructions . Leonard left with one gunman , while the other gunman climbed aboard the helicopter armed with a pistol and an Armalite rifle . Boyes was instructed to fly towards Dublin following the path of railway lines and the Royal Canal , and was ordered not to register his flight path with Air Traffic Control . As the helicopter approached Dublin , Boyes was informed of the escape plan and instructed to land in the exercise yard at Mountjoy Prison .
In the prison 's exercise yard , the prisoners were watching a football match . Shortly after 3 : 35 pm the helicopter swung in to land in the prison yard , with Kevin Mallon directing the pilot using semaphore . A prison officer on duty initially took no action as he believed the helicopter contained the Minister for Defence , Paddy Donegan . After prisoners surrounded the eight prison officers in the yard , fights broke out as the officers realised an escape attempt was in progress . As other prisoners restrained the officers , Twomey , Mallon and O 'Hagan boarded the helicopter . As the helicopter took off , in the confusion one officer shouted " Close the gates , close the fucking gates " . The helicopter flew north and landed at a disused racecourse in the Baldoyle area of Dublin , where the escapees were met by members of the IRA 's Dublin Brigade . The escapees were transferred to a taxi that had been hijacked earlier , and transported to safe houses .
= = Reaction = =
The escape made headlines around the world and was an embarrassment for Cosgrave 's government , which was criticised for " incompetence in security matters " by opposition party Fianna Fáil . An emergency debate on security was held in Dáil Éireann on 1 November , where leader of the opposition Jack Lynch stated :
It is poetic justice that a helicopter is now at the heart of the Government 's embarrassment and in the centre of their dilemma . Indeed , it was hard to blame the prison officer who observed that he thought it was the Minister for Defence paying an informal visit to Mountjoy Prison yesterday because , of course , we all know the Minister for Defence is wont to use helicopters , as somebody observed already , as other Ministers are wont to use State cars .
The IRA released a statement on the escape , which read , " Three republican prisoners were rescued by a special unit from Mountjoy Prison on Wednesday . The operation was a complete success and the men are now safe , despite a massive hunt by Free State forces " . Shortly after the escape Twomey gave an exclusive interview to German magazine Der Spiegel , where the reporter said people throughout Europe were joking about the incident as " the escape of the century " . Irish rebel band the Wolfe Tones wrote a song celebrating the escape called " The Helicopter Song " , which was immediately banned by the government yet still topped the Irish popular music charts after selling twelve thousand copies in a single week .
= = Aftermath = =
The escape resulted in all IRA prisoners being held at Mountjoy Prison and Curragh Camp being transferred to the maximum security Portlaoise Prison . In order to prevent any further escapes the perimeter of the prison was guarded by members of the Irish Army , and wires were erected over the prison yard to prevent any future helicopter escape . Cosgrave stated there would be " no hiding place " for the escapees , and a manhunt involving twenty thousand members of the Irish Defence Forces and Garda Síochána ensued . Mallon was recaptured at a Gaelic Athletic Association dance in a hotel near Portlaoise on 10 December 1973 , and imprisoned in Portlaoise Prison . He escaped from there in a mass break @-@ out on 18 August 1974 , when nineteen prisoners escaped after overpowering guards and using gelignite to blast through the gates . He was recaptured in Foxrock in January 1975 and returned to Portlaoise Prison . O 'Hagan was recaptured in Dublin in early 1975 , and also imprisoned in Portlaoise Prison . After the end of his original twelve @-@ month sentence , he was immediately arrested and sentenced to a further two years imprisonment for escaping . Twomey evaded recapture until 2 December 1977 , when he was spotted sitting in a car in Sandycove by members of the Garda 's Special Branch who were investigating an arms shipment after a tip @-@ off from police in Belgium . Twomey drove away after spotting the officers , before being recaptured in the centre of Dublin after a high @-@ speed car chase . He was also imprisoned in Portlaoise Prison until his release in 1982 .
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= Stuart Sutcliffe =
Stuart Fergusson Victor Sutcliffe ( 23 June 1940 – 10 April 1962 ) was a Scottish @-@ born painter and musician best known as the original bass guitarist for the Beatles . Sutcliffe left the band to pursue his career as a painter , having previously attended the Liverpool College of Art . Sutcliffe and John Lennon are credited with inventing the name , " Beetles " , as they both liked Buddy Holly 's band , the Crickets . The band used this name for a while until Lennon decided to change the name to " the Beatles " , from the word beat . As a member of the group when it was a five @-@ piece band , Sutcliffe is one of several people sometimes referred to as the " Fifth Beatle " .
When he performed with the Beatles in Hamburg , he met photographer Astrid Kirchherr , to whom he was later engaged . After leaving the Beatles , he enrolled in the Hamburg College of Art , studying under future pop artist Eduardo Paolozzi , who later wrote a report stating that Sutcliffe was one of his best students . Sutcliffe earned other praise for his paintings , which mostly explored a style related to abstract expressionism .
While studying in Germany , Sutcliffe began experiencing severe headaches and acute sensitivity to light . In April 1962 he collapsed in the middle of an art class after complaining of head pains . German doctors performed various checks , but were unable to determine the exact cause of his headaches . On 10 April 1962 , he was taken to hospital , but died in the ambulance on the way . The cause of death was later revealed to have been an aneurysm in his brain 's right hemisphere .
= = Early years = =
Sutcliffe 's father , Charles Sutcliffe ( 25 May 1905 – 18 March 1966 ) , was previously married to his first wife Martha with whom he already had 4 children . He was a senior civil servant , who moved to Liverpool to help with wartime work in 1943 , and then signed on as a ship 's engineer , and so was often at sea during his son 's early years . His mother , Millie , was a schoolteacher at an infants ' school . Sutcliffe had two younger sisters , Pauline and Joyce with but also had three older brothers , Joe , Ian , and Charles , as well as an older sister Mattie , from his father 's first marriage .
Sutcliffe was born at the Simpson Memorial Maternity Pavilion Hospital in Edinburgh , Scotland , and after his family moved south , he was brought up at 37 Aigburth Drive in Liverpool . He attended Park View Primary School , Huyton ( 1946 – 1951 ) , and Prescot Grammar School from 4 September 1951 to 1956 . When Sutcliffe 's father did return home on leave , he invited his son and art college classmate , Rod Murray ( also Sutcliffe 's roommate and best friend ) , for a " real good booze @-@ up " , slipping £ 10 into Sutcliffe 's pocket before disappearing for another six months . The Beatles ' biographer , Philip Norman , wrote that Charles Sutcliffe was a heavy drinker and physically cruel to his wife , which the young Sutcliffe had witnessed .
During his first year at the Liverpool College of Art , Sutcliffe worked as a bin man on the Liverpool Corporation 's waste collection trucks . Lennon was introduced to Sutcliffe by Bill Harry , a mutual friend , when all three were studying at the Liverpool College of Art . According to Lennon , Sutcliffe had a " marvellous art portfolio " and was a very talented painter who was one of the " stars " of the school . He helped Lennon to improve his artistic skills , and with others , worked with him when Lennon had to submit work for exams . Sutcliffe shared a flat with Murray at 9 Percy Street , Liverpool , before being evicted and moving to Hillary Mansions at 3 Gambier Terrace , where another art student lived , Margaret Chapman , who competed with Sutcliffe to be the best painter in class . The flat was opposite the new Anglican cathedral in the rundown area of Liverpool 8 , with bare lightbulbs and a mattress on the floor in the corner . Lennon moved in with Sutcliffe in early 1960 . ( Paul McCartney later admitted that he was jealous of Sutcliffe 's relationship with Lennon , as he had to take a " back seat " to Sutcliffe ) . Sutcliffe and his flatmates painted the rooms yellow and black , which their landlady did not appreciate . On another occasion the tenants , needing to keep warm , burned the flat 's furniture .
After talking to Sutcliffe one night at the Casbah Coffee Club ( owned by Pete Best 's mother , Mona Best ) , Lennon and McCartney persuaded Sutcliffe to buy a Höfner President 500 / 5 model bass guitar on hire @-@ purchase from Frank Hessey 's Music Shop . Sutcliffe was versed in music : he had sung in the local church choir in Huyton , his mother had insisted on piano lessons for him since the age of nine , he had played bugle in the Air Training Corps , and his father had taught him some chords on the guitar . In May 1960 , Sutcliffe joined Lennon , McCartney , and George Harrison ( then known as " the Silver Beatles " ) . Sutcliffe 's fingers would often blister during long rehearsals , as he had never practised long enough for his fingers to become calloused , even though he had previously played acoustic guitar . Sutcliffe started acting as a booking agent for the group , and they often used his Gambier Terrace flat as a rehearsal room .
In July 1960 , the Sunday newspaper , The People , ran an article entitled " The Beatnik Horror " that featured a photograph taken in the flat below Sutcliffe 's of a teenaged Lennon lying on the floor , with Sutcliffe standing by a window . As they had often visited the Jacaranda club , its owner , Allan Williams , arranged for the photograph to be taken , subsequently taking over from Sutcliffe to book concerts for the group : Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Sutcliffe . The Beatles ' subsequent name change came during an afternoon in the Renshaw Hall bar when Sutcliffe , Lennon and his girlfriend , Cynthia Powell , thought up names similar to Holly 's band , the Crickets , and came up with Beetles . Lennon later changed the name because he thought it sounded French , suggesting Le Beat or Beat @-@ less .
= = The Beatles and Hamburg = =
Sutcliffe 's playing style was elementary , mostly sticking to root notes of chords . Harry — an art school friend and founder and editor of the Mersey Beat newspaper — complained to Sutcliffe that he should be concentrating on art and not music , as he thought that Sutcliffe was a competent musician whose talents would be better used in the visual arts . While Sutcliffe is often described in Beatles ' biographies as appearing very uncomfortable onstage , and often playing with his back to the audience , their drummer at the time , Best , denies this , recalling Sutcliffe as usually good @-@ natured and " animated " before an audience . When the Beatles auditioned for Larry Parnes at the Wyvern Club , Seel Street , Liverpool , Williams later claimed that Parnes would have taken the group as the backing band for Billy Fury for £ 10 per week , but as Sutcliffe turned his back to Parnes throughout the audition — because , as Williams believed , Sutcliffe could not play very well — Parnes said that he would employ the group only if they got rid of Sutcliffe . Parnes later denied this , stating his only concern was that the group had no permanent drummer . Klaus Voormann regarded Sutcliffe as a good bass player , although Beatles ' historian Richie Unterberger described Sutcliffe 's bass playing as an " artless thump " .
Sutcliffe 's popularity grew after he began wearing Ray @-@ Ban sunglasses and tight trousers . Sutcliffe 's high spot was singing " Love Me Tender " , which drew more applause than the other Beatles , and increased the friction between him and McCartney . Lennon also started to criticise Sutcliffe , making jokes about Sutcliffe 's size and playing . On 5 December 1960 , Harrison was sent back to Britain for being under @-@ age . McCartney and Best were deported for attempted arson at the Bambi Kino , which left Lennon and Sutcliffe in Hamburg . Lennon took a train home , but as Sutcliffe had a cold he stayed in Hamburg . Sutcliffe later borrowed money from his girlfriend , Astrid Kirchherr , in order to fly back to Liverpool on Friday , 20 January 1961 , although he returned to Hamburg in March 1961 , with the other Beatles .
In July 1961 , Sutcliffe decided to leave the group to continue painting . After being awarded a postgraduate scholarship , he enrolled at the Hamburg College of Art under the tutelage of Paolozzi . He briefly lent McCartney his bass until the latter could earn enough to buy a specially made smaller left @-@ handed Höfner 500 / 1 bass guitar of his own in June 1961 , but specifically asked McCartney ( who is left @-@ handed ) not to change the strings around or restring the instrument , so McCartney had to play the bass as it was . In 1967 , a photo of Sutcliffe was among those on the cover of the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band album ( extreme left , in front of fellow artist Aubrey Beardsley ) .
= = Astrid Kirchherr = =
Kirchherr was brought up by her widowed mother , Nielsa Kirchherr , in Eimsbütteler Strasse , in a wealthy part of the Hamburg suburb of Altona . Sutcliffe met Kirchherr in the Kaiserkeller club , where she went to watch the Beatles perform . After a photo session with the group , Kirchherr invited them to her mother 's house for tea and showed them her bedroom ; decorated in black , including the furniture , with silver foil on the walls and a large tree branch hanging from the ceiling . Sutcliffe began dating Kirchherr shortly thereafter .
Sutcliffe wrote to friends that he was infatuated with Kirchherr , and asked her German friends which colours , films , books and painters she liked . Best commented that the beginning of their relationship was , " like one of those fairy stories " . Kirchherr and Sutcliffe got engaged in November 1960 , and exchanged rings , as is the German custom . Sutcliffe later wrote to his parents that he was engaged to Kirchherr , which they were shocked to learn , as they thought he would give up his career as an artist , although he told Kirchherr that he would like to be an art teacher in London or Germany in the future . After moving into the Kirchherr family 's house , Sutcliffe used to borrow her clothes . He wore her leather pants and jackets , collarless jackets , oversized shirts and long scarves , and also borrowed a corduroy suit with no lapels that he wore on stage , which prompted Lennon to sarcastically ask if his mother had lent him the suit .
= = Art = =
Sutcliffe displayed artistic talent at an early age . Helen Anderson ( a fellow student ) , remembered his early works as being very aggressive , with dark , moody colours , which was not the type of painting she expected from such a " quiet student " . One of Sutcliffe 's paintings was shown at the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool as part of the John Moores exhibition , from November 1959 until January 1960 . After the exhibition , Moores bought Sutcliffe 's canvas for £ 65 , which was then equal to 6 – 7 weeks ' wages for an average working man . The picture Moore bought was called Summer Painting , and Sutcliffe attended a formal dinner to celebrate the exhibition with another art student , Susan Williams . Murray remembered that the painting was painted on a board , not a canvas , and had to be cut into two pieces ( because of its size ) and hinged . Murray added that only one of the pieces actually got to the exhibition ( because they stopped off in a pub to celebrate ) , but sold nonetheless because Moores bought it for his son .
Sutcliffe had been turned down when he applied to study for an ATD ( Art Teachers Diploma ) course at the Liverpool Art College , but after meeting Kirchherr , he decided to leave the Beatles and attend the Hamburg College of Art in June 1961 , under the tutelage of Paolozzi , who later wrote a report stating that Sutcliffe was one of his best students . He wrote : " Sutcliffe is very gifted and very intelligent . In the meantime he has become one of my best students . "
Sutcliffe 's few surviving works reveal influence from the British and European abstract artists contemporary with the Abstract Expressionist movement in the United States . His earlier figurative work is reminiscent of the kitchen sink school , particularly of John Bratby , though Sutcliffe was producing abstract work by the end of the 1950s , including The Summer Painting , purchased by Moores . Sutcliffe 's works bear some comparison with those of John Hoyland and Nicolas de Staël , though they are more lyrical ( Sutcliffe used the stage name " Stu de Staël " when he was playing with the Beatles on a Scottish tour in spring 1960 ) . His later works are typically untitled , constructed from heavily impastoed slabs of pigment in the manner of de Staël , whom he learned about from Surrey born , art college instructor , Nicky Horsfield , and overlaid with scratched or squeezed linear elements creating enclosed spaces . Hamburg Painting no . 2 was purchased by Liverpool 's Walker Art Gallery and is one of a series entitled Hamburg in which the surface and colour changes produced atmospheric energy . European artists ( including Paolozzi ) were also influencing Sutcliffe at the time . The Walker Art Gallery has other works by Sutcliffe , which are Self @-@ portrait ( in charcoal ) and The Crucifixion . Lennon later hung a pair of Sutcliffe 's paintings in his house ( Kenwood ) in Weybridge , and McCartney had a Paolozzi sculpture in his Cavendish Avenue home .
= = Death = =
While in Germany , Sutcliffe began experiencing severe headaches and acute sensitivity to light , and Kirchherr stated that some of the headaches left him temporarily blind . In 1962 , Sutcliffe collapsed in the middle of an art class in Hamburg . Kirchherr 's mother had German doctors perform various checks on him , but they were unable to determine exactly what was causing the headaches . They suggested he go back to Britain and have himself checked into a hospital with better facilities , but Sutcliffe was told there was nothing wrong with him , so he returned to Hamburg . While living at the Kirchherrs ' house his condition got worse , and after collapsing again on 10 April 1962 , he was taken to hospital by Kirchherr ( who rode with him in the ambulance ) , but he died before the ambulance reached the hospital . The cause of death was revealed to have been a cerebral haemorrhage , specifically , a ruptured aneurysm resulting in " cerebral paralysis due to bleeding into the right ventricle of the brain . "
On 13 April 1962 , Kirchherr met the group at Hamburg Airport , telling them that Sutcliffe had died a few days before . Sutcliffe 's mother flew to Hamburg with the Beatles ' manager Brian Epstein , and returned to Liverpool with her son 's body . Sutcliffe 's father did not hear of his son 's death for three weeks , as he was sailing to South America , although the family arranged for a padre to tell him when he docked in Buenos Aires . After Sutcliffe 's death , Kirchherr wrote a letter to his mother , apologising for being too ill to attend his funeral in Liverpool and saying how much she and Lennon missed him : " Oh , Mum , he ( Lennon ) is in a terrible mood now , he just can 't believe that darling Stuart never comes back . [ He 's ] just crying his eyes out ... John is marvellous to me , he says that he knows Stuart so much and he loves him so much that he can understand me . "
The cause of Sutcliffe 's aneurysm is unknown , although it is believed to have been started by an earlier head injury , as he was either kicked in the head , or thrown , head first , against a brick wall during a fight outside Lathom Hall , after a performance in January 1961 . According to former manager Allan Williams , Lennon and Best went to Sutcliffe 's aid , fighting off his attackers before dragging him to safety . Sutcliffe sustained a fractured skull in the fight and Lennon 's little finger was broken . Sutcliffe refused medical attention at the time and failed to keep an X @-@ ray appointment at Sefton General Hospital .
Although Lennon did not attend or send flowers to Sutcliffe 's funeral , his second wife , Yoko Ono , remembered that Lennon mentioned Sutcliffe 's name very often , saying that he was " [ My ] alter ego ... a spirit in his world ... a guiding force " .
= = Posthumous music releases = =
The Beatles ' compilation album Anthology 1 , released in 1995 , featured previously unreleased recordings from the group 's early years . Sutcliffe plays bass with the Beatles on three songs they recorded in 1960 : " Hallelujah , I Love Her So " , " You 'll Be Mine " , and " Cayenne " . In addition , he is pictured on the front covers of both Anthology 1 and Anthology 3 .
In 2011 , Sutcliffe 's estate released a recording claimed to be Sutcliffe singing " Love Me Tender " , recorded in 1961 and donated to the estate in 2009 . The cover art shows a Sutcliffe painting entitled Homage to Elvis . The authenticity of the recording has been much debated .
= = Film , television , and books = =
Part One of the The Beatles Anthology video documentary covers Sutcliffe 's time with the group . There is no mention of his death in the documentary , but it is discussed in the accompanying book .
Sutcliffe was portrayed by David Nicholas Wilkinson in the film Birth of the Beatles ( 1979 ) and by Lee Williams in In His Life : The John Lennon Story ( 2000 ) . Sutcliffe 's role in the Beatles ' early career , as well as the factors that led him to leave the group , is dramatised in the film Backbeat ( 1994 ) , in which he was portrayed by American actor Stephen Dorff . Sutcliffe doesn 't appear in the film Nowhere Boy ( 2009 ) but is briefly mentioned toward the end of the film . Four television documentaries have been broadcast that deal with Sutcliffe 's life :
Midnight Angel ( 1990 ) Granada TV ( networked ) U.K.
Exhibition ( 1991 ) Cologne , German TV
Stuart , His life and Art ( 2005 ) BBC
Stuart Sutcliffe , The Lost Beatle
Books about Sutcliffe :
Backbeat : Stuart Sutcliffe : The Lost Beatle ( 1994 ) Alan Clayson and Pauline Sutcliffe
Stuart , The Life and Art of Stuart Sutcliffe ( 1995 ) Pauline Sutcliffe and Kay Williams
The Beatles Shadow , Stuart Sutcliffe , & his lonely hearts club ( 2001 ) Pauline Sutcliffe and Douglas Thompson
Stuart Sutcliffe : a retrospective ( 2008 ) Matthew H. Clough and Colin Fallows
Baby 's in Black ( 2010 ) Arne Bellstorf
The Stuart Sutcliffe Estate sells memorabilia and artefacts of Sutcliffe 's , which include poems written by him and the chords and lyrics to songs Lennon and Sutcliffe were learning .
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= Nonmetal =
In chemistry , a nonmetal ( or non @-@ metal ) is a chemical element that mostly lacks metallic attributes . Physically , nonmetals tend to be highly volatile ( easily vaporized ) , have low elasticity , and are good insulators of heat and electricity ; chemically , they tend to have high ionization energy and electronegativity values , and gain or share electrons when they react with other elements or compounds . Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals ; most are gases ( hydrogen , helium , nitrogen , oxygen , fluorine , neon , chlorine , argon , krypton , xenon and radon ) ; one is a liquid ( bromine ) , and a few are solids ( carbon , phosphorus , sulfur , selenium , and iodine ) .
Moving rightward across the standard form of the periodic table , nonmetals adopt structures that have progressively fewer nearest neighbours . Polyatomic nonmetals have structures with either three nearest neighbours , as is the case ( for example ) with carbon ( in its standard state of graphite ) , or two nearest neighbours ( for example ) in the case of sulfur . Diatomic nonmetals , such as hydrogen , have one nearest neighbour , and the monatomic noble gases , such as helium , have none . This gradual fall in the number of nearest neighbours is associated with a reduction in metallic character and an increase in nonmetallic character . The distinction between the three categories of nonmetals , in terms of receding metallicity is not absolute . Boundary overlaps occur as outlying elements in each category show ( or begin to show ) less @-@ distinct , hybrid @-@ like or atypical properties .
Although five times more elements are metals than nonmetals , two of the nonmetals — hydrogen and helium — make up over 99 per cent of the observable Universe , and one — oxygen — makes up close to half of the Earth 's crust , oceans and atmosphere . Living organisms are also composed almost entirely of nonmetals , and nonmetals form many more compounds than metals .
= = Definition and properties = =
There is no rigorous definition of a nonmetal . They show more variability in their properties than do metals . The following are some of the chief characteristics of nonmetals . Physically , they largely exist as monatomic gases , with a few having more substantial ( but still open @-@ packed ) diatomic or polyatomic forms , unlike metals , which are nearly all solid and close @-@ packed ; if solid , they generally have a submetallic or dull appearance and are brittle , as opposed to metals , which are lustrous , ductile or malleable ; they usually have lower densities than metals ; are poor conductors of heat and electricity when compared to metals ; and have significantly lower melting points and boiling points than those of metals ( with the exception of carbon ) . Chemically , the nonmetals have relatively high ionisation energy and high electronegativity ; they usually exist as anions or oxyanions in aqueous solution ; generally form ionic or interstitial compounds when mixed with metals , unlike metals , which form alloys ; and have acidic oxides whereas the common oxides of the metals are basic .
= = Applicable elements = =
The elements generally classified as nonmetals include one element in group 1 ( hydrogen ) ; one in group 14 ( carbon ) ; two in group 15 ( nitrogen and phosphorus ) ; three in group 16 ( oxygen , sulfur and selenium ) ; most of group 17 ( fluorine , chlorine , bromine and iodine ) ; and all of group 18 ( with the possible exception of ununoctium ) .
The distinction between nonmetals and metals is by no means clear . The result is that a few borderline elements lacking a preponderance of either nonmetallic or metallic properties are classified as metalloids ; and some elements classified as nonmetals are instead sometimes classified as metalloids , or vice versa . For example , selenium ( Se ) , a nonmetal , is sometimes classified instead as a metalloid , particularly in environmental chemistry ; and astatine ( At ) , which is a metalloid and a halogen , is sometimes classified instead as a nonmetal .
= = Categories = =
Nonmetals have structures in which each atom usually forms ( 8 − N ) bonds with ( 8 − N ) nearest neighbours , where N is the number of valence electrons . Each atom is thereby able to complete its valence shell and attain a stable noble gas configuration . Exceptions to the ( 8 − N ) rule occur with hydrogen ( which only needs one bond to complete its valence shell ) , carbon , nitrogen and oxygen . Atoms of the latter three elements are sufficiently small such that they are able to form alternative ( more stable ) bonding structures , with fewer nearest neighbours . Thus , carbon is able to form its layered graphite structure , and nitrogen and oxygen are able to form diatomic molecules having triple and double bonds , respectively . The larger size of the remaining non @-@ noble nonmetals weakens their capacity to form multiple bonds and they instead form two or more single bonds to two or more different atoms . Sulfur , for example , forms an eight @-@ membered molecule in which the atoms are arranged in a ring , with each atom forming two single bonds to different atoms .
From left to right across the standard form of periodic table , as metallic character decreases , nonmetals therefore adopt structures that show a gradual reduction in the numbers of nearest neighbours — three or two for the polyatomic nonmetals , through one for the diatomic nonmetals , to zero for the monatomic noble gases . A similar pattern occurs more generally , at the level of the entire periodic table , in comparing metals and nonmetals . There is a transition from metallic bonding among the metals on the left of the table through to covalent or Van der Waals ( electrostatic ) bonding among the nonmetals on the right of the table . Metallic bonding tends to involve close @-@ packed centrosymmetric structures with a high number of nearest neighbours . Post @-@ transition metals and metalloids , sandwiched between the true metals and the nonmetals , tend to have more complex structures with an intermediate number of nearest neighbours . Nonmetallic bonding , towards the right of the table , features open @-@ packed directional ( or disordered ) structures with fewer or zero nearest neighbours . As noted , this steady reduction in the number of nearest neighbours , as metallic character decreases and nonmetallic character increases , is mirrored among the nonmetals , the structures of which gradually change from polyatomic , to diatomic , to monatomic .
As is the case with the major categories of metals , metalloids and nonmetals , there is some variation and overlapping of properties within and across each category of nonmetal . Among the polyatomic nonmetals , carbon , phosphorus and selenium — which border the metalloids — begin to show some metallic character . Sulfur ( which borders the diatomic nonmetals ) , is the least metallic of the polyatomic nonmetals but even here shows some discernible metal @-@ like character ( discussed below ) . Of the diatomic nonmetals , iodine is the most metallic . Its number of nearest neighbours is sometimes described as 1 + 2 hence it is almost a polyatomic nonmetal . Within the iodine molecule , significant electronic interactions occur with the two next nearest neighbours of each atom , and these interactions give rise , in bulk iodine , to a shiny appearance and semiconducting properties . Of the monatomic nonmetals , radon is the most metallic and begins to show some cationic behaviour , which is unusual for a nonmetal .
= = = Polyatomic nonmetals = = =
Four nonmetals are distinguished by polyatomic bonding in their standard states , in either discrete or extended molecular forms : carbon ( C , as graphite sheets ) ; phosphorus ( as P4 molecules ) ; sulfur ( as S8 molecules ) ; and selenium ( Se , as helical chains ) . Consistent with their higher coordination numbers ( 2 or 3 ) , the polyatomic nonmetals show more metallic character than the neighbouring diatomic nonmetals ; they are all solid , mostly semi @-@ lustrous semiconductors with electronegativity values that are intermediate to moderately high ( 2 @.@ 19 – 2 @.@ 58 ) . Sulfur is the least metallic of the polyatomic nonmetals given its dull appearance , brittle comportment , and low conductivity — attributes common to all sulfur allotropes . It nevertheless shows some metallic character , either intrinsically or in its compounds with other nonmetals . Examples include the malleability of plastic sulfur and the lustrous @-@ bronze appearance and metallic conductivity of polysulfur nitride ( SNx ) .
The polyatomic nonmetals are distinguished from the diatomic nonmetals by virtue of having higher coordination numbers , higher melting points ( in their thermodynamically most stable forms ) , and higher boiling points ; and having wider liquid ranges and lower room temperature volatility . More generally they show a marked tendency to exist in allotropic forms , and a stronger inclination to catenate ; and have a weaker ability to form hydrogen bonds . The ability of carbon to catenate , in particular , is fundamental to the field of organic chemistry and life on Earth . All of the polyatomic nonmetals are solids , and all are known in either malleable , pliable or ductile forms ; most also have lower ionisation energies and electronegativities than those of the diatomic nonmetals .
= = = Diatomic nonmetals = = =
Seven nonmetals exist as diatomic molecules in their standard states : hydrogen ( H2 ) ; nitrogen ( N2 ) ; oxygen ( O2 ) ; fluorine ( F2 ) ; chlorine ( Cl2 ) ; bromine ( Br2 ) ; and iodine ( I2 ) . They are generally highly insulating , highly electronegative , non @-@ reflective gases , noting that bromine , a liquid , and iodine , a solid , are both volatile at room temperature . Exceptions to this generalised description occur at the boundaries of the category : hydrogen has a comparatively low electronegativity due to its unique atomic structure ; iodine , in crystalline form , is semi @-@ lustrous , and a semiconductor in the direction of its layers , both of these attributes being consistent with incipient metallic character .
The diatomic nonmetals are distinguished from the polyatomic nonmetals by virtue of having lower coordination numbers , lower melting points ( compared to the polyatomic nonmetals in their thermodynamically most stable forms ) , and lower boiling points ; and having narrower liquid ranges and greater room temperature volatility . More generally , they show less inclination to exist in allotropic forms , and to catenate ; and have a stronger ability to form hydrogen bonds . Most are also gases , and have higher ionisation energies and higher electronegativities than those of the polyatomic nonmetals .
= = = Noble gases = = =
Six nonmetals occur naturally as monatomic noble gases : helium ( He ) , neon ( Ne ) , argon ( Ar ) , krypton ( Kr ) , xenon ( Xe ) , and the radioactive radon ( Rn ) . They comprise a group of chemical elements with very similar properties . In their standard states they are all colorless , odourless , nonflammable gases with characteristically very low chemical reactivity .
With their closed valence shells , the noble gases have the highest first ionization potentials in each of their periods , and feeble interatomic forces of attraction , with the latter property resulting in very low melting and boiling points . That is why they are all gases under standard conditions , even those with atomic masses larger than many normally solid elements .
The status of the period 7 congener of the noble gases , element 118 ( temporary name ununoctium ) is not known — it may or may not be a noble gas . It was originally predicted to be a noble gas but may instead be a fairly reactive solid with an anomalously low first ionisation potential , due to relativistic effects . On the other hand , if relativistic effects peak in period 7 at element 112 , copernicium ( as is thought to be the case ) , element 118 may turn out to be a noble gas after all , albeit more reactive than either xenon or radon .
= = = Elemental gases = = =
Hydrogen , nitrogen , oxygen , fluorine , chlorine , plus the noble gases are collectively referred to as the elemental gases . These elements are gaseous at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) . They are also distinguished by having the lowest densities , lowest melting and boiling points , strongest insulating properties , and highest electronegativity and ionization energy values in the periodic table .
It is not known if any synthetic elements with atomic number above 99 are gases . If it transpires that copernicium and flerovium are gaseous metals at or near room temperature , as some calculations have suggested , the category of elemental gases may need to be sub @-@ divided into metallic and nonmetallic gases .
= = = Organogens , CHONPS and biogens = = =
Carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , nitrogen , phosphorus and sulfur are sometimes referred to or categorised as organogens , CHONPS elements or biogens . Collectively these six nonmetals are required for all life on Earth . They are further distinguished — in comparison to the halogens ( F , Cl , Br , I , At ) and noble gases — by their general capacity ( or potential ) to form allotropes ; high atomisation energies ; intermediate electron affinities ; reactivity combined with low toxicity ; ability to form alloys with metals ; and the weak or neutral acid @-@ base character of their group hydrides .
= = = Other nonmetals = = =
Selenium , and possibly boron , silicon , arsenic and tellurium , plus the organogen elements are sometimes categorized together as other nonmetals . The first five of these ( Se ; B , Si , As , Te ) differ from the organogens : none are universally required for life ; arsenic is notoriously poisonous ; and tellurium hydride is a fairly strong , rather than weak , acidic hydride .
= = Comparison of properties = =
Characteristic and other properties of polyatomic nonmetals , diatomic nonmetals , and the monatomic noble gases are summarized in the following table . Physical properties are listed in loose order of ease of determination ; chemical properties run from general to specific , and then to descriptive .
= = Allotropes = =
Many nonmetals have less stable allotropes , with either nonmetallic or metallic properties . Graphite , the standard state of carbon , has a lustrous appearance and is a fairly good electrical conductor . The diamond allotrope of carbon is clearly nonmetallic , however , being translucent and having a relatively poor electrical conductivity . Carbon is also known in several other allotropic forms , including semiconducting buckminsterfullerene ( C60 ) . Nitrogen can form gaseous tetranitrogen ( N4 ) , an unstable polyatomic molecule with a lifetime of about one microsecond . Oxygen is a diatomic molecule in its standard state ; it also exists as ozone ( O3 ) , an unstable polyatomic nonmetallic allotrope with a half @-@ life of around half an hour . Phosphorus , uniquely , exists in several allotropic forms that are more stable than that of its standard state as white phosphorus ( P4 ) . The red and black allotropes are probably the best known ; both are semiconductors ; black phosphorus , in addition , has a lustrous appearance . Phosphorus is also known as diphosphorus ( P2 ) , an unstable diatomic allotrope . Sulfur has more allotropes than any other element ; all of these , except plastic sulfur ( a metastable ductile mixture of allotropes ) have nonmetallic properties . Selenium has several nonmetallic allotropes , all of which are much less electrically conducting than its standard state of grey " metallic " selenium . Iodine is also known in a semiconducting amorphous form . Under sufficiently high pressures , just over half of the nonmetals , starting with phosphorus at 1 @.@ 7 GPa , have been observed to form metallic allotropes .
= = Abundance and extraction = =
Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up approximately 99 per cent of all ordinary matter in the universe . Less than five per cent of the Universe is believed to be made of ordinary matter , represented by stars , planets and living beings . The balance is made of dark energy and dark matter , both of which are poorly understood at present .
Hydrogen , carbon , nitrogen , and oxygen constitute the great bulk of the Earth 's atmosphere , oceans , crust , and biosphere ; the remaining nonmetals have abundances of 0 @.@ 5 per cent or less . In comparison , 35 per cent of the crust is made up of the metals sodium , magnesium , aluminium , potassium and iron ; together with a metalloid , silicon . All other metals and metalloids have abundances within the crust , oceans or biosphere of 0 @.@ 2 per cent or less .
Nonmetals , in their elemental forms , are extracted from : brine : Cl , Br , I ; liquid air : N , O , Ne , Ar , Kr , Xe ; minerals : C ( coal ; diamond ; graphite ) ; F ( fluorite ) ; P ( phosphates ) ; I ( in sodium iodate NaIO3 and sodium iodide NaI ) ; natural gas : H , He , S ; and from ores , as processing byproducts : Se ( especially copper ores ) ; and Rn ( uranium bearing ores ) .
= = Applications in common = =
For prevalent and speciality applications of individual nonmetals see the main article for each element .
Nonmetals do not have any universal or near @-@ universal applications . This is not the case with metals , most of which have structural uses ; nor the metalloids , the typical uses of which extend to ( for example ) oxide glasses , alloying components , and semiconductors .
Shared applications of different subsets of the nonmetals instead encompass their presence in , or specific uses in the fields of cryogenics and refrigerants : H , He , N , O , F and Ne ; fertilisers : H , N , P , S , Cl ( as a micronutrient ) and Se ; household accoutrements : H ( primary constituent of water ) , He ( party balloons ) , C ( in pencils , as graphite ) , N ( beer widgets ) , O ( as peroxide , in detergents ) , F ( as fluoride , in toothpaste ) , Ne ( lighting ) , P ( matches ) , S ( garden treatments ) , Cl ( bleach constituent ) , Ar ( insulated windows ) , Se ( glass ; solar cells ) , Br ( as bromide , for purification of spa water ) , Kr ( energy saving fluorescent lamps ) , I ( in antiseptic solutions ) , Xe ( in plasma TV display cells ) and Rn ( as an unwanted , potentially hazardous indoor pollutant ) ; industrial acids : C , N , F , P , S and Cl ; inert air replacements : N , Ne , S ( in sulfur hexafluoride SF6 ) , Ar , Kr and Xe ; lasers and lighting : He , C ( in carbon dioxide lasers , CO2 ) , N , O ( in a chemical oxygen iodine laser ) , F ( in a hydrogen fluoride laser , HF ) , Ne , S ( in a sulfur lamp ) , Ar , Kr and Xe ; and medicine and pharmaceuticals : He , O , F , Cl , Br , I , Xe and Rn .
The number of compounds formed by nonmetals is vast . The first nine places in a " top 20 " table of elements most frequently encountered in 8 @,@ 427 @,@ 300 compounds , as listed in the Chemical Abstracts Service register for July 1987 , were occupied by nonmetals . Hydrogen , carbon , oxygen and nitrogen were found in the majority ( greater than 64 per cent ) of compounds . The highest rated metal , with an occurrence frequency of 2 @.@ 3 per cent , was iron , in 11th place .
= = Discovery = =
= = = Antiquity : C , S = = =
Sulfur and carbon were known in antiquity . The earliest known use of charcoal dates to around 3750 BCE . The Egyptians and Sumerians employed it for the reduction of copper , zinc , and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze . Diamonds were probably known from as early as 2500 BCE . The first true chemical analyses were made in the 18th century ; Lavoisier recognized carbon as an element in 1789 . Sulfur usage dates from before 2500 BCE ; it was recognized as an element by Antoine Lavoisier in 1777 .
= = = 17th century : P = = =
Phosphorus was prepared from urine , by Hennig Brand , in 1669 . It was the first element to be chemically discovered .
= = = 18th century : H , O , N , Cl = = =
Cavendish , in 1766 , was the first to distinguish hydrogen from other gases , although Paracelsus around 1500 , Robert Boyle ( 1670 ) , and Joseph Priestley { ? ) had observed its production by reacting strong acids with metals . Lavoisier named it in 1793 . Carl Wilhelm Scheele obtained oxygen by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771 , but did not publish his findings until 1777 . Priestley also prepared this new " air " by 1774 , but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element ; he named it in 1777 . Rutherford discovered nitrogen while he was studying at the University of Edinburgh . He showed that the air in which animals breathed , after removal of exhaled carbon dioxide , was no longer able to burn a candle . Scheele , Henry Cavendish , and Priestley also studied this element at about the same time ; Lavoisier named it in 1775 @-@ 6 . Scheele obtained chlorine from hydrochloric acid , but thought it was an oxide . Only in 1808 did Humphry Davy recognize it as an element .
= = = Early 19th century : I , Se , Br = = =
Courtois , in 1811 , discovered iodine in the ashes of seaweed . In 1817 , when Berzelius and Johan Gottlieb Gahn were working with lead they discovered a substance that reminded of tellurium . After more investigation Berzelius concluded that it was a new element , related to sulfur and tellurium . Because tellurium had been named for the Earth , Berzelius named the new element " selenium " , after the moon . Balard and Gmelin both discovered bromine in the autumn of 1825 and published their results in the following year .
= = = Late 19th century : He , F , Ar , Kr , Ne , Xe , Rn = = =
In 1868 , Janssen and Lockyer independently observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum that did not match that of any other element . In 1895 , in each case at around the same time , Ramsay , Cleve , and Langlet independently observed helium trapped in cleveite . André @-@ Marie Ampère predicted an element analogous to chlorine obtainable from hydrofluoric acid , and between 1812 and 1886 many researchers tried to obtain it . Fluorine was eventually isolated by Moissan , in 1886 . In 1894 , Lord Rayleigh and Ramsay discovered argon by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means . It was the first noble gas to be isolated . In 1898 , within a period of three weeks , Ramsay and Travers successively separated krypton , neon and xenon from liquid argon by their differences in boiling points . In 1898 , Dorn discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of radium ; Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw @-@ Gray subsequently isolated radon in 1910 .
= = Monographs = =
Emsley J 1971 , The inorganic chemistry of the non @-@ metals , Methuen Educational , London , ISBN 0423861204
Johnson RC 1966 , Introductory descriptive chemistry : selected nonmetals , their properties , and behavior , WA Benjamin , New York
Jolly WL 1966 , The chemistry of the non @-@ metals , Prentice @-@ Hall , Englewood Cliffs , New Jersey
Powell P & Timms PL 1974 , The chemistry of the non @-@ metals , Chapman & Hall , London , ISBN 0470695706
Sherwin E & Weston GJ 1966 , Chemistry of the non @-@ metallic elements , Pergamon Press , Oxford
Steudel R 1977 , Chemistry of the non @-@ metals : with an introduction to atomic structure and chemical bonding , English edition by FC Nachod & JJ Zuckerman , Berlin , Walter de Gruyter , ISBN 3110048825
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= Jessica Anderson =
Jessica Margaret Anderson ( 25 September 1916 – 9 July 2010 ) was an Australian novelist and short story writer . Born in Brisbane , Anderson lived the bulk of her life in Sydney apart from a few years in London . She began her career writing short stories for newspapers and drama scripts for radio , especially adaptations of well @-@ known novels . Embarking on her career as a novelist relatively late in life - her first novel was published when she was 47 - her early novels attracted little attention . She rose to prominence upon the publication of her fourth novel , Tirra Lirra by the River , published in 1978 . Although she remains best known for this work , several of her novels have garnered high acclaim , most notably The Impersonators ( 1980 ) and Stories from the Warm Zone and Sydney Stories ( 1987 ) , both of which have won awards . She won the Miles Franklin Literary Award twice , and has been published in Britain and the United States . Jessica Anderson died at Elizabeth Bay , New South Wales in 2010 , following a stroke . She was the mother of Australian screenwriter Laura Jones , her only child .
= = Early life = =
Jessica Anderson was born Jessica Margaret Queale in Gayndah , Queensland , on 25 September 1916 to Charles James Queale and Alice Queale ( née Hibbert ) . Anderson 's father , Charles Queale ( 1867 – 1933 ) , was the youngest child of a large Irish family , and the only one to be born in Australia . Upon their arrival in Queensland , the Queales set up residence at Gayndah in a house to which Anderson fleetingly refers in Stories from the Warm Zone and Sydney Stories as " the Old Barn " . Coming from a family of farmers , Charles Queale acquired a veterinarian 's certificate and took up a position in the Department of Agriculture and Stock . Anderson 's mother , Alice Queale ( 1879 – 1968 ) , was born in England , and emigrated to Queensland with her family at the age of three . The daughter of a Church of England music teacher , she had learnt the violin as a child and sometimes played for her family as an adult . Before marrying , Alice worked in the public service and joined the Queensland labour movement , in which she met Anderson 's father , Charles . Staunch Anglicans , Alice 's family disapproved of her marriage to Charles , and for the rest of her life Alice 's mother refused to see Charles or any of Alice 's children .
Jessica was the youngest of four children ; her elder siblings were Alan Lindsay Queale ( 1908 – 1982 ) , Vida Joan Queale ( 1910 – 1954 ) , and Patricia Queale . While each features to some extent in her semi @-@ autobiographical work , Stories from the Warm Zone and Sydney Stories , Anderson 's relationship with her brother , Alan ( Neal in the memoirs ) , who was eight years her senior , is the least developed in the collection . Indeed , Anderson stated in one interview that for many years , she and her brother " lived in different channels of the same family , " and that it was only during the later years of his life , when they were the last surviving members of their immediate family that they grew close . Alan Queale rose to some renown in his own right as a prolific archivist , mostly of Australiana and artefacts of Queensland 's history , and many of his collections remain in the State Library of Queensland and the National Library of Australia . Beyond the brief glimpses afforded by Stories from the Warm Zone and Sydney Stories , little is known about Anderson 's relationships with her two sisters , Joan and Patricia . Her eldest sister , Joan , died in her early forties , when Anderson was in her thirties , tragically leaving behind several young children . Her other sister , Patricia , also died of cancer some years later . Anderson writes very affectionately of her sisters .
For the benefit of their children 's schooling , the Queale family moved from Gayndah to the Brisbane suburb of Annerley when Anderson was five years old . Anderson 's father , Charles , somewhat begrudgingly left his father 's " meagre acres " and took up a job in an office in Brisbane 's CBD , from which " he instructed others how to farm , how to treat disease in stock and crops , but still longed to return to farming himself . "
For the remainder of Anderson 's childhood , the Queales lived at 56 Villa Street , in a house abutting Yeronga Memorial Park . On the opposite side of the park was Yeronga State School , the school at which Anderson began her formal education . In spite of its reputation as one of the best state schools in Queensland at the time , Yeronga State School rapidly became a site of dread and frustration for Anderson , who suffered from a speech impediment that caused strife for her in the classroom . Anderson 's speech impediment ( as well as her occasional flirtations with truancy ) became such a hindrance to her education that her parents decided that she was to be home @-@ schooled by her mother for a year , while attending weekly speech therapy sessions in the city . In spite of these efforts , Anderson 's slight stammer was to stay with her for the rest of her life ; several observers commented that the impediment lent her speech a careful and deliberate air . Following her primary school education , Anderson attended high school at Brisbane State High School . Upon graduation , she attended Brisbane Technical College Art School .
Anderson 's father died when she was just sixteen . Suffering from chronic bronchitis and emphysema , and having survived diphtheria and typhoid fever , her father 's illness is a pall that hangs over many of the tales in Stories from the Warm Zone , and his death was undoubtedly a " bitter blow " to the young girl and her siblings .
Anderson appeared to have a complicated relationship with Brisbane , a city " where brutality and gentleness rested so easily side by side . " Although she believed 1920s Brisbane to be quite parochial , she stated that it was not " altogether narrow and rigid . " She took the well @-@ thumbed copies of the great Russian novels in Brisbane 's public libraries as evidence of the presence of many frustrated people in Brisbane ; " people with aspiration beyond their society . " Herself a victim of the stifling social expectations of the old colonial town , she has stated that she " would have like to be an architect , but it seemed at the time absolutely impossible for a girl to be an architect , especially in Brisbane . "
= = Life as a commercial writer = =
In 1935 , at the age of 18 , Anderson left her Brisbane home to live in Sydney . Despite the fact that she spent her childhood in Queensland , she stated in interviews that she felt more affinity with Sydney , the city where she was to spend the bulk of her adult life . There she subsisted on wages from a number of sources , including a slide @-@ painting job , and a job designing electric signs , where she was able to make use of her art school training , and later from work in shops and factories . She and her friends lived at Potts Point in " big seedy decaying mansions with gardens running right down to the harbour . " In a city still recovering from the ravages of The Great Depression , life for Anderson was not altogether easy : " Times were very hard , " she recalled ; " People were poor , but very free . We had a good life . "
As Anderson remained throughout her life evasive about the details of her life as a commercial writer , it is not known when she began writing commercially under pseudonyms , what those pseudonyms were , or , indeed , how much she wrote . She revealed only that she began writing for magazines and newspapers out of commercial necessity , and rarely under her own name . Although she achieved success later in this field , she sometimes stated that , as her writing improved , her pieces were more frequently turned down for publication . In her thirties , she began to write for commercial radio . Beginning with half @-@ hour slots , Anderson gradually became interested in the technique of crafting radio plays , and began submitting some of her better work to the ABC under her own name . She later ascribed her fondness for writing the expansive dialogue in her novels to her early experience writing radio plays .
It was in Sydney that Anderson met her first husband , Ross McGill , with whom she lived for three years before their marriage in 1940 . Anderson described McGill as " a commercial artist who longed to be a painter . " Tragically , nearly all of his works were destroyed in a fire , and Anderson was left with only a few drawings of his that he had given to a mutual friend , who then generously shared them with Anderson .
Anderson and McGill temporarily relocated to London in 1937 . There , Anderson found employment that she described as " donkey work " : she did research for a magazine named Townsman , and worked as a typist . Meanwhile , her husband , McGill , worked as a layout artist for Lever Brothers Agency , while continuing to paint in his spare time . While some critics have proffered this stint in England as evidence of the semi @-@ autobiographical nature of Tirra Lirra by the River , Anderson rejected such claims , asserting that , while all of her characters had something of her in them , none were entirely autobiographical .
In 1940 , Anderson and McGill returned to Sydney . During the war , Anderson worked as a seasonal fruit picker in the Australian Women 's Land Army . She gave birth to her only child , Laura Jones ( née McGill ) in 1946 . Jones now works as a film and television screenwriter in Australia .
= = First novels = =
After fourteen years of marriage , Anderson and McGill divorced , and she married Leonard Culbert Anderson in 1955 . More comfortable financial circumstance 's following her second marriage allowed her to fulfil her lifelong intention to write a novel .
= = = An Ordinary Lunacy = = =
She began work on her first novel , An Ordinary Lunacy , relatively late in life : she started writing in her late thirties , and it was published only in 1963 , by which time she was aged 47 . Although it began life as a radio play , Anderson quickly found that An Ordinary Lunacy was " interesting enough for a novel , so I went off , and it got quite out of hand . " The novel detailed the romance between thirty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old Sydney barrister , David Byfield , and Isobel Purdy , a woman accused of murdering her husband . Acclaimed for its adept portrayal of the protean nature of romantic love , An Ordinary Lunacy foregrounds the different perspectives of three women : Isobel , Daisy Byfield ( David 's mother ) , and Myra Magaskill , David 's ex @-@ lover . Pam Gilbert writes that " Anderson 's construction of the tensions existing between three women such as Daisy , Isobel and Myra offers an interesting platform for an exposition of romance and passion from a woman 's perspective . "
Upon completion of the novel , Anderson felt that it did not stand a good chance of being published in Australia , taking it instead to London publishing houses . It was taken up by Macmillan Publishers in London , and by Scribner in New York , and although it was not a great commercial success , it received a good deal of positive critical feedback . Anderson modestly maintained that the novel was little more than " a good start . "
= = = A Question of Money = = =
Anderson 's second novel , A Question of Money , was never published . She maintained that this unpublished work merited publication , and suggested that it had been " rejected at a time when sex was new in writing and everything had to be strongly sexual or violent . " Although she considered revising A Question of Money for publication in the 1980s , as a more established author , she did not , and the work remains unpublished . Following the disappointment of A Question of Money , Anderson returned temporarily to radio script writing . She adapted a number of great works , including several by Henry James and Charles Dickens , which she found to be a " very healing " experience .
= = = The Last Man 's Head = = =
Anderson 's second published novel , The Last Man 's Head , published in 1970 , centres on the appropriately named detective , Alec Probyn , and his struggle to resolve a murder , of which he suspects his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Robbie Maciver , to be guilty . Probyn 's efforts are frustrated by the complex structure of the dominant Maciver family , which seeks to deal with Robbie internally . Detective novel becomes a psychological thriller when a tormented Probyn kills Robbie . Like An Ordinary Lunacy , The Last Man 's Head features a number of female characters who test the limits of their social roles , if not outright rebelling against them . Although Macmillan Publishers in London immediately accepted the novel for publication , it was inappropriately typecast as a simple crime novel , a decision with which Anderson and critics disagreed .
= = = The Commandant = = =
Anderson 's third and favourite novel was her only work of historical fiction , The Commandant , published in 1975 . Based on the story of the murder of the infamously brutal penal Commandant , Captain Patrick Logan , which Anderson had initially heard recounted in her childhood , the story is given a " new , partly feminist perspective in that it is centred on the experience of Logan 's young sister @-@ in @-@ law . " Seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Frances O 'Beirne , Letty Logan 's sister , travels from Ireland to Moreton Bay Penal Settlement in 1830 to visit her sister . Although Frances is an invented character , most of the other characters are , in fact , based on accounts of real people from Anderson 's extensive primary research . She created Frances to give voice to her own narrative commentary . Anderson once playfully likened the Moreton Bay social climate to Elizabeth Gaskell 's Cranford ; Susan Sheridan notes that the likeness is particularly true of the discord between the elegant gentility of the middle @-@ class , and the cruelty of the penal colony .
As was the case with The Last Man 's Head , Anderson and many critics felt that publishers packaged The Commandant inappropriately , making it look like a " Regency romance . " She states in one interview that this " was very disappointing . Design and presentation , those things really matter . "
= = Success and later novels = =
Anderson 's second marriage ended in divorce in 1976 . By this time , Anderson had established herself as a professional novelist , with each of her novels achieving moderate success .
= = = Tirra Lirra by the River = = =
Her greatest mainstream success , however , was to come in 1978 with the publication of her fourth novel , Tirra Lirra by the River . The title is a quote from Tennyson 's great ballad , " The Lady of Shalott " , which tells the tale of a female artist who meets a tragic end when she attempts to move beyond artistic isolation . The novel details the life of Nora Porteous , whose natural creativity is constrained by the fact that " she herself doesn 't know that she 's an artist . She struggles through , trying to arrive at her art and never succeeding . " After thirty odd years away , Nora , now elderly , returns to Brisbane , where she spent her childhood . The novel is essentially a " personally commentated replay of a life , " during which Nora recounts and reflects upon the events that have shaped the course of her life . Anderson chose to create a woman from a very specific era : born several decades before Anderson herself was alive , Nora would have lived through World War I , World War II and The Great Depression , in a time and pace where " artists , although they were known to exist , were supposed to exist elsewhere . " Nora struggles to submerge her various artistic and unconventional selves in favour of a more socially acceptable constructed persona . Nora uses the " spinning globe , " her equivalent of the Lady of Shalott 's " crystal mirror , " to explore the various stages and facets of her life , and to conceal some of its more unsavoury aspects from herself , and from the reader .
The novel began its life as a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ word novella , which was prize @-@ winning in its own right . As it was an awkward length for a novel , publishers requested that Anderson extend the story , which she did following a trip to London in 1974 . In 1975 Tirra Lirra was broadcast as a radio play , and in 1977 Macmillan Publishers in Melbourne accepted it for publishing . In the year of its publication , Tirra Lirra won the Australian Natives ' Association Literary Award , and the Miles Franklin Literary Award , Australia 's most prestigious literary award . Anderson attributed its tremendous success in some degree to the fact that " it is less complex , I think . It 's easier to read than most of my others . "
= = = The Impersonators = = =
Anderson 's fifth novel , The Impersonators , published in 1980 , won her the prestigious Miles Franklin Literary Award for the second time . The novel enjoyed further critical acclaim when , in 1981 , it won the Christina Stead Fiction Award at the New South Wales Premier 's Literary Awards . Renamed The Only Daughter for publication in the United States , the novel details Sylvia Foley 's return to Australia after having lived in England for twenty years . Having come to the conclusion that worldly possessions and marriage are the main stumbling blocks to achieving freedom , Sylvia returns to find each of her Australian relatives bound by both constraints , making them " impersonators . "
= = = Stories from the Warm Zone and Sydney Stories = = =
In 1987 , Anderson published Stories from the Warm Zone and Sydney Stories . As the title suggests , the book is divided into two sections : the first details a number of anecdotes from Anderson 's childhood involving her family , to all of whom she gives false names , which has been described as " her most poignant evocation of her childhood home " ; the second part , less obviously autobiographical , sketches various lives and relationships against the backdrop of urban Sydney . The book was well @-@ received and won The Age Book of the Year in 1987 .
= = = Taking Shelter = = =
In 1989 , Anderson published her sixth novel , Taking Shelter . Set in Sydney in the winter of 1986 , the novel 's focus is twenty @-@ one @-@ year @-@ old Beth Jeams and her relationships . Overwhelmed by her six half brothers , Beth travels to Sydney at the request of her cousin , Kyrie . Although she is engaged to Miles Ligard , a twenty @-@ nine @-@ year @-@ old lawyer , at the beginning of the novel , he eventually admits that he is gay , and Beth leaves him . Almost immediately she meets and begins a relationship with Marcus Pirie , whom she discovers she had met in Rome when they were both children . When Beth discovers that she is pregnant , she and Marcus settle into a house owned by Juliet McCracken , who calls herself Miles ' " spare old godmother . " In fact , Juliet performs the role of fairy @-@ godmother to a number characters in the novel , including Beth and Marcus ; Elaine Barry suggests that this , along with Anderson 's " use of coincidence , dreams , [ and a ] superficially happy ending , " makes Taking Shelter " almost a parody of popular romantic fiction . "
= = = One of the Wattle Birds = = =
One of the Wattle Birds , Anderson 's seventh and final novel , was published in 1994 . Set in Sydney , it details three days in the life of Cecily Ambruss . Although the novel is ostensibly set in the present , the final paragraph of the novel reveals that the three @-@ day sequence has been devised by Cecily as a means of coping with the fact that a year earlier , her mother , Christine had died of breast cancer , while Cecily had been away on holiday . Throughout the novel , Cecily attempts to resolve two quandaries : she does not understand why her mother did not tell her about that fatal illness and let her go overseas , refusing to let family members call her back , even for the funeral , nor why Christine included the cruel stipulation in her will that Cecily must marry before she can inherit . In addition to its adept depiction of the intricacies of social and family life , One of the Wattle Birds speaks to the process of writing and creating , as Cecily is herself a writer .
On 9 July 2010 , Anderson died in Sydney at the age of 93 following a stroke . She was survived by her daughter , Laura Jones , Laura 's husband , Peter Jones , and their daughter , Olivia Farrell .
= = Starting too late = =
Anderson was by no means alone in her late emergence onto the literary stage : Geordie Williamson notes that several of Anderson 's Australian female contemporaries including Elizabeth Jolley , Olga Masters , and Amy Witting did not begin publishing until they had reached retirement age . He suggests that each of these women was constrained largely by material circumstances , including " the demands of family and work , lack of financial independence , an indifferent publishing environment . " When discussing her career , Anderson was quite clear about where her duties lay : " When I was married , and writing at home ( writing was my second job ; my first was the house ) ... I never craved to be out in the workplace . " He suggests that , as well as adverse material circumstances , Anderson 's career was delayed , and her success mitigated by modesty and a certain " diffidence regarding her gifts . " In her own essay entitled " Starting Too Late , " Anderson complains that " they are unwilling servants , those skills we learn too late . " She would perhaps have described success as such a skill . When asked about how winning awards had affected her life , she replied that :
... it 's encouraging to win a prize . But the success of Tirra Lirra , plus the prize it won and the two prizes The Impersonators won , made me feel less private and more vulnerable , and I had to get over that in order to go on at all . I had never been interviewed before , or I had never been asked to be interviewed , and suddenly I had all these interviews . It was a challenge I found hard to meet . I almost wished I had kept writing under a pseudonym as I had begun …
In spite of her late start , Anderson 's career as a novelist spanned three decades during which she produced eight critically acclaimed works . Of these , only Tirra Lirra by the River remains in print .
= = = Novels = = =
An Ordinary Lunacy ( 1963 )
The Last Man 's Head ( 1970 )
The Commandant ( 1975 )
Tirra Lirra by the River ( 1978 )
The Impersonators ( 1980 ) ( Published in the United States as The Only Daughter )
Taking Shelter ( 1989 )
One of the Wattle Birds ( 1994 )
= = = Short story collections = = =
Stories from the Warm Zone and Sydney Stories ( 1987 )
= = = Radio plays = = =
The American ( 1966 ) ( adaptation of the novel by Henry James )
The Aspern Papers ( 1967 ) ( adaptation of the novella by Henry James )
Daisy Miller ( 1968 ) ( adaptation of the novella by Henry James )
The Maid 's Part ( 1967 )
The Blackmail Caper ( 1972 )
Quite Sweet , Really ( 1972 )
Tirra Lirra by the River ( 1975 )
The Last Man 's Head ( 1983 )
A Tale of Two Cities ( serial ) ( adaptation of the novel by Charles Dickens )
Outbreak of Love ( serial ) ( adaptation of the novel by Martin Boyd )
|
= Contact ( 1997 American film ) =
Contact is a 1997 American science fiction drama film directed by Robert Zemeckis . It is a film adaptation of Carl Sagan 's 1985 novel of the same name ; Sagan and his wife Ann Druyan wrote the story outline for the film .
Jodie Foster portrays the film 's protagonist , Dr. Eleanor " Ellie " Arroway , a SETI scientist who finds strong evidence of extraterrestrial life and is chosen to make first contact . The film also stars Matthew McConaughey , James Woods , Tom Skerritt , William Fichtner , John Hurt , Angela Bassett , Jake Busey , and David Morse .
Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan began working on the film in 1979 . Together , they wrote a 100 + page film treatment and set up Contact at Warner Bros. with Peter Guber and Lynda Obst as producers . When development stalled on the film , Sagan published Contact as a novel in 1985 and the film adaptation was rejuvenated in 1989 . Roland Joffé and George Miller had planned to direct it , but Joffé dropped out in 1993 and Warner Bros. fired Miller in 1995 . Robert Zemeckis was eventually hired to direct , and filming for Contact lasted from September 1996 to February 1997 . Sony Pictures Imageworks handled most of the visual effects sequences .
The film was released on July 11 , 1997 , to mostly positive reviews . Contact grossed approximately $ 171 million in worldwide box office totals . The film won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and received multiple awards and nominations at the Saturn Awards . The release of Contact was plagued by controversies from the Clinton administration and CNN , as well as individual lawsuits from George Miller and Francis Ford Coppola .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Ellie Arroway ( Jodie Foster ) works for the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence ( SETI ) program at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico . Fascinated by science and communication since she was a child , she listens to radio emissions from space hoping to find evidence of alien life . Science Advisor to the President David Drumlin ( Tom Skerritt ) pulls the funding from SETI because he believes the endeavor is futile . Arroway gains backing from secretive billionaire industrialist S. R. Hadden ( John Hurt ) , which allows her to continue the project at the Very Large Array ( VLA ) in New Mexico .
Four years later , with Drumlin seeking to close SETI , Arroway discovers a signal repeating a sequence of prime numbers , apparently sent from the star system Vega some 26 light @-@ years away . This announcement causes Drumlin and the National Security Council led by Michael Kitz ( James Woods ) , to attempt to take control of the facility . Arroway 's team then discover a video picture buried in the signal : Adolf Hitler 's opening address at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin . Arroway and her team postulate that this would have been the first television signal strong enough to leave Earth 's atmosphere , taking 26 years to reach Vega and then transmitted back from there .
The project is put under tight security and its progress followed worldwide . Arroway learns that the signal also contains more than 60 @,@ 000 pages of indecipherable data . The reclusive Hadden secretly meets with Arroway to provide the means to decode the pages , found when they are arranged in three dimensions rather than two @-@ dimensional pages . The pages reveal schematics for a complex machine which is determined to be some kind of transport for a single occupant .
The nations of the world fund the construction of the machine at Cape Canaveral . An international panel is assembled to choose a candidate to travel in the machine . Although Arroway is a frontrunner to go , her hopes are scuppered by Christian philosopher Palmer Joss ( Matthew McConaughey ) , a panel member whom Arroway met in Puerto Rico and had a brief romantic encounter . When he brings attention to her atheism , the panel selects Drumlin instead on the belief he would be more representative of humanity . However , on the day the machine is tested , a religious fanatic ( Jake Busey ) destroys the machine in a suicide bombing , killing Drumlin and many others .
A cancer @-@ stricken Hadden , now in residence on the Mir space station , reveals to Arroway that a second machine was secretly made in Japan , and that Arroway will be the one to go . Outfitted with several recording devices , Arroway enters the machine 's pod which is then dropped into four rapidly spinning rings causing the pod to apparently travel through a series of wormholes . Arroway sees a radio array @-@ like structure at Vega and signs of an advanced civilization on another planet . She then finds herself in a surreal beachfront landscape , similar to a childhood picture she drew of Florida , and a blurry figure approaches that becomes her deceased father ( David Morse ) . Arroway recognizes him as an alien taking her father 's form and attempts to ask questions . The alien tells her that the familiar landscape and form were used to make their first contact easier for her and that this journey was just humanity 's first step to joining other spacefaring species .
Arroway falls unconscious as she begins traveling back through a wormhole . She awakens to find herself on the floor of the pod , the mission control team repeatedly hailing her . She learns that , from outside the machine , it appears the pod merely dropped through the machine 's rings and landed in a safety net . Arroway insists that she was gone for approximately 18 hours , but her recording devices show only static . A Congressional Committee is formed and speculates that the Vega signal and machine were a hoax designed by the now deceased Hadden . Although she cannot prove it happened , Arroway asks the committee to accept the truth of her testimony on faith . In a private conversation , Kitz and White House official Rachel Constantine ( Angela Bassett ) reflect on confidential information that , although Arroway 's recording device only recorded static , it recorded 18 hours of it . Arroway and Joss reunite , and Arroway receives ongoing financial support to expand the SETI program .
= = Cast = =
Jodie Foster as Dr. Eleanor " Ellie " Ann Arroway , the SETI scientist who first discovers the alien contact message
Matthew McConaughey as Palmer Joss , a renowned Christian philosopher who becomes romantically involved with Arroway
James Woods as Michael Kitz , the skeptical National Security Advisor who also heads the Congressional investigation of Arroway 's mission
John Hurt as S.R. Hadden , an eccentric and reclusive billionaire industrialist who is fundamental in financing Dr. Arroway 's research and deciphering the alien 's message
Tom Skerritt as David Drumlin , a scientific aide to the President of the United States and director of the National Science Foundation .
Angela Bassett as Rachel Constantine , the White House Chief of Staff to President Clinton
William Fichtner as Kent Clark , a blind SETI scientist who assists Arroway in her studies
David Morse as Theodore Arroway , Ellie 's father , who encourages his daughter to study science . He also later plays the alien : the first extraterrestrial to make contact with humanity .
Jena Malone as young Ellie
Jake Busey as Joseph , a religious fanatic
Rob Lowe as Richard Rank , the leader of the Conservative Coalition ( a parody of Ralph Reed and the Christian Coalition )
Geoffrey Blake as Fisher , a SETI scientist
Max Martini as Willie , a SETI scientist
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Carl Sagan conceived the idea for Contact in 1979 . The same year , Lynda Obst , one of Sagan 's closest friends , was hired by film producer Peter Guber to be a studio executive for his production company , Casablanca FilmWorks . She pitched Guber the idea for Contact , who commissioned a development deal . Sagan and Ann Druyan ( who later became his wife ) wrote a 100 + page film treatment , finishing in November 1980 . Druyan explained , " Carl 's and my dream was to write something that would be a fictional representation of what contact would actually be like , that would convey something of the true grandeur of the universe . " They added the science and religion analogies as a metaphor of philosophical and intellectual interest in searching for the truth of both humanity and alien contact .
Sagan incorporated Kip Thorne 's study of wormhole space travel into the screenplay . The characterization of Dr. Ellie Arroway was inspired by Dr. Jill Tarter , head of Project Phoenix of the SETI Institute ; Jodie Foster researched the lead role by meeting her . Tarter served as a consultant on the story , realistically portraying struggling careers of women scientists from the 1950s to 1970s . The writers debated whether Arroway should have a baby at the film 's end . Although Guber was impressed with Sagan and Druyan 's treatment , he hired various screenwriters to rewrite the script . New characters were added , one of them a Native American park ranger @-@ turned @-@ astronaut . Guber suggested that Arroway have an estranged teenage son , whom he believed would add more depth to the storyline . " Here was a woman consumed with the idea that there was something out there worth listening to , " Guber said , " but the one thing she could never make contact with was her own child . To me , that 's what the film had to be about . " Sagan and Druyan disagreed with Guber 's idea and it was not incorporated into the storyline . In 1982 , Guber took Contact to Warner Bros. Pictures and with the film 's development stalled , Sagan started to turn his original idea into a novel , which was published by Simon and Schuster in September 1985 . The film adaptation remained in development and Guber eventually vacated his position at Warner Bros. in 1989 .
Guber became the new president of Sony Pictures Entertainment and tried to purchase the film rights of Contact from Warner , but the studio refused . Coincidentally , in 1989 , Obst was hired as a new executive at Warner and began to fast track the film , by hiring more writers . Roland Joffé was eventually hired to direct , using a screenplay by James V. Hart . Joffé almost commenced pre @-@ production before he dropped out and Obst then hired Michael Goldenberg to rewrite the script , who finished his second draft in late 1993 . Goldenberg 's second draft rekindled Warner Bros. ' interest in Contact and Robert Zemeckis was offered the chance to direct , but he turned down the opportunity in favor of making a film based on the life of Harry Houdini . " The first script [ for Contact ] I saw was great until the last page and a half , " Zemeckis recalled . " And then it had the sky open up and these angelic aliens putting on a light show and I said , ' That 's just not going to work . ' "
In December 1993 , Warner Bros. hired George Miller to direct and Contact commenced pre @-@ production . Miller cast Jodie Foster in the lead role , approached Ralph Fiennes to play Palmer Joss and also considered casting Linda Hunt as the President of the United States . In addition to having aliens put on a laser lighting display around Earth , another version of the Goldenberg scripts had an alien wormhole swallow up the planet , transporting Earth to the center of the galaxy . Miller also asked Goldenberg to rewrite Contact in an attempt to portray the Pope as a key supporting character . Warner Bros. was hoping to have the film ready for release by Christmas 1996 , but under Miller 's direction pre @-@ production lasted longer than expected . The studio fired the director , blaming pushed @-@ back start dates , budget concerns , and Miller 's insistence that the script needed five more weeks of rewriting . Robert Zemeckis , who previously turned down the director 's position , decided to accept the offer . Warner Bros. granted Zemeckis total artistic control and the right of final cut privilege . The director cast Matthew McConaughey as Palmer Joss , who dropped out of the lead role in The Jackal to take the role in Contact . Despite being diagnosed with myelodysplasia in 1994 , Sagan continued to be involved in the production of the film . For the cast and main crew members , he conducted an academic conference that depicted a detailed history of astronomy .
During the development of Contact , the production crew watched Stanley Kubrick 's 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) for inspiration .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on September 24 , 1996 , and ended on February 28 , 1997 . The first shooting took place at the Very Large Array ( VLA ) near Socorro , New Mexico . " Shooting at the VLA was , of course , spectacular but also one of the most difficult aspects of our filming , " producer Steve Starkey said . " It is a working facility , so in order for us to accomplish shots for the movie , we had to negotiate with the National Science Foundation for ' dish control ' in order to move the dishes in the direction we needed to effect the most dramatic shot for the story . " After arduous first weeks of location shooting in New Mexico and Arizona , production for Contact returned to Los Angeles for five months ' worth of location and sound stage shooting that used a total of nine soundstages at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , and Culver Studios . All together , the art department created more than 25 sets .
In an attempt to create a sense of realism for the storyline , principal CNN news outlet commentators were scripted into Contact . More than 25 news reporters from CNN had roles in the film and the CNN programs Larry King Live and Crossfire were also included . Ann Druyan makes a cameo appearance as herself , debating with Rob Lowe 's character , Richard Rank , on Crossfire . In January 1997 , a second unit was sent to Puerto Rico for one week at the Arecibo Observatory .
Other second unit work took place in Fiji and Newfoundland , Canada . Also essential to the production were a host of technical consultants from the SETI Institute , the California Institute of Technology , the VLA and a former White House staff member to consult on Washington D.C. and government protocol issues . Sagan visited the set a number of times , where he also helped with last @-@ minute rewrites . Filming was briefly delayed with the news of his death on December 20 , 1996 . Contact was dedicated to Sagan : ' For Carl ' comes on the screen at the fade .
Cinematographer Don Burgess shot the film in anamorphic format using Panavision cameras as well as using large format 65mm and VistaVision for special effects shots . The sound designers used Pro Tools software for the audio mixing , which was done at Skywalker Sound .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Designing Contact 's visual effects sequences was a joint effort among eight separate VFX companies . This team included Sony Pictures Imageworks , Peter Jackson 's Weta Digital , George Lucas ' Industrial Light & Magic , and Effects Associates , with Pixar 's RenderMan used for CGI rendering . Weta Digital , in particular , was responsible for designing the wormhole sequence . Jodie Foster admitted she had difficulty with blue screen technology because it was a first for the actress . " It was a blue room . Blue walls , blue roof . It was just blue , blue , blue , " Foster explained . " And I was rotated on a Lazy Susan with the camera moving on a computerized arm . It was really tough . "
News footage of then @-@ President Bill Clinton was digitally altered to make it appear as if he is speaking about alien contact . This was not the original plan for the film ; Zemeckis had initially approached Sidney Poitier to play the president , but the actor turned the role down in favor of The Jackal . Shortly after Poitier 's refusal , Zemeckis saw a NASA announcement in August 1996 . " Clinton gave his Mars rock speech , " the director explained , " and I swear to God it was like it was scripted for this movie . When he said the line ' We will continue to listen closely to what it has to say , ' I almost died . I stood there with my mouth hanging open . "
One notable feature of Contact is its use of digital color correction . This approach helped solve continuity errors during the location shooting at the Very Large Array in New Mexico . " The weather killed us , so we were going back in and changing it enough so that the skies and colors and times of day all seem roughly the same , " visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston commented .
The opening scene is a three @-@ minute computer @-@ generated sequence , beginning with a view of Earth from high in the exosphere and listening in on numerous radio waves of modern programming emitting from the planet . The camera then starts zooming backward , passing the Moon , Mars , and other features of the solar system , then to the Oort cloud , interstellar space , the Local Bubble , the Milky Way , other galaxies of the Local Group , and eventually into deep space . As this occurs , the radio signals start to drop out and reflect older programming , representing the distance these signals would have traveled at the speed of light , eventually becoming silent as the distance becomes much greater . The sequence eventually resolves into the iris of young Ellie 's eye as she is listening on her amateur radio set . This scale view shot of the entire universe was inspired by the short documentary film Powers of Ten ( 1977 ) . At the time , it was the longest continuous computer @-@ generated effect for a live @-@ action film , eventually surpassed by the opening sequence from The Day After Tomorrow ( 2004 ) .
The decoding of the extraterrestrial message , with its architectural drawings of the machine , was created by Ken Ralston and Sony Pictures Imageworks . This is the sixth film collaboration between director Zemeckis and VFX supervisor Ralston . Imageworks created more than 350 visual effects shots , using a combination of model and miniature shots and digital computer work . On designing the Machine , Zemeckis explained that " The Machine in Sagan 's novel was somewhat vague , which is fine for a book . In a movie , though , if you 're going to build a giant physical structure of alien design , you have to make it believable . " He continued that " it had to be huge , so that the audience would feel like it was bigger than man should be tinkering with . It had to look absolutely real . " The machine was then designed by concept artist Steve Burg , reusing a conceptual design he had originally created to appear as the " Time Displacement Device " in Terminator 2 in a scene that did not make the final cut .
Early conceptual designs of the Pod itself were based , as it existed in the novel , on one of the primary shapes in geometry , a dodecahedron , or a twelve @-@ sided figure . Eventually the Pod was modified to a spherical capsule that encases the traveler . Zemeckis and the production crew also made several visits to the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral , where officials allowed them access to sites off @-@ limits to most visitors . Filmmakers were also brought onto Launch Complex 39 before the launch of the space shuttle . There , they concentrated on the mechanics of the elevator and the gantry area and loading arm . The resulting photographs and research were incorporated into the design of the machine 's surrounding supports and gantry . Once the concept met with the filmmakers ' approval , physical construction began on the sets for the Pod itself , the interior of the elevator , and the gantry , which took almost four months to build . The rest of the effects were compiled digitally by Imageworks .
The climactic scene depicting the mysterious beach near the galactic core where Arroway makes contact , in particular , called for major visual innovations . The goal was an idyllic seashore with a sky blazing with stars that might exist near the core of the galaxy . Ralston said that " the thought was that this beach would have a heightened reality . One that might make the everyday world seem like a vague daydream . " To keep the question alive whether any of it was real in Arroway 's mind , elements such as ocean waves running in reverse and palm tree shadows swaying with sped @-@ up motion were applied .
The Hitler newsreel also required digital manipulation .
= = = Music = = =
The original score was composed by Alan Silvestri , most of which was released on August 19 , 1997 , by Warner Bros. Records . The full score is approximately an hour long , 44 minutes of which is on the CD , including every major cue . The CD track entitled " Good to Go " features a slightly different opening — a brief brass motif that is not in the film — but all other cues are identical in orchestration to the mix in the film .
The Region 2 Special Edition DVD release contains a 5 @.@ 1 isolated score track , which presents the complete score ( this feature , as with many isolated scores , is not mentioned in most product descriptions of the DVD ) .
= = = Science and religion = = =
Contact often suggests that cultural conflicts between religion and science would be brought to the fore by the apparent contact with aliens that occurs in the film . A point of discussion is the existence of God , with several different positions being portrayed . A description of an emotionally intense experience by Palmer Joss , which he describes as seeing God , is met by Arroway 's suggestion that " some part of [ him ] needed to have it " — that it was a significant personal experience but indicative of nothing greater . Joss compares his certainty that God exists to Arroway 's certainty that she loved her deceased father , despite her being unable to prove it .
Contact depicts intense debate occurring as a result of the apparent contact with aliens . Many clips of well @-@ known debate shows such as Crossfire and Larry King Live are shown , with participants discussing the implications of the message , asking whether it is proof of the existence of alien life or of God , and whether science is encroaching upon religious ground by , as one believer puts it , " talking to your god for you . " The head of a religious organization casts doubt on the morality of building the machine , noting : " We don 't even know whether [ the aliens ] believe in God . " The first machine is ultimately destroyed by a religious extremist , in the belief that building it was detrimental to humankind .
Although the revelation at the end of the film that Arroway 's recording device recorded approximately 18 hours of static is arguably conclusive proof of the fact of — if not the experience of — her " journey " , several coincidences and indications throughout the film cast doubt on its authenticity . Director Robert Zemeckis indicated : " The point of the movie is for there always to be a certain amount of doubt [ as to whether the aliens were real ] . " These indications consist mostly of visual cues during the " journey " that echo Ellie 's experiences earlier in the film ( which Ellie believed to be the result of the aliens " downloading [ her ] thoughts and memories " ) , but the timing of the message 's arrival and its eventual decoding are also highly coincidental : the message was first received shortly before Arroway and her team were to be ejected from the VLA facility and was successfully decoded only by S.R. Hadden ( Arroway 's only sponsor , who was close to death from cancer ) after weeks of failed attempts by the team at the VLA .
At the end of the film , Arroway is put into a position that she had traditionally viewed with skepticism and contempt : that of believing something with complete certainty , despite being unable to prove it in the face of not only widespread incredulity and skepticism ( which she admits that as a scientist she would normally share ) but also evidence apparently to the contrary .
Zemeckis stated that he intended the message of the film to be that science and religion can coexist rather than being opposing camps , as shown by the coupling of scientist Arroway with the religious Joss , as well as his acceptance that the " journey " indeed took place . This , and scattered references throughout the film , posit that science and religion are not nominally incompatible : one interviewer , after asking Arroway whether the construction of the machine — despite not knowing what will happen when it is activated — is too dangerous , suggests that it is being built on the " faith " that the alien designers , as Arroway puts it , " know what they 're doing . "
= = Release = =
Contact 's release in July 1997 rekindled public interest in Sagan 's 1985 novel . The book remained on the The New York Times Best Seller list from July 27 to September 21 , 1997 .
= = = Box office = = =
Contact premiered on July 1 , 1997 , at the Westwood Theater in Los Angeles , California . The film was released in the United States on July 11 , 1997 , in 1 @,@ 923 theaters , earning $ 20 @,@ 584 @,@ 908 in its opening weekend . Contact eventually grossed $ 100 @,@ 920 @,@ 329 in the US and $ 70 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 in foreign countries , reaching a worldwide total of $ 171 @,@ 120 @,@ 329 .
= = = Home video = = =
Contact was released on VHS and the ( then new ) DVD format in December 1997 . Among the special features , the DVD contains three separate audio commentaries by director Zemeckis and producer Starkey , another by visual effects supervisors Ken Ralston and Stephen Rosenbaum , along with one by star Jodie Foster . Contact was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on October 6 , 2009 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Contact received mostly positive reviews from critics . On the basis of 62 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 63 % of critics enjoyed the film , with an average score of 6 @.@ 8 out of 10 . Metacritic calculated an average score of 62 out of 100 , based on 22 reviews , denoting " generally favorable reviews " . Roger Ebert gave a largely positive review , believing that Contact was on par with Steven Spielberg 's Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 ) as Hollywood 's most cinematic study of extraterrestrial life . " Movies like Contact help explain why movies like Independence Day leave me feeling empty and unsatisfied , " Ebert commented . On December 21 , 2011 , Ebert added Contact to his Great Movies collection .
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film carried a more philosophical portrait of the science fiction genre than did other films , but he believed that Contact still managed " to satisfy the cravings of the general public who simply want to be entertained , " he said . Internet reviewer James Berardinelli called Contact " one of 1997 's finest motion pictures , and is a forceful reminder that Hollywood is still capable of making magic . " Berardinelli also felt that the film was on par with Stanley Kubrick 's 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) to be one of the greatest science fiction films ever made . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle largely enjoyed the first 90 minutes of Contact but felt that director Robert Zemeckis was too obsessed with visual effects rather than cohesive storytelling for the pivotal climax . Rita Kempley , writing in The Washington Post , gave a largely negative review : she did not like the film 's main premise , which Kempley described as " a preachy debate between sanctity and science . "
= = = Awards = = =
Sound designers Randy Thom , Tom Johnson , Dennis S. Sands and William B. Kaplan were nominated for the Academy Award for Sound but lost to Titanic . Jodie Foster was nominated the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture Drama , but Judi Dench was awarded the category for her work in Mrs. Brown . Contact won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation over The Fifth Element , Gattaca , Men in Black and Starship Troopers . The Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films awarded individual awards to Jodie Foster ( Best Actress ) and Jena Malone ( Best Performance by a Younger Actor ) at the 24th Saturn Awards . Director Robert Zemeckis , writers James V. Hart and Michael Goldenberg , film score composer Alan Silvestri and the visual effects supervisors also received Saturn Award nominations . Contact was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film , but lost to Men in Black .
American Film Institute lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Science Fiction Film
= = Controversies = =
= = = Bill Clinton = = =
A meteorite was found in Antarctica in 1984 , thought to be from Mars . Twelve years later , a paper by a NASA scientist was published in the journal , Science , proposing that the meteorite might contain evidence for microscopic fossils of Martian bacteria ( later , a disputed interpretation ) . The announcement made headlines around the world and the following day , on August 7 , 1996 , the President of the United States , Bill Clinton , made remarks about the news at a press conference that were , in places , sufficiently generic in nature to allow fragments of his videotaped statement to be included in Contact , implying that Clinton was speaking about contact with extraterrestrial life , congruent with the film 's story :
Later in the film , a separate fragment of generic remarks by President Clinton , speaking about Saddam Hussein and Iraq at a different press conference in October 1994 , was lifted out of context and inserted into Contact :
On July 14 , 1997 , three days after the film opened in the United States , Warner Bros. received a letter from White House Counsel Charles Ruff protesting against the use of Clinton 's digitally @-@ composited appearance . The letter made no demands to director Robert Zemeckis or Warner Bros. about pulling release prints , film trailers , or other marketing , but called the duration and manner of Clinton 's appearance " inappropriate " . No legal action was planned ; the White House Counsel simply wanted to send a message to Hollywood to avoid unauthorized uses of the President 's image . Zemeckis was reminded that official White House policy " prohibits the use of the President in any way ... ( that ) implies a direct ... connection between the President and a commercial product or service . "
A Warner Bros. spokeswoman explained that " we feel we have been completely frank and upfront with the White House on this issue . They saw scripts , they were notified when the film was completed , they were sent a print well in advance of the film 's July 11 opening , and we have confirmation that a print was received there July 2 . " However , Warner Bros. did concede that they never pursued or received formal release from the White House for the use of Clinton 's image . While the Counsel commented that parody and satire are protected under the First Amendment , press secretary Mike McCurry believed that " there is a difference when the President 's image , which is his alone to control , is used in a way that would lead the viewer to believe he has said something he really didn 't say . "
= = = CNN = = =
Shortly after the White House 's complaint , CNN chairman , president , and CEO Tom Johnson announced he believed that in hindsight it was a mistake to allow 13 members of CNN 's on @-@ air staff ( including Larry King and Bernard Shaw ) to appear in the film , even though both CNN and Warner Bros. are owned by Time Warner . Johnson added that , for Contact , the CNN presence " creates the impression that we 're manipulated by Time Warner , and it blurs the line . " CNN then changed their policies for future films , which now requires potential appearances to be cleared through their ethics group .
= = = Lawsuits = = =
Director George Miller , who had developed Contact with Warner Bros. before Zemeckis ' hiring , unsuccessfully sued the studio over breach of contract policies .
During filming on December 28 , 1996 , filmmaker Francis Ford Coppola filed a lawsuit against Warner Bros. and Sagan , who had died the previous week . Coppola claimed that Sagan 's novel was based on a story the pair had developed for a television special back in 1975 , titled First Contact . Under their development agreement , Coppola and Sagan were to split proceeds from the project , as well as from any novel Sagan would write , with American Zoetrope and Children 's Television Workshop Productions . The TV program was never produced , but in 1985 , Simon and Schuster published Contact and Warner moved forward with development of a film adaptation . Coppola sought at least $ 250 @,@ 000 in compensatory damages and an injunction against production or distribution of the film .
In February 1998 , Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Ricardo Torres dismissed Coppola 's claim . Although Torres agreed that Sagan violated some terms of the contract , he explained that Coppola waited too long to file his lawsuit , and that the contract might not be enforceable as it was written . Coppola then appealed his suit , taking it to the California Courts of Appeal ( CCA ) . In April 2000 , the CCA dismissed his suit , finding that Coppola ’ s claims were barred because they were brought too late . The court noted that it was not until 1994 that the filmmaker thought about suing over Contact .
= = = NASA = = =
The scene where the NASA scientists give Arroway the " cyanide pill " caused some controversy during production and when the film came out . Gerald D. Griffin , the film 's NASA advisor , insisted that NASA has never given any astronaut a cyanide pill " just in case , " and that if an astronaut truly wished to commit suicide in space , all he or she would have to do is cut off their oxygen supply . However , Carl Sagan insisted that NASA did indeed give out cyanide pills and they did it for every mission an astronaut has ever flown . Zemeckis said that because of the two radically different assertions , the truth is unknown , but he left the suicide pill scene in the movie as it seemed more suspenseful that way and it was also in line with Sagan 's beliefs and vision of the film . Along with being NASA Technical Consultant for the project , Griffin had a cameo in the role of " Dynamics " in Mission Control . He had previously been technical advisor for Ron Howard 's 1995 film Apollo 13 . While working for NASA during the Apollo Program , he had been the actual flight director for that mission , among others , and during the 1980s was the director of the Johnson Space Center .
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= Fossa ( animal ) =
The fossa ( / ˈfɒsə / or / ˈfuːsə / ; Malagasy [ ˈfusə ̥ ] ; Cryptoprocta ferox ) is a cat @-@ like , carnivorous mammal endemic to Madagascar . It is a member of the Eupleridae , a family of carnivorans closely related to the mongoose family ( Herpestidae ) . Its classification has been controversial because its physical traits resemble those of cats , yet other traits suggest a close relationship with viverrids ( most civets and their relatives ) . Its classification , along with that of the other Malagasy carnivores , influenced hypotheses about how many times mammalian carnivores have colonized Madagascar . With genetic studies demonstrating that the fossa and all other Malagasy carnivores are most closely related to each other ( forming a clade , recognized as the family Eupleridae ) , carnivorans are now thought to have colonized the island once around 18 to 20 million years ago .
The fossa is the largest mammalian carnivore on the island of Madagascar and has been compared to a small cougar . Adults have a head @-@ body length of 70 – 80 cm ( 28 – 31 in ) and weigh between 5 @.@ 5 and 8 @.@ 6 kg ( 12 and 19 lb ) , with the males larger than the females . It has semiretractable claws and flexible ankles that allow it to climb up and down trees head @-@ first , and also support jumping from tree to tree . The fossa is unique within its family for the shape of its genitalia , which share traits with those of cats and hyenas .
The species is widespread , although population densities are usually low . It is found solely in forested habitat , and actively hunts both by day and night . Over 50 % of its diet consists of lemurs , the endemic primates found on the island ; tenrecs , rodents , lizards , birds , and other animals are also documented as prey . Mating usually occurs in trees on horizontal limbs and can last for several hours . Litters range from one to six pups , which are born blind and toothless ( altricial ) . Infants wean after 4 @.@ 5 months and are independent after a year . Sexual maturity occurs around three to four years of age , and life expectancy in captivity is 20 years . The fossa is listed as " Vulnerable " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . It is generally feared by the Malagasy people and is often protected by their fady ( taboo ) . The greatest threat to the species is habitat destruction .
= = Etymology = =
The generic name Cryptoprocta refers to how the animal 's anus is hidden by its anal pouch , from the Ancient Greek words crypto- " hidden " , and procta " anus " . The species name ferox is the Latin adjective " fierce " or " wild " . Its common name is spelled fossa in English or fosa in Malagasy , the Austronesian language from which it was taken , but some authors have adopted the Malagasy spelling in English . The word is similar to posa ( meaning " cat " ) in the Iban language ( another Austronesian language ) from Borneo , and both terms may derive from trade languages from the 1600s . However , an alternative etymology suggests a link to another word that comes from Malay : pusa refers to the Malayan weasel ( Mustela nudipes ) . The Malay word pusa could have become posa for cats in Borneo , while in Madagascar the word could have become fosa to refer to the fossa .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fossa was formally described by Edward Turner Bennett on the basis of a specimen from Madagascar sent by Charles Telfair in 1833 . The common name is the same as the generic name of the Malagasy civet ( Fossa fossana ) , but they are different species . Because of shared physical traits with civets , mongooses , and cats ( Felidae ) , its classification has been controversial . Bennett originally placed the fossa as a type of civet in the family Viverridae , a classification that long remained popular among taxonomists . Its compact braincase , large eye sockets , retractable claws , and specialized carnivorous dentition have also led some taxonomists to associate it with the felids . In 1939 , William King Gregory and Milo Hellman placed the fossa in its own subfamily within Felidae , the Cryptoproctinae . George Gaylord Simpson placed it back in Viverridae in 1945 , still within its own subfamily , yet conceded it had many cat @-@ like characteristics .
In 1993 , Géraldine Veron and François Catzeflis published a DNA hybridization study suggesting that the fossa was more closely related to mongooses ( family Herpestidae ) than to cats or civets . However , in 1995 , Veron 's morphological study once again grouped it with Felidae . In 2003 , molecular phylogenetic studies using nuclear and mitochondrial genes by Anne Yoder and colleagues showed that all native Malagasy carnivorans share a common ancestry that excludes other carnivores ( meaning they form a clade , making them monophyletic ) and are most closely related to Asian and African Herpestidae . To reflect these relationships , all Malagasy carnivorans are now placed in a single family , Eupleridae . Within Eupleridae , the fossa is placed in the subfamily Euplerinae along with the falanouc ( Eupleres goudoti ) and Malagasy civet , but its exact relationships are poorly resolved .
An extinct relative of the fossa was described in 1902 from subfossil remains and recognized as a separate species , Cryptoprocta spelea , in 1935 . This species was larger than the living fossa ( with a body mass estimate roughly twice as great ) , but otherwise similar . Across Madagascar , people distinguish two kinds of fossa — a large fosa mainty ( " black fossa " ) and the smaller fosa mena ( " reddish fossa " ) — and a white form has been reported in the southwest . It is unclear whether this is purely folklore or individual variation — related to sex , age or instances of melanism and leucism — or whether there is indeed more than one species of living fossa .
= = Description = =
The fossa appears as a diminutive form of a large felid , such as a cougar , but with a slender body and muscular limbs , and a tail nearly as long as the rest of the body . It has a mongoose @-@ like head , relatively longer than that of a cat , although with a muzzle that is broad and short , and with large but rounded ears . It has medium brown eyes set relatively wide apart with pupils that contract to slits . Like many carnivorans that hunt at night , its eyes reflect light ; the reflected light is orange in hue . Its head @-@ body length is 70 – 80 cm ( 28 – 31 in ) and its tail is 65 – 70 cm ( 26 – 28 in ) long . There is some sexual dimorphism , with adult males ( weighing 6 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 6 kg or 14 – 19 lb ) being larger than females ( 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 8 kg or 12 – 15 lb ) . Smaller individuals are typically found north and east on Madagascar , while larger ones to the south and west . Unusually large individuals weighing up to 20 kg ( 44 lb ) have been reported , but there is some doubt as to the reliability of the measurements . The fossa can smell , hear , and see well . It is a robust animal and illnesses are rare in captive fossas .
Both males and females have short , straight fur that is relatively dense and without spots or patterns . Both sexes are generally a reddish @-@ brown dorsally and colored a dirty cream ventrally . When in rut , they may have an orange coloration to their abdomen from a reddish substance secreted by a chest gland secretions , but this has not been consistently observed by all researchers . The tail tends to be lighter in coloration than the sides . Juveniles are either gray or nearly white .
Several of the animal 's physical features are adaptions to climbing through trees . It uses its tail to assist balance and has semi @-@ retractable claws that it uses to climb trees in its search for prey . It has semiplantigrade feet , switching between a plantigrade @-@ like gait ( when arboreal ) and a digitigrade @-@ like one ( when terrestrial ) . The soles of its paws are nearly bare and covered with strong pads . The fossa has very flexible ankles that allow it to readily grasp tree trunks so as to climb up or down trees head first or to leap to another tree . Captive juveniles have been known to swing upside down by their hindfeet from knotted ropes .
The fossa has several scent glands , although the glands are less developed in females . Like herpestids it has a perianal skin gland inside an anal sac which surrounds the anus like a pocket . The pocket opens to the exterior with a horizontal slit below the tail . Other glands are located near the penis or vagina , with the penile glands emitting a strong odor . Like the herpestids , it has no prescrotal glands .
= = = External genitalia = = =
One of the more peculiar physical features of this species is its external genitalia . The male fossa has an unusually long penis and baculum ( penis bone ) , reaching to between his forelegs when erect , with an average thickness of 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) . The glans extends about halfway down the shaft and is spiny except at the tip . In comparison , the glans of felids is short and spiny , while that of viverrids is smooth and long . The female fossa exhibits transient masculization , starting at about 1 – 2 years of age , developing an enlarged , spiny clitoris that resembles a male 's penis . The enlarged clitoris is supported by an os clitoridis , which decreases in size as the animal grows . The females do not have a pseudo @-@ scrotum , but they do secrete an orange substance that colors their underparts , much like the secretions of males . Hormone levels ( testosterone , androstenedione , dihydrotestosterone ) do not seem to play a part in this transient masculization , as those levels are the same in masculinized juveniles and nonmasculinized adults . It is speculated that the transient masculization either reduces sexual harassment of juvenile females by adult males , or reduces aggression from territorial females . While females of other mammal species ( such as the spotted hyena ) have a pseudo @-@ penis , no other is known to diminish in size as the animal grows .
= = = Comparison with related carnivorans = = =
Overall , the fossa has features in common with three different carnivoran families , leading researchers to place it and other members of Eupleridae alternatively in Herpestidae , Viverridae , and Felidae . Felid features are primarily those associated with eating and digestion , including tooth shape and facial portions of the skull , the tongue , and the digestive tract , typical of its exclusively carnivorous diet . The remainder of the skull most closely resembles skulls of genus Viverra , while the general body structure is most similar to that of various members of Herpestidae . The permanent dentition is 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @-@ 4 @.@ 13 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @-@ 4 @.@ 1 ( three incisors , one canine , three or four premolars , and one molar on each side of both the upper and lower jaws ) , with the deciduous formula being similar but lacking the fourth premolar and the molar . The fossa has a large , prominent rhinarium similar to that of viverrids , but has comparatively larger , round ears , almost as large as those of a similarly sized felid . Its facial vibrissae ( whiskers ) are long , with the longest being longer than its head . Like some mongoose genera , particularly Galidia ( which is now in the fossa 's own family , Eupleridae ) and Herpestes ( of Herpestidae ) , it has carpal vibrissae as well . Its claws are retractile , but unlike those of Felidae species , they are not hidden in skin sheaths . It has three pairs of nipples ( one inguinal , one ventral , and one pectoral ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fossa has the most widespread geographical range of the Malagasy carnivores , and is generally found in low numbers throughout the island in remaining tracts of forest , preferring pristine undisturbed forest habitat . It is also encountered in some degraded forests , but in lower numbers . Although the fossa is found in all known forest habitats throughout Madagascar , including the western , dry deciduous forests , the eastern rainforests , and the southern spiny forests , it is seen more frequently in humid than in dry forests . This may be because the reduced canopy in dry forests provides less shade , and also because the fossa seems to travel more easily in humid forests . It is absent from areas with the heaviest habitat disturbance and , like most of Madagascar 's fauna , from the central high plateau of the country .
The fossa has been found across several different elevational gradients in undisturbed portions of protected areas throughout Madagascar . In the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale d 'Andringitra , evidence of the fossa has been reported at four different sites ranging from 810 to 1 @,@ 625 m ( 2 @,@ 657 to 5 @,@ 331 ft ) . Its highest known occurrence was reported at 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) ; its presence high on the Andringitra Massif was subsequently confirmed in 1996 . Similarly , evidence has been reported of the fossa at the elevational extremes of 440 m ( 1 @,@ 440 ft ) and 1 @,@ 875 m ( 6 @,@ 152 ft ) in the Andohahela National Park . The presence of the fossa at these locations indicates its ability to adapt to various elevations , consistent with its reported distribution in all Madagascar forest types .
= = Behavior = =
The fossa is active during both the day and the night and is considered cathemeral ; activity peaks may occur early in the morning , late in the afternoon , and late in the night . The animal generally does not reuse sleeping sites , but females with young do return to the same den . The home ranges of male fossas in Kirindy Forest are up to 26 km2 ( 10 sq mi ) large , compared to 13 km2 ( 5 @.@ 0 sq mi ) for females . These ranges overlap — by about 30 percent according to data from the eastern forests — but females usually have separated ranges . Home ranges grow during the dry season , perhaps because less food and water is available . In general , radio @-@ collared fossas travel between 2 and 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 1 mi ) per day , although in one reported case a fossa was observed moving a straight @-@ line distance of 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) in 16 hours . The animal 's population density appears to be low : in Kirindy Forest , where it is thought to be common , its density has been estimated at one animal per 4 km2 ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) in 1998 . Another study in the same forest between 1994 and 1996 using the mark and recapture method indicated a population density of one animal per 3 @.@ 8 km2 ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) and one adult per 5 @.@ 6 km2 ( 2 @.@ 2 sq mi ) .
Except for mothers with young and occasional observations of pairs of males , animals are usually found alone , so that the species is considered solitary . A 2009 publication , however , reported a detailed observation of cooperative hunting , wherein three male fossas hunted a 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) sifaka ( Propithecus verreauxi ) for 45 minutes , and subsequently shared the prey . This behavior may be a vestige of cooperative hunting that would have been required to take down larger recently extinct lemurs .
Fossas communicate using sounds , scents , and visual signals . Vocalizations include purring , a threatening call , and a call of fear , consisting of " repeated loud , coarse inhalations and gasps of breath " . A long , high yelp may function to attract other fossas . Females mew during mating and males produce a sigh when they have found a female . Throughout the year , animals produce long @-@ lasting scent marks on rocks , trees , and the ground using glands in the anal region and on the chest . They also communicate using face and body expression , but the significance of these signals is uncertain . The animal is aggressive only during mating , and males in particular fight boldly . After a short fight , the loser flees and is followed by the winner for a short distance . In captivity , fossas are usually not aggressive and sometimes even allow themselves to be stroked by a zookeeper , but adult males in particular may try to bite .
= = = Diet = = =
The fossa is a carnivore that hunts small to medium @-@ sized animals . One of eight carnivorous species endemic to Madagascar , the fossa is the island 's largest surviving endemic terrestrial mammal and the only predator capable of preying upon adults of all extant lemur species , the largest of which can weigh as much as 90 percent of the weight of the average fossa . Although it is the predominant predator of lemurs , reports of its dietary habits demonstrate a wide variety of prey selectivity and specialization depending on habitat and season ; diet does not vary by sex . While the fossa is thought to be a lemur specialist in Ranomafana National Park , its diet is more variable in other rain forest habitats .
The diet of the fossa in the wild has been studied by analyzing their distinctive scats , which resemble gray cylinders with twisted ends and measure 10 – 14 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Scat collected and analyzed from both Andohahela and Andringitra contained lemur matter and rodents . Eastern populations in Andringitra incorporate the widest recorded variety of prey , including both vertebrates and invertebrates . Vertebrates consumed ranged from reptiles to a wide variety of birds , including both understory and ground birds , and mammals , including insectivores , rodents , and lemurs . Invertebrates eaten by the fossa in the high mountain zone of Andringitra include insects and crabs . One study found that vertebrates comprised 94 % of the diet of fossas , with lemurs comprising over 50 % , followed by tenrecs ( 9 % ) , lizards ( 9 % ) , and birds ( 2 % ) . Seeds , which comprised 5 % of the diet , may have been in the stomachs of the lemurs eaten , or may have been consumed with fruit taken for water , as seeds were more common in the stomach in the dry season . The average prey size varies geographically ; it is only 40 grams ( 1 @.@ 4 oz ) in the high mountains of Andringitra , in contrast to 480 grams ( 17 oz ) in humid forests and over 1 @,@ 000 grams ( 35 oz ) in dry deciduous forests . In a study of fossa diet in the dry deciduous forest of western Madagascar , more than 90 % of prey items were vertebrates , and more than 50 % were lemurs . The primary diet consisted of approximately six lemur species and two or three spiny tenrec species , along with snakes and small mammals . Generally , the fossa preys upon larger lemurs and rodents in preference to smaller ones .
Prey is obtained by hunting either on the ground or in the trees . During the non @-@ breeding season the fossa hunts individually , but during the breeding season hunting parties may be seen , and these may be pairs or later on mothers and young . One member of the group scales a tree and chases the lemurs from tree to tree , forcing them down to the ground where the other is easily able to capture them . The fossa is known to eviscerate its larger lemur prey , a trait that , along with its distinct scat , helps identify its kills . Long @-@ term observations of the fossa 's predation patterns on rainforest sifakas suggest that the fossa hunts in a subsection of their range until prey density is decreased , then moves on . The fossa has been reported to prey on domestic animals , such as goats and small calves , and especially chickens . Food taken in captivity includes amphibians , birds , insects , reptiles , and small- to medium @-@ sized mammals .
This wide variety of prey items taken in various rainforest habitats is similar to the varied dietary composition noted occurring in the dry forests of western Madagascar , as well . As the largest endemic predator on Madagascar , this dietary flexibility combined with a flexible activity pattern has allowed it to exploit a wide variety of niches available throughout the island , making it a potential keystone species for the Madagascar ecosystems .
= = = Breeding = = =
Most of the details of reproduction in wild populations are from the western dry deciduous forests ; determining whether or not certain of these details are applicable to eastern populations will require further field research . Mating typically occurs during September and October , although there are reports of its occurring as late as December , and can be highly conspicuous . In captivity in the Northern Hemisphere , fossas instead mate in the northern spring , from March to July . Intromission usually occurs in trees on horizontal limbs about 20 m ( 66 ft ) off the ground . Frequently the same tree is used year after year , with remarkable precision as to the date the season commences . Trees are often near a water source , and have limbs strong enough and wide enough to support the mating pair , about 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) wide . Some mating has been reported on the ground as well .
As many as eight males will be at a mating site , staying in close vicinity to the receptive female . The female seems to choose the male she mates with , and the males compete for the attention of the female with a significant amount of vocalization and antagonistic interactions . The female may choose to mate with several of the males , and her choice of mate does not seem to have any correlation to the physical appearance of the males . To stimulate the male to mount her , she gives a series of mewling vocalizations . The male mounts from behind , resting his body on her slightly off @-@ center , a position requiring delicate balance ; if the female were to stand , the male would have significant difficulty continuing . He places his paws on her shoulders or grasps her around the waist and often licks her neck . Mating may last for nearly three hours . This unusually lengthy mating is due to the physical nature of the male 's erect penis , which has backwards @-@ pointing spines along most of its length . Fossa mating includes a copulatory tie , which may be enforced by the male 's spiny penis . The tie is difficult to break if the mating session is interrupted . Copulation with a single male may be repeated several times , with a total mating time of up to fourteen hours , while the male may remain with the female for up to an hour after the mating . A single female may occupy the tree for up to a week , mating with multiple males over that time . Also , other females may take her place , mating with some of the same males as well as others . This mating strategy , whereby the females monopolize a site and maximize the available number of mates , seems to be unique among carnivores . Recent research suggests that this system helps the fossa overcome factors which would normally impede mate @-@ finding , such as low population density and lack of den use .
The birthing of the litter of one to six ( typically two to four ) takes place in a concealed location , such as an underground den , a termite mound , a rock crevice , or in the hollow of a large tree ( particularly those of the Commiphora genus ) . Contrary to older research , litters are of mixed sexes . Young are born in December or January , making the gestation period 90 days , with the late mating reports indicating a gestational period of about six to seven weeks . The newborns are blind and toothless and weigh no more than 100 g ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) . The fur is thin and has been described as gray @-@ brown or nearly white . After about two weeks the cubs ' eyes open , they become more active , and their fur darkens to a pearl gray . The cubs do not take solid food until three months old , and do not leave the den until they are 4 @.@ 5 months old ; they are weaned shortly after that . After the first year , the juveniles are independent of their mother . Permanent teeth appear at 18 to 20 months . Physical maturity is reached by about two years of age , but sexual maturity is not attained for another year or two , and the young may stay with their mother until they are fully mature . Lifespan in captivity is up to or past 20 years of age , possibly due to the slow juvenile development .
= = Human interactions = =
The fossa has been assessed as " Vulnerable " by the IUCN Red List since 2008 , as its population size has probably declined by at least 30 percent between 1987 and 2008 ; previous assessments have included " Endangered " ( 2000 ) and " Insufficiently Known " ( 1988 , 1990 , 1994 ) . The species is dependent on forest and thus threatened by the widespread destruction of Madagascar 's native forest but is also able to persist in disturbed areas . A suite of microsatellite markers ( short segments of DNA that have a repeated sequence ) have been developed to help aid in studies of genetic health and population dynamics of both captive and wild fossas . Several pathogens have been isolated from the fossa , some of which , such as anthrax and canine distemper , are thought to have been transmitted by feral dogs or cats . Toxoplasma gondii was reported in a captive fossa in 2013 .
Although the species is widely distributed , it is locally rare in all regions , making fossas particularly vulnerable to extinction . The effects of habitat fragmentation increase the risk . For its size , the fossa has a lower than predicted population density , which is further threatened by Madagascar 's rapidly disappearing forests and dwindling lemur populations , which make up a high proportion of its diet . The loss of the fossa , either locally or completely , could significantly impact ecosystem dynamics , possibly leading to over @-@ grazing by some of its prey species . The total population of the fossa living within protected areas is estimated at less than 2 @,@ 500 adults , but this may be an overestimate . Only two protected areas are thought to contain 500 or more adult fossas : Masoala National Park and Midongy @-@ Sud National Park , although these are also thought to be overestimated . Too little population information has been collected for a formal population viability analysis , but estimates suggest that none of the protected areas support a viable population . If this is correct , the extinction of the fossa may take as much as 100 years to occur as the species gradually declines . In order for the species to survive , it is estimated that at least 555 km2 ( 214 sq mi ) is needed to maintain smaller , short @-@ term viable populations , and at least 2 @,@ 000 km2 ( 770 sq mi ) for populations of 500 adults .
Taboo , known in Madagascar as fady , offers protection for the fossa and other carnivores . In the Marolambo District ( part of the Atsinanana region in Toamasina Province ) , the fossa has traditionally been hated and feared as a dangerous animal . It has been described as " greedy and aggressive " , known for taking fowl and piglets , and believed to " take little children who walk alone into the forest " . Some do not eat it for fear that it will transfer its undesirable qualities to anyone who consumes it . However , the animal is also taken for bushmeat ; a study published in 2009 reported that 57 percent of villages ( 8 of 14 sampled ) in the Makira forest consume fossa meat . The animals were typically hunted using slingshots , with dogs , or most commonly , by placing snare traps on animal paths . Near Ranomafana National Park , the fossa , along with several of its smaller cousins and the introduced small Indian civet ( Viverricula indica ) , are known to " scavenge on the bodies of ancestors " , which are buried in shallow graves in the forest . For this reason , eating these animals is strictly prohibited by fady . However , if they wander into villages in search of domestic fowl , they may be killed or trapped . Small carnivore traps have been observed near chicken runs in the village of Vohiparara .
Fossas are occasionally held in captivity in zoos . They first bred in captivity in 1974 in the zoo of Montpellier , France . The next year , at a time when there were only eight fossas in the world 's zoos , the Duisburg Zoo in Germany acquired one ; this zoo later started a successful breeding program , and most zoo fossas now descend from the Duisburg population . Research on the Duisburg fossas has provided much data about their biology .
The fossa was depicted as an antagonist in the DreamWorks 2005 animated film Madagascar , accurately shown as the lemurs ' most feared predator .
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= SY Aurora 's drift =
The drift of the Antarctic exploration vessel SY Aurora was an ordeal which lasted 312 days , during the Ross Sea chapter of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , 1914 – 17 . It began when the ship broke loose from its anchorage in McMurdo Sound in May 1915 , during a gale . Caught in heavy pack ice and unable to manoeuvre , Aurora was carried into the open waters of the Ross Sea and Southern Ocean , leaving ten men stranded ashore with meagre provisions .
Aurora , a 40 @-@ year @-@ old former Arctic whaler registered as a steam yacht , had brought the Ross Sea party to Cape Evans in McMurdo Sound in January 1915 , to establish its base there in support of Shackleton 's proposed transcontinental crossing . When Aurora 's captain Aeneas Mackintosh took charge of activities ashore , first officer Joseph Stenhouse assumed command of the ship . Stenhouse 's inexperience may have contributed to the choice of an inappropriate winter 's berth , although his options were restricted by the instructions of his superiors . After the ship was blown away it suffered severe damage in the ice , including the destruction of its rudder and the loss of its anchors ; on several occasions its situation was such that Stenhouse considered abandonment . Efforts to make wireless contact with Cape Evans and , later , with stations in New Zealand and Australia , were unavailing ; the drift extended through the southern winter and spring to reach a position north of the Antarctic Circle . In February 1916 the ice finally broke up , and a month later the ship was free . It was subsequently able to reach New Zealand for repairs and resupply , before returning to Antarctica to rescue the surviving members of the shore party .
Despite his role in saving the ship , after Aurora 's arrival in Port Chalmers Stenhouse was removed from command by the organisers of the Ross Sea party relief expedition , so the ship returned to McMurdo Sound under a new commander and with a substantially different crew . Stenhouse was later appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for his service aboard Aurora .
= = Background = =
The Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition comprised two parties . The first , under Sir Ernest Shackleton , sailed to the Weddell Sea in the Endurance , intending to establish a base there from which a group would march across the continent via the South Pole to McMurdo Sound on the Ross Sea side . A second party under Aeneas Mackintosh in Aurora would be landed at a Ross Sea base , with the task of laying supply depots along the expected route of the latter stages of Shackleton 's march , a mission which Shackleton thought straightforward . Shackleton devoted little time to the details of the Ross Sea operation ; thus , on arriving in Australia to take up his appointment , Mackintosh found himself faced with an unseaworthy ship and no funds to rectify the situation . Aurora , though strongly built , was 40 years old and had recently returned from Douglas Mawson 's Australasian Antarctic Expedition in need of an extensive refit . After the intervention of the eminent Australian polar scientist Edgeworth David the Australian government provided money and dockyard facilities to make Aurora fit for further Antarctic service .
Of the Ross Sea party that eventually sailed from Australia in December 1914 , only Mackintosh , Ernest Joyce who was in charge of the dogs , and the ship 's boatswain James " Scotty " Paton had significant experience of Antarctic conditions . Some of the party were last @-@ minute additions : Adrian Donnelly , a railway engineer who had never been to sea , became Aurora 's second engineering officer , while Lionel Hooke , the wireless operator , was an 18 @-@ year @-@ old apprentice . Aurora 's chief officer was Joseph Stenhouse , from the British India Steam Navigation Company . Stenhouse , who was 26 years old when he joined the expedition , was in Australia recovering from a bout of depression when he heard of Shackleton 's plans , and had travelled to London to secure the Aurora post . Although as a boy he had been inspired by the polar exploits of Fridtjof Nansen , Scott and William Speirs Bruce , Stenhouse had no direct experience of Antarctic waters or ice conditions .
= = In McMurdo Sound = =
= = = Winter anchorage = = =
Aurora arrived in McMurdo Sound in January 1915 , late in the season due to her delayed departure from Australia . Because the party was three weeks behind schedule Mackintosh decided that the depot @-@ laying work should begin at once , and took charge of this himself . By 25 January he was leading one of the early sledging parties , leaving Stenhouse in command of the ship . In the few weeks before the Sound froze over for the winter , Stenhouse had to supervise the landing of most of the equipment and stores , stores , and find a safe winter berth for the ship ; Mackintosh 's departing instruction had been explicit that this was Stenhouse 's paramount duty .
The only known safe winter anchorage in McMurdo Sound was Scott 's original Discovery Expedition headquarters from 1901 – 03 , at Hut Point , south of the projection known as Glacier Tongue which divided the Sound into two sectors . However , Scott 's ship had been frozen in the ice for two years , and had needed two rescue ships and several explosive charges to release her . Shackleton was determined to avoid this , and had given Mackintosh instructions , relayed to Stenhouse , to winter Aurora north of the Tongue . No ship had previously wintered in the exposed northern section of the Sound , and the wisdom of doing this was questioned by the experienced seamen Ernest Joyce and James Paton in their private journals . After the expedition was over , John King Davis , who was to lead the Ross Sea party relief mission , wrote that Shackleton 's instruction should have been ignored and that Stenhouse should have taken Aurora to the safety of Hut Point , even at the risk of becoming frozen in .
Stenhouse first attempted to anchor the ship on the north side of Glacier Tongue itself . Disaster was only narrowly avoided when a change in the wind direction threatened to imprison Aurora between the Tongue and the advancing pack ice . With other options considered and rejected , Stenhouse finally decided to anchor at Cape Evans , site of Captain Scott 's 1911 Terra Nova headquarters , some six nautical miles ( 11 km ) north of Glacier Tongue . On 14 March , after numerous failed attempts , Stenhouse manoeuvred Aurora into position , stern @-@ first towards the shore at Cape Evans , where two large anchors had been sunk and cemented into the ground . Cables and hawsers , together with a heavy chain , attached these to the ship 's stern . Two bower anchors were also dropped . By 14 March the ship was settling into the shore ice with , according to second officer Leslie Thompson , " enough hawsers and anchors to hold a battleship " .
= = = Blown away = = =
The unsheltered Cape Evans anchorage exposed Aurora to the full harshness of the winter weather . By mid @-@ April the ship resembled a " wrecked hulk " , listing sharply to starboard and subject to violent shocks and tremors as the ice moved around it . When the weather permitted , attempts were made to rig the wireless aerials that would enable communication with the shore parties and later , it was hoped , with Australia and New Zealand . The remaining sledging rations for the depots were put ashore , but much of the shore parties ' personal supplies , fuel and equipment remained on board , as it was assumed that the ship would stay where it was throughout the winter .
At about 9 p.m. on 6 May , during a fierce storm , the men aboard heard two " explosive reports " as the main hawsers parted from the anchors . The combined forces of the wind and the rapidly moving ice had torn Aurora from its berth and , encased in a large ice floe , the ship was adrift in the Sound . Stenhouse ordered that steam be raised in the hopes that , under engine power , Aurora might be able to work back to the shore when the gale abated , but the engines had been partly dismantled for winter repairs , and could not be started immediately . In any event the 98 horsepower ( 73 kW ) engine and single @-@ screw propeller lacked the required power . Slowly , the ship drifted further from the shore ; the noise of the storm meant that the scientific party ashore at Cape Evans hut heard nothing ; it would be morning before they found the ship had gone .
Eighteen men were aboard when Aurora broke away , leaving ten marooned ashore . Four scientists were living in the Cape Evans hut ; six members of the first depot @-@ laying parties , including Mackintosh and Joyce , were stranded at Hut Point waiting an opportunity to cross the sea ice and return to Cape Evans .
= = Drift = =
= = = First phase = = =
By 8 May a continuous southerly gale had driven the ship northwards , still locked in the ice , out of McMurdo Sound and into the open Ross Sea . In his diary for 9 May Stenhouse summarised Aurora 's position : " ... fast in the pack and drifting God knows where [ ... ] We are all in good health [ ... ] we have good spirits and we will get through . " He recognised that this was the end of any hope of wintering the ship in McMurdo Sound , and expressed concern for the men at Cape Evans : " It is a dismal prospect for them [ ... ] we have the remaining Burberrys , clothing etc for next year 's sledging still on board . " During the next two days the winds reached a force that made it impossible for the men to work on deck , but on 12 May the weather had moderated sufficiently for a temporary wireless aerial to be rigged , and Hooke began trying to contact the men ashore . His Morse messages failed to reach Cape Evans . Although the transmitter 's range was normally no more than 300 miles ( 480 km ) , Hooke attempted to raise the radio station at Macquarie Island , more than 1 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) away , again without success .
On 14 May the broken remains of the two bower anchors , which were threatening to capsize the ship , were hauled in . During the following days the pack ice thickened , and in increasingly turbulent weather the boilers were closed down , since attempting to manoeuvre under power in these conditions would merely waste coal . Replenishing the ship 's supply of fresh water was a further difficulty . A large iceberg was in view , but too far away in the prevailing weather conditions to be accessible , so to obtain drinking water the crew had to gather snow . Food was less of a problem ; they were able to augment Aurora 's food supplies from the penguins and seals that gathered around the ship . To boost morale the crew were given a ration of rum to celebrate Empire Day on 24 May .
On 25 May , as Aurora drifted towards the Victoria Land coast , Stenhouse described a scene " like a graveyard " , with heavy blocks of ice twisted and standing up on end . Aurora was under constant danger as this ice shifted around her . Stenhouse ordered the crew to prepare sledging gear and supplies for a possible march for the shore should Aurora be caught and crushed , but that immediate danger passed . Weeks of relative inactivity followed , while Stenhouse considered his options . If the ship remained icebound but stationary he would , if the sea ice allowed , send a sledge party back to Cape Evans with equipment and supplies . If , however , the drift continued northward , as soon as the ship was free of the ice Stenhouse would head for New Zealand and , after repairs and resupply , would return to Cape Evans in September or October .
By 9 July the speed of the drift had increased , and there were signs of increasing pressure in the pack . On 21 July the ship was caught in a position that allowed the ice to squeeze her at both ends , a grip that smashed her rudder beyond repair . According to Hooke 's diary : " All hands were ready to jump overboard onto the ice . It seemed certain that the ship must go . " The next day Stenhouse prepared to abandon ship , but new movements in the ice eased the situation and eventually brought Aurora to a safer position . Plans to abandon the vessel were cancelled ; Hooke repaired his wireless aerials and resumed his attempts to contact Macquarie Island . On 6 August the sun made its first appearance since the start of the drift . Aurora , still firmly held , was now 360 nautical miles ( 670 km ) north of Cape Evans , close to Cape Adare at the northern tip of Victoria Land , where the Ross Sea merges into the Southern Ocean .
= = = Southern Ocean phase = = =
When the ship passed Cape Adare , the direction of drift changed to north @-@ westerly . On 10 August Stenhouse estimated that they were 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) north @-@ east of the Cape , and that their daily drift was averaging just over 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ) . A few days later Stenhouse recorded that the ship was " backing and filling " , meaning that it was drifting back and forth without making progress . " However , we cannot grumble and must be patient " , he wrote , adding that from the crow 's nest a distinct impression of open water could be seen . With the possibility that the edge of the pack was nearby , work on the construction of a jury rudder began . This first involved the removal of the wreckage of the smashed rudder , a task largely carried out by Engineer Donnelly . The jury rudder was constructed from makeshift materials , and by 26 August was ready for use as soon as Aurora cleared the ice . It would then be lowered over the stern and operated manually , " like a huge oar " .
On 25 August Hooke began picking up occasional radio signals being exchanged between Macquarie Island and New Zealand . By the end of August open leads were beginning to appear , and sometimes it was possible to discern a sea @-@ swell under the ship . However , severe weather returned in September , when a hurricane @-@ force wind destroyed the wireless aerial and temporarily halted Hooke 's efforts . On 22 September , when Aurora was in sight of the uninhabited Balleny Islands , Stenhouse estimated that they had travelled over 700 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) from Cape Evans , in what he called a " wonderful drift " . He added that regular observations and records of the nature and direction of the ice had been maintained throughout : " It [ the drift ] has not been in vain , and [ ... ] knowledge of the set and drift of the pack will be a valuable addition to the sum of human knowledge " .
Aurora 's circumstances changed little during the following months . Stenhouse worked hard to maintain morale , keeping the crew working whenever possible and organising leisure activities , including games of football and cricket on the ice . On 21 November Aurora crossed the Antarctic Circle , and it was at last evident that the ice around the ship was beginning to melt : " ... one good hefty blizzard would cause a general break up " , wrote Stenhouse . Christmas approached with the ice still holding firm ; Stenhouse allowed the crew to prepare a feast , but noted in his journal : " I wish to God the blasted festivities were over [ ... ] we are hogging in to the best while the poor beggars at Cape Evans have little or nothing ! " A few days later the New Year was celebrated with an improvised band leading choruses of " Rule , Britannia " and " God Save the King . "
= = = Release = = =
In the early days of January 1916 the floe which held the ship began to crack in the sun . Stenhouse surmised that , after repairs in New Zealand : " if we could leave Lyttleton ( sic ) at the end of February , with luck and a quick passage south we might make Hut Point before the general freezing of the Sound . " Fast @-@ moving ice could be seen a short distance from the ship , but Aurora remained held fast throughout January .
With the Antarctic summer waning , Stenhouse had to consider the possibility that Aurora might be trapped for another year , and after reviewing fuel and stores he ordered the capture of more seals and penguins . This proved difficult , as the soft state of the ice made travel away from the ship hazardous . As the ice encasing the ship melted , the timber seams opened and were admitting around three to four feet ( about a metre ) of water daily , requiring regular work with the pumps . On 12 February , while the crew were busy with this activity , the ice around the ship finally began to break away . Within minutes the whole floe had splintered into fragments , a pool of water opened up , and Aurora was floating free . Next morning Stenhouse ordered the setting of sails , but on 15 February the ship was stopped by accumulated ice and remained , unable to move , for a further two weeks . Stenhouse was reluctant to use the engines because coal supplies were low , but on 1 March he decided he had no choice ; he ordered steam to be raised , and next day the ship edged forward under engine power . After a series of stops and starts , on 6 March the edge of the ice was sighted from the crow 's nest . On 14 March Aurora finally cleared the pack , after a drift of 312 days covering 1 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 000 km ) . Stenhouse recorded the ship 's position on reaching the open sea as latitude 64 ° 27'S , longitude 157 ° 32'E .
= = Return to civilization = =
The delays in breaking free from the pack had ended Stenhouse 's hopes of bringing rapid relief to Cape Evans . His priority now was to reach New Zealand and return to the Antarctic the following spring . During the final frustrating weeks in the pack , Hooke had been working on the wireless apparatus and had started transmitting again . He and the rest of the crew were unaware that the wireless station at Macquarie Island , the closest to their drift , had recently been closed by the Australian government as an economy measure . On 23 March , using a specially @-@ rigged 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) quadruple aerial , Hookes transmitted a message which , in freak atmospheric conditions , reached Bluff Station , New Zealand . The next day his signals were received in Hobart , Tasmania , and during the following days he reported the details of Aurora 's position , its general situation , and the plight of the stranded party . These messages , and the freak conditions which made transmission possible over a much greater distance than the equipment 's normal range , were reported throughout the world .
Aurora 's passage from the ice towards safety proved slow and perilous . Coal supplies had to be conserved , allowing only limited use of the engines , and the improvised emergency rudder made steering difficult ; the ship wallowed helplessly at times , in danger of foundering . Even after making contact with the outside world , Stenhouse was initially reluctant to seek direct assistance , fearful that a salvage claim might create further embarrassment for the expedition . However , he was obliged to request help when , as Aurora neared New Zealand in stormy weather on 31 March , it was in danger of being driven on the rocks . Two days later the tug Dunedin reached the ship and a towline was secured . On the following morning , 3 April 1916 , Aurora was brought into the harbour at Port Chalmers .
= = Aftermath = =
On his arrival in New Zealand Stenhouse learned that nothing had been heard from Shackleton and the Weddell Sea party since their departure from South Georgia in December 1914 ; it seemed probable that both arms of the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition were requiring relief . Stenhouse was informed by the expedition offices in London that funds had long since been exhausted and that money for the necessary work on Aurora would have to be found elsewhere . It was also evident that in the minds of the authorities the relief of Shackleton 's party should have priority over the men marooned at Cape Evans .
Inaction continued until Shackleton 's sudden reappearance in the Falkland Islands , at the beginning of June . The governments of Britain , Australia and New Zealand then agreed jointly to finance the Ross Sea relief expedition , and on 28 June work on Aurora began . Stenhouse still assumed that as de facto captain of the vessel he would lead the relief party , but the committee charged with supervision of the refit were critical of Shackleton 's initial organisation of the Ross Sea expedition . They wished to appoint their own commander for the relief expedition , and Stenhouse , as a Shackleton loyalist , was unacceptable to them . They also questioned whether Stenhouse had sufficient experience for command , citing his unfortunate choice of a winter berth . After months of uncertainty Stenhouse learned , through a newspaper account on 4 October , that John King Davis had been appointed as Aurora 's new captain . Davis had considerable Antarctic experience , having been chief officer and later Captain of Nimrod during the 1907 – 09 expedition , and captain of Aurora during the Australasian Antarctic Expedition . Béchervaise , John . " Davis , John King ( 1884 – 1967 ) " . Australian Dictionary of Biography . Retrieved 5 April 2009 . Urged by Shackleton not to cooperate with this arrangement , Stenhouse turned down the post of chief officer and was discharged , along with Thomson , Donnelly and Hooke . Shackleton arrived in New Zealand too late to influence matters , beyond arranging his own appointment as a supernumerary officer on Aurora before her departure for Cape Evans on 20 December 1916 .
On 10 January 1917 , manned by an almost entirely new crew , Aurora arrived at Cape Evans and picked up the seven survivors of the Ross Sea shore party ; Mackintosh , Victor Hayward and Arnold Spencer @-@ Smith had all died . This was the vessel 's final visit to Antarctic waters ; on return to New Zealand it was sold by Shackleton to a coal carrier . Aurora left Newcastle , New South Wales , on 20 June 1917 bound for Chile , and was never seen again , officially posted as missing by Lloyd 's of London on 2 January 1918 . Among those lost was James Paton , who had acted as the ship 's boatswain throughout the Ross Sea Party expedition and the drift , and on the subsequent relief mission . In 1920 King George V appointed Joseph Stenhouse an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) , in acknowledgement of his service aboard Aurora .
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= Burchard du Puiset =
Burchard du Puiset ( sometimes Bourchard du Puiset , or Bourchard of Le Puiset ; died 1196 ) was a medieval Anglo @-@ Norman clergyman and treasurer of the diocese of York . Either the nephew or son of Hugh du Puiset , the Bishop of Durham , Burchard held a number of offices in the dioceses of York and Durham before being appointed treasurer by King Richard I of England in 1189 . His appointment was opposed by the newly appointed Archbishop Geoffrey , which led to a long dispute between Geoffrey and Burchard that was not resolved until the mid 1190s . After the death of Hugh du Puiset , Burchard was a candidate for the Hugh 's old bishopric , but lost out in the end to another candidate . Burchard died in 1196 .
= = Background and early career = =
Burchard was a relative of Hugh du Puiset , the Bishop of Durham . Some sources name him as Hugh 's nephew , but other sources call him Hugh 's son , including the modern biographer of Hugh . G. W. S. Barrow , the author of the entry for Hugh in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , merely states that Burchard could possibly be the son of Hugh . Burchard was among the most common witnesses to Hugh 's charters , and Hugh 's biographer calls Burchard the " intimate counsellor " of the bishop .
Burchard held a prebend in the cathedral chapter of York , although the exact prebend that he held is unknown . He then held the office of archdeacon for the East Riding , which he held along with the archdeaconry of Durham ; all known mentions of his archdeaconry of the East Riding also call him archdeacon of Durham . He acquired the Durham archdeaconry before 24 May 1172 , when he first appears holding the office , and held it until his death . Burchard also held a number of churches , including those at Heighington Alne , and Aycliffe . Hugh is thought to have wanted the archbishopric of York for Burchard , most notably in 1189 .
In 1172 Burchard witnessed a charter of Henry the Liberal , Count of Champagne , written at Troyes . A further charter of Henry 's in 1175 mentions a " Burchard archdeacon " who is named as a relative of Henry 's . This may also be Burchard du Puiset .
= = Treasurer of York = =
Burchard was appointed as treasurer of York by King Richard I of England on 15 September 1189 , but his appointment was at first opposed by the newly chosen Archbishop of York , Geoffrey . Along with Burchard , Richard also appointed Henry Marshal the dean ; and Roger of London the abbot of Selby Abbey . Because of Geoffrey 's objections , his estates were confiscated by the king until he submitted . Burchard and Marshal retaliated by accusing the archbishop @-@ elect of being a murderer as well as the son of a prostitute . When Geoffrey visited York in October 1189 , both Burchard and Marshal requested their installation in their offices , but Geoffrey refused to do so until he himself was confirmed in his archbishopric by the papacy . Geoffrey 's refusal to install the royal nominees meant the archbishop @-@ elect was out of favour with Richard , and the king refused to allow Geoffrey 's officials to travel to Rome to request confirmation of the archbishopric .
Geoffrey accepted Burchard 's appointment in December 1189 , but then excommunicated Burchard in January 1190 . The excommunication , which was shared with Henry Marshal , was retaliation for a dispute with the archbishop @-@ elect that happened during a church service . The actual dispute occurred on 5 January 1190 when Burchard and Marshal were conducting vespers , either early or on time , depending on whose side was telling the story . Geoffrey appeared in the middle of their service and attempted to perform the same service , either late or on time , again depending on who was relating the story . When Burchard and Marshal finished their service , they put out all the lights in the church , leaving the archbishop in the dark . Despite that , he finished the service but then complained to the cathedral chapter of York about the incident . Attempts to mediate a dispute led nowhere , and the citizens of York soon became involved . Geoffrey attempted to keep the townspeople from abusing his two opponents , but Burchard was eventually forced to take refuge in the tomb of William of York , an earlier Archbishop of York . Hugh du Puiset then intervened with the king , and Geoffrey once more lost the royal favour . The king sent Burchard to Rome , along with Reginald fitzJocelin the Bishop of Bath , to attempt to secure the deposition of Geoffrey from York . Although Burchard 's efforts in Rome in mid @-@ 1190 contributed to a papal prohibition on Geoffrey 's consecration by Pope Clement III , Geoffrey was not deposed . Burchard did secure his own absolution of the excommunication placed by Geoffrey in January .
Burchard , along with Marshal and other members of the chapter , were often opposed to the actions of their archbishop . They objected to the archbishop having given a large part of York 's treasury towards Richard 's ransom , and to some of the archiepiscopal appointments in the church of York . Burchard and the others charged Geoffrey with simony , extortion , and neglect of his duties and the archbishop in return excommunicated the ringleaders more than once , and locked the canons out of church . The disputes flared up in 1192 , with Burchard facing an effort by Geoffrey to replace him in the treasurership with Hamo , but the dispute was resolved by the gift of a church to Hamo by Burchard and Hamo 's relinquishing of any claim to the treasurership . At another dispute , Geoffrey had confiscated the revenues of Burchard 's offices , along with the revenues of Marshal , Peter de Ros the Archdeacon of Carlisle , and the canons Hugh Murdac and Adam of Thornover . Geoffrey refused to restore the incomes unless the offenders came barefoot into York Minster and begged for the archbishop 's forgiveness . This all but Marshal did and they had their official revenues restored .
= = Later life = =
Burchard continued to hold the treasurership until at least October 1194 , when he last is mentioned in the office . In 1195 , after the death of Hugh du Puiset , Burchard was a candidate for the see of Durham , perhaps as part of a plan by his relative to pass the office on to his family . In June 1195 both Burchard and his rival , Philip of Poitou , were at the royal court in Le Mans , presumably both attempting to secure the bishopric . Philip was appointed to the see in November 1195 .
Burchard died 6 January 1196 .
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= Pilgrim at Tinker Creek =
Pilgrim at Tinker Creek is a 1974 nonfiction narrative book by American author Annie Dillard . Told from a first @-@ person point of view , the book details an unnamed narrator 's explorations near her home , and various contemplations on nature and life . The title refers to Tinker Creek , which is outside Roanoke in Virginia 's Blue Ridge Mountains . Dillard began writing Pilgrim in the spring of 1973 , using her personal journals as inspiration . Separated into four sections that signify each of the seasons , the narrative takes place over the period of one year .
The book records the narrator 's thoughts on solitude , writing , and religion , as well as scientific observations on the flora and fauna she encounters . Touching upon themes of faith , nature , and awareness , Pilgrim is also noted for its study of theodicy and the inherent cruelty of the natural world . The author has described it as a " book of theology " , and she rejects the label of nature writer . Dillard considers the story a " single sustained nonfiction narrative " , although several chapters have been anthologized separately in magazines and other publications . The book is analogous in design and genre to Henry David Thoreau 's Walden ( 1854 ) , the subject of Dillard 's master 's thesis at Hollins College . Critics often compare Dillard to authors from the Transcendentalist movement ; Edward Abbey in particular deemed her Thoreau 's " true heir " .
Pilgrim at Tinker Creek was published by Harper 's Magazine Press shortly after Dillard 's first book , a volume of poetry titled Tickets for a Prayer Wheel . Since its initial publication , Pilgrim has been lauded by critics . It won the 1975 Pulitzer Prize for General Non @-@ fiction , and in 1998 it was included in Modern Library 's list of 100 Best Nonfiction Books .
= = Background and publication = =
Dillard , the daughter of an oil company executive , grew up in an upper middle @-@ class home in Pittsburgh . She read voraciously ; one of her favorite books was Ann Haven Morgan 's The Field Book of Ponds and Streams , which she compared to the Book of Common Prayer ; in painstaking detail , it instructed on the study and collection of plants and insects . She attended Hollins College in Roanoke County , Virginia , receiving both a bachelor 's ( 1967 ) and a master 's degree ( 1968 ) . At Hollins she came under the tutelage of poet and creative writing professor Richard Henry Wilde Dillard , whom she married in 1965 . She would later state that Richard taught her everything she knew about writing . Her master 's thesis , " Walden Pond and Thoreau " , studied the eponymous pond as a structuring device for Henry David Thoreau 's Walden . Dillard 's knowledge of Thoreau 's works was an obvious inspiration , although critics have pointed to many differences between their two works . However , in a nod to his influence , Dillard mentions within the text that she named her goldfish Ellery Channing , after one of Thoreau 's closest friends .
After graduating in 1968 , she continued to live in Virginia , near the Blue Ridge Mountains , where she wrote full @-@ time . At first she concentrated solely on poetry , which she had written and published when she was an undergraduate . She began keeping a journal in 1970 , in which she recorded her daily walks around Tinker Creek . Her journals would eventually consist of 20 volumes . In 1971 , after suffering from a serious bout of pneumonia , she decided to write a full @-@ length book dedicated to her nature writings . Dillard wrote the first half of Pilgrim at her home in spring 1973 , and the remaining half the following summer in a study carrel " that overlooked a tar @-@ and @-@ gravel roof " at the Hollins College library . She would later explain her choice of writing location as stemming from her wanting to avoid " appealing workplaces .... One wants a room with no view , so imagination can meet memory in the dark . " When she first began writing the book , Dillard would only dedicate one or two hours a day to the task ; by the last two months , however , she was writing nearly 15 – 16 hours a day .
Dillard 's primary reader for Pilgrim was a Hollins professor called John Rees Moore . After finishing a chapter , she would bring it to Moore to critique . Moore specifically recommended that she expand the book 's first chapter " to make clear , and to state boldly , what it was [ she ] was up to , " a suggestion that Dillard at first dismissed , but would later admit was good advice . Previous to publication , chapters of the book appeared in publications including Harper 's Magazine , The Atlantic , and The Living Wilderness . Pilgrim at Tinker Creek was published by Harper 's Magazine Press in 1974 , and was dedicated to Dillard 's husband . Editor in chief Larry Freundlich remarked upon first reading the book : " I never expected to see a manuscript this good in my life .... The chance to publish a book like this is what publishers are here for . "
= = Summary = =
Written in a series of internal monologues and reflections , the book is told from the perspective of an unnamed narrator who lives next to Tinker Creek , in the Blue Ridge Mountains near Roanoke , Virginia . Over the course of a year , the narrator observes and reflects upon the changing of the seasons as well as the flora and fauna near her home . Pilgrim is thematically divided into four sections — one for each season — consisting of separate , named chapters : " Heaven and Earth in Jest " , " Seeing " , " Winter " , " The Fixed " , " The Knot " , " The Present " , " Spring " , " Intricacy " , " Flood " , " Fecundity " , " Stalking " , " Nightwatch " , " The Horns of the Altar " , " Northing " , and " The Waters of Separation " .
The first chapter , " Heaven and Earth in Jest " , serves as an introduction to the book . The narrator describes the location as well as her connection to it :
I live by a creek , Tinker Creek , in a valley in Virginia 's Blue Ridge . An anchorite 's hermitage is called an anchor @-@ hold ; some anchor @-@ holds were simple sheds clamped to the side of a church like a barnacle or a rock . I think of this house clamped to the side of Tinker Creek as an anchor @-@ hold . It holds me at anchor to the rock bottom of the creek itself and keeps me steadied in the current , as a sea anchor does , facing the stream of light pouring down . It 's a good place to live ; there 's a lot to think about .
In the afterword of the 1999 Harper Perennial Modern Classics edition , Dillard states that the book 's other , two @-@ part structure mirrors the two routes to God according to Neoplatonic Christianity : the via positiva and the via negativa . The first half of the book , the via positiva , beginning with the second chapter , " accumulates the world 's goodness and God 's . " The second half , the via negativa , ends with the chapter " Northing " which Dillard notes is the counterpart of the second chapter , " Seeing " . The first and last chapters of the book serve as the introduction and conclusion , respectively . The narrative is composed of vignettes detailing the narrator 's wanderings around the creek . In " The Present " the narrator encounters a puppy at a gas station off the highway , and pats its belly while contemplating the view of the nearby mountain range ; the reflective act of " petting the puppy " is referred to in several other chapters . In " Stalking " , the narrator pursues a group of muskrats in the creek during summer . One of the most famous passages comes from the beginning of the book , when the narrator witnesses a frog being drained and devoured by a water beetle .
= = Style and genre = =
Pilgrim at Tinker Creek is a work of creative nonfiction that uses poetic devices such as metaphor , repetition , and inversion to convey the importance of recurrent themes . Although it is often described as a series of essays , Dillard has insisted it is a continuous work , as evidenced by references to events from previous chapters . Although the chapters are separately named — several have also been published separately in magazines and anthologies — she referred to the book in a 1989 interview as a " single sustained nonfiction narrative " . Dillard has also resisted the label of " nature writer " , especially in regard to Pilgrim . She stated , " There 's usually a bit of nature in what I write , but I don 't consider myself a nature writer . "
The book often quotes and alludes to Walden , although Dillard does not explicitly state her interest in Thoreau 's work . Critic Donna Mendelson notes that Thoreau 's " presence is so potent in her book that Dillard can borrow from [ him ] both straightforwardly and also humorously . " Although the two works are often compared , Pilgrim does not comment upon the social world as Walden does ; rather , it is completely rooted in observations of the natural world . Unlike Thoreau , Dillard does not make connections between the history of social and natural aspects , nor does she believe in an ordered universe . Whereas Thoreau refers to the machine @-@ like universe , in which the creator is akin to a master watchmaker , Dillard recognizes the imperfection of creation , in which " something is everywhere and always amiss " .
In her review for The New York Times , Eudora Welty noted Pilgrim 's narrator being " the only person in [ Dillard 's ] book , substantially the only one in her world .... Speaking of the universe very often , she is yet self @-@ surrounded " . Dillard seemingly refers to the idea of an " invisible narrator " in the sixth chapter of Pilgrim at Tinker Creek ; while referring to the " infinite power " of God , the narrator notes that " invisibility is the all @-@ time great ' cover ' " . Nancy C. Parrish , author of the 1998 book Lee Smith , Annie Dillard , and the Hollins Group : A Genesis of Writers , notes that despite its having been written in the first person , Pilgrim is not necessarily autobiographical . The narrator , " Annie Dillard " , therefore becomes a persona through which the author can experience and describe " thoughts and events that the real Annie Dillard had only heard about or studied or imagined . " Critic Suzanne Clark also points to the " peculiar evasiveness " of Dillard @-@ the @-@ author , noting that " when we read Annie Dillard , we don 't know who is writing . There is a silence in the place where there might be an image of the social self — of personality , character , or ego " . While most critics assume that the narrator is female , mostly due to the autobiographical elements of the book and the assumption that the narrator is Dillard herself , Clark questions whether the narrator is male . Stating that Dillard uses " a variety of male voices , male styles " throughout the book , Clark asks , " When Dillard quit writing Pilgrim at Tinker Creek in the persona of a fifty year old man , did she then begin to write as a woman ? "
= = Themes = =
= = = Religion and nature = = =
Pilgrim is often noted for its study of theodicy , or its defense of God 's goodness in the face of evil . The narrator attempts to reconcile the harsh natural world , with its " seemingly horrid mortality , " with the belief in a benevolent God . Death is repeatedly mentioned as a natural , although cruel progression : " Evolution " , the narrator states , " loves death more than it loves you or me . " A passage in the second chapter of the book describes a frog being " sucked dry " by a " giant water bug " as the narrator watches ; this necessary cruelty shows order in life and death , no matter how difficult it may be to watch . The narrator especially sees inherent cruelty in the insect world : " Fish gotta swim and birds gotta fly ... insects , it seems , gotta do one horrible thing after another . I never ask why of a vulture or a shark , but I ask why of almost every insect I see . More than one insect ... is an assault on all human virtue , all hope of a reasonable god . " While she remains drawn to the ultimately repugnant and amoral natural world , she also questions her place in it . The narrator states , " I had thought to live by the side of the creek in order to shape my life to its free flow . But I seem to have reached a point where I must draw the line . It looks as though the creek is not buoying me up but dragging me down . "
The title of the book suggests a pilgrimage , and yet the narrator does not stray far from her home near the creek : the journey is metaphysical . Margaret Loewen Reimer , in one of the first critical studies based on the book , noted that Dillard 's treatment of the metaphysical is similar to that of Herman Melville . While " Melville 's eyes saw mainly the darkness and the horror " of the natural world , possibly stemming from his New England Puritan roots , Dillard 's " sinister " vision of the world comes " more from a horror at the seeming mindlessness of nature 's design than from a deeply pervasive sense of evil . " Unlike Melville , however , Dillard does not moralize the natural world or seek to find parallels in human cultural acts ; focusing largely on observation as well as scientific analysis , Dillard follows the example of Charles Darwin and other naturalists .
The " pilgrim " narrator seeks to behold the sacred , which she dedicates herself to finding either by " stalking " or " seeing " . At one point , she sees a cedar tree near her house " charged and transfigured , each cell buzzing with flame " as the light hits it ; this burning vision , reminiscent of creation 's holy " fire " , " comes and goes , mostly goes , but I live for it . " Critic Jenny Emery Davidson believes that Dillard 's act of " stalking " allows her to rewrite the hunting myth , a popular theme in nature writing which mediates the space between nature and humans . Although a long tradition of male nature writers — including James Fenimore Cooper , Jack London and Richard Nelson — have used this theme as " a symbolic ritual of violence " , Dillard " ventures into the terrain of the hunt , employing its rhetoric while also challenging its conventions . "
= = = Seeing and awareness = = =
While some critics describe Pilgrim at Tinker Creek as being more devoted to speculation of the divine and natural world than to self @-@ exploration , others approach the work in terms of Dillard 's attention to self @-@ aware analysis . For example , critic Mary Davidson McConahay points to Dillard 's Thoreauvian " commitment to awareness " .
In the book , the narrator is not only self @-@ aware , but also alert to every detail around her . Pilgrim 's second chapter defines two types of seeing : as " verbalization " ( active ) and as " a letting go " ( passive ) . The narrator refers to the difference between the two methods as " the difference between walking with and without a camera . " Whereas the former requires the need to " analyze and pry " , the latter only requires rapt attention . The act of seeing is exhaustive and exhausting , as one of the chapters relates : " I look at the water : minnows and shiners . If I am thinking minnows , a carp will fill my brain till I scream . I look at the water 's surface : skaters , bubbles , and leaves sliding down . Suddenly my own face , reflected , startles me witless . Those snails have been tracking my face ! Finally , with a shuddering wrench of the will , I see clouds , cirrus clouds . I 'm dizzy . I fall in . This looking business is risky . " Sandra Johnson refers to the structure of the book itself leading to an epiphany of self @-@ awareness , or a " mystical experience " ; as the narrator watches a falling maple key , she feels " lost , sunk ... gazing toward Tinker Mountain and feeling the earth reel down " .
= = Reception and awards = =
The book was a critical and financial success , selling more than 37 @,@ 000 copies within two months of publication . It went through eight separate printings in the first two years , and the paperback rights were quickly purchased . Dillard was unnerved by the crush of attention ; shortly after the book was published , she wrote , " I 'm starting to have dreams about Tinker Creek . Lying face down in it , all muddy and dried up and I 'm drowning in it . " She feared she had " shot my lifetime wad . Pilgrim is not only the wisdom of my 28 years but I think it 's the wisdom of my whole life . "
The initial consensus among reviewers was that it was " an unusual treatise on nature " . The book was published soon after her poetry collection Tickets for a Prayer Wheel ( 1974 , University of Missouri Press ) . Reviewing both volumes for America , John Breslin noted the similarities between the two : " Even if her first book of poems had not been published simultaneously , the language she uses in Pilgrim would have given her away . " The Saturday Evening Post also praised Dillard 's poetic ability in Pilgrim at Tinker Creek , noting that " the poet in her is everywhere evident in this prose @-@ poem of hers : the reader 's attention is caught not only by the freshness of her insights , but by the beauty of her descriptions as well . " Melvin Maddocks , a reviewer for Time , noted Dillard 's intention of subtle influence : " Reader , beware of this deceptive girl , mouthing her piety about ' the secret of seeing ' being ' the pearl of great price , ' modestly insisting , ' I am no scientist . I explore the neighborhood . ' Here is no gentle romantic twirling a buttercup , no graceful inscriber of 365 inspirational prose poems . As she guides the attention to a muskrat , to a monarch butterfly , a heron or a coot , Miss Dillard is stalking the reader as surely as any predator stalks its game . "
Despite being a bestseller , Pilgrim received little academic attention until more than five years after its publication . Early reviewers Charles Nicol and J. C. Peirce linked Dillard with the Transcendentalism movement , comparing her to Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson . Author and environmentalist Edward Abbey , known as the " Thoreau of the American West " , stated that Dillard was the " true heir of the Master " . He wrote , " she alone has been able to compose , successfully , in Thoreau 's extravagant and transcendental manner . " In his 1992 book critic Scott Slovic wrote that Pilgrim at Tinker Creek eventually " catapulted [ Dillard ] to prominence among contemporary American nonfiction writers — particularly among nature writers — and stimulated a wealth of reviews and a steadily accumulating body of criticism . " Gary McIlroy believed that Dillard 's work is distinctive for its " vibrant rediscovery of the woods . [ She ] studies the wildest remnants of the Virginia woodlands , stirring all the dark and promising mysteries of the American frontier .
Pilgrim at Tinker Creek won the Pulitzer Prize for General Non @-@ fiction in 1975 , when Dillard was 29 years old . The jury noted in its nomination that " Miss Dillard is an expert observer in whom science has not etiolated a sense of awe ... Her book is a blend of observation and introspection , mystery and knowledge . We unanimously recommend it for the prize . " Since its initial publication , portions of the book have been anthologized in over thirty collections . Subsequent editions included those published by Bantam Books ( 1975 ) and Harper Colophon ( 1985 ; 1988 ) . The Harper Perennial 25th @-@ Anniversary edition , which included an afterword by the author , was released in 1999 . The first UK edition was released in 1976 . The book has been translated into many languages throughout the years , including Swedish , Japanese , French , and German . In 1998 it was listed in Modern Library 100 Best Nonfiction Books , both on the board 's and the reader 's lists .
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= Končar @-@ class missile boat =
The Končar @-@ class is a class of six missile boats built for the Yugoslav Navy during the late 1970s at Tito 's Shipyard Kraljevica , SR Croatia . The boats featured a mixture of Western and Eastern equipment , including Soviet anti @-@ ship missiles and Swedish guns .
During the Croatian War of Independence one ship , Vlado Ćetković , was captured by Croatian forces while being overhauled . It was eventually commissioned with the Croatian Navy as Šibenik and is still in use . The remaining five ships were relocated to Montenegro , entering service with the new FR Yugoslav Navy , with three of them being decommissioned in the early 2000s . The last two ships of the class are planned to be modified as patrol boats for service with the Montenegrin Navy .
= = Description = =
The Končar class was developed by the Brodarski institut ( BI ) from Zagreb . The six @-@ strong class was built at the Tito 's Kraljevica Shipyard from 1977 to 1979 with all six ships being named after People 's Heroes of Yugoslavia . The ships measure 44 @.@ 9 m ( 147 ft 4 in ) in length , with a 8 @.@ 4 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) beam and 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) draught . The hull , similar to the Swedish Spica class , is made of steel with an aluminium superstructure . Fully loaded they displace 271 t ( 267 long tons ) and are manned by a crew of 30 .
The class utilizes a CODAG engine configuration for propulsion . Mounted on four shafts , two MTU 16V 538 TB91 diesel engines are used for economical cruising while two RR Marine Proteus 52 M gas turbines are used for achieving high speeds . Cruising speed is 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) while the maximum achievable speed is 38 – 40 knots ( 70 – 74 km / h ; 44 – 46 mph ) . Travelling at a near maximum speed of 38 knots , the ships have a maximum range of 380 – 490 nautical miles ( 700 – 910 km ; 440 – 560 mi ) . Powered by diesel engines only and travelling at a speed of 22 – 23 knots ( 41 – 43 km / h ; 25 – 26 mph ) they have a range of 780 – 870 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 440 – 1 @,@ 610 km ; 900 – 1 @,@ 000 mi ) , with exact numbers varying from source to source . Endurance is between five and seven days .
Gun armament of the class consists of two Bofors 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 70 Mk1 gun mounted on the bow and towards the stern . During the development phase , the designers planned on using French Exocet anti @-@ ship missiles as the class 's main weapon system . However , due to the high price the French asked for the missile , possibly because of political reasons , the project was changed and two Soviet P @-@ 20 ( SS @-@ N @-@ 2B ) were used instead . Self @-@ defense measures include two Wallop Barricade chaff launchers .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
= = = Yugoslav Navy service = = =
During the late 1980s and early 1990s Rade Končar and Vlado Ćetković underwent a modernization program which included removing the stern 57 mm Bofors and installing a Soviet AK @-@ 630 CIWS . At the start of the Croatian War of Independence , Vlado Ćetković was captured by Croatian forces in Šibenik while being overhauled . It was commissioned with the Croatian Navy on 28 September 1991 as Šibenik ( RTOP @-@ 21 ) . Sometime between 1991 and 1994 Šibenik underwent a refit that included removing the P @-@ 20 launchers and installing two mounts for up to four Swedish built RBS @-@ 15 anti @-@ ship missiles . As of 2014 Šibenik is in active service with the Croatian Navy .
The rest of the class remained in hands of the Yugoslav Navy . On 6 October , Hasan Zahirović @-@ Laca along with the Koni @-@ class frigate Koper ( VPBR @-@ 32 ) took part in the Battle of Zadar . Croatian coastal batteries in the area operated two captured Bofors 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns with only one of them being in position to open fire on the ships . The initial five to six rounds fired at Hasan Zahirović @-@ Laca missed their target , after which the gun malfunctioned . After a quick repair , the missile boat was targeted again , with three rounds hitting the stern section and causing no damage because the gun crew didn 't have armor @-@ piercing ammunition at their disposal . Two Končar @-@ class missile boats also took part in the Battle of the Dalmatian Channels . Jordan Nikolov @-@ Orce , operating under the codename " Parak " , and Ante Banina , under the codename " Pakra " , were members of the tactical group " Vis " which was tasked with enforcing a naval blocade of the city of Split and the surrounding islands . With the Yugoslav Peoples Army endings its campaign in Croatia , all ships of the class , excluding Vlado Ćetković , were relocated to Montenegro where they were commissioned with the new FR Yugoslav Navy of Serbia and Montenegro .
Three boats of the class took part in the Lido II incident .
= = = Post @-@ war service = = =
During the mid 1990s , Ramiz Sadiku was docked for a major overhaul and reconstruction . However , due to the lack of funds the work was never completed and the boat was decommissioned and eventually sold for scrap . The boat 's superstructure , propulsion , sensors and weapon systems were dismantled , after which the new owner moved the boat to an underground naval dock on the Luštica peninsula . The boat remained there for several years , before its deteriorating condition caused it to sink inside the dock . The wreck was raised in 2014 and towed to Zelenika where it was broken up to smaller segments which were then transported to the Nikšić steel factory .
In June 2006 , Hasan Zahirović @-@ Laca sailed from Boka Kotorska to Italy to participate in the international naval exercise " Adrion Livex 06 " . The boat left port under the flag of the Navy of Serbia and Montenegro , but because Montenegro declared its independence on 6 June while the boat was still out on exercise , Hasan Zahirović @-@ Laca became the first ship outside of Montenegrin waters to display the flag of the new country . The boat was decommissioned later that year , along with the first boat of the class , Rade Končar . The latter was sold to Kenya in 2014 for an undisclosed price . The Kenyan Navy plans on stripping the boat of its guns and fire @-@ control systems which would then be overhauled and installed on the offshore patrol vessel KNS Jasiri . Rade Končar itself is then expected to be rebuilt and used by the Navy as a patrol boat . The fate of Hasan Zahirović @-@ Laca remains unknown .
In 2013 , the Ministry of Defense of Montenegro issued the Strategic Overview of the Defense of Montenegro ( Strategijski pregled odbrane Crne Gore ) in which it was stated that until sufficient funds to acquire new patrol boats were made available , the Montenegrin Navy would modify two Končar @-@ class missile boats , RTOP @-@ 405 and RTOP @-@ 406 , for use as patrol boats . In February 2014 it was revealed that the Montenegrin Ministry of Defense chose the Brodarski institut from Zagreb to create the project documentation for the modification of the missile boats . As planned , the boats would be stripped of their missile launchers and the aft Bofors gun to allow a rigid @-@ hulled inflatable boat to be carried .
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= Franklin 's lost expedition =
Franklin 's lost expedition was a British voyage of Arctic exploration led by Captain Sir John Franklin that departed England in 1845 . A Royal Navy officer and experienced explorer , Franklin had served on three previous Arctic expeditions , the latter two as commanding officer . His fourth and last , undertaken when he was 59 , was meant to traverse the last unnavigated section of the Northwest Passage . After a few early fatalities , the two ships became icebound in Victoria Strait near King William Island in the Canadian Arctic . The entire expedition , 129 men including Franklin , was lost .
Pressed by Franklin 's wife , Jane , Lady Franklin , and others , the Admiralty launched a search for the missing expedition in 1848 . Prompted in part by Franklin 's fame and the Admiralty 's offer of a finder 's reward , many subsequent expeditions joined the hunt , which at one point in 1850 involved eleven British and two American ships . Several of these ships converged off the east coast of Beechey Island , where the first relics of the expedition were found , including the graves of three crewmen . In 1854 , explorer John Rae , while surveying near the Canadian Arctic coast southeast of King William Island , acquired relics of and stories about the Franklin party from the Inuit . A search led by Francis Leopold McClintock in 1859 discovered a note left on King William Island with details about the expedition 's fate . Searches continued through much of the 19th century . Finally , in 2014 , a Canadian search team located HMS Erebus west of O 'Reilly Island , in the eastern portion of Queen Maud Gulf , in the waters of the Arctic archipelago .
In 1981 , a team of scientists led by Owen Beattie , a professor of anthropology at the University of Alberta , began a series of scientific studies of the graves , bodies , and other physical evidence left by Franklin 's men on Beechey Island and King William Island . They concluded that the men whose graves had been found on Beechey Island most likely died of pneumonia and perhaps tuberculosis and that lead poisoning may have worsened their health , owing to badly soldered cans held in the ships ' food stores . However , it was later suggested that the source of this lead may not have been tinned food , but the distilled water systems fitted to the expedition ’ s ships . Cut marks on human bones found on King William Island were seen as signs of cannibalism . The combined evidence of all studies suggested that hypothermia , starvation , lead poisoning and disease including scurvy , along with general exposure to a hostile environment whilst lacking adequate clothing and nutrition , killed everyone on the expedition in the years following its last sighting by Europeans in 1845 .
The Victorian media portrayed Franklin as a hero despite the expedition 's failure and the reports of cannibalism . Songs were written about him , and statues of him in his home town , in London , and in Tasmania credit him with discovery of the Northwest Passage which was actually found by John Rae . Franklin 's lost expedition has been the subject of many artistic works , including songs , verse , short stories , and novels , as well as television documentaries .
= = Background = =
The search by Europeans for a northern shortcut by sea from Europe to Asia began with the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492 and continued through the mid @-@ 19th century with a long series of exploratory expeditions originating mainly in England . These voyages , when to any degree successful , added to the sum of European geographic knowledge about the Western Hemisphere , particularly North America , and as that knowledge grew larger , attention gradually turned toward the Arctic . Voyagers of the 16th and 17th centuries who made geographic discoveries about North America included Martin Frobisher , John Davis , Henry Hudson , and William Baffin . In 1670 , the incorporation of the Hudson 's Bay Company led to further exploration of the Canadian coasts and interior and of the Arctic seas . In the 18th century , explorers included James Knight , Christopher Middleton , Samuel Hearne , James Cook , Alexander MacKenzie , and George Vancouver . By 1800 , their discoveries showed conclusively that no Northwest Passage navigable by ships lay in the temperate latitudes between the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans .
In 1804 , Sir John Barrow became Second Secretary of the Admiralty , a post he held until 1845 , and began a push by the Royal Navy to complete the Northwest Passage over the top of Canada and to navigate toward the North Pole . Over the next four decades , explorers including John Ross , David Buchan , William Edward Parry , Frederick William Beechey , James Clark Ross , George Back , Peter Warren Dease , and Thomas Simpson made productive trips to the Canadian Arctic . Among these explorers was John Franklin , second @-@ in @-@ command of an expedition towards the North Pole in the ships Dorothea and Trent in 1818 and the leader of overland expeditions to and along the Arctic coast of Canada in 1819 – 22 and 1825 – 27 . By 1845 , the combined discoveries of all of these expeditions had reduced the relevant unknown parts of the Canadian Arctic to a quadrilateral area of about 181 @,@ 300 km2 ( 70 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . It was into this unknown area that Franklin was to sail , heading west through Lancaster Sound and then west and south as ice , land , and other obstacles might allow , to complete the Northwest Passage . The distance to be navigated was roughly 1 @,@ 670 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 040 mi ) .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Command = = =
Barrow , who was 82 and nearing the end of his career , deliberated about who should command the expedition to complete the Northwest Passage and perhaps also find what Barrow believed to be an ice @-@ free Open Polar Sea around the North Pole . Parry , his first choice , was tired of the Arctic and politely declined . His second choice , James Clark Ross , also declined because he had promised his new wife he was done with the Arctic . Barrow 's third choice , James Fitzjames , was rejected by the Admiralty on account of his youth . Barrow considered George Back but thought he was too argumentative . Francis Crozier , another possibility , was of humble birth and Irish , which counted against him . Reluctantly , Barrow settled on the 59 @-@ year @-@ old Franklin . The expedition was to consist of two ships , HMS Erebus and HMS Terror , each of which had seen Antarctic service with James Clark Ross . Fitzjames was given command of Erebus , and Crozier , who had commanded Terror during the Antarctica expedition with Ross in 1841 – 44 , was appointed the executive officer and commander of Terror . Franklin received his expedition command on 7 February 1845 , and his official instructions on 5 May 1845 .
= = = Ships , provisions and crew = = =
Erebus at 378 tons ( bm ) and Terror at 331 tons ( bm ) were sturdily built and were outfitted with recent inventions . Steam engines were fitted in Erebus and Terror to drive a single screw in each vessel ; these engines were former locomotives from the London & Croydon Railway . They enabled the ships to make 7 @.@ 4 km / h ( 4 kn ) on their own power . Other advanced technology included bows reinforced with heavy beams and plates of iron , an internal steam heating device for the comfort of the crew , screw propellers and iron rudders that could be withdrawn into iron wells to protect them from damage , ships ' libraries of more than 1 @,@ 000 books , and three years ' worth of conventionally preserved or tinned preserved food supplies . The latter was supplied from a provisioner , Stephen Goldner , who was awarded the contract on 1 April 1845 , a mere seven weeks before Franklin set sail . Goldner worked frantically on the large and hasty order of 8 @,@ 000 tins . The speed required affected quality control of a proportion of the tins manufactured , which were later found to have lead soldering that was " thick and sloppily done , and dripped like melted candle wax down the inside surface " .
Most of the crew were Englishmen , many of them from the North Country , with a small number of Irishmen and Scotsmen . Aside from Franklin , Crozier , and Lieutenant Graham Gore , the only other officers who were Arctic veterans were an assistant surgeon and the two ice @-@ masters .
= = = Australian connections = = =
Apart from Sir John Franklin himself , who was a former Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Van Diemen 's Land , the crew included two people with close family connections to explorers of Australia who also died tragically . Cmdr Henry Le Vesconte was the first cousin of William John Wills , the co @-@ leader of the 1861 Burke and Wills expedition , the first to cross the Australian mainland from south to north ; both Burke and Wills perished on the return journey . William Gibson , a steward on HMS Terror , was the elder brother of Alfred Gibson , who disappeared on an 1874 expedition led by Ernest Giles to cross the deserts of Western Australia from east to west , and was honoured in the naming of the Gibson Desert . From Giles ' journal entry of 21 April 1873 :
I remarked to Gibson as we rode along that this was the anniversary of Burke 's and Wills 's return to their depot at Coopers ' Creek and then recited to him , as he did not appear to know anything whatever about it , the hardships they endured , their desparate struggles for existence and death there ; and casually remarked that Mr Wills had a brother [ sic ] who also lost his life in the field of discovery , as he went out with Sir John Franklin in 1845 . Gibson then remarked , " Oh , I had a brother who died with Franklin at the North Pole and my father had a great deal of trouble getting his pay from Government " .
= = Loss = =
The expedition set sail from Greenhithe , England , on the morning of 19 May 1845 , with a crew of 24 officers and 110 men . The ships stopped briefly in Stromness Harbour in the Orkney Islands in northern Scotland , and from there they sailed to Greenland with HMS Rattler and a transport ship , Barretto Junior .
At the Whalefish Islands in Disko Bay , on the west coast of Greenland , 10 oxen carried by the transport ship were slaughtered for fresh meat ; supplies were transferred to Erebus and Terror , and crew members wrote their last letters home . Letters written on board told how Franklin banned swearing and drunkenness . Before the expedition 's final departure , five men were discharged and sent home on Rattler and Barretto Junior , reducing the ships ' final crew size to 129 . The expedition was last seen by Europeans in late July 1845 , when Captain Dannett of the whaler Prince of Wales and Captain Robert Martin of the whaler Enterprise encountered Terror and Erebus in Baffin Bay , waiting for good conditions to cross to Lancaster Sound .
Over the next 150 years , other expeditions , explorers , and scientists would piece together what happened next . Franklin 's men wintered in 1845 – 46 on Beechey Island , where three crew members died and were buried . Terror and Erebus became trapped in ice off King William Island in September 1846 and never sailed again . According to a note dated 25 April 1848 , and left on the island by Fitzjames and Crozier , Franklin had died on 11 June 1847 ; the crew had wintered on King William Island in 1846 – 47 and 1847 – 48 , and the remaining crew had planned to begin walking on 26 April 1848 toward the Back River on the Canadian mainland . Nine officers and fifteen men had already died ; the rest would die along the way , most on the island and another 30 or 40 on the northern coast of the mainland , hundreds of miles from the nearest outpost of Western civilization .
= = Early searches = =
After two years had passed with no word from Franklin , public concern grew and Lady Franklin — as well as members of Parliament and British newspapers — urged the Admiralty to send a search party . In response , the Admiralty developed a three @-@ pronged plan put into effect in the spring of 1848 that sent an overland rescue party , led by Sir John Richardson and John Rae , down the MacKenzie River to the Canadian Arctic coast . Two expeditions by sea were also launched , one entering the Canadian Arctic archipelago through Lancaster Sound , and the other entering from the Pacific side . In addition , the Admiralty offered a reward of £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 811 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) " to any Party or Parties , of any country , who shall render assistance to the crews of the Discovery Ships under the command of Sir John Franklin " . After the three @-@ pronged effort failed , British national concern and interest in the Arctic increased until " finding Franklin became nothing less than a crusade . " Ballads such as " Lady Franklin 's Lament " , commemorating Lady Franklin 's search for her lost husband , became popular .
Many joined the search . In 1850 , 11 British and two American ships cruised the Canadian Arctic , including Breadalbane , and her sister ship HMS Phoenix . Several converged off the east coast of Beechey Island , where the first relics of the expedition were found , including remnants of a winter camp from 1845 – 46 and the graves of John Torrington , John Hartnell , and William Braine . No messages from the Franklin expedition were found at this site . In the spring of 1851 , passengers and crew aboard several ships observed a huge iceberg off Newfoundland which bore two vessels , one upright and one on its beam ends . The ships were not examined closely . It was suggested that the ships could have been Erebus and Terror , though it is more likely that they were abandoned whaling ships .
In 1852 , Edward Belcher was given command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Sir John Franklin . This was unsuccessful ; Belcher 's inability to render himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly unfortunate in an Arctic voyage , and he was not wholly suited to command vessels among ice . Four of the five ships ( HMS Resolute , Pioneer , Assistance and Intrepid ) were abandoned in pack ice , for which Belcher was court @-@ martialed but acquitted . One of the ships , HMS Resolute , was later recovered intact by an American whaler . Timbers from the ship were later used to manufacture three desks , one of which , the Resolute desk , was presented by Queen Victoria to the U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes ; it has often been chosen by presidents for use in the Oval Office in the White House .
= = Overland searches = =
In 1854 , John Rae , while surveying the Boothia Peninsula for the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) , discovered further evidence of the lost men 's fate . Rae met an Inuk near Pelly Bay ( now Kugaaruk , Nunavut ) on 21 April 1854 , who told him of a party of 35 to 40 white men who had died of starvation near the mouth of the Back River . Other Inuit confirmed this story , which included reports of cannibalism among the dying sailors . The Inuit showed Rae many objects that were identified as having belonged to Franklin and his men . In particular , Rae brought from the Pelly Bay Inuit several silver forks and spoons later identified as belonging to Fitzjames , Crozier , Franklin , and Robert Osmer Sargent , a shipmate aboard Erebus . Rae 's report was sent to the Admiralty , which in October 1854 urged the HBC to send an expedition down the Back River to search for other signs of Franklin and his men .
Next were Chief Factor James Anderson and HBC employee James Stewart , who travelled north by canoe to the mouth of the Back River . In July 1855 , a band of Inuit told them of a group of qallunaat ( Inuktitut for " whites " ) who had starved to death along the coast . In August , Anderson and Stewart found a piece of wood inscribed with " Erebus " and another that said " Mr. Stanley " ( surgeon aboard Erebus ) on Montreal Island in Chantrey Inlet , where the Back River meets the sea .
Despite the findings of Rae and Anderson , the Admiralty did not plan another search of its own . Britain officially labelled the crew deceased in service on 31 March 1854 . Lady Franklin , failing to convince the government to fund another search , personally commissioned one more expedition under Francis Leopold McClintock . The expedition ship , the steam schooner Fox , bought via public subscription , sailed from Aberdeen on 2 July 1857 .
In April 1859 , sledge parties set out from Fox to search on King William Island . On 5 May , the party led by Royal Navy Lieutenant William Hobson found a document in a cairn left by Crozier and Fitzjames . It contained two messages . The first , dated 28 May 1847 , said that Erebus and Terror had wintered in the ice off the northwest coast of King William Island and had wintered earlier at Beechey Island after circumnavigating Cornwallis Island . " Sir John Franklin commanding the Expedition . All well " , the message said . The second message , written in the margins of that same sheet of paper , was much more ominous . Dated 25 April 1848 , it reported that Erebus and Terror had been trapped in the ice for a year and a half and that the crew had abandoned the ships on 22 April . Twenty @-@ four officers and crew had died , including Franklin on 11 June 1847 , just two weeks after the date of the first note . Crozier was commanding the expedition , and the 105 survivors planned to start out the next day , heading south towards the Back River . This note contains significant errors ; most notably the date of the expedition 's winter camp at Beechy Island is incorrectly given as 1846 – 47 rather than 1845 – 46 .
The McClintock expedition also found a human skeleton on the southern coast of King William Island . Still clothed , it was searched , and some papers were found , including a seaman 's certificate for Chief Petty Officer Henry Peglar ( b . 1808 ) , Captain of the Foretop , HMS Terror . However , since the uniform was that of a ship 's steward , it is more likely that the body was that of Thomas Armitage , gun @-@ room steward on HMS Terror and a shipmate of Peglar , whose papers he carried . At another site on the western extreme of the island , Hobson discovered a lifeboat containing two skeletons and relics from the Franklin expedition . In the boat was a large amount of abandoned equipment , including boots , silk handkerchiefs , scented soap , sponges , slippers , hair combs , and many books , among them a copy of The Vicar of Wakefield . McClintock also took testimony from the Inuit about the expedition 's disastrous end .
Two expeditions between 1860 and 1869 by Charles Francis Hall , who lived among the Inuit near Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island and later at Repulse Bay on the Canadian mainland , found camps , graves , and relics on the southern coast of King William Island , but none of the Franklin expedition survivors he believed would be found among the Inuit . Though he concluded that all of the Franklin crew were dead , he believed that the official expedition records would yet be found under a stone cairn . With the assistance of his guides Ebierbing and Tookoolito , Hall gathered hundreds of pages of Inuit testimony . Among these materials are accounts of visits to Franklin 's ships , and an encounter with a party of white men on the southern coast of King William Island near Washington Bay . In the 1990s , this testimony was extensively researched by David C. Woodman , and was the basis of two books , Unravelling the Franklin Mystery ( 1992 ) and Strangers Among Us ( 1995 ) , in which he reconstructs the final months of the expedition .
The hope of finding these lost papers led Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka of the U.S. Army to organise an expedition to the island between 1878 and 1880 . Traveling to Hudson Bay on the schooner Eothen , Schwatka , assembling a team that included Inuit who had assisted Hall , continued north by foot and dog sled , interviewing Inuit , visiting known or likely sites of Franklin expedition remains , and wintering on King William Island . Though Schwatka failed to find the hoped @-@ for papers , in a speech at a dinner given in his honour by the American Geographical Society in 1880 , he noted that his expedition had made " the longest sledge journey ever made both in regard to time and distance " of 11 months and 4 days and 4 @,@ 360 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 710 mi ) , that it was the first Arctic expedition on which the whites relied entirely on the same diet as the Inuit , and that it established the loss of the Franklin records " beyond all reasonable doubt " . The Schwatka expedition found no remnants of the Franklin expedition south of a place known as Starvation Cove on the Adelaide Peninsula . This was well north of Crozier 's stated goal , the Back River , and several hundred miles away from the nearest Western outpost , on the Great Slave Lake . Woodman wrote of Inuit reports that between 1852 and 1858 Crozier and one other expedition member were seen in the Baker Lake area , about 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) to the south , where in 1948 Farley Mowat found " a very ancient cairn , not of normal Eskimo construction " inside which were shreds of a hardwood box with dovetail joints .
= = Contemporary search expeditions = =
1848 :
East : James Clark Ross , ( HMS Enterprise , HMS Investigator ) only to Somerset Island because of ice .
Center : Rae – Richardson Arctic Expedition Mackenzie River and along the coast .
West : HMS Plover , HMS Herald to Bering Strait ; William Pullen reaches Mackenzie by whaleboat .
1850 :
West : Richard Collinson ( HMS Enterprise ) , Robert McClure ( HMS Investigator ) to Bering Strait . McClure frozen in at Banks Island , when rescued becomes first man to cross the northwest passage . Collinson reaches Coronation Gulf , furthest east of any ship .
East : Horatio Austin ( HMS Resolute ) , Erasmus Ommanney ( HMS Assistance ) , plus 2 steam tenders , Pioneer and Intrepid ( cpt John Bertie Cator 1850 ) . Ommanney finds Franklin 's Beechey Island camp . Austin 's four and the below ships gather around Beechey Island , are frozen in and in spring send out sledge expeditions in all directions . They leave the Arctic before winter in 1851 .
East : Charles Forsyth ( Prince Albert ) financed by Lady Franklin ; sledge on Somerset Island to Fury Beach .
East : William Penny ( Lady Franklin and Sophia )
East : John Ross ( schooner Felix )
East : Edwin de Haven ( USS Rescue , USS Advance ) = First Grinnell Expedition
1851 : William Kennedy ( Prince Albert again ) finds Bellot Strait proving that Somerset Island is an island .
1852 :
Edward Augustus Inglefield in northern Baffin Bay .
Edward Belcher in five ships ; much sledge exploration ; rescues McClure ; 4 ships abandoned in the ice . Bredalbane crushed by ice .
Elisha Kane led the Second Grinnell Expedition
Boat expedition up the Wellington Channel under the command of R. M 'Cormick , R.N. , in HMB Forlorn Hope
1854 : John Rae learns where Franklin lost his ship .
1855 : Anderson and Stewart descend the Back River and find relics in Chantry Inlet .
1857 : Francis Leopold McClintock finds relics at King William Island , including a ship 's boat on runners containing two corpses .
1869 : Charles Francis Hall at King William Island
1875 : Allen Young blocked at Peel Sound
1878 : Frederick Schwatka at King William Island
= = Scientific expeditions = =
= = = King William Island excavations ( 1981 – 82 ) = = =
In June 1981 , Owen Beattie , a professor of anthropology at the University of Alberta , began the 1845 – 48 Franklin Expedition Forensic Anthropology Project ( FEFAP ) when he and his team of researchers and field assistants travelled from Edmonton to King William Island , traversing the island 's western coast as Franklin 's men did 132 years before . FEFAP hoped to find artifacts and skeletal remains in order to use modern forensics to establish identities and causes of death among the lost 129 .
Although the trek found archaeological artifacts related to 19th @-@ century Europeans and undisturbed disarticulated human remains , Beattie was disappointed that more remains were not found . Examining the bones of Franklin crewmen , he noted areas of pitting and scaling often found in cases of Vitamin C deficiency , the cause of scurvy . After returning to Edmonton , he compared notes from the survey with James Savelle , an Arctic archaeologist , and noticed skeletal patterns suggesting cannibalism . Seeking information about the Franklin crew 's health and diet , he sent bone samples to the Alberta Soil and Feed Testing Laboratory for trace element analysis and assembled another team to visit King William Island . The analysis would find an unexpected level of 226 parts per million ( ppm ) of lead in the crewman 's bones , which was 10 times higher than the control samples , taken from Inuit skeletons from the same geographic area , of 26 – 36 ppm .
In June 1982 , a team made up of Beattie ; Walt Kowall , a graduate student in anthropology at the University of Alberta ; Arne Carlson , an archaeology and geography student from Simon Fraser University in British Columbia ; and Arsien Tungilik , an Inuk student and field assistant , were flown to the west coast of King William Island , where they retraced some of the steps of McClintock in 1859 and Schwatka in 1878 – 79 . Discoveries during this expedition included the remains of between six and fourteen men in the vicinity of McClintock 's " boat place " and artifacts including a complete boot sole fitted with makeshift cleats for better traction .
= = = Beechey Island excavations and exhumations ( 1984 – 86 ) = = =
After returning to Edmonton in 1982 and learning of the lead @-@ level findings from the 1981 expedition , Beattie struggled to find a cause . Possibilities included the lead solder used to seal the expedition 's food tins , other food containers lined with lead foil , food colouring , tobacco products , pewter tableware , and lead @-@ wicked candles . He came to suspect that the problems of lead poisoning compounded by the effects of scurvy could have been lethal for the Franklin crew . However , because skeletal lead might reflect lifetime exposure rather than exposure limited to the voyage , Beattie 's theory could be tested only by forensic examination of preserved soft tissue as opposed to bone . Beattie decided to examine the graves of the buried crewmen on Beechey Island .
After obtaining legal permission , Beattie 's team visited Beechey Island in August 1984 to perform autopsies on the three crewmen buried there . They started with the first crew member to die , Leading Stoker John Torrington . After completing Torrington 's autopsy and exhuming and briefly examining the body of John Hartnell , the team , pressed for time and threatened by the weather , returned to Edmonton with tissue and bone samples . Trace element analysis of Torrington 's bones and hair indicated that the crewman " would have suffered severe mental and physical problems caused by lead poisoning " . Although the autopsy indicated that pneumonia had been the ultimate cause of the crewman 's death , lead poisoning was cited as a contributing factor .
During the expedition , the team visited a place about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) north of the grave site to examine fragments of hundreds of food tins discarded by Franklin 's men . Beattie noted that the seams were poorly soldered with lead , which had likely come in direct contact with the food . The release of findings from the 1984 expedition and the photo of Torrington , a 138 @-@ year @-@ old corpse well preserved by permafrost in the tundra , led to wide media coverage and renewed interest in the lost Franklin expedition .
Recent research has suggested that another potential source for the lead may have been the ships ' fresh @-@ water systems rather than the tinned food . K.T.H. Farrer argued that " it is impossible to see how one could ingest from the canned food the amount of lead , 3 @.@ 3 mg per day over eight months , required to raise the PbB to the level 80 μg / dL at which symptoms of lead poisoning begin to appear in adults and the suggestion that bone lead in adults could be ' swamped ' by lead ingested from food over a period of a few months , or even three years , seems scarcely tenable . " In addition , tinned food was in widespread use within the Royal Navy at that time and its use did not lead to any significant increase in lead poisoning elsewhere . However , and uniquely for this expedition only , the ships were fitted with converted railway locomotive engines for auxiliary propulsion which required an estimated one tonne of fresh water per hour when steaming . It is highly probable that it was for this reason that the ships were fitted with a unique water distillation system which , given the materials in use at the time , would have produced large quantities of water with a very high lead content . William Battersby has argued that this is a much more likely source for the high levels of lead observed in the remains of expedition members than the tinned food .
A further survey of the graves was undertaken in 1986 . A camera crew filmed the procedure , shown in Nova 's television documentary , Buried in Ice in 1988 . Under difficult field conditions , Derek Notman , a radiologist and medical doctor from the University of Minnesota , and radiology technician Larry Anderson took many X @-@ rays of the crewmen prior to autopsy . Barbara Schweger , an Arctic clothing specialist , and Roger Amy , a pathologist , assisted in the investigation .
Beattie and his team had noticed that someone else had attempted to exhume Hartnell . In the effort , a pickaxe had damaged the wooden lid of his coffin , and the coffin plaque was missing . Research in Edmonton later showed that Sir Edward Belcher , commander of one of the Franklin rescue expeditions , had ordered the exhumation of Hartnell in October 1852 , but was thwarted by the permafrost . A month later , Edward A. Inglefield , commander of another rescue expedition , succeeded with the exhumation and removed the coffin plaque .
Unlike Hartnell 's grave , the grave of Private William Braine was largely intact . When he was exhumed , the survey team saw signs that his burial had been hasty . His arms , body , and head had not been positioned carefully in the coffin , and one of his undershirts had been put on backwards . The coffin seemed too small for him ; its lid had pressed down on his nose . A large copper plaque with his name and other personal data punched into it adorned his coffin lid .
= = = NgLj @-@ 2 excavations ( 1992 ) = = =
In 1992 , a team of archaeologists and forensic anthropologists identified a site , which they referenced as " NgLj @-@ 2 " , on the western shores of King William Island . The site matches the physical description of Leopold McClintock 's " boat place " . Excavations there uncovered nearly 400 bones and bone fragments , and physical artefacts ranging from pieces of clay pipes to buttons and brass fittings . Examination of these bones by Anne Keenleyside , the expedition 's forensic scientist , showed elevated levels of lead and many cut @-@ marks " consistent with de @-@ fleshing " . On the basis of this expedition , it has become generally accepted that at least some groups of Franklin 's men resorted to cannibalism in their final distress . On 18 June 2015 , a study accepted for publication in the Journal of Osteoarchaeology concluded that in addition to the de @-@ fleshing of bones , 35 " bones had signs of breakage and ' pot polishing , ' which occurs when the ends of bones heated in boiling water rub against the cooking pot they are placed in " , which " typically occurs in the end stage of cannibalism , when starving people extract the marrow to eke out the last bit of calories and nutrition they can . "
= = = Wreck searches ( 1992 – 93 ) = = =
In 1992 , Franklin author David C. Woodman , with the help of magnetometer expert Brad Nelson , organised " Project Ootjoolik " to search for the wreck reported by Inuit testimony to lie off the waters of Adelaide Peninsula . Enlisting both a National Research Council and a Canadian Forces patrol aircraft , each fitted with a sensitive magnetometer , a large search area to the west of Grant Point was surveyed from an elevation of 200 feet ( 61 m ) . Over 60 strong magnetic targets were identified , of which five were deemed to have characteristics most congruent to those expected from Franklin 's ships .
In 1993 , Dr. Joe McInnis and Woodman organised an attempt to identify the priority targets from the year before . A chartered aircraft landed on the ice at three of the locations , a hole was drilled through the ice , and a small sector @-@ scan sonar was used to image the sea bottom . Unfortunately , due to ice conditions and uncertain navigation , it was not possible to exactly confirm the locations of the holes , and nothing was found although hitherto @-@ unknown depths were found at the locations that were consistent with Inuit testimony of the wreck .
= = = King William Island ( 1994 – 95 ) = = =
In 1994 Woodman organised and led a land search of the area from Richard Collinson Inlet to ( modern ) Victory Point in search of the buried " vaults " spoken of in the testimony of the contemporary Inuit hunter Supunger . A 10 @-@ person team spent 10 days in the search , sponsored by the Royal Canadian Geographical Society , and filmed by the CBC Focus North . No trace of the vaults was found .
In 1995 , an expedition was jointly organised by Woodman , George Hobson , and American adventurer Steven Trafton – with each party planning a separate search . Trafton 's group travelled to the Clarence Island to investigate Inuit stories of a " white man 's cairn " there but found nothing . Dr. Hobson 's party , accompanied by archaeologist Margaret Bertulli , investigated the " summer camp " found a few miles to the south of Cape Felix , where some minor Franklin relics were found . Woodman , with two companions , travelled south from Wall Bay to Victory Point and investigated all likely campsites along this coast , finding only some rusted cans at a previously unknown campsite near Cape Maria Louisa .
= = = Wreck searches ( 1997 – 2013 ) = = =
In 1997 , a " Franklin 150 " expedition was mounted by the Canadian film company Eco @-@ Nova to use sonar to investigate more of the priority magnetic targets found in 1992 . Senior archaeologist was Robert Grenier , assisted by Margaret Bertulli , and Woodman again acted as expedition historian and search coordinator . Operations were conducted from the Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker Laurier . Approximately 40 square kilometres ( 15 sq mi ) were surveyed , without result , near Kirkwall Island . When detached parties found Franklin relics , primarily copper sheeting and small items , on the beaches of islets to the north of O 'Reilly Island the search was diverted to that area , but poor weather prevented significant survey work before the expedition ended . A documentary , " Oceans of Mystery : Search for the Lost Fleet " , was produced by Eco @-@ Nova about this expedition .
In 2000 , James Delgado of the Vancouver Maritime Museum organised a re @-@ enactment of the historic St. Roch passage westward through the Northwest Passage using the RCMP vessel Nadon supported by the Canadian Buoy Tender Simon Fraser . Knowing that ice would delay the transit in the area of King William Island , he offered the use of the Nadon as a search vessel to his friends Hobson and Woodman , and using the Nadon 's Kongsberg / Simrad SM2000 forward @-@ looking sonar , the survey of the northern search area around Kirkwall Island was continued without result .
Three expeditions were mounted by Woodman to continue the magnetometer mapping of the proposed wreck sites , a privately sponsored expedition in 2001 , and the Irish @-@ Canadian Franklin Search Expeditions of 2002 and 2004 . These made use of sled @-@ drawn magnetometers working on the sea ice and completed the unfinished survey of the northern ( Kirkwall Island ) search area ( 2001 ) , and the entire southern O 'Reilly Island area ( 2002 and 2004 ) . All high @-@ priority magnetic targets were identified by sonar through the ice as geological in origin . In 2002 and 2004 , small Franklin artefacts and characteristic explorer tent sites were found on a small islet northeast of O 'Reilly Island during shore searches .
In August 2008 , a new search was announced , to be led by Robert Grenier , a senior archaeologist with Parks Canada . This search hoped to take advantage of the improved ice conditions , using side @-@ scan sonar from a boat in open water . Grenier also hoped to draw from newly published Inuit testimony collected by oral historian Dorothy Harley Eber . Some of Eber 's informants have placed the location of one of Franklin 's ships in the vicinity of the Royal Geographical Society Island , an area not searched by previous expeditions . The search was to also include local Inuit historian Louie Kamookak , who has found other significant remains of the expedition and would represent the indigenous culture .
On 25 July 2010 , HMS Investigator , which had become icebound and was subsequently abandoned while searching for Franklin 's expedition in 1853 , was found in shallow water in Mercy Bay along the northern coast of Banks Island in Canada 's western Arctic . The Parks Canada team reported that it was in good shape , upright in about 11 metres ( 36 feet ) of water .
In August 2013 , a new search was announced by Parks Canada .
= = = Victoria Strait Expedition ( 2014 ) = = =
On 1 September 2014 , a larger search by a Canadian team under the banner of the " Victoria Strait Expedition " found two items on Hat Island in the Queen Maud Gulf near Nunavut 's King William Island — a wooden object , possibly a plug for a deck hawse , the iron pipe through which the ship 's chain cable would descend into the chain locker below ; and part of a boat @-@ launching davit bearing the stamps of two Royal Navy broad arrows .
On 9 September 2014 , the expedition announced that on 7 September it had located one of Franklin 's two ships . The ship is preserved in very good condition , with side @-@ scan sonar picking up even the deck planking . The wreck lies at the bottom of the eastern portion of Queen Maud Gulf , west of O 'Reilly Island . On 1 October at the House of Commons , Prime Minister Stephen Harper confirmed that the wreck is indeed HMS Erebus .
= = = Scientific conclusions = = =
The FEFAP field surveys , excavations and exhumations spanned more than 10 years . The results of this study from King William Island and Beechey Island artefacts and human remains showed that the Beechey Island crew had most likely died of pneumonia and perhaps tuberculosis , which was suggested by the evidence of Pott 's disease discovered in Braine . Toxicological reports pointed to lead poisoning as a likely contributing factor . Blade cut marks found on bones from some of the crew were seen as signs of cannibalism . Evidence suggested that a combination of cold , starvation and disease including scurvy , pneumonia and tuberculosis , all made worse by lead poisoning , killed everyone in the Franklin party .
= = Other factors = =
Franklin 's chosen passage down the west side of King William Island took Erebus and Terror into " ... a ploughing train of ice ... [ that ] does not always clear during the short summers ... " , whereas the route along the island 's east coast regularly clears in summer and was later used by Roald Amundsen in his successful navigation of the Northwest Passage . The Franklin expedition , locked in ice for two winters in Victoria Strait , was naval , not well @-@ equipped or trained for land travel . Some of the crew members heading south from Erebus and Terror hauled many items not needed for Arctic survival . McClintock noted a large quantity of heavy goods in the lifeboat at the " boat place " and thought them " a mere accumulation of dead weight , of little use , and very likely to break down the strength of the sledge @-@ crews " . In addition , cultural factors might have prevented the crew from seeking help as quickly as possible from the Inuit or adopting their survival techniques .
= = Timeline = =
1845 , 19 May : Franklin expedition sails from England
1845 , July : Expedition docks in Greenland , sends home five men and a batch of letters
1845 , 28 July : Last sighting of expedition by Europeans ( a whaling ship in Baffin Bay )
1845 – 46 : Expedition winters on Beechey Island . Three crewmen die of tuberculosis and are buried .
1846 : Erebus and Terror leave Beechey Island and sail down Peel Sound towards King William Island
1846 , 12 September : Ships trapped in the ice off King William Island
1846 – 47 : Expedition winters on King William Island
1847 , 28 May : Date of first note , says " All well "
1847 , 11 June : Franklin dies
1847 – 48 : Expedition again winters off King William Island , after the ice fails to thaw in 1847
1848 , 22 April : Erebus and Terror abandoned after one year and seven months trapped in the ice
1848 , 25 April : Date of second note , saying 24 men have died and the survivors plan to start marching south on 26 April to the Back River
1850 ( ? ) : Inuit board an abandoned ship , which is icebound off King William Island
1850 ( ? ) : Inuit see 40 men walking south on King William Island
1851 ( ? ) : Inuit hunters see four men still trying to head south , last verified sighting of survivors ( as reported to Charles Hall )
1852 – 58 ( ? ) : Inuit may have seen Crozier and one other survivor much further south in the Baker Lake area
1854 : John Rae interviews local Inuit , who give him items from the expedition and tell him the men starved to death , after resorting to cannibalism
1859 : McClintock finds the abandoned boat and the messages on an admiralty form in a cairn on King William Island
2014 : Ryan Harris , an underwater archeologist who was Parks Canada 's project lead for the 2014 search , announced the finding in September of an underwater wreck that he said was " indisputably " one of Franklin 's two ships . Further investigation has determined that it is HMS Erebus and the news was confirmed 1 October in the Canadian House of Commons .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historical = = =
The most meaningful outcome of the Franklin expedition was the mapping of several thousand miles of hitherto unsurveyed coastline by expeditions searching for Franklin 's lost ships and crew . As Richard Cyriax noted , " the loss of the expedition probably added much more [ geographical ] knowledge than its successful return would have done " . At the same time , it largely quelled the Admiralty 's appetite for Arctic exploration . There was a gap of many years before the Nares expedition and when Nares declared there was " no thoroughfare " to the North Pole , his words marked the end of the Royal Navy 's historical involvement in Arctic exploration , the end of an era in which such exploits were widely seen by the British public as worthy expenditures of human effort and monetary resources . As a writer for The Athenaeum put it , " We think that we can fairly make out the account between the cost and results of these Arctic Expeditions , and ask whether it is worth while to risk so much for that which is so difficult of attainment , and when attained , is so worthless . " The navigation of the Northwest Passage in 1903 – 05 by Roald Amundsen with the Gjøa expedition effectively ended the centuries @-@ long quest for the Northwest Passage .
= = = Cultural legacy = = =
For years after the loss of the Franklin Party , the Victorian media portrayed Franklin as a hero who led his men in the quest for the Northwest Passage . A statue of Franklin in his home town bears the inscription " Sir John Franklin – Discoverer of the North West Passage " , and statues of Franklin outside the Athenaeum in London and in Tasmania bear similar inscriptions . Although the expedition 's fate , including the possibility of cannibalism , was widely reported and debated , Franklin 's standing with the Victorian public was undiminished . The expedition has been the subject of numerous works of non @-@ fiction , including two books by Ken McGoogan , Fatal Passage and Lady Franklin 's Revenge .
The mystery surrounding Franklin 's last expedition was the subject of a 2006 episode of the NOVA television series Arctic Passage ; a 2007 television documentary , " Franklin 's Lost Expedition " , on Discovery HD Theatre ; as well as a 2008 Canadian documentary , Passage . In an episode of the 2009 ITV1 travel documentary series Billy Connolly : Journey to the Edge of the World , presenter Connolly and his crew visited Beechey Island , filmed the gravesite , and gave details of the Franklin expedition .
In memory of the lost expedition , one of Canada 's Northwest Territories subdivisions was known as the District of Franklin . Including the high Arctic islands ; this jurisdiction was abolished when the area was set off into the newly created Nunavut Territory on 1 April 1999 .
On 29 October 2009 , a special service of thanksgiving was held in the chapel at the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich , to accompany the rededication of the national monument to Franklin there . The service also included the solemn re @-@ interment of the remains of Lieutenant Henry Thomas Dundas Le Vesconte , the only remains ever repatriated to England , entombed within the monument in 1873 . The event brought together members of the international polar community and invited guests included polar travellers , photographers and authors and descendants of Franklin , Captain Francis Rawdon Moira Crozier and their men , and the families of those who went to search for them , including Admiral Sir Francis Leopold McClintock , Rear Admiral Sir John Ross and Vice Admiral Sir Robert McClure among many others . The gala was directed by the Rev Jeremy Frost and polar historian Huw Lewis @-@ Jones and was organised by Polarworld and the High Commission of Canada to the United Kingdom . It was a celebration of the contributions made by the United Kingdom in the charting of the Canadian North , which honoured the loss of life in the pursuit of geographical discovery . The Navy was represented by Admiral Nick Wilkinson , prayers were led by the Bishop of Woolwich and among the readings were eloquent tributes from Duncan Wilson , chief executive of the Greenwich Foundation and H.E. James Wright , the Canadian High Commissioner . At a private drinks reception in the Painted Hall following this Arctic service , Chief Marine Archaeologist for Parks Canada Robert Grenier spoke of his ongoing search for the missing expedition ships . The following day , a group of polar authors went to London 's Kensal Green Cemetery to pay their respects to the Arctic explorers buried there . After some difficulty , McClure 's gravestone was located . It is hoped that his memorial , in particular , may be conserved in the future . Many other veterans of the searches for Franklin are buried there , including Admiral Sir Horatio Thomas Austin , Admiral Sir George Back , Admiral Sir Edward Augustus Inglefield , Admiral Bedford Clapperton Trevelyan Pim , and Admiral Sir John Ross . Franklin 's redoubtable wife Jane Griffin , Lady Franklin , is also interred at Kensal Green in the vault , and commemorated on a marble cross dedicated to her niece Sophia Cracroft .
= = = = Portrayal in fiction and the arts = = = =
From the 1850s through to the present day , Franklin 's last expedition inspired numerous literary works . Among the first was a play , The Frozen Deep , written by Wilkie Collins with assistance and production by Charles Dickens . The play was performed for private audiences at Tavistock House early in 1857 , as well as at the Royal Gallery of Illustration ( including a command performance for Queen Victoria ) , and for the public at the Manchester Trade Union Hall . News of Franklin 's death in 1859 inspired elegies , including one by Algernon Charles Swinburne .
Fictional treatments of the final Franklin expedition begin with Jules Verne 's Journeys and Adventures of Captain Hatteras , ( 1866 ) , in which the novel 's hero seeks to retrace Franklin 's footsteps and discovers that the North Pole is dominated by an enormous volcano . Mark Twain briefly satirized the fate of the expedition and its subsequent searches in the beginning of the story " Some Learned Fables for Good Old Boys and Girls " ( 1875 ) . The German novelist Sten Nadolny 's The Discovery of Slowness ( 1983 ; English translation 1987 ) takes on the entirety of Franklin 's life , touching only briefly on his last expedition . Other recent novelistic treatments of Franklin include Mordecai Richler 's Solomon Gursky Was Here ( 1989 ) , William T. Vollmann 's The Rifles ( 1994 ) , John Wilson 's North With Franklin : The Journals of James Fitzjames ( 1999 ) ; and Dan Simmons 's The Terror ( 2007 ) - the latter of which is being developed as an AMC television series , announced in February 2013 . The expedition has also been the subject of a horror role @-@ playing game supplement , The Walker in the Wastes . Most recently , Clive Cussler 's 2008 novel Arctic Drift incorporates the ordeal of the Franklin expedition as a central element in the story , and Richard Flanagan 's Wanting ( 2009 ) deals with Franklin 's deeds in both Tasmania and the Arctic . 2013 ’ s novel The White Passage rounds out the list with a vaguely science @-@ fiction take on the concepts of time @-@ travel and the consequences of an alternate fate of the lost expedition .
On 12 January 2012 , BBC Radio 4 broadcast a radio play entitled " Erebus " based on the Franklin expedition .
Franklin 's last expedition also inspired a great deal of music , beginning with the ballad " Lady Franklin 's Lament " ( also known as " Lord Franklin " ) , which originated in the 1850s and has been recorded by dozens of artists , among them Martin Carthy , Pentangle , Sinéad O 'Connor , the Pearlfishers , and John Walsh . Other Franklin @-@ inspired songs include Fairport Convention 's " I 'm Already There " , and James Taylor 's " Frozen Man " ( based on Beattie 's photographs of John Torrington ) .
The influence of the Franklin expedition on Canadian literature has been especially significant . Among the best @-@ known contemporary Franklin ballads is " Northwest Passage " by the late Ontario folksinger Stan Rogers ( 1981 ) , which has been referred to as the unofficial Canadian national anthem . The distinguished Canadian novelist Margaret Atwood has also spoken of Franklin 's expedition as a sort of national myth of Canada , remarking that " In every culture many stories are told , ( but ) only some are told and retold , and these stories bear examining ... in Canadian literature , one such story is the Franklin expedition . " Other recent treatments by Canadian poets include a verse play , Terror and Erebus , by Gwendolyn MacEwen that was broadcast on Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) radio in the 1960s , as well as David Solway 's verse cycle , Franklin 's Passage ( 2003 ) . Dominique Fortier 's 2008 French language novel , Du bon usage des étoiles , creatively considers the Franklin expedition from a variety of perspectives and genres and was both shortlisted and a finalist for several literary awards in Canada ( 2009 Governor General 's Awards ) . Sheila Fischman 's English translation of the novel , On the Proper Use of Stars , was also shortlisted for the 2010 Governor General 's Awards for French to English Translation .
In the visual arts , the loss of Franklin 's expedition inspired a number of paintings in both the United States and Britain . In 1861 , Frederic Edwin Church unveiled his great canvas " The Icebergs " ; later that year , prior to taking it to England for exhibition , he added an image of a broken ship 's mast in silent tribute to Franklin . In 1864 , Sir Edwin Landseer 's Man Proposes , God Disposes caused a stir at the annual Royal Academy exhibition ; its depiction of two polar bears , one chewing on a tattered ship 's ensign , the other gnawing on a human ribcage , was seen at the time as in poor taste , but has remained one of the most powerful imaginings of the expedition 's final fate . The expedition also inspired numerous popular engravings and illustrations , along with many panoramas , dioramas , and magic lantern shows .
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= Li 'l Sebastian =
" Li 'l Sebastian " is the sixteenth episode and season finale of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 46th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 19 , 2011 . In the episode , as the parks department prepares a funeral for Pawnee 's famous miniature horse Li 'l Sebastian , Leslie and Ben struggle to keep their workplace romance a secret . The episode was written by Daniel J. Goor and directed by Dean Holland .
" Li 'l Sebastian " , which originally aired back @-@ to @-@ back along with " The Bubble " , ended with several major developments . These included Leslie being approached to run for political office , and Tom 's decision to quit his job to run an entertainment company . The exact outcome of the newly introduced storylines had not yet been determined when the episode first aired . The writing staff considered killing off a human character instead of Li 'l Sebastian , but decided against it . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur called the episode 's final scene , which was filmed in the completely white , 15 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) office of Tom 's entertainment company , " maybe the craziest thing that 's ever been on our series . "
The episode featured guest appearances by Megan Mullally as Ron 's ex @-@ wife Tammy , Ben Schwartz as Tom 's friend Jean @-@ Ralphio and retired basketball player Detlef Schrempf as himself . " Li 'l Sebastian " received critical acclaim and , according to Nielsen Media Research , was seen by an estimated 3 @.@ 72 million household viewers . Combined with an estimated 4 @.@ 27 million household viewers with " The Bubble , " the two episodes ' ratings were about even with the previous week 's episodes , " The Fight " and " Road Trip . "
= = Plot = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) announces Li 'l Sebastian , Pawnee 's beloved celebrity miniature horse , has died and the parks department will hold a memorial service for him . Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) suggests they hire Entertainment 720 for the event , a production company recently started by his friend Jean @-@ Ralphio ( Ben Schwartz ) . Jean @-@ Ralphio encourages Tom to come work with him on the company , but Tom is reluctant to leave his city hall job . Meanwhile , the extremely health @-@ conscious Chris ( Rob Lowe ) finds out he has tendonitis , and takes the news so seriously that he questions his own mortality . Leslie and Ben ( Adam Scott ) continue their romance despite a no @-@ dating policy at city hall , but they have difficulty keeping it a secret . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) finds out and warns them that Chris will fire them if he learns about it .
As the city prepares for the memorial service , Leslie and Ben are caught making out by a maintenance worker named George ( Biff Yeager ) , so they send him home with a gift certificate in exchange for his silence . Unfortunately , George had the propane for Li 'l Sebastian 's eternal flame , which results in later confusion behind the scenes , that Leslie and Ben struggle to fix throughout the night . Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) is sent to get propane for the flame but buys lighter fluid instead ; this causes a huge fireball to shoot into the air when Ron lights it , which singes off his eyebrows , part of his mustache and hair . Leslie and Ben are relieved , however , when the crowd applauds in the belief the fireball was staged . Entertainment 720 's show also proves to be a hit with the crowd , which makes Tom further contemplate quitting his job .
At a party afterward , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) receives praise for his Li 'l Sebastian tribute song , " 5 @,@ 000 Candles in the Wind . " April ( Aubrey Plaza ) sells many Mouse Rat CDs at an inflated price , which spurs Andy to ask her to become the group 's manager . Indirectly responsible for nearly killing Ron , Leslie and Ben agree to no more secret displays of affection at work . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , who previously dated Chris and had trouble getting over him , offers comfort to Chris for his depression . This makes him appear romantically interested in Ann once again . A conflicted Tom decides to resign and accept a job with Entertainment 720 . Meanwhile , Ron is confronted by his evil ex @-@ wife Tammy ( Megan Mullally ) at the party . But both Ron and Tammy are horrified to learn his other ex @-@ wife , also named Tammy ( whom he calls " Tammy 1 " ) has also arrived in town .
Leslie is approached by scouts looking for potential candidates for elected office , which has always been one of her dreams . Impressed by the memorial service and the harvest festival Leslie previously organized , they believe she would be a good candidate for upcoming city council seats , or possibly the mayoral position . With the expected increased media attention on her personal life , the scouts ask whether Leslie has any secret scandals in her life . She denies any such scandals exist , thus omitting her secret relationship with Ben , and the scouts promise to contact her about preparing an electoral run .
= = Production = =
" Li 'l Sebastian " , the third season finale of Parks and Recreation , was written by Daniel J. Goor and directed by Dean Holland . It was originally broadcast on May 19 , 2011 , and ran back @-@ to @-@ back with the episode " The Bubble " , which aired immediately before . The two are stand @-@ alone episodes that were not originally designed to be shown together . However , because the show premiered late as a mid @-@ season replacement in January , the two episodes aired together so the third season could conclude at the end of the television season .
The final few minutes of " Li 'l Sebastian " introduced major developments for several of the characters , including Leslie being approached with the idea to run for elected office , which has been a lifelong dream for her . Additionally , Tom decides to leave city hall to pursue his entrepreneurial ambitions , a progression of his character that had been building throughout the third season . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur said he believes characters should change and their situations should change throughout the season , so he wanted them to be in a very different place at the end of the season than where they were from the beginning . Schur also described his fellow co @-@ creator Greg Daniels ' theory about finale episode as : " write the juiciest , most exciting cliffhanger @-@ y possible scenario you can write , and then you have all summer to figure out how to get yourself out of it " . Although Schur said the writing staff had a general idea of where the newly introduced storylines should go , the exact stories had not been completely worked out yet and the writers would be brainstorming how to handle them over the summer .
" Li 'l Sebastian " featured a guest appearance by Megan Mullally as Ron 's ex @-@ wife , Tammy Swanson . Mullally , the real @-@ life wife of Nick Offerman , previously appeared in the episodes " Ron and Tammy " and " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " . Ben Schwartz reprised his recurring role as Tom 's friend Jean @-@ Ralphio Saperstein . The episode also features a cameo appearance by Detlef Schrempf , a retired basketball player who played for the Indiana Pacers ; Parks and Recreation is set in Indiana . Schrempf plays himself in the episode and is hired by Tom 's new entertainment company to simply hang around the office and play basketball . Schrempf previously appeared in the second season episode " Telethon " . Andy 's band Mouse Rat , which has appeared in previous episodes starting with the first season finale " Rock Show " , also appeared in " Li 'l Sebastian " . Mark Rivers played the drums , Andrew Burlinson played guitar and Parks screenwriter Alan Yang played bass guitar .
The character Li 'l Sebastian , a miniature horse beloved by the residents of Pawnee , was first introduced in " Harvest Festival " , which was also written by Goor . The writers considered having a human character die in " Li 'l Sebastian " rather than the miniature horse , like previously @-@ mentioned characters Mayor Gunderson or Councilman Bill Dexhart . However , they decided that having an animal character die felt less morbid and more appropriate for the finale of a comedy series . The episode ends with Tom and Jean @-@ Ralphio in their new Entertainment 720 headquarters , a completely white 15 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 400 m2 ) room with modern decor and unusual furniture . Schur described the setting as " maybe the craziest thing that 's ever been on our series . ... Every time I watch it in the edit bay , I have this weird crisis : ' Is this OK that this scene is how we 're ending this entire season ? ' It 's truly nuts . It 's like a hallucinogenic nightmare . "
Schur said his favorite scene in the episode was when Leslie arrives at her secret meet @-@ up spot with Ben , only to find Ron waiting there , and awkwardly tries to insist there is no affair . Schur said : " The scene that unfolds is my favorite Leslie Knope moment of the whole year . [ Ron ] almost doesn 't say a word for the entire scene , but still makes you laugh 50 times . " Immediately after " Li 'l Sebastian " first aired , a " Producer 's Cut " version was made available on the official NBC.com website , which included an additional six minutes of material .
= = Cultural references = =
While trying to have a moment of silence for Li 'l Sebastian in the parks department office , the staff is interrupted when a custodian playing the Shania Twain song " Man ! I Feel Like a Woman ! " on his radio . Ron discovers Leslie and Ben 's affair after they accidentally pocket dial him while sexually role @-@ playing with political figures . At one point , Leslie tells Ben she is going to kiss him both like former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt , and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court Ruth Bader Ginsburg . At another , Ben impersonates former President Ronald Reagan , which prompts Leslie , pretending to be United Kingdom Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , to say , " Oh , President Reagan , my blazer popped open . " In a different scene , Andy seeks to write a song for Li 'l Sebastian that is 5 @,@ 000 times better than Elton John 's " Candle in the Wind " , which inspires him to write the original song " 5 @,@ 000 Candles in the Wind " . Other songs played during Li 'l Sebastian 's memorial service include " Wild Horses " by The Rolling Stones and " A Horse with No Name " by America . In an attempt to explain to someone that she and Ben were hugging , Leslie explains she recently won a McArthur Genius Grant and that Ben was simply congratulating her . In addition , during Tom and Jean @-@ Ralphio 's eulogy presentation for Lil ' Sebastian , a still of the Trifid Nebula in Sagittarius is seen . The image is more popularly recognized as the cover art for progressive rock band King Crimson 's 1971 album " Islands . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Due to the 9 p.m. broadcast of " Search Committee " , the one @-@ hour seventh season finale of comedy series The Office , Parks and Recreation was not shown in its regular 9 : 30 p.m. broadcast on May 19 . " Li 'l Sebastian " aired at 10 : 30 p.m. , immediately following " The Bubble " at 10 p.m. In its original American broadcast , " Li 'l Sebastian " was seen by an estimated 3 @.@ 72 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households , and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program . This marked a drop in viewership for Parks and Recreation compared to earlier in the night , as " The Bubble " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 27 million households . Combined , the ratings were about even with the average ratings for the previous week , in which two Parks and Recreation episodes were also shown back @-@ to @-@ back , although from a 9 : 30 p.m. to 10 : 30 p.m. time block : " The Fight " had been seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 55 million household viewers , while " Road Trip " was seen by 3 @.@ 54 million households . In its 10 : 30 p.m. timeslot , " Li 'l Sebastian " was outperformed by the fourth season finale of the ABC medical drama series Private Practice , which was seen by 7 @.@ 45 million household viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Li 'l Sebastian " received highly positive reviews . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club called it the best Parks and Recreation episode so far , and compared the cliffhanger and " many of the bittersweet moments leading to it " to the comedy series Freaks and Geeks . James Poniewozik of Time magazine strongly praised " Li 'l Sebastian " , and called it one of the best episodes of the season . He said Li 'l Sebastian 's funeral brought out the best in the characters , and that the episode " combined slapstick , authentic stakes and a holistic picture of the oddball history and commonalities that bond the folks we 've come to know in Pawnee " . Henry Hanks of CNN called it " one of the funniest half @-@ hours of any show this season " , and compared the Li 'l Sebastian funeral to the funeral scenes in the Mary Tyler Moore Show episode " Chuckles Bites the Dust " . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow called the episode a " triumphant exclamation point at the end of Parks and Recreation 's third season " , and described every moment as " uproariously funny " . Meslow particularly praised the twists and major character developments of the final 10 minutes , and said it demonstrates how much the show and characters have changed since the series debuted .
Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com said " Li 'l Sebastian " was a great showcase for not only each of the characters , but the setting of Pawnee as well , and that the episode " illustrated each part of Pawnee that we have come to know and love so much " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix had the " both the scope and the out @-@ of @-@ control but not frantic style " of " The Harvest Festival " . He also enjoyed the scene with Leslie and Ben , and said he believed the show could get great " comic mileage " out of their continued secret relationship together . Paste magazine writer Garrett Martin called the episode a " tour de force that expertly wrapped up an excellent season " . Garrett said the show 's characters were " so vivid and instantly memorable " that the death of Li 'l Sebastian really felt like a major event , even though he had only previously appeared in one other episode . Matt Fowler of IGN said " Li 'l Sebastian " was hilarious and demonstrated " how marvelously great this series is at creating a truly lovable ensemble " . He also enjoyed seeing Tom succeed with his concert , and claimed the Li 'l Sebastian funeral scene was surprisingly powerful .
Rick Porter of Zap2it said Parks was at the " top of its game " . Porter praised that the final scenes presented so many changes for the characters but never felt out of control , which he attributed to " the cast 's ability to play things at just the right level and the writers for knowing just how cartoonish Pawnee can be without tipping too far " . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell said although the episode felt like a " somber affair " and less momentous than the previous episode " Harvest Festival " , he said the cliffhangers were suspenseful and on par with major drama shows like the ABC series Desperate Housewives . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic praised the episode , and said he found particularly hilarious the scene about Leslie and Ben accidentally pocket dialing Ron during their sexual roleplaying . However , McHatton said he did not believe Tom 's decision to start an entertainment company had " much of a traction past the first five minutes of next season " . Joel Keller of TV Squad felt the major changes the characters undergo at the end of the episode felt " rushed " , but admitted they were " natural outcropping of the characters and what we 've seen of them this year " .
" Li 'l Sebastian " was voted the fourth funniest half @-@ hour season finale of 2011 in Entertainment Weekly 's second annual TV Season Finale Awards , the winners of which are determined by voters . Ron losing his facial hair was voted the third @-@ funniest individual moment , the death of Li 'l Sebastian was voted the fifth best death , and the mystery over who " Tammy No. 1 " is , and why " Tammy No. 2 " fears her , was voted the fourth @-@ best " Non @-@ Romantic Cliffhanger " .
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= School Rumble =
School Rumble ( スクールランブル , Sukūru Ranburu ) is a Japanese shōnen manga series written and illustrated by Jin Kobayashi . First serialized in Weekly Shōnen Magazine from October 22 , 2002 to July 23 , 2008 , all 345 chapters were later collected in 22 tankōbon volumes by Kodansha . Magazine Special published School Rumble Z monthly from August 20 , 2008 to May 20 , 2009 . A romance comedy centering on relationships between Japanese high school students , School Rumble focuses on a love triangle involving the series ' two protagonists , Tenma Tsukamoto and Kenji Harima , and one of their classmates , Oji Karasuma . The series often discards realism in favor of comedic effect .
School Rumble 's popularity has resulted in its adaptation into multiple forms of media . TV Tokyo broadcast a 26 @-@ episode anime program between October 2004 and April 2005 . In December 2005 , a two @-@ part original video animation ( OVA ) entitled School Rumble : Extra Class was released . A second season , School Rumble : 2nd Semester , aired between April and September 2006 . Finally , two more episodes , collectively entitled School Rumble : Third Semester , were bundled with the Japanese manga volumes 21 and 22 . Three video games have been produced — two for the PlayStation 2 in July 2005 and July 2006 , and one for the PlayStation Portable in 2005 . Two light novels written by Hiroko Tokita and illustrated by Kobayashi were published in April 2004 and December 2007 ; four official guidebooks illustrated by Kobayashi and written by his editors have also been released .
Del Rey Manga publishes the English translation of School Rumble . In the translation , Del Rey Manga maintained the traditional Japanese name order to preserve puns based on the characters ' names . Funimation published the first and second anime seasons and the Extra Class OVAs in English . School Rumble has been translated into additional languages , although the final two episodes , the video games , and guidebooks have yet to be released outside Japan .
The manga was well received by Japanese @-@ language readers ; several volumes have appeared in the top manga sales charts . The North American English translations were less popular , but still ranked several times in the top 100 as well as ranking 145th for overall manga series sales in 2008 . Critics of the English @-@ language translation have been positive overall , praising Kobayashi for his art style and overall use of humor . However , the manga has received some criticism , mostly centered on some of the jokes and repetitive plot . The anime adaptation also sold well in Japan and was praised by Kobayashi and — for the English @-@ language translation — critics . The decision by Media Factory to aggressively pursue its intellectual property rights for School Rumble is believed by proponents of fansubs to have had a negative impact on the franchise 's release and sales in the North American market .
In 2009 , Kobayashi said " School Rumble is an important piece that I want to draw more , but I wanted to do more other things so I ended it . When I have some time , I would like to draw their adult days in a seinen magazine . "
= = Plot = =
School Rumble is a romantic shōnen comedy revolving around the daily lives of the students of Class 2 @-@ C at the fictional Yagami High School , along with their friends and families . The main female protagonist is Tenma Tsukamoto , an unremarkable second @-@ year high school student who secretly admires her eccentric , enigmatic , nice @-@ guy classmate , Oji Karasuma . Tenma struggles to confess her feelings to Karasuma . He remains oblivious to her interest , instead seeking fulfillment by indulging in curry . The main male protagonist , delinquent Kenji Harima , similarly yearns for Tenma , attending school solely to be near her . Like Tenma , Harima has difficulty declaring his love , and whenever he summons the courage to do so , circumstances conspire against him .
Harima complicates the love triangle through constant bumbling , and misunderstandings among the students aggravate the situation . Harima becomes involved with Tenma 's close friend , Eri Sawachika , after the pair are thrown together in mutually embarrassing situations . Later in the series , he develops a friendship with Tenma 's younger sister , Yakumo Tsukamoto , who becomes Harima 's assistant on a manga he writes . The plots of Harima 's stories portray a Harima @-@ like hero fighting to save a Tenma @-@ like damsel in various historical or fantastical situations , usually in battle against an obvious facsimile of Karasuma . After the hero saves the heroine , she always falls in love with him . Yakumo 's relationship with Harima causes problems with Class 2 @-@ C 's student representative , Haruki Hanai , who has a crush on Yakumo , with the sisters ' shared surname causing Harima and Hanai to misinterpret the object of each others ' respective infatuations . Although Harima manages to engineer romantic encounters with Tenma , her relationship with Karasuma nevertheless progresses , and Harima 's bonds with Eri and Yakumo grow stronger . Eventually Tenma musters the courage to confess her love , but shortly after Karasuma loses his memory . His amnesia gives a purpose to Tenma 's life ; she concentrates on her studies to become a doctor and help Karasuma .
Although School Rumble focuses on Harima and Tenma , the series explores a number of supporting characters . These include Tenma 's friends Mikoto Suo , who runs a kenpo dojo where her childhood friend , Hanai , trains , and Akira Takano , a mysterious and uncannily perceptive girl . As the story progresses , more major characters are introduced into the relationship web .
School Rumble Z , the " parallel comedy " , ends with Class 2 @-@ C 's graduation ceremony . At this point most of the plot @-@ lines are settled , but there is no clear resolution for the main protagonists . Karasuma still suffers from memory loss , and although Harima attends the ceremony with Eri , their relationship status remains the same . There is a scene in the last chapter which could either be an imagination from Max or a flashforward , which shows Harima and Eri visiting Karasuma and the Tsukamoto sisters together , with Eri carrying a child in her arms .
= = Development and production = =
Jin Kobayashi began writing School Rumble , his debut work , in 2002 . He stated to an audience at Honolulu 's 2006 Kawaii Kon convention that he started writing the series because he found the idea of a manga involving a delinquent falling in love interesting . Kobayashi 's favorite character , Kenji Harima , is based largely on an amalgam of various friends , although he estimates " about 30 % " of Harima is a reflection of himself . However , despite putting most of his personal feelings into the female characters , he stated that Ryuuhei Suga , a minor supporting character , is the most autobiographical . Most of the other characters are based on memories of former high @-@ school classmates ; Kobayashi recalled that he had no real idea of their voices when drawing them , and it was not until much later , when he heard the voice actors ' interpretations during the production of the anime series , that he knew how they should sound . He acknowledged that some characters are more developed than others ; in reply to a fan question about the mysterious Akira Takano , he admitted that , despite the closeness he feels for her , he did not put much emphasis on Takano and planned to develop her love @-@ life slowly . Kobayashi intentionally centered his story arcs around misunderstandings which he then resolves , since he believes " if there 's no misunderstanding then there 's no funny story . " He claims that none of his stories are based on real @-@ life events , although when pressed admits the possibility of some resemblances but without divulging specific details .
Kobayashi and his editors collaborated on the plotlines . Kobayashi would then draw the basic illustrations for each chapter before passing his material to assistants to finish . As the series ' manga artist , Kobayashi also designed the cover art . Originally , the fifth volume 's front cover was to feature Akira Takano , but after re @-@ reading the volume Kobayashi concluded that since much of its plot in that volume revolves around Karen Ichijo , she should be on the cover instead . Desiring to feature a male character , he placed Harima on the cover of volume six . Kobayashi designed a poster to commemorate the ending of the series with the final chapter of School Rumble Z.
An anime adaptation of the series was never envisaged by Kobayashi , and he was skeptical of the project when first approached . Negotiations and preparation took some time , but he claims to be happy with the end result . On viewing the first anime footage , Kobayashi was astonished ; he recalls in an interview his emotions at the time , stating " I was incredibly touched by it . Completely overcome . " Impressed with the adaptation of his work , he praises the anime staff for their achievement , although conceding that School Rumble probably lent itself to the anime format . He cites the fishing episode , for which he supplied the voice acting for several minor parts , as his favorite .
Kobayashi allowed the voice actors who voiced his characters significant freedom to interpret them as they chose . There were a number of cast changes throughout the production ; Ami Koshimizu , the voice actress for Tenma , had initially auditioned for the role of Yakumo , and between School Rumble 's first and second seasons the voice actors for both Karen Ichijo and Yoko Sasakura were replaced . Mako Sakurai took over Karen 's role from Yuuka Nanri , and Aya Hirano replaced Akiko Kurumado as Yoko .
The artbox design for Funimation 's North American release of the School Rumble anime resembles a miniature metal locker , and each of the individually released DVDs comes with heavy duty magnets . The discs include subtitled interviews with the Japanese voice actors , which were compiled onto a third DVD for the full first season release . In 2007 , Funimation ran a drawing contest prior to releasing the anime in North America . The grand prize included a new computer with software for developing anime and manga . The United Kingdom anime release by Revelation Films saw the same limited edition box as Funimation , along with two standard editions .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Jin Kobayashi wrote and illustrated both School Rumble and School Rumble Z. School Rumble was serialized by Kodansha in Weekly Shōnen Magazine from October 2002 to July 2008 . It further appeared in issues of Shōnen Magazine 's Magazine Special , and comprised one chapter of the seasonal Shōnen Magazine Wonder ( 少年マガジンワンダー ) . The collected works were released in Japan by Kodansha . School Rumble Z was produced in Magazine Special from August 2008 to May 2009 . Concluding the series , a compiled volume was released on June 17 , 2009 .
As a guide to the contents of each chapter , musical notations were added before the chapter number . In School Rumble , chapters marked with a sharp sign ( ♯ ) concern the main plot development focusing around Tenma and Harima , while side stories dealing with supporting characters are indicated by a flat sign ( ♭ ) . The one exception to this pattern in the first series is the chapter that appears in Shōnen Magazine Wonder , which uses the natural sign ( ♮ ) . School Rumble Z uses the natural sign for every chapter . The manga volumes of School Rumble contain original bonus chapters that use no musical notation ; these are normally one page in length , but the seventh volume spreads its bonus chapter over several pages with each page telling a self @-@ contained story .
Del Rey Manga , in North America , and Tanoshimi in the United Kingdom licensed School Rumble for an English @-@ language release . It has also been translated into other languages , although the German @-@ language release which Tokyopop initially published was cancelled and later continued by Egmont Manga & Anime . Del Rey released the first English @-@ language volume on February 28 , 2006 , and the latest — volumes 14 @-@ 16 in an omnibus — on July 27 , 2010 . Following Kodansha 's lead , the Del Rey translation places the main plot chapters first followed by the side stories . Del Rey also retained the Japanese naming order to preserve puns and humor involving the names of the characters . The manga ceased to be published in North America after Del Rey became defunct . As of December 2012 , Kodansha USA has not resumed the series ' publication as they have with other Del Rey titles .
= = = Anime = = =
TV Tokyo adapted the School Rumble manga for two 26 @-@ episode television sketch show series , and five additional episodes . The first season was broadcast in Japan from October 10 , 2004 to March 29 , 2005 , followed by two original video animation ( OVA ) episodes entitled School Rumble : Extra Class ( スクールランブルOVA一学期補習 , School Rumble OVA Ichigakki Hoshū ) , which were released on December 22 , 2005 . The second season , School Rumble : 2nd Semester ( スクールランブル二学期 , School Rumble Nigakki ) , ran from April 2 to September 24 , 2006 .
Although a third series — School Rumble : Third Semester ( スクールランブル三学期 , School Rumble Sangakki ) — was drawn up in the form of 24 episode synopses , the series was never animated . Instead a two @-@ episode mini @-@ series was released as episodes 25 and 26 of School Rumble : Third Semester . The first 24 episodes follow the manga 's storyline between the end of School Rumble : 2nd Semester and the Third Semester mini @-@ series ; the promotional videos of the mini @-@ series on the anime 's website instead of previews of a new season confirmed that the remaining 24 episodes would not be animated . The School Rumble : Third Semester episodes were released with special editions of volumes 21 and 22 of the School Rumble manga , the first on July 17 and the second on September 17 , 2008 .
School Rumble , School Rumble : 2nd Semester , and School Rumble : Extra Class were later licensed for an English @-@ language audience by Funimation in North America , Madman Entertainment in Australasia and the first three volumes of season one by Revelation Films in the United Kingdom . On September 1 , 2009 Funimation re @-@ released School Rumble : First Semester and Extra class as a compilation . 2nd Semester was re @-@ released as an entire season with a new rating of TV @-@ MA . The anime has also been released in other languages , and Funimation have made several dubbed episodes of School Rumble and School Rumble : 2nd Semester available as streaming content on the Internet . The Funimation Channel began airing the first season of School Rumble on September 1 , 2008.School Rumble : 2nd Semester and the Extra Class OVA has also aired on the Funimation Channel . The 2008 's Future Film Festival in Bologna , Italy screened School Rumble : 2nd Semester .
The anime 's first season focuses on Tenma , Harima , and Karasuma , and Harima 's relationships with other females including Sawachika and Yakumo . Its second season involves more of the secondary cast . The Extra Class OVAs are compiled from various first season storylines . Both the Third Semester synopses and episodes return to the main cast . The anime 's structure has been compared to Azumanga Daioh , with thematic influences from Full Metal Panic ? Fumoffu . In places it makes deliberate use of unconventional nomenclature ; the title of episode 25 of season one is a set of pictograms , while episode 26 's title has 187 characters in the Japanese original . In season two , the Japanese title for episode 26 consists of just a period .
The narrative of the School Rumble anime is designed to mirror that of the manga , which results in multiple short story segments with no significant connection . Shown from the perspective of its characters — notably Tenma and Harima as they attempt similar ploys to get their crush to notice their affection — the anime uses absurdist humor which often combines elements of popular culture to explore the love @-@ triangle , with jokes that work on multiple levels . One such example , highlighted by Lisa Marie , reviewer for Anime Today , is the bike chase scene in episode 1 of season one . She notes that while anyone can appreciate the chase 's inherent humor , those familiar with Initial D will find another level of appreciation that nevertheless does not interfere with viewers who do not catch the deeper reference . Lisa Marie comments " I certainly admit watching an insane bike chase cross paths with Initial D 's famous AE86 has a bit more cachet when you know why there 's a cheesily rendered race car in slow moving Eurobeat . "
= = = Music = = =
Two anime soundtracks and five maxi single albums based on the anime 's opening and closing themes have been released , with all but the second season 's closing theme having both a regular and limited edition . In addition , three two @-@ disc drama CDs and three radio dramas have been released on CD . Eight image albums — one for each of the main characters — have also been released , in both a regular and limited edition run .
On December 5 , 2004 , Yokohama BLITZ held a concert entitled School Rumble PRESENTS Come ! come ! well @-@ come ? party ( スクールランブル プレゼンツ Come ! come ! well @-@ come ? party ) , featuring the voice acting cast of School Rumble . The event was released on DVD on March 24 , 2005 . Announced around the time of the Japanese release of volume 15 , from July 21 through July 25 , 2005 a stage play called School Rumble Super Oshibai School Rumble – Osarusan dayo Harima @-@ kun ! - ( School Rumble スーパーお芝居スクールランブル 〜 お猿さんだよ 、 播磨くん ! 〜 ) recapping Season 1 of School Rumble was performed . It was released on DVD on October 10 , 2005 . Unicorn Table , the soundtrack artists for School Rumble , performed songs from the anime from December 7 – 9 , 2007 at the New York Anime Festival , and again on April 26 , 2008 at the Rochester Institute of Technology in Rochester , New York for the Tora @-@ Con anime convention .
= = = Other = = =
Three video games based on School Rumble have been developed and released in Japan . Marvelous Entertainment published the first game for the PlayStation 2 entitled School Rumble : Sleep Helps a Girl Grow ( スクールランブル ねる娘は育つ ? , School Rumble : Neru Ko wa Sodatsu ) on July 21 , 2005 . It was later reissued on August 10 , 2006 , as a The Best range budget release . Marvelous Entertainment released a second game , entitled School Rumble : 2nd Semester – Summer Training Camp ( of fear ? ) ! ! Ghost 's Appearing in the Western @-@ styled Building ! ? Fighting Over the Treasure ! ! ! ( スクールランブル二学期 恐怖の ( ? ) 夏合宿 ! 洋館に幽霊現る ! ? お宝を巡って真っ向勝負 ! ! ! の巻 ? , School Rumble Nigakki Kyōfu no ( ? ) Natsugasshuku ! Yōkan ni Yūrei Arawaru ! ? Otakara o Megutte Makkō Shōbu ! ! ! no Maki ) on July 20 , 2006 , also for the PlayStation 2 . The story revolves around the School Rumble cast hearing a rumor of treasure hidden within a mansion . Two versions were produced ; a regular and a limited edition , the latter of which included a drama CD , memorial album , and a special box with variant cover art . On June 28 , 2007 , this game was also re @-@ released as a " Best Collection " . School Rumble : Sis , This is serious ! ( スクールランブル 姉さん事件です ! ? , School Rumble : Nēsan Jiken Desu ! ) , published on July 7 , 2005 for the PlayStation Portable by Bandai . It has an original story based around Karasuma suffering a sudden collapse . Although the story centers on Tenma , the player can take the perspective of other characters to obtain clues for solving the mystery .
School Rumble has been the basis of two light novels and four guidebooks . The light novels , School Rumble : Koi , Shirisomeshi koro ni ( スクールランブル 〜 恋 、 知りそめし頃に 〜 ) and School Rumble : Me wa Megarodon no Me ( スクールランブル 〜 メはメガロドンのメ 〜 , School Rumble : Me is Me for Megalodon ) , were written by Hiroko Tokita and illustrated by Jin Kobayashi and published in April 2004 and December 2007 respectively . They were later translated by Tong Li Comics into Traditional Chinese . Jin Kobayashi and his editors also wrote and illustrated four official guidebooks for the series : School Rumble : Private File , School Rumble : Official File , School Rumble : Pleasure File , and School Rumble : Treasure File .
School Rumble has spawned lots of merchandise featuring its characters , including T @-@ shirts and figurines .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Fansubs = = =
In 2004 , School Rumble 's Japanese license holder , Media Factory , declared its titles off @-@ limits to fan @-@ made subtitled translations — a practice known as fansubbing . The directory website AnimeSuki later removed all links to fansubs of Media Factory 's work in response to a cease @-@ and @-@ desist notice issued by the license holder , although fansub group ' Wannabe Fansubs ' continued their fansubbing regardless . Media Factory @-@ owned anime has been the subject of debate over the validity of fansubbing practice . Proponents believe School Rumble would have more quickly received an English license had fansubs been allowed to circulate more freely , generating viewer interest .
= = = Taiwanese television station fine = = =
On January 19 , 2012 , the Taiwanese children 's channel Momo Kids TV was reported to have received a fine of NT $ 600 @,@ 000 ( about $ 20 @,@ 333 in U.S. currency ) for broadcasting an episode of School Rumble on December 26 , which according to parental complaints contained " high school students watching a pornographic movie together " , along with " a scene of jiggling breasts " and " actors moaning in pornographic movies . " However , it is worth noting that the show has aired on various international Cartoon Network stations without controversy .
= = Sales = =
The School Rumble manga had a successful sales run in Japan and the North American English market . In Japan , several volumes managed to chart : Volume 13 was the ninth best @-@ selling manga for the week of June 21 , 2006 , before falling to tenth the following week ; Volume 15 reached 4th place for the week of December 20 , also falling to 10th the following week ; and Volume 17 came 7th for the week of June 20 , 2007 , subsequently dropping to 9th . School Rumble Z ranked 18th for the week of June 15 , 2009 . Del Rey 's North American translation sold well , although not quite as well as in Japan . Volume 3 was ranked 99th in September 2006 ; volume 4 was 96th in December ; volume 5 was 98th in April 2007 ; volume 12 was 141st in November 2008 ; and volume 12 was 169th in May 2009 . Overall the series ranked as the 145th best @-@ selling English translated manga series for 2008 .
Similarly , the anime adaptation of School Rumble also sold very well in Japan according to the Oricon charts . The Japanese DVD release of First Semester saw fluctuating sales for each volume with each charting within the top 45 . Volumes 1 and 5 have the best showings at five times at 15 and twice at 17 respectively , while the final three volumes ( 7 through 9 ) were the least successful with volume 8 being the lowest ranking twice at 45 . While the 2nd Semester continued to sell well , overall sales did not chart as well as the previous season . Most of the DVDs ranked in the a range from 50s to 70s and all of them ranked just twice . Volume 1 ranked the best at 41 , followed by volume 4 at 49 ; volume 6 ranked lowest at 100 . The Extra Class OVA also ranked once at 66 .
The DVD of the voice actor 's live performance , come ! come ! well @-@ come Party , ranked once at 177 on Oricon charts .
= = Reception = =
= = = Manga series = = =
Although generally well @-@ received , the manga has also attracted some criticism . Eduardo M. Chavez , of Mania.com , recalls being initially put off by the title , which for him conjured images of battles more physical than emotional . After glancing through the first volume , he was surprised to find his assumption wrong , and concluded that it was appropriately named . While he gives a largely positive review , Chavez finds the series ' artwork " simple " and unimpressive . He notes that the first volume becomes slightly repetitive , so praises the way that Kobayashi introduces new themes to the second , bringing variety to the setting . Remarking on Kobayashi 's ability to draw on numerous influences , Chavez applauds the manga artist for finding fresh ways of using old themes , preventing School Rumble from becoming derivative . He reserves his highest praise for the " flat " chapters dealing with Yakumo . In the next two volumes Chavez approves of the mixture of comedy and romance and the way the characters " grow up " , although acknowledging that while the manga 's style suits his personal preferences it will not be to everyone 's taste . Jason Thompson in Manga : The Complete Guide criticises jokes as " predictable " and gives the manga 2 stars of 5 .
Sakura Eries , also of Mania.com , gave volumes five , six , and eight to eleven positive ratings overall . She noted that volume five may appeal to readers more interested in the side characters , and that appreciating Kobayashi 's humor in the second half of chapter eight " requires a bit more mental effort " . In volume ten , she remarks that while Kobayashi borrows the oft @-@ used cliché of a disastrous school play , he manages to add enough twists to make it unique . The play 's climax , however , confused her more than it amused her .
Carlo Santos , of Anime News Network , gave the English releases of volumes two , three , four , and seven mixed — but largely favorable — B @-@ range reviews . Volume nine he awards a C rating . He approved of the character of Harima , particularly enjoying jokes comparing him to St. Francis of Assisi . Santos found the bonus chapters in volumes three and four , that deal with Yakumo , touching . On the other hand , he criticizes various aspects of the artwork and , by volume seven , laments the staleness of recycled jokes . Despite volume nine 's strong start , by its end he relates that , although there were some funny moments , he had become weary of its repetitive plot . A fellow reviewer from Anime News Network , Carl Kimlinger , decided after reviewing four volumes that while the early volumes do not assist plot development , neither do they detract from the manga 's appeal ; he too had a positive impression overall . Kimlinger found the later volumes better and more entertaining , although not always during the romantic moments .
Chavez praised Del Rey 's translation for retaining the manga 's original identity ; the header , bumper artwork , character biographies , and front covers are all but identical to the Japanese . Eries also thanked Del Rey 's translation notes for clearing up some misconceptions for her , although she later concluded that their quality has deteriorated as the series progresses .
= = = Anime series = = =
Like the manga , the anime has been well received but does not avoid criticism ; in particular the quality of the animation for both seasons , including the OVAs , has attracted mixed reviews . Some of the humor and romantic elements have been derided while the English dubbing and soundtrack have been universally praised . Most reviewers took the position that , even if they dislike certain elements , the series as a whole contains something that makes them want to see more ; a view summed up by Chris Beveridge of Mania.com , who writes :
The stories are really quite simple as well as being things we 've seen done dozens of times before . Yet it manages to infuse it with a great deal of fun and humor even if it is familiar . There 's a certain energy here that works in the shows [ sic ] favor as well as bringing in some different elements in terms of the characters . It also doesn 't hurt that several of the characters really are quite dim which is a nice contrast from the usual kind of leads .
Beveridge cautioned that because the anime was designed around the non @-@ linear format of the manga , its transitions might at first be troublesome for the viewer , but by the final volume finds the anime in all its aspects far superior .
While School Rumble is generally recognised as a shōnen title targeting the young male market , Katherine Luther , staff reviewer for About.com , refers to it as a shōjo title aimed at girls and young women . Lisa Marie , reviewer for RightStuf 's Anime Today podcast , agrees that others , notably males , might see the series as shōjo . Luther calls the first DVD " the perfect back @-@ to @-@ school accessory " , while Marie characterizes School Rumble as " insane " , asserting it appears on the surface more laid back than other titles like Excel Saga and Haré + Guu . However , it uses its " cast to break [ ... ] every rule of reality , but it plays everything so straight [ that ] it takes you a moment to realize what just happened doesn 't make any sense . " A fan of the subgenre , she praises the anime it for its surreal humour , and for being " anime newbie friendly " in that its jokes work on multiple levels . Not all are of Japanese origin — such as a reference to the long triangular resolution of Star Wars ' Return of the Jedi — giving the series broad appeal .
Anime News Network 's reviewers found much to enjoy about the first series , although Theron Martin warns that the first DVD should be " watched in small doses , as trying to tackle too much of it in one sitting will elevate the suicide rate of your brain cells " . Carl Kimlinger comments that " from the moment the words ' School Rumble ' come spinning onto the screen , you know you 're in for ... undiluted good times " , and that the title is " two of the greatest animation non @-@ sequiturs you 're likely to see anytime soon " . Carlo Santos praises volume six 's bizarre comedy , but laments its romantic elements as being too generic . Overall , his rating is mediocre , saying that " although this disc technically marks the end of [ the first season of ] School Rumble , it 's really more of a pause , seeing as how the last few episodes simply ride along with the plot rather than try to reach a dramatic finish " . Reviewers from Mania.com followed this pattern ; Dani Moure was skeptical of the series ' long @-@ term entertainment value , but like fellow reviewer Danielle Van Gorder , found his early indifference fading as the story develops . IGN 's Jeff Harris , N.S. Davidson , and David F. Smith gave mostly positive reviews , although Davidson believes the audio and extras had begun to wane by volume five . Jakub Lhota of Reanimated rated the first season an 8 / 10 , stating that he enjoyed it more than some other anime series he had previously watched , and the style — if not always the color — of Funimation 's metallic locker artbox for School Rumble 's English translation of the first season was welcomed .
According to Theron Martin , the OVA series School Rumble : Extra Class was made mostly for devoted fans ; claiming that familiarity with the series is almost a necessity before watching it , although he later came to the view that it may also be useful as a sampler of the series . Chris Beveridge gives the OVA series an overall negative review . He did not highlight a single specific reason , instead observing that although all elements that " make the TV series enjoyable are certainly present here , they just feel weaker " . However , it did make him want to watch more of the television series , thus serving its intended purpose in keeping interest in the series alive . Katherine Luther endorsed the view that viewers need to be familiar with the story , but reviewed the OVA positively . While she noted lulls in the action , she believes fans will be able to overlook this . Unlike Martin , Luther did not believe the OVA is a good introduction to School Rumble , due to its short sequences and seemingly random nature .
Zac Bertschy of Anime News Network declined to post commentary on the preview announcement for the second season , claiming " we assume if you loved School Rumble , you 're gonna check out the sequel regardless of what anyone says , so why bother reviewing it ? " David F. Smith from IGN gave the first part of season two a rating of 6 / 10 , with lower scores for the Funimation extras and higher ones for the plot and story . Specifically , Smith praised the anime for never taking itself seriously , and the studio for not cutting its budget for sight gags — something he notes that other companies do . Tim Jones from THEM Anime Reviews found the second season funny and nonrepetitive , and Bamboo Dong of Anime News Network praised the second season for not conforming to the conventions of reality . She complimented it for focusing more on the other students and their relationships than on the main love triangle . Chris Beveridge claimed that , although it comes across well , the season should not be watched in a marathon sitting . He was more critical of Funimation 's packaging , preferring the first season 's metal locker boxart to the packing for the half @-@ season sets .
= = = General = = =
Kobayashi , Jin ( 2002 – 2008 ) . School Rumble ( in Japanese ) 1 – 22 . Japan : Kodansha .
= = = Specific = = =
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= Danube crested newt =
The Danube crested newt or Danube newt ( Triturus dobrogicus ) is a species of newt found in central and eastern Europe , along the basin of the Danube river and some of its tributaries and in the Dnieper delta . It has a smaller and more slender body than the other crested newts in genus Triturus but like these , males develop a conspicuous jagged seam on back and tail during breeding season .
For half of the year or longer , adults live in slow @-@ flowing river margins , lakes , or ponds , where reproduction takes place . Males perform a courtship display , and females lay around 200 eggs individually onto leaves of aquatic plants . Larvae develop two to four months in the water before reaching metamorphosis . For the remainder of the year , the newts live in shady land habitats , usually forests . Although not yet considered threatened , Danube crested newt populations have declined significantly , the reason being mainly habitat loss . The species is protected by law in the European Union .
= = Systematics and taxonomy = =
The Danube crested newt was described as a variety of the northern crested newt ( Triturus cristatus ) by C. Kiritzescu in 1903 . Later , it was considered a subspecies until genetic analysis supported its recognition as a separate species in the crested newt species complex . The northern crested newt is its likely sister species according to a molecular phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial DNA ; analysis of nuclear DNA gives however some conflicting results regarding this sister relationship .
Separated populations from the Danube Delta and the Pannonian Basin ( see Distribution and habitats ) were described as two subspecies , T. dobrogicus dobrogicus and T. dobrogicus macrosoma , in 2000 . Later genetic study , however , did not support the distinction of these two forms .
= = Description = =
Measuring 13 to 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) long in total , the Danube crested newt is the smallest crested newt species . It has a more slender , elongate body than the other species , well adapted to swimming , with a narrow head and relatively short limbs . This body shape has evolved through an increase in the number of rib @-@ bearing vertebrae : there are 16 – 17 of them in T. dobrogicus , the highest number among the crested newts .
The Danube crested newt 's back and sides are dark brown with black spots and white stippling . The belly is orange to red ( in other crested newts , it is usually yellow or orange – yellow ) , with small or medium @-@ sized black blotches that have sharp edges . Like all crested newts , T. dobrogicus males develop a crest on their back and tail during breeding phase , which can be quite high and jagged and usually starts between the eyes and nostrils . Another feature of males at breeding season is a bluish @-@ white stripe along the tail .
= = Distribution and habitats = =
The Danube crested newt is found in three allopatric areas of distribution from central to eastern Europe :
Pannonian basin : From easternmost Austria through Czech Republic ( small part in the southeast ) , Slovakia , Hungary , northern Croatia , Bosnia @-@ Hercegovina ( marginally ) , northern Serbia to the east of Romania and southeast of Ukraine ( Transcarpathian region ) . This includes the middle floodplains of the Danube river and some of its tributaries , including the Drava , Sava and Tisza .
Lower Danube and Danube delta : Separated from the Pannonian basin by an area where the northern crested newt occurs , this central part ranges from southern Romania , northern Bulgaria , and small parts of southern Moldova to the Odessa region of southern Ukraine .
Dnieper delta : This small area of distribution in southern Ukraine was reported in 2005 . It is now isolated by steppe from the Danube basin , but it has been suggested that these areas were connected through marshlands during the last glacial maximum , when the level of the Black Sea was around 100 metres lower than today . This range may also extend to the lower basins of the Dniester and Bug rivers .
In addition to the northern crested newt to the north , the Danube crested newt 's range borders that of the Italian crested newt ( T. carnifex ) in the west , and that of the Macedonian ( T. macedonicus ) and Balkan ( T. ivanbureschi ) crested newts in the south .
Compared to the other crested newt species , the Danube crested newt is more adapted to life along a river system and frequently occurs in flowing water and together with fish . Typical breeding sites are slow @-@ flowing river margins , oxbow lakes , flooded marshland , larger ponds , or ditches , provided abundant underwater vegetation is available . During land phase , the newts live in deciduous forests or groves , bushlands , or meadows .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Danube crested newts have the longest aquatic phase in the genus Triturus . Adults move to their breeding sites in February or March and usually stay there for six months ; occasionally , they may even stay longer or return to the water in autumn . Males court females with a display of ritualised body movements . When they have gained the female 's interest , they guide it over a spermatophore they deposit on the ground , which the female then takes up with her cloaca . The eggs are fertilised internally . As in other crested newts , a female lays around 200 eggs per season , which are folded individually into leaves of aquatic plants . Larvae develop over two to four months until they reach metamorphosis and leave the water .
Both in water and on land , the newts are largely nocturnal . In their aquatic habitats , they hide under vegetation , and on land , they use structures such as logs , rocks , or small animal burrows for cover . They feed mainly on different invertebrates , but in the water may also prey on tadpoles and smaller newts . Predators include herons and other birds , snakes such as the grass snake , and various carnivorous mammals .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The population of the Danube crested newt has declined significantly , and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as " near threatened " . The main threat is habitat destruction by humans , especially through drainage , damming , or pollution . Hybridisation with other crested newt species and a loss of breeding ponds because of decreasing spring rain in the southern range ( possibly due to global warming ) are also seen as threats . Like the other crested newts , T. dobrogicus is listed in the Bern Convention ( appendix II ) and the EU Habitats Directive ( annexes II and IV ) , and capture , disturbance , killing , trade , and destruction of habitats are prohibited .
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= Whale shark =
The whale shark ( Rhincodon typus ) is a slow @-@ moving filter feeding shark and the largest known extant fish species . The largest confirmed individual had a length of 12 @.@ 65 m ( 41 @.@ 5 ft ) and a weight of about 21 @.@ 5 t ( 47 @,@ 000 lb ) . Unconfirmed claims of considerably larger individuals , over 14 m ( 46 ft ) long and weighing at least 30 t ( 66 @,@ 000 lb ) , are not uncommon . It holds many records for sheer size in the animal kingdom , most notably being by far the largest living nonmammalian vertebrate . It is the sole member of the genus Rhincodon and the only extant member of the family , Rhincodontidae ( called Rhiniodon and Rhinodontidae before 1984 ) , which belongs to the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes . The species originated about 60 million years ago .
The whale shark is found in open waters of the tropical oceans and is rarely found in water below 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) . Modeling suggests a lifespan of about 70 years , but measurements have proven difficult . They have very large mouths and are filter feeders , which is a feeding mode that occurs in only two other sharks , the megamouth shark and the basking shark . They feed almost exclusively on plankton and , therefore , are completely harmless to humans .
The species was distinguished in April 1828 after the harpooning of a 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) specimen in Table Bay , South Africa . Andrew Smith , a military doctor associated with British troops stationed in Cape Town , described it the following year . The name " whale shark " directly refers to the fish 's size , being as large as some species of whales and also that it is a filter feeder like baleen whales .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The whale shark inhabits all tropical and warm @-@ temperate seas . The fish is primarily pelagic , living in the open sea but not in the greater depths of the ocean . Seasonal feeding aggregations occur at several coastal sites such as the southern and eastern parts of South Africa ; Saint Helena Island in the South Atlantic Ocean ; Gulf of Tadjoura in Djibouti , Gladden Spit in Belize ; Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia ; Lakshadweep , Gulf of Kutch and Saurashtra coast of Gujarat in India ; Útila in Honduras ; Southern Leyte ; Donsol , Pasacao and Batangas in the Philippines ; off Isla Mujeres and Isla Holbox in Yucatan and Bahía de los Ángeles in Baja California , México ; Ujung Kulon National Park in Indonesia ; Cenderawasih Bay National Park in Nabire , Papua , Indonesia ; Nosy Be in Madagascar Off Tofo Reef near Inhambane in Mozambique ; the Tanzanian islands of Mafia , Pemba , Zanzibar ; Gulf of Tadjoura in Djibouti , the Ad Dimaniyat Islands in the Gulf of Oman and Al Hallaniyat islands in the Arabian Sea ; and , very rarely , Eilat , Israel and Aqaba , Jordan . Although typically seen offshore , it has been found closer to land , entering lagoons or coral atolls , and near the mouths of estuaries and rivers . Its range is generally restricted to about 30 ° latitude . It is capable of diving to depths of at least 1 @,@ 286 m ( 4 @,@ 219 ft ) , and is migratory . On 7 February 2012 , a large whale shark was found floating 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) off the coast of Karachi , Pakistan . The length of the specimen was said to be between 11 and 12 m ( 36 and 39 ft ) , with a weight of around 15 @,@ 000 kg ( 33 @,@ 000 lb ) .
In 2011 , more than 400 whale sharks gathered off the Yucatan Coast . It was one of the largest gatherings of whale sharks recorded . Aggregations in that area are among the most reliable seasonal gatherings known for whale sharks , with large numbers occurring in most years between May and September . Associated ecotourism has grown rapidly to unsustainable levels .
= = Description = =
Whale sharks have a mouth that can be 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) wide , containing 300 to 350 rows of tiny teeth and 10 filter pads which it uses to filter feed . Whale sharks have five large pairs of gills . The head is wide and flat with two small eyes at the front . Whale sharks are grey with a white belly . Their skin is marked with pale yellow spots and stripes which are unique to each individual . The whale shark has three prominent ridges along its sides . Its skin can be up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The shark has a pair of dorsal fins and pectoral fins . Juveniles ' tails have a larger upper fin than lower fin , while the adult tail becomes semilunate . The whale shark 's spiracles are just behind its eyes .
The whale shark is the largest non @-@ cetacean animal in the world . The average size of adult whale sharks is estimated at 9 @.@ 7 m ( 31 @.@ 82 ft ) and 9 t ( 20 @,@ 000 lb ) . Several specimens over 18 m in length have been reported The largest verified specimen was caught on 11 November 1947 , near Baba Island , in Karachi , Pakistan . It was 12 @.@ 65 m ( 41 @.@ 50 ft ) long , weighed about 21 @.@ 5 t ( 47 @,@ 000 lb ) , and had a girth of 7 m ( 23 @.@ 0 ft ) . Stories exist of vastly larger specimens – quoted lengths of 18 m ( 59 ft ) and 45 @.@ 5 t ( 100 @,@ 000 lb ) are common in the popular literature , but no scientific records support their existence . In 1868 , the Irish natural scientist Edward Perceval Wright obtained several small whale shark specimens in the Seychelles , but claimed to have observed specimens in excess of 15 m ( 49 @.@ 2 ft ) , and tells of shark specimens surpassing 21 m ( 68 @.@ 9 ft ) .
In a 1925 publication , Hugh M. Smith described a huge animal caught in a bamboo fish trap in Thailand in 1919 . The shark was too heavy to pull ashore , but Smith estimated the shark was at least 17 m ( 56 ft ) long , and weighed around 37 t . These measurements have been exaggerated to 43 t ( 95 @,@ 000 lb ) and a more precise 17 @.@ 98 m ( 59 @.@ 0 ft ) in recent years . A shark caught in 1994 off Tainan County , southern Taiwan , reportedly weighed 35 @.@ 8 t ( 79 @,@ 000 lb ) . There have even been unverified claims of whale sharks of up to 23 metres ( 75 ft ) and 100 tonnes ( 220 @,@ 000 lb ) . In 1934 , a ship named the Maurguani came across a whale shark in the southern Pacific Ocean , rammed it , and the shark became stuck on the prow of the ship , supposedly with 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) on one side and 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) on the other . No reliable documentation exists for these claims and they remain " fish stories " .
= = Diet = =
The whale shark is a filter feeder – one of only three known filter feeding shark species ( along with the basking shark and the megamouth shark ) . It feeds on plankton including copepods , krill , fish eggs , Christmas Island red crab larvae and small nektonic life , such as small squid or fish . It also feeds on clouds of eggs during mass spawning of fish and corals . The many rows of vestigial teeth play no role in feeding . Feeding occurs either by ram filtration , in which the animal opens its mouth and swims forward , pushing water and food into the mouth , or by active suction feeding , in which the animal opens and closes its mouth , sucking in volumes of water that are then expelled through the gills . In both cases , the filter pads serve to separate food from water . These unique , black sieve @-@ like structures are presumed to be modified gill rakers . Food separation in whale sharks is by cross @-@ flow filtration , in which the water travels nearly parallel to the filter pad surface , not perpendicularly through it , before passing to the outside , while denser food particles continue to the back of the throat . This is an extremely efficient filtration method that minimises fouling of the filter pad surface . Whale sharks have been observed " coughing " , presumably to clear a build @-@ up of particles from the filter pads . Whale sharks migrate to feed and possibly to breed .
The whale shark is an active feeder , targeting concentrations of plankton or fish . It is able to ram filter feed or can gulp in a stationary position . This is in contrast to the passive feeding basking shark , which does not pump water . Instead , it swims to force water across its gills .
A juvenile whale shark is estimated to eat 21 kg ( 46 pounds ) of plankton per day .
The BBC program Planet Earth filmed a whale shark feeding on a school of small fish . The same documentary showed footage of a whale shark timing its arrival to coincide with the mass spawning of fish shoals and feeding on the resultant clouds of eggs and sperm .
= = Behavior toward divers = =
Despite its size , the whale shark does not pose significant danger to humans . Whale sharks are docile fish and sometimes allow swimmers to catch a ride , although this practice is discouraged by shark scientists and conservationists because of the disturbance to the sharks . Younger whale sharks are gentle and can play with divers . Underwater photographers such as Fiona Ayerst have photographed them swimming close to humans without any danger .
The shark is seen by divers in many places , including the Bay Islands in Honduras , Thailand , the Philippines , the Maldives , the Red Sea , Western Australia ( Ningaloo Reef , Christmas Island ) , Taiwan , Panama ( Coiba Island ) , Belize , Tofo Beach in Mozambique , Sodwana Bay ( Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park ) in South Africa , the Galapagos Islands , Saint Helena , Isla Mujeres , La Paz , Baja California Sur and Bahía de los Ángeles in Mexico , the Seychelles , West Malaysia , islands off eastern peninsular Malaysia , India , Sri Lanka , Oman , Fujairah , and Puerto Rico . Juveniles can be found near the shore in the Gulf of Tadjoura , near Djibouti .
= = In captivity = =
Two whale sharks were featured as the main attraction of Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan and as of 2005 , three whale sharks were in captivity at the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in Japan . The Ioworld Aquarium in Kagoshima , Japan , also features a single adult whale shark as a major attraction . One was also on display in the Taiwan , Kenting National Museum of Biology and Aquarium and 5 are on display at the Yantai Aquarium in China . Four whale sharks , two males , Taroko and Yushan , and two females , Alice and Trixie , live in the Georgia Aquarium , in Atlanta , USA . Two male whale sharks , Ralph and Norton , died in captivity at the Georgia Aquarium on 11 January 2007 , and 13 June 2007 , respectively . The two females were added on 3 June 2006 and two more males in 2007 . All six whale sharks were imported from Taiwan , where whale sharks are called tofu sharks because of the taste and texture of the flesh ; the fishery from which they came has since closed . Two whale sharks live at Polar Ocean World in Qingdao , China . One whale shark was at the Atlantis Hotel in Dubai , but was released in March 2010 @.@ there are also 2 whale sharks in the Inbursa aquarium in Mexico City .
= = Reproduction = =
Neither mating nor pupping of whale sharks has been observed .
The capture of a female in July 1996 that was pregnant with 300 pups indicated whale sharks are ovoviviparous . The eggs remain in the body and the females give birth to live young which are 40 to 60 cm ( 16 to 24 in ) long . Evidence indicates the pups are not all born at once , but rather the female retains sperm from one mating and produces a steady stream of pups over a prolonged period . They reach sexual maturity at around 30 years and their lifespan is an estimated 70 to 100 years .
On 7 March 2009 , marine scientists in the Philippines discovered what is believed to be the smallest living specimen of the whale shark . The young shark , measuring only 38 cm ( 15 in ) , was found with its tail tied to a stake at a beach in Pilar , Sorsogon , Philippines , and was released into the wild . Based on this discovery , some scientists no longer believe this area is just a feeding ground ; this site may be a birthing ground , as well . Both young whale sharks and pregnant females have been seen in the waters of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean , where numerous whale sharks can be spotted during the summer .
= = Conservation status = =
There is currently no robust estimate of the global whale shark population . The species is considered vulnerable by the IUCN due to its long life span and late maturation . It is listed , along with six other species of sharks , under the CMS Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks . In 1998 , the Philippines banned all fishing , selling , importing , and exporting of whale sharks for commercial purposes , followed by India in May 2001 , and Taiwan in May 2007 . They are currently listed as a vulnerable species , but continue to be hunted in parts of Asia , such as Taiwan and China . In 2016 they are now listed as endangered .
In 2006 , Resorts World Sentosa announced its plans to bring in whale sharks for their marine life park . This was met with opposition from seven notable conservation societies . In 2009 , the plan was shelved in favour of a search for other alternatives .
In 2010 , the Gulf of Mexico oil spill resulted in 4 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 barrels ( 780 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil flowing into an area south of the Mississippi River Delta , where one @-@ third of all whale shark sightings in the northern part of the gulf have occurred in recent years . Sightings confirmed that the whale sharks were unable to avoid the oil slick , which was situated on the surface of the sea where the whale sharks feed for several hours at a time . No dead whale sharks were found .
This species was also added to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) in 2003 to regulate the international trade of live specimens and its parts .
= = Human culture = =
In Vietnamese culture , the whale shark is revered as a deity called Cá Ông , which literally translates as " Lord Fish " .
In the Philippines , it is called butanding and balilan . The whale shark is featured on the reverse of the Philippine 100 @-@ peso bill . By law snorkelers must maintain a distance of four feet from the sharks and there is a fine and possible jail time for anyone who touches the animals .
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= Execution by elephant =
Execution by elephant was a common method of capital punishment in South and Southeast Asia , particularly in India , where Asian elephants were used to crush , dismember , or torture captives in public executions . The animals were trained and versatile , able to kill victims immediately or to torture them slowly over a prolonged period . Most commonly employed by royalty , the elephants were used to signify both the ruler 's absolute power and his ability to control wild animals .
The sight of elephants executing captives both horrified and attracted the interest of European travelers , and was recorded in numerous contemporary journals and accounts of life in Asia . The practice was eventually suppressed by the European empires that colonised the region in the 18th and 19th centuries . While primarily confined to Asia , the practice was occasionally adopted by Western powers , such as Ancient Rome and Carthage , particularly to deal with mutinous soldiers .
= = Cultural aspects = =
The intelligence , domesticability and versatility of elephants gave it considerable advantages over other wild animals such as lions and bears used as executioners by the Romans . Elephants are more tractable than horses : while a horse can be trained to charge into battle , it will not willingly trample an enemy soldier , and will instead step over him . Elephants will trample their enemies , hence the popularity of war elephants with generals such as Hannibal . Elephants can be trained to execute prisoners in a variety of ways , and can be taught to prolong the agony of the victim by inflicting a slow death by torture or to kill the condemned quickly by stepping on the head .
Historically , the elephants were under the constant control of a driver or mahout , thus enabling a ruler to grant a last @-@ minute reprieve and display merciful qualities . Several such exercises of mercy are recorded in various Asian kingdoms . The kings of Siam trained their elephants to roll the convicted person " about the ground rather slowly so that he is not badly hurt " . The Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great is said to have " used this technique to chastise ' rebels ' and then in the end the prisoners , presumably much chastened , were given their lives " . On one occasion , Akbar was recorded to have had a man thrown to the elephants to suffer five days of such treatment before pardoning him . Elephants were occasionally used in trial by ordeal in which the condemned prisoner was released if he managed to fend off the elephant .
The use of elephants in such fashion went beyond the common royal power to dispense life and death . Elephants have long been used as symbols of royal authority ( and still are in some places , such as Thailand , where white elephants are held in reverence ) . Their use as instruments of state power sent the message that the ruler was able to preside over very powerful creatures who were under total command . The ruler was thus seen as maintaining a moral and spiritual domination over wild beasts , adding to their authority and mystique among subjects .
= = Geographical scope = =
Execution by elephant has been done in many parts of the world , by both Western and Eastern empires . The earliest records of such executions date back to the classical period . However , the practice was already well established by that time and continued well into the 19th century . While African elephants are significantly larger than Asian elephants , African powers were not known to make as much use of the animals in warfare or ceremonial affairs compared to their Asian counterparts .
= = = Asian powers = = =
= = = = South Asia = = = =
= = = = = Sri Lanka = = = = =
Elephants were widely used across the Indian subcontinent and South Asia as a method of execution . The English sailor Robert Knox , writing in 1681 , described a method of execution by elephant which he had witnessed while being held captive in Sri Lanka . Knox says the elephants he witnessed had their tusks fitted with " sharp Iron with a socket with three edges " . After impaling the victim 's body with its tusks , the elephant would " then tear it in pieces , and throw it limb from limb " .
The 19th century traveler James Emerson Tennent comments that " a Kandyan [ Sri Lankan ] chief , who was witness to such scenes , has assured us that the elephant never once applied his tusks , but , placing his foot on the prostrate victim , plucked off his limbs in succession by a sudden movement of his trunk . " Knox 's book depicts exactly this method of execution in a famous drawing , " An Execution by an Eliphant " ( see right ) .
Writing in 1850 , the British diplomat Henry Charles Sirr described a visit to one of the elephants that had been used by Sri Vikrama Rajasinha , the last king of Kandy , to execute criminals . Crushing by elephant had been abolished by the British after they overthrew the Kandyan kingdom in 1815 but the king 's execution elephant was still alive and evidently remembered its former duties . Sirr comments :
During the native dynasty it was the practice to train elephants to put criminals to death by trampling upon them , the creatures being taught to prolong the agony of the wretched sufferers by crushing the limbs , avoiding the vital parts . With the last tyrant king of Candy , this was a favourite mode of execution and as one of the elephant executioners was at the former capital during our sojourn there we were particularly anxious to test the creature 's sagacity and memory . The animal was mottled and of enormous size , and was quietly standing there with his keeper seated upon his neck ; the noble who accompanied us desired the man to dismount and stand on one side .
The chief then gave the word of command , ordering the creature to ' slay the wretch ! ' The elephant raised his trunk , and twined it , as if around a human being ; the creature then made motions as if he were depositing the man on the earth before him , then slowly raised his back @-@ foot , placing it alternately upon the spots where the limbs of the sufferer would have been . This he continued to do for some minutes ; then , as if satisfied that the bones must be crushed , the elephant raised his trunk high upon his head and stood motionless ; the chief then ordered him to ' complete his work , ' and the creature immediately placed one foot , as if upon the man 's abdomen , and the other upon his head , apparently using his entire strength to crush and terminate the wretch 's misery .
= = = = = India = = = = =
Elephants were used as executioners of choice in India for many centuries . Hindu and Muslim rulers executed tax evaders , rebels and enemy soldiers alike " under the feet of elephants " . The Hindu Manu Smriti or Laws of Manu , written down around AD 200 , prescribed execution by elephants for a number of offences . If property was stolen , for instance , " the king should have any thieves caught in connection with its disappearance executed by an elephant . " For example , in 1305 , the sultan of Delhi turned the deaths of Mongol prisoners into public entertainment by having them crushed by elephants .
During the Mughal era , " it was a common mode of execution in those days to have the offender trampled underfoot by an elephant . " Captain Alexander Hamilton , writing in 1727 , described how the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan ordered an offending military commander to be carried " to the Elephant Garden , and there to be executed by an Elephant , which is reckoned to be a shameful and terrible Death " . The Mughal Emperor Humayun ordered the crushing by elephant of an imam he mistakenly believed to be critical of his reign . Some monarchs also adopted this form of execution for their own entertainment . Another Mughal ruler , the emperor Jahangir , is said to have ordered a huge number of criminals to be crushed for his amusement . The French traveler François Bernier , who witnessed such executions , recorded his dismay at the pleasure that the emperor derived from this cruel punishment . Nor was crushing the only method used by the Mughals ' execution elephants ; in the Mughal sultanate of Delhi , elephants were trained to slice prisoners to pieces " with pointed blades fitted to their tusks " . The Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta , visiting Delhi in the 1330s , has left the following eyewitness account of this particular type of execution by elephants :
Upon a certain day , when I myself was present , some men were brought out who had been accused of having attempted the life of the Vizier . They were ordered , accordingly , to be thrown to the elephants , which had been taught to cut their victims to pieces . Their hoofs were cased with sharp iron instruments , and the extremities of these were like knives . On such occasions the elephant @-@ driver rode upon them : and , when a man was thrown to them , they would wrap the trunk about him and toss him up , then take him with the teeth and throw him between their fore feet upon the breast , and do just as the driver should bid them , and according to the orders of the Emperor . If the order was to cut him to pieces , the elephant would do so with his irons , and then throw the pieces among the assembled multitude : but if the order was to leave him , he would be left lying before the Emperor , until the skin should be taken off , and stuffed with hay , and the flesh given to the dogs .
Other Indian polities also carried out executions by elephant . The Maratha Chatrapati Sambhaji ordered this form of death for a number of conspirators , including the Maratha official Anaji Datto in the late seventeenth century . Another Maratha leader , the general Santaji , inflicted the punishment for breaches in military discipline . The contemporary historian Khafi Khan reported that " for a trifling offense he [ Santaji ] would cast a man under the feet of an elephant . "
The early 19th century writer Robert Kerr relates how the king of Goa " keeps certain elephants for the execution of malefactors . When one of these is brought forth to dispatch a criminal , if his keeper desires that the offender be destroyed speedily , this vast creature will instantly crush him to atoms under his foot ; but if desired to torture him , will break his limbs successively , as men are broken on the wheel . " The naturalist Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon cited this flexibility of purpose as evidence that elephants were capable of " human reasoning , [ rather ] than a simple , natural instinct " .
Such executions were often held in public as a warning to any who may transgress . To that end , many of the elephants were especially large , often weighing in excess of nine tons . The executions were intended to be gruesome and often were . They were sometimes preceded by torture publicly inflicted by the same elephant used for the execution . An account of one such torture @-@ and @-@ execution at Baroda in 1814 has been preserved in The Percy Anecdotes :
The man was a slave , and two days before had murdered his master , brother to a native chieftain , called Ameer Sahib . About eleven o 'clock the elephant was brought out , with only the driver on his back , surrounded by natives with bamboos in their hands . The criminal was placed three yards behind on the ground , his legs tied by three ropes , which were fastened to a ring on the right hind leg of the animal . At every step the elephant took , it jerked him forward , and every eight or ten steps must have dislocated another limb , for they were loose and broken when the elephant had proceeded five hundred yards . The man , though covered in mud , showed every sign of life , and seemed to be in the most excruciating torments . After having been tortured in this manner for about an hour , he was taken to the outside of the town , when the elephant , which is instructed for such purposes , was backed , and put his foot on the head of the criminal .
The use of elephants as executioners continued well into the latter half of the 19th century . During an expedition to central India in 1868 , Louis Rousselet described the execution of a criminal by an elephant . A sketch depicting the execution showed the condemned being forced to place his head upon a pedestal , and then being held there while an elephant crushed his head underfoot . The sketch was made into a woodcut and printed in " Le Tour du Monde " , a widely circulated French journal of travel and adventure , as well as foreign journals such as Harper 's Weekly .
The growing power of the British Empire led to the decline and eventual end of elephant executions in India . Writing in 1914 , Eleanor Maddock noted that in Kashmir , since the arrival of Europeans , " many of the old customs are disappearing – and one of these is the dreadful custom of the execution of criminals by an elephant trained for the purpose and which was known by the hereditary name of ' Gunga Rao ' . "
= = = = Southeast Asia = = = =
Elephants are widely reported to have been used to carry out executions in Southeast Asia , and were used in Burma and Malaysia from the earliest historical times as well as in the kingdom of Champa on the other side of the Indochinese Peninsula . In Siam , elephants were trained to throw the condemned into the air before trampling them to death . Alexander Hamilton provides the following account from Siam :
For Treason and Murder , the Elephant is the Executioner . The condemned Person is made fast to a Stake driven into the Ground for the Purpose , and the Elephant is brought to view him , and goes twice or thrice round him , and when the Elephant 's Keeper speaks to the monstrous Executioner , he twines his Trunk round the Person and Stake , and pulling the Stake from the Ground with great Violence , tosses the Man and the Stake into the Air , and in coming down , receives him on his Teeth , and making him off again , puts one of his fore Feet on the Carcase , and squeezes it flat .
The journal of John Crawfurd records another method of execution by elephant in the kingdom of Cochinchina ( modern south Vietnam ) , where he served as a British envoy in 1821 . Crawfurd recalls an event where " the criminal is tied to a stake , and [ Excellency 's favourite ] elephant runs down upon him and crushes him to death . "
= = = = West Asia = = = =
During the medieval period , executions by elephants were used by several West Asian imperial powers , including the Byzantine , Sassanid , Seljuq and Timurid empires . When the Sassanid king Khosrau II , who had a harem of 3 @,@ 000 wives and 12 @,@ 000 female slaves , demanded as a wife Hadiqah , the daughter of the Christian Arab Na 'aman , Na 'aman refused to permit his Christian daughter to enter the harem of a Zoroastrian ; for this refusal , he was trampled to death by an elephant .
The practice appears to have been adopted in parts of the Muslim Middle East . Rabbi Petachiah of Ratisbon , a twelfth @-@ century Jewish traveler , reported an execution by this means during his stay in Seljuk @-@ ruled northern Mesopotamia ( modern Iraq ) :
At Nineveh there was an elephant . Its head is not protruding . It is big , eats about two wagon loads of straw at once ; its mouth is in its breast , and when it wants to eat it protrudes its lip about two cubits , takes up the straw with it , and puts it in its mouth . When the sultan condemns anyone to death , they say to the elephant , " this person is guilty . " It then seizes him with its lip , casts him aloft and slays him .
= = = Western empires = = =
The Romans , Carthaginians and ancient Macedonians occasionally used elephants for executions while also making use of war elephants for military purposes , most famously in the case of Hannibal . Deserters , prisoners of war and military criminals are recorded by ancient chroniclers to have been put to death under the foot of an elephant . Perdiccas , who became regent of Macedon on the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC , had mutineers from the faction of Meleager thrown to the elephants to be crushed in the city of Babylon . The Roman writer Quintus Curtius Rufus relates the story in his Historiae Alexandri Magni : " Perdiccas saw that they [ the mutineers ] were paralyzed and at his mercy . He withdrew from the main body some 300 men who had followed Meleager at the time when he burst from the first meeting held after Alexander 's death , and before the eyes of the entire army he threw them to the elephants . All were trampled to death beneath the feet of the beasts ... " .
Similarly , the Roman writer Valerius Maximus records how the general Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus " after King Perseus was vanquished [ in 167 BC ] , for the same fault ( desertion ) threw men under elephants to be trampled ... And indeed military discipline needs this kind of severe and abrupt punishment , because this is how strength of arms stands firm , which , when it falls away from the right course , will be subverted . "
There are fewer records of elephants being used as straightforward executioners for the civil population . One such example is mentioned by Josephus and the deuterocanonical book of 3 Maccabees in connection with the Egyptian Jews , though the story is likely apocryphal . 3 Maccabees describes an attempt by Ptolemy IV Philopator ( ruled 221 – 204 BC ) to enslave and brand Egypt 's Jews with the symbol of Dionysus . When the majority of the Jews resisted , the king is said to have rounded them up and ordered them to be trampled on by elephants . The mass execution was ultimately thwarted , supposedly by the intervention of angels , following which Ptolemy took an altogether more forgiving attitude towards his Jewish subjects .
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= New York State Route 22 =
New York State Route 22 ( NY 22 ) is a north – south state highway in eastern New York , in the United States . It runs parallel to the state 's eastern edge from the outskirts of New York City to the hamlet of Mooers in Clinton County . At 337 miles ( 542 km ) , it is the state 's longest north – south route and the third longest overall , after NY 5 and NY 17 . Many of the state 's major east – west roads intersect with Route 22 just before crossing the state line into the neighboring New England states .
Almost all of Route 22 is a two @-@ lane rural road that only passes through small villages and hamlets . The exceptions are its southern end in the heavily populated Bronx and lower Westchester County , and a section that runs through the city of Plattsburgh near the northern end . The rural landscape that the road passes through varies from horse country and views of the picturesque reservoirs of the New York City watershed in the northern suburbs of the city , to dairy farms further upstate in the hilly Taconic and Berkshire mountains , to the undeveloped , heavily forested Adirondack Park along the shores of Lake Champlain . An 86 @-@ mile ( 138 km ) section from Fort Ann to Keeseville is part of the All @-@ American Road known as the Lakes to Locks Passage .
The southernmost section of the road was known as the White Plains Post Road in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , a major highway connecting New York City to White Plains , the Westchester county seat . Route 22 in its modern form was established in 1930 as one of the principal routes from New York City to Canada .
= = Route description = =
Route 22 starts as an urban arterial road , passing through the most populous communities along its route within its first 15 miles ( 24 km ) . After running northerly from its origin in the Bronx it veers slightly to the northeast in the vicinity of a traffic circle near Kensico Dam before heading northward for good as a mostly two @-@ lane rural route all the way to the Canadian border .
The majority of NY 22 's 337 @-@ mile ( 542 km ) routing is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) ; however , several sections are maintained by other jurisdictions . The southernmost of these is in the Bronx , where the entirety of NY 22 within the borough is maintained by the New York City Department of Transportation ( NYCDOT ) . In Westchester County , NY 22 is mostly locally maintained within the city of Mount Vernon and is county @-@ maintained within the city of White Plains . In Clinton County , the route is locally maintained within the city of Plattsburgh .
= = = Bronx to Kensico Dam = = =
Route 22 starts as Provost Avenue at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in the Bronx , intersecting with East 233rd Street about 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 3 km ) later . It soon crosses the Westchester county line into Mount Vernon and becomes South Third Avenue , beginning a 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) section in that county . Shortly after the county line , Route 22 makes a sharp turn to the right at the South Columbus Avenue intersection . It parallels the nearby Hutchinson River Parkway as it heads into the New York City suburbs of Bronxville and Tuckahoe . At Wilson Woods Lake , it crosses a pair of railroad tracks and becomes North Columbus Avenue , then has its first interchange with a limited @-@ access road at the Cross County Parkway .
Two country clubs on either side herald NY 22 's entry into the suburb of Eastchester . It makes a turn to the northeast , passing the Vernon Hills Shopping Center to the right . After leaving Eastchester , NY 22 continues north into the village of Scarsdale .
The route parallels the Bronx River Parkway ( BRP ) as it enters Westchester 's county seat , White Plains . Within the city of White Plains , NY 22 is maintained by Westchester County with the unsigned designations of County Route 53 ( CR 53 ) from the Scarsdale line to NY 125 , CR 108 between NY 125 and Westchester Avenue , and CR 87 from Broadway to the North Castle line . NY 22 also intersects NY 125 and NY 119 in downtown White Plains , then bends to the northwest along North Broadway , eventually intersecting the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway ( Interstate 287 or I @-@ 287 ) . White Plains Rural Cemetery is visible to the west as NY 22 continues northward out of the city .
In North White Plains , the area that the road passes through becomes a little less developed as it goes over a gentle rise from which a short connector runs downhill to the traffic circle where the BRP ends and the Taconic State Parkway begins , just south of Kensico Dam .
= = = Kensico Reservoir to Brewster = = =
While the Taconic State Parkway continues along the northwest heading Route 22 had been following , Route 22 itself veers to the northeast along the reservoir 's south shore towards a short concurrency with NY 120 , just north of IBM 's Armonk headquarters and the " Duke 's Trees angle " , the westernmost point in Connecticut . For the first time , NY 22 runs parallel to New York 's eastern border , intersecting I @-@ 684 for the first of several times just north of the short portion of that highway in Connecticut . A short distance later , NY 433 , one of the state 's shortest highways , heads south from NY 22 into Greenwich .
After that junction , NY 22 bends back to the north , paralleling I @-@ 684 as a narrow , shaded meandering two @-@ lane rural route through the Westchester countryside of large wooded lots and houses well @-@ screened from the road . In downtown Bedford , the first settlement since White Plains , the highway overlaps with NY 172 for a few blocks , then intersects NY 121 at its southern terminus . Route 22 itself follows a due @-@ north heading from the hamlet , passing the John Jay Homestead State Historic Site ( the first National Historic Landmark along the highway ) , and Harvey School , before it briefly widens at a major intersection with NY 35 near Katonah . Two miles north of that junction , NY 22 becomes parallel to I @-@ 684 into the Town of Somers and the hamlet of Goldens Bridge . On the other side of the interstate , accessible via NY 138 , is the Goldens Bridge train station on Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Harlem Line , which begins a long parallel alignment with NY 22 at this point .
The railroad 's Purdy 's station is a short distance west of the next junction , NY 116 , after which NY 22 crosses under I @-@ 684 , remaining between it and the railroad tracks . Turning left onto Hardscrabble Road , it follows the tracks away from the interstate to the site of the next station , North Salem 's hamlet of Croton Falls . Just north of the hamlet , Route 22 crosses under the tracks , and is joined by US 202 . Immediately afterward , the road crosses back under the railroad again and enters Putnam County , following the Croton River north past the spillway of East Branch Reservoir .
After paralleling the reservoir for almost two miles ( 3 km ) , a third route , US 6 , joins the concurrency just east of the village of Brewster . The three routes cross under a high , long bridge carrying I @-@ 84 , then veer east to an interchange with the north end of I @-@ 684 . US 6 and 202 continue east for Danbury while NY 22 uses the northbound on @-@ ramp of the I @-@ 684 roadway . The short expressway connector that carries northbound I @-@ 684 traffic to northbound NY 22 is NY 981B , an unsigned reference route .
= = = Harlem Valley , Taconics and Berkshires = = =
Route 22 continues heading northeast along a narrow strip of land between the East Branch and Bog Brook reservoirs . It then resumes its northward heading , following a much straighter course than it had up to this point , on two lanes through wooded areas of the town of Patterson , where two local state highways , NY 312 and 164 , come in from the west . The highway gradually expands to three and sometimes four lanes as it passes through built @-@ up areas of strip development . Shortly after intersecting a third state highway , NY 311 , and passing another strip plaza , NY 22 crosses into Dutchess County .
After another supermarket strip to the east , a long , gentle divided bend in the road almost a mile long ends with an overpass where NY 55 comes in from the west . It joins NY 22 as the two routes , returning to two lanes , pass through the eastern fringe of the village of Pawling and then by Trinity @-@ Pawling School . Past the village , the railroad tracks edge closer to the highway as NY 22 enters the scenic Harlem Valley , which lends its name to the railroad line . The road curves more gently and takes longer straightaways , with lower density of residential and commercial development . Two miles from Pawling , the Appalachian Trail crosses the road next to the line 's Appalachian Trail station . The flag stop allows hikers access to the nearby Pawling Nature Preserve .
Routes 22 and 55 continue their long curve into the town of Dover , past the Harlem Valley – Wingdale station next to the road across from the now @-@ closed buildings of Harlem Valley Psychiatric Center . The NY 55 concurrency ends when that road heads towards Connecticut at Wingdale . The road continues through Dover Plains and into Amenia , where an overlap with NY 343 begins . The railroad line ends at Wassaic , the most distant Metro @-@ North station from the city in direct miles . Route 343 remains joined with Route 22 into the hamlet of Amenia , where it separates and heads towards state line . At the same junction , US 44 comes in from Millbrook to begin an overlap with Route 22 . The valley opens up as the southern Taconics loom ahead . Shortly after crossing into the Town of North East , the highway passes by the large Coleman Station Historic District .
After intersecting with NY 199 at its eastern end , NY 22 and US 44 veer northeast into the small village of Millerton in the northern protrusion of Dutchess County 's Oblong , an area once the subject of a boundary dispute between New York and Connecticut in the late 17th century . US 44 continues eastward towards Connecticut while NY 22 resumes its northward course into the shadow of the ridge ahead , where three states converge near the 2 @,@ 311 @-@ foot ( 704 m ) Brace Mountain , Dutchess County 's highest , and Connecticut 's highest point on Mount Frissell 's southern slope . At another gentle curve , NY 22 slips into Columbia County and the town of Ancram . North of the county line , Massachusetts becomes the state behind Alander Mountain and the other peaks visible to the east . The southernmost route from New York to the Massachusetts state line , NY 344 , leaves for Bashbish Falls State Park at the hamlet of Copake Falls .
The next major junction is in Hillsdale where NY 23 crosses NY 22 on its way to Catamount Ski Area , which straddles the New York – Massachusetts state line . At the hamlet of Green River , NY 71 , the state 's shortest two @-@ digit route , begins at NY 22 heading east into Massachusetts . NY 22 then crosses into Austerlitz , where the surrounding terrain becomes much more wooded and the valleys become narrower . In the center of town , East Hill Road offers a short detour to Steepletop , the farm where Edna St. Vincent Millay lived . A short distance later , NY 22 intersects with NY 203 at its eastern end .
Route 22 then veers sharply to the northeast , resuming a northward direction only a short distance from the state line , a few hundred feet to the east . It then rounds a mountain and heads west , paralleling the New York State Thruway 's Berkshire section ( I @-@ 90 ) for a mile . NY 980D ( an unsigned reference route ) leaves to the east , where it becomes Massachusetts Route 102 at the state line . After Thruway exit B3 , NY 22 resumes its northerly heading . From here it intersects NY 295 , then passes Queechy Lake . NY 22 then straightens out to reach New Lebanon , where it intersects US 20 . New York 's longest east – west route ( US 20 ) overlaps with its longest north – south route ( NY 22 ) for a mile before the former continues to Pittsfield and the latter returns to the border @-@ paralleling course , which takes it into Rensselaer County .
As NY 22 continues north , it remains , at first , within a mile of Massachusetts , moving to the east to intersect with NY 43 in Stephentown . North of that junction , it begins to run through a deep , isolated , lightly populated valley in the New York section of the Berkshires . Wide curves take the road through Berlin , where Berlin Mountain , the highest peak in the state outside of the Catskills and Adirondacks , caps the eastern skyline . Route 22 trends further west , then back east to where NY 2 crosses via an overpass at Petersburgh on its way to Petersburg Pass , the northernmost crossing of the New York – Massachusetts state line . The next road to head east from NY 22 , NY 346 at North Petersburgh , enters Vermont .
Shortly afterward , the highway descends gently from the Berkshires to meet another major state road , NY 7 , and overlaps with it for a short distance . Two miles after that concurrency ends , NY 22 follows the upper Hoosic River to Hoosick Falls , the first village it has passed through since Millerton . There are no other state routes here , but after another 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , at North Hoosick , NY 67 comes in from the east and the two roads overlap as they leave Rensselaer County .
= = = Washington County = = =
Almost immediately after the joined roads cross the county line , NY 67 splits off to the west , crossing the Hoosick back into Rensselaer County , while NY 22 straightens out again to go due north . After 4 miles ( 6 km ) , it reaches Cambridge , where NY 313 forks off to the east . In the middle of town , NY 372 , a local connector to Greenwich , ends .
North of Cambridge , the highway continues through a rolling landscape of fields and farms , the low transitional country between the Appalachians and the Adirondacks . Beyond NY 29 's eastern terminus at Greenwich Junction , Route 22 heads eastward again through 18 miles ( 29 km ) of countryside until , just before reaching Granville , it comes within 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) of the state line , the closest it has come to that boundary since Austerlitz . At the village 's south end , NY 22 intersects NY 149 and the two routes overlap for several blocks until NY 149 begins its short journey to Vermont . Just north of Granville , the first of NY 22 's two suffixed routes , NY 22A , begins its route running closely parallel to the state line and then into Vermont , where it becomes Vermont Route 22A , paralleling the parent route for some distance on the other side of the state line .
Immediately after this junction , NY 22 begins a long curve away from the state line that has it running due west at the end of NY 40 in North Granville . It heads northwest a little further until , after passing between Great Meadows and Washington state prisons , it reaches US 4 and turns right to join it , resuming its northward course . The overlap with US 4 , one of the few along Route 22 that pairs it with another north – south route , lasts for seven miles ( 11 km ) along the base of the Adirondack foothills between the low country and Lake George , before ending in Whitehall , where US 4 leaves to assume the east – west course it takes across northern New England .
= = = Adirondack Park and Lake Champlain = = =
As NY 22 bends westward after leaving Whitehall , it rounds the north end of the ridge to the west , offering views into Vermont . Once again the Vermont state line is very near NY 22 , but now it is separated from New York by water instead of land . The stream at the bottom of this valley , surrounded by the low lying Drowned Lands flood plain , is the inflow for Lake Champlain . The lake 's South Bay , which the road crosses immediately after this turn , is also the Blue Line . Route 22 has now entered Adirondack Park , the 6 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 25 @,@ 000 km2 ) Forest Preserve and National Historic Landmark , and the largest state @-@ level protected area in any state . Within the park , NY 22 mainly follows the lakeshore , closer to some of its more populated areas .
It continues along the hillside of Black Mountain , Washington County 's highest peak , as it meanders north on the narrowing isthmus between Lakes Champlain and George . Near the northern end , it crosses the Essex County line . Two miles later , it reaches the first settlement along its length within the Adirondack Park , Ticonderoga . The highway skirts the northeastern edge of the village , the site of key battles in both the French and Indian and Revolutionary Wars , as NY 74 comes in from the ferry to the east . This overlap lasts for almost two miles ( 3 km ) until NY 74 goes straight ahead at the intersection with NY 9N , while NY 22 turns right to join NY 9N , the longest suffixed route in the state , and return to its northbound orientation .
At first , Routes 22 and 9N veer west , away from the lake , but then return to its shoreline to avoid a nearby mountain , just before Crown Point . NY 185 , a small connector road , runs from 9N and 22 along the peninsula to become Vermont Route 17 ( VT 17 ) . They remain close to the widening lake for the next 15 miles ( 24 km ) through Port Henry to Westport , where 9N leaves heading west for Elizabethtown . Beyond that junction , Route 22 again turns inland , going through the easy pass around Split Rock Mountain . At Bouquet , it makes an abrupt right turn to go due east back to the lakeshore and ferry landing at Essex . Here , the route connects to the Charlotte – Essex Ferry via Dock Street , which leads to VT F @-@ 5 on the opposite side of Lake Champlain .
At Willsboro , Route 22 heads to the northwest again , away from the lake , until it heads west and intersects US 9 in the town of Chesterfield , the other major north – south surface route up the state 's eastern side . Routes 22 and 9 join together , closely parallel to the Adirondack Northway ( I @-@ 87 ) , the only other route in the state to directly connect New York City with Canada . The three routes , spread over many miles in the southern part of the state , run through a narrow corridor for two miles ( 3 km ) until Routes 9 and 22 veer east again toward Keeseville .
Here , Route 9N ends and Routes 9 and 22 separate . The two will exchange corridors , with US 9 following the lake shore line while NY 22 remains mostly inland . NY 22 enters Clinton County just north of Keeseville , and then leaves Adirondack Park 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) beyond at the Peru town line .
= = = Clinton County = = =
Just south of the hamlet of Peru , the short NY 442 terminates at Route 22 . In the hamlet itself , after the Little Au Sable River crossing , NY 22 's other suffixed route , NY 22B , branches off further inland . NY 22 continues north of Peru , and returns to the Northway 's side again in a mile . After another five miles ( 8 km ) , it has its first exit on the Northway near the now @-@ closed Plattsburgh Air Force Base . It continues northeastward , crossing the Saranac River into Plattsburgh , the first city and most populous community NY 22 has passed through since White Plains .
NY 22 runs along South Catherine Street for a few blocks , then divides into one @-@ way couplets for the first time since Westchester County , with northbound traffic moving a block to the east to follow Oak Street , while southbound traffic comes down North Catherine Street . It parallels US 9 for a couple of blocks , intersecting NY 3 ( Cornelia Street ) just a block west of its eastern terminus at that highway . After Boynton Avenue , the separate streets reunite and turns northwest just before it has its second and final exit with the Northway . Just after the exit , NY 374 begins along the westbound route as NY 22 turns to the north once again .
The highway follows the railroad tracks into Beekmantown until it bears left at a fork , trending further west to Beekmantown Corners , where another short local road , County Route 58 , formerly NY 456 , comes to its western end . After crossing into the next town , Chazy , NY 22 bears left again at another fork to drift further to the west . The terrain around the road becomes increasingly wooded , with long unbroken stretches of pine , in the northern portion of the town . This is briefly broken at another western terminus of a short local road , County Route 23 , formerly NY 191 , in the hamlet of Sciota .
NY 22 continues past Sciota in a fairly straight north @-@ northwesterly course through more woods with small home and farm clearings . Those yield to mostly fields just before the Great Chazy River , after which NY 22 enters the hamlet of Mooers . NY 22 comes to an end upon intersecting US 11 .
= = History = =
= = = Old roads = = =
The road from the modern @-@ day Bronx ( then part of Westchester County ) through White Plains to Bedford and points north was originally an old Indian path . This path was later used and widened by the first European settlers . During colonial times , the road was known as " the road to Bedford and Vermont " . Further north , near Lake Champlain , the route now used by Route 22 was used by the St. Francis Indians of Canada as they went south to find warmer fishing areas . The old road was also used heavily during the American Revolution to transport iron south from the mines in the Adirondacks .
Once White Plains became the county seat of Westchester in 1759 , the road between this village and the city of New York ( then encompassing only Manhattan ) became an important route and was established as the White Plains Post Road . Before 1797 , the main road heading to points north and east out of Manhattan went via Kingsbridge along the old Boston Post Road . A new bridge over the Harlem River ( the original Harlem Bridge ) was opened in 1797 , shortening the route out of Manhattan . This also relocated the Boston and White Plains Post roads to a new alignment along Third Avenue and Boston Road . The White Plains Post Road separated from the Boston Post Road in Bronxdale , with the road to Boston heading east and the road to White Plains heading north . The old White Plains Post Road roughly followed the alignment of modern @-@ day White Plains Road , which was laid out in 1863 . ( The original post road was to the east of the modern @-@ day avenue ) . The White Plains Post Road continued north through Olinville , Wakefield , and Mount Vernon , where the route shifted east to modern @-@ day White Plains Post Road , going through Bronxville and Scarsdale to White Plains .
The stretch from Salem to the Vermont border in Granville was part of the old Northern Turnpike , which began in Lansingburgh and went along modern @-@ day Route 40 . The Northern Turnpike was chartered on April 1 , 1799 .
= = = Public ownership = = =
In 1868 , the New York State Legislature formed a commission " to regulate , grade , widen , gravel , and improve the old White Plains Post Road " , which was amended in 1870 to " macadamize the road " between Mount Vernon and White Plains . The post road south of Mount Vernon , which was part of New York City , was later widened between 1902 and 1908 .
State highways were first formally defined by the state legislature in 1909 and given numeric designations , although these initial designations were not publicly signed . Portions of modern Route 22 were defined as part of legislative routes 1 and 22 . Legislative route 1 went from the New York City line north along the White Plains Post Road to White Plains , then detoured to Harrison ( via Westchester Avenue ) , before proceeding north to Armonk ( via modern NY 120 ) . Legislative route 1 continued north along modern NY 22 to Austerlitz , where it then turned northwest to Valatie ( via modern NY 203 and NY 980B ) , then followed US 9 to Albany . Legislative route 22 had two segments . The southern segment began in Troy , following NY 7 to Hoosick , then went north along modern NY 22 up to Putnam Station ( south of Ticonderoga ) .
= = = Route 22 designation = = =
In 1924 , New York signed several major state roads with route numbers . Most of Legislative route 1 was designated as NY 22 , but with a direct route between White Plains and Armonk . Also , instead of continuing to Valatie , NY 22 initially ended at Hillsdale ( at the intersection with NY 23 ) . By 1929 , the road to Valatie had been improved and NY 22 was extended to US 9 , with a length of 139 miles ( 224 km ) . The middle section of modern NY 22 was designated in 1924 as NY 24 , running for 75 miles ( 121 km ) from Stephentown to Comstock . The portion of modern NY 22 north of Whitehall remained unnumbered in 1924 but gained a designation in 1925 when NY 30 , a route assigned in 1924 that linked Mechanicville to Whitehall , was extended north from Whitehall to the Canadian border north of Mooers . In the 1930 renumbering , the NY 24 and NY 30 designations were both reassigned elsewhere . The NY 22 designation was extended north along old NY 24 and NY 30 , incorporating newly improved roads between Austerlitz and Stephentown , resulting in a route length of 370 miles ( 595 km ) . The segment of old NY 22 between Austerlitz and Valatie was renumbered to NY 203 .
In December 1934 , at the insistence of the Automobile Club of New York , several numbered routes were extended and signed within New York City , with NY 22 being one of these routes . NY 22 was extended south from the Mount Vernon line in the Bronx along White Plains Road , then it shifted via East 233rd Street to Webster Avenue until Fordham Road ( US 1 ) . From Fordham Road , it continued south along the Grand Concourse ( overlapped with NY 100 ) , crossing into Manhattan via East 149th Street to the 145th Street Bridge . In Manhattan , the NY 22 / 100 pair continued south along Lenox Avenue , 110th Street , Fifth Avenue , 96th Street , and Park Avenue , ending at Houston Street ( NY 1A ) . By 1941 , the alignment within Mount Vernon was shifted east to use Columbus Avenue and South 3rd Avenue ( current NY 22 ) , continuing its route to New York City via East 233rd Street as before . On January 1 , 1970 , the NY 22 designation was removed from Manhattan and most of the Bronx , and the short piece remaining in the city was realigned to meet US 1 at its current southern terminus .
= = = U.S. Route 7 = = =
In the original plan for the U.S. Highway System , as approved by the Bureau of Public Roads in November 1926 , US 7 was defined as beginning in New York City and designated on the alignment of NY 22 to Amenia , where it shifted northeast into Sharon , Connecticut to use old New England Route 4 through Massachusetts and Vermont all the way to the Canadian border . Apparently New York State did not approve this plan , and by mid @-@ 1927 the official route log published by AASHO ( now known as AASHTO ) had been amended so that the southern end of US 7 began in Norwalk , Connecticut instead .
= = = State Route 9N concurrency = = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the stretch from Ticonderoga to Keeseville ( now concurrent with NY 9N ) was designated solely as Route 22 . The north end of NY 47 was also located at an intersection with Route 22 in Ticonderoga . At Westport , NY 22 connected to NY 195 , an east – west highway leading to Elizabethtown . At the time , Route 9N only stretched from Elizabethtown to Keeseville . NY 9N was extended southward to Lake George c . 1936 , supplanting NY 47 and NY 195 and becoming concurrent with NY 22 between Ticonderoga and Westport .
NY 8 originally extended eastward from Hague to a ferry across Lake Champlain at Putnam when it was assigned as part of the renumbering . In between the two locations , the route utilized modern NY 9N , Montcalm Street , NY 22 , and Wrights Ferry and Wrights roads . It was realigned in the early 1930s to continue east from Ticonderoga on what is now NY 74 to another ferry across the lake . NY 8 was altered again c . 1934 to follow NY 22 north from Ticonderoga to Crown Point , where it turned off the highway onto Bridge Road ( now NY 185 ) . Route 8 remained intact along this routing until c . 1968 , when Route 8 was truncated southwestward to NY 9N in Hague .
= = = Realignments = = =
Over the course of many years , several sections of NY 22 were straightened , realigned to new roads , or both . Some old alignments are still either county @-@ maintained or state @-@ maintained . Several of these are in Dutchess County . In Dover Plains , the southern leg of NY 22 's junction with NY 343 is maintained by the state as NY 980G , a reference route . To the north in the town of Amenia , a 4 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 49 km ) long loop off NY 22 between Wassaic and Amenia is designated as CR 81 . Another former routing of NY 22 in the town of Dover exists as CR 6 , a loop route between the hamlets of Wingdale and Dover Plains that runs along the west bank of the Ten Mile River . Within the 44 / 22 concurrency , the intersection with CR 5 south of Millerton is also a former alignment of Route 22 .
Before the construction of I @-@ 684 , NY 22 continued northeast along Sodom Road north of Brewster on what is now CR 50 , a dead @-@ end road maintained by Putnam County . Modern NY 22 joins the I @-@ 684 roadway at exit 10 ( the northern terminus of I @-@ 684 ) and connects to the surface road on the opposite side of the Croton River via the NY 981B connector . South of Copake Falls , the state also still maintains an old alignment designated as NY 980F . North of Copake Falls , the northern half of the original alignment was designated as an extension of NY 344 .
= = = Mooers area = = =
The segment of NY 22 north of US 11 , named Hemmingford Road , was state @-@ maintained until September 1 , 1988 , when ownership and maintenance of that part of the route was transferred to Clinton County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state of New York . Following the swap , it was co @-@ designated as CR 34 by Clinton County . In 2008 , the signed northern terminus of NY 22 was moved to the east end of its overlap with US 11 in Mooers . The official alignment of NY 22 was not changed , however , as the New York State Department of Transportation still considered the Canadian border to be NY 22 's northern terminus until ca . July 2014 .
The road is celebrated and described in Benjamin Swett 's 2007 photographic travelogue , Route 22 .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 22 has two suffixed routes , both in the North Country .
NY 22A ( 10 @.@ 61 miles or 17 @.@ 08 kilometres ) is a spur connecting NY 22 to the Vermont state line south of Fair Haven . Once in Vermont , the route becomes VT 22A . The route was assigned in the early 1940s .
NY 22B ( 10 @.@ 90 miles or 17 @.@ 54 kilometres ) is a bypass around the southern and western extents of Plattsburgh . NY 22B begins at NY 22 in Peru and continues north through Schuyler Falls to Morrisonville , where it terminates at NY 3 near Clinton County Airport . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Harry and the Potters =
Harry and the Potters are an American rock band known for spawning the genre of wizard rock . Founded in Norwood , Massachusetts in 2002 , the group is primarily composed of brothers Joe and Paul DeGeorge , who both perform under the persona of the title character from the Harry Potter book series . Harry and the Potters are known for their elaborate live performances , and have developed a cult following within the Harry Potter fandom .
The band is often backed up by musicians like Ernie Kim , Andrew MacLeay , Brad Mehlenbacher , John Clardy , Mike Gintz , Jacob Nathan , Ben Macri , Phillip Dickey , Jason Anderson and Zach Burba . Most of them played drums . The band 's most recent songs feature drummer Mike Harpring and bassist Paul Baribeau .
Since 2002 , Harry and the Potters have released three studio albums , three singles and three extended plays . The duo founded the independent record label Eskimo Laboratories , and appeared in the documentary films We Are Wizards and Wizard Rockumentary . They also co @-@ founded charity organisation The Harry Potter Alliance , and formed the Wizard Rock EP of the Month Club , an extended play syndicate .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 2002 ) = = =
The origins were quite accidental . In Cambridge , MA , Paul DeGeorge ( born ( 1979 @-@ 06 @-@ 10 ) June 10 , 1979 ) was developing vaccines for a biotech firm as a chemical engineer . Paul had recently graduated from Tufts University . Outside the lab , Paul was a musician whose indie band — The Secrets — had toured in the northeast from 2001 to 2002 . To promote his band , Paul co @-@ founded a small indie label called Eskimo Laboratories . One of the other bands in Eskimo ’ s stable of talent included a juvenile act called Ed in the Refridgerators [ sic ] , which was fronted by Paul 's 14 @-@ year @-@ old brother Joe . Joe DeGeorge ( born ( 1987 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 ) July 4 , 1987 ) was a student at Norwood High School . He and his school friend Andrew MacLeay ( A.K.A. Shaggy ) had been playing in rock bands together since they were 11 and 12 years old . A couple of years earlier after reading the Harry Potter books , Paul formulated the premise for Harry and the Potters where the principle Harry Potter characters would be the musicians : Harry as the front man , Ron on guitar , Hermione on bass and Hagrid on drums . Then a crisis of sorts struck the brothers on June 22 , 2002 . During a barbecue at the DeGeorge family ’ s Norwood Massachusetts home , Joe had advertised a concert with Ed and the Refridgerators and several other indie bands . The venue was the back yard shed . Perhaps the venue was too modest but while an audience had arrived , the bands did not . To rescue a nearly lost opportunity , while waiting hopefully for a band to show , Harry and the Potters came into existence over the next hour when the two brothers wrote seven Potter @-@ themed songs . They performed that first concert as Harry and the Potters for six people who remained of their audience . Of those seven backyard songs , six were to make it onto the band 's first album in 2003 .
= = = Harry and the Potters and Voldemort Can 't Stop the Rock ! ( 2003 – 04 ) = = =
After recruiting drummer Ernie Kim , the band recorded their eponymous debut album over a weekend in the DeGeorge family living room . Released in June 2003 under the Eskimo Laboratories record label , the album contains six of the seven songs composed on June 22 , 2002 and another twelve written spontaneously and immediately thereafter recorded . In " the summer of " 2003 , Harry and the Potters set out on an American tour , performing at libraries . The fifth Harry Potter book – Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix – came out that summer and on June 21 , 2003 , the highly anticipated day of release , the band played five sets in a span of 24 hours . The library gigs drew crowds of mostly children and their parents . The brothers played a show at the library in Dorchester , Massachusetts that August where they noticed the children in the audience singing along . Joe said , " Paul forgot the words to one of the songs . [ The kids ] were like , ' You sang it wrong ! ' " Paul said , " They 'd be like , ' Hey , why 'd you skip that song ? ' because they knew the exact sequence of the album . " The DeGeorge brothers quickly developed an on @-@ stage persona of dressing in the fashion of wizard @-@ school Hogwarts : white shirts under gray crew @-@ neck sweaters , red @-@ and @-@ yellow striped ties , wire @-@ rim glasses . In a show of quirky egalitarianism , both brothers play the role of Harry Potter and dress almost identically ; Paul is older and to conform to the character ’ s persona , he is Harry of Year 7 ; while Joe is the Harry of Year 4 .
During May and June 2004 , the band worked on their next album , Voldemort Can 't Stop the Rock ! in the DeGeorge family shed . Following the release , the band toured heavily . The two brothers drove 13 @,@ 000 miles across the U.S and into Canada in their " Potter Mobile " , a silver 1998 Ford Windstar minivan with a black lightning bolt emblazoned on its hood . In live concerts , Paul and Joe used pre @-@ recorded backing tracks for much of the tour , but during the second half , Joe called on his childhood friend and former bandmate Andrew MacLeay to join the band temporarily as drummer . During the Voldemort Can 't Stop the Rock ! tour , Paul and Joe DeGeorge received a letter from Warner Brothers that stated that the brothers were breaking copyright laws . Although Paul sent a letter to Warner Brothers in an attempt to smooth things over , Marc Brandon , the company representative , asked to speak to Paul personally . The two later settled upon a Gentlemen 's agreement that , in essence , would allow Harry and the Potters to continue to sell music online and tour , but all other merchandise could only be sold at live shows .
= = = Harry and the Potters and the Power of Love ( 2005 – 06 ) = = =
The following winter , the band began their first overseas tour . In February 2005 , they toured the United Kingdom – playing London , Manchester , Milton Keynes , Chester , and Liverpool – and then followed it by playing some gigs in the Netherlands to coincide with the release of the Dutch translation of Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince which took place in November 2005 . In the Netherlands , they played one of their earliest songs " Platform Nine and 3 / 4 " in Dutch . In late 2005 , Harry and the Potters enjoyed more tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek critical success from respectable quarters . The web based music ’ zine Pitchfork Media even hailed Harry and the Potters as having one of the best five live shows in 2005 , quipping that " The Decemberists wish they could lit @-@ rock like this . " In the fall of 2005 , Joe entered Clark University in Worcester , Massachusetts . While Harry and the Potters play infrequently at rock clubs and other venues — a Yule Ball at the Middle East Downstairs in Cambridge , MA in December 2005 attracted an audience of 600 with 200 turned away at the door
The previous year was the watershed when a joke between two colorblind , Massachusetts @-@ born brothers had developed into something they had never imagined . The band continued its odd success and toured early in the year with a new wave ' sock puppet rock band ' called Uncle Monsterface who opened for in March 2006 . During the summer , they embarked on their 3rd cross @-@ country summer tour ( " Summer Reading and Rocking Tour 2006 " ) , this time accompanied by fellow wizard rock band Draco and the Malfoys . Brad Mehlenbacher from Draco and the Malfoys handled drumming duties for the Potters for the entirety of their summer tour . They returned to home recording with the Harry and the Potters and the Power of Love but with a bigger sound and with the assistance recording veteran Kevin Micka . While in the earlier albums the band 's musical style was goofy inept pop @-@ punk , the single " Scarred for Life " became musically darker reflecting the penultimate book Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince . " Scarred for Life " ‘ s scenario takes as its central conceit a Harry Potter who has started a hardcore rock band . Paul and Joe departed from their proud DIY home recording and sought a studio for Scarred for Life " and their split single with the Zambonis . Paul and Joe DeGeorge feel that the songs on the " Scarred for Life " are among their " most badass songs . "
= = = Extended plays and film appearances ( 2007 – 09 ) = = =
By 2007 , Harry and the Potters and their unexpected fan based indie music genre of wizard rock have grown into an international phenomenon . Recently , the band has engaged in charity side @-@ projects and activism within the Harry Potter community . In January 2007 , Harry and the Potters created the Wizard Rock EP of the Month Club , a mail order subscription club that released an extended play by a different wizard rock band each month . Reflecting wizard rock 's literacy focus , the club raises funds for First Book , a non @-@ profit organization that gives children the ability to read and own their first new books . In 2007 , the Club raised over $ 13 @,@ 000 for the organization . They released their first extended play The Enchanted Ceiling in 2007 . May 2007 was also the beginning of their large 70 @-@ show summer @-@ library tour across the US and Canada called simply " Summer Tour 2007 " . Like their initial year in 2003 , the summer of 2007 would see the release of another Harry Potter book . Harry and the Potters scheduled the mid @-@ point of the tour to arrive back in their home state and celebrate the July 21 midnight release of the seventh book , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows at Harvard Yard . The festivities became an excuse for a meet @-@ up of a number of wizard rock bands including The Hungarian Horntails and their nemesis Draco and the Malfoys which all played to a large crowd of Harry Potter fans in the Cambridge , Massachusetts college venue . Harry and the Potters resumed their tour which finally wound @-@ up in late August . In Vancouver on July 7 , 2007 , hundreds of people crowded outside the Vancouver Public Library to see Harry and the Potters . ABC News reported that the band usually charge $ 5 to $ 10 for tickets to their shows , though some performances are free . Harry and the Potters said 600 people turned out for a recent show , July 10 , 2007 , in Portland , Oregon .
In February 2008 , Harry and the Potters launched a website called Unlimited Enthusiasm . The website led users through a series of images and eventually to a forum , which contained much speculation concerning the nature of Unlimited Enthusiasm . Unlimited Enthusiasm ended up being the name of their Summer 2008 tour alongside bands Uncle Monsterface and Math The Band . Harry and the Potters undertook a summer tour , Unlimited Enthusiasm , with Math the Band , Uncle Monsterface and Jason Anderson . One of the stops in that tour was Nerdapalooza . This fall they released a short punk rock EP , In the Cupboard as part of the Wizard Rock EP of the Month Club . Two full @-@ length feature film projects documenting Harry and the Potters and the wizard rock movement , We Are Wizards and The Wizard Rockumentary , were released in 2008 .
The band played its 500th show in June 2009 at Norwood Elementary School ( MA ) the founding members ' hometown . The group continued the Wizard Rock EP of the Month Club in 2009 , and as a member of the club , they released their third extended play The Yule Ball EP , which featured a CD and a DVD of their performance at the Fourth Annual Yule Ball .
= = = Further career ( 2010 – present ) = = =
In April 2010 , the group announced a series of shows in the Midwestern United States , Scandinavia , and Ireland for July and August .
In Summer 2011 , Harry and the Potters embarked on another summer tour entitled , Ride The Lightning . The tour was to the biggest since 2007 , playing dates all throughout the United States . The first show was held May 25 in Portland , ME and the last show was July 31 at the Knitting Factory in New York . Drummer Jacob Nathan played with the group throughout the tour . Jacob is a member of the band 926 Main Street Apt . 2 that he formed with Joe DeGeorge and Emily Barnett while attending college at Clark University "
In 2015 , Harry and the Potters released their third single " Hedwig Lives " for digital download .
= = Lyrical themes and style = =
Harry and the Potters couple their rough @-@ edged music with themed lyrics , which define the band as much as the costumes . The straight @-@ forward but quirky presentation of adolescent concerns and direness in the simplest of worries gives the songs their easy likeability . They poke fun at awkward situations from the books . For example , in the song " The Human Hosepipe " , they sing , " Maybe you shouldn 't have brought up Cedric Diggory / Because I 'd rather not talk about your dead ex @-@ boyfriends over coffee . " Two other examples of the bands distinctive take on teenage angst are seen in the song " Save Ginny Weasley " where they sing , " Are you petrified of being petrified ? " and the song " The Godfather . " where the gothic or mock @-@ morbid line " Why do I always think that I am going to die ? " is sung to an up @-@ beat tune .
For the Harry Potter fandom , Harry and the Potters refer to words and phrases in the books , including Hogwarts , Harry 's Firebolt , Felix Felicis , the Flying Car , wizard chess , platform nine and three @-@ quarters , The Burrow , the three @-@ headed dog Fluffy , Mrs. Norris , the basilisk , The Marauder 's Map , various spells and incantations , and the Invisibility Cloak .
Harry and the Potters with its strong persona or theme is as much a performance art project as it is a rock band . Musically , they sound much like other indie rock music with the exception that the band adheres to a novel conceit : the Harry Potter books will inspire the lyrics . As Joe said in a 2005 interview , " We try to take the themes from the books and amplify them . " Their musical sound is described as " simple , catchy rock – think The White Stripes crossed with Raffi – where everyone sings along which is easy because in songs like ' Voldemort Can 't Stop the Rock ' the title is pretty much the only line . " Another reviewer ’ s ear hears " a touch of the Ramones in their ultra simple lyrics . "
The band is organized quite simply with Paul and Joe playing their songs in a simple basic guitar @-@ synth @-@ and @-@ drums indie pop style and they sing in the semi @-@ deadpan way ; a review found the vocal delivery similar to that of They Might Be Giants . The raison d ’ être of the band is to put enough energy and spirit into their songs to make them fun .
The band is not musically polished . Paul has joked that , if they had known of the band ’ s popularity , they might have made " an effort to sing in tune . But it ’ s hard to anticipate that sort of thing when you ’ re just writing silly songs and recording them in your living room over a weekend . " . While musicianship is not the strength of the band , Paul says that the fans " know we 're not the best singers and keyboard players , but we 're okay . And they think , well , I could do that , too . I think that ’ s really encouraging to people ... " Paul sees the brothers as a " bridge between this mainstream phenomena of Harry Potter and the indie rock underground . Plus , we ’ re also pretty strong adherents to the DIY ideal . " The two brothers promote this ideal of making music independently and have fused the legions of fans on to the DIY free @-@ for @-@ all of indie rock and punk music , albeit of the silly kind .
The Washington Post describes the brothers as having vast quantities of both passion and ability to engage an audience : the " combination of their happy , who @-@ cares personalities and Harry Potter fanaticism has cast a spell over book @-@ loving teens across the country . " Paul said , " the band is neither geeky nor cool but ' geeky @-@ cool ' . I think the indie @-@ rock community at the very least realizes we 're taking a very DIY approach to this . "
= = Campaigning and activism = =
In 2005 the duo co @-@ founded the non @-@ profit organisation The Harry Potter Alliance with Andrew Slack , Seth Reibstein and Sarah Newberry , an organization that uses the Harry Potter books as a platform for inspiring real @-@ world activism , which amongst other activities , helps " wake the world up " to the genocide in Darfur . The projects invites its members to inform their local senator to support the Darfur Accountability and Divestment Act . The Harry Potter Alliance raises awareness for these projects by holding wizard rock concerts and by selling memorabilia to help fund these campaigns .
Harry and the Potters have also collaborated the Harry Potter Alliance complication album , Rocking Out Against Voldemedia with a song entitled “ Don ’ t Believe It ” . The purpose of the album was to achieve the right to free press and against media consolidation by asking site viewers to contact their member of congress to support S 2332 , the " The Media Ownership Act of 2007 . " Paul said their third EP , the 2007 The Enchanted Ceiling was recorded in their living room .
Harry and the Potters actively promote literacy . Another example of this literary activism is the reference to Tipper Gore and the Parents Music Resource Center ( PMRC ) in the song " Voldemort Can 't Stop The Rock , " which contains the verse , " And we won 't let the Dark Lord ruin our party / Just like Tipper Gore tried with the PMRC . "
= = Legacy and influence = =
Harry and the Potters have influenced similar acts , such as Draco and the Malfoys , The Whomping Willows and The Remus Lupins . Wizard rock bands generally play all @-@ ages shows at libraries , bookstores and schools , as the promotion of reading is a hallmark of the genre . In turn , because of their active promotion of literacy , young @-@ adult and teen librarians have been promoting the band . While Harry and the Potters would become notable for making libraries their primary venue , Joe DeGeorge did not see a future in the modest venues , " I think we thought we 'd play a few libraries . " Paul added , " We thought it would be short @-@ lived . We weren 't like super fans , so we didn 't understand this whole ( Harry Potter ) subculture when we started . " As The Washington Post wrote , " wizard rock is an escape into a different world – a world of non @-@ judgmental fun where grown @-@ ups dress as wizards , evil is vanquished by song , and reading is cool . " The peculiar success of Harry and the Potters has led Paul to " sense a growing affection for us amongst other musicians " and at home . The Boston Phoenix has called Harry and the Potters the " Pink Floyd of Potterdom . "
In 2005 there was a tidal wave of new wizard rock bands . The brothers do @-@ it @-@ yourself musical ethos has caught on with bands forming as fellow Potter fans are picking up instruments for the first time . Like Harry and the Potters , these new bands also take on the persona , or dress as a Harry Potter @-@ themed character . Though most fans of the music are previous fans of Harry Potter , some bands have attracted listeners outside of the Harry Potter fanbase . Paul and Joe are aware of around 200 other Harry Potter @-@ related rock bands who at least record and post songs on the Internet . The Boston Phoenix wondered — in spite of fully booked calendars — how long wizard rock would last once there are no new stories to riff on , as their musical identity is contingent on the lasting success and popularity of a book series . " In some ways , " said Paul , " we want to tie things off and consider it a done deal . We ’ ve always viewed this as a project that had a finite life and end point . "
= = Discography = =
Harry and the Potters ( 2003 )
Voldemort Can 't Stop the Rock ! ( 2004 )
Harry and the Potters and the Power of Love ( 2006 )
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= Addie Joss =
Adrian " Addie " Joss ( April 12 , 1880 – April 14 , 1911 ) , nicknamed " The Human Hairpin , " was an American pitcher in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He pitched for the Cleveland Bronchos , later known as the Naps , between 1902 and 1910 . Joss , who was 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) and weighed 185 pounds ( 84 kg ) , pitched the fourth perfect game in baseball history . His 1 @.@ 89 career earned run average ( ERA ) is the second @-@ lowest in MLB history , behind Ed Walsh .
Joss was born and raised in Wisconsin , where he attended St. Mary 's College and the University of Wisconsin . He played baseball at St. Mary 's and then played in a semipro league where he caught the attention of Connie Mack . Joss did not sign with Mack 's team , but he attracted further major league interest after winning 19 games in 1900 for the Toledo Mud Hens . Joss had another strong season for Toledo in 1901 .
After an offseason contract dispute between Joss , Toledo and Cleveland , he debuted with the Cleveland club in April 1902 . Joss led the league in shutouts that year . By 1905 , Joss had completed the first of his four consecutive 20 @-@ win seasons . Off the field , Joss worked as a newspaper sportswriter from 1906 until his death . In 1908 , he pitched a perfect game during a tight pennant race that saw Cleveland finish a half @-@ game out of first place ; it was the closest that Joss came to a World Series berth . The 1910 season was his last , and Joss missed most of the year due to injury .
In April 1911 , Joss became ill and he died the same month due to tuberculous meningitis . He finished his career with 160 wins , 234 complete games , 45 shutouts and 920 strikeouts . Though Joss played only nine seasons and missed significant playing time due to various ailments , the National Baseball Hall of Fame 's Board of Directors passed a special resolution for Joss in 1977 which waived the typical ten @-@ year minimum playing career for Hall of Fame eligibility . He was voted into the Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in 1978 .
= = Early life = =
Addie Joss was born in Woodland , Dodge County , Wisconsin . His parents Jacob and Theresa ( née Staudenmeyer ) worked as farmers ; his father , a cheesemaker who was involved in local politics , had emigrated from Switzerland . A heavy drinker of alcohol , he died from liver complications in 1890 , when Joss was 10 years old ; Joss remained sober throughout his life as a result of his father 's death . Joss attended elementary school in Juneau and Portage and high school at Wayland Academy in Beaver Dam , Wisconsin . By age 16 he finished high school and began teaching himself . He was offered a scholarship to attend St. Mary 's College ( also known as Sacred Heart College ) in Watertown , where he played on the school 's baseball team . He also attended the University of Wisconsin ( now University of Wisconsin @-@ Madison ) , where he studied engineering . Officials in Watertown were impressed with the quality of play of St. Mary 's and put the team on a semipro circuit . During his time on the semipro circuit , Joss employed his unique pitching windup , which involved hiding the ball until the very last moment in his delivery .
Connie Mack also sent a scout to watch Joss and later offered the young pitcher a job playing on his Albany club in the Western League , which Joss declined . In 1899 , Joss played for a team in Oshkosh , earning $ 10 per week ( $ 284 in today 's dollars ) . After player salaries were frozen by team owners , Joss joined the junior team in Manitowoc , which had been split into two teams , as a second baseman and was soon promoted to the senior squad , where he was developed into a pitcher . He was seen by a scout for the Toledo Mud Hens and in 1900 accepted a position with the team for $ 75 per month ( $ 2 @,@ 133 ) . While in Ohio he was considered " the best amateur pitcher in the state . " He started the Mud Hens ' season opener on April 28 and earned the win in the team 's 16 – 8 victory . He won 19 games for the club in 1900 .
= = = Contract dispute = = =
Midway through the 1901 season , the Boston Americans of the upstart American League offered $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 42 @,@ 666 ) to Toledo to buy out Joss 's contract . The St. Louis Browns of the National League ( NL ) matched Boston 's offer ; Toledo rejected both offers . Joss continued to pitch for the Mud Hens and by the end of the 1901 season he had won 27 games and had 216 strikeouts ( some sources say 25 games ) . He became known as " the god of the Western League . "
After the season ended , Joss returned to Wisconsin where he led Racine to the 1901 Wisconsin baseball state championship against Rube Waddell 's Kenosha squad . He also enrolled at Beloit College and played American football . It was reported that Joss had signed with the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League as early as August 18 and received a $ 400 advance ( $ 11 @,@ 378 ) , but Joss denied receiving any money . Mud Hens owner Charles Stroebel stated that he had signed Joss and other Mud Hens players for the 1902 season on August 12 and that the Western League was under the protection of the National League through September 1901 . Before 1901 ended , the Cleveland Bronchos offered $ 500 ( $ 14 @,@ 222 ) to Toledo in exchange for Joss and manager Bob Gilks , who would be a scout for Cleveland . Toledo and Joss agreed and Joss was now a member of the American League , which was paying a premium on baseball talent to rival the National League . Dodgers owner Charles Ebbets invited Joss for a meeting , which Joss declined , and Joss let it be known that he had told Stroebel he would play for the Mud Hens for the 1902 season and received a $ 150 ( $ 4 @,@ 103 ) advance in February 1902 .
In March 1902 , Joss signed with Cleveland . Toledo sportswriters took exception to Joss , one writing that " he voluntarily signed a contract [ with Toledo ] for this season but when Bill Armour of Cleveland showed him the $ 500 bill he forgot his pledge and sneaked off like a whipped cur . " Stroebel later argued that Joss had returned only $ 100 of the $ 150 advance ; he not returning the entire advance , Joss was charged with a felony and Stroebel pursued legal action . Joss made his major league debut with the Bronchos on April 26 , and two days later he arrived in Toledo to turn himself in , accompanied by Bronchos majority owner Charles Somers , who was also American League vice president . The court set bond at $ 500 ( $ 13 @,@ 675 ) . Stroebel also filed a civil suit against the Bronchos , stating that his business had been interfered with , but Stroebel agreed to withdraw his charges in July when he accepted Bronchos pitcher Jack Lundbom .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Cleveland Bronchos / Naps ( 1902 – 07 ) = = =
Joss made his major league debut with the Cleveland Bronchos ( also known as the Bluebirds ) against the St. Louis Browns . The Browns ' Jesse Burkett hit a shallow pop fly in the direction of right fielder Zaza Harvey . Home plate umpire Bob Caruthers ruled that Harvey did not make a clean catch , so Burkett was credited with a hit . ( Harvey and witnesses said the ball never hit the ground . ) Joss finished his major league debut with a one @-@ hitter .
Joss compiled a 17 – 13 record and 2 @.@ 77 ERA during his major league rookie season . He led the American League with five shutouts .
On October 11 , 1902 , Joss married Lillian Shinivar in Monroe , Michigan . Shinivar was in attendance when Joss made his professional debut with the Mud Hens in 1900 . The couple had a son , Norman , and a daughter , Ruth . Following the conclusion of the 1902 season , Joss was selected to the All @-@ Americans , an all @-@ star team from the American League who played exhibition games against their counterparts from the National League . To begin the 1903 season , the Cleveland organization changed the team 's name to the " Naps " in honor of shortstop Nap Lajoie . In Joss ' second year , he went 18 – 13 and lowered his ERA from the season before to 2 @.@ 19 . His walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) was a MLB @-@ low 0 @.@ 948 .
For the 1904 season , the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Joss went 14 – 10 with a 1 @.@ 59 ERA and did not give up a home run during the season . Illness during the season reduced his starts . He had his first of four 20 @-@ win seasons in 1905 as he ended the season with a 20 – 12 record and 2 @.@ 01 ERA . He finished with a career @-@ high 132 strikeouts . In 1906 his 1 @.@ 72 ERA was third in the league and he finished with a 21 – 9 record and tied a career @-@ high with nine shutouts . To begin the 1907 season , Joss won his first 10 starts . He threw two one @-@ hitters on the season , the first on September 4 against the Detroit Tigers and the second on September 25 versus the New York Highlanders . When teammate Heinie Berger threw his own one @-@ hitter on September 26 , it marked just the second time since 1900 that two pitchers from the same team had thrown back @-@ to @-@ back one @-@ hitters . Joss finished the season with career @-@ bests in wins ( finished 27 – 11 ) and 338 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His win total tied with Doc White for highest in the American League and his WHIP was second @-@ best ( behind Cy Young ) while both his complete game ( 34 ) and shutout ( 6 ) totals were third @-@ best in the league .
= = = 1908 season and perfect game = = =
Before the 1908 season started , the Naps ' home field , League Park , was expanded by about 4 @,@ 000 seats . The Detroit Tigers , Chicago White Sox , and Naps were engaged in a race for the post @-@ season described as " one of the closest and most exciting known . " Three games remained in the regular season and the Naps were a half @-@ game behind the Detroit Tigers as they headed into a October 2 , 1908 , match @-@ up against the Chicago White Sox , who trailed the Naps by one game . Game attendance was announced at 10 @,@ 598 , which was labeled by sportswriter Franklin Lewis as an " excellent turnout for a weekday . " The Naps faced future Hall of Fame pitcher Ed Walsh and recorded four hits ; they were struck out by Walsh 15 times . The Naps ' Joe Birmingham scored the team 's only run , which came in the third inning . The tension in the ballpark was described by one writer as " a mouse working his way along the grandstand floor would have sounded like a shovel scraping over concrete . " In the ninth inning , Joss retired the first two batters then faced pinch hitter John Anderson . Anderson hit a line drive that would have resulted in a double had it not gone foul . He then hit a ball to Naps third baseman Bill Bradley which Bradley bobbled before throwing to first baseman George Stovall . Stovall dug the ball out of the ground to preserve the Naps ' 1 – 0 lead . With the win , Joss recorded a perfect game , the second in American League history . He accomplished the feat with just 74 pitches , the lowest known pitch count ever achieved in a perfect game . Fans swarmed the field . After the game , Joss said , " I never could have done it without Larry Lajoie 's and Stovall 's fielding and without Birmingham 's base running . Walsh was marvelous with his splitter , and we needed two lucky strikes to win . "
For the season , Joss averaged 0 @.@ 83 walks per nine innings , becoming one of 29 pitchers in MLB history to average less than one walk per nine innings . His season @-@ ending WHIP of .806 is the fifth @-@ lowest single @-@ season mark in MLB history . The Naps finished with a 90 – 64 record , a half @-@ game behind Detroit . It was the closest Joss ever got to a World Series appearance .
= = = Final years with Naps ( 1909 – 10 ) = = =
After amassing four consecutive 20 @-@ win seasons , he struggled in 1909 as a result of fatigue ; by September he was shut down for the season . Joss finished the year with a 14 – 13 record in 242 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and recorded a 1 @.@ 71 ERA . He finished fourth in the American League in ERA and third in WHIP ( .944 ) .
He pitched a second no @-@ hitter on April 20 , 1910 against the White Sox , becoming the first pitcher in MLB history to no @-@ hit the same team twice , a feat not matched until Tim Lincecum of the San Francisco Giants no @-@ hit the San Diego Padres in both 2013 and 2014 . In the second inning , the White Sox ' Freddy Parent hit a ball toward third base . Bill Bradley failed to field the ball cleanly and thus his throw to first base was not in time to get Parent out . The initial ruling on the field was a base hit but it was later changed to an error . Joss gave up two walks and recorded 10 assists . He made just 13 appearances that season due to a torn ligament in his right elbow . He made his last appearance of the season on July 25 , and left the game in the fifth inning due to arm soreness . The Naps finished 71 – 82 . In his final major league season , Joss finished with a 5 – 5 record in 107 1 ⁄ 3 innings . The Naps finished the year 71 – 81 . This marked the fifth time in Joss ' nine years that the franchise finished with a losing record .
= = = Career marks = = =
Of his 160 major league wins , 45 were shutouts . Joss ' 1 @.@ 89 career ERA is ranked second all @-@ time ( to Ed Walsh ) , while his 0 @.@ 97 WHIP is the lowest career WHIP in MLB history . He finished with a 160 – 97 record , 234 complete games , and 920 strikeouts .
Joss 's repertoire included a fastball , a " slow ball " ( today known as a changeup ) , and an " extremely effective " curve . Baseball historians Rob Neyer and Bill James ranked Joss ' fastball third ( 1900 – 1904 ) and sixth ( 1905 – 1909 ) in the major leagues . George Moriarty explained that Joss had only one curveball because " he believed that with a few well mastered deliveries he could acquire great control and success with less strain on his arm . " In an era filled with spitball pitchers , Joss achieved his success without ever altering the baseball . Joss threw with a corkscrew windup motion , described as " an exaggerated pinwheel motion . " Shortstop Roger Peckinpaugh described his windup : " He would turn his back toward the batter as he wound up , hiding the ball all the while , and then whip around and fire it in . "
Illness and injury accompanied Joss throughout much of his professional career . In 1903 , a high fever forced him to miss the last month of the season . He contracted malaria in April 1904 and then missed several starts with a back injury in 1905 .
= = Journalism and engineering interests = =
Joss was concerned about supporting his family after his baseball career ended ; many players of the day had little education and few marketable job skills beyond their abilities on the diamond . As sportswriter Franklin Lewis wrote , " Only a handful of players in the rough , stirring , early days of the major leagues arrived from campuses . And when they did , sometimes the shock was too great for them . Some grizzled holdovers from the 1890s were around and they bore down heavily on the eardrums of the so @-@ called college @-@ boy set . " Joss was hired as a sports columnist after the 1906 season for the Toledo News @-@ Bee . He also served as their Sunday sports editor . His writings proved so popular that sales of the paper increased and a special phone line was installed in his office to field the large volume of calls he received from fans . The increased popularity gave him an advantage when negotiating with the Naps before the 1907 season , and the club agreed to pay him $ 4 @,@ 000 ( $ 101 @,@ 586 ) . ( By 1910 , player salaries averaged only $ 2 @,@ 500 . )
He later also wrote for the Cleveland Press and covered the World Series for the News @-@ Bee and Press from 1907 – 1909 . The Press introduced Joss in columns this way : " Of all the baseball players in the land , Addie Joss is far and away the best qualified for this work . A scholarly man , an entertaining writer , an impartial observer of the game . " Biographer Scott Longert wrote that " the writer was becoming as well @-@ known as the ballplayer . " An editorial in the Toledo Blade said , " In taking his vocation seriously , [ Joss ] was , in return , taken seriously by the people , who recognized in him a man of more than usual intelligence and one who would have adorned any profession in which he had elected to engage . "
During the 1908 – 1909 offseasons , Joss worked on designing an electric scoreboard that would later be known as the Joss Indicator . The Naps decided to install the scoreboard , which allowed spectators to monitor balls and strikes at League Park .
= = Death and benefit game = =
Joss attended spring training with Cleveland before the start of the 1911 season . He collapsed on the field from heat prostration on April 3 in an exhibition game in Chattanooga , Tennessee . He was taken to a local hospital and released the next day . As early as April 7 , press reports had taken note of his ill health , but speculated about " ptomaine poisoning " or " nervous indigestion . " The Naps traveled to Toledo for exhibition games on April 10 and Joss went to his home on Fulton Street where he was seen by his personal physician , Dr. George W. Chapman . Chapman thought Joss could be suffering from nervous indigestion or food poisoning . By April 9 , as Joss was coughing more and had a severe headache , Chapman changed his diagnosis to pleurisy and reported that Joss would not be able to play for one month and would need ten days of rest to recover . Joss could not stand on his own and his speech was slurred . On April 13 , Chapman sought a second opinion from the Naps ' team doctor , who performed a lumbar puncture and diagnosed Joss with tuberculous meningitis . The disease had spread to Joss ' brain and he died on April 14 , 1911 at age 31 .
Joss was well @-@ liked by his peers and baseball fans . Upon hearing of his death , the Press wrote " every train brings flowers " and " floral tributes by the wagonload are hourly arriving at the Joss home from all sections of the country . " His family arranged for the funeral to take place on April 17 . On that day , the Naps were to face the Detroit Tigers in the Tigers ' home opener . Naps players signed a petition stating that they would not attend the game so they could instead attend the funeral . They asked for the game to be rescheduled , but the Tigers balked at the request . American League president Ban Johnson initially supported the Tigers ' position , but he ultimately sided with the Naps . Naps owner Charles Somers and 15 Naps players attended the funeral , which was officiated by player @-@ turned @-@ evangelist Billy Sunday .
The first " all @-@ star " game was played as a benefit for Joss 's family on July 24 , 1911 . The Naps invited players from the other seven American League teams to play against them . Visiting club players who were involved in the game included Home Run Baker , Ty Cobb , Eddie Collins , Sam Crawford , Walter Johnson , Tris Speaker , Gabby Street , and Smokey Joe Wood . " I 'll do anything they want for Addie Joss ' family " , Johnson said . Washington Senators manager Jimmy McAleer volunteered to manage the all @-@ stars . " The memory of Addie Joss is sacred to everyone with whom he ever came in contact . The man never wore a uniform who was a greater credit to the sport than he " , McAleer said . The game was attended by approximately 15 @,@ 270 fans and raised nearly $ 13 @,@ 000 ( $ 330 @,@ 154 ) to help Joss ' family members pay remaining medical bills . The Naps lost 5 – 3 .
= = Recognition = =
Boston Globe sports editor Jason Nason campaigned for Joss ' induction into the Hall of Fame starting in the 1950s . Sportswriter Red Smith wrote in 1970 in support of Joss . " Could you write a history of baseball without mentioning Joss ? Nobody ever has . That ought to be the measure of a man 's fitness for the Hall of Fame , the only measure . " However , Warren Giles , then @-@ chairman of the Hall of Fame 's Veterans Committee , pointed out to baseball historian Bob Broeg in 1972 that induction to the Hall required " participation in ten championship seasons . " Joss had been on the Cleveland roster in 1911 and participated in spring training , falling ill just before regular season play commenced . Hence it was argued he had " participated " in the 1911 season , his tenth . The Hall 's Board of Directors waived the eligibility requirements for Joss . Joe Reichler , a member of the Commissioner 's office , worked to allow Joss to become eligible for the Hall and succeeded in 1977 . Joss was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1978 . He is the only player in the Hall of Fame whose regular season playing career lasted fewer than ten years .
In 1981 , Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig included him in their book The 100 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time . They described what they called " the Smoky Joe Wood Syndrome " , where a player of truly exceptional talent has a career curtailed by injury or illness . They argued that such a player should still be included among the greatest all @-@ time players , in spite of career statistics that would not quantitatively rank him with the all @-@ time greats . They believed that Joss ' career ERA was proof enough of his greatness to be included . Baseball author John Tierney wrote : " Joss is remembered for a remarkably low career ERA , but it should be noted that he pitched in a time before earned runs were compiled as an official statistic , and his career ended in 1910 , before the American League introduced its new baseball in 1911 , leading to a nearly 25 percent increase in runs scored . "
Joss was inducted into the Cleveland Indians Hall of Fame on July 29 , 2006 . He was inducted in the same class as Ray Chapman , Rocky Colavito , Al López , Sam McDowell , Al Rosen and Herb Score .
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= Finland Plot =
In Thailand politics , the Finland Plot , Finland Plan , Finland Strategy or Finland Declaration ( Thai : แผนฟินแลนด ์ , ยุทธศาสตร ์ ฟินแลนด ์ , ปฏิญญาฟินแลนด ์ ) are names of a controversial conspiracy theory espoused by Sondhi Limthongkul and supporters affiliated with the People 's Alliance for Democracy ( PAD ) in 2006 describing a plot allegedly developed by Thai Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra and former left @-@ wing student leaders to overthrow the Thai monarch , take control of the nation , and establish a communist state . The plot allegedly originated in Finland .
The allegations had a negative impact on the popularity of Thaksin and his government , despite the fact that no evidence was ever produced to verify the existence of a plot . Thaksin and his Thai Rak Thai party vehemently denied the accusations and sued the accusers . The leaders of the 2006 military coup claimed Thaksin 's alleged disloyalty as one of their rationales for seizing power .
= = Background = =
Protests against Thai Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra increased throughout 2005 and 2006 due to a variety of factors , including his April 2005 appearance at a merit @-@ making ceremony at the Temple of the Emerald Buddha , the September 2005 cancellation of Sondhi Limthongkul 's Muangthai Raisabdah television show , Thaksin 's November 2005 plan to give local communities control of public schools , Thaksin 's sale of Shin Corporation in January 2006 , and Thaksin 's alleged role in the March 2006 destruction of the Phra Phrom Erawan shrine .
= = Finland Plot = =
In May 2006 , on the eve of King Bhumibol Adulyadej 's 60th anniversary celebrations , the Sondhi Limthongkul @-@ owned Manager Daily newspaper published the details of what it called the " Finland Plan , " " Finland Declaration , " or " Finland Strategy . " The articles claimed that Thaksin and former student leaders of Thailand 's 1970s democratic movement met in Finland in 1999 to develop a plan to institute rule by a single party , overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic , and hold elections for provincial governors . The 5 @-@ part article was titled " Finland Strategy : Thailand 's Revolution Plan ? " was written by Pramote Nakhonthap and appeared on 17 , 19 , 22 , 23 and 24 May 2006 . Thaksin 's alleged co @-@ conspirators apparently included Thai Rak Thai party members Prommin Lertsuridej ( Secretary @-@ General to the Premier ) , Chaturon Chaisaeng ( Deputy Prime Minister ) , Surapong Suebwonglee ( Minister of Information and Communications Technology ) , Adisorn Piangket ( Former Deputy Science Minister ) , Sutham Saengprathum ( Deputy Interior Minister ) , and Phumtham Wechayachai ( Deputy Transport Minister ) , all of whom had been affiliated with the Communist Party of Thailand following the massacre of 6 October 1976 .
The allegations were taken up by several prominent critics , including leaders of the People 's Alliance for Democracy , constitution drafter Chai @-@ anan Samudavanija , Senator Sophon Supapong , writer Pramote Nakornthab , and Democrat leader Thaworn Senniam .
None of the accusers provided any evidence to back up their allegations . Sondhi noted that his source was a Thai Rak Thai worker who had recently " defected . "
= = Variations and denials = =
Variations of the original theory were also proposed , including the claim that the plot involved overseas groups intent on overthrowing the Chakri dynasty , the claim that media consolidation was a core component of the conspiracy , the claim that the Plan was aimed at maintaining a constitutional monarchy while reducing the powers of the monarch to a mere figurehead , and the claim that a law designed to further decentralize central administrative power to the Thai provinces , and the claim that Thaksin wanted to establish a government based on the model of western democracies .
Another variation claimed that Thaksin 's co @-@ conspirators were former members of the Communist Party of Thailand including Deputy Transport Minister Phumtham Wechayachai and had applied a theory of orthodox Marxism to map out the TRT strategy to promote capitalism . This variation claimed that Thailand during the 1970s was still a semi @-@ feudal society and needed to become a capitalist society as part of the transition to socialism . The communists then worked with Thaksin to fully develop Thailand 's capitalist economic system , destroy all remnants of feudalism , and privatize state @-@ owned assets , while at the same time establishing a single @-@ party dictatorship , all in order to create a socialist dictatorship .
The allegations were roundly denied by Thaksin Shinawatra and the leadership of his Thai Rak Thai party , including Surapong Suebwonglee and Prommin Lertsuridej .
On 30 May , Thaksin Shinawatra and Thana Benjathikul , a lawyer from the Thai Rak Thai party , sued Sondhi , editor Khunthong Lorserivanich , columnist Pramote Nakhonthap , executive Saowalak Thiranujanyong , and webmaster Panjapat Angkhasuwan for libel . The lawsuit alleged that the articles were intended to ruin Thai Rak Thai and Thaksin 's political future by making the public believe the party was planning to overturn the constitutional monarchy . Thaksin 's lawsuit attracted criticism and claims that Thaksin was trying to censor the media .
= = Impact of the allegations = =
The allegations had a negative impact on the popularity of Thaksin and his government . Thaksin was forced to expend a significant amount of time and political capital on damage control , explaining his position and swearing his loyalty to the monarchy .
In an editorial , the influential anti @-@ Thaksin newspaper The Nation noted :
Whether or not such a plot really exists may be impossible to prove . But Sondhi and the others should know better than to stir up an already volatile political situation with irresponsible accusations that have a potential to inflame further hatred and violence between opposing groups .
The Nation noted that the actual existence of the Plot was not important — the mere invocation of royalty would be enough to damage the Thai Rak Thai party . Many commentators noted the similarity between the Finland Plot allegations and the allegations used justify the massacre of students on 6 October 1976 , which in the context of the Thailand political crisis , might justify a military coup . The Thai military eventually successfully executed a coup against the Thaksin government on 19 September 2006 . One of the junta 's stated rationales for the coup was that Thaksin had insulted the King .
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= My Truth =
My Truth is the second studio album by Swedish recording artist Robyn . It was released on 17 May 1999 through BMG Sweden . Robyn collaborated with producers including Lindström & Ekhé , Christian Falk , Billy Mann , Thomas Rusiak and Masters at Work during its recording . A pop and R & B record , My Truth is an autobiographical album for which Robyn co @-@ wrote all fourteen songs . Certain lyrics reflects on the abortion the singer had in the fall of 1998 , which sparked controversy when RCA Records began formulating a North American release . When she refused to make alterations to the album per request by the label , the plans to release My Truth outside of Sweden were cancelled .
Sweden @-@ based music critics were generally positive towards My Truth and commended Robyn 's growth as a songwriter . At the Swedish Grammis Awards in 2000 , the album won the award for Female Pop / Rock Artist . Overseas critics were divided in their opinions of My Truth ; they felt it was more mature than the singer 's debut album Robyn Is Here ( 1995 ) , but criticised the lack of catchy hooks . The album peaked at number two on the Sverigetopplistan albums chart and received a platinum certification by the Swedish Recording Industry Association ( GLF ) . My Truth was supported by four singles — " Electric " , " Play " , " My Only Reason " and " Main Thing " . Lead single " Electric " achieved commercial success ; it peaked at number six on the Swedish singles chart and was certified gold .
= = Background and development = =
Robyn 's debut studio album Robyn Is Here was issued in Sweden in 1995 , followed by a North American release two years later . The record sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , per sales reports provided by BMG Sweden , and spawned the releases of the top @-@ ten singles " Do You Know ( What It Takes ) " and " Show Me Love " . Robyn Is Here also achieved a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million units . In 1998 , Robyn returned to Sweden after spending nearly 12 months on tour in North America . She told Billboard , " I returned [ to Stockholm ] from my year in the U.S. [ and ] I was so extremely tired of everything , including myself and my music . " She then began working on her second studio album , to be titled My Truth . Robyn enlisted Ulf Lindström , Johan Ekhé , Christian Falk , Billy Mann , Cherno Jah , Masters at Work , Ken Fambro and Internal Dread to produce the project . She had previously collaborated with Lindström , Ekhé and Falk on Robyn Is Here .
Robyn was involved in the writing process for the entirety of My Truth , co @-@ writing all fourteen tracks . She teamed up with Swedish rapper Petter for a Swedish @-@ language duet titled " Det gör ont ibland " . The collaboration came about when the two were at a friend 's country house . Petter said the song came together quickly , despite their different musical styles . The track was produced by rapper Thomas Rusiak with additional production by Robyn , Lindström and Ekhé . She recorded another duet for the album , titled " Healthy Love " , with singer Cindy Heinold . In the fall of 1998 , Robyn had an abortion , which she revealed to the public months later in an issue of Café Magazine . Following the abortion , she penned the songs " 88 Days " and " Giving You Back " , to help her cope with the incident . At the time of the album 's completion , she deemed the latter among the best songs she had written thus far . She began using songwriting as a coping mechanism during production of Robyn Is Here when she wrote " In My Heart " about her parents ' divorce . She wanted My Truth to be positive in spirit , but acknowledged there is " some sadness expressed " . She said , " Every song is about something I 've been through that I think is important to talk about . I have tried to turn these experiences into inspiring songs about my life . " Eric Broms photographed the artwork for My Truth , which sees Robyn wearing a feather headpiece designed by Sebastian Wahl .
= = Composition = =
Described by commentators as an autobiographical album , My Truth is a pop and R & B record . Music critic John Lucas from AllMusic conceived it as " hardly a radical departure " from Robyn Is Here , yet more mature with " intelligent and introspective " lyrics and greater focus on the lyrical content as a whole . " Det gör ont ibland " featuring Petter is located on the pregap of the first track as a hidden track . Aftonbladet 's Per Bjurman interpreted the first track , " Play " , as slightly world music @-@ tinged , while Lucas deemed it " as playful a song as [ Robyn ] ' s ever recorded " . It is followed by the R & B piece " My Only Reason " . Next is the ballad " Underneath the Heart " , which was likened by one critic to the catalogue of American singer Toni Braxton .
The fourth track , " Electric " , is an electronic funk song with elements of reggae music . The title track holds a " convinced relativism " , according to Robert Christgau , while " Main Thing " , a cover of Shot 's 1986 single , explores deep house , disco and funk genres . The ninth track , " Giving You Back " , is a piano ballad that addresses Robyn 's abortion as she sings " I 'm giving you back to where you came from but I 'm not forgetting who you are " . David Schmader of The Stranger opined that it features a directness that is " unprecedented in pop " , and compared its piano elements to those found in Braxton 's work . The following track , " 88 Days " , lyrically reflects on the abortion while showcasing a pop and R & B sound . The thirteenth and final track , " Universal Woman " , for which Robyn received sole writing credit , exhibits both intelligence and emotional authority , according to Bjurman .
= = Release = =
My Truth was released in Sweden on 17 May 1999 through BMG Sweden . Around this time , RCA Records , Robyn 's international label , were formulating the marketing plans for the album in the United States ; the initial reports anticipated the release of an airplay single in September 1999 , followed by the album in January 2000 . Due to the inclusion of two songs that reflected on the abortion incident , RCA asked Robyn to re @-@ record portions of the album for the American market and pop radio . On top of this , American music magazine Billboard published an article in June 1999 that falsely claimed she had a miscarriage rather than an abortion . Ultimately , Robyn refused to alter the record and a compromise was not reached . The negotiations came to an end after six months and the plans to release My Truth abroad were cancelled . Robyn 's manager Alex Strehl said , " I guess Robyn had moved in a direction that [ RCA ] didn 't expect . " According to Robyn , the label wanted an album like Robyn Is Here and thus were not interested in investing in My Truth . In 2001 , she parted ways with RCA and entered a new record deal with Jive Records and Zomba .
" Electric " was released as My Truth 's lead single on 29 April 1999 , including both the radio edit and the extended album version . The record became Robyn 's third top @-@ ten entry on the Sverigetopplistan singles chart , peaking at number six . On 18 May 1999 , it received a gold certification by the Swedish Recording Industry Association ( GLF ) for sales of 15 @,@ 000 units . " Play " was selected as the second single in June 1999 , and released a month later on 21 July with the previously unreleased song " Good Thang " as the B @-@ side . " Play " peaked at number 31 on the Swedish singles chart . The third single , " My Only Reason " , was released on 22 November 1999 with " Det gör ont ibland " as its B @-@ side . The single underperformed on the singles chart ; it peaked at number 53 and only charted for one week . " Main Thing " was issued as the fourth and final single on 4 December 2000 and did not appear on any charts .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reception of My Truth was generally positive in the Swedish press . Per Bjurman of Aftonbladet said that while the lyrical content of Robyn Is Here was charming , My Truth showed the singer 's growth and maturity as a songwriter . He judged the album proved Robyn as a full @-@ fledged musician and named it one of the best Swedish albums of the year . Daniel Arosenius , writing for Joyzine , opined that Robyn had succeeded with the record and commended the musical direction . A writer for Nöjesguiden highlighted " Main Thing " and " Electric " , but critiqued the album 's cheap production . Similarly , Karolina Ramqvist of Dagens Nyheter disliked the " flat " production by Lindström & Ekhé and Mann , but argued Robyn 's improvement as a vocalist partly saved the album . The album earned Robyn her first Grammis at the 2000 ceremony in the category of Female Pop / Rock Artist . The jury deemed it a " brilliant " follow @-@ up to her debut album and praised the personal lyrics .
As the album was not released outside of Sweden , it attracted little attention from overseas music critics . However , John Lucas did review the album on behalf of AllMusic , writing that " there are no truly weak moments " and praised it for being " much more organic and mature " than Robyn Is Here . On the other hand , he felt it lacked " instant " and " irresistible " hooks and criticised the " uniformity of sound that can make some songs drift in and out without really making any impression " . He concluded , " Not a commercial blockbuster then , nor a perfect listen , but this album does mark an important step forward for Robyn as an artist . " A negative opinion came from music critic Robert Christgau , who considered My Truth " as strained as you might fear " , and used it as an example of Robyn 's " awkward stage that hits teenpop stars like clockwork " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
My Truth debuted at number two on the Swedish albums chart , and was certified gold by the GLF for sales of 40 @,@ 000 units on 18 May 1999 , just one day after its release . The album sold 50 @,@ 000 copies in its first four weeks . It remained on the albums chart for 27 non @-@ consecutive weeks , 11 of which were in the top 10 . On 1 October 1999 , My Truth received a platinum certification by the GLF , indicating sales of 80 @,@ 000 copies . In 2001 , Billboard reported it had surpassed sales of 130 @,@ 000 units in Sweden .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of My Truth .
Notes
^ [ a ] " Det gör ont ibland " is located in the pregap of track 1 ( referred to as track 0 ) as a hidden track
^ [ b ] signifies a co @-@ producer
^ [ c ] signifies an additional producer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of My Truth .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Frank Lukis =
Air Commodore Francis William Fellowes ( Frank ) Lukis , CBE ( 27 July 1896 – 18 February 1966 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . A veteran of World War I , he first saw combat as a soldier in the Australian Imperial Force at Gallipoli . In 1917 , Lukis transferred to the Australian Flying Corps and flew with No. 1 Squadron in the Middle East , where he was twice mentioned in despatches . A member of the Australian Air Corps following the war , he transferred to the fledgling RAAF in 1921 , and became the first Commanding Officer of the newly re @-@ formed No. 3 Squadron at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , in 1925 .
Lukis went on to lead No. 1 Squadron in the early 1930s , and was promoted to group captain in 1938 . Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire the same year , he was in charge of RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , during the early years of World War II . He later held forward commands in the South West Pacific theatre , including Northern Area ( later North @-@ Eastern Area ) , for which he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire , and No. 9 Operational Group ( later Northern Command ) . Lukis also served on the Air Board , the RAAF 's controlling body , as Air Member for Personnel . After retirement from the Air Force in 1946 , he became a manager with Australian National Airways , and was active in veterans ' associations . He died in 1966 at the age of sixty @-@ nine .
= = Early life and World War I = =
Born on 27 July 1896 in Balingup , Western Australia , Frank Lukis was the son of grazier William Fellowes Lukis and his wife Jean . He was educated at The High School , Perth , and later worked on the family farm . In October 1914 , he joined the Australian Imperial Force as part of the 10th Light Horse Regiment , the only such regiment raised in Western Australia . Ranked corporal , Lukis sailed from Fremantle aboard A47 Mashobra on 17 February 1915 , seeing combat first at Gallipoli and then in Egypt . At Gallipoli , the 10th Light Horse went into action in the Battles of the Nek and Hill 60 , before being withdrawn in December and redeployed to Egypt . There it took part in the campaign against the Turks in Sinai , including the Battle of Romani .
Lukis was commissioned as a second lieutenant in July 1916 and promoted to lieutenant in December . On 25 February 1917 , he transferred to the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) and was posted to No. 1 Squadron ( also known until 1918 as No. 67 Squadron , Royal Flying Corps ) , operating in Sinai and Palestine . He undertook reconnaissance missions as an observer in Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s from April to September 1917 . In January 1918 he completed pilot training and began flying fighter and ground attack sorties in Bristol Fighters . He was twice mentioned in despatches for distinguished service with the AFC in the Middle East , the first gazetted on 16 January 1918 , and the second on 12 January 1920 . Lukis finished the war a flight commander with the temporary rank of captain , and returned to Australia on 5 March 1919 .
= = Between the wars = =
With the disbandment of the wartime AFC , Lukis joined the short @-@ lived Australian Air Corps early in 1920 . He transferred to the newly formed Royal Australian Air Force in March the following year . Ranked flying officer ( honorary flight lieutenant ) , he was one of the original twenty @-@ one officers on the Air Force 's strength at its formation , and became popularly known as " Luke " . In February 1922 , he surveyed the air route between Perth and Port Augusta , South Australia . He took part in one of the embryonic service 's earliest public flying displays in May that year , when he and another pilot flew Airco DH.9s in mock dogfights with four Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s during the New South Wales Aerial Pageant at Victoria Park , Sydney . On 21 January 1925 , he married Florence St Aubyn Allen at St Mary 's Anglican Church , West Perth ; the couple later had two sons . The previous year , Lukis had been best man at the wedding of Squadron Leader Frank McNamara , the AFC 's only Victoria Cross recipient in World War I.
No. 3 Squadron was re @-@ formed at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , on 1 July 1925 , with Lukis as its Commanding Officer ( CO ) . Over the next week , operating DH.9s and S.E.5s , the unit established itself at the Air Force 's newest base , RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales . Alerted to a forthcoming inspection by the Chief of the Air Staff , Group Captain Richard Williams , Lukis had the foresight to engage in a speedy beautification program at the base , arranging delivery of pot plants and shrubs ; the notoriously fastidious Williams concluded the inspection by pronouncing himself " happily surprised ... that so much had been done so quickly " . For the duration of his tour as No. 3 Squadron commander , Lukis doubled as CO of the base . He was promoted squadron leader on 2 July 1927 , and handed over command to Squadron Leader Harry Cobby on 13 January 1930 . Lukis served as CO of No. 1 Squadron from 1930 to 1934 , interrupted in 1931 by a posting to Britain to attend RAF Staff College , Andover . Raised to wing commander , he was placed in charge of No. 1 Aircraft Depot at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , in 1936 . He held command of No. 1 Flying Training School at Point Cook from January 1938 to November 1939 , receiving appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1938 King 's Birthday Honours , and promotion to group captain in July the same year .
= = World War II = =
The CO of RAAF Station Laverton from December 1939 , Lukis was made acting air commodore and posted to Townsville , Queensland , on 8 May 1941 as the inaugural Air Officer Commanding Northern Area . Described by Major General Lewis H. Brereton , commander of the US Far East Air Force , as " a dark , husky , energetic man with a keen sense of humour " who was very much " alive to the situation " , Lukis was in charge of air defence for the north coast of Australia . His task was complicated by the poor standard and quantity of available equipment , with only CAC Wirraways as fighters . In January 1942 , Northern Area was split into North @-@ Western Area and North @-@ Eastern Area , Lukis remaining in charge of the latter as a temporary air commodore . The following month , he warned higher command of the poor state of preparedness and low morale of Australian Army troops at Port Moresby , New Guinea , due to lack of air cover and apparent lack of interest from government echelons . In March , seventeen P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks of No. 75 Squadron , newly formed under North @-@ Eastern Area Command , were deployed ; the unit would shortly distinguish itself in the Battle of Port Moresby .
By the end of April 1942 , Lukis ' forces consisted of three squadrons ( general purpose , transport , and fighter ) at Townsville , one general purpose squadron at RAAF Station Amberley in southern Queensland , and four squadrons ( three general purpose and one fighter ) at Port Moresby . Posted to RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne , as Air Member for Personnel , he handed over command of North @-@ Eastern Area to Group Captain ( later Air Commodore ) Harry Cobby on 25 August . On 23 March 1943 , Lukis was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for the " courage , enterprise and devotion " that he had displayed at North @-@ Eastern Area . As Air Member for Personnel , he occupied a seat on the Air Board , the RAAF 's controlling body that was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . In this position he clashed with Group Officer Clare Stevenson , Director of the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force , over plans to reduce the number of female officers in technical roles . Stevenson was forced to apologise to Lukis for going over his head to the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff to voice her opposition to the scheme ; nevertheless , cuts to these positions did not eventuate .
In November 1943 , Lukis took over No. 9 Operational Group ( No. 9 OG ) , the RAAF 's main mobile formation in the Pacific at the time , after its commander , Air Commodore Joe Hewitt , was sacked by the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , over allegations of poor discipline and morale . The change in leadership dismayed the US @-@ led South West Pacific Area Command , whose senior air officers , Lieutenant General George Kenney and Major General Ennis Whitehead , did not hold Lukis in the same high regard that they did his predecessor . For the next two months , No. 9 OG supported the Allied invasion of New Britain . On 17 January 1944 , Lukis mounted an operation with a force of seventy @-@ three aircraft comprising Bristol Beaufort light bombers and Kittyhawk and Spitfire fighters , which was the largest strike undertaken by the Australians to that date . However it encountered no opposition , and Lukis voiced his concerns to Whitehead that the " mopping up " role he had been assigned was costing his fighter pilots the opportunity to engage in air @-@ to @-@ air combat .
As the Pacific conflict shifted further north , No. 9 OG 's operational tasking lessened and it became colloquially known in the RAAF as the " Non @-@ Ops Group " . When ordered to transfer one of his fighter wings , No. 73 , to the Admiralty Islands for convoy escort in late February , Lukis complained directly to Kenney that it was a waste of resources , but was over @-@ ruled . The rest of No. 9 OG became a garrison force in New Guinea , and was renamed Northern Command on 11 April 1944 to better reflect this new status ; its original mobile strike role was taken over by No. 10 Operational Group ( later the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) . Lukis was again considered for the position of Air Member for Personnel when the incumbent , acting Air Vice Marshal Adrian Cole , was removed from his position following accusations of drunkenness at an RAAF Headquarters meeting in November 1944 . In the event , Lukis remained in charge of Northern Command . The following April , he took command of No. 2 Training Group in Melbourne , and held this post for the remainder of the Pacific War .
= = Later life = =
Lukis took up his final RAAF posting , as Air Officer Commanding Eastern Area , in December 1945 . With the end of hostilities , he was summarily retired along with a number of other senior commanders and veterans of World War I , ostensibly to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers . According to RAAF historian Alan Stephens , the Air Board believed that Lukis " had not taken a role commensurate with his seniority during the war , a strange accusation to make against a man who had been Air Member for Personnel and AOC of the RAAF 's most important operational group in the Southwest Pacific Area " . He was officially discharged on 2 May 1946 . Employed by Australian National Airways ( ANA ) after leaving the Air Force , Lukis become airfield manager at Essendon , Melbourne . He took over the airline 's Canberra office in 1952 , before joining a stockbroking firm in 1957 , the year that ANA merged with Ansett Airways to become Ansett @-@ ANA . Active in veterans ' organisations , he served as president of the Air Force Association in Victoria during 1947 – 48 , and helped found the Commonwealth Club in Canberra in 1954 . Survived by his wife and children , Frank Lukis died in Melbourne of cancer on 18 February 1966 , and was cremated .
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= Anatomy =
Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts . Anatomy is inherently tied to embryology , comparative anatomy , evolutionary biology , and phylogeny , as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated over immediate ( embryology ) and long ( evolution ) timescales . Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine .
The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy . Macroscopic anatomy , or gross anatomy , is the examination of an animal 's body parts using unaided eyesight . Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy . Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures , known as histology , and also in the study of cells .
The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body . Methods have also improved dramatically , advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers ( corpses ) to 20th century medical imaging techniques including X @-@ ray , ultrasound , and magnetic resonance imaging .
Anatomy and physiology , which study ( respectively ) the structure and function of organisms and their parts , make a natural pair of related disciplines , and they are often studied together .
= = Definition = =
Derived from the Greek ἀνατέμνω anatemnō " I cut up , cut open " from ἀνά ana " up " , and τέμνω temnō " I cut " , anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems , organs and tissues . It includes the appearance and position of the various parts , the materials from which they are composed , their locations and their relationships with other parts . Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry , which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved . For example , an anatomist is concerned with the shape , size , position , structure , blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver ; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile , the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions .
The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy . Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye , and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy , the study by sight of the external body features . Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale , including histology ( the study of tissues ) , and embryology ( the study of an organism in its immature condition ) .
Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non @-@ invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems . Methods used include dissection , in which a body is opened and its organs studied , and endoscopy , in which a video camera @-@ equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures . Angiography using X @-@ rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels .
The term " anatomy " is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy . However , substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals . The term zootomy is also sometimes used to specifically refer to animals . The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy .
= = Animal tissues = =
The kingdom Animalia or metazoa , contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile ( although some have secondarily adopted a sessile lifestyle ) . Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans . They have an internal digestive chamber , with one or two openings ; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs , and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development . Metazoans do not include the sponges , which have undifferentiated cells .
Unlike plant cells , animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts . Vacuoles , when present , are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell . The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell , including those found in muscles , nerves and skin . Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids , cytoplasm and a nucleus . All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers . Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic . All of a triploblastic animal 's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo , the ectoderm , mesoderm and endoderm .
Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types : connective , epithelial , muscle and nervous tissue .
= = = Connective tissue = = =
Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the extracellular matrix . Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place . The main types are loose connective tissue , adipose tissue , fibrous connective tissue , cartilage and bone . The extracellular matrix contains proteins , the chief and most abundant of which is collagen . Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues . The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support or protect the body . An exoskeleton is a thickened , rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralisation , as in crustaceans or by the cross @-@ linking of its proteins as in insects . An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals , as well as in many of those less developed .
= = = Epithelium = = =
Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells , bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules , with little intercellular space . Epithelial cells can be squamous ( flat ) , cuboidal or columnar and rest on a basal lamina , the upper layer of the basement membrane , the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells . There are many different types of epithelium , modified to suit a particular function . In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining ; in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi . Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinised stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body . Keratinocytes make up to 95 % of the cells in the skin . The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle . In simple animals this may just be a coat of glycoproteins . In more advanced animals , many glands are formed of epithelial cells .
= = = Muscle tissue = = =
Muscle cells ( myocytes ) form the active contractile tissue of the body . Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion , either locomotion or movement within internal organs . Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types ; smooth muscle , skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle . Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically . It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths . It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers . Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension . It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws . Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two . The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions . In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets . Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the uterus , bladder , intestines , stomach , esophagus , respiratory airways , and blood vessels . Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart , allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body .
= = = Nervous tissue = = =
Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information . In some slow @-@ moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians ( including sea anemones and jellyfish ) , the nerves form a nerve net , but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles . In simple animals , receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus . In more complex animals , specialised receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism . Neurons can be connected together in ganglia . In higher animals , specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system ( brain and spinal cord ) and a peripheral nervous system . The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs . The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle , and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle , certain glands and internal organs , including the stomach .
= = Vertebrate anatomy = =
All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives , ( mostly in the embryonic stage ) , share the major chordate characteristics ; a stiffening rod , the notochord ; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material , the neural tube ; pharyngeal arches ; and a tail posterior to the anus . The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above the notochord and the gastrointestinal tract is below it . Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm , connective tissues are derived from mesoderm , and gut is derived from the endoderm . At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut . The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal , and the anus at the base of the tail . The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column , formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae . In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs . However , a few vertebrates , such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth retain the notochord into adulthood . Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages , fins or legs , which may be secondarily lost . The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor . This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution .
= = = Fish anatomy = = =
The body of a fish is divided into a head , trunk and tail , although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible . The skeleton , which forms the support structure inside the fish , is either made of cartilage , in cartilaginous fish , or bone in bony fish . The main skeletal element is the vertebral column , composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong . The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles . The main external features of the fish , the fins , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays , which with the exception of the caudal fins , have no direct connection with the spine . They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk . The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop . The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision . There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear . Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish , and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure .
Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish , including skeletons composed of cartilage . Their bodies tend to be dorso @-@ ventrally flattened , they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head . The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales . They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open , but not a swim bladder . Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large , yolky eggs . Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases .
The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits , often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish . They have a bony skeleton , are generally laterally flattened , have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum , and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout . The dermis is covered with overlapping scales . Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column , but not a cloaca . They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column .
= = = Amphibian anatomy = = =
Amphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs , salamanders and caecilians . They are tetrapods , but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size . Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular processes . Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae . Their skulls are mostly broad and short , and are often incompletely ossified . Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales , but contains many mucous glands and in some species , poison glands . The hearts of amphibians have three chambers , two atria and one ventricle . They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea . Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping , a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils . These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat . They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist .
In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs . The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing . Frogs have large eyes and no tail . Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance ; their short legs project sideways , the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail . Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless . They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side .
= = = Reptile anatomy = = =
Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles , tuataras , lizards , snakes and crocodiles . They are tetrapods , but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size . Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians . The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size . The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer . Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls . The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams . The reproductive system is designed for internal fertilisation , with a copulatory organ present in most species . The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land , or develop internally in some species . The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid .
Turtles are notable for their protective shells . They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below . These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine . The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell . Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp , horny plates . In aquatic species , the front legs are modified into flippers .
Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the Triassic period . There is one living species , Sphenodon punctatus . The skull has two openings ( fenestrae ) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull . There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews . The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down . The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles , and the lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi . The tuatara has a well @-@ developed parietal eye on its forehead .
Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side , the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost . This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider . Lizards are mostly quadrupeds , with the trunk held off the ground by short , sideways @-@ facing legs , but a few species have no limbs and resemble snakes . Lizards have moveable eyelids , eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye .
Snakes are closely related to lizards , having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period , and they share many of the same features . The skeleton consists of a skull , a hyoid bone , spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs . The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole . Snakes lack moveable eyelids , the eyes being covered by transparent " spectacle " scales . They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull . Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm @-@ blooded prey .
Crocodilians are large , low @-@ slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth . The head and trunk are dorso @-@ ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed . It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming . The tough keratinised scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull . The nostrils , eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating . Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged . Unlike other reptiles , crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood .
= = = Bird anatomy = = =
Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping , their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight . Birds are endothermic , have a high metabolic rate , a light skeletal system and powerful muscles . The long bones are thin , hollow and very light . Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones . The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused . There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn @-@ covered beak . The eyes are relatively large , particularly in nocturnal species such as owls . They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks .
The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin . Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail , contour feathers cover the bird 's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds . The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail . This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird preens . There are scales on the legs , feet and claws on the tips of the toes .
= = = Mammal anatomy = = =
Mammals are a diverse class of animals , mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight . They mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings . The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk , which is held well clear of the ground . The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth , which are usually differentiated , are coated in a layer of prismatic enamel . The teeth are shed once ( milk teeth ) during the animal 's lifetime or not at all , as is the case in cetaceans . Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear . They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat . Some of these glands are specialised as mammary glands , producing milk to feed the young . Mammals breathe with lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs . The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate . Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea .
Mammals are amniotes , and most are viviparous , giving birth to live young . The exception to this are the egg @-@ laying monotremes , the platypus and the echidnas of Australia . Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment , but in marsupials , the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother 's pouch where it latches on to a nipple and completes its development .
= = = = Human anatomy = = = =
Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal . Humans have a head , neck , trunk ( which includes the thorax and abdomen ) , two arms and hands and two legs and feet .
Generally , students of certain biological sciences , paramedics , prosthetists and orthotists , physiotherapists , occupational therapists , nurses , and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models , skeletons , textbooks , diagrams , photographs , lectures and tutorials , and in addition , medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers . The study of microscopic anatomy ( or histology ) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations ( or slides ) under a microscope .
Human anatomy , physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences , which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school . Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically ; that is , respectively , studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest , or studying by specific systems , such as the nervous or respiratory systems . The major anatomy textbook , Gray 's Anatomy , has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format , in line with modern teaching methods . A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians , especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties , such as histopathology and radiology .
Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities , medical schools or teaching hospitals . They are often involved in teaching anatomy , and research into certain systems , organs , tissues or cells .
= = Invertebrate anatomy = =
Invertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as Paramecium to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus , lobster and dragonfly . They constitute about 95 % of the animal species . By definition , none of these creatures has a backbone . The cells of single @-@ cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialised into the equivalent of tissues and organs . Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia , food may be gathered by phagocytosis , energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton . Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies .
Metazoans are multicellular organism , different groups of cells of which have separate functions . The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue , both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates . The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism . An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms , sponges and some cephalopods . Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods ( insects , spiders , ticks , shrimps , crabs , lobsters ) . Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs , brachiopods and some tube @-@ building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria . Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges , the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians ( polyps , sea anemones , jellyfish ) and the collagenous cuticle of annelids . The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells , gland cells and stinging cells . There may also be protrusions such as microvilli , cilia , bristles , spines and tubercles .
Marcello Malpighi , the father of microscopical anatomy , discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm . He observed that when a ring @-@ like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring , and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves , and being captured above the ring .
= = = Arthropod anatomy = = =
Arthropods comprise the largest phylum in the animal kingdom with over a million known invertebrate species .
Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard @-@ jointed outer covering , the exoskeleton , made mostly of chitin . The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts , a head , a thorax and an abdomen . The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae , a pair of compound eyes , one to three simple eyes ( ocelli ) and three sets of modified appendages that form the mouthparts . The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs , one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings . The abdomen is composed of eleven segments , some of which may be fused and houses the digestive , respiratory , excretory and reproductive systems . There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts , especially wings , legs , antennae and mouthparts .
Spiders a class of arachnids have four pairs of legs ; a body of two segments — a cephalothorax and an abdomen . Spiders have no wings and no antennae . They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous . They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax . These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs . At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon @-@ shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ .
= = Other branches of anatomy = =
Superficial or surface anatomy is important as the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily seen from the exterior contours of the body . It enables physicians or veterinary surgeons to gauge the position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures . Superficial is a directional term that indicates that structures are located relatively close to the surface of the body .
Comparative anatomy relates to the comparison of anatomical structures ( both gross and microscopic ) in different animals .
Artistic anatomy relates to anatomic studies for artistic reasons .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient = = =
Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world . Over time , this medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body . Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made , which have contributed towards the understanding of the brain , eye , liver , reproductive organs and the nervous system .
The city of Alexandria was the stepping @-@ stone for Greek anatomy and physiology . Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks , but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers . Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the Ptolemy rulers helped raise Alexandria up , further rivaling the cultural and scientific achievements of other Greek states .
Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria . Two of the most famous Greek anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus . These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research . They also conducted vivisections on the cadavers of condemned criminals , which was considered taboo until the Renaissance – Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections . Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine . Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse , the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls then veins , and that the atria were parts of the heart . Herophilus ’ s knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain , eye , liver , reproductive organs and nervous system , and characterizing the course of disease . Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain , including the cavities and membranes , and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria , Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems . He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart , which was then carried throughout the body . His distinction between the arteries and veins – the arteries carrying the air through the body , while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery . Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart , including the tricuspid . During the third century , Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses . It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis . Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain , appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the " seat of intellect " and not a " cooling chamber " as propounded by Aristotle Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic , oculomotor , motor division of the trigeminal , facial , vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves
Great feats were made during the third century in both the digestive and reproductive systems . Herophilus was able to discover and describe not only the salivary glands , but the small intestine and liver . He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes . He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland .
In 1600 BCE , the Edwin Smith Papyrus , an Ancient Egyptian medical text , described the heart , its vessels , liver , spleen , kidneys , hypothalamus , uterus and bladder , and showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart . The Ebers Papyrus ( c . 1550 BCE ) features a " treatise on the heart " , with vessels carrying all the body 's fluids to or from every member of the body .
The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the Hippocratic Corpus , an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors . Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection . Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins . Also in the 4th century BCE , Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty .
In the 2nd century , Galen of Pergamum , an anatomist , clinician , writer and philosopher , wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times . He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals . He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals . Galen 's drawings , based mostly on dog anatomy , became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years . His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century .
= = = Medieval to early modern = = =
Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century ; as the historian Marie Boas writes , " Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid " . Between 1275 and 1326 , the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi , Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times . Mondino 's Anatomy of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy . It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino 's dissections , starting with the abdomen , then the thorax , then the head and limbs . It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century .
Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452 – 1519 ) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio . He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork , making many sketches of skeletal structures , muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected .
Andreas Vesalius ( 1514 – 1564 ) ( Latinized from Andries van Wezel ) , professor of anatomy at the University of Padua , is considered the founder of modern human anatomy . Originally from Brabant , Vesalius published the influential book De humani corporis fabrica ( " the structure of the human body " ) , a large format book in seven volumes , in 1543 . The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations , often in allegorical poses against Italianate landscapes , are thought to have been made by the artist Jan van Calcar , a pupil of Titian .
In England , anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science ; these were given by the Company of Barbers and Surgeons in the 16th century , joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the Royal College of Physicians .
= = = Late modern = = =
In the United States , medical schools began to be set up towards the end of the 18th century . Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and these were difficult to obtain . Philadelphia , Baltimore and New York were all renowned for body snatching activity as criminals raided graveyards at night , removing newly buried corpses from their coffins . A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave @-@ raiding and even anatomy murder were practised to obtain cadavers . Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers . The practice was halted in Britain by the Anatomy Act of 1832 , while in the United States , similar legislation was enacted after the physician William S. Forbes of Jefferson Medical College was found guilty in 1882 of " complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery " .
The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir John Struthers , Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen from 1863 to 1889 . He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of " pre @-@ clinical " academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine , including especially anatomy . This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003 . As well as teaching , he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of comparative anatomy , published over 70 research papers , and became famous for his public dissection of the Tay Whale . From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools . Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy , and were often used in teaching . Ignaz Semmelweis investigated puerperal fever and he discovered how it was caused . He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives . The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth . Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination , the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically .
Before the era of modern medical procedures , the main means for studying the internal structure of the body were palpation and dissection . It was the advent of microscopy that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues . Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope and around 1839 , Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things . Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine . Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue . The fields of cytology and histology developed from here in the late 19th century . The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them . About the same time , in the 1950s , the use of X @-@ ray diffraction for studying the crystal structures of proteins , nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of molecular anatomy .
Short wavelength electromagnetic radiation such as X @-@ rays can be passed through the body and used in medical radiography to view interior structures that have different degrees of opaqueness . Nowadays , modern techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging , computed tomography , fluoroscopy and ultrasound imaging have enabled researchers and practitioners to examine organs , living or dead , in unprecedented detail . They are used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes and provide information on the internal structures and organs of the body to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations .
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= Battle of Morotai =
The Battle of Morotai , part of the Pacific War , began on 15 September 1944 , and continued until the end of the war in August 1945 . The fighting started when United States and Australian forces landed on the southwest corner of Morotai , a small island in the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) , which the Allies needed as a base to support the liberation of the Philippines later that year . The invading forces greatly outnumbered the island 's Japanese defenders and secured their objectives in two weeks . Japanese reinforcements landed on the island between September and November , but lacked the supplies needed to effectively attack the Allied defensive perimeter . Intermittent fighting continued until the end of the war , with the Japanese troops suffering heavy loss of life from disease and starvation .
Morotai 's development into an Allied base began shortly after the landing , and two major airfields were ready for use in October . These and other base facilities played an important role in the Liberation of the Philippines during 1944 and 1945 . Torpedo boats and aircraft based at Morotai also harassed Japanese positions in the NEI . The island 's base facilities were further expanded in 1945 to support the Australian @-@ led Borneo Campaign , and Morotai remained an important logistical hub and command center until the Dutch reestablished their colonial rule in the NEI .
= = Background = =
Morotai is a small island located in the Halmahera group of eastern Indonesia 's Maluku Islands . Most of the island 's interior is rugged and covered in thick jungle . The Doroeba Plain in Morotai 's south @-@ west corner is the largest of the island 's few lowland areas . Prior to the outbreak of war , Morotai had a population of 9 @,@ 000 and had not been commercially developed . It formed part of the Netherlands East Indies and was ruled by the Dutch through the Sultanate of Ternate . The Japanese occupied Morotai in early 1942 during the Netherlands East Indies campaign but did not garrison or develop it .
In early 1944 , Morotai became an area of importance to the Japanese military when it started developing the neighbouring larger island of Halmahera as a focal point for the defence of the southern approaches to the Philippines . In May 1944 , the Imperial Japanese Army 's 32nd Division arrived at Halmahera to defend the island and its nine airstrips . The division had suffered heavy losses when the convoy carrying it from China ( the Take Ichi convoy ) was attacked by US submarines . Two battalions from the 32nd Division 's 211th Infantry Regiment were initially deployed to Morotai to develop an airstrip on the Doroeba Plain . Both battalions were withdrawn to Halmahera in mid @-@ July , however , when the airstrip was abandoned because of drainage problems . Allied code breakers detected the Japanese build up at Halmahera and Morotai 's weak defenses , and passed this information on to the relevant planning staff .
In July 1944 , General Douglas MacArthur , the commander of the South West Pacific Area , selected Morotai as the location for air bases and naval facilities needed to support the liberation of Mindanao in the Philippines , which at the time was planned for 15 November . While Morotai was undeveloped , it was preferred over Halmahera as the larger and much better @-@ defended island was judged too difficult to capture and secure . The occupation of Morotai was designated Operation Tradewind . The landing was scheduled to take place on 15 September 1944 , the same day as the 1st Marine Division 's landing at Peleliu . This schedule allowed the main body of the United States Pacific Fleet to simultaneously protect both operations from potential Japanese counter @-@ attacks .
As little opposition was expected at Morotai , Allied planners decided to land the invasion force close to the airfield sites on the Doroeba Plain . Two beaches in the south @-@ west coast of the island were selected as suitable landing sites , and were designated Red Beach and White Beach . The Allied plan called for all three infantry regiments of the 31st Division to be landed across these beaches on 15 September and swiftly drive inland to secure the plain . As Morotai 's interior had no military value , the Allies did not intend to advance beyond a perimeter needed to defend the airfields . Planning for the construction of airfields and other base installations was also conducted prior to the landing , and tentative locations for these facilities had been selected by 15 September .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
At the time of the Allied landings , Morotai was defended by approximately 500 Japanese soldiers . The main unit was the 2nd Provisional Raiding Unit , which had gradually arrived on the island between 12 – 19 July 1944 , to replace the 32nd Division 's battalions when they were withdrawn . The 2nd Provisional Raiding Unit comprised four companies and was manned by Japanese officers and Formosan soldiers . Small elements of several other infantry , military police and support units were also present on the island . The 2nd Provisional Raiding Unit 's commander , Major Takenobu Kawashima , deployed the unit in the south @-@ west sector of the island and used the smaller units to establish lookout posts and detachments around Morotai 's coastline . The largest of these outposts was on the island 's north @-@ east end at Cape Sopi , which consisted of about 100 men . The Japanese force was too small and widely dispersed to be able to mount an effective defense , so the 32nd Division ordered it to build dummy camps and use other deceptions in an attempt to trick the Allies into thinking that Morotai was strongly held .
The Allied force assigned to Morotai outnumbered the island 's defenders by more than one hundred to one . The Tradewind Task Force was established on 20 August under the command of Major General Charles P. Hall and numbered 40 @,@ 105 U.S. Army soldiers and 16 @,@ 915 United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) personnel . The Tradewind Task Force came under the overall command of the United States Sixth Army ; its main combat elements were the XI Corps headquarters , the 31st Infantry Division and the 126th Regimental Combat Team ( RCT ) from the 32nd Infantry Division . These units were supported by engineers and a large anti @-@ aircraft group . The Tradewind Task Force also included large numbers of construction and other line of communications units whose role was to swiftly develop the island into a major base . The 6th Infantry Division was designated the force reserve but remained on the mainland of New Guinea . General MacArthur accompanied the force onboard USS Nashville but was not in direct command of the operation .
The landing force was supported by powerful air and naval forces . The United States Fifth Air Force provided direct support while the Thirteenth Air Force and No. 10 Operational Group RAAF conducted strategic missions in the NEI and Philippines . The naval force was designated Task Force 77 and was organised into two attack groups , four reinforcement groups , a support group and an escort carrier group . The attack and reinforcement groups were responsible for transporting the assault force and subsequent support units and comprised twenty @-@ four destroyers , four frigates , two Australian LSIs , five APDs , one LSD , twenty @-@ four LCIs , forty @-@ five LSTs , twenty LCTs and eleven LCIs armed with rockets . The support group was made up of two Australian heavy cruisers , three US light cruisers and eight US and two Australian destroyers . The escort carrier group comprised six escort carriers and ten destroyer escorts and provided anti @-@ submarine and combat air patrol . Task Force 38 @.@ 4 with two fleet carriers , two light aircraft carriers , one heavy cruiser , one light cruiser and thirteen destroyers was also available to support Task Force 77 if required .
= = = Preliminary attacks = = =
Preliminary air attacks to suppress the Japanese air forces in the vicinity of Morotai began in August 1944 . At this time , the Allied intelligence services estimated that there were 582 Japanese aircraft within 400 miles ( 640 km ) of Morotai , 400 of which were in the objective area . The Allied air forces conducted heavy raids on airfields in the Halmaheras , Celebes , Ceram , Ambon , Boeroe and other areas . US Navy carrier @-@ borne aircraft also attacked Japanese air units based at Mindanao and mounted further attacks on Halmahera and Celebes . These attacks were successful , and by 14 September it was estimated that only 60 aircraft remained in the vicinity of Morotai .
To preserve surprise , the Allies did not bombard Morotai prior to the invasion and conducted only a few photographic reconnaissance flights over the island . An Allied Intelligence Bureau patrol had been landed in the island in June but the information it collected was not passed on to the Sixth Army . Although the Tradewind Taskforce had little information on the invasion beaches or Japanese positions , the Sixth Army did not land any of its own reconnaissance patrols on Morotai , as it was feared that these could warn the island 's defenders that an attack was imminent .
The Tradewind Taskforce embarked onto the invasion convoy at several bases in north @-@ west New Guinea , and conducted landing rehearsals at Aitape and Wakde Island in early September . The convoy gathered at Maffin Bay on 11 September and set out for Morotai the next day . Its voyage was uneventful , and the convoy arrived off Morotai on the morning of 15 September without having been detected by Japanese forces .
= = Allied landings = =
The battle of Morotai began at 6 : 30 on the morning of 15 September . Allied warships conducted a two @-@ hour @-@ long bombardment of the landing area to suppress any Japanese forces there . This bombardment set several native villages on fire , but caused few Japanese casualties as they did not have many troops in the area .
The first wave of American troops landed on Morotai at 8 : 30 and did not encounter any opposition . The 155th and 167th RCTs landed at Red Beach and the 124th RCT at White Beach . Once ashore , the assault troops assembled into their tactical units and rapidly advanced inland . By the end of the day the 31st Division had secured all of its D @-@ Day objectives and held a perimeter 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) inland . There was little fighting and casualties were very low on both sides . The Japanese 2nd Provisional Raiding Unit was unable to offer any resistance to the overwhelming Allied force , and withdrew inland in good order . Japanese 7th Air Division aircraft based at Ceram and Celebes began a series of nightly air raids on Morotai on 15 September , but these had little effect on the Allied force .
The lack of resistance was fortunate for the Allies due to unexpectedly poor beach conditions . While the limited pre @-@ invasion intelligence suggested that Red and White beaches were capable of supporting an amphibious landing , they were in fact highly unsuitable for this purpose . Both beaches were muddy and difficult for landing craft to approach owing to rocky ridges and coral reefs . As a result , soldiers and equipment had to be landed through deep surf . This delayed the operation and caused a large quantity of equipment to be damaged . Like many of his soldiers , General MacArthur was forced to wade through chest @-@ high surf when he came ashore . On the morning of D @-@ Day a survey party determined that a beach on the south coast of Morotai was much better suited to LSTs . This beach , which was designated Blue Beach , became the primary Allied landing point from 16 September .
The 31st Division continued its advance inland on 16 September . The division met little opposition and secured the planned perimeter line around the airfield area that afternoon . From 17 September , the 126th Infantry Regiment landed at several points on Morotai 's coastline and offshore islands to establish radar stations and observation posts . These operations were generally unopposed , though patrols landed in northern Morotai made numerous contacts with small Japanese parties . The 2nd Provisional Raiding Unit attempted to infiltrate into the Allied perimeter on the night of 18 September but was not successful .
A detachment from the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration ( NICA ) was responsible for civil affairs on Morotai . This detachment came ashore on 15 September , and reestablished Dutch sovereignty over Morotai 's civilian population . Many natives subsequently provided NICA with intelligence on Japanese dispositions on Morotai and Halmahera and others acted as guides for American patrols .
On 20 September , the 31st Division advanced further inland to secure an expanded perimeter . This was necessary to provide room for additional bivouacs and supply installations after General MacArthur 's headquarters decided to expand airfield construction on the island . The advance met little resistance and was completed in one day . On 22 September , a Japanese force attacked the headquarters of the 1st Battalion , 167th Infantry Regiment but was easily repulsed . The following day , a company from the 126th Infantry Regiment unsuccessfully attacked a fortified Japanese unit near Wajaboeta on the island 's west coast . The 126th resumed its attack on 24 September and secured the position . US forces continued intensive patrolling until 4 October when the island was declared secure . U.S. casualties during the initial occupation of Morotai numbered 30 dead , 85 wounded , and one missing . Japanese casualties were much higher , numbering over 300 dead and 13 captured .
The American ground troops did not require the heavy air support available to them , and the fast carrier group was released for other duties on 17 September . The six escort carriers remained in support , but their aircraft saw little action . Four of the CVEs were released on 25 September , and the remaining two departed on 4 October . The destroyer escort USS Shelton ( DE @-@ 407 ) was sunk by Japanese submarine RO @-@ 41 on 3 October while escorting the CVE group . Several hours later a TBF Avenger from the escort carrier USS Midway attacked USS Seawolf ( SS @-@ 197 ) 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of where Shelton had been torpedoed , in the mistaken belief that she was the submarine responsible . After dropping two bombs , the TBF Avenger guided USS Richard M. Rowell ( DE @-@ 403 ) to the area and the destroyer escort sank Seawolf after five attempts , killing all the submarine 's crew . It was later determined that while Seawolf was traveling in a designated " submarine safety lane " , the CVE pilots had not been properly briefed on the lane 's existence and location , and that the submarine 's position had not been provided to USS Richard M. Rowell .
The U.S. Navy established a PT boat base at Morotai on 16 September when the tenders USS Mobjack ( AGP @-@ 7 ) and USS Oyster Bay ( AGP @-@ 6 ) arrived with motor torpedo boat squadrons 9 , 10 , 18 and 33 and their 41 boats . The PT boats ' primary mission was to prevent the Japanese from moving troops from Halmahera to Morotai by establishing a blockade of the 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) -wide strait between the two islands .
Elements of the 31st Division embarked from Morotai in November to capture several islands off New Guinea from which Japanese outposts could observe Allied movements . On 15 November 1 @,@ 200 troops from the 2nd Battalion , 167th Infantry Regiment and attached units were landed at Pegun Island in the Mapia islands ; the next day , Bras Island was attacked . The Mapia Islands were declared secure on 18 November after resistance from 172 Japanese troops of the 36th Infantry Division was overcome . On 19 November , a force of 400 US troops built around F Company , 124th Infantry Regiment occupied the undefended Asia Islands . These were the first offensive operations overseen by the Eighth United States Army , and the naval commander for both operations was Captain Lord Ashbourne of the Royal Navy on board HMS Ariadne . Radar and LORAN stations were subsequently established on the islands .
= = Base development = =
The rapid development of Morotai into a major military base was a key goal of the operation . Pre @-@ invasion plans called for the construction of three large airstrips within forty @-@ five days of 15 September , with the first to be operational immediately after the landing . The plans also included accommodation and supply facilities for 60 @,@ 000 air force and army personnel , a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ bed hospital , bulk fuel storage and handling installations and ship docking facilities . To construct these facilities , the Tradewind Task Force included 7 @,@ 000 engineer service troops , of whom 84 percent were American and the remainder Australian .
Work began on base facilities before Morotai was secured . Survey parties began transit surveys of the airfield sites on 16 September , which determined that their planned alignment was unworkable . Plans to complete the Japanese airfield were also abandoned , as it would have interfered with larger airfields to be built to the east . It was instead cleared and used as an emergency " crash strip . " Work on the first new airstrip ( called Wama Drome ) began on 23 September after the site was cleared . By 4 October Wama Drome 's runway was operable for 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) and was supporting heavy bomber raids on Balikpapan in Borneo . Construction of the even larger Pitu Drome , which was to have two runways parallel to Wama Drome , began in late September and by 17 October it had a usable 7 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) runway . Construction work was accelerated from October 18 after the United States Third Fleet was withdrawn from providing direct support to the planned landing at Leyte . When the two airstrips were completed in November they boasted three large runways and hardstandings for 253 aircraft , including 174 heavy bombers . Although the air base construction required the destruction of native villages , the American and Australian airfield engineers were assisted from 1 October by about 350 native laborers recruited by the NICA detachment .
Other base facilities were erected concurrently with the construction of the airstrips . Work on fuel storage facilities began shortly after the landing , and the first was ready on 20 September . A jetty for oil tankers and a larger tank farm were completed in early October , and storage facilities continued to be expanded until November , when capacity for 129 @,@ 000 barrels ( 20 @,@ 500 m3 ) of fuel was available . Several docks capable of accommodating liberty ships were constructed on Morotai 's west coast , and the first was completed on 8 October . In addition , twenty LST landings were constructed on Blue Beach to facilitate the loading and unloading of these ships . Other major construction projects included an extensive road network , a naval installation , 28 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m2 ) of warehousing , and clearing land for supply dumps and bivouacs . A 1 @,@ 000 @-@ bed hospital was also built after the original plans for a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ bed facility were revised . The main difficulties encountered were overcoming the mud caused by unusually heavy rains and finding sufficient water supplies .
A revision to Allied plans meant that Morotai played a much greater role in the liberation of the Philippines than had been originally envisioned . The invasion of Mindanao was postponed in September 1944 in favour of a landing at Leyte in the central Philippines in late October . The air bases at Morotai were the closest Allied air strips to Leyte , and fighters and bombers based on the island attacked targets in the southern Philippines and NEI in support of the landing at Leyte on 25 October . After airfields were completed at Leyte , Morotai was also used as a staging point for fighters and bombers traveling to the Philippines .
= = Subsequent fighting = =
= = = Japanese response = = =
The Japanese military recognized that its forces in the Philippines would be threatened if the Allies developed airfields on Morotai . In an attempt to disrupt the airfield construction program , the Japanese Army commanders on Halmahera sent large numbers of reinforcements to Morotai between late September and November . These troops included the main body of the 211th Infantry Regiment , the 3rd Battalion of the 210th Infantry Regiment and three raiding detachments . The commander of the 211th Infantry Regiment , Colonel Kisou Ouchi , assumed command of the Japanese forces on Morotai on 12 October . Allied codebreakers were often able to warn the forces at Morotai of attempts to run the blockade , and PT boats destroyed a large number of the barges the Japanese used to transport troops from Halmahera . The Allies were , however , unable to completely stop the Japanese buildup .
The Japanese counter @-@ offensive on Morotai was not successful . The troops brought to the island suffered from high rates of disease and it proved impossible to bring sufficient supplies through the Allied air and naval blockade . As a result , while the 2nd Provisional Raiding Unit raided the US perimeter on several occasions , the reinforcements were unable to mount larger attacks and did not impede Allied airfield construction activities . The Japanese force subsequently withdrew into central Morotai where many soldiers died from disease or starvation . The last Japanese supply barges from Halmahera reached Morotai on 12 May 1945 .
In late December 1944 , the US 33rd Infantry Division 's 136th Infantry Regiment was brought to Morotai from New Guinea to attack the Japanese 211th Infantry Regiment in the west of the island . After landing on the island 's west coast , the American regiment moved into Japanese @-@ held territory on 26 December and advanced on the Japanese position from the south @-@ west and north . The 136th was supported by a battalion of the 130th Infantry Regiment advancing overland from the Doroeba Plain , artillery units stationed on islands off Morotai 's coast and one hundred native porters . The 3rd Battalion of the 167th Infantry Regiment also participated in this operation and made a difficult march from Morotai 's south coast into the interior to prevent the Japanese from scattering into small groups in the island 's mountains .
In early January 1945 , the American force determined that two battalions of the Japanese 211th Regiment were at Hill 40 , about four miles ( 6 km ) north of the Allied perimeter . The attack on this position began on 3 January 1945 when the 136th Infantry Regiment 's 1st and 2nd battalions advanced from the south @-@ west and encountered strong resistance . The regiment used a large quantity of ammunition in this attack , and aerial resupply was needed to replenish its supplies . Both American battalions resumed their attack the next day with the support of a highly effective artillery bombardment , and reached the main Japanese position in the afternoon . During this period the 3rd Battalion of the 136th Regiment advanced on Hill 40 from the north , and destroyed the 211th Regiment 's 3rd Battalion in a series of battles . This Japanese battalion had been stationed on the coast to receive supplies from Halmahera and mounted several unsuccessful attacks on the American battalion 's beachhead after it landed in December .
The 136th Infantry Regiment completed its attack on Hill 40 on 5 January . The Regiment 's 1st and 2nd Battalions advanced from the west and south @-@ west and the 3rd Battalion from the north , meeting little resistance . The 1st and 2nd Battalions continued north to pursue Japanese remnants until 14 January , by which time the regiment claimed to have killed 870 Japanese soldiers and captured ten for a loss of 46 killed and 127 wounded and injured . The 3rd Battalion , 167th Infantry Regiment linked up with the 136th on 7 January after overrunning the main Japanese radio station on the island on 4 January . In mid @-@ January , the 136th Regiment was withdrawn to the Allied perimeter where it rejoined the 33rd Division , which was staging through Morotai en route for the Allied landing in Luzon .
= = = Air attacks and Allied mopping up = = =
The Japanese 7th Air Division continued to raid Morotai for months after the Allied landing . The air division conducted 82 raids on Morotai involving 179 sorties between 15 September 1944 and 1 February 1945 . The aircraft used in these raids flew from Ceram and the Celebes and landed at airfields on Halmahera before proceeding to their targets . While 54 of the raids caused no damage , the others resulted in the destruction of forty @-@ two Allied aircraft and damage to another thirty @-@ three . Allied casualties from air attack were 19 killed and 99 wounded . The most successful raid was conducted on the night of 22 November when 15 Allied planes were destroyed and eight damaged . The regular Japanese air raids ceased at the end of January 1945 , though a final attack took place on 22 March . USAAF night fighters had only limited success as raiders were normally detected only shortly before they entered anti @-@ aircraft gun defended zones ; these guns shot down most of the 26 Japanese aircraft lost over Morotai . The official history of the USAAF 's night fighter force states that Morotai " was probably the most difficult task undertaken by American night fighters during World War II " due to the difficulty of detecting incoming raiders .
The PT boat force at Morotai was reduced to a single squadron by February 1945 but remained active until the end of the war . As well as patrolling around Morotai , the boats operated in the eastern NEI to raid Japanese positions and support Australian and Dutch scouting parties . In May 1945 PT boats and the Australian Z Special Unit rescued the Sultan of Ternate along with his court and harem during an operation codenamed Project Opossum after he was mistreated by the Japanese . By the end of the war the PT boats had conducted nearly 1 @,@ 300 patrols and destroyed 50 barges and 150 small craft off Morotai and Halmahera .
The 31st Division remained at Morotai until 12 April 1945 when it departed to participate in the liberation of Mindanao , and was replaced by the 93rd Infantry Division . The 93rd Division was a segregated African American unit , and was mainly used for security and labor tasks during the war . Once established on Morotai the division conducted intensive patrols with the aim of destroying the remaining Japanese force on the island . At this time most of the Japanese on Morotai were located along the island 's west coast , and generally stayed close to native gardens . The 93rd Division landed patrols along Morotai 's west and north coasts from April onwards , and these fought scattered skirmishes with small Japanese forces . One of the division 's main goals was to capture Colonel Ouchi , and this was achieved by a patrol from the 25th Infantry Regiment on 2 August . Ouchi was one of the highest @-@ ranked Japanese officers to be captured before the end of the war . The American force also used propaganda broadcasts and leaflets to encourage Japanese soldiers on Morotai to surrender , with some success .
= = Aftermath = =
Morotai remained an important Allied base after Leyte was secured . Aircraft of the Thirteenth Air Force and Australian First Tactical Air Force ( formerly No. 10 Operational Group RAAF ) were based at Morotai and attacked targets in the NEI and southern Philippines until the end of the war . From April 1945 , the island was also used by the Australian I Corps to mount the Borneo Campaign . Australian Army engineers expanded the base facilities at Morotai to support this operation . Due to overcrowding , some Australian camp sites were located outside the American perimeter .
Morotai was the scene of a number of surrender ceremonies following the surrender of Japan . About 660 Japanese troops on Morotai capitulated to Allied forces after 15 August . The 93rd Division also accepted the surrender of the 40 @,@ 000 Japanese troops at Halmahera on 26 August after the Japanese commander there was brought to Morotai on a US Navy PT boat . On 9 September 1945 , Australian General Thomas Blamey accepted the surrender of the Japanese Second Army at a ceremony held on the I Corps ' sports ground at Morotai . Private Teruo Nakamura , the last confirmed Japanese holdout on Morotai or elsewhere , was captured by Indonesian Air Force personnel on 18 December 1974 .
The facilities on Morotai continued to be heavily used by the Allies in the months after the war . The Australian force responsible for the occupation and military administration of the eastern NEI was headquartered at Morotai until April 1946 , when the Dutch colonial government was reestablished . The island was also one of the sites where the Australian and NEI militaries conducted war crimes trials of Japanese personnel .
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= Prince William , Duke of Gloucester =
Prince William , Duke of Gloucester ( 24 July 1689 – 30 July 1700 ) , was the son of Princess Anne , later Queen of England , Ireland and Scotland from 1702 , and her husband , Prince George , Duke of Cumberland . He was their only child to survive infancy . Styled Duke of Gloucester , he was viewed by contemporaries as a Protestant champion because his birth seemed to cement the Protestant succession established in the " Glorious Revolution " that had deposed his Catholic grandfather James II the previous year .
Gloucester 's mother was estranged from her brother @-@ in @-@ law and cousin , William III , and her sister , Mary II , but supported links between them and her son . He grew close to his uncle William , who created him a Knight of the Garter , and his aunt Mary , who frequently sent him presents . At his nursery in Campden House , Kensington , he befriended his Welsh body @-@ servant , Jenkin Lewis , whose memoir of the Duke is an important source for historians , and operated his own miniature army , called the " Horse Guards " , which eventually comprised 90 boys .
Gloucester 's precarious health was a constant source of worry to his mother . His death , in 1700 at the age of eleven , precipitated a succession crisis as his mother was the only individual remaining in the Protestant line of succession established by the Bill of Rights 1689 . The English Parliament did not want the throne to revert to a Catholic , and so passed the Act of Settlement 1701 , which settled the throne of England on Electress Sophia of Hanover , a cousin of King James II , and her Protestant heirs .
= = Birth and health = =
In late 1688 , in what became known as the " Glorious Revolution " , the Roman Catholic King James of England , Scotland and Ireland was deposed by his Protestant nephew and son @-@ in @-@ law , Dutch stadtholder William Henry of Orange . William and his wife , James 's elder daughter Mary , were recognised by the English and Scottish parliaments as king and queen . As they had no children , Mary 's younger sister , Anne , was designated their heiress presumptive in England and Scotland . The accession of William and Mary and the succession through Anne were enshrined in the Bill of Rights 1689 .
Anne was married to Prince George of Denmark and Norway , and in their six years of marriage Anne had been pregnant six times , but none of her children had survived . At the end of her seventh pregnancy , at 5 a.m. on 24 July 1689 , she was delivered of a son in Hampton Court Palace . As it was usual for the births of potential heirs to the throne to be attended by several witnesses , the King and Queen and " most of the persons of quality about the court " were present . Three days later , the newborn baby was baptised William Henry after his uncle King William by Henry Compton , Bishop of London . The King , who was one of the godparents along with the Marchioness of Halifax and the Lord Chamberlain , Lord Dorset , declared him Duke of Gloucester , although the peerage was never formally created . Gloucester was second in line to the throne after his mother , and because his birth secured the Protestant succession , he was the hope of the revolution 's supporters . The ode The Noise of Foreign Wars , attributed to Henry Purcell , was written in celebration of the birth . Other congratulatory odes , such as Purcell 's last royal ode Who Can From Joy Refrain ? and John Blow 's The Duke of Gloucester 's March and A Song upon the Duke of Gloucester , were to follow on his birthdays in later years . However , supporters of James , the Jacobites , spoke of Gloucester as " a sickly and doomed usurper " .
Despite being described as a " brave livlylike [ sic ] boy " , Gloucester became ill with convulsions when he was three weeks old , so his mother moved him into Craven House , Kensington , hoping that the air from the surrounding gravel pits would have a beneficial effect on his health . His convulsions were possibly symptomatic of meningitis , likely contracted at birth and which resulted in hydrocephalus . As was usual among royalty , Gloucester was placed in the care of a governess , Lady Fitzhardinge , and was suckled by a wet nurse , Mrs. Pack , rather than his mother . As part of his treatment , Gloucester was driven outside every day in a small open carriage , pulled by Shetland ponies , to maximise his exposure to the air of the gravel pits . The effectiveness of Gloucester 's treatment having exceeded their expectations , Princess Anne and Prince George acquired a permanent residence in the area , Campden House , a Jacobean mansion , in 1690 . It was here that Gloucester befriended Welsh body @-@ servant Jenkin Lewis , whose memoir of his master is an important source for historians .
Throughout his life , Gloucester suffered from a recurrent " ague " , which was treated with regular doses of Jesuit 's bark ( an early form of quinine ) by his physician , John Radcliffe . Gloucester disliked the treatment intensely , and usually vomited after being given it . Possibly as a result of hydrocephalus , he had an enlarged head , which his surgeons pierced intermittently to draw off fluid . He could not walk properly , and was apt to stumble . Nearing the age of five , Gloucester refused to climb stairs without two attendants to hold him , which Lewis blamed on indulgent nurses who over @-@ protected the boy . His father birched him until he agreed to walk by himself . Corporal punishment was usual at the time , and such treatment would not have been considered harsh .
= = Education = =
Gloucester 's language acquisition was delayed : he did not speak correctly until the age of three , and consequently the commencement of his education was postponed by a year . The Reverend Samuel Pratt , a Cambridge graduate , was appointed the Duke 's tutor in 1693 . Lessons concentrated on geography , mathematics , Latin , and French . Pratt was an enemy of Jenkin Lewis , and they frequently disagreed over how Gloucester should be educated . Lewis remained Gloucester 's favourite attendant because , unlike Pratt , he was knowledgeable in military matters and could therefore help him with his " Horse Guards " , a miniature army consisting of local children . Over a couple of years from 1693 , the size of the army grew from 22 to over 90 boys .
Princess Anne had fallen out with her sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law , William and Mary , and reluctantly agreed to the advice of her friend , the Countess of Marlborough , that Gloucester should visit his aunt and uncle regularly to ensure their continued goodwill towards him . In an attempt to heal the rift , Anne invited the King and Queen to see Gloucester drill the " Horse Guards " . After watching the boys ' display at Kensington Palace , the King praised them , and made a return visit to Campden House the following day . Gloucester grew closer to his aunt and uncle : the Queen bought him presents from his favourite toy shop regularly . Her death in 1694 led to a superficial reconciliation between Anne and William , which occasioned a move to St James 's Palace , London . Gloucester having tired of him , Lewis only attended St James 's every two months .
On his seventh birthday , Gloucester attended a ceremony at St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , to install him as a knight of the Order of the Garter , an honour the King had given him six months before . Gloucester became ill during the celebratory banquet afterwards and left early , but after his recovery went deer hunting in Windsor Great Park , where he was blooded by Samuel Masham , his father 's page . Princess Anne wrote to the Countess of Marlborough , " My boy continues yet very well , and looks better , I think , than ever he did in his life ; I mean more healthy , for though I love him very well , I can 't brag of his beauty . "
During the trial of Sir John Fenwick , who was implicated in a plot to assassinate King William , Gloucester signed a letter to the King promising his loyalty . " I , your Majesty 's most dutiful subject , " the letter read , " had rather lose my life in your Majesty 's cause than in any man 's else , and I hope it will not be long ere you conquer France . " Added to the letter was a declaration by the boys in Gloucester 's army : " We , your Majesty 's subjects , will stand by you while we have a drop of blood . "
In 1697 , Parliament granted King William £ 50 @,@ 000 to establish a household for the Duke of Gloucester , though the King only permitted the release of £ 15 @,@ 000 , keeping the difference for himself . The establishment of Gloucester 's own household in early 1698 revived the feud between Anne and William . William was determined to limit Anne 's involvement in the household , and therefore appointed , against her wishes , the low church Gilbert Burnet , Bishop of Salisbury , as Gloucester 's preceptor . Anne was high church , and Burnet , knowing she was unhappy , attempted to decline the appointment , but the King insisted he accept it . Anne 's anger was only placated by an assurance from King William that she could choose all the lower servants of the household . The Earl of Marlborough , a friend of Anne 's , was appointed Gloucester 's governor , after the Duke of Shrewsbury declined the office on the grounds of ill health . Shortly before the King sailed for the Netherlands , he received Anne 's choices from Marlborough but he refused to confirm them . His favourite , the Earl of Albemarle , eventually convinced him to agree to Anne 's appointments , and the King 's acceptance was sent from the Netherlands in September 1698 . The Marlboroughs ' twelve @-@ year @-@ old son , Lord Churchill , was appointed Gloucester 's Master of the Horse , and became a friend and playmate . Abigail Hill , a kinswoman of the Countess of Marlborough , was appointed his laundress , and Abigail 's brother , Jack Hill , was made one of Gloucester 's gentlemen of the bedchamber .
Burnet lectured Gloucester for hours at a time on subjects such as the feudal constitutions of Europe and law before the time of Christianity . Burnet also encouraged Gloucester to memorise facts and dates by heart . Government ministers inspected Gloucester 's academic progress every four months , finding themselves " amazed " by his " wonderful memory and good judgement " . His childhood troop was disbanded , and King William made him the honorary commander of a real regiment of Dutch footguards . In 1699 , he attended the trials in the House of Lords of Lord Mohun and Lord Warwick , who were accused of murder . Mohun was acquitted ; Warwick was found guilty of manslaughter but escaped punishment by pleading privilege of peerage .
= = Death = =
As he neared his eleventh birthday , Gloucester was assigned Mary 's old apartments in Kensington Palace . At his birthday party at Windsor , on 24 July 1700 , he complained of a sudden fatigue , but was initially thought to have overheated himself while dancing . By nightfall , he was suffering from a sore throat and chills , followed by a severe headache and a high fever the next day . A physician , Hannes , did not arrive until 27 July . Gloucester was immediately bled , but his condition continued to deteriorate . Over the next day , he developed a rash and suffered a bout of diarrhoea . A second physician , Gibbons , arrived early on 28 July , followed by Radcliffe that evening .
The physicians could not agree on a diagnosis . Radcliffe thought he had scarlet fever , while others thought it was smallpox . They administered " cordial powders and cordial juleps " . Gloucester was bled , to which Radcliffe strongly objected . He told his colleagues , " you have destroyed him and you may finish him " . He prescribed blistering , which was no more effective . In great pain , Gloucester passed the evening of 28 July " in great sighings and dejections of spirits ... towards morning , he complained very much of his blisters . " Anne , who had spent an entire day and night by her son 's bedside , now became so distressed that she fainted . However , by midday on 29 July , Gloucester was breathing more easily and his headache had diminished , leading to hopes that he would recover . The improvement was fleeting , and that evening , he was " taken with a convulsing sort of breathing , a defect in swallowing and a total deprivation of all sense " . Prince William died close to 1 a.m. on 30 July 1700 , with his parents beside him . In the end , the physicians decided the cause of death was " a malignant fever " . An autopsy revealed severe swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck and an abnormal amount of fluid in the ventricles of his brain : " four and a half ounces of a limpid humour were taken out . " A modern diagnosis is that Gloucester died of acute bacterial pharyngitis , with associated pneumonia . Had he lived , though , it is almost certain the prince would have succumbed to complications of his hydrocephalus .
King William , who was in the Netherlands , wrote to Marlborough , " It is so great a loss to me as well as to all England , that it pierces my heart . " Anne was prostrate with grief , taking to her chamber . In the evenings , she was carried into the garden " to divert her melancholy thoughts " . Gloucester 's body was moved from Windsor to Westminster on the night of 1 August , and he lay in state in the Palace of Westminster before being entombed in the Royal Vault of the Henry VII Chapel in Westminster Abbey on 9 August . As was usual for royalty in mourning , his parents did not attend the funeral service , instead remaining in seclusion at Windsor .
In an allusion to Prince William 's death , Tory politician William Shippen wrote :
So by the course of the revolving spheres ,
Whene 'er a new @-@ discovered star appears ,
Astronomers , with pleasure and amaze ,
Upon the infant luminary gaze .
They find their heaven 's enlarged , and wait from thence
Some blest , some more than common influence ,
But suddenly , alas ! The fleeting light ,
Retiring , leaves their hopes involv 'd in endless night .
Gloucester 's death destabilised the succession , as his mother was the only person remaining in the Protestant line to the throne established by the Bill of Rights 1689 . Although Anne had ten other pregnancies after the birth of Gloucester , all her subsequent children died , either in the womb or immediately after birth . The English parliament did not want the throne to revert to a Catholic , so it passed the Act of Settlement 1701 , which settled the throne of England on a cousin of King James , Sophia , Electress of Hanover , and her Protestant heirs . Anne succeeded King William in 1702 , and reigned until her death on 1 August 1714 . Sophia predeceased her by a few weeks , and so Sophia 's son George ascended the throne as the first British monarch of the House of Hanover .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
William was styled as : His Royal Highness Prince William , Duke of Gloucester .
= = = Honours = = =
KG : Knight of the Garter , 6 January 1696
= = = Arms = = =
Gloucester bore the royal arms , differenced by an inescutcheon of the Danish coat of arms and a label of three points Argent , the centre point bearing a cross Gules .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Free Speech , " The People 's Darling Privilege " =
Free Speech , " The People ’ s Darling Privilege " : Struggles for Freedom of Expression in American History is a non @-@ fiction book about the history of freedom of speech in the United States written by Michael Kent Curtis and published in 2000 by Duke University Press . The book discusses the evolution of free speech in the U.S. within the context of the actions of individuals and how they affected change . The author writes that protests and actions by citizens helped to evolve the notions surrounding free speech in the U.S. before definitive statements on the matter from U.S. courts . Curtis writes that free speech rights were first developed in " the forum of public opinion " , and that , " The history of free speech shows the need for broadly protective free speech rules applied generally and equally " .
For his work on Free Speech , " The People ’ s Darling Privilege " , Curtis received the Hugh M. Hefner First Amendment Award and the Mayflower Cup Award . Critics gave the book a positive reception . A review in Columbia Journalism Review called it a " rich and original study " , and The Journal of American History said that it includes " fine analytic discussions " . Perspectives on Political Science called the book " an extremely valuable contribution to the literature addressing the history of free speech in America . " Timothy C. Shiell of the University of Wisconsin – Stout reviewed it for The Historian and wrote , " Michael Kent Curtis offers a major contribution to the scholarship of both that era and of free speech . "
= = Author = =
Curtis ' previous book , No State Shall Abridge : The Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights , was published in 1986 . The Journal of Information Ethics said that before the book 's publication , Curtis had " written quite extensively on the subject " of freedom of speech , and cited articles in Constitutional Commentary ( 1995 ) , and Wake Forest Law Review ( 1996 ) . With J. Wilson Parker , Davison Douglas , and Paul Finkelman , Curtis served as editor of the 2003 work , Constitutional Law in Context . In 2002 , Curtis was a professor of law at Wake Forest University , where he taught American legal and constitutional history , free speech law , and constitutional law . In 2004 , Curtis was a professor of Public and Constitutional Law at Wake Forest University .
= = Contents = =
Structured in chronological order , Free Speech , " The People ’ s Darling Privilege " discusses the development of free speech through controversies which arose during the history of the United States . These include the Quasi @-@ War with France , the 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts , conflict regarding speech related to abolitionism and criticism of slavery , and speech related to criticism of the American Civil War . Curtis discusses the efforts of abolitionists Elijah Lovejoy and Hinton Helper .
The book discusses in detail attempts by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln to curtail free speech during the American Civil War . He comments on the ways attitudes about free speech affected events in history related to this period of time , " The weakness of the popular free @-@ speech tradition ( especially in the South ) encouraged violence that did not end with the Civil War ... [ but was ] revived during Reconstruction to silence those who supported civil and political rights for blacks " . Curtis discusses conflict involving people related to these historical events , including editors , political activists , and politicians . The author discusses advocates of free speech before the recognition of this right in the U.S. court system .
Curtis writes that despite the actions of the government , it is the actions of individuals through speech and protest that allow democracy to function appropriately . The author states that , " again and again , people in power have treated speech that advocated lawful change through democratic process as an incitement to lawless action " . Curtis says that free speech rights in the U.S. , which at present are believed to be given through 20th century court rulings , were actually developed first in " the forum of public opinion " . He says , " The history of free speech shows the need for broadly protective free speech rules applied generally and equally " .
He writes that during the 18th and 19th centuries in the U.S. , protests by individuals and the press predated court judgments regarding the development of free speech . The author says , " as Madison had expected , constitutional guarantees of liberty do their work at popular levels as well as at the level of institutions such as the Supreme Court of the United States , state supreme courts , Congress , and state legislatures . Popular views limit and channel both legislation and private action , each of which can either constrain or empower speech " . Curtis says that , " The similarity of current suppression theories to those of the past suggests caution . Historic attempts to use these ideas to suppress democratic discussion of positive social change should make us wary of attempts to resurrect them for benevolent purposes " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards and honors = = =
For his work on the book , Michael Kent Curtis was recognized with the Hugh M. Hefner First Amendment Award , which recognizes contributions to the First Amendment . He also received the Mayflower Cup Award , which honors the best non @-@ fiction work by an individual from North Carolina , from the North Carolina Literary and Historical Association .
= = = Reviews = = =
In a review of the book for the Columbia Journalism Review , James Boylan said Curtis ' work is a " rich and original study " . Reviewing the book for The Journal of American History , Michael P. Zuckert called it a " very fine book " that is " gracefully written and engaging to read " . He said , " After Curtis 's book , nobody should be able to say that the Bill of Rights was unlikely to be on the minds of the drafters of the Fourteenth Amendment . " Zuckert wrote , " Sprinkled into the stories are fine analytic discussions . "
Writing in Perspectives on Political Science , Paul Weizer described the book as " an extremely valuable contribution to the literature addressing the history of free speech in America . " Weizer said , " Although there are countless books on the theories behind the speech guarantee embedded in our Constitution , Curtis brings a fresh perspective . Most First Amendment books begin with Supreme Court decisions from the early 1900s ; Curtis reminds us that modern ideas about the protection of expression originated much earlier . " As to the writing quality of the book , Weizer wrote , " The first hundred years of American history are rich with stories such as this . Curtis does an outstanding job of bringing them to life . He is to be commended for keeping editorial comments to a minimum and allowing the participants to make his points for him . The book is painstakingly documented to provide first @-@ person accounts from sources such as newspapers and town meetings . " Weizer recommended the book for those researching the subject matter , writing , " For specialists on free speech issues , the book provides remarkable detail . "
In a review for The Historian , Timothy C. Shiell of the University of Wisconsin – Stout wrote , " In providing the first detailed history of free speech from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the Fourteenth Amendment of the 1860s , Michael Kent Curtis offers a major contribution to the scholarship of both that era and of free speech . " Shiell wrote on the views put forth by the author in the book , " Curtis does not limit this erudite work to historical narration . He also addresses political and legal movements and ideas that influenced and were influenced by free @-@ speech controversies such as theories of democracy , justifications for broad protections of free speech , and the doctrines of content neutrality and heckler 's veto . His treatment of justifications for suppression is especially valuable . " Shiell concluded his review writing , " For at least these three reasons — the historical detail , the review of relevant legal and political theory , and the lessons from history — this book is a ' must read ' for anyone interested in the period from 1798 to 1870 or in the development of free @-@ speech theory and practice in the United States . "
Gordon Moran reviewed the book for the Journal of Information Ethics , writing , " In this book , Prof. Curtis ... provides a thorough account of the evolution of free speech , in theory and practice , from pre @-@ Revolutionary times through the Civil War and the Fourteenth Amendment ( 1868 ) . As a history book , it is worthy of being in the library of every high school , college , and university that teaches American history , and would also be very useful and instructive as a textbook for university courses in American studies and advanced courses in American history . " In a review for The Journal of Southern History , William Pannill wrote , " This is more a work of history than of law . Although the author summarizes the reasoning of legislatures and courts that overrode the First Amendment , he does not analyze the unfolding of constitutional doctrines . " Pannill concluded , " At 437 pages of text , the book is too long . The writing suffers from repetition . For example , the author reminds us again and again that the southern states feared that debates over slavery would lead to slave revolts @-@ one time was sufficient to make the point . The chapters also jump around in time and subject . Pruning and redrafting would have improved the book for a wider audience . The story certainly deserves one . "
In his book Freedom of Speech : A Reference Guide to the United States Constitution , author Keith Werhan placed Free Speech , " The People 's Darling Privilege " among " leading works on free speech " during the American Civil War . Werhan noted that the book includes " excellent discussions " of the Alien and Sedition Acts . In addition to Werhan , Steven J. Heyman 's book Free Speech and Human Dignity also recommended Free Speech , " The People 's Darling Privilege " for " leading works " on freedom of speech . Author Margaret Kohn recommended Free Speech , " The People 's Darling Privilege " as a resource , " for extensive examples of the courts ' willingness to countenance restrictions on speech " , in her book Brave New Neighborhoods : The Privatization of Public Space .
In Free Expression and Democracy in America : A History , Stephen M. Feldman classed the book among " helpful sources on the history of free speech " . Writing in Lincoln 's Censor : Milo Hascall and Freedom of the Press in Civil War Indiana , David W. Bulla wrote , " Curtis showed how freedom of the press has both functional and formal protections " . Judge Andrew P. Napolitano recommended Curtis ' book in his books The Constitution in Exile , and Constitutional Chaos , writing , " Michael Kent Curtis offers an excellent and detailed account of the troubled affair between Clement Vallandigham and Abraham Lincoln in this work . "
In Constitutional Democracy : Creating and Maintaining a Just Political Order , Walter F. Murphy wrote that Curtis " beautifully detailed " an incident when the U.S. Post Office refused to deliver abolitionist writings through their service . In his book Eloquence and Reason : Creating a First Amendment Culture , Robert L. Tsai recommended Curtis ' book , " for an account of antebellum debates over the scope of the First Amendment " . In her book Licentious Gotham : Erotic Publishing and Its Prosecution in Nineteenth @-@ Century New York , Donna Dennis recommended Free Speech , " The People 's Darling Privilege " , " for evidence of commitment to freedom of speech and freedom of press among abolitionists " .
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= X @-@ Men : First Class =
X @-@ Men : First Class ( stylized onscreen as X : First Class ) is a 2011 American superhero film , based on the X @-@ Men characters appearing in Marvel Comics . It is the fifth installment in the X @-@ Men film series . It serves as both a prequel and a soft @-@ reboot of the franchise . The film was directed by Matthew Vaughn and produced by Bryan Singer . The story is set primarily in 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis , and focuses on the relationship between Professor Charles Xavier ( James McAvoy ) and Erik Lensherr / Magneto ( Michael Fassbender ) , and the origin of their groups — the X @-@ Men and the Brotherhood of Mutants , respectively , as they deal with the Hellfire Club led by Sebastian Shaw ( Kevin Bacon ) , who is bent on world domination . The film co @-@ stars Rose Byrne , January Jones and Oliver Platt . The film also introduces new actors to the series Nicholas Hoult and Jennifer Lawrence who , like McAvoy and Fassbender , reimagine popular characters from the franchise ( Beast and Mystique ) that have already been established in previous films , namely the original trilogy .
Producer Lauren Shuler Donner first thought of a prequel based on the young X @-@ Men during the production of X2 , and later producer Simon Kinberg suggested to 20th Century Fox an adaptation of the comic series X @-@ Men : First Class , though the film does not follow the comic closely . Singer , who had directed both X @-@ Men and X2 , became involved with the project in 2009 , but he could only produce and co @-@ write First Class due to other projects . Matthew Vaughn , who was previously attached to both X @-@ Men : The Last Stand and Thor , became the director , and also wrote the final script with his writing partner Jane Goldman . First Class overtook a planned Magneto prequel that entered development hell and the Writer 's Guild of America arbitration gave a story credit to Magneto writer Sheldon Turner .
First Class entered production in August 2010 , with principal photography concluding in December and additional filming finishing in April 2011 , just a few weeks before the film 's premiere in June 2011 . The tight schedule proved a challenge to the six companies responsible for the extensive visual effects , which included computer @-@ generated sets and digital doubles for the actors . Locations included Oxford , the Mojave desert and Georgia , with soundstage work done in both Pinewood Studios and the 20th Century Fox stages in Los Angeles . The depiction of the 1960s drew inspiration from the James Bond films of the period .
First Class was a box @-@ office success , becoming the seventh highest @-@ grossing in the film series , and received positive reviews from critics and audiences , who praised the fresh revival of the franchise as well as the acting , writing , directing and Henry Jackman 's score . A sequel titled X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , also serving as a resolution to the original trilogy 's storyline , was released in May 2014 , with Singer returning as director and Vaughn as co @-@ writer .
= = Plot = =
In 1944 , in a German concentration camp in occupied Poland , Nazi scientist Dr. Klaus Schmidt witnesses a young Erik Lehnsherr bend a metal gate with his mind when the child is separated from his mother . In his office , Schmidt orders Lehnsherr to move a coin on his desk , and kills the boy 's mother when Lehnsherr cannot . In grief and anger , Lehnsherr 's magnetic power manifests , killing two guards and destroying the room . Meanwhile , at a mansion in Westchester County , New York , child telepath Charles Xavier meets young shapeshifter Raven , whose natural form is blue @-@ skinned and scaly . Overjoyed to meet someone else " different " , he invites her to live with his family as his foster sister .
In 1962 , Lehnsherr is tracking down Schmidt , while Xavier graduates from the University of Oxford . In Las Vegas , CIA officer Moira MacTaggert follows U.S. Army Colonel Hendry into the Hellfire Club , where she sees Schmidt ( now known as Sebastian Shaw ) , with mutant telepath Emma Frost , cyclone @-@ producing Riptide , and teleporter Azazel . Threatened by Shaw and teleported by Azazel to the Joint War Room , Hendry advocates deployment of nuclear missiles in Turkey . Shaw , an energy @-@ absorbing mutant whose powers have de @-@ aged him , later kills Hendry .
MacTaggert , seeking Xavier 's advice on mutation , takes him and Raven to the CIA , where they convince Director McCone that mutants exist and Shaw is a threat . Another CIA officer sponsors the mutants and invites them to the secret " Division X " facility . MacTaggert and Xavier find Shaw as Lehnsherr is attacking him , and rescue Lehnsherr from drowning , while Shaw escapes . Xavier brings Lehnsherr to Division X , where they meet young scientist Hank McCoy , a mutant with prehensile feet , who believes Raven 's DNA may provide a " cure " for their appearance . Xavier uses McCoy 's mutant @-@ locating device Cerebro to seek recruits against Shaw . Xavier and Lehnsherr recruit stripper Angel Salvadore , cabbie Armando Muñoz , Army prisoner Alex Summers , and runaway Sean Cassidy . They all create nicknames , and Raven dubs herself " Mystique " .
When Frost meets with a Soviet general in the USSR , Xavier and Lehnsherr capture Frost and discover that Shaw intends to start World War III and trigger mutant ascendency . Azazel , Riptide and Shaw attack Division X , killing everyone but the mutants , whom Shaw invites to join him . Salvadore accepts ; when Summers and Muñoz retaliate , Shaw kills Muñoz . In Moscow , Shaw compels the general to have the USSR install missiles in Cuba . Wearing a helmet that blocks telepathy , Shaw follows the Soviet fleet in a submarine to ensure the missiles break a US blockade .
Raven , thinking McCoy likes her in her natural form , tells him not to use the cure . When she later attempts to seduce Lehnsherr by taking the forms of various women , Lehnsherr tells her she is beautiful in her blue mutant form . McCoy uses the cure on himself but it backfires , giving him blue fur and leonine aspects . With McCoy piloting , the mutants and MacTaggert take a jet to the blockade line , where Xavier uses his telepathy to influence a Soviet sailor to destroy the ship carrying the missiles , and Lehnsherr uses his magnetic power to lift Shaw 's submarine from the water and deposit it on land . During the ensuing battle , Lehnsherr seizes Shaw 's helmet , allowing Xavier to immobilize Shaw . Lehnsherr tells Shaw he shares Shaw 's exclusivist view of mutants but , to avenge his mother , kills Shaw — over Xavier 's objections — by forcing the Nazi coin from his childhood through Shaw 's brain .
Fearing the mutants , both fleets fire missiles at them , which Lehnsherr turns back in mid @-@ flight . MacTaggert tries to stop Lehnsherr by shooting him but he deflects the bullets , one of which hits Xavier in the spine . Lehnsherr rushes to help Xavier and , distracted , allows the missiles to fall harmlessly into the ocean . Parting with Xavier over their differing views on the relationship between mutants and humans , Lehnsherr leaves with Salvadore , Azazel , Riptide and Mystique . Later , a wheelchair @-@ bound Xavier and his mutants are at the mansion , where he intends to open a school . MacTaggert promises never to reveal his location and they kiss ; later at a CIA debriefing , she says she has no memory of recent events . Elsewhere Lehnsherr , now calling himself " Magneto " , frees Frost from confinement .
= = Cast = =
James McAvoy as Charles Xavier / Professor X :
The telepathic mutant leader and founder of the X @-@ Men . He is a close friend of Erik Lehnsherr until their differing views of mutantkind 's place in humanity create a schism between them . McAvoy was Vaughn 's top choice for Xavier , and , after being cast , auditioned with every actor considered for Magneto to test the duo 's chemistry . McAvoy said he did not read comic books as a child , but added that he was a fan of the X @-@ Men cartoons from the age of 10 . While he describes the older Charles Xavier as " a monk ... a selfless , egoless almost sexless force for the betterment of humanity and mortality " , he says that the younger Xavier is a very different person . " It 's quite fun because the complete opposite of that is an ego @-@ fueled , sexed up self @-@ serving dude . And not going too far with it , but he 's definitely got an ego and he 's definitely got a sex drive as well . " McAvoy admitted to feeling similarities between Xavier / Magneto and Martin Luther King Jr . / Malcolm X stating that the film was " sort of like meeting them at a point where they are still finding out who they are and you are still seeing some of the events that shaped them . " McAvoy avoided doing any callbacks to Patrick Stewart 's performance as Xavier as Vaughn told him and Michael Fassbender to only take the allusion to Xavier and Magneto 's old friendship in the other movies as inspiration . Vaughn stated that since he considered that Professor X was " a bit of a pious , sanctimonious boring character , and he 's got too much fucking power " , the script would make young Xavier more interesting by " making him more of a rogue " who would become more responsible as his mission of finding more mutants went on.Laurence Belcher as 12 @-@ year @-@ old Charles Xavier .
Michael Fassbender as Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto :
A mutant capable of manipulating and generating electromagnetic fields . He becomes Xavier 's friend and ally until their philosophical differences create a schism between them . Fassbender had auditioned for an earlier Matthew Vaughn project , and the director had remembered him and sent Fassbender the X @-@ Men script . Though Fassbender knew little of the superhero team , he became interested in the part after reading the script and familiarizing himself with Magneto in the comic books . Fassbender , who saw Lehnsherr as a Machiavellian character who is neither good nor evil , watched Sir Ian McKellen 's performances to get the flavor of Magneto , but ultimately chose to " paint a new canvas " with the character , " just going my own way and working with whatever is in the comic books and the script . " Vaughn said Lehnsherr " is straight up cool ; he 's Han Solo while Professor X is Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi " . Bill Milner as 14 @-@ year @-@ old Erik Lehnsherr .
Rose Byrne as Moira MacTaggert :
A CIA agent who befriends Xavier and Lehnsherr . Byrne said she was unfamiliar with both the comics and the film series , except for " what a juggernaut of a film it was " . The actress was cast late into production , which had already begun by the time she was picked for the role . MacTaggert was described by Byrne as " a woman in a man ’ s world , she ’ s very feisty and ambitious — you know , she ’ s got a toughness about her which I liked " .
Jennifer Lawrence as Raven Darkhölme / Mystique :
A shape @-@ shifting mutant who is Charles Xavier 's childhood friend and adoptive sister . After the dramatic Winter 's Bone , Lawrence sought First Class to do " something a little lighter " . Despite having not seen any of the X @-@ Men films , the actress watched them and became a fan , which led her to accept the role as well , as did the prospect of working with Vaughn , McAvoy and Fassbender . Vaughn said Lawrence was picked because " she could pull off the challenging dichotomy that Raven faces as she transforms into Mystique ; that vulnerability that shields a powerful inner strength . " Lawrence had some reservations about her performance due to Mystique 's previous portrayal by Rebecca Romijn , as she considered Romijn to be " the most gorgeous person in the world " , and felt their portrayals were very contrasting , feeling hers was " sweet and naive " while Romijn was " sultry and mean " . The actress went on a diet and had to work out for two hours daily to keep in shape , and for Mystique 's blue form , Lawrence had to undergo an eight @-@ hour make @-@ up process similar to that of Romijn on the other films . The first day with make @-@ up even caused blisters to appear on Lawrence 's upper body.Morgan Lily as 9 @-@ year @-@ old Raven Darkhölme : with the actress wearing a slip @-@ on bodysuit and facial appliances which only took one hour and a half to apply , as subjecting a child actor to the extensive make @-@ up was impractical .
Rebecca Romijn as adult Raven Darkhölme : a brief uncredited cameo , which Vaughn added as an in @-@ joke — the script has Raven " becom [ ing ] Brigitte Bardot or Marilyn Monroe , like an older sex icon of those times " .
January Jones as Emma Frost
An extremely strong mutant telepath who can also change her entire body into hard diamond form which grants her superhuman strength , stamina , psionic immunity , and durability , at the cost of using her telepathic abilities . She is a member of the Hellfire Club . Prior to Jones ' casting , Alice Eve was the subject of what Variety called " widespread Internet reports " that Eve " was set to play Emma Frost , although no deal was in place . " Jones accepted the role to get something different from her job in the TV series Mad Men . While discovering that like the show First Class was set in the 1960s , the actress considered that : " [ Frost ] ' s so , so far from Betty and from Mad Men , and it takes place in that time but it doesn ’ t feel like a period movie . " The actress described the revealing costumes of the character as " insane , " saying , " She 's got quite the bod , which is very intimidating " . The actress stated that she did only a limited exercise routine to keep in shape , as " I 'm a petite person , so I didn 't want to go into a strict workout and eating regime . "
Nicholas Hoult as Dr. Hank McCoy / Beast :
A genius scientist who has mutant abilities similar to those of the great apes . He attempts to cure himself of what he believes to be physically debilitating aspects of his mutation only to be transformed into a frightening @-@ looking blue @-@ furred apeman with leonine attributes . Despite his new appearance , he is kind and caring at heart . Broadway actor Benjamin Walker was previously cast as Beast , but eventually turned down the role to star in the Broadway musical Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson . Hoult was chosen for being " gentle with a capability of being fierce " , and admitted to being both an X @-@ Men fan and enthusiastic on both returning to the action genre after 2010 's Clash of the Titans and working with the film 's cast . The actor had to use makeup that took four hours to apply when Hank becomes the Beast , which include a mask , contact lenses , a furry muscle suit and fake teeth . As Vaughn wanted Beast to look more feral than the version Kelsey Grammer played in X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , the redesign went through various tests , which tried to make Beast not resemble any particular animal but still look like Hoult , as well as with a furry body , which makeup artist Alec Gillis of Amalgamated Dynamics likened to " something akin to a wolf 's pelt on his face , his arms @-@ everywhere " . The suits employed actual dyed fur from fox pelts .
Oliver Platt as Man In Black Suit :
A CIA agent and head of Division X , a government agency working with the X @-@ Men . Vaughn had considered his friend Dexter Fletcher for the part , but the studio felt the cast had too many British actors , and Fletcher himself declined , to direct Wild Bill .
Jason Flemyng as Azazel :
A mutant who has the ability to teleport , and is also a member of the Hellfire Club . Flemyng , who had previously been considered for Beast in The Last Stand , said he did not want more make @-@ up heavy roles after playing Calibos in Clash of the Titans , but made an exception for Azazel as he liked working with Vaughn . Due to the Cold War setting , Flemyng tried to imply that Azazel is Russian to partly explain his pleasure in killing CIA agents . The actor spent eight weeks with fight training , particularly with swords , and had to undergo a four @-@ hour make @-@ up process , which like Mystique was designed by Spectral Motion — but did not include Azazel 's tail , which was computer @-@ generated . Shuler Donner considered that the problems with the shade of red on Azazel 's skin - " some looked like the Devil , some like a man wearing red paint " - was overcome by adding scars that made him more human , eyes brighter than Flemyng 's own , and " a black mane of hair that seemed to tie everything in " .
Lucas Till as Alex Summers / Havok :
A mutant who has the ability to absorb energy and discharge it as blasts . The producers told Till his audition served for both Havok and Beast , and the actor replied that despite his lifelong dream of playing a superhero , " I know you 'll kill me , but if I get Beast , I 'm not in the movie . I 'm not going through that makeup everyday [ sic ] . "
Edi Gathegi as Armando Muñoz / Darwin :
A mutant with the ability of " reactive evolution . " Gathegi became interested in a role in the X @-@ Men films after seeing X2 , and had previously auditioned for Agent Zero in X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine . He read for Banshee while auditioning for First Class , and only learned he was playing Darwin a few days prior to the shoot . Gathegi worked out and entered an eating regime to get in shape , and also researched the comics about his character . All of Darwin 's transformations — getting gills , turning his skin into concrete — were done through computer graphics , with a computer @-@ generated version of Gathegi that could seamlessly blend in and out of the human form .
Kevin Bacon as Dr. Klaus Schmidt / Sebastian Shaw :
A former mutant Nazi scientist and the leader of the Hellfire Club , a secret society bent on taking over the world . He has the power of absorbing and redirecting kinetic and radiated energy . Producer Lauren Shuler Donner said Bacon was considered for Shaw for being an actor who could convey a villain " with different shades , that 's not always clear that he 's the bad guy " . Vaughn added that Bacon " had that bravado that Shaw needed " , while stating that the actor was his top choice along with Colin Firth . Bacon accepted the role as he was a fan of Vaughn 's Kick @-@ Ass , and liked both the character of Shaw and the script , which he described as " a fresh look at the franchise , but also the comic book movies in general " . The actor considered that Shaw was a sociopath to whom " the morality of the world did not apply " , with producer Simon Kinberg adding that Bacon portrayed him as " somebody , who in his mind , is the hero of the movie " . Bacon also said that , " aside from the kind of evil side , I portrayed him as kind of a Hugh Hefner type " . Vaughn discarded Shaw 's look from the comics as he felt he would " look like an Austin Powers villain " .
Caleb Landry Jones as Sean Cassidy / Banshee :
A mutant capable of emitting incredibly strong ultrasonic screams , sonic blasts , sonic bursts , and sonic waves used in various ways including as a means of flight . Jones auditioned without knowing what X @-@ Men character he was up for , saying he auditioned because it was a superhero that fit his biotype : " I 've got red hair and freckles , I 'm not gonna be Batman , Robin or Spider @-@ Man " . The actor also stated that the script defined the character more than the comics , as Banshee went through various reinventions in print . Given Banshee gets involved with MacTaggert in the comics , Jones also tried to " look at her just a little bit differently , you know , when I can . " As Jones suffers from acrophobia , using the rig that was to depict Banshee 's flight required much preparation time with the stunt team .
Zoë Kravitz as Angel Salvadore :
A mutant with dragonfly wings which are tattooed on her body and possesses acidic saliva . The make @-@ up team took four hours to apply Angel 's wing tattoo on Kravitz , and the visual effects team had to erase the tattoo in case the scene required Angel with the computer @-@ generated wings . To depict flight , Kravitz stood on elevated platforms and was dangled on wires , at times from a helicopter to allow for varied camera angles .
Matt Craven as CIA Director McCone :
A director of the CIA .
Álex González as Janos Quested / Riptide :
A mutant member of the Hellfire Club , with the ability to create powerful whirlwinds from his hands and body . First Class marks the first English @-@ language film for González , who auditioned while taking English classes in London . He enjoyed playing a villain as most of his film roles in Spain were for " good guys " , and compared Riptide 's respectable and polite personality , which can suddenly be dropped to perform fierce attacks , to a hurricane ; in a translation of a Portuguese @-@ language interview , he is quoted as saying , " When I see a hurricane from far , it is calm . The only thing I can see is a kind of tube . But from inside , up close , it is really dangerous . "
Rade Šerbedžija as Russian General
A high @-@ ranking Soviet military official during the early 1960s .
Glenn Morshower as Colonel Robert Hendry
A US Army officer coerced by the Hellfire Club .
Other cast members include Annabelle Wallis as Amy , a young woman who has heterochromia ; Don Creech as CIA Agent Stryker , father of Major William Stryker ( a character who appears in X2 , X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine , X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , and X @-@ Men : Apocalypse ) ; Michael Ironside ; Ray Wise ; James Remar ; Brendan Fehr ; and Aleksander Krupa also portrayed small roles in this film . Hugh Jackman reprises his role as Logan / Wolverine in an uncredited cameo in a bar , dismissing an approach by Xavier and Lehnsherr to join them . Jackman said he accepted the offer to appear because " it sounded perfect to me " , particularly for Wolverine being the only character with a swear word . X @-@ Men creator Stan Lee , who appeared in the first and third movie and regularly cameos in other Marvel @-@ based movies , explained that he was unable to participate in First Class because " they shot it too far away " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
During the production of X2 , producer Lauren Shuler Donner had discussed the idea of a film focusing on the young X @-@ Men with the crew , which was met with approval ; the concept was revived during the production of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand . One of The Last Stand 's writers , Zak Penn , was hired to write and direct this spin @-@ off , but this idea later fell through . Penn explained in 2007 that " the original idea was to have me do a young X @-@ Men spin @-@ off , a spin @-@ off of the young X @-@ Men characters . But someone came up with a pretty interesting idea [ ... ] it was this guy who worked with me named Mike Chamoy , he worked a lot with me on X3 . He came up with how to do a young X @-@ Men movie which is not what you 'd expect . "
Around the same time , in December 2004 , 20th Century Fox hired screenwriter Sheldon Turner to draft a spin @-@ off X @-@ Men film , and he chose to write Magneto , pitching it as " The Pianist meets X @-@ Men . " According to Turner , the script he penned was set from 1939 to 1955 , following Magneto trying to survive in Auschwitz . He meets Xavier , a young soldier , during the liberation of the camp . He hunts down the Nazi war criminals who tortured him , and this lust for vengeance turns him and Xavier into enemies . In April 2007 , David S. Goyer was hired to direct . The film would take place mostly in flashbacks with actors in their twenties , with Ian McKellen 's older Magneto as a framing device , and some usage of the computer @-@ generated facelift applied to him in the prologue of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , McKellen reiterated his hope to open and close the film . The Magneto film was planned to shoot in Australia for a 2009 release , but it was delayed by the 2007 @-@ 2008 Writers Guild of America strike .
As producer Simon Kinberg read the comic series X @-@ Men : First Class , he suggested studio 20th Century Fox to adapt it . Kinberg , however , did not want to follow the comic too much , as he felt " it was not fresh enough in terms of storytelling " , considering them too similar to Twilight and John Hughes movies , and also because the producers wanted an adaptation that would introduce new characters . Both Kinberg and Shuler Donner said that they wanted characters with visuals and powers that had not been seen and that worked well as an ensemble , even if they did not work together in the comics . Shuler Donner later said that the original idea was to green @-@ light First Class depending on the success of X @-@ Men Origins : Magneto . That project was seeking approval to film in Washington , D.C. , and by December 2008 , Goyer said filming would begin if X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine was successful . The story was moved forward to 1962 , and involves Xavier and Magneto battling a villain .
In 2008 , Josh Schwartz was hired to write the screenplay , while declining the possibility of directing X @-@ Men : First Class . Fox later approached Bryan Singer , director of X @-@ Men and X2 , in October 2009 . Schwartz later said that Singer dismissed his work as " he wanted to make a very different kind of movie " , with the director instead writing his own treatment which was then developed into a new script by Jamie Moss .
In 2009 , Ian McKellen confirmed that he would not be reprising his role as Magneto in the Origins movie citing his age , and Shuler Donner stated that the movie might never be made , stating it was " at the back of the queue " in the studio 's priorities . Both Donner and Bryan Singer have stated that Magneto would not be produced as the plot of X @-@ Men : First Class " superseded " the story of the planned film . Singer denied using Sheldon Turner 's script for Magneto as inspiration to write his draft of First Class , but the Writer 's Guild of America arbitration still credited Turner for the film 's story , while Moss and Schwartz 's collaborations ended up uncredited . Singer set the film in a period where Xavier and Magneto were in their twenties , and seeing that it was during the 1960s , added the Cuban Missile Crisis as a backdrop , considering it would be interesting to " discuss this contemporary concept in a historical context " . Shuler Donner suggested the Hellfire Club as the villains .
In addition to Moss , Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz were hired to rewrite the script . Miller compared it tonally to Singer 's work on the first two X @-@ Men films . The pair centered the film on Xavier and Magneto 's relationship , and wrote the other characters and storylines in terms of " how they fit in the tension between Erik and Charles " . Singer dropped out of the director 's position in March 2010 due to his commitment to a Jack the Giant Killer adaptation . He formalized his duties from director to producer .
The producers listed various possible directors , but at first did not consider Matthew Vaughn because he started working on The Last Stand before backing out . After seeing Vaughn 's satirical superhero film Kick @-@ Ass ( 2010 ) , Kinberg decided to contact Vaughn to see if he would be interested in First Class . When Fox offered Vaughn the " chance to reboot X @-@ Men and put your stamp all over it " , he first thought the studio was joking , but accepted after discovering that it was to be set in the 1960s . The director stated that First Class would become the opportunity to combine many of his dream projects : " I got my cake and ate it , managed to do an X @-@ Men movie , and a Bond thing , and a Frankenheimer political thriller at the same time " . Vaughn signed on as Singer 's replacement in May 2010 , and Fox subsequently announced a June 3 , 2011 release date . Vaughn also rewrote the script with his screenwriting partner Jane Goldman , adding new characters and changing existing character arcs and dynamics — for instance , the idea of a love triangle between Xavier , Magneto and Moira MacTaggert was cut . The character of Sunspot was also cut , as the director felt that " we didn 't have enough time or money " to make the character work . Vaughn and Goldman considered including mentions to the Civil Rights Movement , but ultimately the director felt that " I had enough political subplot in this movie " . Vaughn stated that his biggest concern was to both make Erik and Charles ' friendship believable given the short timespan of the film , and on how the character of Magneto was built - " Shaw was the villain , but now you 're seeing all those elements of Shaw going into Magneto . " An action scene that was to have been set in a dream sequence with revolving rooms was scrapped after the release of Inception ( 2010 ) .
Describing his thought process towards the material , Vaughn said he was motivated by " unfinished business " with Marvel , having been previously involved with the production of both X @-@ Men : The Last Stand and Thor . Vaughn declared that he was more enthusiastic about First Class than The Last Stand due to not being constrained by the previous installments , and having the opportunity to " start fresh " , while " nodding towards " the successful elements from those films . Vaughn compared First Class to both Batman Begins ( 2005 ) , which restarted a franchise with an unseen approach , and the 2009 Star Trek film , which paid homage to the original source material while taking it in a new direction with a fresh , young cast . Regarding continuity , Vaughn said his intention was " to make as good a film that could stand on its own two feet regardless of all the other films " and also that could " reboot and start a whole new X @-@ Men franchise " . Goldman added the film was kind of an " alternate history " for the X @-@ Men , saying that while rebooting , the writers did not want to go fully " against the canon of the X @-@ Men trilogy " , comparing to the various approaches the comic had in over fifty years of publication .
The film also rescues a central concept in the comics , the fact that radiation is one of the causes of genetic mutation in the X @-@ Men fictional universe , and incorporates it in the storyline , resurrecting the concept which went unused in the last years , as writers in the comics more recently have attributed the phenomenon of mutation mostly to evolution and natural selection .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on August 31 , 2010 , in Oxford , England , which included St Aldate 's street and some of the University of Oxford 's buildings , and lasted for two days . Production then moved to Pinewood Studios in Iver , and to Georgia in October , including Tybee Island , Thunderbolt and Savannah , after sites in Louisiana , North Carolina and West Michigan were considered . Jekyll Island was chosen over Tybee Island after a producer reviewed the locations on Google Earth and thought the water near Jekyll looked more blue . Palm trees were planted into the island 's sand so that it would look more like a tropical beach , but the cold weather caused many of the palm trees to become brown or die only days into the shoot , necessitating significant digital color correction from the visual effects team . Additional location shooting took place in Russia . A section of the plot is set in the Argentine coastal city of Villa Gesell , but was filmed in another province of the country with no beach but with mountains instead . Washington , D.C. , the Mojave Desert and Fox 's soundstages in Los Angeles also served as locations . The Englefield House in Berkshire served as the X @-@ Mansion , and had its interior decoration adapted to resemble the way the mansion looked in the previous films . Both the submarine and the X @-@ Jet were built on hydraulic sets so that they could be rotated for the vehicles ' movements . Principal photography ended in December , but additional filming , primarily in California at Los Angeles and Long Beach , continued into April 2011 , leaving only three to four weeks for post @-@ production before the film 's scheduled premiere in June . The tight schedule to meet the release date led Vaughn to declare that he had " never worked under such time pressure " . The film cost approximately $ 160 million to produce without tax breaks , with the eventual cost around $ 140 million .
The 1960s setting of X @-@ Men : First Class was technologically inspired by the James Bond films of that era , also added to the international feel of the characters . Kinberg said the series was a major influence for the way they " did a cool job representing the period , in a way it still felt muscular and action @-@ oriented " , and Vaughn added that Magneto was his attempt to recreate Sean Connery 's Bond in both style and the " badass , charming , ruthless and sweet " personality . The director said his goal was to " feel like a ' 60s Bond film , but with a little bit of reality it could be grounded in . I wanted there to be just a hint of this world of the mutants coming through . A mutant in this world having powers needed to be the equivalent of you or I sneezing , as normal as possible , at least until the humans start seeing it for the first time . " At the same time , Vaughn tried to do the " bloody hard balancing " of modern and antique to recreate the 1960s in way it was " not so alien to the kids that it looked like a period piece . " The director also tried to depict the era still in a realistic way , particularly " that 60s misogynist vibe " with women in skimpy suits , and McTaggert 's reliability as a CIA agent being questioned .
Vaughn said he shot the film in a way it resembled the productions of the 1960s , with " very traditional framing , and camera movement when it needs to move , not just throwing it around and whizz @-@ bang " , and using the anamorphic format " to create a widescreen experience , which is emblematic of ' 60s movies , such as the James Bond films " . The director had to hire five cinematographers - with sole credit being given to John Mathieson , who came halfway through the shoot and did " forty @-@ five percent , fifty @-@ five percent " of the film - and four assistant directors to successfully convey the look he wanted for the film . Visual effects supervisor Matt Johnson added that for the lighting of the digital interior of Cerebro , " keeping with the ' 60s vibe , we put in some old school elements such as lens flare and chromatic aberration and edge fringing . " The aesthetics of the decade were also invoked by designers Simon Clowes and Kyle Cooper of Prologue Films , who were responsible for the end credits and tried to do something that " could be done with traditional optical " . The credits animation depicts DNA strands through simple geometric shapes , drawing inspiration from both Saul Bass and Maurice Binder 's work in the Bond films .
The origin story made the X @-@ Men costumes resemble the ones in the original comics , while still being functional , with the yellow parts resembling Kevlar and the blue looking like ballistic nylon , and resembling 1962 apparel in both the fabrics and the " Space Age fashion " . The costumes tried to convey the character personalities — for instance , Xavier wore loose clothes , and Emma Frost 's costumes were white and shimmery . Magneto 's costume at the film 's ending also closely resembled the original version from the comics , and three versions of his helmet were made , two to fit Fassbender 's head and one for Bacon 's .
= = = Effects = = =
First Class employed 1 @,@ 150 visual effects shots , which were done by six companies : Rhythm & Hues was responsible for Emma Frost , Mystique and Angel , as well as set extensions ; Cinesite handled Azazel , the visuals for Cerebro and environment effects ; Luma Pictures did Banshee , Havok and Darwin ; Moving Picture Company did Beast , Riptide , and the scene where Shaw 's yacht is destroyed and he escapes in a submarine ; Digital Domain created Sebastian Shaw 's powers , and Weta Digital was responsible for the climactic battle in Cuba . The overall coordination was provided by visual effects designer John Dykstra , who said the biggest difficulty was the tight schedule : " It was slightly less than a year and I 've never done anything like that before ( Spider @-@ Man was frequently two years ) . " British company 4dMax employed special 3D scanners to digitize data of the sets and actors which would be used by the effects companies . This allowed for computer @-@ generated sets such as the mirrored nuclear reactor where Magneto battles Shaw — for which the effects team used the mirror maze fight in Enter the Dragon as a reference — and the domed walls of Cerebro . Digital models of Washington and Moscow were also created based on photographs of the actual cities , with the Russian one in particular having vehicles and military hardware based on videos of a 1962 Red Square , and a digital army doing an actual Soviet @-@ style march . With the exception of scenes featuring the actors on ships ( shot on a small bridge set ) and the X @-@ Jet ( done on a set replicating the front two @-@ thirds of the aircraft , which was mounted atop a roller wheel so it could be spun ) the naval battle was entirely digital , featuring a simulated ocean and high resolution 3D models of the X @-@ Jet , Shaw 's submarine and 16 warships . The designs were mostly based on real vehicles , with the jet being a modified SR @-@ 71 Blackbird , the submarine a combination of various models from the 1940s and 1950s , and replicas of the actual US and USSR fleets in the 1960s — though a few were not in service in 1962 . A particular Soviet cruiser was a larger version of the Kresta I and II , leading Weta to dub it the Kresta III . Practical effects were still used whenever possible , such as having on location most of the objects young Erik throws after his mother 's death , actors and stuntmen dangled from wires , and real explosions and light effects as reference for Havok 's beams .
While in the comics Shaw 's absorption power was depicted by having him grow up to ten times his original size , First Class instead does what company Digital Domain called a " kinetic echo " , where a digital Kevin Bacon would be rippled , deformed and at times multiplied in repeated " iterations " that appear in a short period , to " see [ Shaw ] displace and deform in a kinetic and organic way " . According to Dykstra , the biggest problem with Frost 's diamond body was depicting it " without looking like she was made of Jell @-@ o or the polygon model of a human being " . The morphed Frost , which the visual effects tried to make look more like a faceted crystal than glass , was rotomated into Jones in the live @-@ action plates , while still retaining the actress ' eyes and lips . As the character kept on going in and out of her diamond form , a motion capture tracking suit could not be employed , so instead the effects team used both gray and chrome balls and a jumpsuit covered in mirrors — which also served as a lighting reference . For Angel 's digital wings , the animators studied slow @-@ motion footage of dragonflies to create the wing pattern in a realistic way , and the designers added iridescence to " make the wings prettier " . The visual of Banshee 's screams was done through a digital ring @-@ like structure based on renderings of sound waves such as Schlieren photography . The visual for Havok 's blasts employed similar rings , concentrated in beams or rings of light which were then match moved into Till 's mimed throwing . For Banshee 's flight , the visual effects team used digital doubles only for distant shots , with closer ones employing Jones shot in a special flight rig . Azazel 's teleporting was made to resemble the " inky smoky effects " used with Nightcrawler , who appeared in X2 and is Azazel 's son in the comics . However , while Nightcrawler only left a smoke trail , the visual effects team had Azazel accompanied by digital fire and smoke " because he was more closely aligned with the devil " . The fire was also used " as a mask to hide or reveal the body " , according to effects supervisor Matt Johnson . Since the visible part of whirlwinds are the dust and dirt sucked up by them , the ones Riptide produces were made to resemble " a tornado of gas , made out of nothingness " by visual effects supervisor Nicolas Aithadi . The final product was mostly a practical effect made with dry ice , which was augmented by computer @-@ generated imagery . The visual effects team portrayed Mystique 's abilities slightly differently due to this being a younger version , with " the scales being slightly longer and the transformation being slightly showier than when she became the more mature Rebecca . " For Beast , computer graphics depicted his simian @-@ like feet , the transformation sequence , and a few facial replacements for when Beast opened his mouth wider than the mask on Hoult 's face allowed .
= = Music = =
Henry Jackman , who had worked with Vaughn in Kick @-@ Ass , composed the score . Following the James Bond influences on First Class , Jackman drew inspiration from John Barry 's work in the said series , which he described as " extremely posh pop music " . Jackman started his work with a " Superman @-@ style theme " , which is only featured in the final parts of the film as Vaughn thought it was too " successful and triumphant " for a disjointed and up @-@ and @-@ coming team . Therefore , Vaughn reworked a ' stretched ' half time version of the theme into the remainder of the film . The themes for Magneto and Shaw have similarities to reflect their " perverted father @-@ son " relationship , with even a seamless transition during the scene where Shaw is killed to represent Lensherr 's full transformation into Magneto .
In a roundtable interview with multiple news outlets , Vaughn responded to a question about choosing " Love Love " by the British band Take That for the end @-@ credits theme , explaining , " I bumped into [ the band 's lead singer ] Gary [ Barlow ] in [ Los Angeles ] , and we were just talking , and I said , ' Do you want to come and see a rough cut of it ? ’ And they came , and they wrote the song , and I listened to it , and I said , ‘ I think it ’ ll be a hit ’ , and if we can do a video which gets girls more interested ... we might get them to come and watch it . So it ’ s pure commerce , to be blunt , and I want women to see this film . " An instrumental of the song " Run ( I 'm a Natural Disaster ) " by Gnarls Barkley is used in the ' mutant recruitment ' scene .
All music composed by Henry Jackman .
= = Release and reception = =
The premiere for X @-@ Men : First Class took place at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City , on May 25 , 2011 . The promotional campaign aimed for non @-@ traditional partners , with Fox signing deals with Farmers Insurance Group , BlackBerry Playbook and the U.S. Army . Wrigley Australia issued an X @-@ Men themed edition of their 5 chewing gum .
= = = Critical response = = =
X @-@ Men : First Class was very well @-@ received . Review @-@ aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 87 % based on reviews from 269 critics , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 4 out of 10 . The site 's critic consensus was that " with a strong script , stylish direction , and powerful performances from its well @-@ rounded cast , X @-@ Men : First Class is a welcome return to form for the franchise . " On another review aggregator , Metacritic , the film received a score of 65 out of 100 based on 38 reviews indicating " generally favorable reviews . "
Among the major trade publications , Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter described the film as " audacious , confident and fueled by youthful energy " , and said that " director Vaughn impressively maintains a strong focus dedicated to clarity and dramatic power ... and orchestrates the mayhem with a laudable coherence , a task made easier by a charging , churning score by Henry Jackman ... " . Justin Chang of Variety said the film " feels swift , sleek and remarkably coherent " , and that " the visual effects designed by John Dykstra are smoothly and imaginatively integrated ... " Frank Lovece of Film Journal International lauded " a wickedly smart script with a multilayered theme that ... never loses sight of its ultimate story , and makes each emotional motivation interlock , often shockingly playing for keeps with its characters . This is not a kids ' movie . "
In consumer publications , Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly praised " the kind of youthful , Brit @-@ knockabout pop energy director Matthew Vaughn absorbed from his previous collaborations as producer of director Guy Ritchie 's bloke @-@ y larks " , and found McAvoy and Fassbender " a casting triumph . These two have , yes , real star magnetism , both individually and together : They 're both cool and intense , suave and unaffected , playful and dead serious about their grand comic @-@ book work . " Peter Howell of the Toronto Star called it " a blockbuster with brains " and said Vaughn " brings similar freshness to this comic creation as he did to Kick @-@ Ass , and manages to do so while hewing to the saga 's serious dramatic intent . "
= = = Box office = = =
X @-@ Men : First Class went on general release on June 3 , 2011 . In North America , the film opened on approximately 6 @,@ 900 screens at 3 @,@ 641 locations , debuting atop the weekend box office with earnings of $ 55 @.@ 1 million across the three days , including $ 3 @.@ 4 million in its Friday midnight launch . This opening was much lower than the opening weekends of X @-@ Men : The Last Stand ( $ 102 @.@ 7 million ) , X2 ( $ 85 @.@ 5 million ) , and X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine ( $ 85 @.@ 0 million ) , but slightly higher than the original film ( $ 54 @.@ 5 million ) . Executives at 20th Century Fox stated they had achieved their goal by opening with about the same numbers as the first X @-@ Men film and that it was an excellent start to a new chapter of the franchise .
First Class also opened 8 @,@ 900 locations in 74 overseas markets , which brought in $ 61 million during the weekend — standing third in the overseas ranking behind Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides and The Hangover Part II . The film opened atop the box office in twenty countries , with the biggest grosses being in the United Kingdom ( $ 9 million , including previews ) , France ( $ 7 @.@ 1 million ) , Mexico ( $ 5 million ) , South Korea ( $ 5 @.@ 4 million ) and Australia ( $ 5 @.@ 1 million ) . In its second weekend X @-@ Men : First Class dropped 56 @.@ 2 percent , the second smallest second weekend drop in the franchise behind X2 : X @-@ Men United ( 53 @.@ 2 percent ) , and came in with $ 24 @.@ 1 million , in second place to Super 8 . Overseas , it rose to number two behind Kung Fu Panda 2 , with $ 42 @.@ 2 million . The film grossed $ 146 @,@ 408 @,@ 305 in the United States and Canada and $ 207 @,@ 215 @,@ 819 in foreign markets , bringing its worldwide total to $ 353 @,@ 624 @,@ 124 .
= = = Home media = = =
X @-@ Men : First Class was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray September 9 , 2011 in the US , and in the UK on October 31 , 2011 . The home release topped the sales charts in the United States with approximately 385 @,@ 000 DVDs . Blu @-@ ray accounted for 60 percent of first @-@ week disc sales , amounting to about 575 @,@ 000 discs . In the UK it sold 150 @,@ 000 units .
= = Accolades = =
= = Sequels = =
The movie 's success led to the continuation of the film series , with the spin @-@ off The Wolverine in 2013 . A direct sequel , X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , was released on May 23 , 2014 . X @-@ Men : Apocalypse was released on May 27 , 2016 .
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= Homansbyen Depot =
Homansbyen Depot ( Norwegian : Homansbyen vognhall ) , officially Kristiania Sporveisanlæg ( " Kristiania Tramway Installation " ) was an Oslo Tramway depot at Sporveisgata 8 near Bislett in Oslo , Norway . It was constructed for Kristiania Sporveisselskab in 1874 and was the first tramway depot in the country . The facilities were designed by Henrik Thrap @-@ Meyer and featured an administrative office , a horse stable , a forge , a workshop , a weighing shed , and a wagon depot . It had space for 28 horse wagons , 16 sleds , and 116 horses . The administrative office was built in brick and housed apartments , offices , and a laboratory for the veterinarian . The depot was reconstructed several times , and taken out of use in 1966 . It was demolished three years later , and replaced with residential apartment blocks .
= = History = =
The tramway operating company Kristiania Sporveisselskab was established on October 2 , 1874 , and started scheduled horse tram services on October 6 , 1875 . The network comprised a line from Homansbyen over Stortorvet to Gamlebyen , with a branch line to Oslo West Station . Also in October 1874 , Kristiania Sporveisselskap bought 12 square kilometers ( 4 @.@ 6 sq mi ) of the square Underhaug near Bislett , at the end of the Homansbyen Line , where the depot was built . It was constructed with a building housing the company 's administrative office , horse stables , a wagon depot , a forge , and a weighing shed . These installations were designed by the Norwegian architect Henrik Thrap @-@ Meyer . All installations but the head office were addressed to Sporveisgata 8 . The head office was addressed to Underhaugsveien .
When the Oslo Tramway was electrified in 1899 , a large reorganization of Homansbyen Depot took place . The horse stables were rebuilt to serve as tramway depots , requiring more space . The workshop was extended with additional rooms in the surrounding buildings . Plans for building a steam power station at the depot never materialised .
Kristiania Sporveisselskab acquired Kristiania Kommunale Sporveie in 1905 , and additional extensions of the depot were built . In 1907 , the administrative office was completely rebuilt two years later , and an additional 60 @-@ meter ( 200 ft ) long tramway depot was constructed in Pilestredet . When Oslo Sporveier acquired all the city 's private tram companies in 1924 , Homansbyen became the head office . Homansbyen also housed the payroll office .
During the World War II , on August 29 , 1944 , two armed men entered the payroll office in Underhaugsveien and stole 120 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , while demanding the local treasurer Knut Holmstøen and his assistant to hold their hands lifted . The two men have not been identified , but they are suspected to have come from Milorg , which had a deficit of money during the war .
When the Etterstad Depot became operational in 1966 , the Homansbyen Depot was closed and the property sold . The tramway installations were demolished in 1969 and replaced with apartment blocks , local schools , and offices . The only visible remains of the depot is the street name Sporveisgata ( " The Tramway Street " ) .
= = Facilities = =
The installations of the depot were all built in brick and were rebuilt many times . The head office had two floors . The ground floor featured six rooms , four serving as offices . Stablemen and coaches occupied the other two rooms . The second floor consisted of apartments for the stable keeper and depot inspector and a laboratory for the horse veterinarian .
The stable originally had stalls for 116 healthy and 12 ill horses . The stable was insured for 12 @,@ 000 Norwegian speciedaler , twice the amount for the head office building . The wagon depot had space for 28 trams and 16 sleds . The 16 sleds were purchased between 1875 and 1879 , and replaced the horsecars during the winter . The forge had space for two smiths and featured a small room where the horses were shoed .
= = Location = =
The depot was located in Sporveisgata , between Bergsliens gate and the street junction Pilestredet – Sporveisgata . The street Sporveisgata was in the beginning only a branch from Pilestredet , but it became a street in its own right in 1879 , after the tramway installations had been constructed . While it was located in a branch to Pilestredet , the depot had Pilestredet 75 as its address . After the branch had its name changed to Sporveisgata , the address was renamed Sporveisgata 8 .
Initially , the depot was located at the very end of the Homansbyen Line . Consequently , trams traveling to the depot had to run from the terminus Hygea , via a curve from Josefines gate over Bislett and Pilestredet to Sporveisgata 8 . Sporveisgata stretches from Bogstadveien in the south @-@ east to Thereses gate in the north @-@ west . As of 2012 , the nearest tram stops to the depot are Bislett on the Ullevål Hageby Line and Rosenborg on the Briskeby Line .
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= Pulteney Bridge =
Pulteney Bridge crosses the River Avon in Bath , England . It was completed by 1774 , and connected the city with the newly built Georgian town of Bathwick . Designed by Robert Adam in a Palladian style , it is exceptional in having shops built across its full span on both sides . It has been designated as a Grade I listed building .
Within 20 years of its construction , alterations were made that expanded the shops and changed the façades . By the end of the 18th century it had been damaged by floods , but it was rebuilt to a similar design . Over the next century alterations to the shops included cantilevered extensions on the bridge 's north and south faces . In the 20th century several schemes were carried out to preserve the bridge and partially return it to its original appearance , enhancing its appeal as a tourist attraction .
The bridge is now 45 metres ( 148 ft ) long and 18 metres ( 58 ft ) wide . Although there have been plans to pedestrianise the bridge , it is still used by buses and taxis . The much photographed bridge and the weir below are close to the centre of the city , which is a World Heritage Site largely because of its Georgian architecture .
= = Design and construction = =
One of only four bridges in the world to have shops across its full span on both sides , the structure was designed by Robert Adam ; his original drawings are preserved in the Sir John Soane 's Museum in London .
The bridge is named after Frances Pulteney , wife of William Johnstone . He was a wealthy Scottish lawyer and Member of Parliament . Frances was the third daughter of MP and government official Daniel Pulteney ( 1684 – 1731 ) and first cousin once removed of William Pulteney , 1st Earl of Bath . She inherited the Earl 's substantial fortune and estates close to Bath in Somerset after his death in 1764 and that of his younger brother and heir in 1767 , and the Johnstones changed their surname to Pulteney . The rural Bathwick estate , which Frances and William inherited in 1767 , was across the river from the city and could only be reached by ferry . William made plans to create a new town , which would become a suburb to the historic city of Bath , but first he needed a better river crossing . The work of the Pulteneys is memorialised by Great Pulteney Street in Bathwick , and Henrietta Street and Laura Place , named after their daughter Henrietta Laura Johnstone .
Initial plans for the bridge were drawn up by Thomas Paty , who estimated it would cost £ 4 @,@ 569 to build , but that did not include the shops . A second estimate of £ 2 @,@ 389 was obtained from local builders John Lowther and Richard Reed ; it included two shops at each end of the bridge , but work did not begin before winter weather made construction of the pillars impossible . In 1770 the brothers Robert and James Adam , who were working on designs for the new town at Bathwick , adapted Paty 's original design . Robert Adam envisaged an elegant structure lined with shops , similar to the Ponte Vecchio and the Ponte di Rialto he would likely have seen when he visited Florence and Venice . Adam 's design more closely followed Andrea Palladio 's rejected design for the Rialto . The revised bridge was 15 metres ( 50 ft ) wide , rather than the 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 30 ft ) width envisaged by Paty , which overcame the objections of the local council about the bridge being too narrow .
Construction started in 1770 and was completed by 1774 at a cost of £ 11 @,@ 000 . The builders for the lower part of the bridge were local masons Reed and Lowther ; the shops were constructed by Singers and Lankeshere .
= = Development = =
Pulteney Bridge stood for less than 20 years in the form Adam created . In 1792 alterations were made during which the bridge was widened to 18 metres ( 58 ft ) and the shops enlarged , converting the original sixteen shops into six larger ones . Floods in 1799 and 1800 wrecked the north side of the bridge , which had been constructed with inadequate support . Thomas Telford suggested replacing the bridge with a single span cast iron bridge . However it was rebuilt by John Pinch senior , surveyor to the Pulteney estate , in a less ambitious version of Adam 's design . Nineteenth @-@ century shopkeepers changed the structure and appearance of their premises by changing windows , or expanding them by adding cantilevers over the river . Some painted advertisements on the outside of their shops , affecting the view from the river and Grand Parade . The western end pavilion on the south side was demolished in 1903 for road widening and its replacement was not an exact match .
In 1936 the bridge was designated an ancient monument . The city council bought several of the shops and made plans for the restoration of the original façade , which was completed in time for the Festival of Britain in 1951 . Further work was carried out in the 1960s to repair the underside soffits of all three arches . More restoration of the southern street facade was needed in 1975 . The status of the bridge as an ancient monument was replaced in 1955 with its designation as a Grade I listed building .
In 2009 Bath and North East Somerset council put forward a proposal to close the bridge to motor traffic and turn it into a pedestrianised zone , but the plan was abandoned in September 2011 .
= = Architecture = =
The bridge features two ranges of shops designed in the Palladian style c . 1770 , between them forming a narrow street over the bridge . The street and buildings sit above three segmental arches of equal span .
The shops on the north side have cantilevered rear extensions . Consequently , the northern external façade of the bridge is asymmetrical , much altered and of no architectural merit , whereas the southern external side clearly shows the hand of Robert Adam .
Built of limestone , in classic Palladian style , the southern façade takes the form of a temple @-@ like central bay with symmetrical wings connecting to two flanking , terminating pavilions . The central bay is given eminence by a broken pediment supported by austere Doric pillasters . It in turn is flanked by two small bays , each with a small pointed pediment supported by shallow pilasters , which further emphasise and complement the central broken pediment sitting above a large Palladian window – the focal point of the building . On this southern side the structure comprises a principal floor at street level , with a low mezzanine separated by stone banding above . Beneath the principal floor is a sub @-@ floor constructed in the masonry between the spans of the bridge , its presence indicated by ocular windows placed symmetrically beneath the span of each arch . This ocular motif , on a reduced scale , is repeated symmetrically at mezzanine level beneath the central broken pediment . The two terminating pavilions , in reality slight projections , have shallow saucer domes concealed behind their pointed pediments . The roof is pitched and of Welsh slate .
The western mid @-@ stream pier was rebuilt in 1804 . Further alteration took place in 1895 , when the western pavilion was moved for the construction of the Grand Parade . The appearance changed yet again when the current weir , the scene of Javert 's suicide in the film version of Les Misérables , was constructed between 1968 and 1972 as part of a flood @-@ prevention scheme . Further restoration was undertaken in 1975 .
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= Typhoon Elsie ( 1989 ) =
Typhoon Elsie , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Tasing , was one of the most intense known tropical cyclones to make landfall in the Philippines . A powerful Category 5 super typhoon , Elsie formed out of a tropical disturbance on October 13 , 1989 , and initially moved relatively slowly in an area of weak steering currents . On October 15 , the storm underwent a period of rapid intensification , attaining an intensity that corresponds to a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After taking a due west track towards the northern Philippines , the storm intensified further , becoming a Category 5 super typhoon hours before making landfall in Luzon . After moving inland , the typhoon rapidly weakened to a tropical storm . Once back over water in the South China Sea , wind shear prevented re @-@ intensifcation . Elsie eventually made landfall in Vietnam on October 22 and dissipated the following day over Laos .
In the Philippines , Elsie worsened the situation already left in the wakes of typhoons Angela and Dan . Although it was stronger than the previous two , Elsie caused far less damage due to the relatively sparse population in the area of landfall . During the storm 's passage , 47 people were killed and another 363 were injured . Damages throughout the country amounted to $ 35 @.@ 4 million and roughly 332 @,@ 000 people were left homeless .
= = Meteorological history = =
Super Typhoon Elsie , the third typhoon to impact the Philippines within a 12 @-@ day span during 1989 , originated from a Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough ( TUTT ) over the western Pacific Ocean in mid @-@ October . By October 13 , a tropical disturbance developed out of the system roughly 1 @,@ 240 kilometres ( 770 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Manila , Philippines . At this time , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began to monitor the system as a tropical depression . Located between two other TUTT cells , the disturbance 's outflow was enhanced , allowing it to intensify . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert late on October 13 . Early the following day , the disturbance was designated as Tropical Depression 30W as it began to stall in an area of weak steering currents between two subtropical highs .
Shortly after being declared a depression , the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm , giving it the name Elsie . At the same time , the JMA also upgraded the depression to a tropical storm . By October 15 , Elsie began to take a slow track to the west @-@ northwest and intensified . Later that day , a short @-@ wave trough passed to the north of the storm , again enhancing its outflow . This led to a period of rapid intensification , during which Elsie intensified from a tropical storm to the equivalent of a high @-@ end Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale in a 24 @-@ hour span . The JMA also upgraded Elsie to a typhoon , though they reported a much more gradual rate of intensification . After strengthening further to Category 4 intensity , maximum winds leveled out for most of October 17 .
On October 18 , another period of intensification took place as the storm neared the northern Philippines . Early in the day , Elsie was upgraded to a super typhoon , a storm with winds of at least 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) . Hours before making landfall in Luzon , the storm attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 super typhoon with winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 898 hPa ( mbar ) . The peak intensity of Elsie was assessed by the JMA at the same time . They reported that the typhoon attained winds of 175 km / h ( 115 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a minimum pressure of 915 hPa ( mbar ) . The center of Elsie crossed the Philippine coastline at around 0300 UTC on October 19 .
Rapid weakening took place as the storm moved over the mountainous terrain of northern Luzon . Roughly nine hours after crossing the coastline , Elsie was downgraded to a tropical storm . The weakened storm continued its westward track as it entered the South China Sea along a monsoonal surge . This surge also helped to keep Elsie as a tropical storm due to increased wind shear over the northern portion of the cyclone . The JMA , unlike the JTWC , did not downgrade Elsie to a tropical storm until October 21 . Failing to re @-@ intensify , Elsie eventually made landfall in central Vietnam on October 22 and degenerated into a remnant @-@ low pressure system early the following day . The remnants of Elsie were monitored by the JTWC on satellite imagery for a short time until the former typhoon dissipated over Laos .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
During the storm , roughly 50 @,@ 500 people sought refuge in shelters set up across the country . Throughout the Philippines , 47 people were killed by the typhoon , mostly from drowning . Sixteen of these fatalities occurred in Isabela Province , where Elsie made landfall . Heavy rains triggered several landslides across mountainous areas of the country . High winds also created deadly air @-@ borne debris , including roofing and tree limbs . Downed power lines across the northern provinces left most of Luzon without power . Officials stated that about 61 @,@ 300 homes were either damaged or destroyed by Elsie in the Philippines . In the wake of the typhoon , roughly 332 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Damages sustained by agriculture amounted to 105 million PHP ( $ 2 @,@ 253 @,@ 702 USD ) . In all , Typhoon Elsie killed 47 people and injured 363 others in the Philippines , and left roughly $ 35 @.@ 4 million in damages .
Although Elsie brushed Hainan Island in China and made landfall in northern Vietnam , little damage was reported in these regions . In addition to damages caused by Brian , Angela and Dan , roughly ¥ 1 @.@ 9 billion ( $ 278 @.@ 3 million ) was left in damages .
Following the storm , the Red Cross and World Food Council ( UNDRO ) set up shelters and began assisting residents in need of food and shelter . Several thousand residents were provided food , clothing and shelter across the country in mass @-@ feeding shelters . The UNDRO also contributed $ 461 @,@ 000 in funds to the Philippines . Another $ 46 @,@ 000 was provided by the Government of Norway and the Catholic Relief Services donated $ 50 @,@ 000 . The Government of Japan provided $ 300 @,@ 000 and the Government of the United States donated $ 25 @,@ 000 in response to the overall effects of Elsie and the three preceding storms . Two other non @-@ governmental organizations , the Lutheran World Federation and World Council of Churches allocated $ 10 @,@ 000 and $ 30 @,@ 000 , respectively , for the Philippines .
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= SMS Preussen ( 1903 ) =
SMS Preussen was the fourth of five pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Braunschweig class in the Kaiserliche Marine ( the German Imperial Navy ) laid down in 1902 and commissioned 1905 . She was named for the state of Prussia Her sister ships were Braunschweig , Elsass , Hessen , and Lothringen .
Preussen served in the II Battle Squadron of the German High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career . She participated in a fleet advance in December 1914 in support of the Raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby during which the German fleet encountered and briefly clashed with a detachment of the British Grand Fleet . She had been temporarily assigned to guard ship duties in the Baltic in May 1916 , and so missed the Battle of Jutland . Due to her age , she did not rejoin the fleet , and instead continued to serve as a guard ship until 1917 , when she became a fleet tender .
After the war , Preussen was retained by the re @-@ formed Reichsmarine and converted into a depot ship for F @-@ type minesweepers . She was stricken in April 1929 and sold to ship breakers in 1931 . A 63 @-@ meter ( 207 ft ) section of her hull was retained as a target ; it was bombed and sunk in 1945 by Allied bombers at the end of World War II , and subsequently scrapped in 1954 .
= = Construction = =
Preussen was laid down in 1902 , at the AG Vulcan in Stettin under construction number 256 . The fourth unit of her class , she was ordered under the contract name " K " as a new unit for the fleet . The ship cost 23 @,@ 990 @,@ 000 marks . Preussen was launched on 30 October 1903 and commissioned into the fleet on 12 July 1905 .
The ship was 127 @.@ 7 m ( 419 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 2 m ( 73 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 27 ft ) forward . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws . Steam was provided by eight naval and six cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Preussen 's powerplant was rated at 16 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 15 @,@ 781 ihp ; 11 @,@ 768 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Preussen 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and eighteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing guns . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted submerged in the hull .
= = Service history = =
After commissioning in 1905 , Preussen was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the German fleet . There she joined her sisters Braunschweig , Elsass , and Hessen . By the end of 1911 , three of the four new Helgoland @-@ class dreadnoughts had entered active duty with the I Squadron ; the only pre @-@ dreadnought remaining in I Squadron was Preussen 's sister Elsass . Preussen and seven other Braunschweig and Deutschland @-@ class ships made up the II Squadron . Preussen was present during the fleet cruise to Norway in July 1914 , which was cut short by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and subsequent rise in international tensions . On 25 July the ship 's crew was made aware of Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia ; Preussen left Norway to rendezvous with the rest of the fleet the following day .
= = = World War I = = =
After the outbreak of war in August 1914 , the High Seas Fleet conducted a series of operations designed to lure out a portion of the numerically superior British Grand Fleet and destroy it . By achieving a rough equality of forces , the German navy could then force a decisive battle in the southern portion of the North Sea . The first such operation in which the High Seas Fleet participated was the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . The main fleet acted as distant support for Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's battlecruiser squadron while it raided the coastal towns . On the evening of 15 December , the fleet came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced the German fleet commander , Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , that the entire Grand Fleet was deployed before him . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back towards Germany .
Preussen , though assigned to the II Squadron , missed the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She had been temporarily transferred to the Baltic to serve as a guard ship . Her sister ship , Lothringen , also missed the battle , as she had been deemed to be in too poor a condition to participate in the fleet advance . Jutland proved to Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the fleet commander , that the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were too vulnerable to take part in a major fleet action , and so detached the II Squadron from the High Seas Fleet . As a result , Preussen remained in service as a guard ship in the Baltic . From 1917 to the end of the war , she served as a fleet tender based in Wilhelmshaven . Preussen briefly held Edouard Izac , a US Navy sailor captured after his ship was sunk by U @-@ 90 , in June 1918 ; Izac would go on to escape from a German prisoner of war camp and win the Medal of Honor .
= = = Post @-@ war career = = =
The Treaty of Versailles , which ended the war , specified that Germany was permitted to retain six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types . " Preussen was among those ships chosen to remain on active service with the newly reformed Reichsmarine . The ship was converted into a parent ship for F @-@ type minesweepers at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven in 1919 ; the ship was disarmed and platforms for holding the minesweepers were installed .
Preussen served in this capacity with the newly reformed Reichsmarine until 1929 . She was stricken from the naval register on 5 April 1929 ; the Reichsmarine sold her to ship breakers on 25 February 1931 for 216 @,@ 800 Reichsmarks . Preussen was subsequently broken up for scrap in Wilhelmshaven , though a 63 m ( 207 ft ) length of her hull was retained as a testing target for underwater weapons , including torpedoes and mines . The section of hull was nicknamed " SMS Vierkant ( " SMS Rectangle " ) . Allied bombers attacked and sank the section of Preussen 's hull in April 1945 . It was eventually raised and scrapped in late 1954 .
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= The Drug in Me Is You =
The Drug in Me Is You is the debut studio album by American post @-@ hardcore band Falling in Reverse . Production for the album took place following lead singer Ronnie Radke 's departure from Escape the Fate in 2008 . Recording took place in December 2010 and lasted until February 2011 at Paint it Black Studios in Orlando , Florida . Michael Baskette , who worked with Radke on Escape the Fate 's Dying is Your Latest Fashion , returned as the executive producer for the album , alongside former bandmate Omar Espinosa and others as additional composers and production aids in the studio . The Drug in Me Is You was released on July 25 , 2011 , in Europe and Japan , and on July 26 , 2011 , in the United States .
The album charted at number 19 on the US Billboard 200 , selling 18 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States . It also charted internationally on the national album charts in Australia , Canada and the United Kingdom . Upon release , The Drug in Me Is You received mixed reviews . Critics consistently noted the contrast between hardcore music and pop music on the tracks , but to mixed reception . Overall , the lyrics were viewed as being cliché while Radke 's singing and return to making music were noted . In addition , critics focused on the bitter relationship between Radke and his former band , Escape the Fate , in which reviewers noticed the choice to attack the band in many of the album 's tracks . The Drug in Me Is You was chosen by the Guitar World magazine as the album number 21 among the top 50 albums of 2011 .
It 's the only album that features the bassist Nason Schoeffler and short @-@ lived member Scott Gee on drums .
= = Background = =
In 2006 , Ronnie Radke was involved in an altercation in Las Vegas that resulted in the fatal shooting of 18 @-@ year @-@ old Michael Cook , eventually leading to Radke 's two @-@ year imprisonment for parole violation . Following his incarceration and forced departure from his old band , Escape the Fate , Radke formed Falling in Reverse with the help of longtime friend Nason Schoeffler , who found band members and visited Radke while he was in prison . However , Radke was unable to work with the band prior to his release on December 12 , 2010 . After going through a few bassists and drummers , the band prepared to record their full @-@ length debut album . After the album finished production , bassist and founding member Nason Schoeffler and drummer Scott Gee left the band , making the album their only release with the band . Former Aiden , I Am Ghost , and The Bigger Lights drummer Ryan Seamen replaced Scott Gee and former Cellador member Mika Horiuchi took over bass for Schoeffler .
Originally conceived as a double album , the band 's debut was originally going to contain one disc of post @-@ hardcore and another with Pop punk . This was eventually scrapped in favor for a single album , soon confirmed to be titled , The Drug in Me Is You . The band also confirmed that Radke 's friend , Michael Baskette , who had previously worked on Blessthefall 's album Witness and Escape the Fate 's debut Dying is Your Latest Fashion ( which was also with Radke ) , would produce the album . Radke announced that the album would be released in 2011 by Epitaph Records , Radke 's former label with Escape the Fate . The album was slated for a July 26 , 2011 release date , with pre @-@ orders scheduled for June 7 .
= = Recording and production = =
In December 2010 , the band began composing songs together for the first time . They announced on December 20 that they would go to Orlando , Florida to record a full @-@ length debut album over a period of two months with a tentative release date of the first quarter of 2011 . The eleven song tracklist was released soon after . With the help of Executive Producer Michael " Elvis " Baskette , mixing and tracking for the album concluded on April 2 , 2011 . Speaking about working with Baskette as producer , Radke said , " The dude ’ s a genius , he really is . I don ’ t know if he ’ s under the radar or anything , but the guy knows what he ’ s doing . He ’ s a vocalist guy . That ’ s why me and him get along so well . "
The Drug in Me Is You has been described as post @-@ hardcore and pop punk . The songs also included synths , pop @-@ choruses , and other sounds . Radke commented on the inclusion of different genres in songs , comparing different parts of the same song to the sounds of Norma Jean , Underoath , and Katy Perry . Lyrically , according to Radke , some of the songs on the album had tones of being arrogant , comparing the attitude to that commonly found in rap music . This is because Radke has cited Eminem as one of his major influences , so much so that he even included a beat made by Eminem and Dr. Dre during a breakdown on the track " Sink or Swim " . In an interview , Radke 's experiences were compared to Eminem 's , noting that , " [ Eminem ] is someone who has been knocked down and knocked down , and he ’ s gotten back up again . Time and time again . And he ’ s triumphed . " While the album itself was written during Radke 's time in prison , he does not consider it a " Jailhouse record " , though some songs that did not make the album do address a prison theme .
The lyrics for the album were all written by Radke during his imprisonment . He has often called the album a breakup record , but with a band and not a girl . Radke said that , " I would think all day , for days and days , [ about ] what people would want to hear . I would dissect my old album and read all the fan letters and the reasons why they loved my band and why they listened to it . And I wrote about that , but in different ways . I don ’ t know why these kids love the tragedies that I write about . I guess they can relate to it . " Also on the writing process , Radke said that his lyrics were much more evolved than his past works and that he felt this was a high @-@ point for the post @-@ hardcore genre , owing success to being incarcerated and writing lyrics for two years with no other musical influences . The title , The Drug in Me Is You , came from Radke 's experiences concerning his previous self @-@ destructive behavior , which Radke explained that , " We named it that because ... It 's me , looking in the mirror , saying , ' I am my own worst [ enemy ] . I do the worst damage to myself — more than anybody else can to do me . ' "
Some things explored in the album were Radke 's personal experiences , which include his mother , the corruption of Las Vegas , and his incarceration in prison due to multiple run @-@ ins with the law involving narcotics and battery charges related to the death of Michael Cook . Radke stated that he chose not to write any songs about love because , " ... I 'm not going to lie ... and try to write songs on how much I love somebody . I do have love , but there will be a lot of songs about just what I ’ ve been through . " Several songs focused on his departure from Escape the Fate after they kicked him out and replaced him with former Blessthefall singer Craig Mabbitt , with songs on the album that directly attacked both Mabbitt and Escape the Fate bassist Max Green . Prior to the album 's release , Radke discussed what he intended to say about Escape the Fate on certain tracks , stating in an interview that he believed that the band 's first album without Radke , This War Is Ours , was named after the conflict over Mabbitt taking over Radke 's position in Escape the Fate . The band has since claimed it was not written about Radke , but he did not believe them .
= = Singles and promotion = =
To promote the album , the band announced the dates for their first live performances , which would take place at the end of July following their debut album 's release at certain locations in California , with one date scheduled in Texas on September 24 , 2011 . These shows were planned to be with supporting act Vampires Everywhere . However , the July dates were postponed due to issues with guitarist Jacky Vincent 's immigration visa , though the band voiced intentions to make these dates up . This meant that the band 's first live performances would be at the Vans Warped Tour 2011 from August 10 to August 14 for five shows on the Advent Clothing Stage throughout the western United States . However , the band played a few secret shows under the name " Goodbye Graceful " on August eighth and ninth in Anaheim and Los Angeles . Following the release of the album and some Warped Tour 2011 appearances , the band announced their first headlining tour across the United States , with locations beginning in New Mexico , looping around the east coast , and concluding in Colorado . The tour will begin on September 18 and end on October 11 , 2011 , with support acts Eyes Set to Kill and For All Those Sleeping . The band 's first supporting tour was to be a ten @-@ show tour in November 2011 with headliners Black Veil Brides and supporting acts Aiden and Drive @-@ A , but was canceled after Black Veil Brides dropped out when their lead vocalist Andy Biersack broke his nose . Emmure replaced Falling in Reverse on the second half of the Take A Picture , It Lasts Longer Tour with We Came As Romans and the band played an exclusive show at KROQ on November 8 to make up for the canceled shows .
The first single for the album , as well the band 's first single overall , " Raised by Wolves " , was released on June 10 , 2011 to iTunes , though it had leaked a few weeks earlier on May 29 . The track was featured on the iTunes Music Store as the " single of the week " , and was available as a free download for that week . On June 21 , the band released a 33 @-@ second preview of their second single , the eponymous track " The Drug in Me Is You " . The full single was released three days later . The band 's first music video was released for the track on June 28 , and was advertised by The New York Post the week before the album 's release . The album was streamed in its entirety by the band on their official website on July 15 . The Drug in Me Is You was released commercially in the United States on July 26 , 2011 , and was promoted alongside other albums released that week including : Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's Legendary Weapons , Katherine Jenkin 's From the Heart , All Shall Perish 's This is Where It Ends , and others . The album 's third single , " I 'm Not a Vampire " , was released on October 24 with an accompanying music video which features a satirical Celebrity Rehab theme , featuring Jeffree Star . On June 18 , they released their fourth single , " Good Girls , Bad Guys " with an accompanying music video . Their fifth single , " Pick Up the Phone " was released on October 15 , 2012 along with an iPhone 5 giveaway .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The Drug in Me Is You was speculated by news source Perez Hilton to sell anywhere from 17 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 copies in the United States during its first week of sales , placing it close behind predicted debuting chart toppers Eric Church ( Chief ) , Kelly Rowland ( Here I Am ) , and Joss Stone ( LP1 ) . The album ended up selling 18 @,@ 120 copies in its first week in the United States , charting at number 19 on the Billboard 200 . This almost exactly matched the first week sales of Escape the Fate ( 2010 ) , the third album by Radke 's former band , though Escape the Fate only charted at number 25 , seven spots lower than The Drug in Me Is You , despite equal sales . In its second week on sales , The Drug in Me is You dropped about 70 % in the United States , selling 5 @,@ 870 copies . This dropped the album 60 spots to number 79 on the Billboard 200 , and brought total US sales for the album to around 24 @,@ 000 copies .
On the Billboard charts , The Drug in Me Is You charted at number two on the Top Hard Rock Albums chart , number three on the Top Alternative Albums and Top Rock Albums charts , number four on the Top Independent Albums chart , and number 12 on the Top Digital Albums chart , for a total of six appearances on the US Billboard charts , including the Billboard 200 . Internationally , the album charted in the United Kingdom , peaking at number 125 on the national chart , as well as number four and number 17 on the UK Top 40 Rock Albums and Top Indie Albums charts , respectively . The album also peaked at number 21 on the Australian National Charts , and number 60 on the national Canadian Albums Chart .
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon its release , The Drug in Me Is You received generally mixed to positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from critics , the album received an average score of 71 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Alison Kopki of The Aquarian Weekly called the album , a " fun listen and decent starting @-@ off point " , and it " lets Radke get some things off his chest " . The track @-@ by @-@ track breakdown noted the songs having " fast guitars , heavy drums and shred guitar solos " . Kenneth E. Oquist of Arts and Entertainment Playground gave the album a four out of a possible five score overall . Oquist noted the mix of pop and hardcore , stating , " Hardcore and pop crashed together to become hardcore pop ... Much like Nine Inch Nails created the genre industrial rock , Falling in Reverse has created a unique sound ... " He gave a track @-@ by @-@ track review of the album , particularly emphasizing " Raised by Wolves " , " I 'm Not a Vampire " , and " Caught Like a Fly " . Things pointed out included : Michael Baskette 's production , the band 's instrumentation , and Radke 's melodies . The writer noted the repeated attacks at Escape the Fate but disliked the album 's lyrical quality . The resulting score was an 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 possible , with the tracks " I 'm Not a Vampire " , " Good Girls Bad Guys " , " Pick Up the Phone " , all pop tracks , being pointed out as particularly good . A Weekender correspondent noted that the album includes : " Aggressive rock ... metal and electronica into this collective mix of mayhem and definitely keeps listeners wondering what will come next . " Different parts of songs were complimented , such as the " immense hooks ... catchy choruses ... [ and ] vicious breakdowns " , as well as Radke 's lyrics being called " witty and poetic " . The correspondent 's review further states , " Radke has managed to imprint his dramatic personality into every aspect of ' The Drug In Me Is You . ' "
Conversely , Allmusic contributor Gregory Heaney gave the album an overall score of three out of a possible five , noting that the lyrics " feel more genuinely personal than his earlier work " , and that " there 's a real sense of urgent catharsis at work " . He concludes , " [ The ] combination of a tight , talented band and a tortured frontman doesn 't necessarily make Falling in Reverse a revelatory band , but is does make The Drug in Me Is You a very solid album . " Molly Walter of The University Leader felt the album was an attempt to recreate Escape the Fate prior to Radke 's departure and noted that " he fell short big time " , calling the album 's music " out of date and overdone " . Walter did comment on Radke 's singing but felt the lyrical content was conceited , concluding the review saying , " Face it , Ronnie , you did not magically turn tragedy into melody . You ’ re just not king of the music scene . " The Jam ! gives 3 @.@ 5 / 5 stars to The Drug in Me Is You and said , " In a world of poseurs , Ronnie Radke is the real deal . The lewd , crude and tattooed punk has survived jail , rehab and being turfed from Escape the Fate . Now he ’ s on the loose and up to no good with a new band — and a CD of post @-@ hardcore anthems that render his foul @-@ mouthed tales of sex , drugs and rock ’ n ’ roll with a mix of metalcore power and pop @-@ punk melody . Lock up everything . "
Metalholic said ' I ’ m back … ” I can ’ t think of a more appropriate way to flow into the second track “ Tragic Magic . ” Ronnie Radke is most definitely back and he is not afraid to tell you so . ' This fairly slow tempo song obviously takes a few jabs at Radke ’ s former band Escape the Fate , but overall is a solid melodic song , The third track “ The Drug in Me is You ” was the second single and the band ’ s first video and might I add a very entertaining video . “ The Drug in Me is You , ” is a nicely constructed musical performance that is just flat out catchy . To me the song is about something most people can relate to , the battle you have with yourself , with your morality , with your demons . We all know that we can be our own worst enemy and the only person that you truly have to blame in many instances is yourself . “ Trying to consume , the drug in me is you and I ’ m so high on misery can ’ t you see , ” evokes the feeling that you are your own drug , the creator of your misery and if you need to point fingers at someone try looking in the mirror first . “ If we are born to die and we all die to live , then what ’ s the point of living life if life just contradicts ? ” Questions we all ask when we pick ourselves up off the floor and do the only thing we can do , try again . Life is what you make of it , if you have lost yourself , it is up to you to find your way again . I got all profound there for a second , it happens .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks are written and composed by Ronnie Radke , Michael ' Elvis ' Baskette and David Holdredge except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for The Drug in Me Is You adapted from Allmusic .
= = = Musicians = = =
= = = Production = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Norwich City F.C. =
Norwich City Football Club ( also known as The Canaries or City ) is an English professional football club playing in the Football League Championship . The club is based in Norwich , Norfolk . Norwich returned to the Premier League in 2015 , having first been promoted to the top flight in 1972 . Norwich have won the League Cup twice , in 1962 and 1985 . The club has never won the top flight , but finished third in 1993 .
The club was founded in 1902 . Since 1935 , Norwich have played their home games at Carrow Road and have a long @-@ standing and fierce rivalry with East Anglian rivals Ipswich Town , with whom they have contested the East Anglian Derby 134 times since 1902 .
The fans ' song " On the Ball , City " is regarded as being the oldest football song in the world which is still in use . The club plays in characteristic yellow and green kits and are affectionally known as The Canaries as a reference to their colours and club badge .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Norwich City F.C. was formed following a meeting at the Criterion Cafe in Norwich on 17 June 1902 and played their first competitive match against Harwich & Parkeston , at Newmarket Road on 6 September 1902 . Following a FA Commission , the club was ousted from the amateur game in 1905 , deemed a professional organisation . Later that year Norwich were elected to play in the Southern League and with increasing crowds , they were forced to leave Newmarket Road in 1908 , moving to The Nest , a disused chalk pit . The club 's original nickname was the Citizens , although this was superseded by 1907 by the more familiar Canaries after the club 's chairman ( who was a keen breeder of canaries ) dubbed his boys ' The Canaries ' and changing their strip to yellow and green . During the First World War , with football suspended and facing spiralling debts , City went into voluntary liquidation on 10 December 1917 .
The club was officially reformed on 15 February 1919 – a key figure in the events was Charles Frederick Watling , future Lord Mayor of Norwich and the father of future club chairman , Geoffrey Watling . When , in May 1920 , the Football League formed a third Division , Norwich joined the Third Division for the following season . Their first league fixture , against Plymouth Argyle , on 28 August 1920 , ended in a 1 – 1 draw . The club went on to endure a mediocre decade , finishing no higher than eighth but no lower than 18th . The following decade proved more successful for the club with a club @-@ record victory , 10 – 2 , over Coventry City and promotion as champions to the Second Division in the 1933 – 34 season under the management of Tom Parker .
= = = Move to Carrow Road and an FA Cup semi @-@ final = = =
With crowds continuing to rise , and with the Football Association raising concerns over the suitability of The Nest , the club considered renovation of the ground , but ultimately decided on a move to Carrow Road . The inaugural match , held on 31 August 1935 , against West Ham United , ended in a 4 – 3 victory to the home team and set a new record attendance of 29 @,@ 779 . The biggest highlight of the following four seasons was the visit of King George VI to Carrow Road on 29 October 1938 . However , the club was relegated to the Third Division at the end of the season . The league was suspended the following season as a result of the outbreak of the Second World War and did not resume until the 1946 – 47 season . City finished this and the following season in 21st place , the poor results forcing the club to apply for re @-@ election to the league . The club narrowly missed out on promotion under the guidance of manager Norman Low in the early 1950s , but following the return of Tom Parker as manager , Norwich finished bottom of the football league in the 1956 – 57 season .
The 1958 – 59 season saw Norwich reach the semi @-@ final of the FA Cup as a Third Division side , defeating two First Division sides on the way : Tottenham Hotspur and Matt Busby 's Manchester United .
= = = League Cup glory and a place in the First Division = = =
In the 1959 – 60 season , Norwich were promoted to the Second Division after finishing second to Southampton , and achieved a fourth @-@ place finish in the 1960 – 61 season . In 1962 Ron Ashman guided Norwich to their first trophy , defeating Rochdale 4 – 0 on aggregate in a two @-@ legged final to win the League Cup .
Sixth place in the league was the closest the club came to promotion to the First Division again during the 1960s , but after winning the division in the 1971 – 72 season under manager Ron Saunders , Norwich City reached the highest level of English football for the first time . They made their first appearance at Wembley Stadium in 1973 , losing the League Cup final 1 – 0 to Tottenham Hotspur .
= = = The John Bond era = = =
Relegation to the Second Division in 1974 came after Saunders had departed and been succeeded by John Bond , but the board of directors kept faith in Bond and were quickly rewarded . A highly successful first season saw promotion back to the First Division and another visit to Wembley , again in the League Cup final , this time losing 1 – 0 to Aston Villa .
= = = Promotion , silverware and more cup runs = = =
Bond departed to Manchester City in the autumn of 1980 and the club were relegated six months later , but bounced back the following season after finishing third under Bond 's successor Ken Brown . Norwich had also been the beneficiaries of one of English football 's first million @-@ pound transfers when they sold striker Justin Fashanu to Nottingham Forest in August 1981 .
The 1984 – 85 season was of mixed fortunes for the club ; under Ken Brown 's guidance , they reached the final of the Football League Cup at Wembley Stadium , having defeated Ipswich Town in the semi @-@ final . In the final , they beat Sunderland 1 – 0 , but in the league both Norwich and Sunderland were relegated to the second tier of English football . This made Norwich the first English club to win a major trophy and suffer relegation in the same season ; something which was not matched until Birmingham City also suffered relegation the season they won the League Cup 26 years later .
Norwich were also denied their first foray into Europe with the ban on English clubs after the Heysel Stadium disaster . City bounced back to the top flight by winning the Second Division championship in the 1985 – 86 season . This was the start of what remains in 2012 a club @-@ record nine consecutive seasons in the top division of English football . High league placings in the First Division in 1986 – 87 and 1988 – 89 would have been enough for UEFA Cup qualification , but the ban on English clubs remained . They also had good cup runs during this period , reaching the FA Cup semi @-@ finals in 1989 and again in 1992 .
= = = Early success in the Premier League era = = =
During 1992 – 93 , the inaugural season of the Premier League , Norwich City quickly emerged as surprise title contenders , before faltering in the final weeks to finish third behind the champions , Manchester United , and runners @-@ up Aston Villa . Their top scorer that season was Mark Robins , who had been signed from Manchester United the previous summer . The following season Norwich played in the UEFA Cup for the first time , losing in the third round to Inter Milan , but defeating Bayern Munich . Winning 2 – 1 , Norwich were the first British team to beat Bayern Munich in the Olympic Stadium . Mike Walker quit as Norwich City manager in January 1994 , to take charge of Everton and was replaced by 36 @-@ year @-@ old first team coach John Deehan who led the club to 12th place in the 1993 – 94 season in the Premier League . Norwich began the 1994 – 95 season well , despite the pre @-@ season loss of top scorer Chris Sutton to Blackburn Rovers for a national record £ 5million , and by Christmas they were seventh in the league and a UEFA Cup place was a realistic possibility . However , Norwich then went into freefall , won only one of their final 20 league games and slumped to 20th place and relegation , ending a nine @-@ season run in the top flight .
= = = The Division One years = = =
Shortly before relegation , Deehan resigned as manager and his assistant Gary Megson took over until the end of the season . Martin O 'Neill , who had taken Wycombe Wanderers from the Conference to the Second Division with successive promotions , was appointed as Norwich City manager in the summer of 1995 . He lasted just six months in the job before resigning after a dispute with chairman Robert Chase over money to strengthen the squad . Soon after , Chase stepped down after protests from supporters , who complained that he kept selling the club 's best players and was to blame for their relegation . Chase 's majority stakeholding was bought by Geoffrey Watling .
English television cook Delia Smith and husband Michael Wynn @-@ Jones took over the majority of Norwich City 's shares from Watling in 1996 , and Mike Walker was re @-@ appointed as the club 's manager . He was unable to repeat the success achieved during his first spell and was sacked two seasons later with Norwich mid @-@ table in Division One . Nigel Worthington took over as Norwich City manager in December 2000 following an unsuccessful two years for the club under Bruce Rioch and then Bryan Hamilton . He had been on the coaching staff under Hamilton who resigned with the club 20th in the First Division and in real danger of relegation to the third tier of English football for the first time since the 1960s . Worthington avoided the threat of relegation and , the following season , led City to a playoff final at the Millennium Stadium , which Norwich lost against Birmingham City on penalties .
= = = Return to the Premier League = = =
The 2003 – 04 campaign saw the club win the First Division title , finishing eight points clear of second @-@ placed West Bromwich Albion and returned to the top flight for the first time since 1995 . For much of the 2004 – 05 season however , the club struggled and , despite beating Manchester United 2 – 0 towards the end of the season , a last day 6 – 0 defeat away to Fulham condemned them to relegation . The club finished in ninth place in The Championship in the 2005 – 06 season and , as results in the 2006 – 07 season went against City , manager Nigel Worthington was sacked in October 2006 , directly after a 4 – 1 defeat by Burnley . On 16 October 2006 , Norwich revealed that former City player Peter Grant had left West Ham United to become the new manager , and in February 2007 , Grant replaced assistant Doug Livermore with his fellow Scot , Jim Duffy . Grant 's side struggled for most of the season and made a poor start to the 2007 – 08 season , with only two wins by mid October ; following a 1 – 0 defeat at fellow @-@ strugglers Queens Park Rangers , Grant left the club by " mutual consent " on 9 October 2007 . On 30 October 2007 , former Newcastle United manager Glenn Roeder was confirmed as Grant 's replacement . Roeder kept Norwich in the Championship with a 3 – 0 win over Queens Park Rangers , Norwich 's penultimate game of the season .
= = = Relegation and revival since 2009 = = =
On 14 January 2009 it was announced that Roeder had been relieved of his first team duties after 60 games in charge , and just 20 victories . A week later , Bryan Gunn was appointed as manager until the end of the season , but he was unable to prevent the club from being relegated on 3 May 2009 , after a 4 – 2 defeat away at already relegated Charlton Athletic . Following their relegation , their first game of the season resulted in a shock 7 – 1 home defeat against East Anglian rivals Colchester United . This was the club 's heaviest ever home defeat , succeeding a record that had stood since 1946 . Two fans entered the pitch and ripped up their season tickets after just 22 minutes when the team were already 4 – 0 down , and Gunn was sacked six days later .
On 18 August 2009 , Paul Lambert was announced as the new manager , leaving his post at Colchester , and nine months later led Norwich to promotion back to the Championship as League One Champions , after a single season in League One . The following season saw Norwich promoted to the Premier League , finishing second in the table behind QPR and completing the first back @-@ to @-@ back promotions from the 3rd tier to the 1st since Manchester City in 2000 .
The club finished in 12th place in their first season back in the Premier League . Manager Paul Lambert resigned within a month of the season 's close to take up the vacant managerial spot at league rivals Aston Villa , and was replaced by Chris Hughton . The 2012 – 13 season started poorly with a 5 – 0 defeat to Fulham and a bad run of form that was followed by a club record unbeaten run in the Premier League . A 1 – 0 home defeat to Luton Town on 26 January 2013 resulted in Norwich becoming the first English top @-@ flight team to lose a FA Cup tie to a non @-@ league side in 24 years . Norwich secured their third year in the Premier League with consecutive victories in the last two games of the season , to finish 11th in the league . However they were relegated back to the Championship after finishing 18th in the 2013 – 14 season . After a mediocre first half of the 2014 – 15 season , Neil Adams resigned which paved the way for the appointment of then Hamilton Academical manager Alex Neil in January 2015 . The appointment reinvigorated Norwich 's season and after narrowly missing out on automatic promotion back to the Premier League , victory in the 2015 Championship playoff final secured an immediate return to the top division of English football . This was only temporary relief , however , as at the end of the next season they were relegated again .
= = Colours and crest = =
Norwich City 's nickname , " The Canaries " , has long influenced the team 's colours and crest . Originally , the club was nicknamed the Citizens ( " Cits " for short ) , and played in light blue and white halved shirts , although the halves were inconsistent ; " the blue was sometimes on the left hand side of the shirt and sometimes on the right . " The earliest known recorded link between the club and canaries , comes in an interview recorded in the Eastern Daily Press with newly appointed manager , John Bowman in April 1905 . The paper quotes him saying " Well I knew of the City 's existence ... I have ... heard of the canaries . " " This as far as we can tell is the first time that the popular pastime of the day ie ... rearing ... canaries was linked with Norwich City FC ... the club still played in blue and white , and would continue to do so for another two seasons . " But the city of Norwich had long connections with canaries owing to its 15th and 16th century links to Flemish weavers who had imported the birds to the Low Countries from the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean .
By February 1907 , the nickname Canaries had come more into vogue ; thoughts that an FA Cup tie against West Bromwich Albion ( nicknamed " Throstles " after a bird ) was " a bird -singing contest " were dismissed by the polymath C.B. Fry as " humbug " but Bowman and Fry 's colleagues in the national press increasingly referred to the team as Canaries .
The following season , to match the nickname , City played for the first time in Canary livery ; " yellow shirts with green collars and cuffs . One paper produced the quote ' The Cits are dead but the Canaries are very much alive ' . " Apart from the obvious colour link , a canary may seem an odd choice ; however , many English football clubs have adopted small birds as emblems that symbolise agility and deftness around the field .
While the home colours of yellow and green remain to this day , the away colours have varied since introduction . For example , the away kit for the 2012 – 13 season was black shirts and shorts .
A simple canary badge was first adopted in 1922 . The current club badge consists of a canary resting on a football with a stylised version of the City of Norwich arms in the top left corner . For the club 's centenary celebrations in 2002 , a special crest was designed . It featured two canaries looking left and right , and a ribbon noting the centenary .
= = Stadium = =
Norwich City F.C. played at Newmarket Road from 1902 to 1908 , with a record attendance of 10 @,@ 366 against Sheffield Wednesday in a second round FA Cup match in 1908 . Following a dispute over the conditions of renting the Newmarket Road ground , in 1908 , the club moved to a new home in a converted disused chalk pit in Rosary Road which became known as " The Nest " . By the 1930s , the ground capacity was proving insufficient for the growing crowds and in 1935 the club moved to its current home in Carrow Road . The original stadium , " the largest construction job in the city since the building of Norwich Castle ... was " miraculously " built in just 82 days ... it was referred to [ by club officials ] as ' The eighth wonder of the world ' " An aerial photograph from August 1935 shows three sides of open terracing and a covered stand , with a Colman 's Mustard advertisement painted on its roof , visible only from the air . Another photograph , taken on a match day that same season , shows that despite the era 's limited car ownership , a parking area was provided at the ground .
Floodlights were erected at the ground in 1956 whose £ 9 @,@ 000 costs nearly sent the club into bankruptcy but the success in the 1959 FA Cup secured the financial status of the club and allowed for a cover to be built over the South Stand , which was itself replaced in 2003 when a new 7 @,@ 000 seat South stand , subsequently renamed the Jarrold Stand , was built in its place .
1963 saw the record attendance for Carrow Road , with a crowd of 43 @,@ 984 for a 6th round FA Cup match against Leicester City , but in the wake of the Ibrox disaster in 1971 , safety licences were required by clubs which resulted in the capacity being drastically reduced to around 20 @,@ 000 . A two @-@ tier terrace was built at the River End and soon after seats began to replace the terraces . By 1979 the stadium had a capacity of 28 @,@ 392 with seats for 12 @,@ 675 . A fire in 1984 partially destroyed one of the stands which eventually led to its complete demolition and replacement by 1987 of a new City Stand , which chairman Robert Chase described as " Coming to a football match within the City Stand is very much like going to the theatre – the only difference being that our stage is covered with grass " . After the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent outcome of the Taylor Report in 1990 , the stadium was converted to all @-@ seater with the corners being filled . Today , Carrow Road is an all @-@ seater stadium , with a capacity of just over 27 @,@ 000 .
= = Supporters = =
While much of the support that the club enjoys is local , there are a number of exile fan clubs , notably in London and stretching from Scandinavia to countries further afield such as the United Arab Emirates , Hong Kong , Australia and the United States .
The fans ' song , On the Ball , City , is the oldest football song in the world still in use today ; the song is in fact older than the club itself having probably been penned for Norwich Teachers or Caley 's FC in the 1890s and adapted for Norwich City . Although the first use of the tune and song is disputed , it had been adopted by 1902 and it remains in use today in part if not the whole . The chorus is :
Locally , much is made of the informal title " Pride of Anglia " . Fans variously claim the title for either winning the East Anglian Derby , finishing highest in the league , having the better current league position , having the more successful club history or for reasons without any apparent logical basis . The club 's main local rival is Ipswich Town . When Norwich and Ipswich meet it is known as the ' East Anglian Derby ' , or , informally , as the ' Old Farm Derby ' – a comic reference to the ' Old Firm Derby ' played between Scottish teams Celtic and Rangers . Over the 134 matches played against Ipswich since 1902 , Ipswich has the better record , having won 45 % of the matches to Norwich 's 37 % . Another commonly employed measure for " Pride of Anglia " , and one that encompasses all of the East Anglian teams is to dub the side finishing as the highest placed East Anglian team in the Football League as the Pride of Anglia .
The club also maintains a healthy celebrity support with celebrity cook Delia Smith and comedian Stephen Fry both having moved from fans of the club to running it . Actor Hugh Jackman is also a fan of the club , having been taken to Carrow Road as a child by his English mother , though he turned down an opportunity to become an investor in the club in 2010 . BT Sport Presenter Jake Humphrey , who was born in Peterborough but moved to Norwich with his family at the age of nine , is another celebrity supporter . Also Sky Sports presenter Simon Thomas , who is Vice @-@ President of the Norwich City Supporters Trust , Norfolk @-@ born musician , model and media personality Myleene Klass , singer Sophie Ellis Bextor , and Labour ex @-@ politician Ed Balls . Journalist and broadcaster Sir David Frost OBE also declared his love for The Canaries during his lifetime .
= = Ownership = =
Norwich City FC is a public limited company that , in 2003 , comprised approximately 8 @,@ 000 individual shareholdings . Since purchasing their shares from Geoffrey Watling , Delia Smith and husband Michael Wynn @-@ Jones have been joint majority shareholders .
At the 2006 – 07 Norwich City FC Annual General Meeting ( on 18 January 2007 ) Smith and Wynn @-@ Jones announced that they would be open to offers to buy their majority stake @-@ holding in the club . However , they made clear that any prospective buyer would have to invest heavily in the squad , with regards to team improving .
On 8 May 2007 the football club announced that Andrew and Sharon Turner had bought out all 5 @,@ 000 shares belonging to former Board member , Barry Skipper and had given the club an interest @-@ free loan of £ 2m . Mr and Mrs Turner are owners and directors of personal finance company Central Trust .
During July 2008 Peter Cullum declared that he was interested in a takeover of the club , and pledged that he would invest £ 20m for enhancement of the playing squad . On 8 July the EDP reported that Delia Smith and the board had invited Peter Cullum for talks . Reports later stated that the talks had been terminated with immediate effect , and no deal was to be reached .
On 2 September 2008 , Andrew and Sharon Turner announced that they were leaving the football club 's board of directors . This left a £ 2 million hole in Norwich City 's budget . On 4 September 2008 , Delia Smith and Michael Wynn @-@ Jones announced that they would be injecting £ 2 million , avoiding financial problems for the club .
The 2011 Annual General Meeting , attended by over 500 shareholders , saw joint majority shareholder Delia Smith and Stephan Phillips re @-@ elected as directors and new director Stephen Fry formally re @-@ elected having joined the Board the previous August .
On 27 December 2015 , former Shadow Chancellor Ed Balls was appointed Chairman .
= = Statistics and records = =
Kevin Keelan holds the record for Norwich appearances , having played 673 first @-@ team matches between 1963 and 1980 . Ralph Hunt holds the record for the most goals scored in a season , 31 in the 1955 – 56 season in Division Three ( South ) , with Johnny Gavin the top scorer over a career – 122 between 1948 and 1955 . Mark Bowen holds the club record for most international caps , with 35 for Wales .
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was their 10 – 2 win against Coventry City in the Division Three ( South ) in 1930 . Their heaviest defeat in the league was 10 – 2 against Swindon Town in 1908 in the Southern Football League .
Norwich 's record home attendance is 43 @,@ 984 for a sixth round FA Cup match against Leicester City on 30 March 1963 . With the introduction of regulations enforcing all @-@ seater stadiums , it is unlikely that this record will be beaten in the foreseeable future .
The highest transfer fee received for a Norwich player is £ 10 million , from Southampton for Nathan Redmond in June 2016 , while the most spent by the club on a player was the signing of Ricky van Wolfswinkel for £ 8 @.@ 5 million ( € 10 million ) from Sporting Lisbon . This transfer fee was then equaled by the transfer of Steven Naismith from Everton in January 2016 .
The club 's highest league finish was third in the FA Premier League in 1992 – 93 . The 2013 – 14 season was Norwich 's 24th in the top flight of English football . The club has won the League Cup twice ( most recently in 1985 ) and reached the FA Cup semi @-@ final three times , most recently in 1992 . Norwich have taken part in European competition just once , reaching the third round of the UEFA Cup in 1993 – 94 and are the only British side to beat Bayern Munich in the Olympic Stadium .
= = Club sponsors = =
Source :
Between 2006 and 2008 the club was sponsored by airline Flybe but on 26 April 2008 , it was announced that the company was stepping down as the main sponsor . On 29 April 2008 it was announced that Aviva which has offices in the city and is the parent company of the former Norwich Union , would be the new shirt sponsor , having signed a three @-@ year contract . In 2009 the deal was extended until the end of the 2011 – 12 season . It was further extended in 2012 by four more years to the end of the 2015 – 16 season .
= = Players = =
= = = First @-@ team squad = = =
As of 19 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = = Out on loan = = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Notable players = = =
Past ( and present ) players who are the subjects of Wikipedia articles can be found here
During the club 's centenary season , a " Hall of Fame " was created , honouring 100 former players chosen by fan vote . Further players have been inducted into the Norwich City Hall of Fame in 2003 , 2006 and 2012 .
= = = Greatest Ever Norwich City XI = = =
In 2008 , supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever Norwich City team .
Kevin Keelan ( 1963 – 80 )
Ian Culverhouse ( 1985 – 94 )
Steve Bruce ( 1984 – 87 )
Duncan Forbes ( 1968 – 81 )
Mark Bowen ( 1987 – 96 )
Darren Huckerby ( 2003 – 08 )
Ian Crook ( 1986 – 97 )
Martin Peters ( 1975 – 80 )
Darren Eadie ( 1993 – 99 )
Chris Sutton ( 1991 – 94 )
Iwan Roberts ( 1997 – 2004 )
= = = Players of the Year = = =
For a more detailed list of these winners of the Barry Butler trophy , see Norwich City Players of the Year .
= = = Captains = = =
For a list of Norwich City captains , see Norwich City captains
= = Club staff = =
= = Managers = =
As of 15 May 2016 . Not including caretaker managers . Only professional , competitive matches are counted .
= = Honours = =
Norwich City have won a number of honours , including the following :
= = = League = = =
Football League Second Division / First Division / Championship ( Level 2 )
Winners ( 3 ) : 1971 – 72 , 1985 – 86 , 2003 – 04
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
Football League First Division / Championship play @-@ offs
Winners ( 1 ) : 2015
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2002
Football League Third Division / One ( Level 3 )
Winners ( 2 ) : 1933 – 34 , 2009 – 10
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1959 – 60
= = = Cup = = =
League Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1962 , 1985
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1973 , 1975
Friendship Trophy
Each time they meet , Norwich and Sunderland contest the Friendship Trophy , an honour dating back to the camaraderie forged between fans of the two clubs at the time of the 1985 League Cup final that they contested . Sunderland are the current holders having beaten Norwich 3 – 0 at Carrow Road on 16 April 2016 in the 2015 @-@ 16 Premier League .
= = In popular culture = =
In the 2001 film Mike Bassett : England Manager , the eponymous hero , played by Ricky Tomlinson , rises to prominence as a result of success as manager of Norwich City , having won the ' Mr Clutch Cup ' . The celebratory scenes of the open @-@ top bus ride around the city ( right ) were actually shot in St Albans , Hertfordshire , rather than Norwich .
In 1972 the Children 's Film Foundation released a movie called The Boy Who Turned Yellow , about a boy living in London who supports Norwich City . In the film , he and everyone and everything else on his tube train are turned yellow . That night he is visited by a yellow alien called Nick , short for electronic , who teaches him all about electricity . The link to the football club is used to explain why the boy already has so many yellow things in his bedroom .
= = Norwich City Ladies = =
Norwich City Ladies is the women 's football club affiliated to Norwich City . They are managed by Scott Emmerson and compete in the Women 's South East Combination League , in the third tier of English women 's football . According to Norwich City , " They are the official women 's team of Norwich City Football Club and are linked to the Girls ' Centre of Excellence programme " . Consequently , 95 % of the club 's players have progressed from the youth ranks . Norwich City LFC play their home games at Plantation Park , Blofield , Norwich .
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= Voltage doubler =
A voltage doubler is an electronic circuit which charges capacitors from the input voltage and switches these charges in such a way that , in the ideal case , exactly twice the voltage is produced at the output as at its input .
The simplest of these circuits are a form of rectifier which take an AC voltage as input and outputs a doubled DC voltage . The switching elements are simple diodes and they are driven to switch state merely by the alternating voltage of the input . DC @-@ to @-@ DC voltage doublers cannot switch in this way and require a driving circuit to control the switching . They frequently also require a switching element that can be controlled directly , such as a transistor , rather than relying on the voltage across the switch as in the simple AC @-@ to @-@ DC case .
Voltage doublers are a variety of voltage multiplier circuit . Many , but not all , voltage doubler circuits can be viewed as a single stage of a higher order multiplier : cascading identical stages together achieves a greater voltage multiplication .
= = Voltage doubling rectifiers = =
= = = Villard circuit = = =
The Villard circuit , due to Paul Ulrich Villard , consists simply of a capacitor and a diode . While it has the great benefit of simplicity , its output has very poor ripple characteristics . Essentially , the circuit is a diode clamp circuit . The capacitor is charged on the negative half cycles to the peak AC voltage ( Vpk ) . The output is the superposition of the input AC waveform and the steady DC of the capacitor . The effect of the circuit is to shift the DC value of the waveform . The negative peaks of the AC waveform are " clamped " to 0 V ( actually − VF , the small forward bias voltage of the diode ) by the diode , therefore the positive peaks of the output waveform are 2Vpk . The peak @-@ to @-@ peak ripple is an enormous 2Vpk and cannot be smoothed unless the circuit is effectively turned into one of the more sophisticated forms . This is the circuit ( with diode reversed ) used to supply the negative high voltage for the magnetron in a microwave oven .
= = = Greinacher circuit = = =
The Greinacher voltage doubler is a significant improvement over the Villard circuit for a small cost in additional components . The ripple is much reduced , nominally zero under open @-@ circuit load conditions , but when current is being drawn depends on the resistance of the load and the value of the capacitors used . The circuit works by following a Villard cell stage with what is in essence a peak detector or envelope detector stage . The peak detector cell has the effect of removing most of the ripple while preserving the peak voltage at the output . The Greinacher circuit is also commonly known as the half @-@ wave voltage doubler .
This circuit was first invented by Heinrich Greinacher in 1913 ( published 1914 ) to provide the 200 – 300 V he needed for his newly invented ionometer , the 110 V AC supplied by the Zurich power stations of the time being insufficient . He later extended this idea into a cascade of multipliers in 1920 . This cascade of Greinacher cells is often inaccurately referred to as a Villard cascade . It is also called a Cockcroft – Walton multiplier after the particle accelerator machine built by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton , who independently discovered the circuit in 1932 . The concept in this topology can be extended to a voltage quadrupler circuit by using two Greinacher cells of opposite polarities driven from the same AC source . The output is taken across the two individual outputs . As with a bridge circuit , it is impossible to simultaneously ground the input and output of this circuit .
= = = Bridge circuit = = =
The Delon circuit uses a bridge topology for voltage doubling ; consequently it is also called a full @-@ wave voltage doubler . This form of circuit was , at one time , commonly found in cathode ray tube television sets where it was used to provide an e.h.t. voltage supply . Generating voltages in excess of 5 kV with a transformer has safety issues in terms of domestic equipment and in any case is uneconomical . However , black and white television sets required an e.h.t. of 10 kV and colour sets even more . Voltage doublers were used to either double the voltage on an e.h.t winding on the mains transformer or were applied to the waveform on the line flyback coils .
The circuit consists of two half @-@ wave peak detectors , functioning in exactly the same way as the peak detector cell in the Greinacher circuit . Each of the two peak detector cells operates on opposite half @-@ cycles of the incoming waveform . Since their outputs are in series , the output is twice the peak input voltage .
= = Switched capacitor circuits = =
It is possible to use the simple diode @-@ capacitor circuits described above to double the voltage of a DC source by preceding the voltage doubler with a chopper circuit . In effect , this converts the DC to AC before application to the voltage doubler . More efficient circuits can be built by driving the switching devices from an external clock so that both functions , the chopping and multiplying , are achieved simultaneously . Such circuits are known as switched capacitor circuits . This approach is especially useful in low @-@ voltage battery @-@ powered applications where integrated circuits require a voltage supply greater than the battery can deliver . Frequently , a clock signal is readily available on board the integrated circuit and little or no additional circuitry is needed to generate it .
Conceptually , perhaps the simplest switched capacitor configuration is that shown schematically in figure 5 . Here two capacitors are simultaneously charged to the same voltage in parallel . The supply is then switched off and the capacitors are switched into series . The output is taken from across the two capacitors in series resulting in an output double the supply voltage . There are many different switching devices that could be used in such a circuit , but in integrated circuits MOSFET devices are frequently employed .
Another basic concept is the charge pump , a version of which is shown schematically in figure 6 . The charge pump capacitor , CP , is first charged to the input voltage . It is then switched to charging the output capacitor , CO , in series with the input voltage resulting in CO eventually being charged to twice the input voltage . It may take several cycles before the charge pump succeeds in fully charging CO but after steady state has been reached it is only necessary for CP to pump a small amount of charge equivalent to that being supplied to the load from CO . While CO is disconnected from the charge pump it partially discharges into the load resulting in ripple on the output voltage . This ripple is smaller for higher clock frequencies since the discharge time is shorter , and is also easier to filter . Alternatively , the capacitors can be made smaller for a given ripple specification . The practical maximum clock frequency in integrated circuits is typically in the hundreds of kilohertz .
= = = Dickson charge pump = = =
The Dickson charge pump , or Dickson multiplier , consists of a cascade of diode / capacitor cells with the bottom plate of each capacitor driven by a clock pulse train . The circuit is a modification of the Cockcroft @-@ Walton multiplier but takes a DC input with the clock trains providing the switching signal instead of the AC input . The Dickson multiplier normally requires that alternate cells are driven from clock pulses of opposite phase . However , since a voltage doubler , shown in figure 7 , requires only one stage of multiplication only one clock signal is required .
The Dickson multiplier is frequently employed in integrated circuits where the supply voltage ( from a battery for instance ) is lower than that required by the circuitry . It is advantageous in integrated circuit manufacture that all the semiconductor components are of basically the same type . MOSFETs are commonly the standard logic block in many integrated circuits . For this reason the diodes are often replaced by this type of transistor , but wired to function as a diode - an arrangement called a diode @-@ wired MOSFET . Figure 8 shows a Dickson voltage doubler using diode @-@ wired n @-@ channel enhancement type MOSFETs .
There are many variations and improvements to the basic Dickson charge pump . Many of these are concerned with reducing the effect of the transistor drain @-@ source voltage . This can be very significant if the input voltage is small , such as a low @-@ voltage battery . With ideal switching elements the output is an integral multiple of the input ( two for a doubler ) but with a single @-@ cell battery as the input source and MOSFET switches the output will be far less than this value since much of the voltage will be dropped across the transistors . For a circuit using discrete components the Schottky diode would be a better choice of switching element for its extremely low voltage drop in the on state . However , integrated circuit designers prefer to use the easily available MOSFET and compensate for its inadequacies with increased circuit complexity .
As an example , an alkaline battery cell has a nominal voltage of 1 @.@ 5 V. A voltage doubler using ideal switching elements with zero voltage drop will output double this , namely 3 @.@ 0 V. However , the drain @-@ source voltage drop of a diode @-@ wired MOSFET when it is in the on state must be at least the gate threshold voltage which might typically be 0 @.@ 9 V. This voltage " doubler " will only succeed in raising the output voltage by about 0 @.@ 6 V to 2 @.@ 1 V. If the drop across the final smoothing transistor is also taken into account the circuit may not be able to increase the voltage at all without using multiple stages . A typical Schottky diode , on the other hand , might have an on state voltage of 0 @.@ 3 V. A doubler using this Schottky diode will result in a voltage of 2 @.@ 7 V , or at the output after the smoothing diode , 2 @.@ 4 V.
= = = Cross @-@ coupled switched capacitors = = =
Cross @-@ coupled switched capacitor circuits come into their own for very low input voltages . Wireless battery driven equipment such as pagers , bluetooth devices and the like may require a single @-@ cell battery to continue to supply power when it has discharged to under a volt .
When clock <formula> is low transistor Q2 is turned off . At the same time clock <formula> is high turning on transistor Q1 resulting in capacitor C1 being charged to Vin . When <formula> goes high the top plate of C1 is pushed up to twice Vin . At the same time switch S1 closes so this voltage appears at the output . At the same time Q2 is turned on allowing C2 to charge . On the next half cycle the roles will be reversed : <formula> will be low , <formula> will be high , S1 will open and S2 will close . Thus , the output is supplied with 2Vin alternately from each side of the circuit .
The loss is low in this circuit because there are no diode @-@ wired MOSFETs and their associated threshold voltage problems . The circuit also has the advantage that the ripple frequency is doubled because there are effectively two voltage doublers both supplying the output from out of phase clocks . The primary disadvantage of this circuit is that stray capacitances are much more significant than with the Dickson multiplier and account for the larger part of the losses in this circuit .
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= Clifton Down railway station =
Clifton Down railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and serves the district of Clifton in Bristol , England . It is 3 @.@ 9 miles ( 6 @.@ 3 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is CFN . The station has two platforms , each serving trains in one direction only . As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway , which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly a train every forty minutes in each direction between Bristol Temple Meads and Avonmouth .
The station was opened in 1874 by the Great Western and Midland Railways as part of the Clifton Extension Railway , designed to connect the port of Avonmouth to the national rail network . The station had a large gothic revival building on the Bristol @-@ bound platform , with smaller passenger facilities on the opposite platform and a goods yard beyond . Between 1903 and 1930 the station employed an average of 22 staff . Excursion trains were a regular sight , bringing people to nearby Bristol Zoo .
The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century , with passenger numbers falling significantly . Goods services at Clifton Down ended in 1965 , and all staff were withdrawn in 1967 . The line was largely reduced to single track in 1970 , leaving Clifton Down as one of the few passing places . Services had decreased to ten per day each direction by 2005 , but have since increased to twenty @-@ four trains per day .
= = Description = =
Clifton Down railway station is on the Severn Beach Line , serving the district of Clifton in Bristol . The station is located on the busy shopping street Whiteladies Road , next door to a shopping centre . The wider area is largely residential . Bristol Zoo is under a mile away . The station is located 3 miles 72 chains ( 6 @.@ 3 km ) along the line from Bristol Temple Meads , and 9 miles 51 chains ( 15 @.@ 5 km ) from Severn Beach . It is the fifth station from Temple Meads . There are two running lines , roughly oriented east @-@ west , but curving towards the north at both ends . There are two 120 @-@ yard ( 110 m ) -long platforms to the north and south of the running lines , connected by a footbridge at the east end . The southern platform , Platform 1 , serves trains towards Avonmouth , the northern platform , Platform 2 , serves trains towards Temple Meads . The station is in an enclosed cutting , and runs under the road to the east . To the west is the Clifton Down Tunnel under Clifton Down , from which the station takes its name . The station is one of the few double track sections of the Severn Beach Line , and so is often used as a passing place .
Facilities at the station are minimal – shelters , benches and timetable information are provided . Customer help points give live train information . There is no ticket office , and no self @-@ service ticket machines which can be used to buy or collect tickets . The station car park is to the north of the platforms , with 40 spaces . There is step @-@ free access to the northern platform from the car park , and a set of steps from the footbridge . There is also stepped access to the footbridge from the south , and a ramp down to the southern platform . There is no taxi rank , but there are bus stops on Whiteladies Road . Cycle storage is available on the platform .
The disused station building 's bricked @-@ up windows and doors feature artwork of animals created by students at Redland Green School , and promote links with nearby Bristol Zoo . The building is accessible from the car park , and houses an Australian @-@ themed pub . It is a Grade II listed building .
= = Services = =
Services at Clifton Down are all operated by Great Western Railway , mainly using diesel Class 150 Sprinter units , occasionally supplemented by Class 153 Super Sprinter and Class 158 Express Sprinter units . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have mostly been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . Monday to Friday , three trains every two hours run from Bristol Temple Meads to Avonmouth , with one extended to St Andrew 's Road and Severn Beach , giving a service at Clifton Down of one train in each direction every 40 minutes . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth begins at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , but more trains continue to Severn Beach . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period , when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction .
As Clifton Down is the Severn Beach Line 's main passing point , trains to Avonmouth usually arrive at the same time as trains to Bristol Temple Meads . Most trains call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is roughly 20 minutes , and 14 minutes to Avonmouth . In 2012 , the single fare to Temple Meads was £ 1 @.@ 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line .
= = History = =
= = = Joint railway era = = =
The Clifton Extension Railway was opened from Narroways Hill Junction to Clifton Down as a joint venture between the Great Western Railway and Midland Railway to connect their main lines to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier in the Avon Gorge . Clifton Down railway station opened on 1 October 1874 , when passenger services began , and was for a while the terminal station . It was the second station along the line from Narroways Hill Junction where the Extension Railway left the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway 's main line to Wales . It remained the second station until Redland was opened in 1897 . The line was built at 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge .
The station was built by Messrs Baker & Son of Canon 's Marsh , Bristol . The buildings , constructed in a Gothic Revival style , cost £ 20 @,@ 000 , with the main buildings on the northern platform . There was a large booking hall with sizeable fireplaces at each end . Pointed ground floor doorways gave access to the hall , which was adjacent to the booking offices and waiting rooms . It is believed that the station master 's lodgings in this building were never used as such . A wide carriage drive led down to the northern platform , which was linked to the southern platform by a glass @-@ covered footbridge . There was originally no waiting room on the southern platform , but one was built in October 1898 . The platforms were mostly covered by " ridge and furrow " glass roofs , supported by iron columns . The station was flooded in August 1883 , which resulted in the installation of extra drainage . There was a large goods yard to the south of the platforms , accessed from the west , with a 28 @-@ lever signal box at the west end of the southern platform .
The initial service provided at Clifton Down by the Midland Railway was to Fishponds and Mangotsfield , where passengers could change for services to Bath , Birmingham and other Midland destinations . The Great Western provided services from Clifton Down to Bristol Temple Meads , the city 's major station , where passengers could change for trains to London , Exeter and Wales , among others . The Great Western also provided occasional through services to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . There were a total of 23 trains in each direction between the two companies Monday @-@ Saturday . On Sundays , there was no Midland service , but seven Great Western trains . The fare to Temple Meads was 6d first @-@ class and 3d third @-@ class . The Clifton Down Tunnel , the final link to the Bristol Port Railway and Pier , was opened in 1877 , initially allowing freight trains to reach Avonmouth Docks . It was not until 1885 that it was cleared for passenger use , which allowed services to Avonmouth via Sea Mills and Shirehampton . There was a trial Midland service between Bristol St Philip 's and Avonmouth in September 1885 , but this was ended after a month . In 1886 , the daily Great Western service was six trains each way between Avonmouth and Temple Meads , 24 trains from Clifton Down to Temple Meads and 26 the other direction . The Midland provided 12 services from Clifton Down to Fishponds , and 11 back .
Clifton Down had large numbers of excursion trains , both arriving and departing . There were regular trains during the summer season to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and Clevedon , as well as to Weymouth , London and , more locally , football specials to Ashton Gate . There were also regular excursion trains , known as " Monkey Specials " for visitors to the nearby Bristol Zoo . In 1886 , the Bath and West Show being held on Durdham Down generated some 33 @,@ 000 extra passengers over five days , with direct services from Bath Green Park and an extra 16 services from Temple Meads . The Show was held on Durdham Down again in 1921 , temporarily increasing traffic from Temple Meads by 12 trains per day , although there was increased competition from local bus services . The station also received visits from King Edward VII in 1902 and 1908 ( the former as a prince ) , and from a delegation of British Empire Prime Ministers in 1907 .
The line had initially been managed by the Clifton Extension Railway Joint Committee , but in 1894 the line 's management was passed to the Great Western & Midland Railways Joint Committee . In 1909 , the station master at Redland was withdrawn , his duties incorporated into the job of Clifton Down station master . In 1910 , Clifton Down saw 17 Great Western services from Avonmouth to Temple Meads and 15 the other way , a further 20 trains each day operating between Clifton and Temple Meads , and 13 Midland trains each way between Clifton and Fishponds or Mangotsfield . Midland services were suspended from 1 January 1917 to 15 May 1919 due to the First World War . The Hotwells section of the Bristol Port Railway and Pier closed in 1922 , so to compensate , an additional six trains were provided from Clifton Down to Avonmouth , and four back .
In 1923 , grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) , and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS . From 1924 , many trains to Avonmouth were extended to Severn Beach , a growing seaside resort , and some on to Pilning , then back to Temple Meads via Patchway . Between 1903 and 1930 the station employed an average of 22 staff , and in 1926 the station master assumed control over Montpelier as well . The platform canopies were partially removed in the 1930s , and bomb @-@ damage during the Bristol Blitz saw them cut back further . The war also saw the end of services to Fishponds and Mangotsfield , the last operating on 31 March 1941 . By 1947 , just before the start of the British Rail era , there were 33 services each direction between Avonmouth and Temple Meads , and 18 on Sundays . Some trains made circular trips to and from Temple Meads via Clifton Down and Henbury or Pilning .
= = = British Rail and privatisation = = =
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , services at Clifton Down came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways , and there remained a strong staff presence in 1958 , with a station master , chief booking clerk , four other clerks , six porters , a shunter , a checker and a weighbridge assistant . Passenger numbers however dropped sharply in 1961 as the result of a fare increase , and so in 1962 a new reduced timetable was enacted , which lost more passengers , and saw the withdrawal of a special schoolchildren 's service . A year later in 1963 , the Beeching report suggested that all services along the Severn Beach Line be withdrawn . Following meetings with staff , it was decided to keep the line open to Severn Beach , but to close the section to Pilning , and also end services via Henbury . These services duly ended , and in July 1965 the goods yard at Clifton Down also closed . The line however was still threatened , and on 10 February 1967 it was announced that all services between Stapleton Road and Severn Beach would be discontinued . An enquiry followed , and in June that year the decision was reversed , on the condition that tickets be issued on the trains . Thus , on 17 July 1967 , all stations along the line , including Clifton Down , had their staff withdrawn . The decrease of costs allowed a reduction of ticket prices , but the line was still under threat until in June 1969 it was decided that the line 's closure would result in significant hardship , and so a grant was allocated to ensure continued services . Service levels however still declined : though the " Monkey Specials " were still going strong into the 1960s , with 340 @,@ 000 excursion passengers arriving between 1958 and 1966 , the closure of many of the Welsh Valley Lines and the construction of the Severn Bridge led to their demise in the early 1970s . Most of the Severn Beach Line was reduced to single track in late 1970 , leaving Clifton Down as one of the few passing places . The glass platform canopies were completely removed in May 1971 , and the glass @-@ covered footbridge was also removed , leaving a set of steps from Whiteladies road as the only access to the southern platform . In the late 1970s and the early 1980s , the Clifton Down Shopping Centre was built over most of the goods yard , the rest covered by a housing development .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Clifton Down passed to Regional Railways . A programme of refurbishment was carried out in 1992 / 3 , including the installation of a new metal footbridge and ramp access to the southern platform . In December 1994 , the station building , which had been bricked up when staff were withdrawn , and was by then the Steam Tavern public house , was designated a grade II listed building , along with the screen walls . It is still in use as a pub , and has been called the Roo Bar since at least 2005 . At this time , all trains ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This changed in 1995 when an hourly timetable was introduced for peak times , but services were terminated at Avonmouth , allowing a single Sprinter unit to work the service . There was a better service on Saturdays as more rolling stock was available , but there was no Sunday service . Talk arose again of the line being closed completely . Local tourism expert Bernard Lane described the line 's state as
... the line the railway wished was not there . It was the line that got bus substitution whenever they were short of trains or queues , when a rugby match in Cardiff needed a special . It has a problem in that the route is slow and not very direct ; for years it was invisible , short of marketing and lacking a regular interval timetable .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway ( FOSBR ) and a string of protests , services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , rebranded in 2015 as Great Western Railway . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the line . In 2007 , the Council unanimously agreed to pay £ 450 @,@ 000 per annum to fund extra services from May 2008 for three years , which resulted in a 60 % increase in passenger numbers along the line , and a 110 % increase at Clifton Down . Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010 .
Passenger numbers at Clifton Down were further boosted by a marketing campaign by the Severnside Community Rail Partnership to attract more people , especially students , to use the station . The work won a Department for Transport Community Rail Marketing Award in 2007 . The Severnside CRP also formed a support group for the station , and improved the provision of timetabling information through the use of simplified departure timetable posters . In 2009 , they painted a large station sign on the road bridge over the line , and in 2010 they collaborated with Redland Green School to decorate the bricked @-@ up windows and doors of the station building with animal artwork to brighten up the station and promote Bristol Zoo . The work won a Community Rail Award . Customer help points with next train information screens were installed during 2008 / 09 , paid for by money from the Department for Transport 's " Access for All " fund and local councils . Ticket machines were installed in early 2011 , following complaints that passengers were unable to pay their fares .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Clifton Down are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016 . However , the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines , so Clifton Down will continue to be served by diesel trains , with the current " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . Stephen Williams , MP for Bristol West , questioned whether electrification could continue to Clifton Down . Then @-@ Secretary of State for Transport Philip Hammond replied that it would have to be looked at in the future . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification of the entire Severn Beach Line .
Improved services at Clifton Down are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . There is an aspiration for half @-@ hourly services , with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at Portishead and Bath Spa , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single @-@ track and to the congested main line from Temple Meads , such frequency is not currently feasible . The scheme was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line , which could allow a direct service from Clifton Down to Bristol Parkway via Avonmouth . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
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= Lesbian =
A lesbian is a female homosexual : a female who experiences romantic love or sexual attraction to other females . The term lesbian is also used to express sexual identity or sexual behavior regardless of sexual orientation , or as an adjective to characterize or associate nouns with female homosexuality or same @-@ sex attraction .
The concept of " lesbian " , to differentiate women with a shared sexual orientation , is a 20th @-@ century construct . Throughout history , women have not had the same freedom or independence to pursue homosexual relationships as men , but neither have they met the same harsh punishment as homosexual men in some societies . Instead , lesbian relationships have often been regarded as harmless and incomparable to heterosexual ones unless the participants attempted to assert privileges traditionally enjoyed by men . As a result , little in history was documented to give an accurate description of how female homosexuality is expressed . When early sexologists in the late 19th century began to categorize and describe homosexual behavior , hampered by a lack of knowledge about homosexuality or women 's sexuality , they distinguished lesbians as women who did not adhere to female gender roles and incorrectly designated them mentally ill — a designation which has been reversed in the global scientific community .
Women in homosexual relationships responded to this designation either by hiding their personal lives or accepting the label of outcast and creating a subculture and identity that developed in Europe and the United States . Following World War II , during a period of social repression when governments actively persecuted homosexuals , women developed networks to socialize with and educate each other . Greater economic and social freedom allowed them gradually to be able to determine how they could form relationships and families . With second wave feminism and growth of scholarship in women 's history and sexuality in the 20th century , the definition of lesbian broadened , sparking a debate about sexual desire as the major component to define what a lesbian is . Some women who engage in same @-@ sex sexual activity may reject not only identifying as lesbians but as bisexual as well , while other women 's self @-@ identification as lesbian may not align with their sexual orientation or sexual behavior ; sexual identity is not necessarily the same as one 's sexual orientation or sexual behavior , due to various reasons , such as the fear of identifying their sexual orientation in a homophobic setting .
Portrayals of lesbians in the media suggest that society at large has been simultaneously intrigued and threatened by women who challenge feminine gender roles , and fascinated and appalled with women who are romantically involved with other women . Women who adopt a lesbian identity share experiences that form an outlook similar to an ethnic identity : as homosexuals , they are unified by the heterosexist discrimination and potential rejection they face from their families , friends , and others as a result of homophobia . As women , they face concerns separate from men . Lesbians may encounter distinct physical or mental health concerns arising from discrimination , prejudice , and minority stress . Political conditions and social attitudes also affect the formation of lesbian relationships and families in open .
= = Origin and transformation of the term = =
The word lesbian is derived from the name of the Greek island of Lesbos , home to the 6th @-@ century BCE poet Sappho . From various ancient writings , historians gathered that a group of young women were left in Sappho 's charge for their instruction or cultural edification . Little of Sappho 's poetry survives , but her remaining poetry reflects the topics she wrote about : women 's daily lives , their relationships , and rituals . She focused on the beauty of women and proclaimed her love for girls . Before the late 19th century , the word lesbian referred to any derivative or aspect of Lesbos , including a type of wine .
In Algernon Charles Swinburne 's 1866 poem Sapphics the term " lesbian " appears twice but capitalized both times after twice mentioning the island of Lesbos , and so could be construed to mean ' from the island of Lesbos ' . In 1875 , George Saintsbury , in writing about Baudelaire 's poetry refers to his " Lesbian studies " in which he includes his poem about " the passion of Delphine " which is a poem simply about love between two women which does not mention the island of Lesbos , though the other poem alluded to , entitled " Lesbos " , does . Lesbianism , to describe erotic relationships between women , had been documented in 1870 . In 1890 , the term lesbian was used in a medical dictionary as an adjective to describe tribadism ( as " lesbian love " ) . The terms lesbian , invert and homosexual were interchangeable with sapphist and sapphism around the turn of the 20th century . The use of lesbian in medical literature became prominent ; by 1925 , the word was recorded as a noun to mean the female equivalent of a sodomite .
The development of medical knowledge was a significant factor in further connotations of the term lesbian . In the middle of the 19th century , medical writers attempted to establish ways to identify male homosexuality , which was considered a significant social problem in most Western societies . In categorizing behavior that indicated what was referred to as " inversion " by German sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld , researchers categorized what was normal sexual behavior for men and women , and therefore to what extent men and women varied from the " perfect male sexual type " and the " perfect female sexual type " .
Far less literature focused on female homosexual behavior than on male homosexuality , as medical professionals did not consider it a significant problem . In some cases , it was not acknowledged to exist . However , sexologists Richard von Krafft @-@ Ebing from Germany , and Britain 's Havelock Ellis wrote some of the earliest and more enduring categorizations of female same @-@ sex attraction , approaching it as a form of insanity . Krafft @-@ Ebing , who considered lesbianism ( what he termed " Uranism " ) a neurological disease , and Ellis , who was influenced by Krafft @-@ Ebing 's writings , disagreed about whether sexual inversion was generally a lifelong condition . Ellis believed that many women who professed love for other women changed their feelings about such relationships after they had experienced marriage and a " practical life " .
However , Ellis conceded that there were " true inverts " who would spend their lives pursuing erotic relationships with women . These were members of the " third sex " who rejected the roles of women to be subservient , feminine , and domestic . Invert described the opposite gender roles , and also the related attraction to women instead of men ; since women in the Victorian period were considered unable to initiate sexual encounters , women who did so with other women were thought of as possessing masculine sexual desires .
The work of Krafft @-@ Ebing and Ellis was widely read , and helped to create public consciousness of female homosexuality . The sexologists ' claims that homosexuality was a congenital anomaly were generally well @-@ accepted by homosexual men ; it indicated that their behavior was not inspired by nor should be considered a criminal vice , as was widely acknowledged . In the absence of any other material to describe their emotions , homosexuals accepted the designation of different or perverted , and used their outlaw status to form social circles in Paris and Berlin . Lesbian began to describe elements of a subculture .
Lesbians in Western cultures in particular often classify themselves as having an identity that defines their individual sexuality , as well as their membership to a group that shares common traits . Women in many cultures throughout history have had sexual relations with other women , but they rarely were designated as part of a group of people based on who they had physical relations with . As women have generally been political minorities in Western cultures , the added medical designation of homosexuality has been cause for the development of a subcultural identity .
= = Female homosexuality without identity in Western culture = =
= = = General = = =
The varied meanings of lesbian since the early 20th century have prompted some historians to revisit historic relationships between women before the wide usage of the word was defined by erotic proclivities . Discussion from historians caused further questioning of what qualifies as a lesbian relationship . As lesbian @-@ feminists asserted , a sexual component was unnecessary in declaring oneself a lesbian if the primary and closest relationships were with women . When considering past relationships within appropriate historic context , there were times when love and sex were separate and unrelated notions . In 1989 , an academic cohort named the Lesbian History Group wrote :
Because of society 's reluctance to admit that lesbians exist , a high degree of certainty is expected before historians or biographers are allowed to use the label . Evidence that would suffice in any other situation is inadequate here ... A woman who never married , who lived with another woman , whose friends were mostly women , or who moved in known lesbian or mixed gay circles , may well have been a lesbian . ... But this sort of evidence is not ' proof ' . What our critics want is incontrovertible evidence of sexual activity between women . This is almost impossible to find .
Female sexuality is often not adequately represented in texts and documents . Until very recently , much of what has been documented about women 's sexuality has been written by men , in the context of male understanding , and relevant to women 's associations to men — as their wives , daughters , or mothers , for example . Often artistic representations of female sexuality suggest trends or ideas on broad scales , giving historians clues as to how widespread or accepted erotic relationships between women were .
= = = Ancient Greece and Rome = = =
History is often analyzed with contemporary ideologies ; Ancient Greece as a subject enjoyed popularity by the ruling class in Britain during the 19th century . Based on their social priorities , British scholars interpreted ancient Greece as a westernized , white , and masculine society , and essentially removed women from historical importance . Women in Greece were sequestered with each other , and men with men . In this homosocial environment , erotic and sexual relationships between males were common and recorded in literature , art , and philosophy . Hardly anything is recorded about homosexual activity between women . There is some speculation that similar relationships existed between women and girls . The poet Alcman used the term aitis , as the feminine form of aites — which was the official term for the younger participant in a pederastic relationship . Aristophanes , in Plato 's Symposium , mentions women who love women , but uses the term trepesthai ( to be focused on ) instead of eros , which was applied to other erotic relationships between men , and between men and women .
Historian Nancy Rabinowitz argues that ancient Greek red vase images portraying women with their arms around another woman 's waist , or leaning on a woman 's shoulders can be construed as expressions of romantic desire . Much of the daily lives of women in ancient Greece is unknown , specifically their expressions of sexuality . Although men participated in pederastic relationships outside of marriage , there is no clear evidence that women were allowed or encouraged to have same @-@ sex relationships before or during marriage as long as their marital obligations were met . Women who appear on Greek pottery are depicted with affection , and in instances where women appear only with other women , their images are eroticized : bathing , touching one another , with dildos placed in and around such scenes , and sometimes with imagery also seen in depictions of heterosexual marriage or pederastic seduction . Whether this eroticism is for the viewer or an accurate representation of life is unknown .
Women in Ancient Rome were similarly subject to men 's definitions of sexuality . Modern scholarship indicates that men viewed female homosexuality with hostility . They considered women who engaged in sexual relations with other women to be biological oddities that would attempt to penetrate women — and sometimes men — with " monstrously enlarged " clitorises . According to scholar James Butrica , lesbianism " challenged not only the Roman male 's view of himself as the exclusive giver of sexual pleasure but also the most basic foundations of Rome 's male @-@ dominated culture " . No historical documentation exists of women who had other women as sex partners .
= = = Early Modern Europe = = =
Female homosexuality has not received the same negative response from religious or criminal authorities as male homosexuality or adultery has throughout history . Whereas sodomy between men , men and women , and men and animals was punishable by death in Britain , acknowledgment of sexual contact between women was nonexistent in medical and legal texts . The earliest law against female homosexuality appeared in France in 1270 . In Spain , Italy , and the Holy Roman Empire , sodomy between women was included in acts considered unnatural and punishable by burning to death , although few instances are recorded of this taking place .
The earliest such execution occurred in Speier , Germany , in 1477 . Forty days ' penance was demanded of nuns who " rode " each other or were discovered to have touched each other 's breasts . An Italian nun named Sister Benedetta Carlini was documented to have seduced many of her sisters when possessed by a Divine spirit named " Splenditello " ; to end her relationships with other women , she was placed in solitary confinement for the last 40 years of her life . Female homoeroticism , however , was so common in English literature and theater that historians suggest it was fashionable for a period during the Renaissance .
Ideas about women 's sexuality were linked to contemporary understanding of female physiology . The vagina was considered an inward version of the penis ; where nature 's perfection created a man , often nature was thought to be trying to right itself by prolapsing the vagina to form a penis in some women . These sex changes were later thought to be cases of hermaphrodites , and hermaphroditism became synonymous with female same @-@ sex desire . Medical consideration of hermaphroditism depended upon measurements of the clitoris ; a longer , engorged clitoris was thought to be used by women to penetrate other women . Penetration was the focus of concern in all sexual acts , and a woman who was thought to have uncontrollable desires because of her engorged clitoris was called a " tribade " ( literally , one who rubs ) . Not only was an abnormally engorged clitoris thought to create lusts in some women that led them to masturbate , but pamphlets warning women about masturbation leading to such oversized organs were written as cautionary tales . For a while , masturbation and lesbian sex carried the same meaning .
Class distinction , however , became linked as the fashion of female homoeroticism passed . Tribades were simultaneously considered members of the lower class trying to ruin virtuous women , and representatives of an aristocracy corrupt with debauchery . Satirical writers began to suggest that political rivals ( or more often , their wives ) engaged in tribadism in order to harm their reputations . Queen Anne was rumored to have a passionate relationship with Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough , her closest adviser and confidante . When Churchill was ousted as the queen 's favorite , she purportedly spread allegations of the queen having affairs with her bedchamberwomen . Marie Antoinette was also the subject of such speculation for some months between 1795 and 1796 .
= = = Female husbands = = =
Hermaphroditism appeared in medical literature enough to be considered common knowledge , although cases were rare . Homoerotic elements in literature were pervasive , specifically the masquerade of one gender for another to fool an unsuspecting woman into being seduced . Such plot devices were used in Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night ( 1601 ) , The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser in 1590 , and James Shirley 's The Bird in a Cage ( 1633 ) . Extraordinary cases during the Renaissance of women taking on male personae and going undetected for years or decades have been recorded .
If found , punishments ranged from death , to time in the pillory , to being ordered never to dress as a man again . Henry Fielding wrote a pamphlet titled The Female Husband in 1746 , based on the life of Mary Hamilton , who was arrested after marrying a woman while masquerading as a man , and was sentenced to public whipping and six months in jail . Similar examples were procured of Catharine Linck in Prussia in 1717 , executed in 1721 ; Swiss Anne Grandjean married and relocated with her wife to Lyons , but was exposed by a woman with whom she had had a previous affair and sentenced to time in the stocks and prison .
Queen Christina of Sweden 's tendency to dress as a man was well known during her time , and excused because of her noble birth . She was brought up as a male and there was speculation at the time that she was a hermaphrodite . Even after Christina abdicated the throne in 1654 to avoid marriage , she was known to pursue romantic relationships with women .
Some historians view cases of cross @-@ dressing women to be manifestations of women seizing power they would naturally be unable to enjoy in feminine attire , or their way of making sense out of their desire for women . Lillian Faderman argues that Western society was threatened by women who rejected their feminine roles . Catharine Linck and other women who were accused of using dildos , such as two nuns in 16th century Spain executed for using " material instruments " , were punished more severely than those who did not . Two marriages between women were recorded in Cheshire , England , in 1707 ( between Hannah Wright and Anne Gaskill ) and 1708 ( between Ane Norton and Alice Pickford ) with no comment about both parties being female . Reports of clergymen with lax standards who performed weddings — and wrote their suspicions about one member of the wedding party — continued to appear for the next century .
Outside of Europe women were able to dress as men and go undetected . Deborah Sampson fought in the American Revolution as a man named Robert Shurtlieff , and pursued relationships with women . Edward De Lacy Evans was born female in Ireland , but took a male name during the voyage to Australia and lived as a man for 23 years in Victoria , marrying three times . Percy Redwood created a scandal in New Zealand in 1909 when he was found to be Amy Bock , who had married a woman from Port Molyneaux ; newspapers argued whether it was a sign of insanity or an inherent character flaw .
= = = Re @-@ examining romantic friendships = = =
During the 17th through 19th centuries , a woman expressing passionate love for another woman was fashionable , accepted , and encouraged . These relationships were termed romantic friendships , Boston marriages , or " sentimental friends " , and were common in the U.S. , Europe , and especially in England . Documentation of these relationships is possible by a large volume of letters written between women . Whether the relationship included any genital component was not a matter for public discourse , but women could form strong and exclusive bonds with each other and still be considered virtuous , innocent , and chaste ; a similar relationship with a man would have destroyed a woman 's reputation . In fact , these relationships were promoted as alternatives to and practice for a woman 's marriage to a man .
One such relationship was between Lady Mary Wortley Montagu , who wrote to Anne Wortley in 1709 : " Nobody was so entirely , so faithfully yours ... I put in your lovers , for I don 't allow it possible for a man to be so sincere as I am . " Similarly , English poet Anna Seward had a devoted friendship to Honora Sneyd , who was the subject of many of Seward 's sonnets and poems . When Sneyd married despite Seward 's protest , Seward 's poems became angry . However , Seward continued to write about Sneyd long after her death , extolling Sneyd 's beauty and their affection and friendship . As a young woman , writer and philosopher Mary Wollstonecraft was attached to a woman named Fanny Blood . Writing to another woman by whom she had recently felt betrayed , Wollstonecraft declared , " The roses will bloom when there 's peace in the breast , and the prospect of living with my Fanny gladdens my heart : — You know not how I love her . " Wollstonecraft 's first novel Mary : A Fiction , in part , addressed her relationship with Fanny Blood .
Perhaps the most famous of these romantic friendships was between Eleanor Butler and Sarah Ponsonby , nicknamed the Ladies of Llangollen . Butler and Ponsonby eloped in 1778 , to the relief of Ponsonby 's family ( concerned about their reputation had she run away with a man ) to live together in Wales for 51 years and be thought of as eccentrics . Their story was considered " the epitome of virtuous romantic friendship " and inspired poetry by Anna Seward and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . Diarist Anne Lister , captivated by Butler and Ponsonby , recorded her affairs with women between 1817 and 1840 . Some of it was written in code , detailing her sexual relationships with Marianna Belcombe and Maria Barlow . Both Lister and Eleanor Butler were considered masculine by contemporary news reports , and though there were suspicions that these relationships were sapphist in nature , they were nonetheless praised in literature .
Romantic friendships were also popular in the U.S. Enigmatic poet Emily Dickinson wrote over 300 letters and poems to Susan Gilbert , who later became her sister @-@ in @-@ law , and engaged in another romantic correspondence with Kate Scott Anthon . Anthon broke off their relationship the same month Dickinson entered self @-@ imposed lifelong seclusion . Nearby in Hartford , Connecticut , African American freeborn women Addie Brown and Rebecca Primus left evidence of their passion in letters : " No kisses is like youres " . In Georgia , Alice Baldy wrote to Josie Varner in 1870 , " Do you know that if you touch me , or speak to me there is not a nerve of fibre in my body that does not respond with a thrill of delight ? "
Around the turn of the 20th century , the development of higher education provided opportunities for women . In all @-@ female surroundings , a culture of romantic pursuit was fostered in women 's colleges . Older students mentored younger ones , called on them socially , took them to all @-@ women dances , and sent them flowers , cards , and poems that declared their undying love for each other . These were called " smashes " or " spoons " , and they were written about quite frankly in stories for girls aspiring to attend college in publications such as Ladies Home Journal , a children 's magazine titled St. Nicholas , and a collection called Smith College Stories , without negative views . Enduring loyalty , devotion , and love were major components to these stories , and sexual acts beyond kissing were consistently absent .
Women who had the option of a career instead of marriage labeled themselves New Women , and took their new opportunities very seriously . Faderman calls this period " the last breath of innocence " before 1920 when characterizations of female affection were connected to sexuality , marking lesbians as a unique and often unflattering group . Specifically , Faderman connects the growth of women 's independence and their beginning to reject strictly prescribed roles in the Victorian era to the scientific designation of lesbianism as a type of aberrant sexual behavior .
= = Identity and gender in historical Western culture = =
= = = Construction of lesbian identity = = =
For some women , the realization that they participated in behavior or relationships that could be categorized as lesbian caused them to deny or conceal it , such as professor Jeannette Augustus Marks at Mount Holyoke College , who lived with the college president , Mary Woolley , for 36 years . Marks discouraged young women from " abnormal " friendships and insisted happiness could only be attained with a man . Other women , however , embraced the distinction and used their uniqueness to set themselves apart from heterosexual women and gay men .
From the 1890s to the 1930s , American heiress Natalie Clifford Barney held a weekly salon in Paris to which major artistic celebrities were invited and where lesbian topics were the focus . Combining Greek influences with contemporary French eroticism , she attempted to create an updated and idealized version of Lesbos in her salon . Her contemporaries included artist Romaine Brooks , who painted others in her circle ; writers Colette , Djuna Barnes , social host Gertrude Stein , and novelist Radclyffe Hall .
Berlin had a vibrant homosexual culture in the 1920s : about 50 clubs catering to lesbians existed , women had their own magazine titled Die Freundin ( The Girlfriend ) between 1924 and 1933 , and another titled Garçonne specifically for male transvestites and lesbians . In 1928 a book titled The Lesbians of Berlin written by Ruth Margarite Röllig further popularized the German capital as a center of lesbian activity . Clubs varied between large establishments so popular that they were tourist attractions to small neighborhood cafes where only local women went to find other women . " Das Lila Lied " ( " The Lavender Song " ) served as an anthem to the lesbians of Berlin . Homosexuality was illegal in Germany , though sometimes tolerated , as some functions were allowed by the police who took the opportunity to register the names of homosexuals for future reference . Magnus Hirschfeld 's Scientific @-@ Humanitarian Committee , which promoted tolerance for homosexuals in Germany , welcomed lesbian participation , and a surge of lesbian @-@ themed writing and political activism in the German feminist movement became evident .
In 1928 , Radclyffe Hall published a novel titled The Well of Loneliness . Its plot centers around Stephen Gordon , a woman who identifies herself as an invert after reading Krafft @-@ Ebing 's Psychopathia Sexualis , and lives within the homosexual subculture of Paris . The novel included a foreword by Havelock Ellis and was intended to be a call for tolerance for inverts by publicizing their disadvantages and accidents of being born inverted . Hall subscribed to Ellis and Krafft @-@ Ebing 's theories and rejected Freud 's theory that same @-@ sex attraction was caused by childhood trauma and was curable . The publicity Hall received was due to unintended consequences ; the novel was tried for obscenity in London , a spectacularly scandalous event described as " the crystallizing moment in the construction of a visible modern English lesbian subculture " by professor Laura Doan .
Newspaper stories frankly divulged that the book 's content includes " sexual relations between Lesbian women " , and photographs of Hall often accompanied details about lesbians in most major print outlets within a span of six months . Hall reflected the appearance of a " mannish " woman in the 1920s : short cropped hair , tailored suits ( often with pants ) , and monocle that became widely recognized as a " uniform " . When British women participated in World War I , they became familiar with masculine clothing , and were considered patriotic for wearing uniforms and pants . However , postwar masculinization of women 's clothing became associated with lesbians .
In the United States , the 1920s was a decade of social experimentation , particularly with sex . This was heavily influenced by the writings of Sigmund Freud , who theorized that sexual desire would be sated unconsciously , despite an individual 's wish to ignore it . Freud 's theories were much more pervasive in the U.S. than in Europe . With the well @-@ publicized notion that sexual acts were a part of lesbianism and their relationships , sexual experimentation was widespread . Large cities that provided a nightlife were immensely popular , and women began to seek out sexual adventure . Bisexuality became chic , particularly in America 's first gay neighborhoods .
No location saw more visitors for its possibilities of homosexual nightlife than Harlem , the predominantly African American section of New York City . White " slummers " enjoyed jazz , nightclubs , and anything else they wished . Blues singers Ma Rainey , Bessie Smith , Ethel Waters , and Gladys Bentley sang about affairs with women to visitors such as Tallulah Bankhead , Beatrice Lillie , and the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ named Joan Crawford . Homosexuals began to draw comparisons between their newly recognized minority status and that of African Americans . Among African American residents of Harlem , lesbian relationships were common and tolerated , though not overtly embraced . Some women staged lavish wedding ceremonies , even filing licenses using masculine names with New York City . Most women , however , were married to men and participated in affairs with women regularly ; bisexuality was more widely accepted than lesbianism .
Across town , Greenwich Village also saw a growing homosexual community ; both Harlem and Greenwich Village provided furnished rooms for single men and women , which was a major factor in their development as centers for homosexual communities . The tenor was different in Greenwich Village than Harlem , however . Bohemians — intellectuals who rejected Victorian ideals — gathered in the Village . Homosexuals were predominantly male , although figures such as poet Edna St. Vincent Millay and social host Mabel Dodge were known for their affairs with women and promotion of tolerance of homosexuality . Women in the U.S. who could not visit Harlem or live in Greenwich Village for the first time were able to visit saloons in the 1920s without being considered prostitutes . The existence of a public space for women to socialize in bars that were known to cater to lesbians " became the single most important public manifestation of the subculture for many decades " , according to historian Lillian Faderman .
= = = The Great Depression = = =
The primary component necessary to encourage lesbians to be public and seek other women was economic independence , which virtually disappeared in the 1930s with the Great Depression . Most women in the U.S. found it necessary to marry , to a " front " such as a gay man where both could pursue homosexual relationships with public discretion , or to a man who expected a traditional wife . Independent women in the 1930s were generally seen as holding jobs that men should have .
The social attitude made very small and close @-@ knit communities in large cities that centered around bars , while simultaneously isolating women in other locales . Speaking of homosexuality in any context was socially forbidden , and women rarely discussed lesbianism even amongst themselves ; they referred to openly gay people as " in the Life " . Freudian psychoanalytic theory was pervasive in influencing doctors to consider homosexuality as a neurosis afflicting immature women . Homosexual subculture disappeared in Germany with the rise of the Nazis in 1933 .
= = = World War II = = =
The onset of World War II caused a massive upheaval in people 's lives as military mobilization engaged millions of men . Women were also accepted into the military in the U.S. Women 's Army Corps ( WACs ) and U.S. Navy 's Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service ( WAVES ) . Unlike processes to screen out male homosexuals , which had been in place since the creation of the American military , there were no methods to identify or screen for lesbians ; they were put into place gradually during World War II . Despite common attitudes regarding women 's traditional roles in the 1930s , independent and masculine women were directly recruited by the military in the 1940s , and frailty discouraged .
Some women were able to arrive at the recruiting station in a man 's suit , deny ever having been in love with another woman , and be easily inducted . Sexual activity , however , was forbidden , and blue discharge was almost certain if one identified oneself as a lesbian . As women found each other , they formed into tight groups on base , socialized at service clubs , and began to use code words . Historian Allan Bérubé documented that homosexuals in the armed forces either consciously or subconsciously refused to identify themselves as homosexual or lesbian , and also never spoke about others ' orientation .
The most masculine women were not necessarily common , though they were visible so they tended to attract women interested in finding other lesbians . Women had to broach the subject about their interest in other women carefully , sometimes taking days to develop a common understanding without asking or stating anything outright . Women who did not enter the military were aggressively called upon to take industrial jobs left by men , in order to continue national productivity . The increased mobility , sophistication , and independence of many women during and after the war made it possible for women to live without husbands , something that would not have been feasible under different economic and social circumstances , further shaping lesbian networks and environments .
= = = Postwar years = = =
Following World War II , a nationwide movement pressed to return to pre @-@ war society as quickly as possible in the U.S. When combined with the increasing national paranoia about communism and psychoanalytic theory that had become pervasive in medical knowledge , homosexuality became an undesired characteristic of employees working for the U.S. government in 1950 . Homosexuals were thought to be vulnerable targets to blackmail , and the government purged its employment ranks of open homosexuals , beginning a widespread effort to gather intelligence about employees ' private lives . State and local governments followed suit , arresting people for congregating in bars and parks , and enacting laws against cross @-@ dressing for men and women .
The U.S. military and government conducted many interrogations , asking if women had ever had sexual relations with another woman and essentially equating even a one @-@ time experience to a criminal identity , thereby severely delineating heterosexuals from homosexuals . In 1952 homosexuality was listed as a pathological emotional disturbance in the American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual . The view that homosexuality was a curable sickness was widely believed in the medical community , general population , and among many lesbians themselves .
Attitudes and practices to ferret out homosexuals in public service positions extended to Australia and Canada . A section to create an offence of " gross indecency " between females was added to a bill in the United Kingdom House of Commons and passed there in 1921 , but was rejected in the House of Lords , apparently because they were concerned any attention paid to sexual misconduct would also promote it .
= = = = Underground socializing = = = =
Very little information was available about homosexuality beyond medical and psychiatric texts . Community meeting places consisted of bars that were commonly raided by police once a month on average , with those arrested exposed in newspapers . In response , eight women in San Francisco met in their living rooms in 1955 to socialize and have a place to dance . When they decided to make it a regular meeting , they became the first organization for lesbians in the U.S. , titled the Daughters of Bilitis ( DOB ) . The DOB began publishing a magazine titled The Ladder in 1956 ; inside the front cover of every issue was their mission statement , the first of which stated was " Education of the variant " . It was intended to provide women with knowledge about homosexuality — specifically relating to women , and famous lesbians in history . However , by 1956 the term " lesbian " had such a negative meaning that the DOB refused to use it as a descriptor , choosing " variant " instead .
The DOB spread to Chicago , New York , and Los Angeles , and The Ladder was mailed to hundreds — eventually thousands — of DOB members discussing the nature of homosexuality , sometimes challenging the idea that it was a sickness , with readers offering their own reasons why they were lesbians , and suggesting ways to cope with the condition or society 's response to it . British lesbians followed with the publication of Arena Three beginning in 1964 , with a similar mission .
= = = = Butch and femme dichotomy = = = =
As a reflection of categories of sexuality so sharply defined by the government and society at large , lesbian subculture developed extremely rigid gender roles between women , particularly among the working class in the U.S. and Canada . Although many municipalities had enacted laws against cross @-@ dressing , some women would socialize in bars as butches : dressed in men 's clothing and mirroring traditional masculine behavior . Others wore traditionally feminine clothing and assumed a more diminutive role as femmes . Butch and femme modes of socialization were so integral within lesbian bars that women who refused to choose between the two would be ignored , or at least unable to date anyone , and butch women becoming romantically involved with other butch women or femmes with other femmes was unacceptable .
Butch women were not a novelty in the 1950s ; even in Harlem and Greenwich Village in the 1920s some women assumed these personae . In the 1950s and 1960s , however , the roles were pervasive and not limited to North America : from 1940 to 1970 , butch / femme bar culture flourished in Britain , though there were fewer class distinctions . They further identified members of a group that had been marginalized ; women who had been rejected by most of society had an inside view of an exclusive group of people that took a high amount of knowledge to function in . Butch and femme were considered coarse by American lesbians of higher social standing during this period . Many wealthier women married to satisfy their familial obligations , and others escaped to Europe to live as expatriates .
= = = = Lesbian themed fiction = = = =
Regardless of the lack of information about homosexuality in scholarly texts , another forum for learning about lesbianism was growing . A paperback book titled Women 's Barracks describing a woman 's experiences in the Free French Forces was published in 1950 . It told of a lesbian relationship the author had witnessed . After 4 @.@ 5 million copies were sold , it was consequently named in the House Select Committee on Current Pornographic Materials in 1952 . Its publisher , Gold Medal Books , followed with the novel Spring Fire in 1952 , which sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies . Gold Medal Books was overwhelmed with mail from women writing about the subject matter , and followed with more books , creating the genre of lesbian pulp fiction .
Between 1955 and 1969 over 2 @,@ 000 books were published using lesbianism as a topic , and they were sold in corner drugstores , train stations , bus stops , and newsstands all over the U.S. and Canada . Most were written by , and almost all were marketed to heterosexual men . Coded words and images were used on the covers . Instead of " lesbian " , terms such as " strange " , " twilight " , " queer " , and " third sex " , were used in the titles , and cover art was invariably salacious . A handful of lesbian pulp fiction authors were women writing for lesbians , including Ann Bannon , Valerie Taylor , Paula Christian , and Vin Packer / Ann Aldrich . Bannon , who also purchased lesbian pulp fiction , later stated that women identified the material iconically by the cover art . Many of the books used cultural references : naming places , terms , describing modes of dress and other codes to isolated women . As a result , pulp fiction helped to proliferate a lesbian identity simultaneously to lesbians and heterosexual readers .
= = = Second wave feminism = = =
The social rigidity of the 1950s and early 1960s encountered a backlash as social movements to improve the standing of African Americans , the poor , women , and gays all became prominent . Of the latter two , the gay rights movement and the feminist movement connected after a violent confrontation occurred in New York City in the 1969 Stonewall riots . What followed was a movement characterized by a surge of gay activism and feminist consciousness that further transformed the definition of lesbian .
The sexual revolution in the 1970s introduced the differentiation between identity and sexual behavior for women . Many women took advantage of their new social freedom to try new experiences . Women who previously identified as heterosexual tried sleeping with women , though many maintained their heterosexual identity . However , with the advent of second wave feminism , lesbian as a political identity grew to describe a social philosophy among women , often overshadowing sexual desire as a defining trait . A militant feminist organization named Radicalesbians published a manifesto in 1970 entitled " The Woman @-@ Identified Woman " that declared " A lesbian is the rage of all women condensed to the point of explosion " .
Militant feminists expressed their disdain with an inherently sexist and patriarchal society , and concluded the most effective way to overcome sexism and attain the equality of women would be to deny men any power or pleasure from women . For women who subscribed to this philosophy — dubbing themselves lesbian @-@ feminists — lesbian was a term chosen by women to describe any woman who dedicated her approach to social interaction and political motivation to the welfare of women . Sexual desire was not the defining characteristic of a lesbian @-@ feminist , but rather her focus on politics . Independence from men as oppressors was a central tenet of lesbian @-@ feminism , and many believers strove to separate themselves physically and economically from traditional male @-@ centered culture . In the ideal society , named Lesbian Nation , " woman " and " lesbian " were interchangeable .
In 1980 , poet and essayist Adrienne Rich expanded upon the political meaning of lesbian by proposing a continuum of lesbian existence based on " woman @-@ identified experience " . All relationships between women , Rich proposed , have some lesbian element , regardless if they claim a lesbian identity : mothers and daughters , women who work together , and women who nurse each other , for example . Such a perception of women relating to each other connects them through time and across cultures , and Rich considered heterosexuality a condition forced upon women by men . Several years earlier , DOB founders Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon similarly relegated sexual acts as unnecessary in determining what a lesbian is , by providing their definition : " a woman whose primary erotic , psychological , emotional and social interest is in a member of her own sex , even though that interest may not be overtly expressed " .
Although lesbian @-@ feminism was a significant shift , not all lesbians agreed with it . Lesbian @-@ feminism was a youth @-@ oriented movement : its members were primarily college educated , with experience in New Left and radical causes , but they had not seen any success in persuading radical organizations to take up women 's issues . Many older lesbians who had acknowledged their sexuality in more conservative times felt maintaining their ways of coping in a homophobic world was more appropriate . The Daughters of Bilitis folded in 1970 over which direction to focus on : feminism or gay rights issues .
As equality was a priority for lesbian @-@ feminists , disparity of roles between men and women or butch and femme were viewed as patriarchal . Lesbian @-@ feminists eschewed gender role play that had been pervasive in bars , as well as the perceived chauvinism of gay men ; many lesbian @-@ feminists refused to work with gay men , or take up their causes . However , lesbians who held a more essentialist view that they had been born homosexual and used the descriptor " lesbian " to define sexual attraction , often considered the separatist , angry opinions of lesbian @-@ feminists to be detrimental to the cause of gay rights .
= = Outside of Western culture = =
= = = Middle East = = =
Female homosexual behavior may be present in every culture , although the concept of a lesbian as a woman who pairs exclusively with other women is not . Attitudes about female homosexual behavior are dependent upon women 's roles in each society , and each culture 's definition of sex . Women in the Middle East have been historically segregated from men . In the 7th and 8th centuries , some extraordinary women dressed in male attire when gender roles were less strict , but the sexual roles that accompanied European women were not associated with Islamic women . The Caliphal court in Baghdad featured women who dressed as men , including false facial hair , but they competed with other women for the attentions of men .
Highly intelligent women , according to the 12th century writings of Sharif al @-@ Idrisi , were more likely to be lesbians ; their intellectual prowess put them on a more even par with men . Relations between women who lived in harems , and fears of women being sexually intimate in Turkish baths were expressed in writings by men . Women , however , were mostly silent and men likewise rarely wrote about lesbian relationships . It is unclear to historians if the rare instances of lesbianism mentioned in literature are an accurate historical record or intended to serve as fantasies for men . A 1978 treatise about repression in Iran asserted that women were completely silenced : " In the whole of Iranian history , [ no woman ] has been allowed to speak out for such tendencies ... To attest to lesbian desires would be an unforgivable crime . "
Although the authors of Islamic Homosexualities argued this did not mean women could not engage in lesbian relationships , a lesbian anthropologist in 1991 visited Yemen and reported that women in the town she visited were unable to comprehend her romantic relationship to another woman . Women in Pakistan are expected to marry men ; those who do not are ostracized . Women , however , may have intimate relations with other women as long as their wifely duties are met , their private matters are kept quiet , and the woman with whom they are involved is somehow related by family or logical interest to her lover .
The United Nations estimate for the number of honor killings in the world is 5000 per year . Many women 's groups in the Middle East and Southwest Asia suspect that more than 20 @,@ 000 women are honor killed in the world each year .
= = = The Americas = = =
Indigenous people in North and South America conceptualized a third gender for men @-@ women and women @-@ men . These roles were recorded of the Coahuiltecan Indians in Texas , Timucuan in Florida , and Cueva in Panama . In Cree , the term for a man who took the role of a woman was ayekkwew ; the Zuni word for a woman who took the role of a man was katsotse ( boy @-@ girl ) , and the Mohave give women the term hwame . The cross @-@ gender roles have less to do with sexuality than with spirituality and occupation . A " two @-@ spirit " woman who has a relationship with a non cross @-@ gender woman is thought to be a " hetero @-@ gender " relationship .
In Latin America , lesbian consciousness and associations appeared in the 1970s , increasing while several countries transitioned to or reformed democratic governments . Harassment and intimidation have been common even in places where homosexuality is legal , and laws against child corruption , morality , or " the good ways " ( faltas a la moral o las buenas costumbres ) , have been used to persecute homosexuals . From the Hispanic perspective , the conflict between the lesbophobia of feminists and the misogyny from gay men has created a difficult path for lesbians and associated groups .
Argentina was the first Latin American country with a gay rights group , Nuestro Mundo ( NM , or Our World ) , created in 1969 . Six mostly secret organizations concentrating on gay or lesbian issues were founded around this time , but persecution and harassment were continuous and grew worse with the dictatorship of Jorge Rafael Videla in 1976 , when all groups were dissolved in the Dirty War . Lesbian rights groups have gradually formed since 1986 to build a cohesive community that works to overcome philosophical differences with heterosexual women .
The Latin American lesbian movement has been the most active in Mexico , but has encountered similar problems in effectiveness and cohesion . While groups try to promote lesbian issues and concerns , they also face misogynistic attitudes from gay men and homophobic views from heterosexual women . In 1977 , Lesbos , the first lesbian organization for Mexicans , was formed . Several incarnations of political groups promoting lesbian issues have evolved ; 13 lesbian organizations were active in Mexico City in 1997 . Ultimately , however , lesbian associations have had little influence both on the homosexual and feminist movements .
In Chile , the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet forbade the creation of lesbian groups until 1984 , when Ayuquelén ( " joy of being " in Mapuche ) was first founded , prompted by the very public beating death of a woman amid shouts of " Damned lesbian ! " from her attacker . The lesbian movement has been closely associated with the feminist movement in Chile , although the relationship has been sometimes strained . Ayuquelén worked with the International Lesbian Information Service , the International Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Trans and Intersex Association , and the Chilean gay rights group Movimiento de Integración y Liberación Homosexual ( Movement to Integrate and Liberate Homosexuals ) to remove the sodomy law still in force in Chile .
Lesbian consciousness began in Nicaragua in 1986 , when the Sandinista National Liberation Front expelled gay men and lesbians from its midst . State persecution prevented the formation of associations until AIDS became a concern , when educational efforts forced sexual minorities to band together . The first lesbian organization was Nosotras , founded in 1989 . An effort to promote visibility from 1991 to 1992 provoked the government to declare homosexuality illegal in 1994 , effectively ending the movement , until 2004 , when Grupo Safo – Grupo de Mujeres Lesbianas de Nicaragua was created , four years before homosexuality became legal again .
The meetings of feminist lesbians of Latin America and the Caribbean , sometimes shortened to " Lesbian meetings " , have been an important forum for the exchange of ideas for Latin American lesbians since the late 1980s . With rotating hosts and biannual gatherings , its main aims are the creation of communication networks , to change the situation of lesbians in Latin America ( both legally and socially ) , to increase solidarity between lesbians and to destroy the existing myths about them .
= = = Africa = = =
Cross @-@ gender roles and marriage between women has also been recorded in over 30 African societies . Women may marry other women , raise their children , and be generally thought of as men in societies in Nigeria , Cameroon , and Kenya . The Hausa people of Sudan have a term equivalent to lesbian , kifi , that may also be applied to males to mean " neither party insists on a particular sexual role " .
Near the Congo River a female who participates in strong emotional or sexual relationships with another female among the Nkundo people is known as yaikya bonsángo ( a woman who presses against another woman ) . Lesbian relationships are also known in matrilineal societies in Ghana among the Akan people . In Lesotho , females engage in what is commonly considered sexual behavior to the Western world : they kiss , sleep together , rub genitals , participate in cunnilingus , and maintain their relationships with other females vigilantly . Since the people of Lesotho believe sex requires a penis , however , they do not consider their behavior sexual , nor label themselves lesbians .
In South Africa , lesbians are raped by heterosexual men with a goal of punishment of " abnormal " behavior and reinforcement of societal norms . The crime was first identified in South Africa where it is sometimes supervised by members of the woman 's family or local community , and is a major contributor to HIV infection in South African lesbians . " Corrective rape " is not recognized by the South African legal system as a hate crime despite the fact that the South African Constitution states that no person shall be discriminated against based on their social status and identity , including sexual orientation . Legally , South Africa protects gay rights extensively , but the government does not do anything to prevent corrective rape , and women do not have much faith in the police and their investigations .
Corrective rape is on the rise in South Africa . More than 10 lesbians are raped or gang @-@ raped weekly , as estimated by Luleki Sizwe , a South African nonprofit . It is estimated that at least 500 lesbians become victims of corrective rape every year and that 86 % of black lesbians in the Western Cape live in fear of being sexually assaulted , as reported by the Triangle Project in 2008 . Yet , victims of corrective rape are less likely to report it because of the negative social view of homosexuality .
= = = Asia = = =
China before westernization was another society that segregated men from women . Historical Chinese culture has not recognized a concept of sexual orientation , or a framework to divide people based on their same @-@ sex or opposite @-@ sex attractions . Although there was a significant culture surrounding homosexual men , there was none for women . Outside of their duties to bear sons to their husbands , women were perceived as having no sexuality at all .
This did not mean that women could not pursue sexual relationships with other women , but that such associations could not impose upon women 's relationships to men . Rare references to lesbianism were written by Ying Shao , who identified same @-@ sex relationships between women in imperial courts who behaved as husband and wife as dui shi ( paired eating ) . " Golden Orchid Associations " in Southern China existed into the 20th century and promoted formal marriages between women , who were then allowed to adopt children . Westernization brought new ideas that all sexual behavior not resulting in reproduction was aberrant .
The liberty of being employed in silk factories starting in 1865 allowed some women to style themselves tzu @-@ shu nii ( never to marry ) and live in communes with other women . Other Chinese called them sou @-@ hei ( self @-@ combers ) for adopting hairstyles of married women . These communes passed because of the Great Depression and were subsequently discouraged by the communist government for being a relic of feudal China . In contemporary Chinese society , tongzhi ( same goal or spirit ) is the term used to refer to homosexuals ; most Chinese are reluctant to divide this classification further to identify lesbians .
In Japan , the term rezubian , a Japanese pronunciation of " lesbian " , was used during the 1920s . Westernization brought more independence for women and allowed some Japanese women to wear pants . The cognate tomboy is used in the Philippines , and particularly in Manila , to denote women who are more masculine . Virtuous women in Korea prioritize motherhood , chastity , and virginity ; outside of this scope , very few women are free to express themselves through sexuality , although there is a growing organization for lesbians named Kkirikkiri . The term pondan is used in Malaysia to refer to gay men , but since there is no historical context to reference lesbians , the term is used for female homosexuals as well . As in many Asian countries , open homosexuality is discouraged in many social levels , so many Malaysians lead double lives .
In India , a 14th @-@ century Indian text mentioning a lesbian couple who had a child as a result of their lovemaking is an exception to the general silence about female homosexuality . This invisibility disappeared with the release of a film titled Fire in 1996 , prompting some theaters in India to be attacked by extremists . Terms used to label homosexuals are often rejected by Indian activists for being the result of imperialist influence , but most discourse on homosexuality centers on men . Women 's rights groups in India continue to debate the legitimacy of including lesbian issues in their platforms , as lesbians and material focusing on female homosexuality are frequently suppressed .
= = Demographics = =
= = = The Kinsey Report = = =
The most extensive early study of female homosexuality was provided by the Institute for Sex Research , who published an in @-@ depth report of the sexual experiences of American women in 1953 . More than 8 @,@ 000 women were interviewed by Alfred Kinsey and the staff of the Institute for Sex Research in a book titled Sexual Behavior in the Human Female , popularly known as part of the Kinsey Report . The Kinsey Report 's dispassionate discussion of homosexuality as a form of human sexual behavior was revolutionary . Up to this study , only physicians and psychiatrists studied sexual behavior , and almost always the results were interpreted with a moral view .
Kinsey and his staff reported that 28 % of women had been aroused by another female , and 19 % had a sexual contact with another female . Of women who had sexual contact with another female , half to two @-@ thirds of them had orgasmed . Single women had the highest prevalence of homosexual activity , followed by women who were widowed , divorced , or separated . The lowest occurrence of sexual activity was among married women ; those with previous homosexual experience reported they got married to stop homosexual activity .
Most of the women who reported homosexual activity had not experienced it more than ten times . Fifty @-@ one percent of women reporting homosexual experience had only one partner . Women with post @-@ graduate education had a higher prevalence of homosexual experience , followed by women with a college education ; the smallest occurrence was among women with education no higher than eighth grade . However , Kinsey 's methodology was criticized .
Based on Kinsey 's scale where 0 represents a person with an exclusively heterosexual response and 6 represents a person with an exclusively homosexual one , and numbers in between represent a gradient of responses with both sexes , 6 % of those interviewed ranked as a 6 : exclusively homosexual . Apart from those who ranked 0 ( 71 % ) , the largest percentage in between 0 and 6 was 1 at approximately 15 % . However , the Kinsey Report remarked that the ranking described a period in a person 's life , and that a person 's orientation may change . Among the criticisms the Kinsey Report received , a particular one addressed the Institute for Sex Research 's tendency to use statistical sampling , which facilitated an over @-@ representation of same @-@ sex relationships by other researchers who did not adhere to Kinsey 's qualifications of data .
= = = The Hite Report = = =
Twenty @-@ three years later , in 1976 , sexologist Shere Hite published a report on the sexual encounters of 3 @,@ 019 women who had responded to questionnaires , under the title The Hite Report . Hite 's questions differed from Kinsey 's , focusing more on how women identified , or what they preferred rather than experience . Respondents to Hite 's questions indicated that 8 % preferred sex with women and 9 % answered that they identified as bisexual or had sexual experiences with men and women , though they refused to indicate preference .
Hite 's conclusions are more based on respondents ' comments than quantifiable data . She found it " striking " that many women who had no lesbian experiences indicated they were interested in sex with women , particularly because the question was not asked . Hite found the two most significant differences between respondents ' experience with men and women were the focus on clitoral stimulation , and more emotional involvement and orgasmic responses . Since Hite performed her study during the popularity of feminism in the 1970s , she also acknowledged that women may have chosen the political identity of a lesbian .
= = = Population estimates = = =
Lesbians in the U.S. are estimated to be about 2 @.@ 6 % of the population , according to a National Opinion Research Center survey of sexually active adults who had had same @-@ sex experiences within the past year , completed in 2000 . A survey of same @-@ sex couples in the United States showed that between 2000 and 2005 , the number of people claiming to be in same @-@ sex relationships increased by 30 % — five times the rate of population growth in the U.S. The study attributed the jump to people being more comfortable self @-@ identifying as homosexual to the federal government .
The government of the United Kingdom does not ask citizens to define their sexuality . However , a survey by the UK Office for National Statistics ( ONS ) in 2010 found that 1 @.@ 5 % of Britons identified themselves as gay or bisexual , and the ONS suggests that this is in line with other surveys showing the number between 0 @.@ 3 % and 3 % . Estimates of lesbians are sometimes not differentiated in studies of same @-@ sex households , such as those performed by the U.S. census , and estimates of total gay , lesbian , or bisexual population by the UK government . However , polls in Australia have recorded a range of self @-@ identified lesbian or bisexual women from 1 @.@ 3 % to 2 @.@ 2 % of the total population .
= = Health = =
= = = Physical = = =
In terms of medical issues , lesbians are referred to as women who have sex with women ( WSW ) because of the misconceptions and assumptions about women 's sexuality and some women 's hesitancy to disclose their accurate sexual histories even to a physician . Many self @-@ identified lesbians neglect to see a physician because they do not participate in heterosexual activity and require no birth control , which is the initiating factor for most women to seek consultation with a gynecologist when they become sexually active . As a result , many lesbians are not screened regularly with Pap smears . The U.S. government reports that some lesbians neglect seeking medical screening in the U.S. ; they lack health insurance because many employers do not offer health benefits to domestic partners .
The result of the lack of medical information on WSW is that medical professionals and some lesbians perceive lesbians as having lower risks of acquiring a sexually transmitted disease or types of cancer . When women do seek medical attention , medical professionals often fail to take a complete medical history . In a recent study of 2 @,@ 345 lesbian and bisexual women , only 9 @.@ 3 % had claimed they had ever been asked their sexual orientation by a physician . A third of the respondents believed disclosing their sexual history would result in a negative reaction , and 30 % had received a negative reaction from a medical professional after identifying themselves as lesbian or bisexual . A patient 's complete history helps medical professionals identify higher risk areas and corrects assumptions about the personal histories of women . In a similar survey of 6 @,@ 935 lesbians , 77 % had had sexual contact with one or more male partners , and 6 % had that contact within the previous year .
Heart disease is listed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services as the number one cause of death for all women . Factors that add to risk of heart disease include obesity and smoking , both of which are more prevalent in lesbians . Studies show that lesbians have a higher body mass and are generally less concerned about weight issues than heterosexual women , and lesbians consider women with higher body masses to be more attractive than heterosexual women do . Lesbians are more likely to exercise regularly than heterosexual women , and lesbians do not generally exercise for aesthetic reasons , although heterosexual women do . Research is needed to determine specific causes of obesity in lesbians .
Lack of differentiation between homosexual and heterosexual women in medical studies that concentrate on health issues for women skews results for lesbians and non @-@ lesbian women . Reports are inconclusive about occurrence of breast cancer in lesbians . It has been determined , however , that the lower rate of lesbians tested by regular Pap smears makes it more difficult to detect cervical cancer at early stages in lesbians . The risk factors for developing ovarian cancer rates are higher in lesbians than heterosexual women , perhaps because many lesbians lack protective factors of pregnancy , abortion , contraceptives , breast feeding , and miscarriages .
Some sexually transmitted diseases are communicable between women , including human papillomavirus ( HPV ) — specifically genital warts — squamous intraepithelial lesions , trichomoniasis , syphilis , and herpes simplex virus ( HSV ) . Transmission of specific sexually transmitted diseases among women who have sex with women depends on the sexual practices women engage in . Any object that comes in contact with cervical secretions , vaginal mucosa , or menstrual blood , including fingers or penetrative objects may transmit sexually transmitted diseases . Orogenital contact may indicate a higher risk of acquiring HSV , even among women who have had no prior sex with men .
Bacterial vaginosis ( BV ) occurs more often in lesbians , but it is unclear if BV is transmitted by sexual contact ; it occurs in celibate as well as sexually active women . BV often occurs in both partners in a lesbian relationship ; a recent study of women with BV found that 81 % had partners with BV . Lesbians are not included in a category of frequency of human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) transmission , although transmission is possible through vaginal and cervical secretions . The highest rate of transmission of HIV to lesbians is among women who participate in intravenous drug use or have sexual intercourse with bisexual men .
= = = Mental = = =
Since medical literature began to describe homosexuality , it has often been approached from a view that sought to find an inherent psychopathology as the root cause , influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud . Although he considered bisexuality inherent in all people , and said that most have phases of homosexual attraction or experimentation , exclusive same @-@ sex attraction he attributed to stunted development resulting from trauma or parental conflicts . Much literature on mental health and lesbians centered on their depression , substance abuse , and suicide . Although these issues exist among lesbians , discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual in 1973 . Instead , social ostracism , legal discrimination , internalization of negative stereotypes , and limited support structures indicate factors homosexuals face in Western societies that often adversely affect their mental health .
Women who identify as lesbian report feeling significantly different and isolated during adolescence . These emotions have been cited as appearing on average at 15 years old in lesbians and 18 years old in women who identify as bisexual . On the whole , women tend to work through developing a self @-@ concept internally , or with other women with whom they are intimate . Women also limit who they divulge their sexual identities to , and more often see being lesbian as a choice , as opposed to gay men , who work more externally and see being gay as outside their control .
Anxiety disorders and depression are the most common mental health issues for women . Depression is reported among lesbians at a rate similar to heterosexual women , although generalized anxiety disorder is more likely to appear among lesbian and bisexual women than heterosexual women . Depression is a more significant problem among women who feel they must hide their sexual orientation from friends and family , or experience compounded ethnic or religious discrimination , or endure relationship difficulties with no support system . Men 's shaping of women 's sexuality has proven to have an effect on how lesbians see their own bodies . Studies have shown that heterosexual men and lesbians have different standards for what they consider attractive in women . Lesbians who view themselves with male standards of female beauty may experience lower self @-@ esteem , eating disorders , and higher incidence of depression . More than half the respondents to a 1994 survey of health issues in lesbians reported they had suicidal thoughts , and 18 % had attempted suicide .
A population @-@ based study completed by the National Alcohol Research Center found that women who identify as lesbian or bisexual are less likely to abstain from alcohol . Lesbians and bisexual women have a higher likelihood of reporting problems with alcohol , as well as not being satisfied with treatment for substance abuse programs . Many lesbian communities are centered in bars , and drinking is an activity that correlates to community participation for lesbians and bisexual women .
= = Media representation = =
= = = Summary = = =
Lesbians portrayed in literature , film , and television often shape contemporary thought about women 's sexuality . The majority of media about lesbians is produced by men ; women 's publishing companies did not develop until the 1970s , films about lesbians made by women did not appear until the 1980s , and television shows portraying lesbians written by women only began to be created in the 21st century . As a result , homosexuality — particularly dealing with women — has been excluded because of symbolic annihilation . When depictions of lesbians began to surface , they were often one @-@ dimensional , simplified stereotypes .
= = = Literature = = =
In addition to Sappho 's accomplishments , literary historian Jeannette Howard Foster includes the Book of Ruth , and ancient mythological tradition as examples of lesbianism in classical literature . Greek stories of the heavens often included a female figure whose virtue and virginity were unspoiled , who pursued more masculine interests , and who was followed by a dedicated group of maidens . Foster cites Camilla and Diana , Artemis and Callisto , and Iphis and Ianthe as examples of female mythological figures who showed remarkable devotion to each other , or defied gender expectations . The Greeks are also given credit with spreading the story of a mythological race of women warriors named Amazons . En @-@ hedu @-@ ana , a priestess in Ancient Iraq who dedicated herself to the Sumerian goddess Inanna , has the distinction of signing the oldest @-@ surviving signed poetry in history . She characterized herself as Inanna 's spouse .
For ten centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire , lesbianism disappeared from literature . Foster points to the particularly strict view that Eve — representative of all women — caused the downfall of mankind ; original sin among women was a particular concern , especially because women were perceived as creating life . During this time , women were largely illiterate and not encouraged to engage in intellectual pursuit , so men were responsible for shaping ideas about sexuality .
In 15 – 16th @-@ century French and English depictions of relationships between women ( Lives of Gallant Ladies by Brantôme in 1665 , John Cleland 's 1749 erotica Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure , L 'Espion Anglais by various authors in 1778 ) , writers ' attitudes spanned from amused tolerance to arousal , whereupon a male character would participate to complete the act . Physical relationships between women were often encouraged ; men felt no threat as they viewed sexual acts between women to be accepted when men were not available , and not comparable to fulfillment that could be achieved by sexual acts between men and women . At worst , if a woman became enamored of another woman , she became a tragic figure . Physical and therefore emotional satisfaction was considered impossible without a natural phallus . Male intervention into relationships between women was necessary only when women acted as men and demanded the same social privileges .
Lesbianism became almost exclusive to French literature in the 19th century , based on male fantasy and the desire to shock bourgeois moral values . Honoré de Balzac , in The Girl with the Golden Eyes ( 1835 ) , employed lesbianism in his story about three people living amongst the moral degeneration of Paris , and again in Cousin Bette and Séraphîta . His work influenced novelist Théophile Gautier 's Mademoiselle de Maupin , which provided the first description of a physical type that became associated with lesbians : tall , wide @-@ shouldered , slim @-@ hipped , and athletically inclined . Charles Baudelaire repeatedly used lesbianism as a theme in his poems " Lesbos " , " Femmes damnées 1 " ( " Damned Women " ) , and " Femmes damnées 2 " .
Reflecting French society , as well as employing stock character associations , many of the lesbian characters in 19th @-@ century French literature were prostitutes or courtesans : personifications of vice who died early , violent deaths in moral endings . Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's 1816 poem " Christabel " and the novella Carmilla ( 1872 ) by Sheridan Le Fanu both present lesbianism associated with vampirism . Portrayals of female homosexuality not only formed European consciousness about lesbianism , but Krafft @-@ Ebing cited the characters in Gustave Flaubert 's Salammbô ( 1862 ) and Ernest Feydeau 's Le Comte de Chalis ( 1867 ) as examples of lesbians because both novels feature female protagonists who do not adhere to social norms and express " contrary sexual feeling " , although neither participated in same @-@ sex desire or sexual behavior . Havelock Ellis used literary examples from Balzac and several French poets and writers to develop his framework to identify sexual inversion in women .
Gradually , women began to author their own thoughts and literary works about lesbian relationships . Until the publication of The Well of Loneliness , most major works involving lesbianism were penned by men . Foster suggests that women would have encountered suspicion about their own lives had they used same @-@ sex love as a topic , and that some writers including Louise Labé , Charlotte Charke , and Margaret Fuller either changed the pronouns in their literary works to male , or made them ambiguous . Author George Sand was portrayed as a character in several works in the 19th century ; writer Mario Praz credited the popularity of lesbianism as a theme to Sand 's appearance in Paris society in the 1830s . Charlotte Brontë 's Villette in 1853 initiated a genre of boarding school stories with homoerotic themes .
In the 20th century , Katherine Mansfield , Amy Lowell , Gertrude Stein , H.D. , Vita Sackville @-@ West , Virginia Woolf , and Gale Wilhelm wrote popular works that had same @-@ sex relationships or gender transformations as themes . Some women , such as Marguerite Yourcenar and Mary Renault , wrote or translated works of fiction that focused on homosexual men , like some of the writings of Carson McCullers . All three were involved in same @-@ sex relationships , but their primary friendships were with gay men . Foster further asserts 1928 was a " peak year " for lesbian @-@ themed literature ; in addition to The Well of Loneliness , three other novels with lesbian themes were published in England : Elizabeth Bowen 's The Hotel , Woolf 's Orlando , and Compton Mackenzie 's satirical novel Extraordinary Women . Unlike The Well of Loneliness , none of these novels were banned .
As the paperback book came into fashion , lesbian themes were relegated to pulp fiction . Many of the pulp novels typically presented very unhappy women , or relationships that ended tragically . Marijane Meaker later wrote that she was told to make the relationship end badly in Spring Fire because the publishers were concerned about the books being confiscated by the U.S. Postal Service . Patricia Highsmith , writing as Claire Morgan , wrote The Price of Salt in 1951 and refused to follow this directive , but instead used a pseudonym .
Following the Stonewall riots , lesbian themes in literature became much more diverse and complex , and shifted the focus of lesbianism from erotica for heterosexual men to works written by and for lesbians . Feminist magazines such as The Furies , and Sinister Wisdom replaced The Ladder . Serious writers who used lesbian characters and plots included Rita Mae Brown 's Rubyfruit Jungle ( 1973 ) , which presents a feminist heroine who chooses to be a lesbian . Poet Audre Lorde confronts homophobia and racism in her works , and Cherríe Moraga is credited with being primarily responsible for bringing Latina perspectives to lesbian literature . Further changing values are evident in the writings of Dorothy Allison , who focuses on child sexual abuse and deliberately provocative lesbian sadomasochism themes .
= = = Film = = =
Lesbianism , or the suggestion of it , began early in filmmaking . The same constructs of how lesbians were portrayed — or for what reasons — as what had appeared in literature were placed on women in the films . Women challenging their feminine roles was a device more easily accepted than men challenging masculine ones . Actresses appeared as men in male roles because of plot devices as early as 1914 in A Florida Enchantment featuring Edith Storey . In Morocco ( 1930 ) Marlene Dietrich kisses another woman on the lips , and Katharine Hepburn plays a man in Christopher Strong in 1933 and again in Sylvia Scarlett ( 1936 ) . Hollywood films followed the same trend set by audiences who flocked to Harlem to see edgy shows that suggested bisexuality .
Overt female homosexuality was introduced in 1929 's Pandora 's Box between Louise Brooks and Alice Roberts . However , the development of the Hays Code in 1930 censored most references to homosexuality from film under the umbrella term " sex perversion " . German films depicted homosexuality and were distributed throughout Europe , but 1931 's Mädchen in Uniform was not distributed in the U.S. because of the depiction of an adolescent 's love for a female teacher in boarding school .
Because of the Hays Code , lesbianism after 1930 was absent from most films , even those adapted with overt lesbian characters or plot devices . Lillian Hellman 's play The Children 's Hour was converted into a heterosexual love triangle and retitled These Three . Biopic Queen Christina in 1933 , starring Greta Garbo , veiled most of the speculation about Christina of Sweden 's affairs with women . Homosexuality or lesbianism was never mentioned outright in the films while the Hays Code was enforced . The reason censors stated for removing a lesbian scene in 1954 's The Pit of Loneliness was that it was , " Immoral , would tend to corrupt morals " . The code was relaxed somewhat after 1961 , and the next year William Wyler remade The Children 's Hour with Audrey Hepburn and Shirley MacLaine . After MacLaine 's character admits her love for Hepburn 's , she hangs herself ; this set a precedent for miserable endings in films addressing homosexuality .
Gay characters also were often killed off at the end , such as the death of Sandy Dennis ' character at the end of The Fox in 1968 . If not victims , lesbians were depicted as villains or morally corrupt , such as portrayals of brothel madames by Barbara Stanwyck in Walk on the Wild Side from 1962 and Shelley Winters in The Balcony in 1963 . Lesbians as predators were presented in Rebecca ( 1940 ) , women 's prison films like Caged ( 1950 ) , or in the character Rosa Klebb in From Russia with Love ( 1963 ) . Lesbian vampire themes have reappeared in Dracula 's Daughter ( 1936 ) , Blood and Roses ( 1960 ) , Vampyros Lesbos ( 1971 ) , and The Hunger ( 1983 ) . Basic Instinct ( 1992 ) featured a bisexual murderer played by Sharon Stone ; it was one of several films that set off a storm of protests about the depiction of gays as predators .
The first film to address lesbianism with significant depth was The Killing of Sister George in 1968 , which was filmed in The Gateways Club , a longstanding lesbian pub in London . It is the first to claim a film character who identifies as a lesbian , and film historian Vito Russo considers the film a complex treatment of a multifaceted character who is forced into silence about her openness by other lesbians . Personal Best in 1982 , and Lianna in 1983 treat the lesbian relationships more sympathetically and show lesbian sex scenes , though in neither film are the relationships happy ones . Personal Best was criticized for engaging in the cliched plot device of one woman returning to a relationship with a man , implying that lesbianism is a phase , as well as treating the lesbian relationship with " undisguised voyeurism " . More ambiguous portrayals of lesbian characters were seen in Silkwood ( 1983 ) , The Color Purple ( 1985 ) , and Fried Green Tomatoes ( 1991 ) , despite explicit lesbianism in the source material .
An era of independent filmmaking brought different stories , writers , and directors to films . Desert Hearts arrived in 1985 , to be one of the most successful . Directed by lesbian Donna Deitch , it is loosely based on Jane Rule 's novel Desert of the Heart . It received mixed critical commentary , but earned positive reviews from the gay press . The late 1980s and early 1990s ushered in a series of films treating gay and lesbian issues seriously , made by gays and lesbians , nicknamed New Queer Cinema . Films using lesbians as a subject included Rose Troche 's avant garde romantic comedy Go Fish ( 1994 ) and the first film about African American lesbians , Cheryl Dunye 's The Watermelon Woman , in 1995 .
Realism in films depicting lesbians developed further to include romance stories such as The Incredibly True Adventure of Two Girls in Love and When Night Is Falling , both in 1995 , Better Than Chocolate ( 1999 ) , and the social satire But I 'm A Cheerleader in 2001 . A twist on the lesbian @-@ as @-@ predator theme was the added complexity of motivations of some lesbian characters in Peter Jackson 's Heavenly Creatures ( 1994 ) , the Oscar @-@ winning biopic of Aileen Wuornos , Monster ( 2003 ) , and the exploration of fluent sexuality and gender in Chasing Amy ( 1997 ) , Kissing Jessica Stein ( 2001 ) , and Boys Don 't Cry ( 1999 ) . The film V for Vendetta shows a dictatorship in future Britain that forces lesbians , homosexuals , and other " unwanted " people in society to be systematically slaughtered in Nazi concentration camps . In the film , a lesbian actress named Valerie , who was killed in such a manner , serves as inspiration for the masked rebel V and his ally Evey Hammond , who set out to overthrow the dictatorship .
= = = Television = = =
Homosexuality addressed by television started much later than films . Local talk shows in the late 1950s first addressed homosexuality by inviting panels of experts ( usually not gay themselves ) to discuss the problems of gay men in society . Lesbianism was rarely included . The first time a lesbian was portrayed on network television was the NBC drama The Eleventh Hour in the early 1960s , in a teleplay about an actress who feels she is persecuted by her female director , and in distress , calls a psychiatrist who explains she is a latent lesbian who has deep @-@ rooted guilt about her feelings for women . When she realizes this , however , she is able to pursue healthy heterosexual relationships .
Invisibility for lesbians continued in the 1970s when homosexuality became the subject of dramatic portrayals , first with medical dramas ( The Bold Ones , Marcus Welby , M.D. , Medical Center ) featuring primarily male patients coming out to doctors , or staff members coming out to other staff members . These shows allowed homosexuality to be discussed clinically , with the main characters guiding troubled gay characters or correcting homophobic antagonists , while simultaneously comparing homosexuality to psychosis , criminal behavior , or drug use .
Another stock plot device in the 1970s was the gay character in a police drama . They served as victims of blackmail or anti @-@ gay violence , but more often as criminals . Beginning in the late 1960s with N.Y.P.D. , Police Story , and Police Woman , the use of homosexuals in stories became much more prevalent , according to Vito Russo , as a response to their higher profiles in gay activism . Lesbians were included as villains , motivated to murder by their desires , internalized homophobia , or fear of being exposed as homosexual . One episode of Police Woman earned protests by the National Gay Task Force before it aired for portraying a trio of murderous lesbians who killed retirement home patients for their money . NBC edited the episode because of the protests , but a sit @-@ in was staged in the head of NBC 's offices .
In the middle of the 1970s , gays and lesbians began to appear as police officers or detectives , facing coming out issues . This did not extend to CBS ' groundbreaking show Cagney & Lacey in 1982 , starring two female police detectives . CBS production made conscious attempts to soften the characters so they would not appear to be lesbians . In 1991 , a bisexual lawyer portrayed by Amanda Donohoe on L.A. Law shared the first significant lesbian kiss on primetime television with Michele Greene , stirring a controversy despite being labeled " chaste " by The Hollywood Reporter .
Though television did not begin to use recurring homosexual characters until the late 1980s , some early situation comedies used a stock character that author Stephen Tropiano calls " gay @-@ straight " : supporting characters who were quirky , did not comply with gender norms , or had ambiguous personal lives , that " for all purposes should be gay " . These included Zelda from The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis , Miss Hathaway from The Beverly Hillbillies , and Jo from The Facts of Life . In the mid @-@ 1980s through the 1990s , sitcoms frequently employed a " coming out " episode , where a friend of one of the stars admits she is a lesbian , forcing the cast to deal with the issue . Designing Women , The Golden Girls , and Friends used this device with women in particular .
Recurring lesbian characters who came out were seen on Married With Children , Mad About You , and Roseanne , in which a highly publicized episode had ABC executives afraid a televised kiss between Roseanne and Mariel Hemingway would destroy ratings and ruin advertising . The episode was instead the week 's highest rated . By far the sitcom with the most significant impact to the image of lesbians was Ellen . Publicity surrounding Ellen 's coming out episode in 1997 was enormous ; Ellen DeGeneres appeared on the cover of Time magazine the week before the airing of " The Puppy Episode " with the headline " Yep , I 'm Gay " . Parties were held in many U.S. cities to watch the episode , and the opposition from conservative organizations was intense . WBMA @-@ LP , the ABC affiliate in Birmingham , Alabama , even refused to air the first run of the episode , citing conservative values of the local viewing audience , which earned the station some infamy and ire in the LGBT community . Even still , " The Puppy Episode " won an Emmy for writing , but as the show began to deal with Ellen Morgan 's sexuality each week , network executives grew uncomfortable with the direction the show took and canceled it .
Dramas following L.A. Law began incorporating homosexual themes , particularly with continuing storylines on Relativity , Picket Fences , ER , and Star Trek : The Next Generation and Deep Space Nine , both of which tested the boundaries of sexuality and gender . A show directed at adolescents that had a particularly strong cult following was Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In the fourth season of Buffy , Tara and Willow admit their love for each other without any special fanfare and the relationship is treated as are the other romantic relationships on the show .
What followed was a series devoted solely to gay characters from network television . Showtime 's American rendition of Queer as Folk ran for five years , from 2000 to 2005 ; two of the main characters were a lesbian couple . Showtime promoted the series as " No Limits " , and Queer as Folk addressed homosexuality graphically . The aggressive advertising paid off as the show became the network 's highest rated , doubling the numbers of other Showtime programs after the first season . In 2004 , Showtime introduced The L Word , a dramatic series devoted to a group of lesbian and bisexual women , running its final season in 2009 .
= = Current issues of lesbians = =
= = = Lesbian chic and popular culture = = =
The invisibility of lesbians has gradually eroded since the early 1980s . This is in part due to public figures who have caused speculation and comment in the press about their sexuality and lesbianism in general . The primary figure earning this attention was Martina Navratilova , who served as tabloid fodder for years as she denied being lesbian , admitted to being bisexual , had very public relationships with Rita Mae Brown and Judy Nelson , and acquired as much press about her sexuality as she did her athletic achievements . Navratilova spurred what scholar Diane Hamer termed " constant preoccupation " in the press with determining the root of same @-@ sex desire .
Other public figures acknowledged their homosexuality and bisexuality , notably musicians k.d. lang and Melissa Etheridge , and Madonna 's pushing of sexual boundaries in her performances and publications . In 1993 , lang and self @-@ professed heterosexual supermodel Cindy Crawford posed for the cover of Vanity Fair in a provocative arrangement that showed Crawford shaving lang 's face , as lang lounged in a barber 's chair wearing a pinstripe suit . The image " became an internationally recognized symbol of the phenomenon of lesbian chic " , according to Hamer . The year 1994 marked a rise in lesbian visibility , particularly appealing to women with feminine appearances . Between 1992 and 1994 , Mademoiselle , Vogue , Cosmopolitan , Glamour , Newsweek , and New York magazines featured stories about women who admitted sexual histories with other women .
One analyst reasoned the recurrence of lesbian chic was due to the often @-@ used homoerotic subtexts of gay male subculture being considered off limits because of AIDS in the late 1980s and 1990s , joined with the distant memory of lesbians as they appeared in the 1970s : unattractive and militant . In short , lesbians became more attractive to general audiences when they ceased having political convictions . All the attention on feminine and glamorous women created what culture analyst Rodger Streitmatter characterizes as an unrealistic image of lesbians packaged by heterosexual men ; the trend influenced an increase in the inclusion of lesbian material in pornography aimed at men .
A resurgence of lesbian visibility and sexual fluidity was noted in 2009 with celebrities such as Cynthia Nixon and Lindsay Lohan commenting openly on their relationships with women , and reality television addressing same @-@ sex relationships . Psychiatrists and feminist philosophers write that the rise in women acknowledging same @-@ sex relationships is due to growing social acceptance , but also concede that " only a certain kind of lesbian — slim and elegant or butch in just the right androgynous way — is acceptable to mainstream culture " .
= = = Sexuality and lesbian identity = = =
The presence of sexual activity between women as necessary to define a lesbian or a relationship continues to be debated . According to feminist writer Naomi McCormick , women 's sexuality is constructed by men , whose primary indicator of lesbian sexual orientation is sexual experience with other women . The same indicator is not necessary to identify a woman as heterosexual , however . McCormick states that emotional , mental , and ideological connections between women are as important or more so than the genital . Nonetheless , in the 1980s , a significant movement rejected the desexualization of lesbianism by cultural feminists , causing a heated controversy called the feminist sex wars . Butch and femme roles returned , although not as strictly followed as they were in the 1950s . They became a mode of chosen sexual self @-@ expression for some women in the 1990s . Once again , women felt safer claiming to be more sexually adventurous , and sexual flexibility became more accepted .
The focus of this debate often centers on a phenomenon named by sexologist Pepper Schwartz in 1983 . Schwartz found that long @-@ term lesbian couples report having less sexual contact than heterosexual or homosexual male couples , calling this lesbian bed death . However , lesbians dispute the study 's definition of sexual contact , and introduced other factors such as deeper connections existing between women that make frequent sexual relations redundant , greater sexual fluidity in women causing them to move from heterosexual to bisexual to lesbian numerous times through their lives — or reject the labels entirely . Further arguments attested that the study was flawed and misrepresented accurate sexual contact between women , or sexual contact between women has increased since 1983 as many lesbians find themselves freer to sexually express themselves .
More discussion on gender and sexual orientation identity has affected how many women label or view themselves . Most people in western culture are taught that heterosexuality is an innate quality in all people . When a woman realizes her romantic and sexual attraction to another woman , it may cause an " existential crisis " ; many who go through this adopt the identity of a lesbian , challenging what society has offered in stereotypes about homosexuals , to learn how to function within a homosexual subculture . Lesbians in Western cultures generally share an identity that parallels those built on ethnicity ; they have a shared history and subculture , and similar experiences with discrimination which has caused many lesbians to reject heterosexual principles . This identity is unique from gay men and heterosexual women , and often creates tension with bisexual women .
Researchers , including social scientists , state that often behavior and identity do not match : women may label themselves heterosexual but have sexual relations with women , self @-@ identified lesbians may have sex with men , or women may find that what they considered an immutable sexual identity has changed over time . A 2001 article on differentiating lesbians for medical studies and health research suggested identifying lesbians using the three characteristics of identity only , sexual behavior only , or both combined . The article declined to include desire or attraction as it rarely has bearing on measurable health or psychosocial issues . Researchers state that there is no standard definition of lesbian because " [ t ] he term has been used to describe women who have sex with women , either exclusively or in addition to sex with men ( i.e. , behavior ) ; women who self @-@ identify as lesbian ( i.e. , identity ) ; and women whose sexual preference is for women ( i.e. , desire or attraction ) " and that " [ t ] he lack of a standard definition of lesbian and of standard questions to assess who is lesbian has made it difficult to clearly define a population of lesbian women " . How and where study samples were obtained can also affect the definition .
= = = Families and politics = = =
Although homosexuality among females has taken place in many cultures in history , a recent phenomenon is the development of family among same @-@ sex partners . Before the 1970s , the idea that same @-@ sex adults formed long @-@ term committed relationships was unknown to many people . The majority of lesbians ( between 60 % and 80 % ) report being in a long @-@ term relationship . Sociologists credit the high number of paired women to gender role socialization : the inclination for women to commit to relationships doubles in a lesbian union . Unlike heterosexual relationships that tend to divide work based on sex roles , lesbian relationships divide chores evenly between both members . Studies have also reported that emotional bonds are closer in lesbian and gay relationships than heterosexual ones .
Family issues were significant concerns for lesbians when gay activism became more vocal in the 1960s and 1970s . Custody issues in particular were of interest since often courts would not award custody to mothers who were openly homosexual , even though the general procedure acknowledged children were awarded to the biological mother . Several studies performed as a result of custody disputes viewed how children grow up with same @-@ sex parents compared to single mothers who did not identify as lesbians . They found that children 's mental health , happiness , and overall adjustment is similar to children of divorced women who are not lesbians . Sexual orientation , gender identity , and sex roles of children who grow up with lesbian mothers are unaffected . Differences that were found include the fact that divorced lesbians tend to be living with a partner , fathers visit divorced lesbian mothers more often than divorced nonlesbian mothers , and lesbian mothers report a greater fear of losing their children through legal means .
Improving opportunities for growing families of same @-@ sex couples has shaped the political landscape within the past ten years . A push for same @-@ sex marriage or civil unions in western countries has replaced other political objectives . As of 2012 , ten countries and six U.S. states offer same @-@ sex marriage ; civil unions are offered as an option in some European countries , U.S. states and individual municipalities . The ability to adopt domestically or internationally children or provide a home as a foster parent is also a political and family priority for many lesbians , as is improving access to artificial insemination .
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= Giant eland =
The giant eland ( Taurotragus derbianus ) , also known as the Lord Derby eland , is an open @-@ forest and savanna antelope . A species of the family Bovidae and genus Taurotragus , it was described in 1847 by John Edward Gray . The giant eland is the largest species of antelope , with a body length ranging from 220 – 290 cm ( 86 @.@ 5 – 114 in ) . There are two subspecies : T. d. derbianus and T. d. gigas .
The giant eland is an herbivore , eating grasses , foliage and branches . They usually form small herds consisting of 15 – 25 members , both males and females . Giant elands are not territorial , and have large home ranges . They are naturally alert and wary , which makes them difficult to approach and observe . They can run at up to 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) and use this speed as a defence against predators . Mating occurs throughout the year but peaks in the wet season . They mostly inhabit broad @-@ leafed savannas , woodlands and glades .
The giant eland is native to Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Guinea , Mali , Senegal , and South Sudan . It is no longer present in The Gambia , Ghana , Ivory Coast , and Togo . Its presence is uncertain in Nigeria , Guinea @-@ Bissau , and Uganda due to over hunting by European colonialists . The subspecies have been listed with different conservation statuses by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Etymology = =
The scientific name of the giant eland is Taurotragus derbianus , derived from three words : tauros , tragos , and derbianus . Tauros is Greek for a bull or bullock . Tragos is Greek for a male goat , and refers to the tuft of hair that grows in the eland 's ear which resembles a goat 's beard .
The giant eland is also called " Lord Derby 's eland " in honour of Edward Smith @-@ Stanley , 13th Earl of Derby . It was due to his efforts that the giant eland was first introduced to England between 1835 and 1851 . Lord Derby sent botanist Joseph Burke to collect animals , either alive or dead , from South Africa for his museum and menagerie . The first elands introduced in England were a pair of common elands , and what would later be identified as a giant eland bull . The details were recorded in Smith @-@ Stanley 's privately printed work , Cleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley Hall . The Latin name indicates that it " belonged to " ( given by the suffix -anus ) Derby , hence derbianus .
Although the giant eland is somewhat larger than the common eland , the epithet ' giant ' actually refers to its large horns . The name ' eland ' is Dutch for " elk " or " moose " . It has a Baltic source similar to the Lithuanian élnis , which means " deer " . It was borrowed earlier as ellan ( French ) in the 1610s or elend ( German ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The giant eland was first described in 1847 by John Edward Gray , a British zoologist , who called it Boselaphus derbianus . At that time , it was also called the ' black @-@ necked eland ' and Gingi @-@ ganga .
Giant eland is placed in the genus Taurotragus of family Bovidae . Giant elands are sometimes considered part of the genus Tragelaphus on the basis of molecular phylogenetics , but are usually categorized as Taurotragus , along with the common eland ( T. oryx ) . Together with the bongo , Giant eland and common eland are the only antelopes in the tribe Tragelaphini to be given a generic name other than Tragelaphus . Although some authors , like Theodor Haltenorth , regarded the giant eland as conspecific with the common eland , they are usually considered two distinct species .
Two subspecies of giant eland have been recognized :
T. d. derbianus J. E. Gray , 1847 – western giant eland , found in western Africa , particularly Senegal to Mali
T. d. gigas Heuglin , 1863 – eastern giant eland , found in central to eastern Africa , particularly Cameroon to South Sudan
= = Description = =
The giant elands are spiral @-@ horned antelopes . Despite its common name , this species broadly overlaps in size with the common eland ( Taurotragus oryx ) . However , the giant eland is somewhat larger on average than the common eland and is thus the largest species of antelope in the world . They are typically between 220 and 290 cm ( 7 @.@ 2 and 9 @.@ 5 ft ) in head @-@ and @-@ body length and stand approximately 130 to 180 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 9 ft ) at the shoulder . Giant elands exhibit sexual dimorphism , as males are larger than females . The males weigh 400 to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 880 to 2 @,@ 200 lb ) and females weigh 300 to 600 kg ( 660 to 1 @,@ 320 lb ) . The tail is long , having a dark tuft of hair , and averages 90 cm ( 35 in ) in length . The life expectancy of giant elands is up to 25 years in the wild , and about 20 years in captivity .
The smooth coat is reddish @-@ brown to chestnut , usually darker in males than females , with 8 – 12 well @-@ defined vertical white stripes on the torso . The colour of the male 's coat darkens with age . According to zoologist Jakob Bro @-@ Jørgensen , the colour of the male 's coat can reflect the levels of androgen , a male hormone , which is highest during rutting . Comparing the subspecies , T. d. derbianus is characterised by 15 body stripes , smaller size , and a rufous colour , while T. d. gigas is larger , a sandy colour , and has 12 body stripes .
A crest of short black hair extends down the neck to the middle of the back , and is particularly prominent on the shoulders . The slender legs are slightly lighter on their inner surfaces , with black and white markings just above the hooves . There are large black spots on the upper forelegs . The bridge of the nose is charcoal black , and there is a thin , indistinct tan @-@ coloured line , which is the chevron , between the eyes . The lips are white , as are several dots along the jawline . A pendulous dewlap , larger in males than females , originates from between the jowls and hangs to the upper chest when they reach sexual maturity , with a fringe of hair on its edge . The large ears of the giant eland serve as signaling devices . Giant elands have comparatively longer legs than the common eland , as well as much brighter black and white markings on the legs and pasterns .
Both sexes have tightly spiraled , ' V ' -shaped horns . They can be up to 123 cm ( 4 @.@ 04 ft ) long on males and 66 cm ( 2 @.@ 17 ft ) on females . Males have horns that are thicker at the ends , longer , and more divergent than those of females . These features of the horns suggest that the giant eland evolved from an ancestor with true display horns .
= = = Parasites = = =
Fecal studies of the western giant eland revealed the presence of a newly found species Eimeria derbani , of genus Eimeria , which consists of Apicomplexan parasites . The sporulation lasted for two days at a temperature of 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . The species has been differentiated from E. canna and E. triffittae , which parasitize the common eland ( T. oryx ) . The giant eland is also parasitised by Carmyerius spatiosus ( a trematode species ) , Taenia crocutae and T. hyaennae ( two tapeworm species ) .
= = Genetics and evolution = =
The giant eland has 31 male chromosomes and 32 female chromosomes . In a 2008 phylogenomic study of spiral @-@ horned antelopes , chromosomal similarities were observed between cattle ( Bos taurus ) and eight species of spiral @-@ horned antelopes , namely : nyala ( Tragelaphus angasii ) , lesser kudu ( T. imberbis ) , bongo ( T. eurycerus ) , bushbuck ( T. scriptus ) , greater kudu ( T. strepsiceros ) , sitatunga ( T. spekei ) , giant eland and common eland ( T. oryx ) . It was found that chromosomes involved in centric fusions in these species used a complete set of cattle painting probes generated by laser microdissection . The study confirmed the presence of the chromosome translocation known as Robertsonian translocation ( 1 ; 29 ) , a widespread evolutionary marker common to all known tragelaphid species .
An accidental mating between a male giant eland and a female kudu produced a male offspring , but it was azoospermic . Analysis showed that it completely lacked germ cells , which produce gametes . Still , the hybrid had a strong male scent and exhibited male behaviour . Chromosomal examination showed that chromosomes 1 , 3 , 5 , 9 , and 11 differed from the parental karyotypes . Notable mixed inherited traits were pointed ears like the eland 's , but a bit widened like kudu 's . The tail was half the length of that of an eland with a tuft of hair at the end as in kudu .
Previous genetic studies of African savanna ungulates revealed the presence of a long @-@ standing Pleistocene refugium in eastern and southern Africa , which also includes the giant eland . The common eland and giant eland have been estimated to have diverged about 1 @.@ 6 million years ago .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Giant elands live in the broad @-@ leafed savanna , woodlands , and glades of central and western Africa , which correspond to the two subspecies . They also live in forests as well as on the fringes of deserts . The giant elands can also live in deserts , as they produce very dry dung . They are found in South Sudan and Central African Republic into northern Cameroon and southern Chad .
They inhabit places near hilly or rocky landscapes and those with water sources nearby . Science author Jonathan Kingdon had thought the giant elands lived only in woodlands of Isoberlinia doka , an African hardwood tree . The giant eland is adapted to these broad @-@ leafed , deciduous Isoberlinia woodlands . Recent studies proved that they also inhabit woodlands with trees of the genera Terminalia , Combretum , and Afzelia .
In the past , giant elands occurred throughout the relatively narrow belt of savanna woodland that extends across West and Central Africa from Senegal to the Nile . Today they are conserved in national parks and reserves , and occur mostly in Senegal . The western giant eland is largely restricted to Niokolo @-@ Koba National Park in Senegal . The eastern giant eland is found in several reserves , for example in Bénoué National Park , Faro National Park and Bouba Njida National Park in Cameroon and in Manovo @-@ Gounda St. Floris National Park in the Central African Republic . They are also kept in captivity .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Primarily nocturnal , giant elands have large home ranges and seasonal migration patterns . They form separate groups of males and of females and juveniles . Adult males mainly remain alone , and often spend time with females for an hour to a week . A gregarious species , giant eland herds usually consist of 15 – 25 animals ( sometimes even more ) and do not disband during the wet season , suggesting that social rather than ecological factors are responsible for herding . During the day , herds often rest in sheltered areas . As many other animals do , giant elands scrape mineral lick sites with the help of horns to loosen soil .
Giant elands are alert and wary , making them difficult to approach and observe or to hunt . If a bull senses danger , he will give deep @-@ throated barks while leaving the herd , repeating the process until the whole herd is aware of the danger . Giant elands can move quickly , running at over 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) , and despite their size are exceptional jumpers , easily clearing heights of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) . Their primary predators are the lion and spotted hyena , while young , sickly and a rare adult may be vulnerable to leopards and African wild dogs . Due to their large size , they prove a good meal for the predators . However , they are not easily taken by any predator , especially the heavier and larger horned bulls which can be a dangerous adversary even for a lion pride .
= = Diet = =
Primarily a herbivore , the giant eland eats grasses and foliage , as well as other parts of a plant . In the rainy season , they browse in herds and feed on grasses . They can eat coarse , dry grass and weeds if nothing else is available . They eat fruits too , such as plums . A study in South Africa showed that an eland 's diet consists of 75 % shrubs and 25 % grasses , with highly varying proportions . They often use their long horns to break off branches .
As they need a regular intake of water in their diet , they prefer living in places with a nearby water source . However , some adaptations they possess help them to survive even in the lack of water by maintaining a sufficient quantity of it in their body . They produce very dry dung compared to domestic cattle . In deserts , they can get their required water from the moisture of succulent plants . Another way in which they conserve water is by resting in the day and feeding at night , so that they minimize the water quantity required to cool themselves .
Several studies have investigated the eland 's diet . A study of giant elands in the Bandia Natural reserve in Senegal revealed that the most important and most preferred plants were various species of Acacia , Terminalia and Combretum , along with Azadirachta indica , Danielia olliveri , Lonchocarpus laxiflorus , Maytenus senegalensis , Prosopis africana , Pterocarpus erinaceus , Saba senegalensis and pods of Piliostigma thonningii . Another study in Sudan showed that western giant elands preferred Cassia tora , which was the most abundant legume in the region .
In 2010 , histological analysis of the feces of South African western giant elands was done in the Niokolo @-@ Koba National Park and in the Bandia National Reserve . In both studies leaves , shoots of woody plants , and fruits were found to be the three major components . The other components that appeared in minor proportions were forbs and grasses , generally below five percent of the mean fecal volume . They were seen eating most foliage from Boscia angusifolia , Grewia bicolor , Hymenocardia acida , and Ziziphus mauritiana , and the fruits of Acacia and Strychnos spinosa . In the Bandia Reserve , differences in diet were marked among age classes . The conclusions were that in the dry season the eland was a pure browser , consuming grasses in small amounts .
= = Reproduction = =
Mating occurs throughout the year , but peaks in the wet season . Females reach sexual maturity at about two years , and males at four to five years . A female can remain in estrus for three days , and the estrous cycle is 21 – 26 days long . As in all antelopes , mating occurs at a time of food abundance . In some areas distinct breeding seasons exist . In southern Africa , females have been seen giving birth from August to October , and are joined by the males from late October to January . In Zambia calves are born in July and August .
Fights occur for dominance , in which the bulls lock horns and try to twist the necks of their opponents . As an act during rut , the males rub their foreheads in fresh urine or mud . They also use their horns to thresh and throw loose earth on themselves . The horns of older males get worn out due to rubbing them on tree barks . Expressions of anger are not typically observed . Dominant males may mate with multiple females . The courtship is brief , consisting of a penetration and one ejaculatory thrust .
After the courtship , the gestational period begins , which is of nine months duration . The delivery usually takes place in the night , after which the mother ingests the afterbirth . Generally one calf is delivered , and it remains with its mother for six months . Lactation can last for four to five months . After the first six months the young eland might join a group of other juveniles .
A Senegalese study focused on the suckling behaviour of giant eland and common eland calves about one to five months old determined that suckling bouts increased with the age of the calves . No other change occurred in the farmed common eland calves , but in the giant eland calves , the males were found to suckle more than female ones and shorter suckling bouts were marked in primiparous mothers than multiparous ones . The results suggest that Derby elands that lived in their natural habitat adjusted their maternal behaviour so as to be able to readily maintain a vigilant lookout for predators and other similar risks . In contrast , the farmed common elands behaved as in the conditions of captivity , without predators .
= = Populations = =
The eastern giant eland ranged from Nigeria , through Cameroon , Chad , the Central African Republic , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( formerly Zaire ) to Sudan and Uganda in 1980 . But the rinderpest outbreak ( 1983 – 1984 ) caused a devastating 60 – 80 % decline in the populations . The eastern giant eland is still found in extensive areas and is listed as ' Least Concern ' by the IUCN . It has many uninhabited habitats that are not expected to be occupied for human settlement , particularly in northern and eastern Central African Republic and south @-@ western Sudan , where their population has notably increased . According to Rod East , 15 @,@ 000 eastern giant elands existed as of 1999 , of which 12 @,@ 500 are in Central African Republic . The remaining areas are often disturbed by wars and conflicts — activities that can lead to a rapid decline in the eastern giant eland 's numbers if not controlled .
The western giant eland is in a more dangerous situation , being listed as ' Critically Endangered ' by the IUCN . Today they mostly occur in Senegal . In 1990 , populations were about 1000 , of which 700 to 800 were found in the Niokolo @-@ Koba National Park and the rest in the region around the Falémé River . As of 2008 , a population of less than 200 individuals occur there , and only a few elands exist in neighboring countries .
A study of the long @-@ term conservation strategy of the western giant eland was done in the Bandia and Fathala reserves , using demographic and pedigree data based on continuous monitoring of reproduction during 2000 to 2009 . In 2009 , the semi @-@ captive population was 54 individuals ( 26 males , 28 females ) . The female breeding probability was 84 % , and the annual population growth was 1 @.@ 36 . With more population , the elands were divided into five groups for observation . Although the mean interbreeding level became 0 @.@ 119 , a potential gene diversity ( GD ) of 92 % was retained . The authors concluded that with the introduction of new founders , the GD could be greatly improved in the next 100 years , and suggested that with proper management of the semi @-@ captive population , the numbers of the western giant eland could be increased .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The major threats to the western giant eland population are overhunting for its rich meat and habitat destruction caused by the expansion of human and livestock populations . The eastern giant eland is also depleting for similar reasons , and natural causes like continued droughts and competition from domestic animals are contributing to the reduction in numbers . Populations of the eastern giant eland had already gone down due to the rinderpest attacks . The situation was worse during World War II and other civil wars and political conflicts that harmed their natural habitats .
The giant eland is already extirpated in The Gambia , Ghana , Ivory Coast , and Togo . The western giant eland was once reported in Togo , but is believed to have been confused with the bongo ( Tragalephaus eurycerus ) . In 1970 , it was reported eliminated in Uganda , during military operations . Its presence is uncertain in Guinea @-@ Bissau and Nigeria .
Today the western giant eland is conserved in the Niokolo @-@ Koba National Park and the Faheme Hunting Zone in Senegal . Field studies have proved that the Niokolo @-@ Koba National Park is ecologically suitable for the giant eland . As observed in the 2000 census of the park , the number of deaths in a decade were only 90 to 150 .
The eastern giant eland is conserved in the Faro National Park , Bénoué National Park , Bouba Njida National Park , Bamingui @-@ Bangoran National Park and Manovo @-@ Gounda @-@ St Floris National Park . They are bred in captivity in the Bandia Reserve and Fathala Reserve in Senegal , and at White Oak Conservation in Yulee , Florida , United States . Eland born at White Oak have been sent to other countries , including Costa Rica and South Africa , to initiate breeding programs .
= = Uses = =
Giant elands give large quantities of tender meat and high @-@ quality hides even if fed a low @-@ quality diet . These are game animals and are also hunted for trophies . Their milk is comparatively richer in proteins and milkfat than dairy cows , which may be an explanation for the quick growth of eland calves . Eland 's milk has about triple the fat content and twice the protein of a dairy cow 's milk . Its docility and profitable characteristics have made it a target of domestication in Africa and Russia and has also resulted in hunting .
Many people prefer to domesticate eland rather than cattle due to their numerous benefits . Elands can survive on scarce water , which is a great advantage over domestic cattle . They can also eat coarse grasses , and can even manage to ingest some poisonous plants that can prove fatal for cattle . They are also immune to some diseases to which cattle may succumb .
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= Lisa Marie Varon =
Lisa Marie Varon ( née Sole ; born February 10 , 1971 ) is an American professional wrestler , fitness competitor , and former bodybuilder . She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) under the ring name Victoria , where she is a former two- time WWE Women 's Champion , and in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) under the ring name Tara , where she is a former five @-@ time TNA Knockouts Champion .
Varon began competing in fitness competitions and won ESPN2 's Fitness America Series in 1997 . In 1999 , she placed second at a fitness event in New York to earn her International Federation of BodyBuilders ( IFBB ) Professional Fitness Card .
Through a chance meeting , Varon met World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) performer Chyna , who encouraged her to become a professional wrestler . She trained in the WWF 's developmental territories for three years before being moved to the main roster to compete full @-@ time under the ring name Victoria . Her first television appearance came at WrestleMania 2000 , where she portrayed one of The Godfather 's " hos " . She debuted in June 2002 , and four months later she was pushed to win the WWE Women 's Championship , a title she would go on to hold twice in her wrestling career . After leaving WWE in 2009 , Varon debuted in TNA later that year as Tara . In TNA , she became a five @-@ time TNA Knockouts Champion , making her a seven @-@ time Women 's Champion overall . She was also a one @-@ time TNA Knockouts Tag Team Champion , with Brooke Tessmacher , collectively known as TnT .
= = Early life = =
Varon was born in San Bernardino , California , to a Puerto Rican father ( who is a Vietnam veteran ) and a Turkish mother who worked as a singer in Japan . She grew up with three older brothers , all of whom became amateur wrestlers , with her oldest brother , Bobby , winning a gold medal at the 1983 Pan American Games . Varon attended Eisenhower High School in Rialto , California . During high school , she was active in cheerleading , a sport in which she competed since the sixth grade .
During her senior year in high school , she was nationally recognized by the National Cheerleading Association , earning an All @-@ American award and being chosen to cheer at half @-@ time of the NFL 1989 Pro Bowl , alongside 70 other women . She participated in track and field events in the ninth grade . After graduating , she studied biology at the University of California , Los Angeles and medicine at Loma Linda University , with the intent on becoming a physician . She worked as a human tissue coordinator at the Inland Eye and Tissue Bank in Redlands , California , where she was involved in the process of organ donation .
= = Bodybuilding and fitness career = =
While working at the eye and tissue bank , Varon became a personal trainer and taught aerobics . While training at a gym , she was offered an opportunity to compete in a bodybuilding competition , a contest she won as a middleweight . She competed in fitness competitions , such as ESPN2 's Fitness America Series in 1997 and 1998 , winning the former , and the Miss Galaxy Competition in 1998 , where she met and befriended Torrie Wilson . After Wilson moved to Los Angeles , California and signed with the professional wrestling promotion World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) , she invited Varon to one of the shows . While backstage , an agent asked her to appear in a segment with Scott Hall . Through Wilson , Varon unsuccessfully attempted to obtain a contract with WCW . She later moved to Los Angeles to find work in televised news fitness segments . In 1999 , she earned her International Federation of BodyBuilders ( IFBB ) Professional Fitness Card after placing second at the National Physique Committee ( NPC ) Team Universe show in New York . It was during her time working in fitness competitions that Varon also first met Trish Stratus .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = Training and debut ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = =
After moving to Los Angeles , Varon worked as a trainer at the gym Crunch Fitness , where she met World Wrestling Federation wrestler Chyna , who complimented Varon on her appearance and encouraged her to become a wrestler . Varon would then put together a biography package and sent it to the WWF . She heard from Kevin Kelly two days later , who invited her to an interview in a month 's time . With no previous wrestling experience , she looked up professional wrestling schools , and eventually began training at Ultimate Pro Wrestling ( UPW ) in Southern California in June 2000 . She wrestled under the ring name Head Bitch In Charge ( HBIC ) , and appeared in a cheerleading outfit , with a snooty gimmick , similar to WCW Nitro Girl Miss Hancock . She impressed WWF talent scout Bruce Pritchard during her first UPW show .
Varon made her on @-@ screen debut in the WWF portraying one of The Godfather 's " hos " . She was referred to as the " head ho " , and led the " Save the Hos " campaign . On the August 7 episode of Raw , Varon took a bump by being powerbombed through a table by The Godfather 's next persona , The Goodfather . After this , she was given the name Victoria . She was removed from television in November , and sent to WWF 's then @-@ developmental territory Memphis Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) for extensive training . Victoria briefly acted as the commissioner for MCW , and was involved in storyline feuds with Stacy Carter and Ivory . She also managed Steve Bradley before MCW closed in 2001 . Varon later relocated to Louisville , Kentucky to train in Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , using the ring name Queen Victoria . She was placed as the manager of the tag team the Basham Brothers , and managed one of the team members , Doug Basham , to win the OVW Heavyweight Championship on July 25 , 2001 .
= = = = Women 's Championship reigns ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
Varon returned to the renamed World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) as Victoria on the July 7 , 2002 episode of Sunday Night Heat , in an angle with Trish Stratus , who Victoria claimed had betrayed her when they worked together as fitness models . The storyline had her character become a demented , sadistic villain , as she and Stratus feuded for months . Her first pay @-@ per @-@ view match came at No Mercy , where she was defeated by Stratus . The following month at Survivor Series , Victoria defeated Stratus in a hardcore match , to win the WWE Women 's Championship for the first time . Victoria would go on to successfully retain her championship against Stacy Keibler , with the debut of her finishing move , the Widows Peak . The following night on Raw , Victoria was attacked in the ring by Stratus . Steven Richards came to her aid , establishing an on @-@ screen relationship between Victoria and Richards .
Victoria continued to feud with Trish Stratus into 2003 , competing against her in successful title defenses and mixed tag team matches , during which Victoria teamed with Richards . At WrestleMania XIX , Victoria dropped the Women 's Championship back to Stratus during a Triple Threat match that also involved Jazz . Throughout the rest of the year , Victoria was involved in matches against other Divas , such as participating in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the Women 's Championship at Judgment Day , and defeating Lita in the first women 's steel cage match in WWE history on November 24 . Victoria also defeated Ivory in a number one contender 's match for the Women 's Championship on the last episode of Sunday Night Heat of 2003 . After the match , Women 's Champion Molly Holly struck Victoria in the head with the title belt .
The next week on Raw , Victoria became a fan favorite , when she attacked Holly after the two women were placed in a team , along with Miss Jackie , for a six @-@ woman Happy Holidays tag team match . During her face run , she abandoned her sadistic and unstable gimmick , and began wearing hippie shorts and performed a gyrating moonsault . On January 5 , 2004 , Victoria was set for a title match with Molly Holly , however she was attacked by Test before the match .
The angle with Molly Holly continued into the next year , with Victoria defeating Holly in tag team matches . On February 23 , 2004 , Victoria defeated Holly , Lita and Jazz in a fatal four – way elimination match , to win her second Women 's Championship . After defeating Holly in a tag team match the next week , Victoria was challenged by Holly to a rematch for the title at WrestleMania XX , which later became a hair vs title match . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Victoria won the match , and shaved Holly 's head bald . She held the Women 's Championship until June 13 , when she dropped the title to the villainous Trish Stratus during a Fatal Four @-@ Way match at Bad Blood , that also included Lita and Gail Kim , and was unsuccessful in regaining it in a rematch a week later . After defeating Molly Holly at Vengeance to become the number one contender , Victoria lost to Stratus at Unforgiven for the championship . Prior to Unforgiven , several of Victoria 's matches were interrupted by a mysterious person in drag , who was later revealed to be Steven Richards , with whom she was previously allied . After the match with Stratus , the storyline culminated when Richards challenged Stratus ' ally Tyson Tomko to a match , which Richards lost .
= = = = Vince 's Devils ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
On the May 30 , 2005 episode of Raw , Victoria participated in a swimsuit contest , losing to Christy Hemme . Following the loss , the storyline had Victoria become a villainess by attacking the other contestants , as well as host Jerry Lawler , claiming that she had enough of the attention Hemme was receiving . The two engaged in a short feud which culminated in a match at Vengeance , which Victoria won . During her heel run in 2005 , Victoria adopted the gimmick of a bully @-@ like enforcer , when she was placed in an angle alongside Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle ( collectively known as the Ladies in Pink , and later Vince 's Devils ) on August 29 , portraying the role of the group 's enforcer , as the three women joined forces against the 2005 Diva Search winner Ashley Massaro . Massaro was assisted in the storyline feud by Trish Stratus , and at Unforgiven , Victoria and Wilson were defeated by Stratus and Massaro . The angle continued into WWE Homecoming , where the Ladies in Pink lost a Handicap Bra and Panties match to Stratus and Massaro . The three of them competed in the first ever Bra and Panties gauntlet match , where Ashley was declared the winner by last eliminating Victoria . At the 2006 Royal Rumble , they appeared flirting with Vince McMahon .
On the March 6 , 2006 episode of Raw , Victoria and Candice turned on Wilson during Candice 's Playboy cover unveiling , starting an angle between the former teammates . A scheduled match was set to take place at WWE Saturday Night 's Main Event on the March 18 episode with Victoria and Candice against Wilson and Stratus . As part of the storyline , however , on the episode of Raw prior to the event , Wilson was found unconscious , with the implication being that Victoria and Candice had attacked her . The match eventually took place on March 27 , with Victoria and Candice being defeated . The alliance of Victoria and Candice fell apart during a tag team match on July 17 , in which Victoria and Mickie James were defeated by Wilson and Trish Stratus , with Candice as the special guest referee .
= = = = SmackDown and departure ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
Victoria was given a push on November 27 , after she won a number one contender 's battle royal . Varon gained notoriety from the match when it was reported that her kick to Candice Michelle 's face had resulted in a legitimate broken nose that required surgery . Following the victory , the angle had her carry a checklist to the ring which contained the names of other Divas . Each week , she checked a name off the list after defeating them in matches . She also defeated WWE Women 's Champion Mickie James in a non @-@ title match . Victoria lost the championship match against James at New Year 's Revolution , and a rematch on January 15 , 2007 .
On June 17 , Victoria was moved to the SmackDown brand as part of the WWE Supplemental Draft . Victoria became involved in an on @-@ screen relationship with Kenny Dykstra , and the duo was placed in feuds against Torrie Wilson and Jimmy Wang Yang , as well as Michelle McCool and Chuck Palumbo . While on a tour of Europe with WWE in December 2007 , Varon claimed to have legitimately broken McCool 's nose .
Victoria later allied herself with the debuting Natalya in April . At the Backlash pay @-@ per @-@ view on April 28 , Victoria teamed up with Natalya , Beth Phoenix , Jillian Hall , Layla and Melina to defeat Mickie James , Maria Kanellis , Ashley , Michelle McCool , Cherry and Kelly Kelly . On the May 2 episode of SmackDown ! , Victoria and Natalya defeated McCool and Cherry . In October , Victoria lost to the debuting Brie Bella , when Brie disappeared under the ring during the match , emerged appearing refreshed , and won . On the September 26 episode of SmackDown , Victoria and Natalya lost to Maria and Brie . On the October 31 episode of SmackDown , Victoria teamed up with Natalya and Maryse in losing effort to Michelle McCool , Maria and Brie . On the November 7 episode of SmackDown ! , Victoria was accompanied by Natalya , where she was once again defeated by Brie . After the match , it was revealed that Brie had been switching places under the ring with her twin sister , Nikki Bella , and the twins proceeded to attack Victoria and Natalya . On the November 21 episode of SmackDown , Victoria teamed up with Natalya in losing effort to The Bella Twins ( Nikki and Brie Bella ) . On the November 28 episode of SmackDown , Victoria teamed up with Natalya and Maryse to defeat the Bella Twins and Michelle McCool . Following a loss in a singles match to a McCool which aired on the January 16 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Victoria announced that she would be retiring from WWE . She then thanked the fans , and gave farewell to staff at ringside .
After leaving WWE , Varon began training for a career in mixed martial arts , and practiced Jiu Jitsu . She returned to WWE for one night only in April 2009 , when she was part of the 25 Divas battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , outlasting the five other former WWE Divas . She eliminated Maria , but was eliminated by The Bella Twins .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling = = =
= = = = Debut and Knockouts Champion ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
On May 24 , 2009 , Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) confirmed that Varon had signed a contract with the company . She debuted on the May 28 , 2009 episode of TNA Impact ! , under the ring name Tara , later revealed to be short for " Tarantula " . She made her intentions known by attacking The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love , Velvet Sky , and Madison Rayne ) after Love 's match with Sojournor Bolt , establishing herself as a fan favorite . On the June 11 episode of Impact ! , Tara won her debut match against Madison Rayne . On the July 1 episode of Impact ! , Tara began bringing her pet tarantula , named Poison , with her to the ring . After winning a tag team match against The Beautiful People , she put the spider on the unconscious body of Velvet Sky . On the July 9 episode of Impact ! , after Tara threatened to put her spider on Sky once again , Angelina Love agreed to put her TNA Knockouts Championship on the line , which Tara ultimately won , only to lose the title back to Love two weeks later at Victory Road .
On the September 24 episode of Impact ! , Tara teamed with the new Knockouts Champion ODB to challenge Sarita and Taylor Wilde for the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship , but they lost after Awesome Kong interrupted and distracted her during the bout . During the following two weeks of Impact ! , Tara and Kong both received one @-@ on @-@ one Knockouts Championship matches from ODB , but both of them ended up losing after the other interfered in the match . At Bound for Glory , ODB defeated both Tara and Kong in a three @-@ way match to retain the title . During the match , Tara was confronted by mixed martial artist Kim Couture to set up an MMA fight between the two , which , however , never came to fruition . At Turning Point , Tara defeated Kong in a Six Sides of Steel match . On November 26 , Tara won a ten @-@ woman battle royal to earn a shot at the Knockouts Championship at Final Resolution . At the event , she defeated ODB to win the Knockouts Championship for the second time . On the January 4 , 2010 episode of Impact ! , Tara lost the title back to ODB . Two weeks later at Genesis , Tara defeated ODB in a two out of three falls match to regain the title , making her a three @-@ time champion .
On the February 18 , 2010 episode of Impact ! , Tara defeated Daffney by disqualification , after she hit Tara with a toolbox . At Destination X , Tara successfully defended her title against Daffney , who stole Poison the tarantula from her after the match . On the March 29 episode of Impact ! , Tara retained her title against Daffney for a second time , this time in the first ever women 's First Blood match in TNA . On the April 5 episode of Impact ! , Tara was one of the four winners in an eight @-@ Knockout Lockbox match . The box she opened contained her pet tarantula , Poison . At the same time , however , Tara lost the Knockouts Championship to Angelina Love . After losing the title , Tara began turning villainous due to her friction with Love heading into their match against The Beautiful People ( Madison Rayne and Velvet Sky ) . At Lockdown , Tara cemented her heel turn by attacking Love after losing a tag team steel cage match against Rayne and Sky .
= = = = Alliance with Madison Rayne ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
On April 28 , 2010 , Varon announced on her MySpace blog that she would be leaving TNA the following month , after refusing to re @-@ sign with the company , due to not receiving a pay increase . On the May 3 episode of Impact ! , Tara challenged Madison Rayne to a match at Sacrifice , where she would put her career on the line against Rayne 's Knockouts Championship . At Sacrifice on May 16 , Tara failed to win the match , and as a result her TNA career came to an end . After her TNA career came to a halt , she continued to discuss a new contract with Dixie Carter .
She returned to the company on July 11 at Victory Road as a villainess , disguising herself by wearing a motorcycle helmet and attacking Angelina Love during her match for the Knockouts Championship . In the following weeks , she aligned herself with Madison Rayne against Love and Velvet Sky . Tara was ultimately unmasked on the September 2 episode of Impact ! , when she and Rayne defeated Love and Sky in a tag team match , after hitting Sky with the motorcycle helmet . On the September 30 episode of Impact ! , Rayne signed a waiver to allow Tara to return to in @-@ ring competition . At Bound for Glory , Tara defeated Angelina Love , Velvet Sky , and Madison Rayne in a Four Corners match to win the Knockout Championship for the fourth time , much to the dismay of Rayne , who thought Tara 's intention was to help her regain the title . On the following episode of Impact ! , Tara laid down for Rayne and allowed her to pin her to regain the Knockouts Championship , giving Tara the shortest reign in the title 's history . The following week , Tara attacked Mickie James after her victory over Sarita . At Turning Point , Tara wrestled James to a double disqualification , after James pushed the referee , and they began brawling . On the December 2 Impact ! , Tara attacked James while she was singing her single " Hardcore Country " , which later led to James attacking her . At Final Resolution , Tara defeated James in a Falls Count Anywhere match , following interference from Madison Rayne . On the following episode of Impact ! , James defeated Tara in a steel cage match . During the match , Tara legitimately tore a ligament in her elbow , but the injury did not require surgery . On the December 16 episode of Impact ! , Tara and Rayne defeated James and Ms. Tessmacher to advance the finals of a tournament for the vacant TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship . The following week , they were defeated in the finals by Angelina Love and Winter .
In 2011 , Madison Rayne would start a rivalry with Mickie James over the Knockouts Championship , and would successfully defend the title against her at Genesis and Against All Odds , after Tara interfered in both matches . During the feud , Tara began claiming that Rayne had gone too far in her brutality towards Mickie James , but was forced to follow her orders due to being under exclusive contract with her , and not TNA . After Rayne lost the Knockouts Championship to James at Lockdown , James agreed to give her a rematch on the condition that if she is unable to regain the title , Tara would be released from her contract with Rayne . On May 15 at Sacrifice , Tara became a fan favorite after knocking out Rayne during her match with James , costing her the Knockouts Championship and guaranteeing herself a release from her contract with Rayne .
= = = = TnT and relationship with Jesse ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
Tara and Madison Rayne had their first match against each other since the break – up of their partnership on the May 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , where Tara teamed with Mickie James and Ms. Tessmacher against Rayne , Sarita and Rosita . Tara won the match for her team by pinning Rosita , after Rayne , who avoided her former partner throughout the match , sacrificed her in order to get away from the ring . Tara and Rayne faced each other again on the July 14 episode of Impact Wrestling , where Tara was victorious after distracting Rayne with her tarantula . On the July 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , Tara and Ms. Tessmacher , later named TnT , defeated Mexican America ( Rosita and Sarita ) to win the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship . Tessmacher and Tara made their first title defense on August 7 at Hardcore Justice , defeating Mexican America in a rematch . On the September 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , Tara was defeated by her former partner Madison Rayne in a match to determine the third and final challenger for the TNA Knockouts Championship at Bound for Glory . On the November 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Tara and Tessmacher lost the Knockouts Tag Team Championship to Gail Kim and Madison Rayne . On the January 26 , 2012 episode of Impact Wrestling , Tara defeated Mickie James and Velvet Sky in a three @-@ way match to earn a match for the Knockouts Championship . On February 12 at Against All Odds , Tara was unsuccessful in her title challenge against Gail Kim .
On the August 23 episode of Impact Wrestling , Tara defeated the new Knockouts Champion and TnT partner Miss Tessmacher in a non @-@ title match , and was subsequently named number one contender for her title . On September 9 at the No Surrender , Tara challenged Tessmacher for the Knockouts Championship , but failed to capture the title . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Tara congratulated Tessmacher on her victory , only to attack Tessmacher shortly afterwards , turning Tara into a villainess and effectively disbanding TnT . On the September 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , Tara defeated ODB in a number one contender 's match to earn another shot at Miss Tessmacher 's Knockouts Championship . On October 14 at Bound for Glory , Tara defeated Tessmacher to win the TNA Knockouts Championship for a record @-@ tying fifth time . Afterwards , Tara introduced her " Hollywood boyfriend " , the debuting Jesse . Tara made her first successful title defense on the October 25 episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Tessmacher in a rematch following interference from Jesse . On November 11 at Turning Point , Tara and Jesse were defeated by ODB and Eric Young . On December 9 at Final Resolution , Tara successfully defended her Knockouts Championship against Mickie James after a distraction from Jesse . On the December 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , Tara defeated James again to retain her title . Tara went on to have another successful title defense on the January 25 , 2013 , episode of Impact Wrestling , defeating Velvet Sky . On the February 21 episode of Impact Wrestling taped in London , England , Tara lost the championship to Sky in a fatal four – way elimination match , also involving Gail Kim and Miss Tessmacher , ending her reign at 104 days . Tara received her rematch on the February 28 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was again defeated by Sky . The following months , Tara would make increasingly fewer appearances , and would be rarely used competing in matches . On the July 14 episode of TNA Xplosion , Tara would wrestler her final match in TNA losing to ODB . Two days later on July 16 , Tara was released from her TNA contract .
Varon later stated in an interview that she was close to leaving TNA prior to her release , and that she would never return to TNA . She also stated that her tenure in TNA was great , but different from WWE and made her " appreciate WWE a lot " .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2011 – present ) = = =
Tara took part of Family Wrestling Entertainment 's FWE : Fallout pay @-@ per @-@ view on November 15 , 2011 , defeating Madison Rayne with Christy Hemme as the special guest referee . Tara returned to the promotion on February 25 , 2012 , taking part of a tournament to determinate the inaugural FWE Women 's Champion at FWE : No Limits , losing to Maria Kanellis . Tara then helped Maria defeat Winter to win the championship alongside her partner Ms. Tessmacher . On November 9 , 2013 , Varon debuted at House of Hardcore 3 , where she and Stevie Richards were defeated by Carlito and Rosita . On June 19 , 2015 , Varon returned to the independent circuit at the Maryland Championship Wrestling event Ladies Night , where she served as the special guest referee for the MCW Women 's Championship main event match between Mickie James and Amber Rodriguez . Varon attacked heel enforcer Melina during the match , after Melina interfered and attacked James .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2013 ) = = =
Varon debuted for Ring of Honor on October 26 , 2013 , under her real name . She made an FAQ before Glory by Honor XII . At the event , she attacked Maria Kanellis with a Widow 's Peak .
= = Business ventures = =
Varon owned a restaurant in Louisville , Kentucky named Fat Tony 's Pizzeria , but sold it in May 2007 . In May 2008 , she and her husband opened a custom car shop , Black Widow Customs , in Louisville . The shop was destroyed on December 16 , 2010 , in a fire , which the authorities deemed suspicious . This occurred the day after a local TV show 's " Consumer Watch " segment . Antwane Glenn , a football player at the University of Kentucky , wanted a refund after claiming his car was left un @-@ drivable following Black Widow Customs ' work on it . He contacted WHAS11 and the story was profiled on the show .
In March 2013 , Varon opened a wrestling themed restaurant in Chicago , Illinois named The Squared Circle . In January 2015 , Varon announced that she would be moving back to California , leaving the restaurant under her husband and a friend . Despite this , Varon continues to make regular visits to the restaurant .
= = Other media = =
Varon has made guest appearances on television shows V.I.P. and Nikki , as well as participated in two fitness competitions for the Univision program Sábado Gigante . In November 2010 , she was a contestant on an all @-@ TNA week of Family Feud , teaming with Angelina Love , Christy Hemme , Lacey Von Erich and Velvet Sky against Jay Lethal , Matt Morgan , Mick Foley , Mr. Anderson and Rob Van Dam . On November 10 , 2012 , Varon , along with several other TNA employees , were featured in an episode of MTV 's Made .
= = Personal life = =
Varon has been married to Lee Varon since 1994 . They have no children .
Varon has a tattoo of a heart on her ankle , which she got in high school and hid from her parents . She is a fan of motorcycles and owns a Suzuki Hayabusa .
In an interview for the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel , Varon was quoted as saying she was legitimately jealous of the 2004 WWE Diva Search winner Christy Hemme . She retracted the statement on her website , claiming the reporter had misquoted her when she mentioned that she was jealous of Hemme 's paycheck , as it was a lot higher than what Varon received in her rookie year .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Black Widow ( Sitout inverted front powerslam ) – 2002 – 2004
Tara Bomb ( Chokebomb ) - TNA ; 2011
Widow 's Peak ( Gory neckbreaker )
Signature moves
A @-@ rack @-@ naphobia ( Backbreaker rack drop ) – 2008
Back body drop
Bearhug
Boston crab , sometimes transitioned from and elevated position or done in a modified way
Bridging reverse chinlock
Gorilla press slam
Gorilla press gutbuster
Hair @-@ pull Gory special
Headbutt
Hip drop , to an opponent 's midsection
Japanese arm drag , sometimes done repeatedly in succession
Multiple kick variations
Low drop , to a kneeling opponent
Roundhouse
Super , sometimes to an oncoming opponent
Multiple moonsault variations
Springboard
Victoria 's Secret ( Standing , with theatrics )
Multiple pinning variations
Backslide
Jackknife
Roll @-@ up
Schoolgirl Face Sit Pin
Small package
One @-@ handed cartwheel followed into a hammerlock
Plancha
Pendulum backbreaker
Slingshot somersault leg drop
Scoop powerslam
Snap suplex
Surfboard stretch
Slingshot belly @-@ to @-@ back backbreaker
Spider 's Web ( Fireman 's carry spun out into a sidewalk slam )
Managers
Candice Michelle
Torrie Wilson
Brooke Tessmacher
Jesse
Wrestlers managed
Damaja
Doug Basham
Stevie Richards
Candice Michelle
Torrie Wilson
Cody Runnels
Seth Skyfire
Kenny Dykstra
Natalya
Christy Hemme
Madison Rayne
Brooke Tessmacher
Lauren Williams
Jesse
Alex Chamberlain
Nicknames
" The Vicious Vixen "
Entrance themes
" All the Things She Said " by t.A.T.u. ( WWE ; December 15 , 2002 – May 10 , 2004 )
" Don 't Mess With " by The Hood $ tars ( WWE ; May 10 , 2004 – May 30 , 2005 )
" Don 't Mess With ( V2 ) " by The Hood $ tars ( WWE ; June 26 , 2005 – January 16 , 2009 )
" Broken " by Goldy Locks ( TNA ; May 28 , 2009 – July 16 , 2013 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
= = = Cheerleading = = =
National Cheerleading Association
NCA All @-@ American Award
= = = Fitness and figure competition = = =
Debbie Kruck Fitness Classic
1st ( Tall Class ; 1999 )
ESPN2 Fitness America Series
1st place ( 1997 )
2nd place ( 1998 )
Lifequest Triple Crown
Top 20 ( 1997 )
National Physique Committee
NPC Inland Empire – 1st ( MW ; 1995 )
NPC Team Universe – 2nd ( Tall Class ; 1999 )
Women 's Tri @-@ Fitness
Ironwoman Tri @-@ Fitness – 4th ( 1998 )
Tri @-@ Fitness Hall of Fame ( 2012 )
= = = Professional wrestling = = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Woman of the Year ( 2004 )
PWI ranked her # 5 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA Women 's Knockout Championship ( 5 times )
TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Brooke Tessmacher
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Women 's Championship ( 2 times )
= = = = Luchas de Apuestas = = = =
|
= Dwarf Fortress =
Dwarf Fortress ( officially called Slaves to Armok : God of Blood Chapter II : Dwarf Fortress ) is a part construction and management simulation , part roguelike , indie video game created by Tarn and Zach Adams . Freeware and in development since 2002 , its first alpha version was released in 2006 and it received attention for being a two @-@ member project surviving solely on donations . The primary game mode is set in a procedurally generated fantasy world in which the player indirectly controls a group of dwarves , and attempts to construct a successful and wealthy underground fortress . Critics praised its complex , emergent gameplay but had mixed reactions to its difficulty . The game influenced Minecraft and was selected among other games to be featured in the Museum of Modern Art to show the history of video gaming in 2012 .
The game has text @-@ based graphics and is open @-@ ended with no main objectives . Before being played , the player has to generate worlds with continents , oceans and histories documenting civilizations . The main game mode , Fortress Mode , consists of selecting a suitable site from the generated @-@ world , establishing a successful colony or fortress , combating threats like goblin invasions , generating wealth and taking care of the dwarves . Each dwarf is modeled down to its individual personality , has likes or dislikes and specific trainable skills in various labors . The second main game mode , Adventure Mode , is a turn @-@ based , open @-@ ended roguelike where the player starts off as an adventurer in the world and is free to explore , complete quests , or even visit old abandoned fortresses . The combat system is anatomically detailed with combat logs describing organs getting pierced , fat getting bruised and limbs getting severed .
Prior to Dwarf Fortress , Tarn Adams was working on a project called Slaves to Armok : God of Blood which was a role @-@ playing game . By 2004 , Adams decided to shift from the original Armok to Dwarf Fortress after the former became difficult to maintain . Adams calls it his life 's work and said in 2011 , that version 1 @.@ 0 will not be ready for at least another 20 years , and even after that he would continue to work on it . The game has a cult following and an active online community . As there is no way to win , every fortress , no matter how successful , is usually destroyed somehow . This prompts the unofficial community motto : " Losing is Fun ! "
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Overview and game modes = = =
Dwarf Fortress has three primary game modes which take place in worlds created by the player , where most of the elements are randomly generated . Fortress Mode is a construction and management simulation of a colony of dwarves . There are no objectives , with the player being free to decide how to go about managing the colony and making them interact with the environment , thus making it an open @-@ ended and sandbox @-@ style game . Since there is no way to win , it only ends when the entire colony is defeated by the various possible threats or the player decides to abandon the fortress . The visuals are text @-@ based using code page 437 characters in various colors as graphics . Thus , it is fully of letters , numbers and symbols ; dwarves are represented by different colored smiling faces , a cat and dog are a white " c " and brown " d " , while a giant spider is a grey " S " .
Adventure Mode is a turn @-@ based , open @-@ ended roguelike where the player starts off as an adventurer . In Legends Mode , players can view maps , histories of each civilization and any figure who has lived or died in the generated world . Any noticeable achievement made by the player in any of the two game modes is recorded in the Legends . A testing arena is present , where players can simulate battles between selected units in various conditions .
= = = World generation = = =
The first step in Dwarf Fortress is generating a playable world ; only one game can be played per world at a time . The player can adjust certain parameters governing size , savagery , mineral occurrences and the length of history . The map shows symbols representing roads , hills , towns and cities of the various civilizations , and it changes as the generation progresses . A midpoint displacement algorithm generates the world .
The process involves procedurally @-@ generated basic elements like elevation , rainfall , mineral distribution , drainage and temperature , using fractals ( which give it an overall natural look ) . For example , a high @-@ rainfall and low @-@ drainage area would make a swamp . Areas are thus categorized into biomes , which have two variables : savagery and alignment . They have their own specific type of plant and animal populations . The next phase is erosion — which the drainage tries to simulate . Rivers are created by tracing their paths from the mountains ( which get eroded ) to its end which is usually an ocean ; some form into lakes . The salinity field defines oceans , mangroves or alluvial plains . Names are generated for the biomes and rivers . The names depend on the area 's good / evil variable ( the alignment ) and though in English , they are originally in one of the four in @-@ game languages of dwarves , elves , humans and goblins ; these are the four main races in any generated world .
After a few minutes the world is populated and its history develops for the amount of in @-@ game years selected in the history parameter . Civilizations , races and religions spread and wars occur , with the " population " and " deaths " counters increasing . The ticker stops at the designated " years " value , at which point the world can be saved for use in any game mode . Should the player choose to retire a fortress or gets defeated , this world will persist and will become available for further games .
= = = Fortress mode = = =
= = = = Basics = = = =
When Fortress mode is selected , the player is given the option to choose the embark location in the world . The player can consider the environment , elevations , biome , soil types and mineral concentrations which can pose significant challenges to the development or survival of the fortress . Customizing the colony 's supplies , domestic animals and skills are available , but each dwarves ' mental and physical attributes are randomly generated . The game describes in detail each dwarf 's physical appearance , like hair and facial features . The mental abilities , individual preferences and desires are also randomly generated . Each dwarf 's relationships with others and the deities they worship can be viewed .
The player embarks with the expedition team ( seven dwarves , their livestock and supplies ) , and does not have direct control over them . In order to construct and operate the fortress , the player has to designate specific tasks to be performed and the dwarves will go about it . They can be assigned any labors , but their work still depends on their relative skill with it , which can increase . Some task categories are stone @-@ working , woodworking , metalworking , farming @-@ related and crafts @-@ making ; there are further combat @-@ related skills . They are categorized further , such as are leatherworking , butchery , clothesmaking , gem @-@ related , glassmaking , and clay @-@ related industries . Activities take place in workshops which need to be constructed ; for example , stills for brewing alcohol . The metal industry has a very important role because it produces weapons and armor for the military , trap components for defense , and high @-@ value furniture and decorations .
= = = = Functional mechanics = = = =
The player initially can see a top @-@ down view of the surface @-@ level of the fortress site ; each layer of a z @-@ axis level can be viewed when the player changes it . An entire underground level would be seen as its entire section of terrain while a mountain at the surface level would have only its section visible with the remaining surface landscape . Thus , for digging , the player can designate , for every z @-@ level starting from the surface , staircases to be carved and at the final designated level , ending the staircase by making it dug into a room .
The geology in Dwarf Fortress is fairly accurate . Rocks like olivine or gabbro can be dug up . The topmost layer usually consists of sand , clay or plain soil — this can be used for underground farming . Deeper levels will be layers of rock ; minerals appear in layers or clusters around the right depth . Gems like tourmalines appear in rare clusters . Water is simulated like falling sand , every space can contain up to seven levels of it . A tile having " one " level of water is the lowest while a tile with " seven " is full . There is a system for simulating temperature and heat . Fires can spread and burn dwarves and furniture . There are four basic seasons in an in @-@ game year : spring , summer , autumn and winter .
Mineral ores can be mined just like normal stone and the raw ore can be smelted to produce their corresponding metal bars . Different ores or metal bars can be alloyed together for higher quality materials . For steel production , flux stones are used to make pig iron bars and smelt it with regular iron and coal ( or charcoal ) . Specific metal items can be melted back to their respective bars . Without steel , the alloy bronze or regular iron are the next best suitable metals to use . Bronze requires two ores or bars of tin and copper . The metal adamantine , found deep below , is extremely light but very strong , making it excellent for sharp weapons and armor . Raw adamantine can be extracted into strands and can further be either woven in cloth or smelted into wafers .
= = = = Fortress management and growth = = = =
Underground farming has customized crops like " Plump Helmet " mushrooms , which can be brewed to make mushroom wine . As the fortress prospers , migrants come in larger numbers from the mountainhome ( the colony 's home civilization ) and will need further accommodation . Trading caravans , which can be from the various neighboring civilizations including the home civilization , visit the fortress on a yearly basis and are useful for getting supplies not available in the player 's fortress area . The role of bookkeeper , manager and broker can be assigned to any dwarf during early game . The bookkeeper maintains records of every item present in the fort , the manager auto @-@ assigns jobs and the broker deals with trading caravans . The production of crafts from any material are useful for trading . The caravans come from civilizations of elves and humans but depending on the embark region and history , they may be absent or sometimes even hostile .
Dwarves need to be provided with food and drink ( mostly in the form of alcohol ) . A dwarf will get negative thoughts for drinking plain water and even for drinking the same type of alcohol , making it necessary to grow different crops for producing different drinks . Things like not having a separate bedroom can upset a dwarf . They may make friends and sometimes marry ; females give birth . Dwarves can get upset by sustaining injuries , having poor clothing , losing their pets , friends or relatives ; interacting with or seeing their corpses can aggravate this . A frustrated dwarf may break furniture or attack others . Continuous stress will cause them to throw tantrums and eventually go insane , whether going berserk and attacking their comrades in a homicidal rage , becoming suicidally depressed and jumping off a cliff , or simply going " stark raving mad " and stumbling around randomly until their untimely death . Their quality of life can be improved by giving them luxurious personal bedrooms and a well @-@ decorated dining room , medical care , and providing them with a variety of drinks and well @-@ cooked meals . A chain reaction where a single dwarf 's unhappiness causes the entire fortress 's population to start throwing tantrums can begin when one dwarf throws a tantrum , attacks and kills another one with many friends , which drastically affects the happiness of many more .
As the fortress expands and develops , new noble positions become available . While regular dwarves will be happy with simple rooms provided to them , dwarves appointed or elected to noble positions will need more luxurious accommodation . Nobles will even make demands and mandates , getting negative thoughts if they are not fulfilled . A justice system is present to punish criminals , for example , dwarves who injure or kill another dwarf or destroy furniture . Occasionally , a vampire dwarf , with a fake background history , may arrive with a migrant wave and start killing and feeding on the other citizens without being noticed .
Inspired or stressed dwarves will occasionally get into a " Strange Mood " . They will take over a workshop and go searching for the required materials to begin construction of an artifact . If they cannot find the materials , the dwarf will wait at the workshop , demanding it till it is available . After a few in @-@ game weeks , the work results in a legendary artifact , an item so masterfully crafted that it is usually worth more than a beginning fortress ' total wealth put together . These artifacts will be added to the world 's records and its exact description can be viewed . Through this entire period of being in a strange mood , a dwarf will not eat , drink or sleep and will eventually go insane if prolonged due to any reason .
= = = = Threats , defense and dwelling deeper = = = =
The first in @-@ game year will usually consist of kobold thieves and goblin snatchers trying to infiltrate the fortress . Thieves try to steal valuables while snatchers try to kidnap dwarven children to raise them as future soldiers . Goblin and kobold civilizations near the fortress will always be hostile and a source of frequent attacks . Wildlife is usually harmless , but depending on the fortress location , more fierce elephants , bears , unicorns , giant spiders and wolves may be a threat . Wealthier and more populated fortresses will get ambushes and sieges from neighboring goblin ( or other enemy ) civilization . A thriving fortress will attract certain mega @-@ beasts like hydras , titans or dragons , and randomly generated creatures called " Forgotten Beasts " . These unique creatures have randomized physical qualities and abilities , thus making them have the potential to be very powerful . Undead attack mainly in evil biomes or if the player embarks with a Necromancer Tower being near the site . Undead are harder to kill , and often reanimate once they are defeated with their body parts being separate units to fight .
Military squads can be assigned to a barracks to train in and a uniform ( armor and a weapon ) can be chosen . Squads can be directly commanded to attack enemies . Crossbows can be made for ranged attacks and a range with targets can be constructed for training . Walls can be carved into fortifications and be used by ranged @-@ units during attacks . Kennels can be made to train war animals like dogs . Players can use traps and engineering in addition to training an army . Traps can be made by constructing mechanisms and using metal or wood to construct large weapons like spikes , ax blades or cages . More complex lever @-@ operated and pressure plate @-@ triggering trap components are available .
The combat system in Dwarf Fortress is anatomically detailed . Combat is displayed by viewing the log which describes each weapon striking a specific part of the character 's body . Internal organs can get punctured , combatants can fall to the ground , vomit and lose body parts . Each dwarf has individually detailed limbs , each with damageable bone , fat , muscle and skin . Fat can be bruised without breaking bones and vice versa . Injuries sometimes can be permanent . There is a medical system where a hospital can be set up containing crutches for disabled dwarves , traction benches , plasters and cloth for casts and bandages , thread for suturing , and splints .
Digging deeper is usually done for finding magma , which as a fuel source , removes the player 's dependence on coal or wood . Another reason to dig deeper is for searching for specific raw materials , ores or gems . Magma pools or even bigger magma seas are found while digging into warm rock . Near magma seas , raw adamantine strata can be found . They are shaped like columns , which pass down through the entire magma sea . These columns are hollow and can be broken , revealing an entire shaft leading deeper into the underworld or hell . Underworld creatures are countless and can bring entire fortresses to ruin .
= = = Adventure mode = = =
Adventure mode is a roguelike played in the generated world and unlike Fortress mode , it is turn @-@ based . In this mode , there is character creation similar to other role @-@ playing games . Players can choose a name , gender and spend points on the specific combat and physical skills , where the amount depends on whether the player chooses a peasant , hero or demigod . The player 's character starts off in a random town depending on their race and can interact with the various non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . NPCs can give quests ( usually to slay an outlaw or megabeast ) , speak about the surrounding areas or offer to follow and help the player . Players can choose to explore any part of the generated world using quick @-@ travel mode . A player can find the area of their previously @-@ slain character , visit old abandoned fortresses , seek out the treasures and wield previously @-@ made artifacts . Instead of quitting , the character can be retired , and depending on the player 's achievements , their life events will be documented in the Legends Mode among the historical figures .
= = History = =
= = = Early development ( 2002 – 2006 ) = = =
One of Tarn and Zach Adams ' early works was a text based adventure game called dragslay , written in the BASIC language and influenced by Dungeons and Dragons . This was the brothers ' first fantasy project . In high school , Tarn Adams taught himself the C programming language and developed it further. dragslay would later have an important influence on Dwarf Fortress . Adams explained his interest in fantasy games , that he had grown up " surrounded by that sort of thing ... along with generic sci @-@ fi , generic fantasy is part of our heritage . " Years later , before entering graduate school in mathematics , Adams began working on a project he called Slaves to Armok : God of Blood . It was named after a deity in dragslay , originally named for a variable " arm _ ok " — which counted the limbs the player still had attached . This new project was a two @-@ dimensional ( would later have 3D graphics ) isometric fantasy role @-@ playing game in which the player encountered and fought goblins .
Tarn took some time off Armok to work on small side @-@ projects , and another one which would inspire Dwarf Fortress was Mutant Miner . It was turn @-@ based loosely inspired by a game called Miner VGA . Mutant Miner involved the player digging underneath buildings , searching for ores and fighting monsters , and carrying radioactive " goo " back to the surface for application in growing extra limbs and gaining other abilities . Adams was dissatisfied with only having a single miner , and the game began to lag because it was turn @-@ based . Adams said :
[ I ] nstead of rewriting the game , I thought , well maybe it should be dwarves instead . And it should be real @-@ time to combat the [ lag ] problem . Now , you 'd be digging out minerals in a mountain , combating threats inside , and making little workshops . Then I thought , well , how should the high score list work ? We really like to keep records of plays . Not just high score lists , but expansive logs . So we 'll often try to think of ways to play with the idea . This time , the idea was to let your adventurer come into the fortress after you lose and find the goblets you 've made , and journals it generates .
= = = First release ( 2006 ) = = =
Adams began working on Dwarf Fortress in October 2002 , estimating that the project would take two months , but suspended development soon after , in order to finish his previous work , Armok . He explained that it began like the 1982 arcade game Dig Dug . The Adams brothers started the Bay 12 Games company , launching its website and releasing their games online . By 2004 , Adams announced on his website that he would be switching his main project to Dwarf Fortress after he struggled to continue working on Armok , after all its added features became harder to maintain . Adams explained that it would be a dwarf simulation game but he kept Adventure mode as a surprise feature , which was revealed during its release . At that time , his fan base consisted of a few dozen people and more came in when he made this announcement . He put up a PayPal button after a request from a fan ; similarly , a subscriber system was added later . In the next five months , they made around $ 300 , which brought in only enough to cover the site 's $ 20 hosting cost . He dubbed the game as Slaves to Armok , God of Blood II : Dwarf Fortress ; Adams explained that it was a sequel because it continued to work on much of Armok 's code but said its cumbersome name was mostly " for kicks . "
Adams decided to focus on the game 's development full @-@ time during his first year of his math post @-@ doctorate at Texas A & M in 2006 . He quit it after a year and decided to use up his $ 15 @,@ 000 savings . The university offered him $ 50 @,@ 000 if he would stay another year . Adams agreed and commented on this , " I woke up the morning after I gave notice , like , I can actually make this work . " Adams expected he would have to get a job in order to support himself and use his savings because the game had not been released yet . Development continued till 8 August 2006 , when the first alpha version ( version 0.21.93.19a ) was released . Donations reached $ 800 – $ 1000 in the following months , this average increased gradually until they were financially stable . He then decided to solely rely on donations .
= = = Development ( 2007 – present ) = = =
Adams did not use the 3D graphics which Armok had since its development was hampered because of it . He cited the ease in development of features like fluid simulation , copyright issues with the art and more unhindered possibilities as further reasons for not using it . Being used to the text @-@ based graphics in roguelikes , he did not want graphical tilesets . The story @-@ generation originated first from Armok , although present to some extent in dragslay . Tarn and Zach would write different chapters of events they would like to see , mix it together and try to implement it . Most of this story writing is managed by Zach , who has a role in the game 's development . He graduated in ancient history and books like The Twelve Caesars and the writings of Assyrian kings influenced the game .
Tarn Adams was influenced by roguelike games like 1985 Hack because of its randomly generated levels and detailed mechanics . The body part and wound system was inspired by 1990 role @-@ playing game Cyberpunk 2020 . Adams cited Ultima series as the inspiration for his generated worlds . He prefers modeling on individual elements , rather than entire systems , for better simulations with the outcomes being under his control . During world generation , he made an algorithm to simulate rain shadows which occur in areas at the side of mountain deserts . For the distinct personalities of each unit , he took it from NEO PI @-@ R test of which he admitted knowing little about . The feature of carps eating dwarves was unexpected when the game was released . He had written them having the same size and carps were designed to be carnivorous . Adams composed the game 's flamenco @-@ inspired music .
A z @-@ axis was introduced in the 2008 release because he felt the limitations with a single plane increasing ; the feature of making various constructions like walls was also added at this time . In the earlier version , players could dig only into a mountainside and not underground because of having only one " z @-@ level " , thus it was considered " 2D " . This was significantly easier to maintain due to the limited playable area . Adams commented that this major change was further difficult to implement because of considering details like fluid mechanics and cave @-@ ins . In 2012 , more traps , abilities , syndromes , detailed cities and tombs were added in addition to vampiric and lycanthropic infections , necromancers and undead .
On his reliance on PayPal donations , Adams says he is content since he feels that people really like his work or they would not pay . Ever since its release , donations kept increasing and remaining stable except having a sudden increase during a new version update . He got $ 50 @,@ 000 in 2010 following a major update after a long gap . Their expenses being low , he has maintained that he is happy as long as the game is self @-@ sustaining and will not charge for it . In 2011 , Adams refused a job offer from an unspecified major game developer and a $ 300 @,@ 000 deal to license the name Dwarf Fortress from another company . Adams felt that this amount would not equate to the long @-@ term donations he would receive . Adams said that he prefers working on his own and not being part of the gaming industry . In 2013 , his average income was $ 4000 a month and Adams said , " Barely in the black one month , a little in the red another month . ... It 's a risk I 'm willing to take , and really I couldn 't have it any other way . " He has spent no money on advertising and was happy when bloggers , reviewers like former game journalist Kieron Gillen from PC Gamer and Games for Windows , wrote about his game . In 2015 , Bay 12 Games set up a Patreon account to help fund Dwarf Fortress .
On 11 June 2016 an event called Dwarfmoot was held at Mox Boarding House in Bellevue , Washington to celebrate the ten @-@ year anniversary of the game . It was organised by video game developer and fan Kinnon Stephens and attended by the Adams brothers .
= = = Further updates = = =
As of July 2016 , the latest update was version 0 @.@ 43 @.@ 05 , with it completing fourteen years in development despite being in alpha version . Adams says he has been able to maintain focus by shifting his attention to different aspects of the game , given its numerous varied features . While regular game development aim to perfect their work for release , he considers this a drawback since he continues exploring and learning while adding new features . Wired and Rock , Paper , Shotgun noted its sometimes funny but unintentional bug fixes , with PC Gamer saying it makes an entertaining RSS feed to subscribe to . Adams has two favorite bugs . One is about a farmer dwarf planting their own bed . The other involves a dwarven executioner , with broken arms unable to use his hammer , delivering punishments by biting his victims and tearing off their limbs , keeping one in his mouth for years .
Tarn Adams considers Dwarf Fortress his life 's work , and has stated in 2011 that he does not expect version 1 @.@ 0 to be released for at least another twenty years , and even after that , he would still continue to update it . Adams calls his game an open @-@ ended " story generator " . The game 's code base is proprietary , and Adams has stated he has no plans to release it into the open source domain , citing the risk of them going into financial trouble . He acknowledged the role of the community in supporting its development and has endorsed third @-@ party tools , visualizers and interface code . He explained he would consider releasing its source if he could not maintain it anymore , seeing different game developers taking it up . He says that he does not mind any modifications as long as he is not put into risk .
Adams describes version 1 @.@ 0 having an Adventure mode that would be a regular role @-@ playing game , with changing plots and ordering subordinates to perform various tasks . Fortress mode would have a closer relationship with the outside generated world through war , trade and diplomacy . The world being bigger ; he envisions the game to have many more features like magic , a tutorial , and a better interface . According to him , a tutorial is a burden because of the additional need of updating it . He said of version 1 @.@ 0 , " sitting down with a fresh DF world would be like sitting down to read a middling fantasy author you haven 't read before , but with all the extras that being a video game provides , including the ability to write your own sequels . " Modern in @-@ game technologies and 3D graphics were fan requests Adams said he would never implement , yet showing ambivalence about the latter if the task was easy enough .
= = Reception = =
The game received attention mainly because of its emergent gameplay , text @-@ based graphics , complexity , poor interface and difficulty , with some reviewers describing playing the game from start as a steep learning curve — with the meaning of a difficult learning process . It has been compared to other simulations games like SimCity and The Sims , Dungeon Keeper and roguelike games like NetHack . The game has not had much influence on the gaming industry because of its non @-@ commercial nature . It being a two @-@ man self @-@ sustaining project , and Adams ' independence and capability to follow his own ideas were highlighted . Gamasutra said , " There have been few indie gaming success stories as big as Dwarf Fortress " and Wired magazine , following one of its updates , described it as an " obtuse , wildly ambitious work @-@ in @-@ progress mashes the brutal dungeon crawling of roguelikes with the detail @-@ oriented creativity of city @-@ building sims . "
The depth and complexity were praised . Jonah Weiner from The New York Times stated , " Many simulation games offer players a bag of building blocks , but few dangle a bag as deep , or blocks as small and intricately interlocking , as Dwarf Fortress . " PC Gamer 's Steve Hogarty commented , " Dwarf Fortress 's reluctance to expend even a joule of energy in prettying itself results in astonishing hidden complexity . " Regarding the open @-@ ended nature and emergent gameplay , Rock , Paper , Shotgun 's Graham Smith concluded that its procedurally generated world combined with the every character simulated " down to the most minute detail " , the results are " often hilarious , occasionally tragic , and always surprising . " Mike Rose from Gamasutra said , " ... to an outsider looking in on this game so many years into development , with such a wide scope of features and potential play styles , it 's fair to say that getting into Dwarf Fortress is perhaps one of the most daunting tasks the video game industry as a whole can provide . "
The lack of graphics , poor interface and controls were seen as the reasons for the game 's difficulty . However , the reviewers also noted most of it having a role in gameplay and the argument that the text @-@ based graphics forces players to use their own imagination , making it more engaging . Weiner wrote , " [ the game ] may not look real , but once you 're hooked , it feels vast , enveloping , alive . A micro @-@ manager 's dream , the game gleefully blurs the distinction between painstaking labor and creative thrill . " Quintin Smith from Rock , Paper , Shotgun said , " The interface has a tough job to do , bless it , but getting it to do what you want is like teaching a beetle to cook . " Ars Technica 's Casey Johnston highlighted the difficulty in performing basic actions and felt that tinkering or experimenting ended up being unproductive ; she compared it to " trying to build a skyscraper by banging two rocks together " . She pointed out the lack of in @-@ game tutorial and said how players can learn by themselves in other games , which are also open @-@ ended or have intuitive mechanics , but in Dwarf Fortress , there is no autonomy " even after hours " of gameplay .
= = Community = =
Dwarf Fortress has attracted a significant cult following . Web communities on the game came up on Something Awful forums besides on Bay 12 Games . The game 's difficulty , with most fortresses eventually succumbing to various forms of defeat , and to encourage further experimentation through it led to its unofficial slogan " Losing is fun ! " Adams said that it was originally from the manual and there as a consolation for players to get a grip on the issue of permadeath . The game 's official podcast is called " Dwarf Fortress Talk " , where the brothers answer questions from players . They send out crayon drawings or short stories to the donors , customized to their requests and feature the highest donors on their website . Besides donations , Adams said some fans have given computers while others have directly helped him with the game development . A community member ported it to Mac and Linux for free and other volunteers handle the bug tracking system .
Players and members of the community have often written creative interpretations of game events . Fans have made diaries , short videos , comics and audio depicting their stories whether it involved success or defeat . Besides testing the game , sharing it with others and supporting it through donations , they make suggestions , help newcomers , share stories , and information in the Bay 12 Games forums . They maintain the dedicated wiki ; there are also fan @-@ organized podcasts and meet @-@ ups . Adams commented about some fans who donated but have not played the game — just there for reading the stories . In 2006 , a saga called " Boatmurdered " where fans passed around a single fortress and each played the game and saved it before sending it to another , was portrayed in detail from the start to its destructive end . This spread around gaming sites and boosted the game 's popularity .
On the game 's community , Tarn Adams said , " They are the reason I 've been able to make the step from hobbyist to full @-@ time developer . I 'm lucky to be able to run with whatever ideas we have and try new things . " On players sending him forum posts or emails detailing their stories or events that happened during the game , Adams said , " It 's really gratifying , because it 's one of the things we set out to do is to get people to write these narratives about their game . " Adams has admitted that some feats of the community surprised even him . Adams stated that the most impressive thing he had ever seen done with the game was when a player managed to create a Turing @-@ complete 8 @-@ bit calculator powered by dwarves .
There have been tutorials on YouTube with one being a 15 @-@ part series , and another 12 @-@ part written series called " The Complete and Utter Newby Tutorial for Dwarf Fortress " . There are third @-@ party utilities for the game like " Dwarf Therapist " which helps the player in managing toggling labors and skills . Another one called " Stonesense " with the help of " DFHack " , a library , can render the game in a 3D isometric view . A " DF to Minecraft " utility was developed where players could load their in @-@ game works to be able to view it while playing Minecraft . An illustrated guide to the game , called Getting Started with Dwarf Fortress : Learn to play the most complex video game ever made was released by technology publisher O 'Reilly Media in 2012 written by Peter Tyson . Containing 240 pages , it has a foreword from Adams and is updated along with the game 's development .
= = Legacy = =
The game influenced Minecraft , which reviewers considered a more user @-@ friendly version of Dwarf Fortress . Adams says he is thankful for the Minecraft developers citing his game because that drew more players . There have been other games inspired by the game but they have largely failed to replicate its visual style and depth . Homages to the game appear in the World of Warcraft . In July 2014 , the game won a poll conducted by Turtle Beach as the community 's most " Beautiful Game " ; games were nominated by fans posting videos , images or text , and a list was compiled by the community which also contained The Legend of Zelda : The Wind Waker , Far Cry 3 and The Last of Us . Justin Ma , one of the developers of FTL : Faster Than Light , commented on its use of text @-@ based graphics , " Part of the reason Dwarf Fortress can include a breadth of mechanics unseen in other games is because complex mechanics are expressed in the most simple of visual forms . " Gaslamp Games cited it as one their main influences for the game Clockwork Empires .
In March 2013 , the Museum of Modern Art in New York City exhibited Dwarf Fortress among other games selected to depict the history of video gaming . As new updates are made available , the Museum of Modern Art instantly downloads them and archives them in their secure server . Curator of the exhibition , Paola Antonelli , said she was amazed by the combination of " beautiful aesthetics " and " mind @-@ boggling " complexity in the game .
Game designer Craig Ellsworth commended Dwarf Fortress for having a uniquely long " staying power " . According to Ellsworth , it will not be replaced by any other more advanced game of its genre , partly because of it being the pioneer of its own and since it is on PC ; console games get replaced faster . He wrote , " There is simply no such thing as a flashier Dwarf Fortress , and there can 't be , by definition . " Other reasons , according to him , were it being free and its long development period with its design to be " never @-@ ending " . He predicted the game will be most popular at its final release , with its legacy being more than just historic value . He pointed out that people like the game in its present condition ; they will continue playing it more ardently , as long as it keeps developing , especially with new additions and features . He compared it to the board game Monopoly and the card game Magic : The Gathering . Ellsworth finally said that the game is either a " one @-@ time fluke " or will inspire " a rise of ultra @-@ small indies " with similar financial setups .
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= Shakugan no Shana =
Shakugan no Shana ( 灼眼のシャナ , lit . Burning @-@ Eyed Shana ) , also known simply as Shana ( シャナ ) , is a Japanese light novel series written by Yashichiro Takahashi with illustrations by Noizi Ito . ASCII Media Works published 26 novels from November 2002 to November 2012 under their Dengeki Bunko imprint . The story focuses on Yuji Sakai , a high school boy who inadvertently becomes involved in an age @-@ old conflict between forces of balance and imbalance in existence . In the process , he befriends a fighter for the balancing force and names her " Shana " . The series incorporates fantasy and slice of life elements into its tale .
Two manga adaptations were published by ASCII Media Works in Dengeki Daioh and Dengeki Maoh . Between 2005 and 2012 , the series was adapted by J.C.Staff into three 24 @-@ episode anime television series , a four @-@ episode original video animation ( OVA ) series , an animated film and an additional stand alone OVA episode . A PlayStation 2 video game was released in March 2006 , and it was ported to the Nintendo DS in March 2007 . Viz Media licensed the novels and the first manga series for release in North America , but stopped publishing both prematurely . Geneon originally licensed the first television series for release in North America , but the license later transferred to Funimation , who also licensed the remaining anime properties . Critics praised the series for its execution of typical story elements and how it continuously becomes better over time . However , the series is described as having issues with pacing .
= = Plot and characters = =
Shakugan no Shana details an age @-@ old conflict between those who inhabit the Crimson Realm ( 紅世 , Guze ) , a parallel universe to the human world . The Crimson Realm is populated by Crimson Denizens ( 紅世の徒 , Guze no Tomogara ) who are able to manipulate the Power of Existence ( 存在の力 , Sonzai no Chikara ) , a fundamental power within any biological entity and functions as " fuel " for one 's existence . Denizens whose power stands out among their peers are known as Lords of the Crimson Realm ( 紅世の王 , Guze no Ō ) , and Lords that are even more powerful are known as Gods ( 神 , Kami ) . Denizens who do not care about the balance between the Crimson Realm and the human world collect Power of Existence from humans to use for their own purposes . Some Lords contract with humans to become a Flame Haze ( フレイムヘイズ , Fureimu Heizu ) , whose duty is to maintain the two worlds ' balance by destroying any Denizens disrupting it . Denizens and Flame Haze fight with the use of powerful magic spells called Powers of Unrestraint ( 自在法 , Jizaihō ) , which are also known as Unrestricted Spells or Unrestricted Methods . One such spell is the Seal ( 封絶 , Fūzetsu ) , which creates a space where the Crimson Realm and the human world intermingle and all sorts of causalities , including time , are stopped for ordinary living beings .
The story largely takes place in Misaki City in Japan and begins when high school student Yuji Sakai is thrown into the middle of this conflict and encounters a Flame Haze girl with flaming red eyes and hair dressed in all black wielding a katana . The girl informs him that he died some time ago , and that he is a Torch ( トーチ , Tōchi ) , a human with greatly diminished Power of Existence , and whose remaining Power of Existence will slowly run out . In addition , Yuji is a Mystes ( ミステス , Misutesu ) , a special kind of Torch who contains a Treasure Tool ( 宝具 , Hōgu ) , a magical object created by Denizens that can provide special abilities or even Powers of Unrestraint ; additionally , Mystes can move within Seals . Unfazed by his apparent death , Yuji befriends the girl and names her " Shana " after her sword . They later discover that the Treasure Tool within Yuji is the Reiji Maigo ( 零時迷子 , Midnight Lost Child ) , which restores his Power of Existence every night at midnight .
As time goes on , Shana and Yuji encounter several more Flame Haze , such as Margery Daw and Wilhelmina Carmel , and Denizens in Misaki City . An organization of Denizens called Bal Masqué discovers that Yuji possesses the Reiji Maigo and attempt to use the Treasure Tool on two separate occasions . Bal Masqué is led by three Lords called the Trinity : Hecate , Sydonay , and Bel Peol . They serve under a Crimson God known as the Snake of the Festival ( 祭礼の蛇 , Sairei no Hebi ) , who resides within the Reiji Maigo . When the Snake of the Festival emerges , it merges its consciousness with Yuji 's , assuming command over Bal Masqué , and together they formulate an elaborate plan to create a parallel world called Xanadu , which will serve as a paradise for Denizens with unlimited Power of Existence . Shana , and all of the other Flame Haze around the world , oppose the creation of Xanadu , which would eventually cause a large @-@ scale disruption in the human world , the Crimson Realm and Xanadu itself .
Shana formulates a countermeasure and is ultimately successful in adding a single law to Xanadu where the Denizens are not allowed to eat humans anymore . With Xanadu created , the Denizens depart to the new world , soon followed by hundreds of Flame Haze determined to help enforce order on it . Yuji intends to go to Xanadu alone and make sure humans and Denizens can eventually learn to coexist , but Shana refuses to be left behind . In the end , Yuji accepts Shana 's feelings and the two kiss , which activates a spell left to Yuji by Crimson Lord Lamia that restores his existence , so Yuji is no longer a Torch . With the help of another spell from Lamia , Yuji successfully restores all humans in Misaki City whose existence was absorbed by the Denizens before he and Shana depart for Xanadu together .
= = Production = =
In an early draft of what would later become Shakugan no Shana , Yashichiro Takahashi set the story in a different dimension and described the main character as having the initial personality of Shana , but the appearance of an older woman similar to Margery Daw . However , after talking with an editor , Takahashi rewrote the character to have the appearance of a young girl . In doing so , he used Shana 's small build to symbolize a story of growth and to emphasize the physical conflict between her and her opponents . Noizi Ito was contacted in early August 2002 to be the illustrator for the series , and she was very excited to work on the project after she read the manuscript for the first novel ; this was the first time Ito drew illustrations for a book .
Shortly before writing Shakugan no Shana , Takahashi made his debut as an author with A / B Extreme , which was awarded an honorable mention in the eighth Dengeki Novel Prize by MediaWorks ( now ASCII Media Works ) in 2001 . By his own admission , A / B Extreme was too difficult for readers to understand , so for his next work , he set out to write something easier to grasp . As such , the initial premise of Shakugan no Shana was to write a boy meets girl story in a school setting , though initially love was not one of the themes included . He was given the freedom to write as he pleased based on this premise after showing it to his editor .
= = Media = =
= = = Light novels and books = = =
Shakugan no Shana began as a light novel series written by Yashichiro Takahashi , with illustrations drawn by Noizi Ito . ASCII Media Works published 26 volumes between November 9 , 2002 and November 10 , 2012 under their Dengeki Bunko imprint ; 22 comprise the main story , while the other four are side story collections . Viz Media licensed the novels for English distribution in North America . The first volume was released on April 17 , 2007 , followed by volume two on October 16 , 2007 . Viz did not publish any further volumes . The novels are also licensed in South Korea by Daewon C.I. , and in Taiwan and Hong Kong by Kadokawa Media .
A 160 @-@ page guide book titled Shakugan no Shana no Subete ( 灼眼のシャナノ全テ , All About Shakugan no Shana ) was published on December 10 , 2005 by ASCII Media Works . Two more guide books were published by ASCII Media Works for the anime adaptations : Anime Shakugan no Shana no Subete ( アニメ 『 灼眼のシャナ 』 ノ全テ ) on October 27 , 2006 with 176 pages , and Anime Shakugan no Shana II no Subete ( アニメ 『 灼眼のシャナII 』 ノ全テ ) on October 19 , 2009 with 168 pages . Four 128 @-@ page Noizi Ito art books were published by ASCII Media Works : Guren ( 紅蓮 ) on February 25 , 2005 , Kaen ( 華焔 ) on August 9 , 2007 , Sōen ( 蒼炎 ) on August 10 , 2009 , and Shana ( 遮那 ) on August 9 , 2013 .
= = = Manga = = =
A manga adaptation , illustrated by Ayato Sasakura , was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' manga magazine Dengeki Daioh between the April 2005 and October 2011 issues . The individual chapters were collected and published in ten tankōbon volumes from October 27 , 2005 and October 27 , 2011 . A special limited edition version of volume two was bundled with a booklet titled Grimoire including contributions from guest artists and writers for various illustrations , manga , and short stories . Viz Media licensed the manga for English distribution in North America . Viz released six volumes between April 17 , 2007 and September 21 , 2010 , but then cancelled the release of the final four volumes . The manga is also licensed in South Korea by Daewon C.I. , in Taiwan and Hong Kong by Kadokawa Media , and in Germany by Egmont .
A second manga illustrated by Shii Kiya , titled Shakugan no Shana X Eternal song : Harukanaru Uta ( 灼眼のシャナX Eternal song -遙かなる歌- ) , is based on the events of the tenth novel and began serialization in ASCII Media Works ' manga magazine Dengeki Black Maoh on September 19 , 2007 . The manga was later transferred to Dengeki Maoh and ran in that magazine between the December 2009 and September 2012 issues . Five volumes were released between January 27 , 2009 and September 27 , 2012 . The manga is licensed in South Korea by Daewon C.I. , and in Taiwan and Hong Kong by Kadokawa Media .
= = = Anime = = =
A 24 @-@ episode anime TV series adaptation of Shakugan no Shana aired in Japan between October 6 , 2005 and March 23 , 2006 on TV Kanagawa . Produced by J.C.Staff and directed by Takashi Watanabe , the screenplay was written by Yasuko Kobayashi , and chief animator Mai Otsuka based the character design used in the anime on Noizi Ito 's original designs . The sound director is Jin Aketagawa , and the soundtrack is composed by Kow Otani . The series was later released by Geneon to eight DVD compilation volumes from January to August 2006 . Later , an original video animation ( OVA ) episode titled Shakugan no Shana SP , which takes place after the events of episode 13 , was released on December 8 , 2006 .
An anime film based on the first novel that was released in Japanese theaters on April 21 , 2007 as one of three films released at Dengeki Bunko 's Movie Festival . The staff who produced the anime series returned to produce the film . The version shown in theaters was 65 minutes in length . Those who saw the film in theaters could buy a short book titled Shakugan no Shana M containing two short stories written by Yashichiro Takahashi published by ASCII Media Works under the imprint Dengeki Gekijō Bunko . The film was released on DVD in Japan on September 21 , 2007 in regular and special editions , which featured the full length 90 @-@ minute director 's cut version . It was later released on Blu @-@ ray Disc ( BD ) in Japan on July 27 , 2011 .
Shana 's production staff would again return to produce two additional TV series and an OVA series . The 24 @-@ episode second season , titled Shakugan no Shana Second ( 灼眼のシャナⅡ ) , aired between October 5 , 2007 and March 28 , 2008 on MBS . The series was later released by Geneon to eight DVD compilation volumes from January to August 2008 . A four @-@ episode OVA series titled Shakugan no Shana S was released on BD / DVD from October 23 , 2009 to September 29 , 2010 . The 24 @-@ episode third season , titled Shakugan no Shana Final ( 灼眼のシャナIII -Final- ) , aired between October 8 , 2011 and March 24 , 2012 on Tokyo MX . The series was released by Geneon on eight BD / DVD compilation volumes from December 2011 to July 2012 .
Geneon licensed the first TV series for North American distribution , but after Geneon withdrew from the North American market , Funimation Entertainment took up the manufacturing , marketing , sales and distribution rights , though Geneon still retained the license . A DVD box set was released by Funimation in September 2008 , and was re @-@ released in September 2009 under Funimation 's " Viridian Collection " . Funimation later re @-@ licensed the first series and re @-@ released it in a BD / DVD combo pack on August 21 , 2012 . The series made its North American television debut on September 10 , 2012 on the Funimation Channel . The first season and its accompanying OVA were also licensed by Madman Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand , and by MVM Films in the United Kingdom . Funimation later licensed the film , the second and third TV series , and the OVA series for release in North America with a different English dub cast compared to the first anime season .
= = = Audio CDs = = =
For the first Shakugan no Shana anime series , four theme song singles were released for two opening and two ending themes . The first opening theme " Hishoku no Sora " ( 緋色の空 , The Crimson Sky ) by Mami Kawada was released in November 2005 , and the second opening theme " Being " by Kotoko was released in March 2006 . The first ending theme " Yoake Umarekuru Shōjo " ( 夜明け生まれ来る少女 , The Girl Born at Dawn ) by Yoko Takahashi was released in October 2005 , and the second ending theme " Aka no Seijaku " ( 紅の静寂 , Crimson Silence ) by Yoko Ishida was released in February 2006 . The original soundtrack for the first anime series was released in January 2006 . For the Shakugan no Shana film , two theme song singes were released : the ending theme " Tenjō o Kakeru Monotachi " ( 天壌を翔る者たち , Those Who Scale Heaven and Earth ) by Love Planet Five — made up of Kotoko , Kawada , Eiko Shimamiya , Mell , and Kaori Utatsuki — was released in April 2007 ; the insert song " Akai Namida " ( 赤い涙 , Red Tears ) by Kawada was released in May 2007 . The film 's original soundtrack was released in September 2007 .
For Shakugan no Shana Second , two theme song singles were released for two opening and two ending themes . The first opening theme " Joint " by Kawada was released in October 2007 , and the second opening theme " Blaze " by Kotoko was released in March 2008 . The first ending theme is " Triangle " by Kawada and was released on the single for " Joint " , and the second ending theme " Sociometry " by Kotoko was released on the single for " Blaze " . The song " Sense " by Kawada was used as the final ending theme for episode 24 , and was released on Kawada 's album Savia in March 2008 . The original soundtrack for Shakugan no Shana Second was released in January 2008 . For Shakugan no Shana S , the single for the opening theme " Prophecy " by Kawada was released in November 2009 , and the ending theme " All in Good Time " by Kawada was released on her album Linkage in March 2010 . The song " Portamento " by Kawada was used as an insert song in episode 4 , and was released on Savia .
For Shakugan no Shana Final , four theme song singles were released for two opening and two ending themes . The first opening theme " Light My Fire " by Kotoko was released in November 2011 , and the second opening theme " Serment " by Kawada was released in February 2012 . The first ending theme " I 'll Believe " by Altima was released in December 2011 , and the second ending theme " One " by Altima was released in February 2012 . The song " Kōbō " ( 光芒 , Beam of Light ) by Kawada was used as the final ending theme for episode 24 . Three insert songs by Kawada were also used in Shakugan no Shana Final : " u / n " in episode 15 released on the single for " Serment " , " Akai Namida " in episode 19 , and " Hishoku no Sora " in episode 24 .
Three volumes of albums titled Shakugan no Shana Assorted Shana containing image songs , audio dramas and background music tracks were released between February and April 2006 . Three volumes of albums titled Shakugan no Shana II Splendide Shana containing images songs and audio dramas were released between February and May 2008 . Three volumes of albums titled Shakugan no Shana F Superiority Shana containing audio dramas , background music tracks , and short versions of theme songs from Shakugan no Shana Final were released between February and July 2012 . The third Superiority Shana album also included the song " Kōbō " .
A weekly radio drama of Shakugan no Shana aired four episodes between November 29 and December 20 , 2003 on Dengeki Taishō . The scenario was an original side @-@ story written by Yashichiro Takahashi , and takes place between the first and second light novel volumes . The cast for the radio drama was different from the anime adaptations . A CD compilation of the radio drama titled Shakugan no Shana Drama Disc , including an additional audio drama , was eligible for mail orders up to March 31 , 2004 . Another drama CD was released with the April 2008 issue of Tokuma Shoten 's Animage magazine ; the cast is the same as with the anime versions .
= = = Video games = = =
An action RPG visual novel titled Shakugan no Shana , developed by Vridge and published by MediaWorks , was released on March 23 , 2006 for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) . A 36 @-@ page A4 @-@ sized art book titled Honō ( 焔 ) featuring illustrations by Ito was available to those who pre @-@ ordered the game . The game was re @-@ released as a " Best " version on February 7 , 2008 . The story was written by Yashichiro Takahashi , and features character designs by Noizi Ito . The opening theme song is " Exist " by Rie Kugimiya , which was released on volume one of the Assorted Shana albums . The player assumes the role of Yuji Sakai during the visual novel aspect , where much of the game 's duration is spent on reading the text that appears on the screen , which represents the story 's narrative and dialogue .
The game follows a branching plot line through eight chapters with five possible endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction . Every so often , the player will come to a point where he or she is given the chance to choose from multiple options . Text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . Sometimes during text progression , an " active countdown " minigame appears , which requires the player to press the game buttons in a specific order in a set time limit . Success or failure in these minigames influence which endings are viewed . During the turn @-@ based battle sequences , the player assumes the role of Shana . The player uses a combination of fire , powers of unrestraint , and treasure tools to battle Crimson Denizens ; and Shana is also able to use a special attack and defend .
A Nintendo DS port of the game titled Shakugan no Shana DS , developed by Vridge and published by MediaWorks , was released on March 29 , 2007 . Those who pre @-@ ordered the game received a calendar spanning April 2007 to March 2008 , and an art book of rough sketches by Ito titled Tōka ( 灯火 ) was available for a limited time with the purchase of the game . A new story for the DS version was written by Takahashi . The game also contains an image gallery that allows the player to see what Shana and Yoshida Kazumi look like in different clothes , and a battle mode that lets the player fight against the computer with a character other than Shana .
Shana appears as a playable character in the crossover RPG Dengeki Gakuen RPG : Cross of Venus for Nintendo DS , and other characters from Shakugan no Shana also appear in the game . Shana appears in the 2014 fighting game Dengeki Bunko : Fighting Climax , which features various Dengeki Bunko characters .
= = Reception = =
In October 2014 , the novels were reported to have sold over 8 @.@ 6 million copies . As reported on the obi strip on volume 4 of the Shakugan no Shana manga released in January 2008 , 1 @.@ 2 million copies of the manga had been sold . Theron Martin from Anime News Network reviewed the manga and called it " inferior " to the anime , and notes the anime develops characters better than the manga . Martin also critiques the art , saying the background art has little detail , and while the action scenes are handled well enough , they are still sub @-@ par compared to the same scenes in the anime . Martin concludes the review by warning the readers that " [ if ] this is your first exposure to the franchise , look to the anime version to see it done right . "
When reviewing the anime , Martin thought the first Shakugan no Shana always manages to slightly exceed expectations , and while its story elements may be typical , its execution is not . Martin noted that Shana 's Flame Haze transformation is a visual highlight of the series , and other details are shown equal care . Reviewer Chris Beveridge of Mania.com felt uncomfortable about the morbid nature of the series . While Beveridge did not think the series is " groundbreaking " , it proves to be a " solid title " that continuously gets better . The pacing in the middle of the first season was criticized for quickly ending an arc before " going into a storyline that feels out of character for the show . " Martin 's review of Shakugan no Shana Final was less positive ; he described Yuji as having been made into a different character ( though his complexity was praised ) , criticized the addition of a large number of prominent characters without sufficient development , and described some things as not making sense , although he praised Shana 's development over the course of the third series .
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= The Source Awards ( 30 Rock ) =
" The Source Awards " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by Robert Carlock and Daisy Gardner , and directed by one of the season 's supervising producers , Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on March 1 , 2007 . " The Source Awards " featured appearances by Wayne Brady , Kevin Brown , Grizz Chapman , Ghostface Killah , LL Cool J , and Jason Sudeikis .
In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) enlists a rap producer , Ridikolous ( LL Cool J ) , to unload his line of inferior champagne while Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) reluctantly hosts the Source Awards . At the same time , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) tries to sever ties with a black man ( Brady ) she dislikes without looking racist .
" The Source Awards " received mixed reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by 5 @.@ 7 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) has a date with Steven Black ( Wayne Brady ) , Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) new business manager , whom she met in one of Tracy 's after @-@ parties . Many people around Liz make an issue of Steven being black , but Liz does not care about his race . On her date with Steven , Liz is surprised to find out certain things about him , and does not have a good time . Steven believes that Liz doesn 't like him because he is black , when really she does not like him as a person . She does not want to be thought of as racist , so she continues on the date . Later , Liz tries to break up with Steven and explain to him that she just does not like him as a person , not because of his race . To prove they are incompatible , she brings him as a guest to the Source Awards the following night .
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , meanwhile , is producing his own wine , called Donaghy Estate Sparkling Wine . He and Liz taste it , and realize that it is practically undrinkable . This leaves Jack with the problem of disposing with the wine . He decides to market it to hip @-@ hop producer Ridikolous ( LL Cool J ) , and at the same time patch up things between Tracy and Ridikolous , who was not allowed into one of Tracy 's parties . Jack and Ridikolous have a meeting , resulting in the wine becoming the corporate sponsor of the Source Awards , which is being produced by Ridikolous . To further amend things with Tracy , Jack proposes to let Tracy host the award show . This backfires when Tracy refuses to host it in fear that he will get shot , but Jack still sees it as the only way to work things out with Ridikolous .
At the Source Awards , Tracy still does not want to host . Jack rhetorically asks him what Oprah would do , but Tracy misunderstands and starts acting like her . Backstage , Tracy shows Liz his gun , which she takes away from him . She fires it by accident and ends up shooting Steven in the buttocks . He thinks she shot him because he was going through her purse and calls her a racist . Following this , Ridikolous comes in and says that Jack has made a mockery of the award , adding : " Wait until I tell Tupac about this ! " . This leads to a short awkward moment , but Jack insists he did not hear anything .
= = Production = =
" The Source Awards " was written by executive producer Robert Carlock and Daisy Gardner , and directed by one of the season 's supervising producers Don Scardino . This was Carlock 's third writing credit , and was Gardner 's first written episode . This episode was Scardino 's fourth directed episode of 30 Rock . " The Source Awards " originally aired on March 1 , 2007 on NBC as the sixteenth episode of the show 's first season and overall of the series .
Rapper Ghostface Killah made his second appearance as himself on the show , having appeared in the episode " Jack @-@ Tor " , in which he and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) perform the song " Muffin Top " . In one scene of " The Source Awards " , Ghostface Killah is drinking Donaghy Estate Sparkling Wine as a music video is shooting , but cannot stand drinking the wine , which makes him sick . This episode featured guest appearances from actors LL Cool J and Wayne Brady . Actor Jason Sudeikis had a brief appearance , in which Liz tells Jenna she ran into him , though not knowing his name yet refers to him as " Flower Guy " . This was Sudeikis ' second appearance , having first appeared in the February 8 , 2007 , episode " Up All Night " . Sudeikis has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of SNL have appeared on 30 Rock , including : Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Chris Parnell and Molly Shannon . Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of SNL . Alec Baldwin , who plays Jack , has also hosted SNL sixteen times as of the end of the variety show 's 37th season , the highest amount of episodes of any host of the series .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens as revealed in " The Source Awards " . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Source Awards " was watched by 5 @.@ 7 million viewers , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that 2 @.@ 7 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . Compared to the previous week , this episode was up 13 percent in the 18 – 49 demographic and 25 percent in overall viewers . The previous episode , " Hard Ball " , was watched by 4 @.@ 6 million American viewers .
Julia Ward AOL 's TV Squad said that while the episode " delivered plenty of funny " it " seemed a bit off @-@ kilter . It had fewer laughs @-@ per @-@ minute than the past few episodes , and structurally , I think the writers couldn 't decide which story to foreground . " She complimented the series for having " an interesting take " on the hip @-@ hop satire that was featured in " The Source Awards " . " From where I sit , it 's got to be in the top five , if not three " , said TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich in regards to this episode . Mitovich noted , " ... I can only bow with great reverence to the effort that goes into 30 Rock , where in an episode like this week 's , every other line is funny and / or fantastically absurd . " IGN contributor Robert Canning opined than an episode like this one , with its guest stars and taking on the issue of race , got " some decent laughs " , though it " failed to produce a solid half hour . " Canning disliked LL Cool J 's guest spot , observing that it was " nothing more than a generic caricature put in the role of a sub @-@ par straight man " , but enjoyed Wayne Brady 's , as he was " a successful part of the episode 's best storyline . " Canning said that Tracy as Oprah was " more weird than funny , unfortunately " , but liked that Jason Sudeikis made a brief appearance as " Flower Guy " in the episode . In conclusion , Canning gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . Mekeisha Madden Toby for The Detroit News found the episode a " side @-@ splitter " .
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= United Kingdom corporation tax =
Throughout this article , the unqualified term " pound " and the £ symbol refer to the Pound sterling .
Corporation tax is a corporate tax levied in the United Kingdom on the profits made by companies and on the profits of permanent establishments of non @-@ UK resident companies and associations that trade in the European Union . Prior to the tax 's enactment on 1 April 1965 , companies and individuals paid the same income tax , with an additional profits tax levied on companies . The Finance Act 1965 replaced this structure for companies and associations with a single corporate tax , which borrowed its basic structure and rules from the income tax system . Since 1997 , the UK 's Tax Law Rewrite Project has been modernising the UK 's tax legislation , starting with income tax , while the legislation imposing corporation tax has itself been amended ; the rules governing income tax and corporation tax have thus diverged . Corporation tax is governed by the Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 ( as amended ) .
Originally introduced as a classical tax system , in which companies were subject to tax on their profits and companies ' shareholders were also liable to income tax on the dividends that they received , the first major amendment to corporation tax saw it move to an imputation system in 1973 , under which an individual receiving a dividend became entitled to an income tax credit representing the corporation tax already paid by the company paying the dividend . The classical system was reintroduced in 1999 , with the abolition of advance corporation tax and of repayable dividend tax credits . Another change saw the single main rate of tax split into three . Tax competition between jurisdictions reduced the main rate from 28 % in 2008 @-@ 2010 , down to a flat rate of 20 % as of April 2015 .
The UK government faced problems with its corporate tax structure , including European Court of Justice judgements that aspects of it are incompatible with EU treaties . Tax avoidance schemes marketed by the financial sector have also proven an irritant , and been countered by complicated anti @-@ avoidance legislation .
The complexity of the corporation tax system is a recognised issue . The Labour government , supported by the Opposition parties , carried through wide @-@ scale reform from the Tax Law Rewrite project , resulting in the Corporation Tax Act 2010 . The tax has slowly been integrating generally accepted accounting practice , with the corporation tax system in various specific areas based directly on the accounting treatment .
Total net Corporation Tax receipts in 2014 @-@ 15 were £ 43 @.@ 0 billion , which is an increase of 7 per cent from £ 40 @.@ 3 billion in 2013 @-@ 14 .
= = History = =
Before 1965 , companies were subject to income tax on their profits , at the same rate as was levied on individuals . An imputation system existed , whereby the income tax paid by a company was offset against the income tax liability of a shareholder who received dividends from the company . With the standard rate of income tax in 1949 at 50 % , a company making £ 1 @,@ 000 in profits would pay £ 500 in tax . If the company then chose to pay a £ 100 dividend , the recipient would be treated as if he had earned £ 200 and had paid £ 100 in income tax on it – the tax paid by the company fully covered the tax due from the individual on the dividend paid . If , however , the individual was subject to tax at a higher rate ( known as " surtax " ) , he ( not the company ) would be liable to pay the additional tax .
In addition to income tax , companies were also subject to a profits tax , introduced by Labour Chancellor Sir Stafford Cripps , which was deducted from company profits when determining the income tax liability . It was a differential tax , with a higher tax rate on dividends ( profits distributed to shareholders ) than on profits retained within the company . By penalising the distribution of profits , it was hoped companies would retain profits for investment , which was considered a priority after the Second World War . The tax did not have the desired effect , so the distributed profits tax was increased by 20 % by the post @-@ war Labour government , in an attempt to coerce companies into retaining more of their profits . At the time of Hugh Gaitskell 's 1951 budget , the profits tax was 50 % for distributed profits and 10 % for undistributed profits .
A series of reductions in the profits tax were brought in from 1951 onwards by the new Conservative government . The tax rates fell to 22 @.@ 5 % on distributed profits and 2 @.@ 5 % on undistributed profits by 1957 , but the profits tax was no longer income tax @-@ deductible . Derick Heathcoat @-@ Amory 's Budget of March 1958 replaced the differential profits tax with a single profits tax measure , applicable to both retained and distributed profits . This gradual decrease , and final abolition , of taxes on capital distributions reflected ideological differences between the Conservative and Labour parties : the Conservative approach was to distribute profits to capital holders for investment elsewhere , while Labour sought to force companies to retain profits for reinvestment in the company in the hope this would benefit the company 's workforce .
= = = Finance Act 1965 = = =
Under the Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer James Callaghan , the Finance Act 1965 replaced the system of income tax and profits tax from 1 April 1965 with a single measure , the Corporation Tax , which re @-@ introduced aspects of the old system . Corporation Tax was charged at a uniform rate on all profits , but additional tax was then payable if profits were distributed as a dividend to shareholders . In effect , dividends suffered double taxation . This method of corporation tax is known as the classical system and is similar to that used in the United States . The effect of the tax was to revert to the distribution tax in operation from 1949 to 1959 : dividend payments were subject to higher tax than profits retained within the company .
The Finance Act 1965 also introduced capital gains tax , at a rate of 30 % . This was a tax charged on the gains arising on the disposal of capital assets by individuals . While companies were exempted from capital gains tax , they were liable to corporation tax on their " chargeable gains " , which were calculated in the same way as individuals ' capital gains . The tax applied to company shares as well as other assets . Before 1965 , capital gains were not taxed , and it was advantageous for taxpayers to argue that a receipt was non @-@ taxable " capital " rather than taxable " revenue " .
= = = Advance Corporation Tax = = =
The basic structure of the tax , where company profits were taxed as profits , and dividend payments were then taxed as income , remained unchanged until 1973 , when a partial imputation system was introduced for dividend payments . Unlike the previous imputation system , the tax credit to the shareholder was less than the corporation tax paid ( corporation tax was higher than the standard rate of income tax , but the imputation , or set @-@ off , was only of standard rate tax ) . When companies made distributions , they also paid advance corporation tax ( known as ACT ) , which could be set off against the main corporation tax charge , subject to certain limits ( the full amount of ACT paid could not be recovered if significantly large amounts of profits were distributed ) . Individuals and companies who received a dividend from a UK company received a tax credit representing the ACT paid . Individuals could set off the tax credit against their income tax liability .
On introduction , ACT was set at 30 % of the gross dividend ( the actual amount paid plus the tax credit ) . If a company made a £ 70 dividend payment to an individual , the company would pay £ 30 of advance corporation tax . The shareholder would receive the £ 70 cash payment , plus a tax credit of £ 30 ; thus , the individual would be deemed to have earned £ 100 , and to have already paid tax of £ 30 on it . The ACT paid by the company would be deductible against its final " mainstream " corporation tax bill . To the extent that the individual 's tax on the dividend was less than the tax credit – for example , if his income was too low to pay tax ( below £ 595 in 1973 – 1974 ) – he would be able to reclaim some or all of the £ 30 tax paid by the company . The set @-@ off was only partial , since the company would pay 52 % tax ( small companies had lower rates , but still higher than the ACT rate ) , and thus the £ 70 received by the individual actually represented pre @-@ tax profits of £ 145 @.@ 83 . Accordingly , only part of the double taxation was relieved .
ACT was not payable on dividends from one UK company to another ( unless the payor company elected to pay it ) . Also , the recipient company was not taxed on that dividend receipt , except for dealers in shares and life assurance companies in respect of some of their profits . As the payor company would have suffered tax on the payments it made , the company that received the dividend also received a credit that it could use to reduce the amount of ACT it itself paid , or , in certain cases , apply to have the tax credit repaid to them .
The level of ACT was linked to the basic rate of income tax between 1973 and 1993 . The March 1993 Budget of Norman Lamont cut the ACT rate and tax credit to 22 @.@ 5 % from April 1993 , and 20 % from April 1994 . These changes were accompanied with a cut of income tax on dividends to 20 % , while the basic rate of income tax remained at 25 % . Persons liable for tax were lightly affected by the change , because income tax liability was still balanced by the tax credit received , although higher rate tax payers paid an additional 25 % tax on the amount of the dividend actually received ( net ) , as against 20 % before the change .
The change had bigger effects on pensions and non @-@ taxpayers . A pension fund receiving a £ 1 @.@ 2 m dividend income prior to the change would have been able to reclaim £ 400 @,@ 000 in tax , giving a total income of £ 1 @.@ 6 m . After the change , only £ 300 @,@ 000 was reclaimable , reducing income to £ 1 @.@ 5 m , a fall of 6 @.@ 25 % .
Gordon Brown 's summer Budget of 1997 ended the ability of pension funds and other tax @-@ exempt companies to reclaim tax credits with immediate effect , and for individuals from April 1999 . This tax change has been blamed for the poor state of British pension provision , while usually ignoring the more significant effect of the dot @-@ com shareprice crash of 2000 onwards when the FTSE @-@ 100 lost half its value to fall from 6930 at the beginning of 2000 to just 3490 by March 2003 . Despite this , critics such as Member of Parliament Frank Field described it as a " hammer blow " and the Sunday Times described it as a swindle , with the hypothetical £ 1 @.@ 5 m income described above falling to £ 1 @.@ 2 m , a fall in income of 20 % , because no tax would be reclaimable .
= = = = Abolition of Advance Corporation Tax = = = =
From 6 April 1999 ACT was abolished , and the tax credit on dividends was reduced to 10 % . There was a matching reduction in the basic income tax rate on dividends to 10 % , while a new higher @-@ rate of 32 @.@ 5 % was introduced which led to an overall effective 25 % tax rate for higher rate taxpayers on dividends ( after setting this " notional " tax credit against the tax liability ) . From 6 April 2010 , the top rate of income tax on dividends will be 42 @.@ 5 % ( effective rate 36 @.@ 11 % ) . While non @-@ taxpayers were no longer able to claim this amount from the treasury ( as opposed to taxpayers who could deduct it from their tax bill ) , the 20 % ACT ( which would have previously been deducted from the dividend before payment ) was no longer levied .
ACT that had been incurred prior to 1999 could still be set off against a company 's tax liability , provided it would have been able to set it off under the old imputation system . In order to keep the stream of payments associated with advance corporation tax payment , ' large ' companies ( comprising the majority of corporation tax receipts ) were subjected to a quarterly instalments scheme for tax payment .
= = = Rates = = =
On its introduction in 1965 , corporation tax was charged at 40 % , rising to 45 % in the 1969 Budget . The rate then fell to 42 @.@ 5 % in the second Budget of 1970 and 40 % in 1971 . In 1973 , alongside the introduction of advance corporation tax ( ACT ) , Conservative chancellor Anthony Barber created a main rate of 52 % , together with a smaller companies ' rate of 42 % . This apparent increase was negated by the fact that under the ACT scheme , dividends were no longer subject to income tax .
The 1979 Conservative Budget of Geoffrey Howe cut the small companies ' rate to 40 % , followed by a further cut in the 1982 Budget to 38 % . The Budgets of 1983 – 1988 saw sharp cuts in both main and small companies ' rates , falling to 35 % and 25 % respectively . Budgets between 1988 and 2001 brought further falls to a 30 % main rate and 19 % small companies ' rates . From April 1983 to March 1997 the small companies ' rate was pegged to the basic rate of income tax . During the 1980s there was briefly a higher rate of tax imposed for capital profits .
Chancellor Gordon Brown 's 1999 Budget introduced a 10 % starting rate for profits from £ 0 to £ 10 @,@ 000 , effective from April 2000 . Marginal relief applied meaning companies with profits of between £ 10 @,@ 000 and £ 50 @,@ 000 paid a rate between the starting rate and the small companies ' rate ( 19 % in 2000 ) .
The 2002 Budget cut the starting rate to zero , with marginal relief applying in the same way . This caused a vast surge in incorporations , as businesses that had operated as self @-@ employed , paying income tax on profits from just over £ 5000 , were attracted to the corporation tax rate of 0 % on income up to £ 10 @,@ 000 . Previously self @-@ employed individuals could now distribute profits as dividend payments rather than salaries . For companies with profits under £ 50 @,@ 000 the corporation tax rate varied between 0 % and 19 % . Because dividend payments come with a basic rate tax credit , provided the recipient did not earn more than the basic rate allowance , no further tax would be paid . The number of new companies being formed in 2002 – 2003 reached 325 @,@ 900 , an increase of 45 % on 2001 – 2002 .
The fact that individuals operating in this manner could potentially pay no tax at all was felt by the government to be unfair tax avoidance , and the 2004 Budget introduced a Non @-@ Corporate Distribution Rate . This ensured that where a company paid below the small companies ' rate ( 19 % in 2004 ) , dividend payments made to non @-@ corporates ( for example , individuals , trusts and personal representatives of deceased persons ) would be subject to additional corporation tax , bringing the corporation tax paid up to 19 % . For example , a company making £ 10 @,@ 000 profit , and making a £ 6 @,@ 000 dividend distribution to an individual and £ 4 @,@ 000 to another company would pay 19 % corporation tax on the £ 6 @,@ 000 . Although this measure substantially reduced the number of small businesses incorporating , the Chancellor in the 2006 Budget said tax avoidance by small businesses through incorporation was still a major issue , and scrapped the starting rate entirely .
= = = Taxable profits and accounting profits = = =
The starting point for computing taxable profits is profits before tax ( except for a life assurance company ) . The rules for calculating corporation tax generally ran in parallel with income tax until 1993 , when the first statutory rule to move profit reporting into line with generally accepted accounting practice was introduced , although the courts were already moving towards requiring trading profits to be computed using general accountancy rules .
The Finance Act 1993 introduced rules to make tax on exchange gains and losses mimic their treatment in a company 's financial statements in most instances . The Finance Act 1994 saw similar rules for financial instruments , and in the Finance Act 1996 the treatment of most loan relationships was also brought into line with the accounting treatment . The Finance Act 1997 saw something similar with rental premiums . A year later , the Finance Act 1998 went even further , making it clear that taxable trading profits ( apart from those accruing to a Lloyd 's corporate name or to a life assurance company ) and profits from a rental business are equal to profits calculated under generally accepted accounting practice ( " GAAP " ) unless there is a specific statutory or case law rule to the contrary . This was followed up by the Finance Act 2004 , which ruled that where a company with investment business could make deductions for management expenses , they were calculated by reference to figures in the financial statements .
= = = = International Financial Reporting Standards = = = =
From 2005 , all European Union listed companies have to prepare their financial statements using the " International Financial Reporting Standards " ( " IFRS " ) , as modified by the EU . Other UK companies may choose to adopt IFRS . Corporation tax law is changing so that , in the future , IFRS accounting profits are largely respected . The exception is for certain financial instruments and certain other measures to prevent tax arbitrage between companies applying IFRS and companies applying UK GAAP .
= = = Avoidance = = =
Tax avoidance is the legitimate reduction of tax through tax planning and / or usage of legal provisions . Unlike most other countries , most UK tax professionals are accountants rather than lawyers by training .
Until 2013 , the UK had no general anti @-@ avoidance rule ( " GAAR " ) for corporation tax . However , it inherited an anti @-@ avoidance rule from income tax relating to transactions in securities , and since then has had various " mini @-@ GAARs " added to it . The best known " mini @-@ GAAR " prevents a deduction for interest paid when the loan to which it relates is made for an " unallowable purpose " . In 2013 , the Cameron government introduced a General Anti @-@ Avoidance Rule to manage the risk of tax avoidance .
The Finance Act 2004 introduced disclosure rules requiring promoters of certain tax avoidance schemes that are financing- or employment @-@ related to disclose the scheme . Taxpayers who use these schemes must also disclose their use when they submit their tax returns . This is the first provision of its kind in the UK , and the Finance Act 2005 has shown a number of tax avoidance schemes being blocked earlier than would have been expected prior to the disclosure rules .
= = = Need for greater revenues = = =
In the early twenty @-@ first century the Government sought to raise more revenues from corporation tax . In 2002 it introduced a separate 10 % supplementary charge on profits from oil and gas extraction businesses , and the Finance Act 2005 contained measures to accelerate when oil and gas extraction business have to pay tax . Instead of paying their tax in four equal instalments in the seventh , tenth , thirteenth and sixteenth month after the accounting period starts , they will be required to consolidate their third and fourth payments and pay them in the thirteenth month , creating a cash flow advantage for the Government . The Finance ( No.2 ) Act 2005 continued measures specifically relating to life assurance companies . When originally announced ( as the Finance ( No.3 ) Bill 2005 ) Legal & General told the Stock Exchange that £ 300 m had been wiped off their value , and Aviva ( Norwich Union ) announced that the tax changes would cost its policy holders £ 150 m .
= = Method of charge = =
Corporation tax must be passed annually by Parliament , otherwise there is no authority to collect it . The charge for the financial year ( beginning 5 April each year ) was imposed by the Finance Act passed in that calendar year . The Finance Act 1998 changed this , imposing the charge for the 1998 and 1999 financial years , with the Finance Act 1999 then imposing the charge for the 2000 financial year , and so on . The tax is charged in respect of the company 's accounting period , which is normally the 12 @-@ month period for which the company prepares its accounts . Corporation tax is administered by Her Majesty 's Revenue and Customs ( HMRC ) , which was formed from a merger of the Inland Revenue ( which previously administered corporation tax ) and Her Majesty 's Customs and Excise on 18 April 2005 .
= = = Assessment = = =
Corporation tax is levied on the net profits of a company . Except for certain life assurance companies , it is borne by the company as a direct tax .
Up until 1999 no corporation tax was due unless HM Revenue & Customs ( HMRC ) raised an assessment on a company . Companies were , however , obliged to report certain details to HMRC so that the right amount could be assessed . This changed for accounting periods ending on or after 1 July 1999 , when self @-@ assessment was introduced . Self @-@ assessment means that companies are required to assess themselves and take full responsibility for that assessment . If the self @-@ assessment is wrong through negligence or recklessness , the company can be liable to penalties . The self @-@ assessment tax return needs to be delivered to HMRC 12 months after the end of the period of account in which the accounting period falls ( although the tax must be paid before this date ) . If a company fails to submit a return by then , it is liable to penalties . HMRC may then issue a determination of the tax payable , which cannot be appealed – however , in practice they wait until a further six months have elapsed . Also , the most common claims and elections that may be made by a company have to be part of its tax return , with a time limit of two years after the end of the accounting period . This means that a company submitting its return more than one year late suffers not only from the late filing penalties , but also from the inability to make these claims and elections .
From 2004 there has been a requirement for new companies to notify HM Revenue & Customs of their formation , although HMRC receives notifications of new company registrations from Companies House . Companies will then receive an annual notice CT603 , approximately 1 – 2 months after the end of the company 's financial period , notifying it to complete an annual return . This must also include the company 's annual accounts , and possibly other documents , such as auditors ' reports , that are required for certain companies .
= = = Schedular system = = =
In the United Kingdom the source rule applies . This means that something is taxed only if there is a specific provision bringing it within the charge to tax . Accordingly , profits are only charged to corporation tax if they fall within one of the following , and are not otherwise exempted by an explicit provision of the Taxes Acts :
Notes :
In practice companies do not get taxed under Schedule F. Most companies are exempted from Schedule F and there is a provision for those companies which are taxed on UK dividends ( i.e. dealers in shares ( stock ) ) that removes the charge from Schedule F to Schedule D.
A Controlled Foreign Company ( " CFC " ) is a company controlled by a UK resident that is not itself UK resident and is subject to a lower rate of tax in the territory in which it is resident . Under certain circumstances , UK resident companies that control a CFC pay corporation tax on what the UK tax profits of that CFC would have been . However , because of a wide range of exemptions , very few companies suffer a CFC charge .
Schedules B , C and E used to , but no longer , exist .
Authorised unit trusts and OEICs are not liable to tax on their chargeable gains .
Schedule D is itself divided into a number of cases :
Notes :
Cases II and IV only apply to income tax and not corporation tax .
Strictly speaking , the Corporation Tax Act 2010 replaces the historic terminology " Schedule A " , " Schedule D Case I " etc. with more descriptive terms but this does not affect the substantive application of the schedular system so that , for example , different rules apply for utilising tax losses depending upon the nature of the income under which the losses arises .
= = = = Relief for expenses = = = =
Most direct expenses are deductible when calculating taxable income and chargeable gains . Notable exceptions include any costs of entertaining clients . Companies with investment business may deduct certain indirect expenses known as " expenses of management " when calculating their taxable profits . A similar relief is available for expenses of a life assurance company taxed on the I minus E basis which relate to the company 's basic life assurance and general annuity business . Donations made to charities are also normally deducted in calculating taxable income .
= = = Rates and payment = = =
The 2007 Budget announced a main rate cut from 30 % to 28 % , effective from April 2008 . At the same time , the small companies ' rate was increased from 19 % to 20 % from April 2007 , 21 % in April 2008 , to stop " individuals artificially incorporating as small companies to avoid paying their due share of tax , a practise if left unaddressed would cost the rest of the taxpaying population billions of pounds " .
The rate of corporation tax is determined by the financial year , which runs from 1 April to the following 31 March . Financial year FY05 started on 1 April 2005 and ended on 31 March 2006 . Where a company 's accounting period straddles a financial year in which the corporation tax rate has changed , the company 's profits for that period are split . For example , a company paying small companies ' rate with its accounting period running from 1 January to 31 December , and making £ 100 @,@ 000 of profit in 2007 , would be deemed to have made 90 / 365 * £ 100 @,@ 000 = £ 24 @,@ 657 @.@ 53 in FY06 ( there are 90 days between 1 January and 31 March ) , and 275 / 365 * £ 100 @,@ 000 = £ 75 @,@ 34 @.@ 47 in FY07 , and would pay 19 % on the FY06 portion , and 20 % on the FY07 portion .
From 1 April 2010 HM Revenue & Customs updated their terminology and the former Small Companies ' Rate is now called Small Profits Rate .
Notes :
The bands shown on the right hand side are divided by one plus the number of associates ( usually the only associates a company has are fellow group companies , but the term is more widely defined )
The reduced rates do not apply to close investment holding companies ( companies controlled by fewer than 5 people ( plus associates ) or by their directors / managers , whose main activity is the holding of investments ) . Nor do they apply to companies in liquidation after the first 12 months .
Authorised unit trusts and open @-@ ended investment companies are taxed at the basic rate of income tax which is 20 % as of 2010
Life assurance companies are taxed using the above rates on shareholder profits and 20 % on policy holder profits
Companies active in the oil and gas extraction industry in the UK or on the UK Continental Shelf are subject to an additional 10 % charge on their profits from those activities
Most companies are required to pay tax nine months and a day after the end of an accounting period . Larger companies are required to pay quarterly instalments , in the seventh , tenth , thirteenth and sixteenth months after a full accounting period starts . These times are modified where an accounting period lasts for less than twelve months . From 2005 onwards , for tax payable on oil and gas extraction profits , the third and fourth quarterly instalments are merged , including the supplementary 10 % charge .
In the financial year 2004 – 2005 , approximately 39 @,@ 000 companies paid corporation tax at the main rate . These 4 @.@ 7 % of active companies are responsible for 75 % of all corporation tax receipts . Around 224 @,@ 000 companies paid the small companies rate , with 34 @,@ 000 benefiting from marginal relief . 264 @,@ 000 were in the starting rate , with 269 @,@ 000 benefiting from the lower band of marginal relief . The total revenue was £ 41.9bn from 831 @,@ 885 companies . Only 23480 companies had a liability in excess of £ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = HM Revenue and Customs audit = = =
HM Revenue and Customs ( HMRC ) has one year from the normal filing date , which is itself one year after the end of the period of account , to open an enquiry into the return . This period is extended if the return is filed late . The enquiry continues until all issues that HMRC wish to enquire about a return are dealt with . However , a company can appeal to the Commissioners of Income Tax to close an enquiry if they feel there is undue delay .
If either side disputes the amount of tax that is payable , they may appeal to either the General or Special Commissioners of Income Tax . Appeals on points of law may be made to the High Court ( Court of Session in Scotland ) , then the Court of Appeal , and finally , with leave , to the House of Lords . However , decisions of fact are binding and can only be appealed if no reasonable Commissioner could have made that decision .
Once an enquiry is closed , or the time for opening an enquiry has passed , HMRC can only re @-@ open a prior year if they become aware of an issue which they could not reasonably have known about at the time , or in instances of fraud or negligence . In fraud or negligence cases , they can re @-@ open cases from up to 20 years ago .
After an HMRC enquiry closes , or after final determination of an issue by the courts , the taxpayer has 30 days to amend their return , and make additional claims and elections , if appropriate , before the assessment becomes final and conclusive . If there is no enquiry , the assessment becomes final and conclusive once the period in which the Revenue may open an enquiry passes .
= = Relief from double taxation = =
There is a risk of double taxation whenever a company receives income that has already been taxed . This could be dividend income , which will have been paid out of the post @-@ tax profits of another company and which may have suffered withholding tax . Or it could be because the company itself has suffered foreign tax , perhaps because it conducts part of its trade through an overseas permanent establishment , or because it receives other types of foreign income .
Double taxation is avoided for UK dividends by exempting them from tax for most companies : only dealers in shares suffer tax on them . Where double taxation arises because of overseas tax suffered , relief is available either in the form of expense or credit relief . Expense relief allows the overseas tax to be treated as a deductible expense in the tax computation . Credit relief is given as a deduction from the UK tax liability , but is restricted to the amount of UK tax suffered on the foreign income . There is a system of onshore pooling , so that overseas tax suffered in high tax territories may be set off against taxable income arising from low tax territories . From 1 July 2009 , new rules were introduced to exempt most non @-@ UK dividends from corporation tax so these double taxation rules in respect of non @-@ UK dividends will be of less common application in practice after that date .
= = Loss relief = =
Detailed and separate rules apply to how all the different types of losses may be set off within a company . A detailed explanation of these can be found in : United Kingdom corporation tax loss relief .
= = = Group relief = = =
The UK does not permit tax consolidation , where companies in a group are treated as though they are a single entity for tax purposes . One of the main benefits of tax consolidation is that tax losses in one entity in a group are automatically relievable against the tax profits of another . Instead , the UK permits a form of loss relief called " group relief " .
Where a company has losses arising in an accounting period ( other than capital losses , or losses arising under Case V or VI of Schedule D ) in excess of its other taxable profits for the period , it may surrender these losses to a group member with sufficient taxable profits in the same accounting period . The company receiving the losses may offset them against their own taxable profits . Exceptions include that a company in the oil and gas extraction industry may not accept group relief against the profits arising on its oil and gas extraction business , and a life assurance company may only accept group relief against its profits chargeable to tax at the standard shareholder rate applicable to that company . Separate rules apply for dual resident companies .
Full group relief is permitted between companies subject to UK corporation tax that are in the same 75 % group , where companies have a common ultimate parent , and at least 75 % of the shares in each company ( other than the ultimate parent ) are owned by other companies in the group . The companies making up a 75 % group do not all need to be UK @-@ resident or subject to UK corporation tax relief . An open @-@ ended investment company cannot form part of a group .
Consortium relief is permitted where a company subject to UK corporation tax is owned by a consortium of companies that each own at least 5 % of the shares and together own at least 75 % of the shares . A consortium company can only surrender or accept losses in proportion to how much of that company is owned by each consortium group .
= = Example computation = =
This is an example computation involving a company that has one associate from which it receives £ 50 @,@ 000 group relief .
Notes :
1 UK trading losses brought forward from previous accounting periods must be relieved as fully as possible against any trading profits in the current accounting period . They cannot be relieved against non @-@ trading profits .
² Brought forward non @-@ trading debits can be utilised against non @-@ trading profits ; they cannot reduce the trading profits
³ The management expense deduction is in relation to expenses incurred on managing the company 's investments .
4 The marginal relief computation is as follows :
Marginal relief fraction x ( Upper limit / ( Number of associates plus one ) – Profit )
1 / 40 x ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 / 2 – 580 @,@ 000 )
5 The £ 30 @,@ 000 overseas tax has been included in the taxable Schedule D Case V figure . Double tax relief is available on the lower of overseas tax suffered and UK corporation tax suffered on the overseas income .
= = Interaction with European law = =
Although there are no European Union directives dealing with direct taxes , UK laws must comply with European legislation . In particular , legislation should not be discriminatory under the EC treaty .
A number of cases where UK tax laws are believed to be discriminatory have been brought to the European Court of Justice , usually with respect to freedom of establishment and freedom of movement of capital . Key cases which have been decided include :
Hoechst — where the Court found that the way the partial imputation system operated prior to its abolition in 1999 was discriminatory ;
Lankhorst @-@ Hohorst — a German case which implied that the UK 's transfer pricing and thin capitalisation legislation may have been contrary to EU legislation ( the 2004 Finance Act made changes to counter this threat ) ;
Marks and Spencer — where it was claimed that UK parents should be able to relieve the losses of overseas subsidiaries against the tax profits of their UK subgroup ( On 7 April 2005 , the Advocate @-@ General gave an opinion supporting the claim of a UK parent to offset losses of its EU subsidiaries , where no effective loss relief was available in the EU Member States the subsidiaries were resident in ) . However , in the final judgment , a compromise agreement was reached in which the national interest to prevent excessive loss of tax was held to outweigh in most circumstances the restriction on the freedom of movement of capital . Accordingly , although no specific new legislation has been introduced , relief for overseas losses will only be available where they may not be utilised in the overseas jurisdiction ;
Cadbury Schweppes — where it was ruled that CFC rules are only acceptable if they relate to wholly artificial arrangements intended to escape the UK tax normally payable .
Also , the case of ICI v Colmer led to the UK amending its definition of a group , for group relief purposes . Previously , the definition required that all companies and intermediate parent companies in a group to be UK resident .
There are also a number of other cases making their way , slowly , up to the European Court . In particular :
A Group Litigation Order arguing that dividends received from overseas companies should be exempt from tax in the same way as dividends received from UK companies are exempted from tax ;
Claims that the UK CFC legislation is contrary to EU law ( notably Vodafone ) .
= = Recent developments = =
= = = Corporation tax reform = = =
There have been a number of proposals for corporation tax reform , although only a few have been enacted . In March 2001 , the Government published a technical note A Review of Small Business Taxation , which considered simplification of corporation tax for small companies through the closer alignment of their profits for tax purposes with those reported in their accounts . In July of that year , the Government also published a consultation document , Large Business Taxation : the Government 's strategy and corporate tax reforms . It set out the strategy for modernising corporate taxes and proposals for relief for capital gains on substantial shareholdings held by companies .
In August 2002 , Reform of corporation tax – A consultation document was published , outlining initial proposals for the abolition of the Schedular system . This was followed up in August 2003 by Corporation tax reform – A consultation document , which further discussed the possible abolition of the Schedular system , and also whether the capital allowances ( tax depreciation ) system should be abolished . It also made proposals that were ultimately enacted in the Finance Act 2004 . ( The first two of these listed below were in response to threats to the UK tax base arising from recent European Court of Justice judgments . ) The changes were to :
Introduction of transfer pricing rules for UK @-@ to @-@ UK transactions . Transfer pricing rules require certain transactions to be deemed to have taken place at arm 's length prices for tax purposes when they did not in fact take place as such .
Merging thin capitalisation rules with the transfer pricing rules . Thin capitalisation rules limit the amount a company can claim as a tax deduction on interest when it receives loans at non @-@ commercial rates ( from connected parties , for example ) .
Extension of the deduction for management expenses to all companies with an investment business . Previously a company had to be wholly or mainly engaged in an investment business to qualify .
In December 2004 , Corporation tax reform – a technical note was published . It outlined the Government decision to abolish the Schedular system , replacing the numerous schedules and cases with two pools : a trading and letting pool ; and an " everything else " pool . The Government had decided that capital allowances would remain , though there would be some reforms , mostly affecting the leasing industry .
= = = Other enactments = = =
Other main reforms enacted , include :
Relief from tax on chargeable gains on disposals of substantial shareholdings in trading companies and groups ( enacted by the Finance Act 2002 ) .
Introduction of UK to UK transfer pricing rules , coupled with the merging of the thin capitalisation rules with the transfer pricing rules ( enacted by the Finance Act 2004 ) .
Extension of management expenses rules so that companies do not need to be investment companies to receive them , coupled with a specific rule preventing capital items being deductible as management expenses ( enacted by the Finance Act 2004 ) .
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= Home ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Home " is the second episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , which originally aired on the Fox Broadcasting Company network on October 11 , 1996 . Directed by Kim Manners , it was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong . " Home " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story — a stand @-@ alone plot unconnected to the overarching mythology of The X @-@ Files . Watched by 18 @.@ 85 million viewers , the initial broadcast had a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 9 . " Home " was the first episode of The X @-@ Files to receive a viewer discretion warning for graphic content and the only to have carried a TV @-@ MA rating upon broadcast . Critics were generally complimentary , and praised the disturbing nature of the plot ; several made comparisons to the work of director David Lynch . Some reviewers nevertheless felt that the violent subject matter was excessive .
The series centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called " X @-@ Files " . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal ; the skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the death of an infant with severe birth defects . Traveling to the small isolated town of Home , Pennsylvania , the pair meet the Peacocks , a family of deformed farmers who have not left their house in a decade . Initially , Mulder suspects that the brothers kidnapped and raped a woman to father the child , but the investigation uncovers a long history of incest involving the Peacocks ' own mother .
" Home " marks the return of writers Morgan and Wong , who left the show following its second season . The duo attempted to make their first episode upon return as ambitious and shocking as possible . They were inspired by real @-@ life events , including a story from Charlie Chaplin 's autobiography about an encounter in an English tenement home . The graphic content of the script attracted controversy from early in the production process . Commentators have identified themes within the episode that satirize the American dream , address the concept of globalization , and explore the nature of motherhood . It has been cited as a seminal episode of The X @-@ Files by critics and crew members .
= = Plot = =
In the small town of Home , Pennsylvania , a woman gives birth to a deformed baby . Three similarly @-@ deformed men bury it near their dilapidated house during a rainstorm . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are sent to investigate after the corpse is found by children during a sandlot ball game . While talking to Home 's sheriff Andy Taylor ( Tucker Smallwood ) , Mulder asks whether the Peacock brothers — the inhabitants of the house nearest to the crime scene — have been questioned about the baby . Taylor informs him that the house dates back to the American Civil War and is without electricity , running water , or heat . He also insinuates that the family has been inbreeding since the war . The three Peacock brothers watch the agents from their front porch .
During an autopsy , the agents discover that the baby suffocated by inhaling dirt — meaning it was buried alive . Scully suggests that the baby 's defects could have been caused by inbreeding . Mulder insists this would be impossible , since the Peacocks seem to live in an all @-@ male household . Suspecting that the Peacocks have kidnapped and raped a woman , Mulder and Scully investigate their now @-@ abandoned residence and discover blood , scissors , and a shovel on a table . Arrest warrants are issued for the three brothers . In retaliation , the Peacocks break into Sheriff Taylor 's house during the night and murder him and his wife .
Laboratory tests indicate the baby 's parents were members of the Peacock family . When forensic evidence links the Peacocks to the Taylor murders , the agents and Deputy Barney Paster ( Sebastian Spence ) go to arrest the brothers . When Paster breaks down the front door of their residence , he is decapitated by a booby trap . Mulder and Scully release the Peacocks ' pigs to lure them out of the house before searching it . The agents find a quadruple amputee hidden under a bed . She is revealed to be Mrs. Peacock , the mother of the boys , who has been breeding with them for years . The brothers realize Mulder and Scully are inside their house and attack . The two youngest sons withstand several gunshots before dying , one of them impaled on another booby trap . Afterwards , the agents discover that Mrs. Peacock and her eldest son have escaped in their car , planning to start a new family elsewhere .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
" Home " marked the return of writers Glen Morgan and James Wong , who had left production of The X @-@ Files after the second season to work on other television projects . Before their departure , Morgan and Wong had written many episodes of the series and were instrumental in the success of its first season . The two developed Space : Above and Beyond , a science fiction television series canceled after one season . Subsequently , the two rejoined the staff of The X @-@ Files and became writers for the fourth season . To make an impact for their return , they decided to write an ambitious story and attempted to produce a script shocking enough to push the boundaries of television . Space : Above and Beyond co @-@ star Kristen Cloke advised them to study books about nature and evolution in preparation for their return in order to write about subjects like survivalism .
Many actors from Space : Above and Beyond appeared in the fourth season ; the first was Tucker Smallwood , who portrays Sheriff Andy Taylor in " Home " . When Morgan first pitched the episode to Chris Carter , he specifically described three actors from the show — James Morrison , Rodney Rowland and Morgan Weisser — as the trio of " big freak brothers " . The episode contained references to popular television , such as the use of the names Andy Taylor and Barney , and referring to Mayberry , which are references to characters and fictional town from The Andy Griffith Show .
= = = Writing = = =
Sources consulted by the writers included Brother 's Keeper ( 1992 ) , a documentary film depicting the story of the Wards , four " barely literate " brothers who lived on a farm that had been passed on through their family for generations . The brothers drew international attention following the alleged murder of William Ward by his brother Delbert . With an estimated IQ of 68 , Delbert escaped prosecution by claiming that the police had tricked him during interrogation . Wong chose to base the Peacock family on the Wards , incorporating their lifestyles into the script . The name " Peacock " came from the former neighbors of Morgan 's parents .
A further inspiration came from a story in Charlie Chaplin 's autobiography ; while touring with a British musical theatre , he stayed at a tenement home . After dinner , the family took him upstairs to meet their son , pulling him out from under a bed . The son was a quadruple amputee who " flopp [ ed ] around " while they sang and danced . Morgan used this incident within the screenplay , although at Wong 's suggestion they changed the character to the boy 's mother . It took some time for the concepts to come together into a story ; elements first appeared in the second season episode " Humbug " , written by Morgan 's brother Darin and featuring a cast of circus sideshow performers . The episode incorporated several themes that had an influence on " Home " , including the use of a " benign soul trapped in the body of a monster " .
When director Kim Manners read the script for " Home " , he called it " as classic a horror script [ as ] I 'm ever going to see . " The producers , on the other hand , felt the show had gone too far , and called it " tasteless " . William B. Davis , the actor who portrayed the series ' main antagonist The Smoking Man , argued that the screenplay read like Morgan and Wong deliberately wanted to go back to the stylistic origins of the series .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
Like the rest of the fourth season , " Home " was filmed in British Columbia . Most of the scenes depicting buildings were shot in the town of Surrey , British Columbia . As the town 's architecture comprised both old and new styles , careful reverse angles were employed to preserve the impression of " small @-@ town America " . The building used as the Peacock house had been previously utilized in the season two episode " Aubrey " . At that time , the producers noted that the house had been " untouched for years " and was " so good " that they had to return to film it again . The car that served as the Peacock family 's vehicle was found on a farm outside Vancouver . It was rented and restored for use in the episode . Cadillac later sent the producers a letter thanking them for including one of their cars in the show .
After the episode aired , Tucker Smallwood recalled that the filming was an unpleasant experience . He entered production of the episode with little knowledge of the nature of The X @-@ Files , and was surprised when he received the screenplay . During his first day on set , he asked other cast members if the series was always so violent . An unidentified crew member said , " this is awful even for us " , and commented that it was probably the most gruesome episode of the series run . During the sheriff 's death scene Smallwood insisted on performing his own stunts , until he hit his head attempting a dive . Another uncomfortable moment for the actor involved lying face down in a pool of fake blood for more than 90 minutes .
The episode incorporates the song " Wonderful ! Wonderful ! " by musician Johnny Mathis . Having read the screenplay Mathis refused to allow his version to be used , owing to the episode 's graphic content , and a cover version had to be created . Producer David Nutter , who had a background as a singer , intended to record the vocals but at the last minute another singer , who sounded more like Mathis , was used . Manners explained that he wanted to use the song because " certain songs have a creepy , icky quality that none of us have really openly acknowledged " .
" Home " was first submitted to the censors featuring audio of the baby screaming while being buried alive . Ten Thirteen Productions was asked by Fox executives to alter the audio so that the baby would sound sick ; they noted that the audio change was needed to show the child was diseased and that the Peacocks were not simply killing an innocent child . Manners called the shot , shown from the child 's perspective , of the baby 's burial as " the most awful shot of my career " . He said that he approached filming as seriously as he could because he felt the script was a classic . When production was finished , he said that he loved the episode and called it one of his favorites . Duchovny agreed with Manners , saying , " I really like that one . Although it didn 't scare me . " He explained that it " touched " him with its themes concerning the desire to " live and to propagate . "
= = Themes = =
" Home " presents a satirical view of traditional family values , showcasing the conflict between classic American values and more modern culture . It contains parallels to Sam Shepard 's play Buried Child , opening the narrative with the image of a child 's corpse being discovered in the family 's backyard . Writer Sarah Stegall viewed the opening as a commentary on the ideology of the American dream , using the death of a child to " speak to us of buried hopes and fears , and the dark secrets that can hold a family together . "
The town of Home encompasses the traditional values of the nuclear family — only for it to be victimized by the Peacock family — who represent the darker side of paradise . The town depicted in " Home " showcases the positive qualities of a world without globalization , but the Peacock family exhibit the negative aspects . The episode 's closing scene has been described as " quintessentially American " , featuring the final Peacock brother driving away in a white Cadillac with his mother " safely stowed in the trunk " , ready to explore a brand new life . M. Keith Booker , in Blue @-@ Collar Pop Culture , compared the brothers to the cannibalistic Leatherface family from The Texas Chain Saw Massacre ( 1974 ) . Booker also identified similarities between the brothers and the family from The Hills Have Eyes ( 1977 ) , expressing the view that the brothers represented " pure evil " .
The concept of motherhood is also explored in the episode . According to Elyce Rae Helford , in her book Fantasy Girls : Gender in the New Universe of Science Fiction and Fantasy Television , Mrs. Peacock functions as a being who has been reduced " to all female functions " by her sons . She is " the grotesquely willing mother who has lost any sense of individual purpose " other than to do anything for her children . Sonia Saraiya of The A.V. Club writes that " Scully ’ s sympathy for a mother that she imagines to be persecuted is turned violently on its head , to reveal a monster whose priorities are not quite so straightforward . " The episode is also one of the first to explore Scully 's desire to become a mother . Booker states that the episode presents the dual nature of Scully 's " modern desire for motherhood " , as opposed to Mrs. Peacock 's " perverted notion of family " . Helford writes that the entry predicts " Scully 's fate as the mother of ' immaculately ' ( technologically ) conceived and monstrous progeny " . In the fifth season , Scully indeed learns that she is a mother , albeit accidentally , after her ova was harvested following her abduction in second season , and an alien / human hybrid named Emily is the result . With the revelation that Scully is pregnant at the end of the seventh season finale , " Requiem " , the concept revolving around Scully as a mother took center stage in seasons eight and nine with the birth of baby William .
The use of the up @-@ tempo " Wonderful ! Wonderful ! " during a violent murder sequence attracted attention for its ironic presentation . Jan Delasara in X @-@ Files Confidential called the murder of Sheriff Taylor and his wife the most " chilling moment in the series run " , highlighted by the use of a bouncy , classic pop song . It further establishes the episode 's subversion of nostalgia , by using a well @-@ known pop song during a death scene .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Initial ratings and reception = = =
" Home " originally aired on the Fox network on October 11 , 1996 . It had a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 9 , with a 21 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 21 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was watched by approximately 18 @.@ 85 million viewers . " Home " was the first X @-@ Files episode to have a viewer discretion warning for graphic content and the only one to have carried a TV @-@ MA rating upon broadcast , with the opening scene being cited in particular due to its gruesomeness and its similarity to " stock horror film conventions " . The only other instance of an episode of The X @-@ Files earning a viewer discretion warning was in the season eight episode , " Via Negativa " . Owing to that content , the network would not repeat the episode , the only time in the history of the series that this happened . In 1997 , when the channel FX ran an all @-@ day marathon of the most popular X @-@ Files episodes , " Home " was the number one choice .
Upon its first broadcast , " Home " received several positive reviews from critics , although some were critical of its violence . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode an " A " , describing it as " one of TV 's most disturbing hours " and as " a cinematic feast for the eyes , packed with audacious wit " . Sarah Stegall awarded the episode three stars out of five , comparing it positively to the more gruesome work of directors David Lynch and Tobe Hooper . Stegall praised the atmosphere and commented that Morgan and Wong 's " long @-@ awaited return " to the series was " definitely disturbing , thought @-@ provoking , and nasty . "
Among less favorable reviews , author Phil Farrand called " Home " his least @-@ favorite episode of the first four seasons of the show in his book The Nitpicker 's Guide to the X @-@ Files , writing that he " just [ did not ] get this episode " because " Mulder and Scully seem reckless " and the Peacock brothers " are better suited for comic books " . Paul Cornell , Keith Topping , and Martin Day , in their book X @-@ Treme Possibilities , were critical of the violent content of the episode . Topping called the episode " sick " , Cornell felt that Mulder and Scully 's wisecracks made them come off as cruel , and Day felt that the violence went overboard . Day , however , offered a few complimentary observations , noting that " Home " did , indeed , have merit , and that the juxtaposition of " Wonderful ! Wonderful ! " with the violent antics of the Peacocks was something " David Lynch would be proud of " .
= = = Later reception = = =
" Home " has continued to receive positive reviews . In a 2011 review , Todd VanDerWerff from The A.V. Club gave the episode an " A " rating and wrote that , like many episodes of The X @-@ Files , the episode was a statement of its time and likely could not be produced in a post @-@ 9 / 11 climate . He praised the depiction of urban sensibilities and the frightening Peacock family , observing that it represented a " sad farewell to a weird America that was rapidly smoothing itself out . " Author Dean A. Kowalski , in The Philosophy of The X @-@ Files , cited " Home " , " Squeeze " , and " The Host " as the most notable " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episodes .
" Home " has often been cited as one of the best X @-@ Files episodes . VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club placed it among the 10 best chapters of the series and called it one of the scariest hours of television he had seen . In 2009 , The Vancouver Sun named " Home " one of the best stand @-@ alone episodes of the series and wrote that , because of its horrific theme of incest , the episode " doesn 't pull any punches " . Den of Geek writer Nina Sordi placed the entry as the fourth best of the series in 2009 , viewing its bleak humor and " thought @-@ provoking moments " of dialogue as the factors that made it one of the most popular episodes . In 2008 , Starpulse gave the installment an honorable mention as one of the 10 best X @-@ Files episodes . In 2009 , Connie Ogle from PopMatters rated the Peacock family among the greatest monsters of the series and stated that it was a miracle that the program " slipped past " the censors .
Critics have also named " Home " one of the scariest installments of the series . Novelist Scott Heim in The Book of Lists : Horror rated it as the tenth most frightening television broadcast . Heim wrote that several aspects of the episode were creepy , including the gothic house and the family itself . Tom Kessenich , in his 2002 book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , listed the program as the fifth best of the series . Kessenich reported that it was the pinnacle of the horror episodes featured on The X @-@ Files . William B. Davis said that " Home " was both well written and directed , but was so gruesome that it led to some fans questioning whether or not they wanted to continue watching the series . He argued that modern horror films were far more violent than anything depicted in " Home " but , at the time , " it was quite disturbing . "
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= Bluebuck =
The bluebuck ( Afrikaans : blaubok pronounced / ˈblau ̇ ˌbäk / ) or blue antelope ( Hippotragus leucophaeus ) is an extinct species of antelope that lived in South Africa until around 1800 . It is congeneric with the roan antelope and sable antelope , but was smaller than either . It was sometimes considered a subspecies of the roan , but a genetic study has confirmed it as a distinct species .
The largest mounted bluebuck specimen is 119 centimetres ( 47 in ) tall at the withers . Its horns measure 56 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 22 @.@ 2 in ) along the curve . The coat was a uniform bluish @-@ grey , with a pale whitish belly and similar flanks . The forehead was brown , darker than the face . Its mane was not as developed as in the roan and sable antelopes , and its ears were shorter and blunter , not tipped with black , and it had a darker tail tuft and smaller teeth . It also lacked the contrasting black and white patterns seen on the heads of its relatives . The bluebuck was a grazer , and may have calved where rainfall , and thus the availability of grasses , would peak . The bluebuck was confined to the southwestern Cape when encountered by Europeans , but fossil evidence and rock paintings show that it originally had a larger distribution .
Europeans encountered the bluebuck in the seventeenth century , but it was already uncommon by then , perhaps due to its preferred grassland habitat having been reduced to a 4 @,@ 300 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 700 sq mi ) range , mainly along the southern coast of South Africa . The first published mention of the bluebuck is from 1681 , and few descriptions of the animal were written while it existed . The few eighteenth @-@ century illustrations appear to have been based on stuffed specimens . Hunted by European settlers , the bluebuck became extinct around 1800 ; it was the first large African mammal to face extinction in historical times , followed by the quagga in 1883 . Only four mounted specimens remain , in museums in Leiden , Stockholm , Vienna , and Paris , along with skulls and horns in various museums .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
In 1776 the German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas formally described the bluebuck as Antilope leucophaeus . British zoologists Philip Sclater and Oldfield Thomas pointed out that the blackbuck ( A. cervicapra ) was the type species of the genus Antilope , and instead moved the bluebuck and its closest relatives to the genus Hippotragus in their Book of Antelopes from 1899 . The type specimen is an adult male collected in Swellendam , now in the Naturalis Biodiversity Center in Leiden ( formerly Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie ) .
According to the German zoologist Erna Mohr 's 1967 book about the bluebuck , the 1719 account of the Cape of Good Hope published by the traveller Peter Kolbe appears to be the first publication containing mention of the species . Kolbe also included an illustration , which Mohr believed was based on memory and notes . In 1975 A. M. Husson and L. B. Holthuis examined the original Dutch version of Kolbe 's book and concluded that the illustration did not depict a bluebuck but rather a greater kudu ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros ) , and that the error was due to a mistranslation into German . The first published illustration of the bluebuck is therefore instead a depiction of a horn from 1764 . It has also been pointed out that the name was already published on a list of South African mammals in 1681 .
The Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant made the next published illustration , and included an account of the antelope , calling it " blue goat " , in his 1771 Synopsis of Quadrupeds , based on a skin from the Cape of Good Hope , purchased from Amsterdam . In 1778 a drawing by the Swiss @-@ Dutch natural philosopher Jean @-@ Nicolas @-@ Sébastien Allamand was included in Comte de Buffon 's Histoire Naturelle ; however , he called the antelope tzeiran , the Siberian name for the goitered gazelle ( Gazella subgutturosa ) . The illustration is widely believed to be based on the specimen in Leiden . This drawing is the first published illustration that shows the entire animal . Another record of the bluebuck appears in the travel memoirs of French explorer François Levaillant , published in the 1780s , describing his quest to discover the land to the east of the Cape of Good Hope , " Hottentots Holland " . The German zoologist Martin Lichtenstein wrote about the bluebuck in 1812 , but the species was mentioned less frequently in subsequent literature .
After its extinction , some 19th @-@ century naturalists began to doubt its validity as a species , with some believing the museum specimens to be small or immature roan antelopes ( H. equinus ) , and both species were lumped together under the name H. leucophaeus by the English zoologist George Robert Gray . The Austrian zoologist Franz Friedrich Kohl pointed out the distinct features of the bluebuck in 1866 , followed by Sclater and Thomas , who rejected the synonymy in 1899 .
Today , four mounted skins of the bluebuck are in existence : the adult male in Leiden , a young female at the Zoological Museum of Stockholm , an adult female in the Vienna Museum of Natural History , and an adult male in the Museum of Natural History in Paris . In addition , a mounted skin was housed in the Zoological Museum in Uppsala until the 19th century , but now only the horns remain . There are also records of a skin in Haarlem , but its current whereabouts are unknown . Several of these skins have been identified in various 18th century illustrations . A female skull is part of the collection at each of the Hunterian Museum and the Zoological Museum of Amsterdam , though it has been suggested that the Hunterian 's belongs to a sable antelope ( H. niger ) . A pair of horns is present at each of the Natural History Museum , London , and the South African Museum . In addition , skeletal remains have been found in both archaeological and palaeontological contexts .
The common name " bluebuck " or " blue antelope " is English for the original Afrikaans name " blaubok " ( pronounced / ˈblau ̇ ˌbäk / ) . The name is the compound of blauw ( " blue " , from the Middle Dutch blā ) and bok ( " male antelope " or " male goat " , from the Middle Dutch boc ) . Variants of this name include " blaawwbok " and " blawebock " . The generic name Hippotragus is Greek for " he @-@ goat " , while the specific name leucophaeus is a fusion of two Greek words : leukos ( " white " ) and phaios ( " dusky " ) .
= = = Evolution = = =
Based on studies of morphology , the bluebuck has historically been classified as either a distinct species or as a subspecies of the roan antelope . In 1974 palaeoanthropologist Richard G. Klein showed that the bluebuck and roan antelope occurred sympatrically on the coastal plain of the southwestern Cape from Oakhurst to Uniondale during the early Holocene , supporting their status as separate species . In 1996 an analysis of mitochondrial DNA extracted from the bluebuck specimen in Vienna showed that it is outside the clade containing the roan and sable antelopes . The study therefore concluded that the bluebuck is a distinct species , and not merely a subspecies of the roan antelope as was supposed . The cladogram below shows the position of the bluebuck among its relatives , following the 1996 analysis :
= = Description = =
The adult male bluebuck in Leiden is 119 centimetres ( 47 in ) tall at the withers , and is possibly the largest known specimen . According to Sclater and Thomas , the tallest specimen is the one in Paris , a male that stands 110 centimetres ( 45 in ) at the shoulder ; the specimen in Vienna , on the other hand , is the shortest , a 100 centimetres ( 40 in ) tall female . The bluebuck was notably smaller than the roan and sable antelopes , and therefore the smallest member of its genus .
The coat was a uniform bluish @-@ grey , with a pale whitish belly and similar flanks . Its limbs had a faint dark line own their front side . The forehead was brown , darker than the face , and its upper lip and patch in front of the eyes were lighter than the body . Its neck @-@ mane was directed forwards and not as developed as in the roan and sable antelopes , and the throat @-@ mane was almost absent . Other differences between the bluebuck and its extant relatives include its shorter and blunter ears not tipped with black , a darker tail tuft ( though little darker than its general colour ) , and smaller teeth . It also lacked the contrasting black and white patterns seen on the heads of its relatives .
Pennant observed that the eyes had white patches below them and the underbelly was white ; the coat was a " fine blue " in living specimens , while it changed to " bluish grey , with a mixture of white " in dead animals . He also suggested that the length of the bluebuck 's hair and the morphology of its horns formed a link between antelopes and goat . He went on to describe the ears as pointed and over 23 centimetres ( 9 in ) long and the tail as 18 centimetres ( 7 in ) long , terminating in a 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long tuft .
Its horns were significantly shorter and thinner than those of the roan antelope , but perhaps proportionally longer . The horns of the Leiden specimen measure 56 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 22 @.@ 2 in ) along the curve . The horns at Hunterian Museum are spaced 9 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 85 in ) apart and are nearly 51 centimetres ( 20 in ) long with a basal circumference of nearly 15 centimetres ( 6 in ) . Pennant gave the horn length as 51 centimetres ( 20 in ) . He added that the horns , sharp and curving backward , consist of twenty rings . This description agrees with the horns at the Hunterian Museum . The skull at the Hunterian Museum measures 39 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 15 @.@ 6 in ) in length . The horns of the bluebuck appear to have hollow pedicels ( bony structures from which the horns emerge ) .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The bluebuck , as Klein puts it , became extinct before " qualified scientists could make observations on live specimens " . According to historical accounts , the bluebuck formed groups of up to 20 individuals . Similarities to the roan and the sable antelopes in terms of dental morphology make it highly probable that the bluebuck was predominantly a selective grazer , and fed mainly on grasses . The row of premolars was longer than in others of the genus , implying the presence of dicots in the diet . A 2013 study noted the scarcity of morphological evidence to show that the bluebuck could have survived the summers in the western margin of the Cape Floristic Region ( CFR ) , when the grasses are neither palatable nor nutritious . This might have induced a west @-@ to @-@ east migration , because the eastern margin receives rainfall throughout the year while rainfall in the western margin is limited to winter .
An 18th century account suggests that females might have left their newborn calves in isolation and returned regularly to suckle them till the calves were old enough to join herds , which is similar to the behaviour of roan and sable antelopes . Akin to other grazing antelopes , the bluebuck may have calved mainly where rainfall , and thus the availability of grasses , peaked . Such locations could be the western margin of the CFR during winter and the western margin of the CFR during summer . The aforementioned 2013 study revealed that the occurrence of juveniles in bluebuck fossils decreases linearly from the west to the east , indicating that most births took place in the western CFR ; due to the preference for rainfall , it may be further assumed that most births occurred during winter , when the western CFR receives most of its rainfall . The annual west @-@ to @-@ east migration would have followed in summer , consistent with the greater number of adult juveniles in the east that would have joined herds . Juvenile fossils also occur in other places across the range , but appear to be concentrated in the western CFR .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Endemic to South Africa , the bluebuck was confined to the southwestern Cape . A 2003 study estimated the expanse of the historic range of the bluebuck at 4 @,@ 300 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 700 sq mi ) , mainly along the southern coast of South Africa ; fossils , however , have been discovered in a broader area that includes the southern and western CFR and even the highlands of Lesotho . Historical records give a rough estimate of its range . On 20 January 1774 , Swedish naturalist Carl Peter Thunberg recorded a sighting in Tigerhoek , Mpumalanga . In March or April 1783 , Levalliant claimed to have witnessed two specimens in Soetemelksvlei , Western Cape . Based on these notes , a 2009 study estimated the range of the bluebuck to be limited within a triangular area in the Western Cape , bounded by Caledon to the west , Swellendam to the northeast and Bredasdorp to the south . Rock paintings in the Caledon river valley of the Free State province in eastern South Africa have been identified as bluebucks , which also confirms the once wider distribution of the species .
In 1974 Klein studied the fossils of Hippotragus species in South Africa . Most of these were found to represent the bluebuck and the roan antelope . The fossil record suggested that the bluebuck occurred in large numbers during the last glacial period ( nearly 0 @.@ 1 million years ago ) , and was more common than sympatric antelopes . The bluebuck could adapt to more open habitats than could the roan antelope , a notable point of difference between these species . Fossils of the bluebuck have been found in the Klaises River and the Nelson Bay Caves ( near Plettenberg Bay ) and Swartklip ( to the west of the Hottentots Holland mountains ) . The aforementioned 2013 study noted that the western and southern CFR were separated by biogeographical barriers , such as the Cape Fold Belt and afromontane forests . A 2011 study suggested that low sea levels facilitated migrations for large mammals ; therefore the rise in sea levels with the beginning of the Holocene would have led to fragmented bluebuck populations and distanced many populations from the western coast ( fossils dating to this period are scarce in the western coast but have been recorded from the southern coast ) . Thus , a mass extinction could have taken place , leaving behind mainly the populations that remained in the resource @-@ rich western CFR . The causes of the drastic decline in bluebuck populations just before the 15th and 16th centuries have not been investigated ; competition with livestock and habitat deterioration could have been major factors in its depletion .
The 2013 study further suggested that the bluebuck , being a grazer , probably favoured grassland habitats . This hypothesis is supported by fossil evidence – bluebuck fossils appear in significant numbers along with those of grassland antelopes . The aforementioned 2009 study suggested that the bluebuck frequented grasslands and shunned wooded areas and thickets . In a 1976 study of fossils in the Southern Cape , Klein observed that the blue antelope showed similar habitat preferences as the Cape buffalo ( Syncerus caffer ) and the reedbuck ( Redunca ) .
= = Extinction = =
Due to the small range of the bluebuck at the time of European settlement of the Cape region compared to the much wider area evidenced by fossil remains , it is thought the species was already in decline before this time . The bluebuck was the sole species of Hippotragus in the region until 70 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 years ago , but the roan antelope appears to have become predominant about 11 @,@ 000 years ago . This may have coincided with grasslands being replaced by , for example , brush and forest , thereby reducing what is presumed to be the preferred habitat of the bluebuck , the grasslands .
According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) , the bluebuck was hunted to extinction by European settlers ; the last bluebuck specimen was shot around 1800 . The bluebuck is the first historically recorded large African mammal to become extinct , followed by the quagga ( Equus quagga quagga ) , which died out in 1883 . The bluebuck population had already declined significantly and its range had contracted when Europeans settling in the Cape Colony in the 17th and 18th centuries first came across this antelope . Around the time of its extinction , the bluebuck occurred in what would be known as the Overberg region ( Western Cape ) , probably concentrated in Swellendam . In 1774 Thunberg noted that the bluebuck was becoming increasingly rare ; Lichtenstein claimed the last bluebuck had been shot in 1799 .
= = Cultural significance = =
A South African fable , The Story of the Hare , mentions a bluebuck ( referred to as inputi ) that , among other animals , is appointed to guard a kraal . The bluebuck is also mentioned in French novelist Jules Verne 's Five Weeks in a Balloon ( 1863 ) ; the animal is described as a " superb animal of a pale @-@ bluish color shading upon the gray , but with the belly and the insides of the legs as white as the driven snow " , after the hunter shot it and they debated what to do with the fine carcass as it would be too heavy for the balloon .
The bluebuck rock paintings from the Caledon river valley have been attributed to Bushmen . They show six antelopes faced by a man , and were supposedly inspired by shamanic trance ; they may depict a Bushman visiting the spirit @-@ world through a tunnel . As with other animals in their environment , the Bushmen may have believed the bluebuck had a supernatural potency . The animals in the paintings are similar in proportion to the reedbuck , but the large ears , horns , and the lack of a mane rules out species other than the bluebuck .
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= Compilation of Final Fantasy VII =
The Compilation of Final Fantasy VII is a metaseries produced by Square Enix . A subseries stemming from the main Final Fantasy series , it is a collection of video games , animated features and short stories based in the world and continuity of Final Fantasy VII . Officially announced in 2003 with the reveal of Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , the series ' core products are three video games and one movie release . Alongside these are tie @-@ in products and spin @-@ offs including books , mobile games and an original video animation . Advent Children and the mobile title Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII are sequel and prequel to VII , respectively focusing on Cloud Strife , the original game 's main protagonist , and covert operatives known as the Turks . Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII follows the story of Zack Fair , an important minor character in VII , while Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , which acts as a sequel to Advent Children follows Vincent Valentine , one of the original 's optional characters .
The series was conceived by Yoshinori Kitase , the original game 's director , and Tetsuya Nomura , the main character designer . Nomura would become the main designer for each entry in the Compilation . Other returning staff include writer Kazushige Nojima , art director Yusuke Naora , and composer Nobuo Uematsu . The video games belong to different genres , with none of them being traditional role @-@ playing games due to production pressures related to the genre . While the first title revealed was Advent Children , it ran into delays during post @-@ production , so the first Compilation title to be released was the mobile game Before Crisis .
Of the core titles , Before Crisis is the only one still unreleased in the west due to issues with overseas platform compatibility and staff changes . Reception of titles in the Compilation has been mixed , with Advent Children being praised for its visuals and criticized for its confusing nature . Before Crisis and Crisis Core have received praise , while Dirge of Cerberus garnered a mixed response . The presentation of the Compilation as a whole has met with a mixed response . The series inspired the creation of Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy , a similar subseries of linked video games .
= = Titles = =
= = = Video games = = =
Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII is an action role @-@ playing video game split into 24 episodes , with episode delivery working via a monthly subscription @-@ based distribution system . After going through beta testing in 2004 , it was released on September 24 , 2004 for NTT DoCoMo 's FOMA iMode , and on January 30 and April 5 , 2007 for SoftBank Mobile and EZweb respectively . The game was never released to western markets , despite plans to do so .
Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII is an action game featuring both first and third @-@ person shooter elements . There was originally a multiplayer mode , but this was removed in the western version . It was released on January 26 , August 15 , and November 17 , 2006 in Japan , North America and Europe respectively . The localized version received an overhaul before release , as the developers were not pleased with the Japanese version of the game . An International version , featuring the improvements made to the localized version , was released in Japan on September 11 , 2008 as part of Square Enix 's Ultimate Hits lineup . A mobile spin @-@ off taking place during the events of the game , Dirge of Cerberus Lost Episode : Final Fantasy VII , was released on August 22 , 2006 in North America and July 26 , 2007 in Japan .
Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII is an action role @-@ playing game . Crisis Core has the player controlling Zack Fair in a real @-@ time combat system enabling the player to move Zack around , activate abilities and attack or block attacks from enemies . It was released on September 13 , 2007 in Japan , and on March 24 and June 20 , 2008 in North America and Europe respectively .
= = = Films = = =
Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , the first title conceived for the Compilation , the second to be released , and a direct @-@ to @-@ DVD sequel to VII . It was released in Japan on September 14 , 2005 , and on April 24 and 25 , 2006 for Europe and North America respectively . It received a single special western cinema screening on April 3 , 2006 , at the Arclight Theatre in Los Angeles . A director 's cut of the film , Advent Children Complete , was also produced , featuring graphical retouches , extra footage and rerecorded voice work for the English and Japanese versions . A Blu @-@ ray exclusive , Advent Children Complete was released on June 2 , 2009 in North America , on July 27 , 2009 in Europe , and on October 7 , 2009 in Australia . A demo for Final Fantasy XIII was included in the package .
Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , an original video animation detailing the destruction of the town of Nibelheim , a key event in VII . Last Order was packaged with a limited edition of Advent Children called Advent Pieces , released on September 14 , 2005 in Japan and February 6 , 2007 in North America . Advent Pieces was limited to a quantity of 77 @,@ 777 copies . The OAV is no longer available to purchase .
= = = Related media = = =
Multiple pieces of tie @-@ in media have been created for the Compilation , nearly all relating to Advent Children . To promote Advent Children Complete , a series of short stories were written by Kazushige Nojima under the umbrella title On a Way to Smile . The stories were later collected into a single paperback volume and released on April 16 , 2009 . An animated adaptation of one story , " Case of Denzel " , was included in all copies of Advent Children Complete . Nojima also wrote Final Fantasy VII Lateral Biography : Turks ~ The Kids Are Alright ~ , a novel set a short time before Advent Children . The novel was illustrated by Shou Tojima .
A mobile racing game based on a mini game from VII , Final Fantasy VII G @-@ Bike , was released on October 30 , 2014 , for iOS and Android . A western release for the title was planned . It was developed by Japan @-@ based developer CyberConnect2 as part of a planned subseries of mobile games based on VII 's mini games . While related to VII and the Compilation due to its nature , the developers confirmed that it was not related to nor affected the Compilation itself . Due to difficulties delivering continual satisfactory service , G @-@ Bike was shut down in 2015 without seeing a Western release .
= = Setting = =
The setting of Final Fantasy VII is a world that has been described as an industrial or post @-@ industrial science fiction milieu . It is referred to as " the Planet " by the series characters , and was retroactively named " Gaia " in some Square Enix promotional material and by game staff . The planet 's lifeforce is called the Lifestream , a flow of spiritual energy that gives life to everything on the Planet . Its processed form is known as " Mako " . During VII and its prequels , the Lifestream is being used by the megacorporation Shinra as an energy source . This is in turn causing the Planet to dangerously weaken , threatening the existence of everything and everyone on the planet . The main narrative of VII focuses on an eco @-@ terrorist group known as AVALANCHE , chronicling their conflict with Shinra president Rufus Shinra and his subordinates , including the covert Turks , and SOLDIER , an elite fighting force created by giving humans raw Mako . Eventually , all come under threat from Sephiroth , a member of SOLDIER created through Shinra experimentation and driven mad when he learns the truth about his origins , and Jenova , an alien lifeform which seeks to destroy all life on the Planet . Among the main characters are Cloud Strife , a mercenary and self @-@ proclaimed ex @-@ SOLDIER , Aerith Gainsborough , a flower seller and last member of an ancient tribe known as the Cetra , Tifa Lockhart , Cloud 's childhood friend , and Vincent Valentine , a former Turk who was made immortal by Shinra experimentation . During the conflict , Sephiroth summons a destructive spell called Meteor to mortally wound the Planet . When Aerith attempts to summon Holy , a defense mechanism that can stop Meteor , she is killed by Sephiroth . Eventually , the party are successful in defeating Sephiroth , and the Lifestream reinforces Holy , successfully stopping Meteor .
The Compilation titles act as continuations and expansions on the core narrative , with them focusing on various characters . Advent Children begins two years after VII , when people across the world are succumbing to a disease called Geostigma and Cloud , suffering from guilt , is forced to confront Kadaj , Loz and Yazoo , avatars of Sephiroth 's will . Before Crisis begins six years prior to the events of VII , and follows the confrontations between the Turks and the original incarnation of AVALANCHE . Crisis Core takes place in a similar time period , but follows events from the point of view of Zack , a SOLDIER who befriended Cloud and was killed by Shinra troops after turning against the company . Among the characters who interact with Zack is Genesis Rhapsodos , a member of SOLDIER who successfully rebels and eventually decides to protect the Planet . Dirge of Cerberus is set a year after Advent Children , and focuses on Vincent 's conflict against Deepground , a sect of SOLDIER that was trapped beneath Midgar during Meteor 's descent . Last Order takes place during the events at Nibelheim , where Jenova was originally stored and Sephiroth first found out about himself .
= = Production = =
= = = Creation = = =
The Compilation of Final Fantasy VII was created by Yoshinori Kitase and Tetsuya Nomura , the respective director and character designer for Final Fantasy VII . It was at one point defined by Square Enix as their first step towards " polymorphic content " , a marketing and sales strategy to " [ provide ] well @-@ known properties on several platforms , allowing exposure of the products to as wide an audience as possible . " Speaking on why VII had been chosen for such a project , Kitase explained that the ending left far more development opportunities open for characters and setting than other games in the series . The first title to be conceived was Advent Children , original envisioned as a short film presentation created by Visual Works , the animation studio behind CGI cutscenes for the company 's games . Early in pre @-@ production , plans to make Advent Children a video game rather than a film were considered , but due to several factors including Visual Works ' lack of experience with actual game production , it remained a film . One of the main conditions for the project 's launch was to reunite the original staff members of Final Fantasy VII : Nojima , art director Yusuke Naora , composer Nobuo Uematsu . After Advent Children began development , it was decided by the team that one title was not enough to fully explore the VII universe . In response , Before Crisis , Dirge of Cerberus and Crisis Core were conceived so as to embrace more aspects of the world and characters . Nomura himself was surprised at the creation of the games , having originally assumed that the film would be the sole product of the project .
= = = Development = = =
Each title had a different impetus fueling its creation and development : Before Crisis was thought up by Hajime Tabata , a new employee at Square Enix 's mobile division , when asked by Nomura to create a video game featuring the Turks . Dirge of Cerberus was inspired by Vincent 's choice of weapon , Kitase 's love of first @-@ person shooters , and the challenge it would provide developers . Prior to the series solidification and the release of Advent Children and Before Crisis , the team had considered other gun @-@ wielding Final Fantasy protagonists for such a game . Crisis Core originated simply as a Final Fantasy spin @-@ off for the PlayStation Portable , and after talks with Kitase and Nomura , it was decided to make it another title in the Compilation , although it was originally going to be a remake of Before Crisis . The creation of Before Crisis after Advent Children began a lettering formula for the series later used by the staff as common abbreviations : ' AC ' stood for Advent Children , ' BC ' for Before Crisis , ' CC ' for Crisis Core and ' DC ' for Dirge of Cerberus . The sequence was nearly disrupted when Crisis Core 's title was considered as Before Crisis Core , but the " Before " part of the title was soon dropped , coincidentally creating the sequence .
Before Crisis began development in 2002 . The Compilation was first unveiled in 2003 with the announcement of Advent Children . None of the video game titles in the series are traditional role @-@ playing games like the original . The explanation for this was that traditional RPGs took long production periods and a large staff , which would have made the project stand out a bit too much . One of the other considerations for the team was not to make the titles lightweight as X @-@ 2 had been , due to backlash from parts of the fanbase . Conversely , making X @-@ 2 reminded the team that they did not need to stick to completely serious traditional RPGs , enabling the original creation of the Compilation . While Advent Children was the first Compilation title to begin production , it ran into problems during post @-@ production , resulting in the first released title being Before Crisis , despite it being the second title to begin development . Before Crisis was also originally planned for release in North America , but the mobile phones available in North America at the time were not able to handle the game . In addition , the producer Kosei Ito left Square Enix in 2008 and Tabata moved on to other projects , leaving its localization unlikely . Japanese animation studio Madhouse created a commercial to promote Before Crisis . Due to its success and staff feelings that important scenes from VII represented in Advent Children had been needlessly disjointed , the studio was chosen to produce an animated film : this eventually became Last Order . Yoichi Wada , then the president of Square Enix , has stated that the Compilation could remain an active franchise until 2017 , the twentieth anniversary of Final Fantasy VII 's release . After finishing work on Advent Children Complete , the team decided to take a break from the series , although they stated that they still have various ideas for future titles .
= = Reception = =
Compared to the original VII , which received near @-@ universal critical acclaim and later cult status as a classic game , the entries in the Compilation have often garnered a mixed reception , and the Compilation as a whole has been critiqued by some . In July 2007 , Edge magazine stated that the titles " could be of a high quality , but there is also a perversion of the original . " RPG Site 's Alex Donaldson , during a review for Crisis Core , said that the Compilation was " too far detached from the lore of Final Fantasy VII . " While critiquing Advent Children and Dirge of Cerberus , and faulting Before Crisis 's lack of the original game 's characters , he felt that Crisis Core was the Compilation 's " first classic [ Final Fantasy VII ] spinoff . " RPGFan 's Stephen Meyerink said that the Compilation titles prior to Crisis Core had " expanded , extended , and retconned [ the story ] into what some would call an unrecognizable mess . " Alexa Ray Corriea , writing for Polygon , was highly critical , saying that few of the Compilation titles were good , and only served to " cheapen the 1997 [ PlayStation ] original . "
Reviews for Advent Children have been mixed to positive : while critics have praised the presentation , graphics and fan appeal , all reviews agree that the story 's context and delivery were confusing for people new to the series . While western critics were positive about Last Order , the OAV received heavy fan criticism in Japan due to its retconning of key events , which prompted the team to ensure that the event was faithfully recreated in Crisis Core . Before Crisis , due to remaining in Japan , has received limited attention in the west , but previews have been highly positive , with many praising the gameplay and graphics as being impressive for a mobile game . Opinions for Dirge of Cerberus were decidedly mixed . While many praised the story and characters , especially the focus on Vincent 's character and development , critics were mixed to negative about the graphics and gameplay . Japanese magazine Famitsu notably gave the game a delayed and highly critical review . Crisis Core was generally praised , with many enjoying the story 's intimate presentation of the characters and action @-@ oriented gameplay , despite some criticism for it being aimed at fans of VII . Critics of the Compilation have generally cited Crisis Core as the best title of the series .
= = = Sales = = =
Many of the titles have received strong sales . Through 2006 , Advent Children met with high sales , with 1 million units sold in Japan , 1 @.@ 3 million in North America , and 100 @,@ 000 in Europe , making a total of 2 @.@ 4 million copies sold worldwide . The original version went on to sell four million copies worldwide by 2009 . Advent Children Complete also met with strong sales , selling 100 @,@ 000 copies on its first day of release in Japan . Advent Children Complete was cited as a reason for the increase in sales of the PlayStation 3 console . Before Crisis registered 200 @,@ 000 users on launch day , making it the best @-@ selling mobile game up until that time , and was accessed 1 @.@ 6 million times by June 2006 . Dirge of Cerberus shipped 392 @,@ 000 units in its first week , and went on to sell 460 @,@ 000 units in North America and 270 @,@ 000 units in Europe . Crisis Core sold 350 @,@ 000 copies in Japan on its release date , while it sold 301 @,@ 600 copies in its first month of release in the United States . It went on to sell 3 @.@ 1 million units worldwide .
= = = Legacy = = =
The process of thought behind the Compilation would later inspire the creation of Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy , a subseries of games linked by a common mythos , and would use lessons learned from the Compilation production process . On an individual level , Before Crisis 's popularity would inspire the creation of another mobile title within the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries : originally titled Final Fantasy Agito XIII , it would later change platforms and be renamed Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . The battle sequences in Advent Children also served as inspiration for Motomu Toriyama when creating the battle system for Final Fantasy XIII .
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= Science Fantasy ( magazine ) =
Science Fantasy , which also appeared under the titles Impulse and SF Impulse , was a British fantasy and science fiction magazine , launched in 1950 by Nova Publications as a companion to Nova 's New Worlds . Walter Gillings was editor for the first two issues , and was then replaced by John Carnell , the editor of New Worlds , as a cost @-@ saving measure . Carnell edited both magazines until Nova went out of business in early 1964 . The titles were acquired by Roberts & Vinter , who hired Kyril Bonfiglioli to edit Science Fantasy ; Bonfiglioli changed the title to Impulse in early 1966 , but the new title led to confusion with the distributors and sales fell , though the magazine remained profitable . The title was changed again to SF Impulse for the last few issues . Science Fantasy ceased publication the following year , when Roberts & Vinter came under financial pressure after their printer went bankrupt .
Gillings had an inventory of material that he had acquired while editing Fantasy , and he drew on this for Science Fantasy , as well as incorporating his own fanzine , Science Fantasy Review , into the new magazine . Once Carnell took over , Science Fantasy typically ran a long lead novelette along with several shorter stories ; prominent contributors in the 1950s included John Brunner , Ken Bulmer , and Brian Aldiss , whose first novel Nonstop appeared ( in an early version ) in the February 1956 issue . Fantasy stories began to appear more frequently during the latter half of the 1950s , and in the early 1960s Carnell began to publish Thomas Burnett Swann 's well @-@ received historical fantasies . Carnell felt that the literary quality of Science Fantasy was always higher than that of New Worlds , and in the early 1960s his efforts were rewarded with three consecutive Hugo nominations for best magazine . Under Bonfiglioli more new writers appeared , including Keith Roberts , Brian Stableford and Josephine Saxton . In the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley , the final year of Impulse , as it was titled by that time , included some of the best material ever published in a British science fiction magazine .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Gillings and Carnell = = =
In early 1946 , British fan John Carnell launched a new science fiction magazine titled New Worlds , published by Pendulum Publications . The first issue appeared in July 1946 and failed to sell well . The second issue , in October of that year , sold better , but Pendulum went out of business before the end of 1947 with only one more issue released . A group of sf fans , including Carnell and Frank Cooper , decided to restart the magazine under their own control , and formed Nova Publications Ltd . The fourth issue appeared in April 1949 .
At the same time that the first issue of New Worlds appeared , a separate British magazine called Fantasy was launched by Walter Gillings , a science fiction fan and a reporter by profession . Fantasy lasted for only three issues before dying in 1947 , but Gillings had accumulated a substantial inventory of stories — enough to fill nine issues . Gillings followed the demise of Fantasy by publishing a fanzine , titled Fantasy Review , beginning in March 1947 .
In 1950 , with New Worlds on a stable quarterly schedule , Nova Publications decided to launch a companion , Science Fantasy . They chose Gillings as the editor , and his fanzine , which had been retitled Science Fantasy Review in 1949 , was incorporated in the new magazine as a department . The first issue was dated Summer 1950 , but printing disputes meant that the second issue was delayed until winter . Paper rationing delayed the third issue to Winter 1951 , but before it appeared , Nova decided that it could no longer afford to have separate editors for New Worlds and Science Fantasy , and Gillings was let go . According to Carnell , there were also " fundamental differences of opinion " that led to the decision to replace him .
After the Spring 1953 issue Nova Publications decided to switch printers , in order to cut costs and bring the cover price down from 2 / - ( 10 p ) to 1 / 6 ( 7 @.@ 5 p ) . The new printers , The Carlton Press , failed to keep to the agreed printing schedule , and produced poor quality work ; there were also printers ' strikes , and this disruption caused extended delays in the appearance of the seventh issue . While the dispute with the printers was going on , Carnell and Maurice Goldsmith , a journalist acquaintance of Carnell 's , put together a small conference of well @-@ known science fiction authors , including Arthur C. Clarke and John Wyndham . Goldsmith covered the conference for Illustrated , a weekly magazine , and the article caught the attention of Maclaren & Sons Ltd , a technical trade publisher interested in launching a new sf magazine . Carnell turned down the offer because of his loyalty to Nova Publications , but subsequent discussions ultimately led to Maclaren taking control of Nova Publications , with a commitment to produce New Worlds on a monthly basis and Science Fantasy on a bimonthly schedule . Maclaren 's legal department was helpful in resolving the dispute with The Carlton Press , and the seventh issue of Science Fantasy finally appeared with a cover date of March 1954 .
In 1958 , Nova decided to launch a British reprint of the American magazine Science Fiction Adventures , under the same title . The British Science Fiction Adventures lasted until May 1963 , when it was felled by declining sales . New Worlds , Nova 's flagship title , and Science Fantasy were also suffering from poor sales , with circulation estimated at about 5 @,@ 000 , though a switch from bimonthly to a monthly schedule was also considered that year for Science Fantasy . In September Nova decided to close down both remaining titles , and in preparation for the change Carnell signed a contract in December 1963 to edit an original anthology series , New Writings in SF , for publisher Dennis Dobson . Readers ' responses to news of the planned demise of the magazines included a letter from Michael Moorcock , published in the April 1964 New Worlds , asking how the British market would now be able to train writers to sell to the higher @-@ paying U.S. magazines .
= = = Roberts & Vinter = = =
In early 1964 , David Warburton of Roberts & Vinter , an established publisher , heard from the printer of Science Fantasy and New Worlds that the magazines were going to fold shortly . Warburton decided that having a respectable magazine would help him in getting good distribution for Roberts & Vinter 's books : Science Fantasy and New Worlds both had distribution arrangements with the two main British newsagents of the time , John Menzies and W.H. Smith . Carnell did not want to continue to edit the magazines in addition to New Writings in SF , and recommended Moorcock to Warburton ; Kyril Bonfiglioli , an Oxford art dealer who was a friend of Brian Aldiss , also expressed an interest . Warburton gave Moorcock the choice of which magazine to edit ; Moorcock chose New Worlds , and Bonfiglioli became the new editor of Science Fantasy . Roberts & Vinter changed the format from digest to paperback , and the first issue under Bonfiglioli 's control was number 65 , dated June – July 1964 . The schedule was initially somewhat irregular , with each issue dated with two months even when two issues were only a month apart — for example , June – July 1964 was followed by July – August 1964 . From March 1965 a regular monthly schedule was begun .
Bonfiglioli often bought material from writers without an established reputation ; he did not make any special effort to acquire stories from well @-@ known names . He was known for writing long and helpful rejection letters to newcomers , but he also had a reputation for laziness , and much of the day @-@ to @-@ day editorial work was done by assistants — first James Parkhill @-@ Rathbone , and then Keith Roberts .
Bonfiglioli disliked the title of the magazine , feeling that it " promised the worst of both worlds " ; he proposed Caliban as the new title , but the publisher dissuaded him . He settled on Impulse instead , and the magazine appeared under the new title starting with the March 1966 issue . The paperback format was unchanged , but the volume numeration was restarted at volume 1 number 1 , to " sever all connections with Science Fantasy " , in the words of sf historian Mike Ashley . The name change proved to be disastrous ; there was already a magazine called Impulse , and this caused distribution problems . In addition , treating Impulse as a new magazine meant a fresh distribution contract was needed . Bonfiglioli attempted to repair the damage by changing the name to SF Impulse starting in August 1966 , but the result was a dramatic drop in circulation .
By late 1966 Bonfiglioli had made enough money from his antiques dealing to be able to retire to Jersey . J.G. Ballard was briefly involved with the magazine in an editorial role , but his aims for the magazine were too far from the publisher 's goals and he was quickly replaced by Harry Harrison . Harrison almost immediately had to leave England and handed over much of the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the magazine to Keith Roberts . Despite the setback from Bonfiglioli 's title change , the magazine was still profitable , but in July 1966 Roberts & Vinter 's distributor , Thorpe & Porter , went bankrupt while owing Roberts & Vinter a substantial sum . The resulting financial pressure led Roberts & Vinter to decide to focus on their more profitable magazines , and the February 1967 issue of SF Impulse was the last , though New Worlds , the sister magazine , survived via an Arts Council grant obtained by Brian Aldiss 's efforts . The title was merged with New Worlds with effect from the March 1967 issue , though nothing of SF Impulse 's content was retained .
= = Contents and reception = =
= = = 1950s = = =
In the first issue , Gillings declared that he was interested in science fantasy " in all its forms : with its significant ideas , its surprising prophecies , its sheer fictions , its evolution as a fascinating literature " . Stories in the first issue , drawn from Gillings ' inventory of material acquired for Fantasy , included " The Belt " , by J.M. Walsh ; " Time 's Arrow " , by Arthur C. Clarke ; and " Monster " , by John Christopher , writing as Christopher Youd . Gillings also included several non @-@ fiction features , such as his fanzine , Science Fantasy Review , incorporated into Science Fantasy as a department , and condensed to a few pages . In the first issue Gillings reviewed an article about science fiction by Jacob Bronowski which had appeared in the Continental Daily Mail . There were also three book review columns : two by Gillings , writing under pseudonyms , and one by John Aiken , the son of poet Conrad Aiken .
When Carnell took over , he planned to distinguish Science Fantasy from its sister magazine , New Worlds , by adding more fantasy , while printing nothing but sf in New Worlds , though it took some time for the two magazines to develop separate personalities . Carnell also dropped the non @-@ fiction features , though he did start a series of guest editorials , starting with Gillings in the third issue and H.J. Campbell in the fourth issue . The acquisition of Nova Publications by Maclaren gave Carnell access to the publishing facilities of a well @-@ established company , and to established distribution channels , which freed him to focus on his editorial duties . Carnell tended to put longer stories in Science Fantasy than in New Worlds , and Science Fantasy typically ran a long lead novelette with several short stories . Stories that would not have suited New Worlds began to appear , such as William F. Temple 's " Eternity " ( February 1955 ) , in which aliens mysteriously provide haloes to thousands of people , and Dal Stiven 's " Free Will " , which featured robot ghosts . Stories in the whimsical fantasy tradition that had been started by Unknown , however , did not often appear in Science Fantasy .
Many of the lead novelettes in the 1950s were provided by John Brunner and Ken Bulmer . Brunner 's first appearance was in September 1955 with " The Talisman " ; over the next few years he wrote both science fiction and fantasy for Science Fantasy , including " A Time to Read " ( December 1956 ) , an alternate @-@ world fantasy , and " Lungfish " ( December 1957 ) , a generation starship story . Bulmer 's first appearance in Science Fantasy was in June 1955 , with " Psi No More " ; he contributed regularly thereafter . A short version of Brian Aldiss 's first novel , Nonstop , appeared in the February 1956 issue , and Aldiss subsequently contributed some experimental stories . From 1956 onwards the magazine contained substantially more fantasy than sf .
In Carnell 's opinion , the literary quality of Science Fantasy was " far higher " than that of New Worlds , but New Worlds was always the better @-@ selling of the two magazines . Carnell 's determination to keep the quality high led him to delay publishing issue 20 for two months because of a " lack of suitable material " . His efforts were rewarded by frequent appearances of stories from Science Fantasy in the annual Year 's Greatest SF anthology series edited by Judith Merril . Carnell occasionally used reprints , often selecting stories in line with the magazine 's focus on offbeat fantasy , such as Fritz Leiber 's " Space @-@ Time for Springers " , and Theodore Sturgeon 's " The Graveyard Reader " . Towards the end of the 1950s Carnell began to reintroduce non @-@ fiction , and starting in 1959 he printed a series of articles by Sam Moskowitz on key figures in the early history of science fiction , such as Edgar Allan Poe ; these articles , which had first appeared in American magazines such as Satellite Science Fiction , were later collected as Explorers of the Infinite . The artwork was of variable quality , in the opinion of critic Brian Stableford ; among the better covers Stableford cites the work of Brian Lewis , who supplied almost all Science Fantasy 's cover art from 1958 through 1961 . Historian David Kyle commented on the " remarkable " cover by R.M. Bull for the third issue , which he regarded as " strikingly reminiscent of the work of Margaret Brundage for Weird Tales in the thirties . "
= = = 1960s = = =
In the early 1960s , Thomas Burnett Swann became strongly associated with Science Fantasy . He had published a couple of genre short stories before beginning to sell to Carnell with " The Dryad @-@ Tree " in the August 1960 issue . Swann 's speciality was historical fantasy , and Where Is the Bird of Fire ? , his retelling of the Romulus and Remus myth , which was serialised in Science Fantasy in 1962 , " received more praise than any other [ novelette ] in recent years " , according to Carnell . Swann was one of the three mainstays of Science Fantasy in the early 1960s : the others were Michael Moorcock and J.G. Ballard . Ballard 's first story in Science Fantasy was " Prima Belladona " , which appeared in the December 1956 issue ; his work over the next few years was ideally suited to Science Fantasy and he became a regular contributor . He published some conventional stories in the British magazines , but over the next few years Ballard 's more traditional science fiction material appeared mostly in the American market , with Science Fantasy and New Worlds reserved for more experimental material that was a harbinger of New Wave science fiction . Moorcock 's Elric of Melniboné series , about a sword and sorcery anti @-@ hero , began with " The Dreaming City " in the June 1961 Science Fantasy , and Moorcock appeared frequently thereafter : he had either a story or an essay ( and sometimes both ) in all but four of the remaining issues edited by Carnell . Terry Pratchett 's first story , " The Hades Business " , appeared in the August 1963 issue . Ashley regards the early 1960s as one of the high points of the magazine ; it was nominated for the Hugo Award for each of the last three years in which Carnell edited it , from 1962 to 1964 , but it never won .
When Kyril Bonfiglioli took over in 1964 , he complained in his first editorial that he had " just read through a quarter of a million words of ms [ manuscript ] and half of it was so bad it made me blush " . He asked Brian Aldiss to help ; the only unsold stories Aldiss had were from his early days , " written before I got the hang of things " , but Bonfiglioli told Aldiss , " They can 't possibly be worse than the rubbish that 's being submitted " . Aldiss provided four stories for the first two issues , under his own name and two pseudonyms , " Jael Cracken " and " John Runciman " . Bonfiglioli 's third issue included Keith Roberts ' first two stories : " Escapism " , a time travel tale , and " Anita " , the first in a series about a witch ; Roberts became a frequent contributor both under his own name and as " Alistair Bevan " , and also provided the artwork for several covers . The Day of the Minotaur , another historical fantasy by Thomas Burnett Swann , began serialisation in the same issue under the title The Blue Monkeys . Swann 's novel The Weirwoods was also serialised in the magazine , with no change of title . Other new writers that began to appear under Bonfiglioli 's editorship included Josephine Saxton and Brian Stableford . Bonfiglioli 's focus on stories that he liked personally , rather than on a specific editorial policy , led author Christopher Priest to describe Science Fantasy under Bonfiglioli 's editorship as " a literate and charmingly eccentric magazine , with an atmosphere all its own " .
At the World Science Fiction Convention in 1965 , held in London , Bonfiglioli persuaded several well @-@ known writers to appear in an " all @-@ star issue ... with specially written stories round the theme of ' sacrifice ' " . The issue in question was the first one under the new title of Impulse , in March 1966 ; it included fiction by James Blish , Brian Aldiss , Harry Harrison , J.G. Ballard , Poul Anderson , Jack Vance , and Keith Roberts , who contributed " The Signaller " , the first story in his Pavane sequence . The second issue was also high quality , with another Pavane story and a short story by John Brunner from his " Traveller in Black " series . Subsequent issues did not sustain this high level , but overall , in Ashley 's opinion , the twelve issues of Impulse contained " some of the best SF and fantasy ever published in British magazines " . Christopher Priest 's first story , " The Run " , appeared in the May 1966 issue , and Chris Boyce 's second story , " George " , was published in June 1966 . Two novels were serialised in Impulse , both well @-@ received : Harry Harrison 's Make Room ! Make Room ! ( later made into the movie Soylent Green ) , and Moorcock 's The Ice Schooner . Other notable stories listed by Ashley include Thomas Disch 's " The Roaches " and " The Number You Have Just Reached " , and Aldiss 's " The Eyes of the Blind King " . Stableford also praises the covers for the last few issues , which were mostly done by Keith Roberts in a semi @-@ abstract style unlike conventional genre art .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The editorial succession at Science Fantasy was as follows :
Walter Gillings : Summer 1950 – Winter 1950 .
John Carnell : Winter 1951 – 1952 – April 1964 .
Kyril Bonfiglioli : June – July 1964 – September 1966 .
Harry Harrison and Keith Roberts : October 1966 – February 1967 .
The publisher was Nova Publications until April 1964 , and Roberts & Vinter Ltd thereafter .
Science Fantasy was digest @-@ sized for its first two issues . The size increased to a large digest for the next four issues , but with issue seven it returned to a small digest again , and remained in that format until the June – July 1964 issue , which was issued in paperback format . The remaining issues , including all those under the Impulse title , were published as paperbacks . It initially was priced at 2 / - ; the price was cut to 1 / 6 for the third issue , but returned to 2 / - with the seventh issue . With issue 11 ( December 1954 ) the price returned to 2 / - , and it rose to 2 / 6 with issue 46 and to 3 / - with issue 61 . When the format changed to paperback with issue 65 the price dropped again to 2 / 6 , and remained there until the title change to Impulse . All the twelve Impulse issues were priced at 3 / 6 . The page count began at 96 , and rose to 128 with issue 7 . Issues 36 through 63 were 112 pages , and the final digest @-@ sized issue was 124 pages . The paperback issues were 128 pages under the Science Fantasy title , and 160 pages for the Impulse issues . Volume numbering began with two volumes of three issues , but the second volume began with volume 2 , number 4 instead of restarting the issue number at 1 as would usually be done . From issue 7 the volume number was dropped completely .
The schedule was initially quite irregular , with the first two issues , in Summer and Winter 1950 , followed almost a year later by a Winter 1951 – 52 issue . Spring and Autumn 1952 were followed by Spring 1953 and then another long delay to the seventh issue which was dated 1954 , without a month or season given . The schedule became more regular thereafter , with May 1954 inaugurating a bimonthly schedule that lasted till November 1955 , except that September 1954 was followed by a December issue , and June 1955 was followed by September . After February , May and August 1955 , the December 1956 issue began a regular bimonthly sequence that was marred only by the appearance of a November 1959 issue between the August and December issues . After the switch to paperback , the sequence ran as follows : June – July 1964 , July – August 1964 , September – October 1964 , December 1964 – January 1965 , January – February 1965 , and then monthly from March 1965 to the end .
There have been no anthologies drawn solely from the pages of Science Fantasy , but Weird Shadows From Beyond , edited by John Carnell , and published by Corgi Books in 1965 , drew eight of its ten stories from the magazine .
In 2013 , a 371 @-@ page volume written by John Boston and curated by Damien Broderick , titled Strange Highways : Reading Science Fantasy , 1950 @-@ 1967 was published by Borgo / Wildside in the US . It discusses , sometimes in detail , every issue , story , writer , cover , and even advertisement of the magazine .
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= Horizon ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Horizon " is the twentieth episode of the second season of the science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on April 16 , 2003 on UPN . The episode was written by André Bormanis , and directed by James A. Contner . The episodes guest stars included Nicole Forester , who had previously appeared in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , Joan Pringle and Corey Mendell Parker .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . When the ship detours to observe volcanic activity on a planet , Ensign Mayweather ( Anthony Montgomery ) takes the opportunity to visit his family on board the E.C.S. Horizon .
Montgomery had previously suggested the appearance of Mayweather 's parents at the end of season one , and was pleased to see them introduced . Several sets to create the Horizon were created on a soundstage , with the related scenes filmed in the second half of the episode 's shoot after the main cast were dismissed , with the exception of Montgomery . Critical response was mixed , and the episode received the lowest ratings for a first @-@ run episode of the series so far , viewed by 3 @.@ 36 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
At the direction of Starfleet , Enterprise makes a detour to a planet passing between two gas giants , in order to obsereve the gravitational forces and subsequent volcanic activity . Their new course takes the ship close to that of E.C.S. Horizon , the cargo vessel where Ensign Mayweather grew up . He then requests permission for a further detour to re @-@ join his family on Horizon as his father is ill and he hasn 't been able to visit him in four years . Captain Archer readily agrees , but bad news arrives when Mayweather learns that his father died some six weeks earlier .
As planned , Mayweather boards Horizon and receives a warm welcome from most of the crew , including his mother Rianna . He also finds out that his brother , Paul , has been named acting captain , but he doesn 't seem to be coping well with his new responsibilities . Mayweather offers to make a few repairs and upgrades to systems on the ship , but Paul tells him to stop , making him feel uneasy and out of place . Soon afterwards , the ship suddenly comes under attack , and a homing device is placed on the hull . Mayweather then recommends a boost in the ship 's fighting capability , but Paul insists that the safest course is to flee to the nearest port and yield the cargo as needed .
Back on Enterprise , Commander Tucker arranges a movie night for the crew featuring the Frankenstein film trilogy , and invites Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol . She eventually consents , and finally finds in the film an insightful view into historical Human @-@ Vulcan relations . Meanwhile , Mayweather makes his intended modifications without permission , resulting in a confrontation when Paul finds out . The ship comes under further attack from an alien vessel , and Paul offers up the cargo as planned . The aliens refuse and demand the vessel as well . Left without any other option , Paul tells Mayweather to re @-@ initiate the modifications , and to detach the command module from the cargo section . They soon disable the alien ship . The brothers reconcile , and Mayweather leaves , promising to visit again soon .
= = Production = =
In an interview conducted towards the end of the first season of Enterprise , Anthony Montgomery suggested that it would be good to see Travis Mayweather 's parents make an appearance in the show . Montgomery was pleased when this came true in " Horizon " , saying " It was really a touching episode for me , you get a feel of how hard it was for Travis to leave the family and join Starfleet . "
Production began on January 28 , 2003 and lasted for seven days . The first three days of filming took place on the Enterprise standing sets . The second day in particular took place mostly on the set for the gravity neutral " sweet spot " first seen in the Enterprise pilot , " Broken Bow " . The main cast , with the exception of Montgomery were only required for the first three days . Montgomery meanwhile , filmed his scenes over the course of all seven days alongside the guest cast . Several sets were created on a soundstage to appear as the Horizon . These included the bridge of the cargo ship , a cargo hold , Mayweather 's old quarters , a mess hall and a variety of corridors . The Horizon itself were rendered using computer @-@ generated imagery and was to appear as a similar type of cargo vessel as seen in season one 's " Fortunate Son " .
Nicole Forester appeared in " Horizon " as Nora , having previously played a Dabo girl on Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Corey Mendell Parker and Joan Pringle both made their Star Trek debuts in this episode . The episode was written by André Bormanis , who had previously written episodes of Star Trek : Voyager and was the story editor for Enterprise during the first and second seasons .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Horizon " originally aired on UPN on April 16 , 2003 . In overnight figures the episode was thought to have received a 3 @.@ 5 / 5 % share among adults , beating The WB 's Dawson 's Creek in its timeslot . With those figures , while it would have continued a decrease in recent weeks , it would have still been more than the all @-@ time low of " Vanishing Point " , which recorded a share of 3 @.@ 4 % . However , the adjusted ratings showed that " Horizon " received 3 @.@ 36 million viewers , fewer than " Vanishing Point " and setting the lowest rating record for a first @-@ run episode of Enterprise at the time . It was also revealed that Dawson 's Creek actually beat Enterprise with higher ratings , but a lower number of viewers overall .
Michelle Erica Green , writing on the website " TrekNation " , enjoyed the performance of Anthony Montgomery after wondering why he hadn 't been featured that much so far in Enterprise . She said that the sub plot was " witty " but didn 't feel that the Mayweather family were well characterized . She found the episode frustrating because it seemed " to have all the elements in place to be a good episode " . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " was neutral about the episode , saying that it was " Not bad , but not particularly good or conclusive , either . Just simply ' there . ' " . He gave the episode a score of two and a half out of four . In scores given by readers of the website " TrekWeb " for the second season of Enterprise , " Horizon " was ranked 21st out of 26 episodes by average score . Based on the number of ten out of ten votes , it was placed last overall .
The episode was released on DVD as part of the season two box set on November 1 , 2005 in the United States . A release on Blu @-@ ray Disc for season two occurred on August 20 , 2013 .
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= Tobacco smoke enema =
The tobacco smoke enema , an insufflation of tobacco smoke into the rectum by enema , was a medical treatment employed by European physicians for a range of ailments .
Tobacco was recognised as a medicine soon after it was first imported from the New World , and tobacco smoke was used by western medical practitioners as a tool against cold and drowsiness , but applying it by enema was a technique adapted from the North American Indians . The procedure was used to treat gut pain , and attempts were often made to resuscitate victims of near drowning . Liquid tobacco enemas were often given to ease the symptoms of a hernia .
During the early 19th century the practice fell into decline , when it was discovered that the principal active agent in tobacco smoke , nicotine , is poisonous .
= = Tobacco in medicine = =
Until its discovery and importation from the New World , tobacco was unknown to western medicine . Europeans were not ignorant of the effects of smoke ; incense has been used since antiquity , and the psychoactive effects of burning hemp seed was well known by the Scythians and Thracians . The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates recommended the inhalation of smoke for " female diseases " as did Pliny the Elder , as a cure for coughs . The Native Americans from whom the first western explorers learnt about tobacco used the leaf for a variety of purposes , including religious worship , but Europeans soon became aware that the Americans also used tobacco for medicinal purposes . The French diplomat Jean Nicot used a tobacco poultice as an analgesic , and Nicolás Monardes advocated tobacco as a treatment for a long list of diseases , such as cancer , headaches , respiratory problems , stomach cramps , gout , intestinal worms and female diseases . Contemporaneous medical science placed much weight on humorism , and for a short period tobacco became a panacea . Its use was mentioned in pharmacopoeia as a tool against cold and somnolence brought on by particular medical afflictions , its effectiveness explained by its ability to soak up moisture , to warm parts of the body , and to therefore maintain the equilibrium so important to a healthy person . In an attempt to discourage disease tobacco was also used to fumigate buildings .
The stimulation of respiration through the introduction of tobacco smoke by a rectal tube was first practiced by the North American Indians . An early example of the use of this procedure was described in 1686 by Thomas Sydenham , who to cure iliac passion prescribed first bleeding , followed by a tobacco smoke enema :
Here , therefore , I conceive it most proper to bleed first in the arm , and an hour or two afterwards to throw up a strong purging glyster ; and I know of none so strong and effectual as the smoke of tobacco , forced up through a large bladder into the bowels by an inverted pipe , which may be repeated after a short interval , if the former , by giving a stool , does not open a passage downwards .
Tobacco smoke enemas were also reportedly used by 19th @-@ century Danish farmers , for horses that needed laxatives , and the US anthropologist Frank Speck reported that contemporary Catawba Native Americans also treated their horses using the technique .
= = Medical opinion = =
To physicians of the time , the appropriate treatment for " apparent death " was warmth and stimulation . Anne Greene , a woman sentenced to death and hanged in 1650 for the supposed murder of her stillborn child , was found by anatomists to be still alive . They revived her by pouring hot cordial down her throat , rubbing her limbs and extremities , bleeding her , applying heating plasters and a " heating odoriferous Clyster to be cast up in her body , to give heat and warmth to her bowels . " After placing her in a warm bed with another woman , to keep her warm , she recovered fully and was pardoned . Artificial respiration and the blowing of smoke into the lungs or the rectum were thought to be interchangeably useful , but the smoke enema was considered the most potent method , due to its supposed warming and stimulating properties . The Dutch experimented with methods of inflating the lungs , as a treatment for those who had fallen into their canals and apparently drowned . Patients were also given rectal infusions of tobacco smoke , as a respiratory stimulant . Richard Mead was among the first Western scholars to recommend tobacco smoke enemas to resuscitate victims of drowning , when in 1745 he recommended tobacco glysters to treat iatrogenic drowning caused by immersion therapy . His name was cited in one of the earliest documented cases of resuscitation by rectally applied tobacco smoke , from 1746 , when a seemingly drowned woman was treated . On the advice of a passing sailor , the woman 's husband inserted the stem of the sailor 's pipe into her rectum , covered the bowl with a piece of perforated paper , and " blew hard " . The woman was apparently revived . In the 1780s the Royal Humane Society installed resuscitation kits , including smoke enemas , at various points along the River Thames , and by the turn of the 19th century , tobacco smoke enemas had become an established practice in Western medicine , considered by Humane Societies to be as important as artificial respiration .
" Tobacco glyster , breath and bleed .
Keep warm and rub till you succeed .
And spare no pains for what you do ;
May one day be repaid to you . "
By 1805 , the use of rectally applied tobacco smoke was so established as a way to treat obstinate constrictions of the alimentary canal that doctors began experimenting with other delivery mechanisms . In one experiment , a decoction of half a drachm of tobacco in four ounces of water was used as an enema in a patient suffering from general convulsion where there was no expected recovery . The decoction worked as a powerful agent to penetrate and " roused the sensibility " of the patient to end the convulsions , although the decoction resulted in excited sickness , vomiting , and profuse perspiration . Such enemas were often used to treat hernias . A middle @-@ aged man was reported in 1843 to have died following an application , performed to treat a strangulated hernia , and in a similar case in 1847 a woman was given a liquid tobacco enema , supplemented with a chicken broth enema , and pills of opium and calomel ( taken orally ) . The woman later recovered .
In 1811 , a medical writer noted that " [ t ] he powers of the Tobacco Enema are so remarkable , that they have arrested the attention of practitioners in a remarkable manner . Of the effects and the method of exhibiting the smoke of Tobacco per anum , much has been written " , providing a list of European publications on the subject . Smoke enemas were also used to treat various other afflictions . An 1827 report in a medical journal tells of a woman treated for constipation with repeated smoke enemas , with little apparent success . According to a report of 1835 , tobacco enemas were used successfully to treat cholera " in the stage of collapse " .
I may observe , that before I was called to this case , stercoraceous vomiting had decidedly set in . My object in ordering the tobacco infusion and smoke enemata was to favour the reduction of any obscure hernia or muscular spasm of the bowel which might exist . I also directed that the attendants of the girl should , after she had taken the crude mercury , frequently raise her up in bed , ( she was too feeble to raise herself , ) to alter her position from one side to the other , from the back to the belly , and vice versa , with the view of favouring the gravitation of the mercury to the lower bowels .
= = Decline = =
Attacks on the theories surrounding the ability of tobacco to cure diseases had begun early in the 17th century . King James I was scathing of its effectiveness , writing " [ it ] will not deigne to cure heere any other than cleanly and gentlemanly diseases . " Others claimed that smoking dried out the humours , that snuff made the brain sooty , and that old people should not smoke as they were naturally dried up anyway .
While certain beliefs regarding the effectiveness of tobacco smoke to protect against disease persisted until well into the 20th century , the use of smoke enemas in Western medicine declined after 1811 , when through animal experimentation Benjamin Brodie demonstrated that nicotine — the principal active agent in tobacco smoke — is a cardiac poison that can stop the circulation of blood .
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= Alfonsina Orsini =
Alfonsina Orsini ( 1472 – 1520 ) was a Regent of Florence . She governed the Republic of Florence during the absences of her son in the period of 1515 – 1519 . Her rule was feared as a sign of the end of republican government there . She was born from a noble family and raised in the royal court of Naples . She was the spouse of Piero di Lorenzo de ' Medici from 1488 and the mother of Lorenzo II de ' Medici . She helped restore the Medicis to power after they had been exiled . She worked to secure a French royal marriage for her son , and was also influential at the court of Pope Leo X , her brother @-@ in @-@ law .
Throughout her life , she used her wealth , position , and connections to help the poor and underrepresented . She also used them to further her family 's power and wealth . She was a patron of the arts and architecture , both in Florence and in Rome . This included renovation of religious buildings as well as construction of palaces for the family .
= = Early life and family = =
Born in 1472 , she was the daughter of Catherine Sanseverino and Roberto Orsini , Count of Tagliacozzo and Alba . She was raised in the court of Ferdinand I of Naples . In 1486 , Orsini 's marriage to Piero di Lorenzo de ' Medici was arranged by his uncle , Bernardo Rucellai who stood in as proxy . In February 1488 , she brought a dowry of 12000 ducats when she joined her husband at a wedding in Rome attended by Ferdinand and his wife Joanna of Aragon . She finally arrived in Florence in May 1488 .
Like previous wives of the Medicis , she was frequently petitioned by the religious and the poor to aid their requests for aid from her husband , and later , her son . She was asked to help ease tax burdens , provide jobs , and release impounded property . Orsini , her mother , and Clarice Orsini ( her mother @-@ in @-@ law and a distant cousin ) supported a major renovation of the Santa Lucia convent in Florence . The renovation included expanding dormitories for the Dominican sisters , rebuilding the church , and adding other rooms and chapels . A few of the rooms were made available for women in the Medici family whenever they were needed .
= = = Issue = = =
Orsini and her husband had the following children :
Lorenzo de ' Medici , Duke of Urbino ( 1492 – 1519 )
Clarice de ' Medici ( 1493 – 1528 ) married Filippo Strozzi
= = Political life = =
Her husband and other men in the Medici family were exiled in November of 1494 when Piero 's negotiations with the invading Charles VIII of France did not meet with the people 's expectations . On 9 November 1494 , a mob plundered the Medici palace and drove Alfonsina and her mother out , stripping them of their jewelry . They then stayed at the convent they had rebuilt . Under Florentine law , women and children were not included with their husbands or fathers in exile , though their funds and ability to travel were limited . The law also allowed women whose husbands were exiled to use their dowry as their primary source of funds , but Alfonsina 's dowry was included in the state seizure of Medici assets . Alfonsina and her mother negotiated with Charles to end the exile , but he only removed their status as rebels , and could not lift the exile . In May 1495 , Alfonsina asked permission to travel to Rome and rejoin her husband there , but she was denied . That September , she left without permission and joined Piero and his brother Giuliano in Siena . Her mother was exiled from Florence in March 1497 .
Piero died in exile in 1503 . Alfonsina returned briefly to Florence in 1507 to attempt to claim her dowry and to seek a husband for her daughter , Clarice . She was well received by many people there and worked to build support for a Medici return . Thanks to negotiations by Lucrezia de ' Medici , Clarice was engaged to Filippo Strozzi in Rome in December 1508 , bringing the Strozzi into the Medici camp . Alfonsina provided Clarice a dowry of 4000 ducats . In 1507 , the leader of Florence , Piero Soderini , asked his brother , Cardinal Francesco Soderini to help resolve Alfonsina 's claim on her dowry , but progress was slow . In 1508 , she asked Pope Julius II to claim the Cardinal 's funds until he could get her the money , but that did not help . She did not receive her dowry funds until late in 1510 . The Medici exile lasted until September 1512 , though Alfonsina remained in Rome .
When her brother @-@ in @-@ law was elected as Pope Leo X , she took advantage of the situation to increase her income and provide additional funds to her son . By 1514 , she noted that the Pope was running low on funds , but continued to act in her family 's interest . She spent a year lobbying for her son @-@ in @-@ law to get the position of Depositor @-@ General of the Vatican , giving her family direct access to Vatican treasuries . The Medicis began to have public disputes about which of the family members and clients should get the most powerful and influential positions . Alfonsina was working so that her son would have sole authority in Florence , while others , led by Lucrezia , wanted a more distributed government . Alfonsina even encouraged Lorenzo to interfere in elections in Florence , to get the right people elected . She regularly reminded him to reward families that had been loyal to the Medicis and Orsinis for a long time . About this time , she also began negotiating for a royal bride for Lorenzo , considering marriage with a Spanish princess . Eventually , her aspirations were met with his marriage to Madeleine de La Tour d 'Auvergne .
= = Regency = =
In June 1515 , she moved back to the Medici palace in Florence . Though the Republic of Florence was still a republic in name , Lorenzo ruled with his mother 's help . The Medici palace became the location where government decisions were made . When Lorenzo took the Florentine army in the summer of 1515 to support Pope Leo and the Spanish in the war against Francis I of France , Alfonsina took up the rule in his name . Though she could not hold an official office , she directed the decisions of the governing councils and edited the letters Lorenzo sent to the councils . The councils noted in their records that decisions had been made " by order of Magnificent Lady Alfonsina . " She had her chancellor , Bernardo Fiamminghi , appointed as the secretary of the office which created new laws . She also provided orders on who should be ' elected ' to the councils throughout the rest of her son 's life . She was also involved in the strategy regarding the war . When the Swiss mercenaries left the Spanish army , she began sending treaty proposals to Francis . Pope Leo asked her to provide the ambassadors to negotiate the treaty with Francis . The treaty included a provision allowing the Medici to continue their rule . She had the responsibility of planning the official visit of Pope Leo to Florence in November 1515 as he was traveling to sign the peace treaty .
She was a driving force behind her son receiving the Duchy of Urbino in 1516 , and helped to fund his side of the War of Urbino . While he was away again starting that fall , she ruled remotely from Rome , providing direction to Goro Gheri who worked in Florence for her through 1517 . Even when Lorenzo provided direction to Gheri , he confirmed the decision with Alfonsina before acting on the orders . She took responsibility for appointing governors to lands ruled by Florence , including Reggio and Urbino , who followed her orders .
Her rule was not popular , and even during Pope Leo 's visit in 1515 , posters went up protesting her greed and naming her an enemy of liberty . Many citizens of Florence feared the impending end of the republic , and a conversion to a monarchy . By the spring of 1519 , her health was so poor she could no longer walk . She died in Rome on 7 February 1520 . When she died , rumors of her greed were spread indicating that she left behind a fabulous fortune , more than 70000 ducats . While she did not leave behind as much as that , she left about 10000 ducats to Pope Leo , trusting him to use the funds to care for her daughter and granddaughter . She is buried in the Basilica of Santa Maria del Popolo .
= = Influence on art and architecture = =
Until her husband 's exile , she sponsored the work of Mariotto Albertinelli , sending his paintings to her extended family throughout Italy . In 1504 , Alfonsina inherited a castle near Tivoli from her mother . In 1514 , her son @-@ in @-@ law Filippo wrote a description of her collection of ancient statues , noting they were among the best in Rome . From 1515 to 1519 , she was involved with her son Lorenzo in several major construction projects , continuing construction of a villa at Poggio a Caiano , work on a lake house at Fucecchio , and rebuilding gardens in Florence . During that period , she also independently managed the construction of the Medici @-@ Lante Palace in Rome . She employed the architect Nanni di Baccio Bigio to work on each of these projects .
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= Jay Bouwmeester =
Jay Daniel Bouwmeester ( born September 27 , 1983 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman playing for the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was a first round selection , third overall , of the Florida Panthers at the 2002 NHL Entry Draft . He was named to the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team in 2003 and played seven seasons in the Panthers organization before being traded to the Calgary Flames in 2009 , with whom he played four seasons . He held one of the longest iron man streaks in NHL history as he appeared in 737 consecutive regular season games between 2004 and 2014 . Bouwmeester played in the 2007 and 2009 NHL All @-@ Star Games .
Internationally , Bouwmeester has represented Canada numerous times . He appeared in three consecutive World Junior Championships between 2000 and 2002 , winning a silver and two bronze medals . He made his debut with the senior national team in 2003 , winning the first of two consecutive World Championship titles . Bouwmeester was a member of the 2004 World Cup of Hockey championship team and won a gold medal with Team Canada at the 2014 Winter Olympics .
= = Early life = =
Bouwmeester was born September 27 , 1983 in Edmonton , Alberta . He is the son of Dan and Gena Bouwmeester , and has an elder sister , Jill . His father is a school teacher and coach in Edmonton , and played defence himself for the University of Alberta Golden Bears hockey team . Bouwmeester was a naturally gifted player ; his father said he could handle a hockey stick at an early age , and learned to skate shortly after he learned to walk . An all @-@ around athlete , Bouwmeester also played baseball and soccer competitively , and ran track , played volleyball and basketball at school . He had natural talent for hockey , however , and learned to play both on a backyard rink his father maintained and in the basement of the family home .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Bouwmeester played bantam and midget hockey with the Edmonton South Side Athletic Club , winning the Alberta midget championship in 1997 – 98 . He was selected by the Medicine Hat Tigers first overall at the Western Hockey League 's ( WHL ) 1998 Bantam Draft , and appeared in eight games with the Tigers in the 1998 – 99 WHL season .
He joined the Tigers full @-@ time in 1999 – 2000 , scoring 34 points in 64 games as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old . His offensive totals improved in his two following WHL seasons : 53 in 2000 – 01 and 61 in 2001 – 02 . He was named to the WHL 's East All @-@ Star team , and was considered a candidate to be selected first overall at the 2002 NHL Entry Draft . Instead , he was taken third overall by the Florida Panthers , behind Rick Nash and Kari Lehtonen .
= = = Florida Panthers = = =
Bouwmeester made his NHL debut with the Panthers at the start of the 2002 – 03 Season , and appeared in all 82 games for Florida , a franchise rookie record . He scored his first NHL goal on November 11 , 2002 , against the Chicago Blackhawks , and finished the season with four goals and sixteen points . He was named to the 2003 NHL All @-@ Rookie Team on defence .
He improved to 20 points in 61 games in 2003 – 04 though he missed 18 games with a foot injury . The 2004 – 05 NHL lockout forced him to play in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) that season . He joined the Panthers ' AHL affiliate , the San Antonio Rampage , but experienced difficulties adapting to playing in the minor leagues . Despite struggling to generate offence , Bouwmeester participated in the AHL All @-@ Star game , and was loaned to the Chicago Wolves when it became evident the Rampage would not qualify for the playoffs . Bouwmeester and the Wolves reached the Calder Cup Finals , though they lost to the Philadelphia Phantoms .
Bouwmeester experienced a breakout season after the NHL resumed play in 2005 – 06 , scoring 5 goals , 41 assists and 46 points in 82 games , all career highs , and was invited to join Team Canada at the 2006 Winter Olympics in the place of injured defenceman Scott Niedermayer . He made news that off @-@ season in his hometown of Edmonton when he was arrested for driving under the influence , a charge he pleaded guilty to the following summer .
He again appeared in all 82 games for the Panthers in 2006 – 07 and set a new career high with 12 goals . Bouwmeester appeared in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , representing the Panthers in the game held at Dallas .
He improved again to 15 goals in 2007 – 08 while again playing in every game for the Panthers and led the NHL in average ice time at 27 minutes , 28 seconds per game . He signed a new one @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 875 million contract as a restricted free agent following the season , turning down the Panthers ' long @-@ term offers in the hopes of becoming an unrestricted free agent at the expiry of his new contract .
Another 15 @-@ goal season followed in 2008 – 09 . He played in all 82 games and succeeded Andrew Brunette as the league 's ironman when the latter player was forced out of the Colorado Avalanche lineup with injury . He appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game and scored a goal . As the season approached its end , the Panthers were fighting for the final playoff spot in the Eastern Conference , but were unable to convince Bouwmeester to sign a contract extension . Despite numerous offers from other teams for his services , Florida general manager Jacques Martin chose not to trade Bouwmeester . He and the Panthers struggled to end the season , and failed to qualify for the post @-@ season .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Unable to come to terms with Bouwmeester , the Panthers traded his negotiating rights to the Calgary Flames in exchange for the negotiating rights to defenceman Jordan Leopold and a third round draft pick ( Josh Birkholz ) in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft . The deal gave the Flames four days with which they had exclusive rights to negotiate with Bouwmeester before he became an unrestricted free agent and gained the ability to negotiate with any team . Hours before that deadline expired , Bouwmeester and the Flames agreed to a five @-@ year , $ 33 million contract .
The Flames struggled to score for much of the 2009 – 10 NHL season , and Bouwmeester was no exception . He finished the year with just three goals and rarely served as an offensive catalyst for Calgary . He did not miss a game for the Flames , and while his consecutive games played streak sat at 424 following the season , Bouwmeester also held the active record for most games played without reaching the Stanley Cup Playoffs at 553 . Bouwmeester continued to score at a rate below his time in Florida , recording 24 points in 2010 – 11 and 29 in 2011 – 12 . He led the team in ice time both years , averaging nearly 26 minutes per game . Bouwmeester broke the NHL record for consecutive games played by a defenceman on March 15 , 2011 when he appeared in his 486th consecutive game , surpassing Kārlis Skrastiņš .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
Calgary failed to reach the playoffs in both seasons , and while Bouwmeester 's offensive production increased in the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season – he had 6 goals and 15 points in 33 games for Calgary and again led the team in ice time – he also reached 750 career games without appearing in the playoffs . With the Flames entering a rebuilding phase , Bouwmeester agreed to waive his no @-@ trade clause and accepted a trade on April 1 , 2013 . He was dealt to the St. Louis Blues in exchange for prospects Mark Cundari , Reto Berra , and a first round draft pick in the 2013 NHL Entry Draft . Bouwmeester described leaving Calgary as " bittersweet " , calling the city a great place to play , but expressed hope that he would finally reach the post @-@ season with the Blues . He achieved this goal after the Blues clinched a playoff spot in their third @-@ to @-@ last game of the season , and the 762nd of Bouwmeester 's career . In doing so , he avoided breaking Olli Jokinen 's NHL record of 799 career games before making his playoff debut .
The Blues and Bouwmeester agreed to a five @-@ year , $ 27 million contract extension prior to the 2013 – 14 season . He recorded 37 points for the Blues during the season , his highest total since 2008 – 09 with the Panthers . Bouwmeester 's iron man streak ended early in the 2014 – 15 season as he missed the Blues ' November 23 , 2014 , contest against the Winnipeg Jets . He suffered a " lower body injury " after skating into a rut in the ice in the previous game against the Ottawa Senators . The streak ended at 737 consecutive games , the fifth longest in NHL history .
= = International play = =
Bouwmeester played in three World Junior Championships with the Canadian junior team . He became the youngest player to ever represent Canada at the tournament when he won a bronze medal at the 2000 tournament at the age of 16 years , 3 months . He recorded two assists in 2001 as Canada won another bronze medal . In 2002 , Bouwmeester and the Canadian team won the silver medal , losing the championship game to Russia , 5 @-@ 4 .
His first appearance with the senior team came at the 2003 World Championships . Bouwmeester finished second in scoring amongst defencemen with seven points , and was named the tournament 's best defenceman , and an all @-@ star as he helped Canada win the gold medal .
Bouwmeester won a second gold medal at the 2004 World Championship , contributing three points in nine games . He scored the championship winning goal in a 5 – 3 victory over Sweden . He was a late addition to Canada 's entry at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey , invited to replace the injured Chris Pronger . He appeared in four games as Canada won the tournament .
He again joined the team as an injury replacement at the 2006 Winter Olympics after Scott Niedermayer was forced out of the tournament . He appeared in six games , scoring no points , as Canada lost in the quarter @-@ finals . Bouwmeester 's appeared again with the national team at the 2008 World Championship . He played in all nine games , settling for the silver medal after Russia defeated Team Canada in the final . Bouwmeester participated in Canada 's summer camp in advance of the 2010 Winter Olympics , but his struggles in the weeks leading up the team being announced resulted in his being left off the final roster . However , he was selected as a reserve by Team Canada for the 2010 Winter Olympics should an injury occur during the tournament .
Bouwmeester played in all six of Canada 's games at the 2014 Winter Olympics , contributing one assist and winning the gold medal .
= = Playing style = =
Bouwmeester is best known for his skating ability . His coach in Medicine Hat , Rick Carriere , said his ability to move the puck up the ice and score meant Bouwmeester could have played in the NHL at the age of 15 . He is a capable offensive player from his defensive position and frequently joined offensive rushes while with Florida , but failed to do so as often in his first season in Calgary , resulting in much lower offensive output . The primary criticism of his game is that he lacks a physical presence on the ice . The Hockey News commentator Ken Campbell argued that it has prevented him from becoming one of the game 's elite defencemen . He is frequently among the league leaders in ice time per game and one of the most durable .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Maggie Grace =
Maggie Grace ( born Margaret Grace Denig ; September 21 , 1983 ) is an American actress , best known for her roles in Lost and the Taken trilogy . Originally from Worthington , Ohio , she dropped out of high school to move to Los Angeles with her mother after her parents ' divorce . While struggling financially , she landed her first role as the title character in the web @-@ based video series Rachel 's Room in 2001 . She went on to earn a Young Artist Award nomination in 2002 with her portrayal of 15 @-@ year @-@ old murder victim Martha Moxley in the television movie Murder in Greenwich . In 2004 , Grace was cast as Shannon Rutherford in the television series Lost , on which she was a main cast member for the first two seasons , winning a Screen Actors Guild Award shared with the ensemble cast . Leaving the series , Grace was keen to work more prominently in film , having starred opposite Tom Welling in The Fog in 2005 . She appeared in Suburban Girl , The Jane Austen Book Club ( both 2007 ) , and opposite Liam Neeson as Kim Mills in Taken in 2008 . She reprised the role in Taken 2 ( 2012 ) and Taken 3 ( 2014 ) .
She played the lead role , Alice , in Malice in Wonderland , a modern take on Lewis Carroll 's novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . Grace reprised the role of Shannon in two more episodes of Lost , including the series finale . In 2013 , she appears in the sixth season of Californication . She portrays Faith , a groupie and a muse to the stars , who captures the eye of Hank Moody played by David Duchovny .
= = Early life = =
Grace was born Margaret Grace Denig in Worthington , Ohio , one of three children of parents Valinn ( née Everett ) and Rick Denig , who ran a family jewelry business . Her family lived in a 200 @-@ year @-@ old house , the first saltbox house in central Ohio . She attended Worthington Christian Schools from kindergarten through ninth grade and briefly attended Thomas Worthington High School , where she began acting in school plays and community theater , including a 2000 Gallery Players production of The Crucible , at a local Jewish Community Center ( though she is not Jewish ) . As a kid Grace was a big reader and a self described " Shakespeare nerd " telling the LA Times that at age 13 , she " was really into Jane Austen , kind of like how some kids are into Star Trek . Her parents divorced " amicably " when she was 16 years old , and her mother sought a " fresh start " . Grace dropped out of high school to move to Los Angeles , California with her mother , while her younger siblings Ian Denig and Marissa Palatas ( married to Nick Palatas ) continued to live with their father . In Los Angeles , Grace and her mother moved around often as they struggled financially , taking out short @-@ term rents rather than paying for permanent residence while eating a basic diet , as it was all they could afford .
= = Career = =
Grace acquired an agent within a week of relocating to Los Angeles and enrolled in acting classes . She landed her first role in Rachel 's Room , a 2001 web @-@ based video series about the affairs inside a teenage girl 's bedroom that was created by Dawson 's Creek executive producer Paul Stupin . Her next role was on the 2002 television series Septuplets , which was cancelled before the first episode had aired . Her breakout role was on 2002 's television movie Murder in Greenwich , based on the true story of 15 @-@ year @-@ old Martha Moxley 's murder . She was nominated for a Young Artist Award for her portrayal of Moxley in the Best Performance in a TV Movie , Miniseries or Special – Leading Young Actress category , but lost to Clara Bryant for Tru Confessions . She went on to feature in minor roles on the television series CSI : Miami , The Lyon 's Den , Miracles , Like Family , Cold Case and Law & Order : Special Victims Unit , and the films Twelve Mile Road and Creature Unknown .
In mid @-@ 2004 , Grace 's agent sent her the script for the pilot episode of Lost ; she was given the role of Shannon Rutherford after a successful audition . She was nominated in 2005 for a Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Breakout Performance – Female for her role on Lost , but lost to Desperate Housewives ' Eva Longoria . She lived in Hawaii during the filming of the show 's first season , and signed on to star opposite Tom Welling in The Fog , a 2005 remake of the 1980 horror film of the same name , as a character originally played by Jamie Lee Curtis . Though the filming of Lost was supposed to have ended before The Fog began , the productions coincided due to Lost 's extended season finale and Grace flew between the two sets , on the Hawaiian island of Oahu and on Bowen Island in British Columbia , Canada . After ranking at # 27 on Maxim 's Hot 100 list of 2005 , she returned for Lost 's second season . Her character was killed in the season 's eighth episode , " Collision " , when the series ' writers began to feel that the character 's " story avenues [ were ] limited " . Executive producer Carlton Cuse said that Grace 's departure from the show was " sort of a win @-@ win " as she was eager to enter a full @-@ time career in film . After leaving the series , she nevertheless joined the other principal Lost cast members of season 2 onstage at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards where Lost won the award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series .
Variety reported in May 2005 that Grace was in negotiations to play X @-@ Men character Kitty Pryde in the 2006 film X @-@ Men : The Last Stand , but in July , auditions were reportedly being held for her replacement . The role ultimately went to Ellen Page , and Grace later revealed that she had never been contacted about the role and was surprised to read that she was up for the part in question . Grace 's next role was in the 2007 independent film Suburban Girl , alongside Sarah Michelle Gellar and Alec Baldwin . In 2007 , she starred in The Jane Austen Book Club , based on Karen Joy Fowler 's novel of the same name . She is a fan of Jane Austen and had read Fowler 's novel when it was released in 2004 . When she was given the film 's script , she met with the director Robin Swicord , with whom she says she " geeked out " , and was given the role of Allegra , an openly lesbian 20 @-@ year @-@ old . After the filming of The Jane Austen Book Club was completed , Grace briefly returned to Hawaii to shoot a guest spot on the Lost season 3 episode " Exposé " . She starred in the 2008 thriller film Taken with Liam Neeson , who was at the top of a list of male actors Grace wished to work with that she had written just two months before she was cast . She played the lead in Simon Fellows ' 2009 Malice in Wonderland , a modern adaptation of Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . In 2010 , Grace starred in the drama Flying Lessons , and appeared opposite Tom Cruise and Cameron Diaz in James Mangold 's film Knight and Day , as well as in Faster , with Dwayne Johnson . Grace 's busy schedule prevented her from returning as Shannon in " LA X " , the season premiere for Lost 's sixth and final season , but she eventually returned for the series finale " The End " . On September 2010 , it was revealed that Grace was chosen to play Irina in The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn Part 1 and 2 .
In December 2012 , it was announced Grace would be making her Broadway debut in Picnic . The play opened for previews on December 14 , running at the American Airlines Theatre . Sebastian Stan co @-@ stars with Grace in the Pulitzer Prize winning play .
In February 2015 , it was announced that the actress would be leading a new CBS series titled Code Black , but later exited the show for creative reasons .
She also made her first appearance as a guest star in the Showtime Series Californication in January 2013 where she plays a groupie and muse to the rock and roll world as well as the personal interest of Hank Moody , starring David Duchovny .
= = Personal life = =
Grace lived in Honolulu , Hawaii while working on Lost , saying " I love it here , but it 's not a place you can really pursue acting . " She claimed that , while living in Hawaii , her Lost co @-@ stars would introduce her to men and that some " would probably have me with a different guy every night . " She said that her male co @-@ stars were " mostly very protective " and " very opinionated " when deciding whether she should date certain men ; actor Josh Holloway once offered to help her select dates from a portfolio of male models with whom he previously worked . Grace and Ian Somerhalder , her onscreen stepbrother , dated in April 2006 after both had left Lost . When asked about Somerhalder in August , she stated , " Ian 's great , I adore him , although I 'm only 22 – far too young to even think about having a serious relationship . " While still working on Lost , Grace and Somerhalder adopted a feral cat named Roo which they found " literally dying " in the jungle on the set . She said that the cat is now her " travel buddy . " From 2008 to 2009 , she dated Blake Mycoskie , a contestant on the second season of The Amazing Race and founder of TOMS Shoes . On February 18 , 2015 , Grace announced her engagement to Matthew Cooke via Instagram . In February 2016 , Grace announced that they had split up .
Grace often credits her mother as her source of inspiration . When asked about her closest friend , she said that she and her mother were more like sisters and that she is " lucky to have an exceptionally cool mum . " She is a self @-@ proclaimed Anglophile , having written to a pen pal in the Lake District from the age of eight , having first visited England at 13 years old , and admiring a number of English poets as well as William Shakespeare . She calls herself very clumsy , claiming to " trip over my legs all the time , " and was jokingly nicknamed " Maggie Graceless " by one of her former castmates . She plays in a Los Angeles kickball league with her friends .
= = Filmography = =
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= Call of Duty 2 =
Call of Duty 2 is a 2005 first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Infinity Ward and published by Konami in Japan and Activision in the rest of the world . It is the second installment of the Call of Duty series . The game was released on October 25 , 2005 for Microsoft Windows and on November 22 , 2005 as a launch game for the Xbox 360 in Europe , Australia and South America , and later in Japan . Other versions were released on other platforms , including mobile phones as well as Pocket PCs .
The game is set during World War II and the campaign mode is experienced through the perspectives of four soldiers : one in the Red Army , one in the United States Army , and two in the British Army . It contains four individual campaigns , split into three stories , with a total of twenty @-@ seven missions . Activision officially announced the game on April 7 , 2005 in a press release . Many features were added and changed from the original Call of Duty . The most notable change is the regenerating health . Additions include an icon that indicates a nearby grenade about to explode .
The game was met with positive reception . Critics praised the game particularly for the graphics , sound and the regenerating health system . As a launch game , the Xbox 360 version sold over 250 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and had sold 2 million copies by January 2008 . By November 2013 , the game had sold 5 @.@ 9 million copies .
= = Gameplay = =
Call of Duty 2 is a first @-@ person shooter that has a single @-@ player story mode and a multiplayer mode . The player takes on the roles of several Allied protagonists in specific missions during World War II . The player can crouch and lie prone , and is able to scale low walls and other obstacles . Two firearms can be carried , which can be swapped with those left on the battlefield , and both fragmentation and smoke grenades can also be carried . A gun 's iron sights can be used to aim more accurately . A compass on the heads @-@ up display ( HUD ) shows both allies and enemies , and objective markers to indicate locations the player must reach , areas to defend , or enemy cannons or tanks that the player must plant explosives on to disable . Emplaced weapons such as machine guns and flak cannons are available in some locations to take out enemy troops . In addition , some missions place the player in control of a tank .
The player has a set of binoculars . While it is generally ignored during infantry @-@ limited gameplay , it is vital to the long @-@ range use of the Crusader tanks and one of the missions in which the player must direct artillery fire to defend a town . It is also important for scouting , though most of the game takes place in personal , close combat situations reducing the importance of this tactic .
Should the player take severe damage , the screen will turn red and the sound of the character 's heartbeat will increase in volume ; this indicates the player 's health is low . The player must find a way to stay out of fire to recover before entering battle again or else will die and restart from the last checkpoint . Health is only restored through automatic recharging when the player is not taking fire . Some attacks , such as explosions from grenades or shells , will kill the player instantly if the player is too close .
In April 2006 , Infinity Ward released the Call of Duty 2 Radiant , which allows a player to create their own multiplayer or single @-@ player maps . Along with Radiant , the mapmaker includes Maya plug @-@ in support , an effects editor , and an asset manager which allows custom models to be made and imported into the game , as well as custom effects .
= = = Campaign = = =
Call of Duty 2 contains four individual campaigns , split into three stories , with a total of twenty @-@ seven missions . Each story concerns a World War II soldier overcoming the odds in the war . The game also has four difficulty levels : Easy , Regular , Hardened , and Veteran .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Call of Duty 2 features several game types : Deathmatch , Team Deathmatch , Search & Destroy , Capture the Flag and Headquarters . The maps include Normandy , Africa , and Russia . Each team can choose a variety of weapons , depending on the map . Players can choose between American soldiers , Soviet soldiers , and British soldiers for the Allied forces , while the Axis forces must play as German soldiers .
Each PC multiplayer server can hold a maximum of sixty @-@ four players , while the limit is eight players on Xbox . In the Xbox 360 version , players can play on Xbox Live and get new map packs . There are a total of thirteen official maps , and three of these are remakes from the original Call of Duty . There are also three extra map packs named Bonus Pack , Skirmish Pack , and Invasion Pack , adding a total of eight maps .
= = Plot = =
= = = Soviet campaign = = =
The player controls Private Vasili Koslov of the 13th Guards Rifle Division , initially involved in the defense of Moscow from the advancing German forces . The next level involves the destruction of a German stronghold in Stalingrad during September 1942 . The next objective involves battling for strongholds throughout Stalingrad throughout December 1942 , including re @-@ connecting cut telephone wires and re @-@ capturing the rail @-@ yard and train @-@ station . The final mission takes place during the final Soviet offensive in Stalingrad in January 1943 , which involves the re @-@ capture and defense of city blocks and Stalingrad city hall .
= = = British campaign = = =
The player takes control as a British soldier , Sergeant John Davis of the 7th Armoured Division in North Africa , led by Captain Price . The first level has the player taking part in a sneak attack on German Afrika Korps troops , ending with the destruction of a German supply station . The next level has the player defending a town from overwhelming numbers of Germans sending counter attacks from North , West , South and East ; finally achieving victory by destroying much of the German tank force using artillery . This is followed by the Second Battle of El Alamein , during which the player has to fight through several trenches , machine gun nests , 88 millimeter guns and finally taking the German field headquarters . The assault on El Dabaa to intercept the remaining Germans in Egypt and destroy several 88 millimeter guns soon follows , ending the first British campaign . An addendum to the second set of missions has the player taking on the role of a British tank commander , David Welsh , while engaging enemies in Libya . The first mission of the third campaign in Toujane , Tunisia , has the player immediately under fire , holding a house until they break out and rendezvous with the second squad . They then retake Toujane with reinforcements the next day all before assaulting Matmata . The final British campaign takes place during the Battle for Caen as part of Operation Overlord .
= = = American campaign = = =
As Corporal Bill Taylor of the 2nd Ranger Battalion , the player starts off by playing a part in D @-@ Day , at the assault of Pointe du Hoc , to destroy a German artillery battery , and hold it against a massive German counter @-@ offensive in the following mission . Soon after , the player captures a nearby town and serves as a sniper against mortar crews until reinforcements arrive . The second objective is focused on Hill 400 , involving the capture of Bergstein , a disastrous charge at Hill 400 's bunkers and the defense against the German counterattack , with the player again performing sniper work against German mortar teams , destroying enemy armor , and generally holding the hill against the counter @-@ offensive , all the while burdened by artillery and overwhelming numbers of German soldiers . The final mission is set amongst the Americans in the Rhine River crossing into Germany . It begins as one of the few missions with the player immediately under fire , providing cover fire against the Germans until reaching the river banks and then fighting through most of the town . The final fight has the player defeat two German Tiger I 's .
= = = Ending = = =
The end credits depict the dramatic rescue of Captain Price from the Germans by a group of American soldiers . After the credits end , the words " No cows were harmed in the making of this game " appear , as in the original Call of Duty . This is a reference to the dead cattle visible in the Normandy missions .
= = Development = =
On April 7 , 2005 , Activision announced that Infinity Ward was developing Call of Duty 2 , set for release in Fall 2005 for PC . It had been speculated that Infinity Ward was developing the sequel at the same time as Gray Matter Interactive developed Call of Duty : United Offensive . Infinity Ward president Grant Collier said :
" Our team at Infinity Ward is committed to thrusting gamers into the heat of battle like no other , taking players on a thrill @-@ ride of adrenaline that leaves everyone gasping for air . In Call of Duty 2 , we are creating the most intense and realistic action game imaginable with a stunning visual atmosphere and an advanced technology that delivers an unprecedented level of authenticity " .
The press release said players would engage enemies in a less linear battlefield , tackle the major battles chronologically , and use squad tactics not available in previous Call of Duty games . Infinity Ward also confirmed making a " Battle Chatter System " , similar to Medal of Honor : Pacific Assault , where squad members converse to create situational awareness .
The game engine — proprietary IW engine 2 @.@ 0 — is a modified version of id Tech 3 , which was used in the first Call of Duty game . With the new game engine , Infinity Ward expanded the scope of combat to deliver a realistic battlefield experience and improved the visuals . The developers were able to cloud visibility with smoke from smoke grenades and create weather effects like dusty sandstorms and whiteout blizzard .
The game was known to " let players experience four individual soldier stories as they overcome insurmountable odds in multiple campaigns . Players have the freedom to follow each of the four storylines through for the ultimate character @-@ driven experience , or they can engage in the historic battles chronologically for quick hitting action . Squads now have the freedom to take on a variety of mission objectives , on expansive battlefields that allow for multiple paths and the ability to utilize actual combat tactics like outflanking and fire and maneuver capabilities " .
Call of Duty 2 was going to be more immersive than the original Call of Duty . Vince Zampella , creative director of Infinity Ward , said , " We didn 't want to take any of the parts out that made Call of Duty so good . But there were a couple of things that we admit could have been done better " . A demo of the game showed a more open gameplay style and a better AI for the enemies , who would actively go after the player . There are a set number of enemies set on the map that will begin reacting to the player 's presence once the first shot has been fired . Groups of enemies farther away send units up to see what is happening and add to the combat while enemies directly in front of the player will join in and take cover quickly .
Infinity Ward spent a lot of time on WWII battlefields , which led them to scrap whole levels for parts of the game that took place in France , since they found the location a lot different than what they imagined .
One of the details the team added are post @-@ war effects that continue on the battlefield throughout the game , where dust and smoke continue to roll through the streets , clouding up vision , and junk and debris scattered everywhere . The game has sound attenuation , with a 5 @.@ 1 surround sound system , and context sensitive dialog , with a total of twenty @-@ thousand lines of dialog . Each of the soldiers fighting alongside the player will call out the position of enemy soldiers , warn of flank attacks , and help out in ways that were not possible in the first game of the series . Zampella said , " We really wanted realistic battle chatter going that 's not only entertaining , but actually adds to the gaming experience . So now you 'll hear your guys telling you that there 's [ sic ] two guys hiding behind that rusty car in the street or that there are people on the second floor of a building " .
A small grayed @-@ out grenade icon appears in the center of the screen when the player is near a grenade , with an arrow pointing in the direction of the grenade . Enemies can sometimes seem to be dead when they are not , where the enemy can still wield his side arm and fire at the player .
The game was showcased in E3 in 2005 and was announced as a launch title for the upcoming Xbox 360 .
= = Reception = =
Call of Duty 2 was generally received well by reviewers . The graphics and sound were widely praised and the reactions to the regenerating health system were mostly positive , with reviewers from GameSpot and GamePro calling it an improvement over the previous health bar system .
For the Xbox 360 version , IGN 's Douglass C. Perry described the presentation as " classy and well @-@ produced " , and said the graphics were some of the best on the Xbox 360 at its launch . He called the sound effects " unbelievable " , whilst the gameplay was described as containing an " enormous amount of action " . GameSpot reviewer Bob Colayco summarized his review by stating that Call of Duty 2 has " smooth , detailed graphics and great sound " , as well as praising the artificial intelligence , realism , and variety in the campaign . GamePro called the game " breathtaking " , and commended the game for its " strikingly realistic detail on weapons and walls , emphasized by normal mapping , exceptional shading and lighting , specular highlights , and some absolutely phenomenal particle effects " . GameSpy editor Will Tuttle called it " One of the finest FPSs ever created . Thanks to a combination of sharp visuals , teeth @-@ rattling sound effects , and tricky enemy AI , you 'll be on the edge of your seat from the moment you 're dropped into combat until your dying breath " .
For the PC version , IGN editor Tom McNamara was impressed with the presentation and graphics , describing them as " Excellent " and " smooth " respectively . He also said the graphics did not suffer " from also being developed for the 360 " . McNamara also praised the sound , describing it as " sad music , encompassing battle noise , and excellent voice work " . Bob Colayco of GameSpot also reviewed the PC version of the game , as he did its Xbox 360 counterpart . Colayco again commended the sound , calling the presentation of the game " excellent " , as well as praising the aggression of the artificial intelligence . Unlike in his review of the Xbox 360 version , Colayco felt the multiplayer aspect was " fun " . His main critique was for performance , stating " performance can chug at times " . GameSpy 's Sal Accardo noted " Instead of feeling like a stale retread [ of the original Call of Duty ] or losing steam halfway through , it manages to be a blast from start to finish " . GamesRadar Joshua Latendresse called the single @-@ player campaign " stunning " and cited that the multiplayer was even better .
Despite this praise , McNamara of IGN commented that he finds implementing regenerating health to be " a little troublesome " , and that it allows players to " experience a kind of combat only a mythical super @-@ soldier could withstand " which , therefore , " propels the game from gritty authenticity to John Woo fantasy " . GameSpot 's Colayco was critical of the game 's pricing , stating it had a " higher pricepoint than its PC counterpart " . He also complained that the multiplayer aspect could only support eight players . For the PC version , his main critique was for performance , stating " performance can chug at times " . The PC version multiplayer was criticized as being a step back from that of Call of Duty : United Offensive .
Call of Duty 2 was the most popular launch title on the Xbox 360 , with 200 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week of availability . 77 % of people who purchased an Xbox 360 also purchased the game , which contributed to its high sales . As of July 2006 , 1 @.@ 4 million copies of the game had been sold on the Xbox 360 . By January 2008 , the game had sold 2 million copies . By November 2013 , the game had sold 5 @.@ 9 million copies .
= = Advertisement controversy = =
A television advertisement for Call of Duty 2 was the subject of some controversy in 2006 . The commercial , created by a Los Angeles animation studio Rhythm and Hues Studios , depicted a first @-@ person view of events that were supposed to transpire during the game , rather than scenes from the game itself . Some consumers felt that the advertisements were misleading , and in February 2006 the United Kingdom 's Advertising Standards Authority ( ASA ) demanded that networks remove the advertisements after three consumers filed complaints of false advertising . According to ASA spokesperson Donna Mitchell , " Viewers felt that the ad was misleading because the quality of graphics was superior to that of the game 's " . Activision denies that the scenes were meant to give an impression of gameplay , stating in a press release shortly after the ASA banning that " The footage was intended purely to communicate the subject matter of the game rather than to represent actual gameplay " .
= = Other versions = =
A collector 's edition of the game was released for Windows on October 25 , 2005 and for the Xbox 360 labeled as the " Special Edition " . It features the game and a bonus disc , which includes interviews , a making of the movie and two mission walkthroughs . On May 17 , 2006 , Activision announced a Game of the Year Edition for the Xbox 360 , which includes material from the Special Edition , plus a token to download the Skirmish Map Pack . In January 2006 , MFORMA ( now Hands @-@ On Mobile ) released Call of Duty 2 for mobile phones . The mobile version is a 2D top @-@ down shooter . It received a favorable review from IGN , praising its length and storytelling .
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= California Diamond Jubilee half dollar =
The California Diamond Jubilee half dollar was a United States commemorative fifty cent piece struck at the San Francisco Mint in 1925 . It was issued to celebrate the 75th anniversary of California statehood .
The San Francisco Citizens ' Committee wished to issue a commemorative coin as a fundraiser for a celebration of the statehood diamond jubilee . A California congressman attached authorization for it to another coinage bill , which was approved in early 1925 . Designs by sculptor Jo Mora met a hostile reception at the Commission of Fine Arts , but the Citizens ' Committee would not change them , and they were approved . The coin has been widely praised for its beauty in the years since .
The coins were struck in August 1925 in San Francisco , and were sold the following month . They did not sell as well as hoped : only some 150 @,@ 000 of the authorized mintage of 300 @,@ 000 were ever struck , and of that , nearly half went unsold and were melted . The coin is catalogued at between $ 200 and $ 1 @,@ 300 , though exceptional specimens have sold for more .
= = Background = =
The land that is now the state of California was first visited by Europeans when Spanish explorer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo visited there in 1542 . His report to the Spanish crown garnered little interest , and it was not until the English seaman Sir Francis Drake touched there in 1579 that the Spanish were moved to colonize the area . Nevertheless , over the next 275 years , California saw few settlers , mostly around the chain of missions that were founded there , both under the Spanish , and subsequently under Mexican rule .
According to numismatic author Arnie Slabaugh , " the coming of American settlers brought two changes to California that continue to this day : immigrants ( both foreign and American ) and activity " . In 1846 , American settlers revolted against Mexican rule , founding the Bear Flag Republic ; its flag featured a grizzly bear . The republic proved short @-@ lived ; the Mexican @-@ American War had begun , and California was occupied by U.S. forces . A week before the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in January 1848 , gold was discovered at Sutter 's Mill by James W. Marshall . The California Gold Rush followed , as did statehood for California in 1850 .
= = Inception = =
The California Diamond Jubilee half dollar originated with the desire of the San Francisco Citizens ' Committee ( Angelo J. Rossi , chairman ) , to have a commemorative half dollar to sell as a fundraiser for a local celebration in commemoration of the 75th anniversary of California statehood . On January 9 , 1925 , a bill was introduced in the Senate for a silver half dollar and gold dollar commemorating the Battle of Bennington and the American Revolutionary War @-@ period independence of Vermont . The bill passed the Senate after an amendment removed the gold dollar . When the bill was debated in the House of Representatives on February 16 , 1925 , California Congressman John E. Raker offered an amendment to add a coin for the 75th anniversary of California statehood . This was strongly opposed by Representative Albert Vestal , chairman of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures , who stated that the Bureau of the Mint opposed making " these special coins " . He added that because of this , Washington Representative Albert Johnson had agreed to withdraw his bill for a commemorative honoring Fort Vancouver , in Washington state . Raker nevertheless persisted , and his amendment passed . Representative Johnson then offered an amendment to add a Fort Vancouver coin to the bill , and to Vestal 's chagrin , this also was adopted . The bill passed the House of Representatives , and the Senate agreed to the House amendments without debate on February 17 .
Treasury Secretary Andrew W. Mellon urged President Calvin Coolidge to veto the bill , writing :
The Federal Government is permitting its coinage system to be commercialized for the profit of any celebration , whether national in its scope or not ... I feel that even for an anniversary of national significance the Treasury should not be asked to debauch its currency system ... Each case is precedent for the next case , and we must draw some limit to the diversion of our currency from its legitimate purpose as a means of payment by the general public for its business transactions , to a means of profit to particular bodies .
Nevertheless , Coolidge signed the bill , which became the Act of February 24 , 1925 , authorizing all three coins . This was the first time commemorative coin legislation covered more than one issue . A total of 300 @,@ 000 for the California piece was authorized , with the coins to be drawn at face value on behalf of the Citizens ' Committee by the San Francisco Clearing House Association or the Los Angeles Clearing House Association . The latter group of banks had in 1923 distributed the Monroe Doctrine Centennial half dollar .
= = Preparation = =
On May 4 , 1925 , Rossi sent a letter to Mint Director Robert J. Grant . Rossi noted that there had been some delay in the preparation of the design for the new half dollar , and that California Senator Samuel M. Shortridge had urged Rossi 's committee to move forward without delay . Rossi enclosed sketches by California sculptor Joseph ( Jo ) Mora , with the promise that a finished design , and a model , would follow . Citizens ' Committee members had selected Mora unanimously , feeling he was the one artist who could capture the spirit of what was being commemorated .
On receipt , the sketches and letter were forwarded to the Commission of Fine Arts , charged since 1921 with making recommendations on coinage design , and then to its sculptor member , James Earle Fraser , designer of the Buffalo nickel . Fraser wrote to Rossi on May 18 , deprecating the designs , " the bear is entirely too short , and the whole thing inexperienced and amateurish . " He recommended that Chester Beach ( credited with the design of the Monroe Doctrine coin ) or Robert I. Aitken ( who had created the Panama @-@ Pacific $ 50 pieces ) be hired , as both were from California and might create " something which would be far more interesting and with a bigger sense of what California really is " .
Despite Fraser 's recommendations , the Citizens ' Committee stayed with Mora , who quickly turned out the finished sketches . Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen , in their volume on U.S. commemorative coins , suggested that the Citizens ' Committee did not hire Beach or Aitken due to lack of time and an unwillingness to pay their large fees . The finished models were sent to the Philadelphia Mint on June 17 , and were forwarded to the Commission . By this time , Fraser was no longer a member of the Commission and they were sent to Lorado Taft , along with a note that the Citizens ' Committee had not hired Aitken due to the expense and that the new designs were little better than the old . However , both Taft and another member , Louis Ayres , recommended acceptance . Ayres did suggest " that ' In God We Trust ' be placed in some position where it does not seem as if the ' 49ers were frying it in oil " . Numismatic historian Don Taxay averred that this advice was not followed due to the lack of an alternative position in which to place the motto .
With the designs accepted , the Mint created working dies based on the plaster model in July 1925 . These were sent from Philadelphia to the San Francisco Mint , where 150 @,@ 000 coins were struck in August , plus 200 reserved for inspection and testing at the 1926 meeting of the United States Assay Commission .
= = Design = =
In creating the half dollar , Mora used motifs evoking California at the time of statehood in 1850 . The obverse depicts a Gold Rush @-@ era prospector , kneeling . He washes material with his pan , seeking bits of placer gold . The reverse adapts the Flag of California , known as the Bear Flag , showing a grizzly bear . Mora left the fields , or background , of the coin unpolished , giving the piece a textured look .
The California Diamond Jubilee half dollar has been widely admired . Swiatek deemed the coin " one of my favorite numismatic works of art " . According to coin dealer and author Q. David Bowers , " the Citizens ' Committee ... wisely ignored Fraser 's criticism " . Eric Brothers , in his 2014 article on the coin , wrote that it " embodied the quintessential imagery of California in the 1850s " . David M. Bullova , who studied commemorative coins on behalf of the American Numismatic Association in the 1930s , regarded it as " a very virile and well executed half dollar , in which obverse and reverse are definitely related to each other " . His contemporary , B. Max Mehl , wrote in 1937 that it was a " beautiful coin ... [ the ] obverse is a very fine piece of art " . Nevertheless , he mistook the animal on the reverse for a polar bear , and expressed puzzlement : " I have traveled and toured California from one end to the other and have never yet seen a bear " .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his volume on American coinage , deemed the California piece " one of America 's greatest works of numismatic coinage . " He considered the design bold and effective , and especially admired the animal , stating that the " muscles , bones , and tufts of fur express the massive determination of the bear . " He felt the lettering particularly successful , as two different sizes are used , and although all three phrases customary on American coinage are present ( " Liberty " , " In God We Trust " , and " E Pluribus Unum " ) , the " placing is so skillfully handled that it seems hard to realize all three ... inscriptions are used " .
= = Distribution and collecting = =
The first California Diamond Jubilee half dollar struck was given to the Memorial Museum in Golden Gate Park , San Francisco . The die used for the initial strikings was specially treated to produce a frosted or cameo effect , which wore down after the first approximately 75 strikings , according to Swiatek in his later volume on commemoratives . Numismatist Kevin Flynn suggests that the first 100 pieces exhibit these special surfaces , and that this was done at Rossi 's request for presentation to VIPs . One piece is known without a mint mark ; this was most likely a trial piece , prepared and owned by Mint Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock and later sold from his estate .
At least one half dollar must have left the San Francisco Mint by August 26 , 1925 as one was shown at a meeting of the Pacific Coast Numismatic Society on that day . Children born on the 75th anniversary of California statehood ( September 9 , 1925 ) in that state were given one of the half dollars , a total of 494 . A few pieces were mounted in badges used by officials . Many were sold at a celebration in San Francisco from September 6 to 12 in commemoration of that jubilee . Although thousands were purchased by coin collectors and dealers , the bulk are believed to have gone to non @-@ collectors . According to Bowers , " distribution efforts were not particularly well coordinated " and 63 @,@ 606 pieces were returned to the Mint for melting , leaving a total of 86 @,@ 594 pieces distributed to the public , including the assay coins .
The half dollar has gradually risen in price over the years , with the only setbacks being the price declines following the commemorative coin booms of 1936 and 1980 . The 2015 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins lists it at between $ 200 and $ 1 @,@ 300 , depending on condition . One , in exceptional MS @-@ 68 condition , brought $ 17 @,@ 250 at auction in 2009 .
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= The Autobiography of Malcolm X =
The Autobiography of Malcolm X was published in 1965 , the result of a collaboration between human rights activist Malcolm X and journalist Alex Haley . Haley coauthored the autobiography based on a series of in @-@ depth interviews he conducted between 1963 and Malcolm X 's 1965 assassination . The Autobiography is a spiritual conversion narrative that outlines Malcolm X 's philosophy of black pride , black nationalism , and pan @-@ Africanism . After the leader was killed , Haley wrote the book 's epilogue . He described their collaborative process and the events at the end of Malcolm X 's life .
While Malcolm X and scholars contemporary to the book 's publication regarded Haley as the book 's ghostwriter , modern scholars tend to regard him as an essential collaborator . They say he intentionally muted his authorial voice to create the effect of Malcolm X speaking directly to readers . Haley influenced some of Malcolm X 's literary choices . For example , Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam during the period when he was working on the book with Haley . Rather than rewriting earlier chapters as a polemic against the Nation which Malcolm X had rejected , Haley persuaded him to favor a style of " suspense and drama . " According to Manning Marable , " Haley was particularly worried about what he viewed as Malcolm X 's anti @-@ Semitism " and he rewrote material to eliminate it .
When the Autobiography was published , the New York Times reviewer described it as a " brilliant , painful , important book " . In 1967 , historian John William Ward wrote that it would become a classic American autobiography . In 1998 , Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X as one of ten " required reading " nonfiction books . James Baldwin and Arnold Perl adapted the book as a film ; their screenplay provided the source material for Spike Lee 's 1992 film Malcolm X.
= = Summary = =
Published posthumously , The Autobiography of Malcolm X is an account of the life of Malcolm X , born Malcolm Little ( 1925 – 1965 ) , who became a human rights activist . Beginning with his mother 's pregnancy , the book describes Malcolm 's childhood in Michigan , the death of his father under questionable circumstances , and his mother 's deteriorating mental health that resulted in her commitment to a psychiatric hospital . Little 's young adulthood in Boston and New York City is covered , as well as his involvement in organized crime . This led to his arrest and subsequent eight- to ten @-@ year prison sentence , of which he served six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years ( 1946 – 1952 ) . The book addresses his ministry with Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam ( 1952 – 1963 ) and his emergence as the organization 's national spokesman . It documents his disillusionment with and departure from the Nation of Islam in March 1964 , his pilgrimage to Mecca , which catalyzed his conversion to orthodox Sunni Islam , and his travels in Africa . Malcolm X was assassinated in New York 's Audubon Ballroom in February 1965 , before they finished the book . His co @-@ author , journalist Alex Haley , summarizes the last days of Malcolm X 's life , and describes in detail their working agreement , including Haley 's personal views on his subject , in the Autobiography 's epilogue .
= = Genre = =
The Autobiography is a spiritual conversion narrative that outlines Malcolm X 's philosophy of black pride , black nationalism , and pan @-@ Africanism . Literary critic Arnold Rampersad and Malcolm X biographer Michael Eric Dyson agree that the narrative of the Autobiography resembles the Augustinian approach to confessional narrative . Augustine 's Confessions and The Autobiography of Malcolm X both relate the early hedonistic lives of their subjects , document deep philosophical change for spiritual reasons , and describe later disillusionment with religious groups their subjects had once revered . Haley and autobiographical scholar Albert E. Stone compare the narrative to the Icarus myth . Author Paul John Eakin and writer Alex Gillespie suggest that part of the Autobiography 's rhetorical power comes from " the vision of a man whose swiftly unfolding career had outstripped the possibilities of the traditional autobiography he had meant to write " , thus destroying " the illusion of the finished and unified personality " .
In addition to functioning as a spiritual conversion narrative , The Autobiography of Malcolm X also reflects generic elements from other distinctly American literary forms , from the Puritan conversion narrative of Jonathan Edwards and the secular self @-@ analyses of Benjamin Franklin , to the African American slave narratives . This aesthetic decision on the part of Malcolm X and Haley also has profound implications for the thematic content of the work , as the progressive movement between forms that is evidenced in the text reflects the personal progression of its subject . Considering this , the editors of the Norton Anthology of African American Literature assert that , " Malcolm 's Autobiography takes pains to interrogate the very models through which his persona achieves gradual self @-@ understanding ... his story 's inner logic defines his life as a quest for an authentic mode of being , a quest that demands a constant openness to new ideas requiring fresh kinds of expression . "
= = Construction = =
Haley coauthored The Autobiography of Malcolm X , and also performed the basic functions of a ghostwriter and biographical amanuensis , writing , compiling , and editing the Autobiography based on more than 50 in @-@ depth interviews he conducted with Malcolm X between 1963 and his subject 's 1965 assassination . The two first met in 1959 , when Haley wrote an article about the Nation of Islam for Reader 's Digest , and again when Haley interviewed Malcolm X for Playboy in 1962 .
In 1963 the Doubleday publishing company asked Haley to write a book about the life of Malcolm X. American writer and literary critic Harold Bloom writes , " When Haley approached Malcolm with the idea , Malcolm gave him a startled look ... " Haley recalls , " It was one of the few times I have ever seen him uncertain . " After Malcolm X was granted permission from Elijah Muhammad , he and Haley commenced work on the Autobiography , a process which began as two @-@ and three @-@ hour interview sessions at Haley 's studio in Greenwich Village . Bloom writes , " Malcolm was critical of Haley 's middle @-@ class status , as well as his Christian beliefs and twenty years of service in the U.S. Military . "
When work on the Autobiography began in early 1963 , Haley grew frustrated with Malcolm X 's tendency to speak only about Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam . Haley reminded him that the book was supposed to be about Malcolm X , not Muhammad or the Nation of Islam , a comment which angered Malcolm X. Haley eventually shifted the focus of the interviews toward the life of his subject when he asked Malcolm X about his mother :
I said , ' Mr. Malcolm , could you tell me something about your mother ? ' And I will never , ever forget how he stopped almost as if he was suspended like a marionette . And he said , ' I remember the kind of dresses she used to wear . They were old and faded and gray . ' And then he walked some more . And he said , ' I remember how she was always bent over the stove , trying to stretch what little we had . ' And that was the beginning , that night , of his walk . And he walked that floor until just about daybreak .
Though Haley is ostensibly a ghostwriter on the Autobiography , modern scholars tend to treat him as an essential and core collaborator who acted as an invisible figure in the composition of the work . He minimized his own voice , and signed a contract to limit his authorial discretion in favor of producing what looked like verbatim copy . However , Malcolm X biographer Manning Marable considers this view of Haley as simply a ghostwriter as a deliberate narrative construction of black scholars of the day who wanted to see the book as a singular creation of a dynamic leader and martyr . Marable argues that a critical analysis of the Autobiography , or the full relationship between Malcolm X and Haley , does not support this view ; he describes it instead as a collaboration .
Haley 's contribution to the work is notable , and several scholars discuss how it should be characterized . In a view shared by Eakin , Stone and Dyson , psychobiographical writer Eugene Victor Wolfenstein writes that Haley performed the duties of a quasi @-@ psychoanalytic Freudian psychiatrist and spiritual confessor . Gillespie suggests , and Wolfenstein agrees , that the act of self @-@ narration was itself a transformative process that spurred significant introspection and personal change in the life of its subject .
Haley exercised discretion over content , guided Malcolm X in critical stylistic and rhetorical choices , and compiled the work . In the epilogue to the Autobiography , Haley describes an agreement he made with Malcolm X , who demanded that : " Nothing can be in this book 's manuscript that I didn 't say and nothing can be left out that I want in it . " As such , Haley wrote an addendum to the contract specifically referring to the book as an " as told to " account . In the agreement , Haley gained an " important concession " : " I asked for — and he gave — his permission that at the end of the book I could write comments of my own about him which would not be subject to his review . " These comments became the epilogue to the Autobiography , which Haley wrote after the death of his subject .
= = = Narrative presentation = = =
In " Malcolm X : The Art of Autobiography " , writer and professor John Edgar Wideman examines in detail the narrative landscapes found in biography . Wideman suggests that as a writer , Haley was attempting to satisfy " multiple allegiances " : to his subject , to his publisher , to his " editor 's agenda " , and to himself . Haley was an important contributor to the Autobiography 's popular appeal , writes Wideman . Wideman expounds upon the " inevitable compromise " of biographers , and argues that in order to allow readers to insert themselves into the broader socio @-@ psychological narrative , neither coauthor 's voice is as strong as it could have been . Wideman details some of the specific pitfalls Haley encountered while coauthoring the Autobiography :
You are serving many masters , and inevitably you are compromised . The man speaks and you listen but you do not take notes , the first compromise and perhaps betrayal . You may attempt through various stylistic conventions and devices to reconstitute for the reader your experience of hearing face to face the man 's words . The sound of the man 's narration may be represented by vocabulary , syntax , imagery , graphic devices of various sorts — quotation marks , punctuation , line breaks , visual patterning of white space and black space , markers that encode print analogs to speech — vernacular interjections , parentheses , ellipses , asterisks , footnotes , italics , dashes ....
In the body of the Autobiography , Wideman writes , Haley 's authorial agency is seemingly absent : " Haley does so much with so little fuss ... an approach that appears so rudimentary in fact conceals sophisticated choices , quiet mastery of a medium " . Wideman argues that Haley wrote the body of the Autobiography in a manner of Malcolm X 's choosing and the epilogue as an extension of the biography itself , his subject having given him carte blanche for the chapter . Haley 's voice in the body of the book is a tactic , Wideman writes , producing a text nominally written by Malcolm X but seemingly written by no author . The subsumption of Haley 's own voice in the narrative allows the reader to feel as though the voice of Malcolm X is speaking directly and continuously , a stylistic tactic that , in Wideman 's view , was a matter of Haley 's authorial choice : " Haley grants Malcolm the tyrannical authority of an author , a disembodied speaker whose implied presence blends into the reader 's imagining of the tale being told . "
In " Two Create One : The Act of Collaboration in Recent Black Autobiography : Ossie Guffy , Nate Shaw , and Malcolm X " , Stone argues that Haley played an " essential role " in " recovering the historical identity " of Malcolm X. Stone also reminds the reader that collaboration is a cooperative endeavor , requiring more than Haley 's prose alone can provide , " convincing and coherent " as it may be :
Though a writer 's skill and imagination have combined words and voice into a more or less convincing and coherent narrative , the actual writer [ Haley ] has no large fund of memories to draw upon : the subject 's [ Malcolm X ] memory and imagination are the original sources of the arranged story and have also come into play critically as the text takes final shape . Thus where material comes from , and what has been done to it are separable and of equal significance in collaborations .
In Stone 's estimation , supported by Wideman , the source of autobiographical material and the efforts made to shape them into a workable narrative are distinct , and of equal value in a critical assessment of the collaboration that produced the Autobiography . While Haley 's skills as writer have significant influence on the narrative 's shape , Stone writes , they require a " subject possessed of a powerful memory and imagination " to produce a workable narrative .
= = = Collaboration between Malcolm X and Haley = = =
The collaboration between Malcolm X and Haley took on many dimensions ; editing , revising and composing the Autobiography was a power struggle between two men with sometimes competing ideas of the final shape for the book . Haley " took pains to show how Malcolm dominated their relationship and tried to control the composition of the book " , writes Rampersad . Rampersad also writes that Haley was aware that memory is selective and that autobiographies are " almost by definition projects in fiction " , and that it was his responsibility as biographer to select material based on his authorial discretion . The narrative shape crafted by Haley and Malcolm X is the result of a life account " distorted and diminished " by the " process of selection " , Rampersad suggests , yet the narrative 's shape may in actuality be more revealing than the narrative itself . In the epilogue Haley describes the process used to edit the manuscript , giving specific examples of how Malcolm X controlled the language .
While Haley ultimately deferred to Malcolm X 's specific choice of words when composing the manuscript , Wideman writes , " the nature of writing biography or autobiography ... means that Haley 's promise to Malcolm , his intent to be a ' dispassionate chronicler ' , is a matter of disguising , not removing , his authorial presence . " Haley played an important role in persuading Malcolm X not to re @-@ edit the book as a polemic against Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam at a time when Haley already had most of the material needed to complete the book , and asserted his authorial agency when the Autobiography 's " fractured construction " , caused by Malcolm X 's rift with Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam , " overturned the design " of the manuscript and created a narrative crisis . In the Autobiography 's epilogue , Haley describes the incident :
I sent Malcolm X some rough chapters to read . I was appalled when they were soon returned , red @-@ inked in many places where he had told of his almost father @-@ and @-@ son relationship with Elijah Muhammad . Telephoning Malcolm X , I reminded him of his previous decisions , and I stressed that if those chapters contained such telegraphing to readers of what was to lie ahead , then the book would automatically be robbed of some of its building suspense and drama . Malcolm X said , gruffly , ' Whose book is this ? ' I told him ' yours , of course , ' and that I only made the objection in my position as a writer . But late that night Malcolm X telephoned . ' I 'm sorry . You 're right . I was upset about something . Forget what I wanted changed , let what you already had stand . ' I never again gave him chapters to review unless I was with him . Several times I would covertly watch him frown and wince as he read , but he never again asked for any change in what he had originally said .
Haley 's warning to avoid " telegraphing to readers " and his advice about " building suspense and drama " demonstrate his efforts to influence the narrative 's content and assert his authorial agency while ultimately deferring final discretion to Malcolm X. In the above passage Haley asserts his authorial presence , reminding his subject that as a writer he has concerns about narrative direction and focus , but presenting himself in such a way as to give no doubt that he deferred final approval to his subject . In the words of Eakin , " Because this complex vision of his existence is clearly not that of the early sections of the Autobiography , Alex Haley and Malcolm X were forced to confront the consequences of this discontinuity in perspective for the narrative , already a year old . " Malcolm X , after giving the matter some thought , later accepted Haley 's suggestion .
While Marable argues that Malcolm X was his own best revisionist , he also points out that Haley 's collaborative role in shaping the Autobiography was notable . Haley influenced the narrative 's direction and tone while remaining faithful to his subject 's syntax and diction . Marable writes that Haley worked " hundreds of sentences into paragraphs " , and organized them into " subject areas " . Author William L. Andrews writes :
[ T ] he narrative evolved out of Haley 's interviews with Malcolm , but Malcolm had read Haley 's typescript , and had made interlineated notes and often stipulated substantive changes , at least in the earlier parts of the text . As the work progressed , however , according to Haley , Malcolm yielded more and more to the authority of his ghostwriter , partly because Haley never let Malcolm read the manuscript unless he was present to defend it , partly because in his last months Malcolm had less and less opportunity to reflect on the text of his life because he was so busy living it , and partly because Malcolm had eventually resigned himself to letting Haley 's ideas about effective storytelling take precedence over his own desire to denounce straightaway those whom he had once revered .
Andrews suggests that Haley 's role expanded because the book 's subject became less available to micro @-@ manage the manuscript , and " Malcolm had eventually resigned himself " to allowing " Haley 's ideas about effective storytelling " to shape the narrative .
Marable studied the Autobiography manuscript " raw materials " archived by Haley 's biographer , Anne Romaine , and described a critical element of the collaboration , Haley 's writing tactic to capture the voice of his subject accurately , a disjoint system of data mining that included notes on scrap paper , in @-@ depth interviews , and long " free style " discussions . Marable writes , " Malcolm also had a habit of scribbling notes to himself as he spoke . " Haley would secretly " pocket these sketchy notes " and reassemble them in a sub rosa attempt to integrate Malcolm X 's " subconscious reflections " into the " workable narrative " . This is an example of Haley asserting authorial agency during the writing of the Autobiography , indicating that their relationship was fraught with minor power struggles . Wideman and Rampersad agree with Marable 's description of Haley 's book @-@ writing process .
The timing of the collaboration meant that Haley occupied an advantageous position to document the multiple conversion experiences of Malcolm X and his challenge was to form them , however incongruent , into a cohesive workable narrative . Dyson suggests that " profound personal , intellectual , and ideological changes ... led him to order events of his life to support a mythology of metamorphosis and transformation " . Marable addresses the confounding factors of the publisher and Haley 's authorial influence , passages that support the argument that while Malcolm X may have considered Haley a ghostwriter , he acted in actuality as a coauthor , at times without Malcolm X 's direct knowledge or expressed consent :
Although Malcolm X retained final approval of their hybrid text , he was not privy to the actual editorial processes superimposed from Haley 's side . The Library of Congress held the answers . This collection includes the papers of Doubleday 's then @-@ executive editor , Kenneth McCormick , who had worked closely with Haley for several years as the Autobiography had been constructed . As in the Romaine papers , I found more evidence of Haley 's sometimes @-@ weekly private commentary with McCormick about the laborious process of composing the book . They also revealed how several attorneys retained by Doubleday closely monitored and vetted entire sections of the controversial text in 1964 , demanding numerous name changes , the reworking and deletion of blocks of paragraphs , and so forth . In late 1963 , Haley was particularly worried about what he viewed as Malcolm X 's anti @-@ Semitism . He therefore rewrote material to eliminate a number of negative statements about Jews in the book manuscript , with the explicit covert goal of ' getting them past Malcolm X , ' without his coauthor 's knowledge or consent . Thus , the censorship of Malcolm X had begun well prior to his assassination .
Marable says the resulting text was stylistically and ideologically distinct from what Marable believes Malcolm X would have written without Haley 's influence , and it also differs from what may have actually been said in the interviews between Haley and Malcolm X.
= = = Myth @-@ making = = =
In Making Malcolm : The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X , Dyson criticizes historians and biographers of the time for re @-@ purposing the Autobiography as a transcendent narrative by a " mythological " Malcolm X without being critical enough of the underlying ideas . Further , because much of the available biographical studies of Malcolm X have been written by white authors , Dyson suggests their ability to " interpret black experience " is suspect . The Autobiography of Malcolm X , Dyson says , reflects both Malcolm X 's goal of narrating his life story for public consumption and Haley 's political ideologies . Dyson writes , " The Autobiography of Malcolm X ... has been criticized for avoiding or distorting certain facts . Indeed , the autobiography is as much a testament to Haley 's ingenuity in shaping the manuscript as it is a record of Malcolm 's attempt to tell his story . "
Rampersad suggests that Haley understood autobiographies as " almost fiction " . In " The Color of His Eyes : Bruce Perry 's Malcolm and Malcolm 's Malcolm " , Rampersad criticizes Perry 's biography , Malcolm : The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America , and makes the general point that the writing of the Autobiography is part of the narrative of blackness in the 20th century and consequently should " not be held utterly beyond inquiry " . To Rampersad , the Autobiography is about psychology , ideology , a conversion narrative , and the myth @-@ making process . " Malcolm inscribed in it the terms of his understanding of the form even as the unstable , even treacherous form concealed and distorted particular aspects of his quest . But there is no Malcolm untouched by doubt or fiction . Malcolm 's Malcolm is in itself a fabrication ; the ' truth ' about him is impossible to know . " Rampersad suggests that since his 1965 assassination , Malcolm X has " become the desires of his admirers , who have reshaped memory , historical record and the autobiography according to their wishes , which is to say , according to their needs as they perceive them . " Further , Rampersad says , many admirers of Malcolm X perceive " accomplished and admirable " figures like Martin Luther King , Jr . , and W. E. B. Du Bois inadequate to fully express black humanity as it struggles with oppression , " while Malcolm is seen as the apotheosis of black individual greatness ... he is a perfect hero — his wisdom is surpassing , his courage definitive , his sacrifice messianic " . Rampersad suggests that devotees have helped shape the myth of Malcolm X.
Author Joe Wood writes :
[ T ] he autobiography iconizes Malcolm twice , not once . Its second Malcolm — the El @-@ Hajj Malik El @-@ Shabazz finale — is a mask with no distinct ideology , it is not particularly Islamic , not particularly nationalist , not particularly humanist . Like any well crafted icon or story , the mask is evidence of its subject 's humanity , of Malcolm 's strong human spirit . But both masks hide as much character as they show . The first mask served a nationalism Malcolm had rejected before the book was finished ; the second is mostly empty and available .
To Eakin , a significant portion of the Autobiography involves Haley and Malcolm X shaping the fiction of the completed self . Stone writes that Haley 's description of the Autobiography 's composition makes clear that this fiction is " especially misleading in the case of Malcolm X " ; both Haley and the Autobiography itself are " out of phase " with its subject 's " life and identity " . Dyson writes , " [ Louis ] Lomax says that Malcolm became a ' lukewarm integrationist ' . [ Peter ] Goldman suggests that Malcolm was ' improvising ' , that he embraced and discarded ideological options as he went along . [ Albert ] Cleage and [ Oba ] T 'Shaka hold that he remained a revolutionary black nationalist . And [ James Hal ] Cone asserts that he became an internationalist with a humanist bent . " Marable writes that Malcolm X was a " committed internationalist " and " black nationalist " at the end of his life , not an " integrationist " , noting , " what I find in my own research is greater continuity than discontinuity " .
Marable , in " Rediscovering Malcolm 's Life : A Historian 's Adventures in Living History " , critically analyzes the collaboration that produced the Autobiography . Marable argues autobiographical " memoirs " are " inherently biased " , representing the subject as he would appear with certain facts privileged , others deliberately omitted . Autobiographical narratives self @-@ censor , reorder event chronology , and alter names . According to Marable , " nearly everyone writing about Malcolm X " has failed to critically and objectively analyze and research the subject properly . Marable suggests that most historians have assumed that the Autobiography is veritable truth , devoid of any ideological influence or stylistic embellishment by Malcolm X or Haley . Further , Marable believes the " most talented revisionist of Malcolm X , was Malcolm X " , who actively fashioned and reinvented his public image and verbiage so as to increase favor with diverse groups of people in various situations .
Haley writes that during the last months of Malcolm X 's life " uncertainty and confusion " about his views were widespread in Harlem , his base of operations . In an interview four days before his death Malcolm X said , " I 'm man enough to tell you that I can 't put my finger on exactly what my philosophy is now , but I 'm flexible . " Malcolm X had not yet formulated a cohesive Black ideology at the time of his assassination and , Dyson writes , was " experiencing a radical shift " in his core " personal and political understandings " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Eliot Fremont @-@ Smith , reviewing The Autobiography of Malcolm X for The New York Times in 1965 , describes it as " extraordinary " and says it is a " brilliant , painful , important book " . Two years later , historian John William Ward writes that the book " will surely become one of the classics in American autobiography " . Bayard Rustin argues the book suffered from a lack of critical analysis , which he attributes to Malcolm X 's expectation that Haley be a " chronicler , not an interpreter . " Newsweek also highlights the limited insight and criticism in The Autobiography but praises it for power and poignance . However , Truman Nelson in The Nation lauds the epilogue as revelatory and describes Haley as a " skillful amanuensis " . Variety calls it a " mesmerizing page @-@ turner " in 1992 , and in 1998 , Time names The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of ten " required reading " nonfiction books .
The Autobiography of Malcolm X has influenced generations of readers . In 1990 , Charles Solomon writes in the Los Angeles Times , " Unlike many ' 60s icons , The Autobiography of Malcolm X , with its double message of anger and love , remains an inspiring document . " Cultural historian Howard Bruce Franklin describes it as " one of the most influential books in late @-@ twentieth @-@ century American culture " , and the Concise Oxford Companion to African American Literature credits Haley with shaping " what has undoubtedly become the most influential twentieth @-@ century African American autobiography " .
Considering the literary impact of Malcolm X 's Autobiography , we may note the tremendous influence of the book , as well as its subject generally , on the development of the Black Arts Movement . Indeed , it was the day after Malcolm 's assassination that the poet and playwright , Amiri Baraka , established the Black Arts Repertory Theater , which would serve to catalyze the aesthetic progression of the movement . Writers and thinkers associated with the Black Arts movement found in the Autobiography an aesthetic embodiment of his profoundly influential qualities , namely , " the vibrancy of his public voice , the clarity of his analyses of oppression 's hidden history and inner logic , the fearlessness of his opposition to white supremacy , and the unconstrained ardor of his advocacy for revolution ' by any means necessary . ' "
bell hooks writes " When I was a young college student in the early seventies , the book I read which revolutionized my thinking about race and politics was The Autobiography of Malcolm X. " David Bradley adds :
She [ hooks ] is not alone . Ask any middle @-@ aged socially conscious intellectual to list the books that influenced his or her youthful thinking , and he or she will most likely mention The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Some will do more than mention it . Some will say that ... they picked it up — by accident , or maybe by assignment , or because a friend pressed it on them — and that they approached the reading of it without great expectations , but somehow that book ... took hold of them . Got inside them . Altered their vision , their outlook , their insight . Changed their lives .
Max Elbaum concurs , writing that " The Autobiography of Malcolm X was without question the single most widely read and influential book among young people of all racial backgrounds who went to their first demonstration sometime between 1965 and 1968 . "
At the end of his tenure as the first African @-@ American U.S. Attorney General , Eric Holder selected The Autobiography of Malcolm X when asked what book he would recommend to a young person coming to Washington , D.C.
= = = Publication and sales = = =
Doubleday had contracted to publish The Autobiography of Malcolm X and paid a $ 30 @,@ 000 advance to Malcolm X and Haley in 1963 . In March 1965 , three weeks after Malcolm X 's assassination , Nelson Doubleday , Jr . , canceled its contract out of fear for the safety of his employees . Grove Press then published the book later that year . Since The Autobiography of Malcolm X has sold millions of copies , Marable described Doubleday 's choice as the " most disastrous decision in corporate publishing history " .
The Autobiography of Malcolm X has sold well since its 1965 publication . According to The New York Times , the paperback edition sold 400 @,@ 000 copies in 1967 and 800 @,@ 000 copies the following year . The Autobiography entered its 18th printing by 1970 . The New York Times reported that six million copies of the book had been sold by 1977 . The book experienced increased readership and returned to the best @-@ seller list in the 1990s , helped in part by the publicity surrounding Spike Lee 's 1992 film Malcolm X. Between 1989 and 1992 , sales of the book increased by 300 % .
= = = Screenplay adaptations = = =
In 1968 film producer Marvin Worth hired novelist James Baldwin to write a screenplay based on The Autobiography of Malcolm X ; Baldwin was joined by screenwriter Arnold Perl , who died in 1971 before the screenplay could be finished . Baldwin developed his work on the screenplay into the book One Day , When I Was Lost : A Scenario Based on Alex Haley 's " The Autobiography of Malcolm X " , published in 1972 . Other authors who attempted to draft screenplays include playwright David Mamet , novelist David Bradley , author Charles Fuller , and screenwriter Calder Willingham . Director Spike Lee revised the Baldwin @-@ Perl script for his 1992 film Malcolm X.
= = = Missing chapters = = =
In 1992 , attorney Gregory Reed bought the original manuscripts of The Autobiography of Malcolm X for $ 100 @,@ 000 at the sale of the Haley Estate . The manuscripts included three " missing chapters " , titled " The Negro " , " The End of Christianity " , and " Twenty Million Black Muslims " , that were omitted from the original text . In a 1964 letter to his publisher , Haley had described these chapters as , " the most impact [ sic ] material of the book , some of it rather lava @-@ like " . Marable writes that the missing chapters were " dictated and written " during Malcolm X 's final months in the Nation of Islam . In them , Marable says , Malcolm X proposed the establishment of a union of African American civic and political organizations . Marable wonders whether this project might have led some within the Nation of Islam and the Federal Bureau of Investigation to try to silence Malcolm X. In April 2010 , the New York Post reported that the missing chapters would be published with a foreword by Malcolm X 's daughter Ilyasah Shabazz .
= = = Editions = = =
The book has been published in more than 45 editions and in many languages , including Arabic , German , French , Indonesian . Important editions include :
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= Gypsy Restaurant and Velvet Lounge =
The Gypsy Restaurant and Velvet Lounge was a restaurant and nightclub established in 1947 and located along Northwest 21st Avenue in the Northwest District neighborhood of Portland , Oregon , in the United States . Popular with young adults , the restaurant was known for serving fishbowl alcoholic beverages , for its 1950s furnishings , and for hosting karaoke , trivia competitions and goldfish racing tournaments . The restaurant is said to have influenced local alcohol policies ; noise complaints and signs of drunken behavior by patrons made the business a target for curfews and closure . Concept Entertainment owned the restaurant from 1992 until 2014 , when it was closed unexpectedly .
= = Description = =
Located at 625 Northwest 21st Avenue in the Nob Hill area of Portland 's Northwest District neighborhood , Gypsy was a " boisterous " , " disco @-@ balled " dive bar , recognizable by its bouncers , karaoke , and " wobbling smokers " . The Portland Mercury said the restaurant was a " kinda retro @-@ y bar ... popular with a young college @-@ y , drinkin ' , party crowd " . One Portland resident described the club as " the kind of place where you can go with your sophisticated friends and look at the Daddy @-@ O decor . Or you can go on a date and snuggle in a corner where the lighting is low . And if you want to meet new people you can stroll through there and see people whose faces you 've never seen before , which is a rare thing in Portland . "
The interior featured 1950s furnishings and " pinball @-@ panel " wall decorations . In 1963 , The Oregonian described the artwork on the interior walls , which included a large and colorful painting depicting a gypsy camp , and an " attractive " nude called Dian by Grace Harlow , a painter and former student of Louis Bunce . The venue also featured " mottled " iridescent red windows that were translucent , could seat 150 guests , and included a banquet area .
Gypsy was also known for serving fishbowl alcoholic beverages , and in its final years , for hosting goldfish racing tournaments . The restaurant served soup , sandwiches , and full entrees . Karaoke was available beginning at 9 pm on Tuesday through Saturday evenings .
= = History = =
Gypsy Restaurant and Lounge was established in 1947 and was originally located at 612 Northwest 21st Avenue . In 1948 , The Oregonian published an advertisement for business , promoting an eight @-@ course dinner for $ 1 @.@ 25 , between the hours of 4 pm and 3 am . The restaurant 's location was described as " next to 21st Avenue Theater " , between Northwest Hoyt and Irving Streets . In 1955 , the paper reported that $ 1 @,@ 000 was stolen from an unlocked safe stored at the Gypsy Restaurant . In 1963 , the restaurant and lounge moved to its final location , at the intersection of Northwest 21st Avenue and Hoyt Street , across from Cinema 21 . On opening night , the " New Gypsy " restaurant reportedly played songs by Frank Fontaine .
According to a 1973 Oregonian obituary , Gypsy Restaurant was then owned and operated by Stacy Gurganus . An obituary published by The Oregonian in 1987 said that Gertrude " Tiny " Hursick of Lake Oswego co @-@ owned Gypsy and Gordon 's 7 @-@ Up Bar , also located in Northwest Portland . John Hursick continued to own and operate the restaurant until the early 1990s ; he died in 1999 .
Ownership of Gypsy transferred to Concept Entertainment in 1992 . The company has owned other Portland establishments such as Bar 71 , Barracuda Nightclub , Dixie Tavern , Grand Central Bowl , the Lotus Cardroom and Cafe , Quest , and the Thirsty Lion . According to Willamette Week , the restaurant had an " odd " influence on local alcohol policies . In 1994 , city commissioner Charlie Hales and mayor Vera Katz sought to close the Gypsy due to repeated reports of assaults , public intoxication , and noise complaints . However , the Oregon Liquor Control Commission ( OLCC ) refused . In 2013 , when Hales was the mayor of Portland , he unsuccessfully requested that the OLCC enforce a 10 pm curfew for bar patios within the Portland city limits .
In 2007 , Gypsy was one of several Portland sites depicted in " Virtual Portland " , a three @-@ dimensional computer @-@ generated simulation of the city , designed for Second Life . In May 2013 , a tree limb fell and damaged the restaurant .
After operating for more than twenty years , and despite having advertised future events at the club , the business closed abruptly on February 20 , 2014 . Its website and social media pages were shut down immediately , and a sign was posted at the club noting that Concept Entertainment had decided to sell . The space that Gypsy had occupied was immediately available for long @-@ term lease , with furniture included .
= = Events = =
Gypsy hosted a variety of musical acts and events throughout its history , including trivia competitions and rock band karaoke , featuring a live backing band . In 1985 , the Chris Conrad Quartet performed in the " Rhythm Room " . In 2000 , Gypsy hosted opening and closing night parties for Sensory Perceptions ' annual film festival , which spanned two weekends at neighboring Cinema 21 . Nearly twenty years after the death of Andy Warhol , the Gypsy held a birthday party in his honor in 2006 . One Oregonian contributor called Gypsy a " fitting setting " for the celebration , given its lava lamps and blue and orange fishbowl drinks , which he said were " like Pop art through a straw " . Gypsy partnered with Cinema 21 in 2009 when the theater hosted " Can 't Stop the Serenity " , a benefit for Equality Now that included two screenings of the film Serenity ( 2005 ) . Festivities included a costume contest , pub quiz , and Dr. Horrible 's Sing @-@ Along Blog karaoke . Pub Quiz USA hosted an " All ' Lost ' Trivia Night " at the Gypsy in 2010 for fans of the television program Lost . Gypsy often screened episodes of Mad Men , the American television series set in the 1960s , and pay @-@ per @-@ view Ultimate Fighting Championship matches .
In an attempt to offer " something different and exciting to do " , Gypsy began hosting goldfish racing tournaments in 2010 . A chef who worked at Gypsy proposed hosting the tournaments after seeing videos of fish racing online . Two other establishments owned by Concept Entertainment also hosted goldfish races . Gypsy 's cross @-@ shaped track was 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) long and " tricked out with fancy runway lights " . The tournaments prompted criticism by a local veterinarian and a spokesperson for the Oregon Humane Society , who suggested they " may skirt the line of the humane society 's guiding principle , which is to not inflict pain and suffering on animals for enjoyment " . The spokesperson also said , " I do wish people could find different ways to entertain themselves . "
= = Reception = =
In 2009 , The NW Examiner included Gypsy in an article about happy hours in Northwest Portland . In her review , Desiree Andrews wrote that the fried artichoke hearts and pub chips were forgettable and recommended the black bean quesadilla . She said , " Overall , the atmosphere was a little too much like a Big Lebowski hallucination for me , and the food triggered clogged @-@ artery images , but the friendliness of the staff made up for a lot . "
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= December 1969 nor 'easter =
The December 1969 nor 'easter was a strong winter storm that mainly affected the Northeastern United States and southern Quebec between December 25 and December 28 , 1969 . The multi @-@ faceted storm system included a tornado outbreak , record snow accumulations , a damaging ice storm , and flooding rains .
The storm developed over Texas by December 25 and advanced eastward , spawning over a dozen tornadoes in Louisiana , Georgia , and Florida . Upon reaching the Eastern Seaboard , the cyclone turned northeastward and intensified into a powerful nor 'easter . On December 26 and 27 , the storm 's forward movement slowed to a drift , causing very heavy snow over Upstate New York , Vermont , and southern Quebec . Warm onshore winds , caused by a storm track close to the shore , allowed precipitation to change to sleet and rain in central and eastern New England . Where precipitation remained as snow , accumulations reached 40 inches ( 100 cm ) or more , crippling travel . Drifts up to 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high blocked roadways , isolating some communities and forcing emergency workers to rely on snowmobiles for transportation . At least 20 fatalities were attributed to the storm in New York and New England .
In central New England , a severe freezing rain event occurred along the boundary between cold air to the west and warmer air to the east . Several inches of glaze ice , accompanied by gale @-@ force winds , caused damage comparable to the aftermath of the 1938 New England hurricane . Throughout the region , the snow and ice — in some cases further weighted by heavy rainfall — caused roofs to cave in . Montreal received 27 @.@ 5 in ( 70 cm ) of snow in that city 's biggest snowstorm on record at the time ; officials blamed the storm for 15 deaths in Quebec . In eastern New England , ice jams , poor drainage , and several inches of rain caused flooding that forced people from their homes and submerged roadways . Wind gusts to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and strong waves battered the coastline .
= = Background = =
The winter of 1969 – 1970 continued a long @-@ term El Niño from the previous winter , which featured two significant storms in the Northeastern United States , including the " Lindsay storm " in February . North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) values ranged from weakly negative to weakly positive in the period leading up to the storm , trending more consistently negative in the days surrounding its genesis . NAO values dropped significantly in the wake of the nor 'easter , signaling abnormally cold temperatures during January 1970 . December 1969 was a month of active weather throughout the Northeast , with frequent light to moderate snow events preceding the late @-@ month nor 'easter . A significant storm on December 22 – 23 dropped 8 to 24 in ( 20 to 60 cm ) of snow in eastern New York and northern New England , as well as significant freezing rain in southern and eastern New England . Many of the same areas would be impacted again just days later .
Before the cyclone 's arrival , a 1 @,@ 033 hPa ( 30 @.@ 5 inHg ) high pressure area situated north of New England funneled very cold air into the region ; the − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) air temperature at Albany , New York , on December 25 still holds the record for the city 's coldest December temperature . On December 25 and 26 , extensive cold air damming and frontogenesis occurred along the U.S. East Coast . The high pressure area slowly retreated as the storm approached .
= = Meteorological history = =
The nor 'easter originated in a weak area of surface low pressure that formed over northern Texas by December 25 . It moved generally eastward over the next day as it crossed the Deep South . A southerly low @-@ level jet ( a localized wind stream in the lower levels of the atmosphere ) developed by midday over Mississippi and Alabama , and drifted eastward . Precipitation soon blossomed , with heavy snow falling over the Appalachian Mountains by late on December 25 . The low turned toward the northeast by early on December 26 to follow the temperature gradient along the East Coast , at which time the storm underwent the first of two periods of rapid intensification . In 12 hours , barometric pressure fell 12 hPa to 996 hPa ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) while the nor 'easter accelerated from Georgia to the coast of New Jersey . This bout of strengthening occurred as the associated upper @-@ level trough at the 500 @-@ millibar level – several miles into the atmosphere – assumed a negative tilt from northwest to southeast . Heavy precipitation overspread the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England early on December 26 .
The low @-@ level jet continued to strengthen and delivered warm air to areas east of the storm center , where precipitation quickly transitioned to rain . The jet ultimately reached extremely high velocities of 55 m / s ( 120 mph ) as it wrapped around the northern side of the low , feeding abundant moisture into areas of heavy precipitation . The storm slowed drastically on December 26 , and over the next 24 hours , it moved very slowly from Cape May , New Jersey , to near Boston , Massachusetts . During this period , exceptionally heavy snow fell over eastern New York , Vermont , and southern Quebec . While located just east of Long Island on December 27 , the nor 'easter began its second phase of rapid strengthening that brought central pressure down to 976 hPa ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . During this period of intensification , snow propagated around the western side of the system , reaching as far south as Long Island .
With a storm track very close to the shore and a retreating high pressure area to the northeast , onshore winds allowed temperatures to warm above freezing in eastern and northern New England . A frontal boundary between the warm Atlantic air and a residual wedge of colder air over the interior served as the focus for a severe ice storm in central New England . Thunder and lightning accompanied the precipitation in some areas . By 12 : 00 UTC on December 27 , the attendant upper @-@ level trough matured into a closed cold @-@ core low . The nor 'easter continued to drift toward the east @-@ northeast over the next 24 hours .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Southeast U.S. and Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
The developing extratropical cyclone spawned 16 known tornadoes and waterspouts in Louisiana , Georgia , and Florida , becoming the largest Christmas Day tornado outbreak on record . A short @-@ lived F3 tornado touched down in Vermillion Parish , Louisiana , destroying eight homes near Kaplan and damaging 25 more . One woman was killed and eight were injured , three severely enough to require hospitalization . Another damaging tornado moved through several settlements in southern Iberville Parish just over two hours later ; the tornado destroyed seven homes and damaged multiple other buildings , with one injury reported . The tornado was officially classified an F3 , though meteorologist Thomas P. Grazulis determined it to have caused damage consistent with an F2 rating . A non @-@ tornadic wind gust destroyed a nearby trailer home . Later that day , a tornado skipped along a path through Catahoula and Concordia parishes , touching down three different times . The F2 tornado damaged about 20 trailer homes in Glade , and caused further damage near the end of its track .
A tornado in southern Georgia , about 9 mi ( 14 km ) west of Albany , damaged or destroyed several small homes , killed three head of cattle , toppled numerous trees , and injured seven people . Elsewhere in the state , there were isolated reports of hail and damaging thunderstorm winds . Several tornadoes in the Florida Panhandle caused minor to moderate damage to trees and homes , the most destructive of them occurring in Quincy , Florida . That tornado struck an industrial area and unroofed at least three structures . A tornado in Lee , Florida , destroyed a trailer , damaged farm buildings , and injured one person .
In addition to widespread rain , parts of northern South Carolina experienced freezing rain that damaged trees and power lines . Freezing rain and sleet fell over the southern Piedmont of North Carolina , resulting in power outages and dangerous travel conditions . At least one fatal traffic accident was reported . Heavy snow covered the northwest Piedmont and Mountain Region of the state , accumulating to around 12 in ( 30 cm ) at Asheville ; occurring on the heels of another winter storm , this snowfall contributed to depths up to 2 ft ( 60 cm ) at higher elevations . High winds from the storm left at least 50 @,@ 000 electric customers in the Richmond , Virginia region without power . In Carroll County , strong winds uprooted trees . Significant snow accumulations occurred throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic , chiefly away from the coastal plain . Snowfall exceeded 10 in ( 25 cm ) in parts of western Virginia , western Maryland , and West Virginia ; Washington , D.C. received 12 @.@ 1 in ( 31 cm ) of snow .
= = = Northeast U.S. = = =
The cyclone was rated by meteorology researchers Kocin and Uccellini ( 2004 ) as a high @-@ end Category 3 on the Northeast Snowfall Impact Scale , equating to a " major " winter storm . However , more recent data from the National Climatic Data Center classifies the nor 'easter as a low @-@ end " crippling " Category 4 . By December 30 , at least 20 deaths in New York and New England had been attributed to the storm , largely from traffic accidents and physical exhaustion .
Areas of northeastern Pennsylvania , eastern New York , and Vermont received snowfall in excess of 20 in ( 51 cm ) , including 29 @.@ 8 in ( 760 mm ) at Burlington , 26 @.@ 4 in ( 67 cm ) at Albany , and 21 @.@ 9 in ( 56 cm ) at Binghamton , New York . Accumulations locally exceeded 40 in ( 100 cm ) , with 45 in ( 110 cm ) measured at Waitsfield , Vermont and 48 in ( 120 cm ) in the small village of East Wallingford , Vermont . The storm remains one of the greatest on record in cities like Albany and Burlington , and contributed to high monthly snowfall totals ; in Albany , December 1969 stands as the snowiest documented month , with 57 @.@ 5 in ( 146 cm ) . Throughout the region , the weight of the snow , combined with gale @-@ force winds , collapsed roofs and brought down power lines . The winds blew snow from this and previous storms into drifts as high as 30 ft ( 9 m ) , blocking roads and leaving some communities isolated . In some areas , travel was only possible with snowmobiles , which were used by emergency workers to deliver emergency supplies as needed . Rescuers also used snowmobiles and aircraft to search for stranded residents and travelers . Many cities and counties throughout the Northeast issued snow emergencies . Business and industry suffered extensively in the days following the storm .
While major highways were generally cleared by December 29 , some local roads reportedly remained covered for up to a month . About 230 mi ( 370 km ) of the New York State Thruway — nearly half its total length — was closed for 27 hours . The snowfall also caused widespread property damage , as the roofs of barns , sheds , and other buildings caved in under the weight of the snow . An airport hangar in Oneonta collapsed , destroying five aircraft inside . In the aftermath of the storm , many homes sustained water damage from melting snow . " Innumerable " traffic accidents were reported , and many motorists became stranded or were forced to abandon their vehicles . Four people in a stalled automobile died of carbon monoxide . Also in New York , one man froze to death , and three individuals were killed in a building collapse . In the Capital District , the snow fell with a high water content , occasionally mixing with freezing rain . As a result , it was much denser than normal and proved difficult to manage . The City of Albany spent a record $ 2 million USD on snow removal , and the city restricted nearly all traffic except for vehicles necessary to maintain emergency supplies . Governor Nelson Rockefeller closed state offices in Albany on December 29 and 30 , in an effort to enable efficient snow removal . Mayor Erastus Corning 2nd assessed the situation as a " dire emergency " .
Governor Deane C. Davis of Vermont declared a state of emergency and ordered the National Guard to assist with cleanup efforts . Blowing snow continuously blocked roads after being cleared , and snow removal vehicles , not equipped to withstand the excessive snow , began experiencing mechanical issues . The storm left some communities without power or telephone service for up to two days , although isolated outages persisted longer . One person died in Saxtons River . With roads impassable in both New York and New England , tank trucks could not reach dairy farmers , who were in some cases forced to discard thousands of gallons of milk . In other cases , power outages rendered equipment useless , requiring milking to be done manually . One person in New Hampshire died of exhaustion during the storm .
The influx of warm , moist air over a wedge of cold air near the surface resulted in a severe ice storm across central and northern New England , most notably in the upper Connecticut River Valley . Glaze ice thicker than 2 in ( 51 mm ) , and reportedly up to 6 in ( 150 mm ) thick in Vermont , built up on trees and power lines , wreaking " unbelievable " havoc . In the hardest @-@ hit areas , damage from the ice storm was comparable to that caused by the 1938 New England hurricane . The combined load of snow and ice caused significant damage to many residential and industrial buildings , with several factory and warehouse roofs collapsing . Livestock were killed in multiple rural building collapses throughout the area . Southern Maine endured its second damaging ice storm in a week , with many of the same communities losing power on both occasion . Precipitation also transitioned to freezing rain and sleet across interior Connecticut , where the dangerous conditions induced numerous traffic accidents . Due to the abnormally cold temperatures in the wake of the storm , the glaze persisted for up to six weeks , much longer than the typical three days for ice storms in New England .
The changeover to heavy rain in southern and eastern New England swelled frozen rivers , creating ice jams which induced severe flooding . Flooding of roadways and homes was compounded by drainage issues from the dense snowcover . Rising floodwaters forced hundreds of families to leave their homes in Massachusetts , New Hampshire , and Maine . Up to 4 in ( 100 mm ) of rain fell in the Boston region , where thousands of homes were inundated . Rivers had begun to recede by December 29 after cresting well above flood stage . Up to 4 in ( 100 mm ) of rain fell over Rhode Island after 6 to 11 in ( 15 to 28 cm ) of snow , with widespread flooding reported in multiple towns . Frequent automobile accidents and large traffic jams were reported in the state . Winds were strongest in Cape Cod , Massachusetts , where gusts peaked near 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The gales were particularly damaging to trees laden with snow and ice . The heavy rainfall in eastern Massachusetts added tremendous weigh to the snow that had already fallen , causing roof collapses and making it difficult to clear the snow . In southeastern New Hampshire , the strong winds toppled trees and blew out windows in Hampton Beach . Although the coastal plain of New England avoided the heaviest snow accumulations , pounding surf and strong winds battered piers , boats , and other coastal installations , while low @-@ lying areas experienced storm surge flooding .
= = = Quebec = = =
The storm dropped up to 30 in ( 75 cm ) of snow in southern Quebec , where wind gusts up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) damaged buildings and brought down power lines . Over a period of 60 hours , 27 @.@ 5 in ( 70 cm ) of snow fell at Montreal in what was then the city 's heaviest snowfall on record . Rail , air , and automobile transportation were paralyzed . One individual in Quebec City was struck and killed by a snowplow , and two more died of exposure to cold while ice fishing on the St. Lawrence River . Several fires broke out in Montreal during the storm , killing at least six people and leaving 23 families homeless . In total , the storm was connected to at least 15 fatalities in the province .
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= Alekseyev I @-@ 212 =
The Alekseyev I @-@ 212 was a twin @-@ engined , jet fighter designed in the USSR in 1947 at OKB @-@ 21 ( OKB - experimental design bureau ) . It was a two @-@ seat variant of the I @-@ 21 ( Istrebitel ' - Fighter ) designed in response to a requirement for a very long @-@ range fighter issued by the Voenno @-@ Vozdushnye Sily ( VVS ) , ( Soviet Air Forces ) , in 1946 . Intended as an escort fighter , it was also designed for use as a night fighter and reconnaissance aircraft . Sources are unclear whether a prototype was built , but it is known that the aircraft never flew .
= = Development = =
After working as Lavochkin 's right @-@ hand man during World War II , Semyon Alekseyev was appointed as Chief Designer of OKB @-@ 21 at Gor 'kiy in 1946 . The Council of the People 's Commissars directed Alekseyev , among others , to develop jet fighters using more powerful engines than the captured German examples and Soviet @-@ built copies . The OKB was tasked to design a single @-@ seat jet fighter that could meet the very demanding specification of a maximum speed of 980 km / h ( 610 mph ) and a range of 3 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) with drop tanks . The OKB responded with the I @-@ 21 , which was planned to be built in several variants .
Development of the I @-@ 212 , one such variant , began in 1947 as a twin @-@ engined , all @-@ metal , two @-@ seat jet fighter . The round , streamlined fuselage was optimized to reduce drag and house the considerable amount of equipment and fuel required by the VVS . It had mid @-@ mounted straight laminar flow wings and the engine nacelles were mounted in the middle of the wing , with the wing spars continued by banjo rings around the engines . The cruciform tail unit was swept at 45 ° . To save weight , the main load @-@ bearing structures of the airframe were constructed from V @-@ 95 aluminum alloy and high @-@ strength steel . Elektron ( a magnesium alloy ) was used for many components and castings . The aircraft used a tricycle undercarriage with the main wheels retracting into the fuselage . Hydraulically actuated air brakes were fitted either side of the rear fuselage .
The pilot and gunner / radio operator sat in tandem , back to back in a single pressurized cockpit , protected by armour plates to their front and rear , as well as by a bulletproof windscreen , seated on ejection seats . The aircraft was intended to use Klimov VK @-@ 1 engines , a derivative of the Rolls @-@ Royce Nene , but the Klimov engine was still under development , so Kuznetsov RD @-@ 45s were substituted instead . The aircraft carried a Toryii @-@ 1 radar for use by the gunner / radio operator .
Armament was to have been mounted in the nose and a remote controlled tail barbette , with variations of 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) Berezin B @-@ 20 cannon , or 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 906 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon in a remote @-@ controlled barbette and 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 906 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon , 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 457 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 37 cannon and 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 772 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 45 in the nose of the aircraft . A single hardpoint under each wing could carry a single 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bomb or a drop tank carrying 550 kg ( 1 @,@ 210 lb ) of fuel .
A prototype reportedly began taxiing tests on 30 June 1948 , but there is no evidence that it flew at any time , however , it is also unclear if a prototype was actually built . A training version designated UTI @-@ 212 was planned if the aircraft had gone into production . The I @-@ 217 variant , in two versions with forward @-@ swept and sweptback wings , did not proceed beyond the drawing board .
= = Variants = =
I @-@ 212
Initial version , never built .
I @-@ 214
Proposed version with the tail barbette replaced with a rearwards @-@ facing radar and heavier forward @-@ facing armament .
I @-@ 217
Project with forward @-@ swept and sweptback wings .
UTI @-@ 212
Proposed training variant of the I @-@ 212 .
= = Specifications ( I @-@ 212 RD @-@ 45 engines ) = =
Data from The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1875 @-@ 1995 , Early Soviet Jet Fighters
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 13 @.@ 08 m ( 42 ft 11 in )
Wingspan : 16 @.@ 2 m ( 53 ft 2 in )
Wing area : 33 m2 ( 360 sq ft )
Gross weight : 9 @,@ 250 kg ( 20 @,@ 393 lb )
Max takeoff weight : 10 @,@ 500 kg ( 23 @,@ 149 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Kuznetsov RD @-@ 45 centrifugal compressor turbojet , 22 kN ( 5 @,@ 000 lbf ) thrust each
Performance
Maximum speed : 1 @,@ 000 km / h ( 621 mph ; 540 kn )
Range : 2 @,@ 300 km ( 1 @,@ 429 mi ; 1 @,@ 242 nmi )
Ferry range : 3 @,@ 100 km ( 1 @,@ 926 mi ; 1 @,@ 674 nmi )
Service ceiling : 14 @,@ 800 m ( 48 @,@ 556 ft )
Rate of climb : 30 m / s ( 5 @,@ 900 ft / min )
Armament
Guns :
4x 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 906 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon with 150 rpg .
2x 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) Berezin B @-@ 20 cannon in a remote @-@ controlled tail barbette .
or
1 × 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 457 in ) Nudel 'man N @-@ 37 cannon .
2 × 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 906 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon .
2x 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) Berezin B @-@ 20 cannon in a remote @-@ controlled tail barbette .
or
2x 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 906 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon with 150 rpg .
1x 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 772 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 45 cannon with 40 rpg .
2x 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 906 in ) Nudel 'man Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon in a remote @-@ controlled barbette .
Hardpoints : 2 with provisions to carry combinations of :
Bombs : 2x 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bombs .
or
Other : 2x 550 kg ( 1 @,@ 210 lb ) capacity drop tanks .
Avionics
Toryii @-@ 1 radar , Navigation aids and radios .
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= Georgia ( U.S. state ) =
Georgia ( / ˈdʒɔːrdʒə / JOR @-@ juh ) is a state located in the southeastern United States . It was established in 1732 , the last of the original Thirteen Colonies . Named after King George II of Great Britain , Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution , on January 2 , 1788 . It declared its secession from the Union on January 19 , 1861 , and was one of the original seven Confederate states . It was the last state to be restored to the Union , on July 15 , 1870 . Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States . From 2007 to 2008 , 14 of Georgia 's counties ranked among the nation 's 100 fastest @-@ growing , second only to Texas . Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South . Atlanta is the state 's capital and its most populous city .
Georgia is bordered on the south by Florida , on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina , on the west by Alabama , and on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina . The northern part of the state is in the Blue Ridge Mountains , part of the Appalachian Mountains system . The Piedmont extends through the central part of the state from the foothills of the Blue Ridge to the Fall Line , where the rivers cascade down in elevation to the coastal plain of the southern part of the state . The highest point in Georgia is Brasstown Bald at 4 @,@ 784 feet ( 1 @,@ 458 m ) above sea level ; the lowest point is the Atlantic Ocean . Georgia is the largest state east of the Mississippi River in land area .
= = History = =
Before settlement by Europeans , Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures . The British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12 , 1733 . The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by ( and named for ) King George II . The Trustees implemented an elaborate plan for the colony 's settlement , known as the Oglethorpe Plan , which envisioned an agrarian society of yeoman farmers and prohibited slavery . In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins ' Ear . In 1752 , after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony , the Trustees turned over control to the crown . Georgia became a crown colony , with a governor appointed by the king .
The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence . The State of Georgia 's first constitution was ratified in February 1777 . Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24 , 1778 , and was the 4th state to ratify the current Constitution on January 2 , 1788 .
In 1829 , gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains , which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega , which continued its operation until 1861 . The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to take land from the Cherokee Nation . In 1830 , President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law , sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present @-@ day Oklahoma , including all of Georgia 's tribes . Despite the Supreme Court 's ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries , President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling . In 1838 , his successor , Martin Van Buren , dispatched federal troops to gather the Cherokee and deport them west of the Mississippi . This forced relocation , known as the Trail of Tears , led to the death of over 4 @,@ 000 Cherokees .
In early 1861 , Georgia joined the Confederacy and became a major theater of the Civil War . Major battles took place at Chickamauga , Kennesaw Mountain , and Atlanta . In December 1864 , a large swath of the state from Atlanta to Savannah was destroyed during General William Tecumseh Sherman 's March to the Sea . 18 @,@ 253 Georgian soldiers died in service , roughly 1 of every 5 who served . In 1870 , following reconstruction , Georgia became the last Confederate state restored to the Union .
With white Democrats having regained power in the state legislature , they passed a poll tax in 1877 , which disenfranchised many poor blacks and whites , preventing them from registering . In 1908 , the state established a white primary ; with the only competitive contests within the Democratic Party , it was another way to exclude blacks from politics . They constituted 46 @.@ 7 % of the state 's population in 1900 , but the proportion of Georgia 's population that was African American dropped thereafter to 28 % primarily due to leaving the state during the Great Migration . This disfranchisement persisted through the mid @-@ 1960s , until federal legislation with the Voting Rights Act of 1965 .
= = Geography = =
= = = Boundaries = = =
Beginning from the Atlantic Ocean , the state 's eastern border with South Carolina runs up the Savannah River , northwest to its origin at the confluence of the Tugaloo and Seneca Rivers . It then continues up the Tugaloo ( originally Tugalo ) and into the Chattooga River , its most significant tributary . These bounds were decided in the 1797 Treaty of Beaufort , and tested in the U.S. Supreme Court in the two Georgia v. South Carolina cases in 1923 and 1989 .
The border then takes a sharp turn around the tip of Rabun County , at latitude 35 ° N , though from this point it diverges slightly south ( due to inaccuracies in the original survey ) . This was originally the Georgia and North Carolina border all the way back to the Mississippi River , until Tennessee was divided from North Carolina , and the Yazoo companies induced the legislature of Georgia to pass an act , approved by the governor in 1795 , to sell the greater part of Georgia 's territory presently comprising Alabama and Mississippi .
The state 's western border then departs in another straight line south @-@ southeastward , at a point southwest of Chattanooga , to meet the westernmost point of the Chattahoochee River near West Point . It continues down to the point where it ends at the Flint River ( the confluence of the two forming Florida 's Apalachicola River ) , and goes almost due east and very slightly south , in a straight line to the origin of the St. Mary 's River , which then forms the remainder of the boundary back to the ocean .
The water boundaries are still set to be the original thalweg of the rivers . Since then , several have been inundated by lakes created by dams , including the Apalachicola / Chattahoochee / Flint point now under Lake Seminole .
Georgia state legislators have claimed that in an 1818 survey , the state 's border with Tennessee was erroneously placed one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) farther south than intended , and they proposed a correction in 2010 . The state was then in the midst of a significant drought , and the new border would allow Georgia access to water from the Tennessee River .
= = = Geology and terrain = = =
Each region has its own distinctive characteristics . For instance , the Ridge and Valley , which lies in the northwest corner of the state , includes limestone , sandstone , shale and other sedimentary rocks , which have yielded construction @-@ grade limestone , barite , ocher , and small amounts of coal .
= = = Flora = = =
The state of Georgia has approximately 250 tree species and 58 protected plants . Georgia 's native trees include red cedar , a variety of pines , oaks , hollies , cypress , sweetgum , scaly @-@ bark and white hickories and sabal palmetto . East Georgia is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and conifer species as other broadleaf evergreen flora make up the majority of the southern and coastal regions . Yellow jasmine , and mountain laurel make up just a few of the flowering shrubs in the state .
= = = Fauna = = =
White @-@ tailed ( Virginia ) deer are in nearly all counties . The northern mockingbird and brown thrasher are among the 160 bird species that live in the state .
Reptiles and amphibians include the eastern diamondback , copperhead , and cottonmouth , salamanders , frogs , alligators and toads . There are about 79 species of reptile and 63 amphibians known to live in Georgia .
The most popular freshwater game fish are trout , bream , bass , and catfish , all but the last of which are produced in state hatcheries for restocking . Popular saltwater game fish include red drum , spotted seatrout , flounder , and tarpon . Porpoises , whales , shrimp , oysters , and blue crabs are found inshore and offshore of the Georgia coast .
= = = Climate = = =
The majority of the state is primarily a humid subtropical climate . Hot and humid summers are typical , except at the highest elevations . The entire state , including the North Georgia mountains , receives moderate to heavy precipitation , which varies from 45 inches ( 1143 mm ) in central Georgia to approximately 75 inches ( 1905 mm ) around the northeast part of the state . The degree to which the weather of a certain region of Georgia is subtropical depends on the latitude , its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico , and the elevation . The latter factor is felt chiefly in the mountainous areas of the northern part of the state , which are farther away from the ocean and can be 4500 feet ( 1350 m ) above sea level . The USDA Plant hardiness zones for Georgia range from zone 6b ( no colder than − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) ) in the Blue Ridge Mountains to zone 8b ( no colder than 15 ° F ( − 9 ° C ) ) along the Atlantic coast and Florida border .
The highest temperature ever recorded is 112 ° F ( 44 @.@ 4 ° C ) in Louisville on July 24 , 1952 , while the lowest is − 17 ° F ( − 27 @.@ 2 ° C ) in northern Floyd County on January 27 , 1940 . Georgia is one of the leading states in frequency of tornadoes , though they are rarely stronger than F1 . Although tornadoes striking the city are very rare , a F2 nonviolent tornado hit downtown Atlanta on March 14 , 2008 , causing moderate to severe damage to various buildings . With a coastline on the Atlantic Ocean , Georgia is also vulnerable to hurricanes , although direct hurricane strikes were rare during the 20th century . Georgia often is affected by hurricanes that strike the Florida panhandle , weaken over land , and bring strong tropical storm winds and heavy rain to the interior , as well as hurricanes that come close to the Georgia coastline , brushing the coast on their way north .
= = Demographics = =
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Georgia was 10 @,@ 214 @,@ 860 on July 1 , 2015 , a 5 @.@ 44 % increase since the 2010 United States Census .
In 2015 , Georgia had an estimated population of 10 @,@ 214 @,@ 860 which was an increase of 117 @,@ 517 from the previous year , and an increase of 527 @,@ 207 since 2010 . This includes a natural increase since the last census of 438 @,@ 939 people ( that is 849 @,@ 414 births minus 410 @,@ 475 deaths ) and an increase from net migration of 606 @,@ 673 people into the state . Immigration resulted in a net increase of 228 @,@ 415 people , and migration within the country produced a net increase of 378 @,@ 258 people .
As of 2010 , the state has the sixth highest number of illegal immigrants in the country . There were 35 @,@ 000 in 1990 ; the count more than doubled from January 2000 to January 2009 , at 480 @,@ 000 .
There were 743 @,@ 000 veterans in 2009 .
= = = Race and age = = =
According to the 2010 United States Census , Georgia had a population of 9 @,@ 687 @,@ 653 . In terms of race and ethnicity , the state was 59 @.@ 7 % White ( 55 @.@ 9 % Non @-@ Hispanic White Alone ) , 30 @.@ 5 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 3 % American Indian and Alaska Native , 3 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander , 4 @.@ 0 % from Some Other Race , and 2 @.@ 1 % from Two or More Races . Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 8 @.@ 8 % of the population .
As of 2011 , 58 @.@ 8 % of Georgia 's population younger than age 1 were minorities ( meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non @-@ Hispanic white ) compared to other states like California with 75 @.@ 1 % , New York with 55 @.@ 6 % , and Texas with 69 @.@ 8 % .
The largest European ancestry groups are :
English 8 @.@ 1 %
Irish 8 @.@ 1 %
German 7 @.@ 2 %
In the 1980 census 1 @,@ 584 @,@ 303 Georgians claimed English ancestry out of a total state population of 3 @,@ 994 @,@ 817 , making them 40 % of the state , and the largest ethnic group at the time . Today , many of these same people claiming that they are of " American " ancestry are actually of English descent , and some are of Scots @-@ Irish descent ; however , their families have lived in the state for so long , in many cases since the colonial period , that they choose to identify simply as having " American " ancestry or do not in fact know their own ancestry . Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies and for this reason many of them today simply claim " American " ancestry , though they are of predominately English ancestry .
As of 2004 , 7 @.@ 7 % of Georgia 's population was reported as under 5 years of age , 26 @.@ 4 % under 18 , and 9 @.@ 6 % were 65 or older . Also as of 2004 , females made up approximately 50 @.@ 6 % of the population and African Americans made up approximately 29 @.@ 6 % .
Historically , about half of Georgia 's population was composed of African Americans who , before the Civil War , were almost exclusively enslaved . The Great Migration of hundreds of thousands of blacks from the rural South to the industrial North from 1914 – 70 reduced the African American population .
Georgia had the second @-@ fastest @-@ growing Asian population growth in the U.S. from 1990 to 2000 , more than doubling in size during the ten @-@ year period . In addition , according to census estimates , Georgia ranks third among the states in terms of the percent of the total population that is African American ( after Mississippi and Louisiana ) and third in numerical Black population after New York and Florida . Georgia was the state with the largest numerical increase in the black population from 2006 to 2007 with 84 @,@ 000 .
Georgia is the state with the third @-@ lowest percentage of older people ( 65 or older ) , at 10 @.@ 1 percent ( as of 2008 ) .
The colonial settlement of large numbers of Scottish American , English American and Scotch @-@ Irish Americans in the mountains and piedmont , and coastal settlement by some English Americans and African Americans , have strongly influenced the state 's culture in food , language and music . The concentration of Africans imported to coastal areas in the 18th century repeatedly from rice @-@ growing regions of West Africa led to the development of Gullah @-@ Geechee language and culture in the Low Country among African Americans . They share a unique heritage in which African traditions of food , religion and culture were continued more than in some other areas . In the creolization of Southern culture , their foodways became an integral part of all Southern cooking in the Low Country .
= = = Languages = = =
As of 2010 , 87 @.@ 35 % ( 7 @,@ 666 @,@ 663 ) of Georgia residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language , while 7 @.@ 42 % ( 651 @,@ 583 ) spoke Spanish , 0 @.@ 51 % ( 44 @,@ 702 ) Korean , 0 @.@ 44 % ( 38 @,@ 244 ) Vietnamese , 0 @.@ 42 % ( 36 @,@ 679 ) French , 0 @.@ 38 % ( 33 @,@ 009 ) Chinese ( which includes Mandarin ) , and German , which was spoken as a main language by 0 @.@ 29 % ( 23 @,@ 351 ) of the population over the age of five . In total , 12 @.@ 65 % ( 1 @,@ 109 @,@ 888 ) of Georgia 's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English .
= = = Major cities = = =
Populations indicated above are the latest 2015 estimates from the US Census Bureau . In 2012 , voters in Macon and Bibb County approved the consolidation of the city of Macon and unincorporated Bibb County , and they officially merged on January 1 , 2014 . Macon joined Columbus , Augusta , and Athens as consolidated cities in Georgia .
The U.S. Census Bureau lists fourteen metropolitan areas in Georgia . The largest , Atlanta , is the ninth most populous metro area in the United States .
= = = Religion = = =
The composition of religious affiliation in Georgia is 70 % Protestant , 9 % Catholic , 1 % Mormon , 1 % Jewish , 0 @.@ 5 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 5 % Buddhist and 0 @.@ 5 % Hindu . Atheists , deists , agnostics and other unaffiliated people make up 13 % of the population . The largest Christian denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 1 @,@ 759 @,@ 317 ; the United Methodist Church with 619 @,@ 394 ; and the Roman Catholic Church with 596 @,@ 384 . Non @-@ denominational Evangelical Protestant had 566 @,@ 782 members , the Church of God ( Cleveland , Tennessee ) has 175 @,@ 184 members , and the National Baptist Convention , USA , Inc. has 172 @,@ 982 members . The Presbyterian Church ( USA ) is the largest Presbyterian body in the state , with 300 congregations and 100 @,@ 000 members . The other large body , Presbyterian Church in America , had at its founding date 14 congregations and 2 @,@ 800 members ; in 2010 it counted 139 congregations and 32 @,@ 000 members . The Roman Catholic Church is noteworthy in Georgia 's urban areas , and includes the Archdiocese of Atlanta and the Diocese of Savannah . Georgia is home to the largest Hindu temple in the United States , the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir Atlanta . Georgia is home to several historical synagogues including The Temple ( Atlanta ) , Congregation Beth Jacob ( Atlanta ) , and Congregation Mickve Israel ( Savannah ) . Chabad and the Rohr Jewish Learning Institute are also active in the state .
= = Government = =
= = = State government = = =
As with all other US states and the federal government , Georgia 's government is based on the separation of legislative , executive , and judicial power . Executive authority in the state rests with the governor , currently Nathan Deal ( Republican ) . Both the Governor of Georgia and lieutenant governor are elected on separate ballots to four @-@ year terms of office . Unlike the federal government , but like many other U.S. States , most of the executive officials who comprise the governor 's cabinet are elected by the citizens of Georgia rather than appointed by the governor .
Legislative authority resides in the General Assembly , composed of the Senate and House of Representatives . The Lieutenant Governor presides over the Senate , while members of the House of Representatives select their own Speaker . The Georgia Constitution mandates a maximum of 56 senators , elected from single @-@ member districts , and a minimum of 180 representatives , apportioned among representative districts ( which sometimes results in more than one representative per district ) ; there are currently 56 senators and 180 representatives . The term of office for senators and representatives is two years . The laws enacted by the General Assembly are codified in the Official Code of Georgia Annotated .
The present Code is descendant of the first successfully enacted attempt in any English @-@ speaking jurisdiction at a comprehensive codification of the substance of the common law , the Code of Georgia of 1861 . Georgia stands alone as the only U.S. state to enact a full codification of the common law of contracts , torts , property and domestic relations that was completely independent of the work of David Dudley Field II . This resulted from the breakdown in North @-@ South communications preceding the Civil War , which meant that the Georgia codifiers and Field were unaware of each other 's work . ( The four other common law states that pursued such codification enacted versions of Field 's civil code . )
State judicial authority rests with the state Supreme Court and Court of Appeals , which have statewide authority . In addition , there are smaller courts which have more limited geographical jurisdiction , including Superior Courts , State Courts , Juvenile Courts , Magistrate Courts and Probate Courts . Justices of the Supreme Court and judges of the Court of Appeals are elected statewide by the citizens in non @-@ partisan elections to six @-@ year terms . Judges for the smaller courts are elected to four @-@ year terms by the state 's citizens who live within that court 's jurisdiction .
= = = Local government = = =
Georgia consists of 159 counties , second only to Texas , with 254 . Georgia had 161 counties until the end of 1931 , when Milton and Campbell were merged into the existing Fulton . Some counties have been named for prominent figures in both American and Georgian history , and many bear names with Native American origin . Counties in Georgia have their own elected legislative branch , usually called the Board of Commissioners , which usually also has executive authority in the county . Several counties have a sole Commissioner form of government , with legislative and executive authority vested in a single person . Georgia is the only state with Sole Commissioner counties . Georgia 's Constitution provides all counties and cities with " home rule " authority . The county commissions have considerable power to pass legislation within their county , as a municipality would .
Georgia recognizes all local units of government as cities , so every incorporated town is legally a city . Georgia does not provide for townships or independent cities , though there have been bills proposed in the Legislature to provide for townships ; it does allow consolidated city @-@ county governments by local referendum . All of Georgia 's second @-@ tier cities except Savannah have now formed consolidated city @-@ county governments by referendum : Columbus ( in 1970 ) , Athens ( 1990 ) , Augusta ( 1995 ) , and Macon ( 2012 ) . ( Augusta and Athens have excluded one or more small , incorporated towns within their consolidated boundaries , while Macon has excluded a small unincorporated area ; Columbus eventually absorbed all smaller incorporated entities within its consolidated boundaries . ) The small town of Cusseta adopted a consolidated city @-@ county government in 2003 .
There is no true metropolitan government in Georgia , though the Atlanta Regional Commission ( ARC ) and Georgia Regional Transportation Authority do provide some services , and the ARC must approve all major land development projects in the Atlanta metropolitan area .
= = = Elections = = =
Until 1964 , Georgia 's state government had the longest unbroken record of single @-@ party dominance , by the Democratic Party , of any state in the Union . This record was established largely due to the disenfranchisement of most blacks and many poor whites by the state in its constitution and laws in the early 20th century . Some elements , such as requiring payment of poll taxes and passing literacy tests , prevented blacks from registering to vote ; their exclusion from the political system lasted into the 1960s and reduced the Republican Party to a non @-@ competitive status in the early 20th century .
White Democrats regained power after Reconstruction due in part to the efforts of some using intimidation and violence , but this method came into disrepute . In 1900 , shortly before Georgia adopted a disfranchising constitutional amendment in 1908 , blacks comprised 47 % of the state 's population and , rather than using intimidation and violence , the 1908 amendment successfully disenfranchised blacks and poor whites to the extent of half the state population by requiring that any male at least 21 years of age wanting to register to vote must also : ( a ) be of good character and able to pass a test on citizenship , ( b ) be able to read and write provisions of the U.S. and Georgia constitutions , or ( c ) own at least 40 acres of land or $ 500 in property . Any Georgian who had fought in any war from the American Revolution through the Spanish – American War was exempted from these additional qualifications . More importantly , any Georgian descended from a veteran of any of these wars also was exempted . Because by 1908 many white Georgia males were grandsons of veterans and / or owned the required property , the exemption and the property requirement basically allowed only well @-@ to @-@ do whites to vote , the qualifications of good character , citizenship knowledge , literacy , and property ownership in turn effectively applied to blacks and poor whites such that they had difficulty meeting the requirements and were thus barred from voter registration . In the early 20th century , Progressives promoted electoral reform and reducing the power of ward bosses to clean up politics . However , additional rules such as the eight @-@ box law continued to effectively closed out people who were illiterate . White , one @-@ party rule was solidified .
For more than 130 years , from 1872 to 2003 , Georgians nominated and elected only white Democratic governors , and white Democrats held the majority of seats in the General Assembly . Most of the Democrats elected throughout these years were Southern Democrats , who were fiscally and socially conservative by national standards . This voting pattern continued after the segregationist period .
Segregation was ended by court orders in the 1960s . According to the 1960 census , the proportion of Georgia 's population that was African American was 28 % ; many blacks had left the state in the Great Migration , and new generations of whites had come from migration and immigration . Following support from the national Democratic Party for the civil rights movement and especially civil rights legislation of 1964 and 1965 , most African @-@ American voters , as well as other minority voters , have largely supported the Democratic Party in Georgia . In the decades since the late 20th century , the white @-@ majority voters have increasingly supported Republicans for national and state offices .
In 2003 , incumbent moderate Democratic Governor Roy Barnes was defeated by Republican Sonny Perdue , a state legislator and former Democrat . While Democrats retained control of the State House , they lost their majority in the Senate when four Democrats switched parties . They lost the House in the 2004 election . Republicans then controlled all three partisan elements of the state government .
Even before 2003 , the state had become increasingly supportive of Republicans in Presidential elections . It has supported a Democrat for president only three times since 1960 . In 1976 and 1980 , native son Jimmy Carter carried the state ; in 1992 , the former Arkansas governor Bill Clinton narrowly won the state . Generally , Republicans are strongest in the predominantly white suburban ( especially the Atlanta suburbs ) and rural portions of the state . Many of these areas were represented by conservative Democrats in the state legislature well into the 21st century . One of the most conservative of these was U.S. Congressman Larry McDonald , former head of the John Birch Society , who died when the Soviet Union shot down KAL 007 near Sakhalin Island . Democratic candidates have tended to win a higher percentage of the vote in the areas where black voters are most numerous , as well as in the cities ( especially Atlanta and Athens ) , and the rural Black Belt region that passes through the central and southwestern portion of the state .
The ascendancy of the Republican Party in Georgia and in the South in general also resulted in Georgia U.S. House of Representatives member Newt Gingrich being elected as Speaker of the House following the election of a Republican majority in the House in 1994 . Gingrich served as Speaker until 1999 , when he resigned in the aftermath of the loss of House seats held by members of the GOP . Gingrich also mounted an unsuccessful bid for President in the 2012 election , but withdrew after winning only the South Carolina and Georgia primaries .
In recent events , Democrat Jim Martin ran against incumbent Republican Senator Saxby Chambliss . Chambliss failed to acquire the necessary 50 percent of votes , a Libertarian Party candidate receiving the remainder of votes . In the runoff election held on December 2 , 2008 , Chambliss became the second Georgia Republican to be reelected to the U.S. Senate .
As of the 2010 reapportionment , the state has 14 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives . These are held by 10 Republicans and 4 Democrats . The Georgia House of Representatives has 61 Democrats , 118 Republicans , and 1 Independent , while the Georgia Senate has 17 Democrats and 39 Republicans .
= = = Politics = = =
During the 1960s and 1970s , Georgia made significant changes in civil rights , governance , and economic growth focused on Atlanta . It was a bedrock of the emerging " New South " .
In the 21st century , many conservative Democrats , including former U.S. Senator and governor Zell Miller , have decided to support Republicans . The state 's socially conservative bent results in wide support for such measures as restrictions on abortion . In 2004 , a state constitutional amendment banning same @-@ sex marriages was approved by 76 % of voters . However , after the United States Supreme Court issued its ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges , all Georgia counties came into full compliance , recognizing the rights of same @-@ sex couples to marry in the State .
On April 1 , 2009 , Senate Resolution 632 passed by a vote of 43 – 1 . It reads in part :
Any Act by the Congress of the United States , Executive Order of the President of the United States of America or Judicial Order by the Judicatories of the United States of America which assumes a power not delegated to the government of the United States of America by the Constitution for the United States of America and which serves to diminish the liberty of any of the several States or their citizens shall constitute a nullification of the Constitution for the United States of America by the government of the United States of America .
On April 16 , Jay Bookman of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution wrote " It wasn 't quite the firing on Fort Sumter that launched the Civil War . But on April 1 , your Georgia Senate did threaten by a vote of 43 – 1 to secede from and even disband the United States . "
= = Economy = =
Georgia 's 2010 total gross state product was $ 403 billion . Its per capita personal income for 2011 put it 39th in the nation at $ 35,979.For years Georgia as a state has had the highest credit rating by Standard and Poor 's ( AAA ) and is one of only 15 states with a AAA rating . If Georgia were a stand @-@ alone country , it would be the 28th largest economy in the world .
There are 15 Fortune 500 companies and 26 Fortune 1000 companies with headquarters in Georgia , including such names as Home Depot , UPS , Coca @-@ Cola , Delta Air Lines , Aflac , Southern Company , and SunTrust Banks . Hartsfield @-@ Jackson Atlanta International Airport , the world 's busiest airport as measured by both passenger traffic and aircraft traffic , is located in Georgia . Georgia has over 1 @,@ 700 internationally headquartered facilities representing 43 countries , employing more than 112 @,@ 000 Georgians with an estimated capital investment of $ 23 billion .
Atlanta has a large effect on the state of Georgia and the Southeastern United States . Atlanta has been the site of growth in real estate , service , and the communications industries .
Tourism makes an important contribution to the economy .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Widespread farms produce peanuts , corn , and soybeans across middle and south Georgia . The state is the number one producer of pecans in the world , with the region around Albany in southwest Georgia being the center of Georgia 's pecan production . Gainesville in northeast Georgia touts itself as the Poultry Capital of the World . Georgia is in the top five blueberry producers in the United States .
Georgia 's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs , pecans , peaches , cotton , peanuts , rye , cattle , hogs , dairy products , turfgrass , timber , particularly pine trees , tobacco and vegetables .
= = = Mining = = =
Major products in the mineral industry include a variety of clays , stones , sands and the clay palygorskite , known as attapulgite .
= = = Industry = = =
Industry in Georgia is diverse .
The textile industry is located around the cities of Rome , Columbus , Augusta , Macon and along the I @-@ 75 corridor between Atlanta and Chattanooga , Tennessee , to include the towns of Cartersville , Calhoun , Ringgold and Dalton ( the Carpet Capital of the World ) .
In November 2009 , Kia started production at the first U.S. Kia Motors plant , Kia Motors Manufacturing Georgia in West Point .
Industrial output includes textiles and apparel , transportation equipment , food processing , paper products , chemical products , and electric equipment .
= = = Logistics = = =
The Georgia Ports Authority owns and operates four ports in the state : Port of Savannah , Port of Brunswick , Port Bainbridge , and Port Columbus . The Port of Savannah is the fourth largest seaport in the United States , importing and exporting a total of 2 @.@ 3 million TEUs per year . Several major companies including Target , IKEA , and Heineken operate distribution centers in close proximity to the Port of Savannah .
= = = Military = = =
Georgia has one of the largest military presences in the country . Several US military installations are located in the state including Fort Stewart , Hunter Army Airfield , Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay , Fort Benning , Moody Air Force Base , Robins Air Force Base , Fort Gordon , Marine Corps Logistics Base Albany , Dobbins Air Reserve Base , Coast Guard Air Station Savannah and Coast Guard Station Brunswick .
= = = Energy use and production = = =
Georgia 's electricity generation and consumption are among the highest in the United States , with natural gas being the primary electrical generation fuel , followed by coal . However , the state also has two nuclear power plants which contribute almost one fourth of Georgia 's electricity generation . In 2013 , the generation mix was 39 % gas , 35 % coal , 23 % nuclear , 3 % hydro and other renewable sources . The leading area of energy consumption is the industrial sector because Georgia " is a leader in the energy @-@ intensive wood and paper products industry " . Solar generated energy is becoming more in use with solar energy generators currently installed ranking Georgia 15th in the country in installed solar capacity . In 2013 , $ 189 million was invested in Georgia to install solar for home , business and utility use representing a 795 % increase over the previous year .
= = = State taxes = = =
Georgia has a progressive income tax structure with six brackets of state income tax rates that range from 1 % to 6 % . In 2009 , Georgians paid 9 % of their income in state and local taxes , compared to the US average of 9 @.@ 8 % of income . This ranks Georgia 25th among the states for total state and local tax burden . The state sales tax in Georgia is 4 % with additional percentages added through local options ( e.g. Special @-@ purpose local @-@ option sales tax or SPLOST ) , but there is no sales tax on prescription drugs , certain medical devices , or food items for home consumption .
The state legislature may allow municipalities to institute local sales taxes and special local taxes , such as the 2 % SPLOST tax and the 1 % sales tax for MARTA serviced counties . Excise taxes are levied on alcohol , tobacco , and motor fuel . Owners of real property in Georgia pay property tax to their county . All taxes are collected by the Georgia Department of Revenue and then properly distributed according to any agreements that each county has with its cities .
= = = Film = = =
The Georgia Film , Music and Digital Entertainment Office promotes filming in the state . Since 1972 , seven hundred film and television projects have been filmed on location in Georgia . In 2008 – 2009 , Georgia 's film and television industry created a $ 1 @.@ 15 billion economic impact on the state 's economy .
= = = Tourism = = =
In the Atlanta area , World of Coke , Georgia Aquarium , Zoo Atlanta and Stone Mountain are important tourist attractions . Stone Mountain is Georgia 's " most popular attraction " ; receiving over four million tourists per year . The Georgia Aquarium , in Atlanta , was the largest aquarium in the world in 2010 according to Guinness World Records .
Callaway Gardens , in western Georgia , is a family resort . The area is also popular with golfers .
The Savannah Historic District attracts over eleven million tourists each year .
The Golden Isles are a string of barrier islands off the Atlantic coast of Georgia near Brunswick that include beaches , golf courses and the Cumberland Island National Seashore .
Several sites honor the lives and careers of noted American leaders : the Little White House in Warm Springs , which served as the summer residence of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt while he was being treated for polio ; President Jimmy Carter 's hometown of Plains and the Carter Presidential Center in Atlanta ; the Martin Luther King , Jr . , National Historic Site in Atlanta , which is the final resting place of Martin Luther King , Jr. and Coretta Scott King ; and Atlanta 's Ebenezer Baptist Church , where Dr. King preached .
= = Cultural = =
= = = Fine and performing arts = = =
Georgia 's major fine art museums include the High Museum of Art and the Michael C. Carlos Museum , both in Atlanta ; the Georgia Museum of Art on the campus of the University of Georgia in Athens ; Telfair Museum of Art and the SCAD Museum of Art in Savannah ; and the Morris Museum of Art in Augusta .
The state theatre of Georgia is the Springer Opera House located in Columbus .
The Atlanta Opera brings opera to Georgia stages . The Atlanta Symphony Orchestra is the most widely recognized orchestra and largest arts organization in the southeastern United States .
There are a number of performing arts venues in the state , among the largest are the Fox Theatre , and the Alliance Theatre at the Woodruff Arts Center , both on Peachtree Street in Midtown Atlanta as well as the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre , located in Northwest Atlanta .
= = = Literature = = =
The rich heritage and southern antebellum atmosphere of Georgia has given rise to a great number of works such as Margaret Mitchell 's Gone with the Wind , Olive Ann Burns ' Cold Sassy Tree , and Alice Walker 's The Color Purple .
A number of noted authors , poets and playwrights have lived in Georgia such as James Dickey , Flannery O 'Connor , Sidney Lanier , Frank Yerby and Lewis Grizzard .
= = = Television = = =
Well @-@ known television shows set in Atlanta include , from Tyler Perry Studios , House of Payne and Tyler Perry 's Meet the Browns , The Real Housewives of Atlanta , the CBS sitcom Designing Women , Matlock , the popular AMC series The Walking Dead , Lifetime Drop Dead Diva , Rectify and numerous HGTV original productions .
The Dukes of Hazzard , a 1980s TV show that spun off several films , was set in the fictional Hazzard County , Georgia . The show was filmed at Warner Bros. back lot in Burbank , California and on location in Conyers and Covington , Georgia as well as some locations in Atlanta .
Also filmed in Georgia is The Vampire Diaries , using Covington as the setting for the fictional Mystic Falls .
= = = Music = = =
A number of notable musicians in various genres of popular music are from Georgia . Included is Ray Charles ( whose many hits include " Georgia on My Mind " , now the official state song ) , and Gladys Knight ( known for her Georgia @-@ themed song , " Midnight Train to Georgia " ) .
Rock groups from Georgia include the Atlanta Rhythm Section , The Black Crowes , and The Allman Brothers .
The university city of Athens sparked an influential rock music scene in the 1980s and 1990s . Among the groups achieving their initial prominence in that city were R.E.M. , Widespread Panic , and the B @-@ 52 's .
Since the 1990s , various hip @-@ hop and R & B musicians have included top @-@ selling artists such as Outkast , Usher , Ludacris , TLC , B.o.B. , and Ciara . Atlanta is mentioned in a number of these artists ' tracks , such as Usher 's " A @-@ Town Down " reference in his 2004 hit Yeah ! ( which also features Atlanta artists Lil Jon and Ludacris ) , Ludacris ' " Welcome to Atlanta " , Outkast 's album " ATLiens " , and B.o.B. ' s multiple references to Decatur , such as in his hit song " Strange Clouds " .
= = = Film = = =
Films set in Georgia include two pictures both set in Atlanta that were awarded the Oscar for Best Picture : , Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) and Driving Miss Daisy ( 1989 ) . Other films set in Georgia include Deliverance ( 1972 ) , which was based on the novel of the same name by James Dickey , and Parental Guidance ( 2012 ) .
= = = Sports = = =
Sports in Georgia include professional teams in all major sports , Olympic Games contenders and medalists , collegiate teams in major and small @-@ school conferences and associations , and active amateur teams and individual sports . The state of Georgia has a team in three major professional leagues — Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball , Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League , Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association — and in 2017 is scheduled to land a fourth with an expansion franchise in Major League Soccer .
The Georgia Bulldogs ( Southeastern Conference ) and Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets ( Atlantic Coast Conference ) are two major college football teams in the NCAA Division I FBS , where they have won multiple national championships .
The 1996 Summer Olympics took place in Atlanta . The stadium that was built to host various Olympic events was converted to Turner Field , the home of the Atlanta Braves .
The Masters golf tournament , the first of the PGA tour 's four " majors " , is held annually the second weekend of April at the Augusta National Golf Club . The Atlanta Motor Speedway hosts the Dixie 500 NASCAR Cup Series stock car race and Road Atlanta the Petit Le Mans endurance sports car race .
Atlanta 's Georgia Dome hosted Super Bowl XXVIII in 1994 and Super Bowl XXXIV in 2000 . The Georgia Dome hosted the NCAA Final Four Men 's Basketball National Championship in 2002 , 2007 , and 2013 . It hosted WWE 's WrestleMania XXVII in 2011 , an event which set an attendance record of 71 @,@ 617 . The dome is also the venue of the annual Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl post @-@ season college football games . Since 2004 the FIRST World Championships have been held there .
Professional baseball 's Ty Cobb was the first player inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame . He was from Narrows and was nicknamed " The Georgia Peach . "
= = Parks and recreational activities = =
There are 63 parks in Georgia , 48 of which are state parks and 15 that are historic sites , and numerous state wildlife preserves , under the supervision of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources . Other historic sites and parks are supervised by the National Park Service and include the Andersonville National Historic Site in Andersonville ; Appalachian National Scenic Trail ; Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area near Atlanta ; Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park at Fort Oglethorpe ; Cumberland Island National Seashore near St. Marys ; Fort Frederica National Monument on St. Simons Island ; Fort Pulaski National Monument in Savannah ; Jimmy Carter National Historic Site near Plains ; Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park near Kennesaw ; Martin Luther King , Jr . , National Historic Site in Atlanta ; Ocmulgee National Monument at Macon ; Trail of Tears National Historic Trail ; and the Okefenokee Swamp in Waycross , Georgia
Outdoor recreational activities include hiking along the Appalachian Trail ; Civil War Heritage Trails ; rock climbing and whitewater paddling . Other outdoor activities include hunting and fishing .
= = Education = =
Georgia county and city public school systems are administered by school boards with members elected at the local level . As of 2013 , all but 19 of 181 boards are elected from single @-@ member districts . Residents and activist groups in Fayette County , Georgia sued the board of commissioners and school board for maintaining an election system based on at @-@ large voting , which tended to increase the power of the majority and effectively prevented minority participation on elected local boards for nearly 200 years . A change to single @-@ member districts has resulted in the African @-@ American minority being able to elect representatives of its choice .
Georgia high schools ( grades nine through twelve ) are required to administer a standardized , multiple choice End of Course Test , or EOCT , in each of eight core subjects including algebra , geometry , U.S. history , economics , biology , physical science , Ninth Grade Literature and composition , and American literature . The official purpose of the tests is to assess " specific content knowledge and skills . " Although a minimum test score is not required for the student to receive credit in the course , completion of the test is mandatory . The EOCT score accounts for 15 % of a student 's grade in the course . The Georgia Milestone is taken by public school students in the state .
Georgia has almost 70 public colleges , universities , and technical colleges in addition to over 45 private institutes of higher learning . Among Georgia 's public universities is the flagship research university , University of Georgia , the oldest public university in the United States . The University System of Georgia is the presiding body over public education in the state . The System includes 29 institutions of higher learning . The System is governed by the Georgia Board of Regents .
The HOPE Scholarship , funded by the state lottery , is available to all Georgia residents who have graduated from high school or earned a General Educational Development certificate . The student must maintain a 3 @.@ 2 or higher grade point average and attend a public college or university in the state .
= = Media = =
The Atlanta metropolitan area is the ninth largest media market in the United States as ranked by Nielsen Media Research . The state 's other top markets are Savannah ( 95th largest ) , Augusta ( 115th largest ) , and Columbus ( 127th largest ) .
There are 48 television broadcast stations in Georgia including TBS , TNT , TCM , Cartoon Network , CNN and Headline News , all founded by notable Georgia resident Ted Turner .
By far , the largest daily newspaper in Georgia is the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution with a daily readership of 195 @,@ 592 and a Sunday readership of 397 @,@ 925 . Other large dailies include The Augusta Chronicle , the Columbus Ledger @-@ Enquirer , The Telegraph ( formerly The Macon Telegraph ) and the Savannah Morning News .
WSB @-@ AM in Atlanta was the first licensed radio station in the southeastern United States , signing on in 1922 . Georgia Public Radio has been in service since 1984 and , with the exception of Atlanta , it broadcasts daily on several FM ( and one AM ) stations across the state . Georgia Public Radio reaches nearly all of Georgia ( with the exception of the Atlanta area , which is served by WABE ) .
WSB @-@ TV in Atlanta is the state 's oldest television station , having begun operations in 1948 . WSB was only the second such operation founded in the Southern U.S. , trailing only WTVR in Richmond , Virginia .
Also the main headquarters of The Weather Channel is in Atlanta .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Transportation in Georgia is overseen by the Georgia Department of Transportation , a part of the executive branch of the state government . Georgia 's major Interstate Highways are I @-@ 20 , I @-@ 75 , I @-@ 85 , and I @-@ 95 . On March 18 , 1998 , the Georgia House of Representatives passed a resolution naming the portion of Interstate Highway 75 , which runs from the Chattahoochee River northward to the Tennessee state line the Larry McDonald Memorial Highway . Larry McDonald , a Democratic member of the House of Representatives , had been on Korean Air Lines Flight 007 when it was shot down by the Soviets on September 1 , 1983 .
Georgia 's primary commercial airport is Hartsfield – Jackson Atlanta International Airport ( ATL ) , and is the world 's busiest passenger airport . In addition to Hartsfield @-@ Jackson , there are eight other airports serving major commercial traffic in Georgia . Savannah / Hilton Head International Airport is the second @-@ busiest airport in the state as measured by passengers served , and is the only additional international airport . Other commercial airports ( ranked in order of passengers served ) are located in Augusta , Columbus , Albany , Macon , Brunswick , Valdosta , and Athens .
The Georgia Ports Authority manages two deepwater seaports , at Savannah and Brunswick , and two river ports , at Bainbridge and Columbus . The Port of Savannah is a major U.S. seaport on the Atlantic coast .
The Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority ( MARTA ) is the principal rapid transit system in the Atlanta metropolitan area . Formed in 1971 as strictly a bus system , MARTA operates a network of bus routes linked to a rapid transit system consisting of 48 miles ( 77 km ) of rail track with 38 train stations . MARTA operates almost exclusively in Fulton and DeKalb counties , with bus service to two destinations in Cobb county and the Cumberland Transfer Center next to the Cumberland Mall , and a single rail station in Clayton County at Hartsfield @-@ Jackson Atlanta International Airport . MARTA also operates a separate paratransit service for disabled customers . As of 2009 , the average total daily ridership for the system ( bus and rail ) was 482 @,@ 500 passengers .
= = = Health care = = =
The state has 151 general hospitals , over 15 @,@ 000 doctors and almost 6 @,@ 000 dentists . The state is ranked forty @-@ first in the percentage of residents who engage in regular exercise .
= = Cities = =
Atlanta , located in north @-@ central Georgia at the Eastern Continental Divide , has been Georgia 's capital city since 1868 . It is the most populous city in Georgia , with just over 420 @,@ 000 residents in 2010 .
The Atlanta metropolitan area is the cultural and economic center of the Southeast , and its population in 2010 was 5 @,@ 268 @,@ 860 , or 53 @.@ 6 % of Georgia 's total . Atlanta is the nation 's ninth largest metropolitan area .
The state has fourteen other cities with populations above 50 @,@ 000 ( based on 2012 census estimates ) . In descending order of size they are Columbus , Augusta , Macon , Savannah , Athens , Sandy Springs , Roswell , Albany , Johns Creek , Warner Robins , Alpharetta , Marietta , Valdosta and Smyrna .
Along with the rest of the Southeast , Georgia 's population continues to grow rapidly , with primary gains concentrated in urban areas . The population of the Atlanta metropolitan area added 1 @.@ 23 million people ( 24 percent ) between 2000 and 2010 , and Atlanta rose in rank from the eleventh largest metropolitan area in the United States to the ninth largest .
= = Notable people = =
Jimmy Carter , from Plains , Georgia , was President of the United States from 1977 to 1981 .
= = State symbols = =
Amphibian : American green tree frog
Bird : brown thrasher
Butterfly : eastern tiger swallowtail
Dance : square dance
Fish : largemouth bass
Flower : Cherokee rose
Food : grits , peach , Vidalia onion
Fossil : shark tooth
Gem : quartz
Insect : European honey bee
Mammal : White @-@ tailed deer
Marine mammal : right whale
Mineral : staurolite
Nicknames :
" Peach State "
" Empire State of the South "
Reptile : gopher tortoise
Rock : granite
Shell : knobbed whelk
Soil : Tifton
Song : " Georgia on My Mind "
Tree : live oak
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= Church of the Holy Mother of God , Asen 's Fortress =
The Church of the Holy Mother of God ( Bulgarian : църква " Света Богородица " , tsarkva " Sveta Bogoroditsa " ) is the popular name of a medieval Eastern Orthodox church located in Asen 's Fortress . It lies near Asenovgrad in the Rhodope Mountains of Plovdiv Province , south central Bulgaria . Constructed most likely in the 12th century , it features two stories , of which the upper story is the church proper and the lower story is of unclear function . The rectangular tower over the church 's narthex is regarded as the earliest preserved of its kind in the Balkans . Fragments of frescoes are visible on the walls of the church 's upper story .
= = Location and history = =
The Church of the Holy Mother of God lies on an elevation near the road from Plovdiv to Smolyan , 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) south of the town of Asenovgrad ( medieval Stenimachos ) . It forms part of a now mostly ruined castle known as Asen 's Fortress , of which the church is the best preserved building . The church is dated by most scholars to the 12th century ; however , some researchers place its construction in the 11th century and a few others in the 13th century .
Though the church is commonly known as the Church of the Holy Mother of God , this may well not have been its actual name . The dedication is alleged based on a partial Medieval Greek inscription in the church , which may have been a donor 's inscription . In the early 20th century , the part of the inscription that was still visible was deciphered as " ή παναγία τῆς Πετριζηώτης " , equivalent to " or the Mother of God of Petrich " . However , this was the name of the main church ( katholikon ) of the nearby Bachkovo Monastery , which makes it more likely that the inscription references the monastery and its relation to the church in Asen 's Fortress in some way , rather than providing the name of the church .
At the turn of the 20th century , the Church of the Holy Mother of God was the terminus of two rival religious processions organised by the ethnic Greek and Bulgarian communities of Asenovgrad . A Greek procession took place in 1899 and a comparable Bulgarian one was carried out several years later . These processions began after a man claimed to have seen lights and heard chants while passing near the then @-@ abandoned church . Both processions ended with a Divine Liturgy observed at night by the church .
After suffering damage during an earthquake in 1904 , the church was reconstructed by a team directed by architect Aleksandar Rashenov in 1936 . As of 2008 , it continues to function as a place of worship .
= = Architecture = =
The Church of the Holy Mother of God measures approximately 18 metres ( 59 ft ) in length , 7 metres ( 23 ft ) in width and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in height ( over 15 metres ( 49 ft ) according to other data ) . The walls of the church were constructed out of interchanging bands of stones and three rows of brickwork tied together with mortar . An exception is the north wall , which was built almost exclusively of stones , with only a single band of bricks . The walls vary from 0 @.@ 85 to 1 @.@ 15 m ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 8 ft ) in thickness .
The church features two stories : while the upper story was certainly the church proper and the place of liturgy , the role of the lower story is unclear . Its construction may have been necessitated due to the unfavourable rocky terrain , or it may have served as a tomb or a storage facility . The latter is considered more likely because no human remains have been discovered inside , even though the lower stories of similar churches were commonly used as tombs .
The church has a single elongated nave . It is surmounted by a dome and finishes with a single apse in its eastern part . The dome is supported by arches to the north and south and vaults to the west and east . The apse is five @-@ sided on the outside and round on the inside . To the west of it is the sanctuary which features three vaults which hosted the bema , the prothesis and the diaconicon . The sanctuary was separated from the rest of the nave via two pillars . Three buttresses support the south wall and the apse . The entrance to the church is on the south wall . The church has a total of 16 windows : three on the apse , one on the south wall , four on the north wall and one on the narthex .
To the west of the nave is a small narthex , which is topped by an unusual rectangular tower . The tower was used either as a bell tower or watchtower , or possibly both . It was accessible via wooden ladders on the inside and the outside . It features four wide vaulted windows in its upper part and a rectangular dome covered with roof tiles . According to art historian Robert G. Ousterhout , the tower of the Church of the Holy Mother of God is the earliest example of a belfry integrated into a church building and arranged above the narthex in Balkan architecture . This design would later establish itself as standard in the Balkans . The construction of an integrated tower has been attributed to either Western European or oriental ( Syriac or Armenian ) influences .
= = Decoration = =
The church 's exterior appearance has been described as " harmonic " , " graceful " and " proportionate " . The Church of the Holy Mother of God is richly decorated on the outside . Blind arches , a design element very typical for medieval Bulgarian architecture , feature prominently on the south facade and the dome . A large arch on the south wall ties together the lower and upper story . The apse is particularly richly decorated . Besides rows of elongated bricks , it also includes triangular shapes and lattice patterns above , both made of red bricks .
The church 's upper story features fragments of frescoes , mostly on the interior , though there are traces of mural painting on one of the blind arches as well . The interior includes images of the Baptism of Christ , Pilate 's Court , the Dormition of the Mother of God and the Crucifixion of Jesus . Among the portraits of saints that can be recognised are John the Baptist , the apostles Peter and Paul , Constantine and Helena and the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste . Military saints were depicted on the south wall , while the north wall mostly features monks . All of the preserved frescoes were done in the 14th century and are an example of Palaiologan art . All captions to the frescoes are in Medieval Greek .
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= Brown Dog affair =
The Brown Dog affair was a political controversy about vivisection that raged in England from 1903 until 1910 . It involved the infiltration by Swedish feminists of University of London medical lectures , pitched battles between medical students and the police , police protection for the statue of a dog , a libel trial at the Royal Courts of Justice , and the establishment of a Royal Commission to investigate the use of animals in experiments . The affair became a cause célèbre that divided the country .
The controversy was triggered by allegations that , in February 1903 , William Bayliss of the Department of Physiology at University College London performed an illegal vivisection , before an audience of 60 medical students , on a brown terrier dog – adequately anaesthetized , according to Bayliss and his team ; conscious and struggling , according to the Swedish activists . The procedure was condemned as cruel and unlawful by the National Anti @-@ Vivisection Society . Bayliss , whose research on dogs led to the discovery of hormones , was outraged by the assault on his reputation . He sued for libel and won .
Anti @-@ vivisectionists commissioned a bronze statue of the dog as a memorial , unveiled in Battersea in 1906 , but medical students were angered by its provocative plaque – " Men and women of England , how long shall these Things be ? " – leading to frequent vandalism of the memorial and the need for a 24 @-@ hour police guard against the so @-@ called anti @-@ doggers . On 10 December 1907 1 @,@ 000 medical students marched through central London waving effigies of the brown dog on sticks , clashing with suffragettes , trade unionists and 400 police officers , one of a series of battles known as the Brown Dog riots .
In March 1910 , tired of the controversy , Battersea Council sent four workers accompanied by 120 police officers to remove the statue under cover of darkness , after which it was reportedly melted down by the council 's blacksmith , despite a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong petition in its favour . A new statue of the brown dog was commissioned by anti @-@ vivisection groups over 70 years later , and was erected in Battersea Park in 1985 . Peter Mason wrote in 1997 that all that was left of the old statue was a hump in the pavement , the sign on a nearby fence reading " No Dogs . "
= = Background = =
= = = Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 = = =
There was significant opposition to vivisection in England , in both houses of parliament , during the 1837 – 1901 reign of Queen Victoria . The Queen herself was strongly opposed to it . The term vivisection referred to the dissection of living animals , with and without anaesthesia , often in front of audiences of medical students . There were around 300 experiments on animals in the UK in 1875 , a figure that had risen to 19 @,@ 084 in 1903 when the brown dog was vivisected , and 4 @.@ 11 million in 2012 , 4 @,@ 643 of them on dogs .
Physiologists in the 19th century were frequently criticized for their work , including the well @-@ known French physiologist Claude Bernard . Bernard appears to have shared the distaste of his critics , who included his wife , referring to " the science of life " as a " superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen . " Irish feminist Frances Power Cobbe founded the National Anti @-@ Vivisection Society ( NAVS ) in London in 1875 and the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection in 1898 . The former sought to restrict vivisection and the latter to abolish it .
The opposition led the British government , in July 1875 , to set up the first Royal Commission on the " Practice of Subjecting Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific Purposes . " After hearing that researchers did not use anaesthetics regularly , the Commission recommended a series of measures , including a ban on experiments on dogs , cats , horses , donkeys and mules . The General Medical Council and British Medical Journal objected , so additional protection was introduced instead . The result was the Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 , criticized by NAVS as " infamous but well @-@ named . "
The Act stipulated that researchers could not be prosecuted for cruelty , but that the animal must be anaesthetized , unless the anaesthesia would interfere with the point of the experiment . Each animal could be used only once , though several procedures regarded as part of the same experiment were permitted . The animal had to be killed when the study was over , unless doing so would frustrate the object of the experiment . Prosecutions could take place only with the approval of the Home Secretary . At the time of the Brown Dog affair this was Aretas Akers @-@ Douglas , who was unsympathetic to the anti @-@ vivisectionist cause .
= = = Ernest Starling and William Bayliss = = =
In the early twentieth century , Ernest Starling , Professor of Physiology at University College London , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law William Bayliss , were using vivisection on dogs to determine whether the nervous system controls pancreatic secretions , as postulated by Ivan Pavlov . According to Starling 's biographer , John Henderson , Starling and Bayliss were " compulsive experimenters , " and Starling 's lab was the busiest in London . Bayliss had held a licence to practice vivisection since 1890 and had taught physiology since 1900 .
The men knew that the pancreas produces digestive juices in response to increased acidity in the duodenum and jejunum , because of the arrival of chyme there . By severing the duodenal and jejunal nerves in anaesthetized dogs , while leaving the blood vessels intact , then introducing acid into the duodenum and jejunum , they discovered that the process is not mediated by a nervous response , but by a new type of chemical reflex . They named the chemical messenger secretin , because it is secreted by the intestinal lining into the bloodstream , stimulating the pancreas on circulation .
In 1905 Starling coined the term hormone – from the Greek hormao ὁρµάω meaning " I arouse " or " I excite " – to describe chemicals such as secretin that are capable , in extremely small quantities , of stimulating organs from a distance . Bayliss and Starling had also used vivisection on anaesthetized dogs to discover peristalsis in 1899 . They went on to discover a variety of other important physiological phenomena and principles , many of which were based on their experimental work involving animal vivisection .
= = = Lizzy Lind af Hageby and Leisa Schartau = = =
Starling and Bayliss 's lectures had been infiltrated by two Swedish feminists and anti @-@ vivisection activists , Lizzy Lind af Hageby and Leisa Katherine Schartau . The women had known each other since childhood and came from distinguished families . Lind af Hageby was the granddaughter of a chamberlain to the King of Sweden , the daughter of a former chief justice of Sweden , and had attended Cheltenham Ladies College in England . Schartau 's father was a Swedish army captain .
In 1900 the women visited the Pasteur Institute in Paris , a centre of animal experimentation , and were shocked by the rooms full of caged animals given diseases by the researchers . They founded the Anti @-@ Vivisection Society of Sweden when they returned home , and in 1902 enrolled as students at the London School of Medicine for Women , a vivisection @-@ free college that had visiting arrangements with other London colleges , to gain medical training for their anti @-@ vivisectionist campaigns .
They attended 100 lectures and demonstrations at King 's and University College , including 50 experiments on live animals , of which 20 were what Mason called " full @-@ scale vivisection . " They kept a diary , calling it Eye @-@ Witnesses , and later The Shambles of Science : Extracts from the Diary of Two Students of Physiology ( shambles was a name for a slaughterhouse ) . The women were present when the brown dog was vivisected , and wrote a chapter about it called " Fun , " referring to the laughter they said they heard in the lecture room during the procedure .
= = The brown dog = =
= = = Vivisection of the dog = = =
The brown dog was a terrier mix with a short rough coat , weighing 14 – 15 lb ( around 6 kg ) . He was first used in a vivisection in December 1902 by Starling , who cut open his abdomen and ligated the pancreatic duct . He lived in a cage for the next two months , until Starling and Bayliss used him again for two procedures on 2 February 1903 , the day the Swedish women were present .
Outside the lecture room before the students arrived , according to testimony Starling and others gave in court , Starling first cut the dog open again to inspect the results of the previous surgery , which took about 45 minutes , after which he clamped the wound with forceps and handed the dog over to Bayliss .
Bayliss cut a new opening in the dog 's neck to expose the lingual nerves of the salivary glands , which he attached to electrodes . The intention was to stimulate the nerves with electricity to demonstrate that salivary pressure was independent of blood pressure . The dog was then carried to the lecture theatre , stretched on his back on an operating board , with his legs tied to the board , his head clamped and his mouth muzzled .
According to Bayliss , the dog had been given a morphine injection earlier in the day , then was anaesthetized during the procedure with six fluid ounces of alcohol , chloroform and ether ( ACE ) , delivered from an ante @-@ room to a tube in his trachea , via a pipe hidden behind the bench on which the men were working . The Swedish students disputed that the dog had been adequately anaesthetized . They said the dog had appeared conscious during the procedure , had tried to lift himself off the board , and that there was no smell of anaesthesia or the usual hissing sound of the apparatus . Other students said the dog had not struggled , but had merely twitched .
In front of around 60 students , Bayliss stimulated the nerves with electricity for half an hour , but was unable to demonstrate his point . The dog was then handed to a student , Henry Dale , a future Nobel laureate , who removed the dog 's pancreas , then killed him with a knife through the heart . This became a point of embarrassment during the libel trial , when Bayliss 's laboratory assistant , Charles Scuttle , testified that the dog had been killed with chloroform or the ACE mixture . After Scuttle 's testimony Dale told the court that he had , in fact , used a knife .
= = = Women 's diary = = =
On 14 April 1903 Lind af Hageby and Schartau showed their unpublished 200 @-@ page diary to barrister Stephen Coleridge , secretary of the National Anti @-@ Vivisection Society , son of John Duke Coleridge , former Lord Chief Justice of England , and great @-@ grandson of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge . His attention was drawn to the account of the brown dog . The 1876 Cruelty to Animals Act forbade the use of an animal in more than one experiment , yet it appeared that the brown dog had been used by Starling to perform surgery on the pancreas , used again by him when he opened the dog to inspect the results of the previous surgery , and used for a third time by Bayliss to study the salivary glands . The diary said of the procedures on the brown dog :
The allegations of repeated use and inadequate anaesthesia represented prima facie violations of the Cruelty to Animals Act . In addition the diary said the dog had been killed by Henry Dale , an unlicensed research student , and that the students had laughed during the procedure ; there were " jokes and laughter everywhere " in the lecture hall , it said .
= = = Stephen Coleridge 's speech = = =
According to Mason , Coleridge decided there was no point in relying on a prosecution under the Act , which he regarded as deliberately obstructive . Instead he gave an angry speech about the dog on 1 May 1903 to the annual meeting of the National Anti @-@ Vivisection Society at St James 's Hall , attended by 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 people . ( Mason writes that support and apologies for absence were sent by writers Jerome K. Jerome , Thomas Hardy and Rudyard Kipling . ) Coleridge accused the scientists of torture . " If this is not torture , let Mr. Bayliss and his friends ... tell us in Heaven 's name what torture is . "
Details of the speech were published the next day by the radical Daily News ( founded in 1846 by Charles Dickens ) , and questions were raised in the House of Commons , particularly by Sir Frederick Banbury , a Conservative MP and sponsor of a bill aimed at ending vivisection demonstrations . Bayliss demanded a public apology , and when by 12 May it had failed to materialize he issued a writ for libel .
Ernest Starling decided not to sue ; The Lancet , no friend of Coleridge , wrote that " it may be contended that Professor Starling ... committed a technical infringement of the Act . " Coleridge tried to persuade the women not to publish their diary before the trial began , but they went ahead anyway , and it was published by Ernest Bell of Covent Garden in July 1903 .
= = Bayliss v Coleridge = =
= = = Trial = = =
The trial opened at the Old Bailey on 11 November 1903 before Lord Alverstone , the Lord Chief Justice , and lasted four days , closing on 18 November . There were queues 30 yards long outside the courthouse . The British Medical Journal called it " a test case of the utmost gravity . "
Bayliss 's counsel , Rufus Isaacs , called Starling as his first witness . Starling admitted that he had broken the law by using the dog twice , but said that he had done so to avoid sacrificing two dogs . Bayliss testified that the dog had been given one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half grains of morphia earlier in the day , then six ounces of alcohol , chloroform and ether , delivered from an ante room to a tube connected to the dog 's trachea . Bayliss said the tubes were fragile , and that had the dog been struggling they would have broken .
A veterinarian , Alfred Sewell , said the system Bayliss was using was unlikely to be adequate , but other witnesses , including Frederick Hobday of the Royal Veterinary College , disagreed ; there was even a claim that Bayliss had used too much anaesthesia , which is why the dog had failed to respond to the electrical stimulation . Bayliss said the dog had been suffering from chorea , a disease that causes involuntary spasm , and that any movement Lind af Hageby and Schartau had seen was not purposive . Four students , three women and a man , were called by Bayliss 's counsel and testified that the dog had appeared to be unconscious .
Coleridge 's barrister , John Lawson Walton , called Lind af Hageby and Schartau . They repeated they had been the first students to arrive and had been left alone with the dog for about two minutes . They had observed scars from the previous operations and an incision in the neck where two tubes had been placed . They had not smelled the anaesthetic and had not seen any apparatus delivering it . They said , Mason wrote , that the dog had arched his back and jerked his legs in what they regarded as an effort to escape . When the experiment began the dog continued to " upheave its abdomen " and tremble , they said , movements they regarded as " violent and purposeful . "
Bayliss 's lawyer criticized Coleridge for having accepted the women 's statements without seeking corroboration , and for speaking about the issue publicly without first approaching Bayliss , despite knowing that doing so could lead to litigation . Coleridge replied that he had not sought verification because he knew the claims would be denied , and that he continued to regard the women 's statement as true . The Times wrote of his testimony : " The Defendant , when placed in the witness box , did as much damage to his own case as the time at his disposal for the purpose would allow . "
= = = Verdict = = =
Lord Alverstone told the jury that the case was an important one of national interest . He called The Shambles of Science " hysterical , " but advised the jury not to be swayed by arguments about the validity of vivisection . After retiring for 25 minutes on 18 November 1903 , the jury unanimously found that Bayliss had been defamed , to the applause of physicians in the public gallery . Bayliss was awarded £ 2 @,@ 000 with £ 3 @,@ 000 costs ; Coleridge gave him a cheque the next day .
The Daily News asked for donations and raised £ 5 @,@ 700 within four months to cover Coleridge 's costs . Bayliss donated his damages to UCL for use in research ; according to Mason , Bayliss ignored the Daily Mail 's suggestion that he call it the " Stephen Coleridge Vivisection Fund . " Gratzer wrote in 2004 that the fund may still have been in use then to buy animals .
The Times declared itself satisfied with the verdict , though it criticized the rowdy behaviour of medical students during the trial , accusing them of " medical hooliganism . " The Sun , Star and Daily News backed Coleridge , calling the decision a miscarriage of justice . Ernest Bell , publisher and printer of The Shambles of Science , apologized to Bayliss on 25 November , and pledged to withdraw the diary and pass its remaining copies to Bayliss 's solicitors .
The Animal Defence and Anti @-@ Vivisection Society , founded by Lind af Hageby in 1903 , republished the book , printing a fifth edition by 1913 . The chapter " Fun " was replaced by one called " The Vivisections of the Brown Dog , " describing the experiment and the trial . The novelist Thomas Hardy kept a copy of it on a table for visitors . According to historian Hilda Kean , the Research Defence Society , a lobby group founded in 1908 to counteract the antivivisectionist campaign , discussed how to have the revised editions withdrawn .
In December 1903 Mark Twain , who opposed vivisection , published a short story , A Dog 's Tale , in Harper 's , written from the point of view of a dog whose puppy is experimented on and killed . Given the timing and Twain 's views , the story may have been inspired by the libel trial , according to Mark Twain scholar Shelley Fisher Fishkin . Coleridge ordered 3 @,@ 000 copies of A Dog 's Tale , which were specially printed for him by Harper 's .
= = Second Royal Commission on Vivisection = =
The government appointed the Second Royal Commission on Vivisection on 17 September 1906 . It heard evidence from scientists and anti @-@ vivisection groups ; Ernest Starling addressed the commission for three days in December 1906 .
After much delay ( two of its ten members died and several fell ill ) , the commission reported its findings in March 1912 . Its 139 @-@ page report recommended an increase in the number of full @-@ time inspectors from two to four ; restrictions on the use of curare , a poison used to immobilize animals during experiments ; the euthanasia of animals in severe pain , even if it meant frustrating the experiment ; and the tightening of the definition and practice of pithing . It also recommended the maintenance of more detailed records and the establishment of a committee to advise the Secretary of State on matters related to the Cruelty to Animals Act ; this became the Animal Procedures Committee under the Animals ( Scientific Procedures ) Act 1986 .
= = Brown Dog memorial = =
= = = Statue = = =
After the trial Anna Louisa Woodward , founder of the World League Against Vivisection , raised £ 120 for a public memorial , and commissioned a bronze statue of the dog from sculptor Joseph Whitehead . The statue sat on top of a granite memorial stone , 7 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) tall , that housed a drinking fountain for human beings and a lower trough for dogs and horses . It also carried an inscription ( right ) , described by The New York Times in 1910 as the " hysterical language customary of anti @-@ vivisectionists " and " a slander on the whole medical profession . "
The group turned to the borough of Battersea for a location for the memorial . Lansbury wrote that the area was a hotbed of radicalism – proletarian , socialist , full of belching smoke and slums , and closely associated with the anti @-@ vivisection movement . The National Anti @-@ Vivisection and Battersea General Hospital – which opened in 1896 on the corner of Albert Bridge Road and Prince of Wales Drive , and closed in 1972 – refused until 1935 to perform vivisection or employ doctors who engaged in it , and was known locally as the " antiviv " or the " old anti . " The chairman of the Battersea Dogs Home , William Cavendish @-@ Bentinck , 6th Duke of Portland , rejected a request in 1907 that its lost dogs be sold to vivisectors as " not only horrible , but absurd . "
Battersea council agreed to provide space for the statue on its Latchmere Recreation Ground , part of the council 's new Latchmere Estate , which offered terraced homes to rent for seven and sixpence a week . The statue was unveiled on 15 September 1906 in front of a large crowd , with speakers that included George Bernard Shaw and the Irish feminist Charlotte Despard .
= = = Riots = = =
= = = = November – December 1907 = = = =
Medical students at London 's teaching hospitals were enraged by the plaque . The first year of the statue 's existence was a quiet one , while University College explored whether they could take legal action over it , but from November 1907 the students turned Battersea into the scene of frequent disruption .
The first action was on 20 November , when undergraduate William Howard Lister led a group of students across the Thames to Battersea to attack the statue with a crowbar and sledgehammer . Ten of them were arrested by just two police officers . According to Mason , a local doctor told the South Western Star that this signalled the " utter degeneration " of junior doctors : " I can remember the time when it was more than 10 policemen could do to take one student . The Anglo @-@ Saxon race is played out . "
Several students were fined ₤ 5 by the magistrate , Paul Taylor , at South @-@ West London Police Court in Battersea . This triggered another protest two days later , when 1 @,@ 000 medical students from UCL , King 's , Guy 's and the West Middlesex hospitals marched along the Strand toward King 's College , waving miniature brown dogs on sticks and a life @-@ sized effigy of the magistrate , and singing , " Let 's hang Paul Taylor on a sour apple tree / As we go marching on . " The Times reported that they tried to burn the effigy but , unable to light it , threw it in the Thames instead .
Women 's suffrage meetings were invaded , though the students knew that not all suffragettes were anti @-@ vivisectionists . A meeting organized by Millicent Fawcett on 5 December 1907 was left with chairs and tables smashed and one steward with a torn ear . The Daily Express reported it as " Medical Students Gallant Fight with Women . "
= = = = 10 December 1907 = = = =
The rioting reached its height five days later , on Tuesday , 10 December , when 100 medical students tried to pull the memorial down . The previous protests had been spontaneous , but this one was organized to coincide with the annual Oxford @-@ Cambridge rugby match at Queen 's Club , West Kensington . The protesters hoped ( in vain , as it turned out ) that some of the thousands of Oxbridge students would swell their numbers . The intention was that , after toppling the statue and throwing it in the Thames , 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 students would meet at 11 : 30 pm in Trafalgar Square . Street vendors sold handkerchiefs stamped with the date of the protest and the words , " Brown Dog 's inscription is a lie , and the statuette an insult to the London University . "
In the afternoon protesters headed for the statue , but were driven off by locals . The students proceeded down Battersea Park Road instead , intending to attack the Anti @-@ Vivisection Hospital , but were again forced back . When one student fell from the top of a tram , the workers shouted that it was " the brown dog 's revenge " and refused to take him to hospital . The British Medical Journal responded that , given that it was the Anti @-@ Vivisection Hospital , the crowd 's actions may have been " prompted by benevolence . "
A second group of students headed for central London , waving effigies of the brown dog , joined by a police escort and , briefly , a busker with bagpipes . As the marchers reached Trafalgar Square , they were 1 @,@ 000 strong , facing 400 police officers , 15 of them on horseback . The students gathered around Nelson 's Column , where the ringleaders climbed onto its base to make speeches .
As students fought with police on the ground , mounted police charged the crowd , scattering them into smaller groups and arresting the stragglers , including one Cambridge undergraduate , Alexander Bowley , who was arrested for " barking like a dog . " The fighting continued for hours before the police gained control . At Bow Street magistrate 's court the next day , ten students were bound over to keep the peace , and several were fined 40 shillings , or £ 3 if they had fought with police .
= = = = Strange relationships = = = =
Rioting broke out elsewhere over the following days and months , with medical and veterinary students uniting . When Lizzy Lind af Hageby arranged a meeting of the Ealing and Acton Anti @-@ Vivisection Society at Acton Central Hall on 11 December 1906 , over 100 students disrupted it , throwing chairs and stink bombs when she tried to speak . The Daily Chronicle reported : " The rest of Miss Lind @-@ af @-@ Hageby 's indignation was lost in a beautiful ' eggy ' atmosphere that was now rolling heavily across the hall . ' Change your socks ! ' shouted one of the students . " Furniture was smashed and clothing torn .
For Susan McHugh of the University of New England , the dog 's mongrel status reflected the political coalition that rallied to the statue 's defence . The riots saw trade unionists , socialists , Marxists , liberals and suffragettes descend on Battersea to fight the medical students , even though , she writes , the suffragettes were not a group toward whom male workers felt any warmth . But the " Brown Terrier Dog Done to Death " by the male scientific establishment united them all .
Lizzy Lind af @-@ Hageby and Charlotte Despard saw the affair as a battle between feminism and machismo . Coral Lansbury wrote that the fight for women 's suffrage became closely linked with the anti @-@ vivisection movement . Three of the four vice @-@ presidents of the National Anti @-@ Vivisection Hospital were women . She argued that the Brown Dog affair became a matter of opposing symbols , the iconography of vivisection striking a chord with women . The vivisected dog on the operating board blurred into images of suffragettes force @-@ fed in Brixton Prison , or women strapped down for childbirth or forced to have their ovaries and uteruses removed as a cure for " mania . "
Both sides saw themselves as heirs to the future . Hilda Kean wrote that the Swedish activists were young and female , anti @-@ establishment and progressive , and viewed the scientists as remnants of a previous age . Their access to higher education that had made the case possible , creating what feminist scholar Susan Hamilton called a " new form of witnessing . " Against this , Lansbury wrote , the students saw themselves and their teachers as the " New Priesthood , " and the women and trade unionists as representatives of superstition and sentimentality .
= = = " Exit the ' Brown Dog ' " = = =
Questions were asked in the House of Commons about the cost of policing the statue , which required six constables a day at a cost of £ 700 a year . London 's police commissioner wrote to Battersea Council to ask that they contribute to it . Councillor John Archer , later Mayor of Battersea and one of the first black people to be elected to public office in the UK , told the Daily Mail that he was amazed by the request , considering Battersea was already paying £ 22 @,@ 000 a year in police rates . The Canine Defence League wondered whether , if Battersea were to organize raids on laboratories , the laboratories would be asked to pay the policing costs themselves .
Other councillors suggested the statue be encased in a steel cage and surrounded by a barbed wire fence . Suggestions were made through the letters pages of the Times and elsewhere that it be moved , perhaps to the grounds of the Anti @-@ Vivisection Hospital . The British Medical Journal wrote :
Battersea Council grew tired of the controversy . A new Conservative council was elected in November 1909 amid talk of removing the statue . There were protests in support of it , and the 500 @-@ strong Brown Dog memorial defence committee was established . Twenty thousand people signed a petition , and 1 @,@ 500 attended a rally in February 1910 addressed by Lind af Hageby , Charlotte Despard and Liberal MP George Greenwood . There were more demonstrations in central London and speeches in Hyde Park , with supporters wearing masks of dogs .
The protests were to no avail . The statue was quietly removed before dawn on 10 March 1910 by four council workmen accompanied by 120 police officers . Nine days later 3 @,@ 000 anti @-@ vivisectionists gathered in Trafalgar Square to demand its return , but it was clear by then that Battersea Council had turned its back on the affair . The statue was at first kept hidden in the borough surveyor 's bicycle shed , according to a letter his daughter wrote in 1956 to the British Medical Journal , then reportedly destroyed by a council blacksmith , who melted it down . Anti @-@ vivisectionists filed a High Court petition demanding its return , but the case was dismissed in January 1911 .
= = = Memorial restored = = =
The New York Times wrote in March 1910 that " it is not considered at all probable that the effigy will ever again be exhibited in a public place , " but on 12 December 1985 , a new memorial to the brown dog , by sculptor Nicola Hicks , was unveiled by actress Geraldine James in Battersea Park behind the Pump House . Commissioned by the National Anti @-@ Vivisection Society and the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection , the new dog is mounted on a 5 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) Portland stone plinth , and is based on Hicks 's own terrier , Brock . Peter Mason describes it as " a coquettish contrast to its down @-@ to @-@ earth predecessor . "
Echoing the fate of the previous memorial , the new dog was moved into storage in 1992 by Battersea Park 's owners , the Conservative Borough of Wandsworth , they said as part of a park renovation scheme . Anti @-@ vivisectionists campaigned for its return , suspicious of the explanation . It was reinstated in the park 's Woodland Walk in 1994 , near the Old English Garden , a more secluded location than before .
The new statue was criticized in 2003 by historian Hilda Kean . She saw the old Brown Dog as a radical statement , upright and defiant , not begging for mercy . For Kean , the new Brown Dog , located near the Old English Garden as " heritage , " has been separated from its anti @-@ vivisection iconography – the balaclavas of activists and painful eyes of rabbits . It is too safe , she argued ; unlike its controversial ancestor , it makes no one uncomfortable .
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= OS T1000 =
T1000 and T1300 were two rapid transit train classes used on Oslo Metro in Oslo , Norway . The 197 cars were built by Strømmens Verksted , Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri and AEG between 1960 and 1981 . They were the first metro trains used in Oslo , and had remained in active use until being replaced by OS MX3000 trains in 2007 . Each car is equipped with a driver 's cab at one or both ends and four motors , each with 98 kilowatts ( 131 hp ) . The cars are 17 metres ( 56 ft ) long , 3 @.@ 2 metres ( 10 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 65 metres ( 12 @.@ 0 ft ) tall . The trains use 750 V current , and are capable of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) . Signaling is provided through automatic train protection .
In 1960 , two less powerful T single @-@ car units were built , designed to be prototypes used on the Oslo Tramway . After a one @-@ year trial , they were put into scheduled traffic to the Kolsås Line , where they remained in regular service until 1983 . The production series is somewhat different in design and performance . T1000 is both used to refer to the class as a whole , or the first 162 cars , that are only equipped with third @-@ rail shoes . They have four slight variations , which have been given the designations T1 – T4 . The T1300 is a series of 33 new and sixteen rebuilt T4 trains equipped with pantographs which previously allowed them operate on the western part of the network , prior to it being upgraded to third @-@ rail metro standards . The newer units were designated T5 and T6 , while the rebuilt units were designated T7 and T8 .
= = History = =
In 1954 , the Oslo City Council decided to build a four @-@ line metro to the new suburbs to the east of the city center . The plans would lead to the system opening in 1966 , after the conversion of the Østensjø and the Lambertseter Line of the Oslo Tramway to metro standard , and supplemented with the new Furuset and Grorud Line . The system would feature higher and longer platforms , allowing step @-@ free access to six @-@ car trains , automatic train protection and third rail power supply . This would make the metro incompatible with the existing tramways .
The first two single @-@ car trains were delivered in 1959 and given the designation T. They were delivered by Strømmens Værksted and NEBB as prototypes , without compensation from the planning office . They were tested on the Østensjø and Lambertseter Lines until 1 December 1960 , when they were transferred to Bærumsbanen , who used them on the Kolsås Line . During their service they were prone to technical problems , and were more in the depot than in service . However , they gave valuable knowledge for the serial production . The trains were originally painted silver with a dark @-@ blue cheatline and numbered 1 and 2 . About 1970 , they were repainted dark blue with a silver cheatline , and in 1971 given the numbers 451 and 452 . The latter remained in service until 1977 , when it was put aside , and scrapped in 1987 . The former remained in service until it was put aside as defect , although it had rarely been used since 1982 . It was fixed up and made operational again 1993 , but was withdrawn the same year and scrapped the following year .
Serial production started in 1964 , with the bodies built at Strømmens Værksted , the motors built by NEBB and the electrical equipment by AEG . By 1978 , 162 cars had been delivered to Oslo Sporveier . These were manufactured in four series , named T1 through T4 , with varying specifications . T1 was manufactured in 90 units from 1964 to 1966 for the opening of the Grorud Line and the conversion of the Lambertseter Line . The first 30 have driver 's cabs in both directions ( designated T1 @-@ 2 ) , while the latter 60 have it in only one end ( designated T1 @-@ 1 ) . In 1967 , 15 T2s were built for the conversion of the Østensjø Line . Although given a new designation , they are in all ways identical to the T1 @-@ 1s . From 1969 to 1972 , 30 T3s were built for the Furuset Line . Further expansions of the lines resulted in 37 T4s being built from 1976 to 1978 . The T1000s are numbered 1001 – 1162 .
The need for new rolling stock on the western suburban tramways prompted Oslo Sporveier to order a modified version to the T1000 . This was because they had plans to connect the eastern and western networks , and gradually convert the western lines to metro standard . The T1300 units were built with the same specifications as the T1000 , but were also equipped with pantographs so they could operate on the light rail lines . They also had a slightly different front . The initial order was for 33 units , which were designated T5 and T6 . The former 18 units had a cab in one end , while the latter 15 had a cab in both ends , allowing Oslo Sporveier to operate single @-@ car trains . The new units were put into service on the Røa and Sognsvann Lines , and were also used on the Kolsås Line outside rush @-@ hour .
To replace the aging Class C trains , from 1985 to 1987 , ten T4s were converted to T1300 . They were equipped with a pantograph , received a new front and the doors were moved . Six additional T4s were converted in 1989 , and given the designation T8 . These only had the pantographs equipped and kept the same front and door arrangement . With the introduction of the T1300 , the western lines could remove the conductor and have single @-@ manned trains with the motorman selling tickets . The T1300 @-@ units have had better regularity than the older models they replaced . However , because they are designed for a closed system with automatic train protection , the braking systems are not sufficiently dimensioned for when the drivers use line of sight to regulate the speed and distances between trains . The 1300 units were numbered 1301 – 1349 . After the conversions , Oslo Sporveier operated 49 T1300 @-@ cars and 146 T1000 @-@ cars . The trains were originally painted red with a beige cheatline .
The Sognsvann Line was finished upgraded to metro standard on 7 January 1993 , allowing the first T1000 trains to operate through the Common Tunnel into the western network , converting parts of the Oslo Tramway to metro . The Røa Line was finished on 19 November 1995 , allowing all trains from the east to operate through the city center . To have sufficient metro @-@ compatible trains , six two @-@ car T2000 units were bought , and during the mid @-@ 1990s were considered to be a possible replacement for the T1000s . Starting in 1995 , Oslo Sporveier made an interior and livery upgrade to the T1000 trains . The main red color to the exterior was kept , but the doors and around the windows were painted blue . The lights and seats were changed , and the latter colored gray . The interior walls were painted red at the end , white on the sides , blue on the doors and received yellow hand bars .
Oslo City Council decided in 2003 to order 33 new three @-@ car units from Siemens , that would be designated MX3000 . In 2005 , the city council voted to replace all existing T1000 and T1300 stock with the MX3000 , increasing the order by another 30 units . Following a labor dispute in 2006 , it was decided that all rolling stock belonging to Oslo Sporveier would be transferred to a new holding company , Oslo Vognselskap .
The first deliveries of the MX3000 were made in April 2007 . The first T1000 was scrapped on 14 March 2007 , and the last T1000 train was run on 19 July 2009 . Oslo Tramway Museum has preserved seven T1000 cars : numbers 1002 ( T1 @-@ 2 ) , 1018 ( T1 @-@ 2 ) , 1076 ( T1 @-@ 1 ) , 1089 ( T1 @-@ 1 ) , 1092 ( T2 ) , 1129 ( T3 ) and 1141 ( T4 ) . 1089 is displayed in the museum , the other six cars are meant to be kept as an operative train . Of the T1000 units , no . 1076 was the one to run the furthest , reaching 2 @,@ 974 @,@ 076 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 848 @,@ 005 mi ) before retirement . On 22 April 2010 , the last T1300 was taken out of service , leaving only MX3000 units in service . Oslo Tramway Museum has preserved three T1300 cars : numbers 1306 ( T5 ) , 1320 ( T6 ) and 1335 ( T7 , originally T4 no . 1155 ) . The three cars are meant to be kept as an operative train . No T8 car was preserved .
= = Specifications = =
All versions have identical bodies , that are 17 metres ( 55 ft 9 in ) long , 3 @.@ 2 metres ( 10 ft 6 in ) wide and 3 @.@ 65 metres ( 12 ft 0 in ) high . Each car is equipped with two bogies , each with two axles . The axle distance is 2 @.@ 17 metres ( 7 ft 1 in ) , the bogie distance is 11 metres ( 36 ft 1 in ) and the wheel diameter is 82 centimetres ( 2 ft 8 in ) . They are each equipped with four 98 @-@ kilowatt ( 131 hp ) motors from NEBB , giving a maximum speed of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) . They each weigh 27 @.@ 740 tonnes ( 27 @.@ 302 long tons ; 30 @.@ 578 short tons ) . The electrical equipment was delivered by AEG .
The train 's speed is controlled by an ATP system . The speed codes are transferred from the ATP points in the infrastructure , using 75 hertz pulses in the tracks . The trains pick up the signals via antennas . The speed codes are 15 km / h ( 9 mph ) , 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) , 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) and 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) . The permitted speeds are presented to the driver via displays in the driver 's cab ; in addition , the system will automatically reduce the speed , should the limit be exceeded . The driver can put the trains in an automatic mode , where the train adjusts its own speed to match the speed limit . The driver is always responsible for starting and stopping the train at stations .
The prototype T series consisted of two single @-@ car units . It had the same dimensions as the T1000 and T1300 , but had four 75 @-@ kilowatt ( 101 hp ) motors and weighed only 26 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 26 @.@ 1 long tons ; 29 @.@ 2 short tons ) . They were equipped with a pantograph and were bi @-@ directional , but lacked ATP and third rail shoes . For the T1000 @-@ series , the T1 @-@ 2 are the only to have a cab on both ends , although this is also featured on the T6 . Since the T3 , the trains have been delivered with electromagnetic brakes in addition to dynamic brakes , hand brakes and air brakes with . Models from T4 and onwards have larger cabs .
The T1300 differ in that they had a pantograph and were built for conductors . The seating varies between the models : T1000 has a total capacity of 180 passengers , of which 63 can be seated . T5 has the same total capacity , but 70 people can be seated . T6 has a capacity for 154 people , of which 64 can be seated . T7 and T8 have a capacity for 177 passengers , of which 60 can be seated . All models are capable of operating six cars in multiple , although they are commonly used in shorter configurations .
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= Hughes Airwest Flight 706 =
Hughes Airwest Flight 706 was a regularly scheduled flight operated by Hughes Airwest , from Los Angeles , California , to Seattle , Washington , with several intermediate stops . On Sunday , June 6 , 1971 , the Douglas DC @-@ 9 @-@ 31 serving the flight collided in mid @-@ air with a U.S. Marine Corps F @-@ 4B Phantom II over southern California .
Flight 706 had departed Los Angeles just after 6 pm , en route to Seattle , with scheduled stopovers in Salt Lake City , Utah ; Boise , Idaho ; Lewiston , Idaho ; Pasco , Washington and Yakima , Washington . The F @-@ 4B Phantom was arriving at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro near Irvine from Naval Air Station Fallon in Nevada . The F @-@ 4 pilot and all 49 passengers and crew aboard the civilian airliner died in the collision over the San Gabriel Mountains , near Duarte . Only the radar intercept officer of the F @-@ 4B survived . The crash of RW 706 prompted the US Armed Forces to agree to both reduce the number of military aircraft operating under visual flight rules in civilian air corridors , and to require military aircraft to contact civilian air traffic controllers .
= = Flight histories = =
Flight 706 was a scheduled passenger flight from Los Angeles International Airport , California and Seattle – Tacoma International Airport , Washington . The McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 9 @-@ 31 aircraft had accumulated 5 @,@ 542 airframe hours since entering service in 1969 . The aircraft was operating under the livery and name of Air West . The airline had been recently purchased by Howard Hughes and rebranded Hughes Airwest .
The aircraft was piloted by Captain Theodore Nicolai , 50 , who had logged 15 @,@ 490 hours of total flying time , with 2 @,@ 562 hours in DC @-@ 9s . His co @-@ pilot was First Officer Price Bruner , 49 , who had 17 @,@ 128 total hours flying time and 272 hours in DC @-@ 9s . Other crew members included three flight attendants : Joan R. Puylaar , 34 ; Patricia Shelton , 28 ; and Helena Koskimies , 30 .
Flight 706 departed from Los Angeles at 6 : 02 p.m. PDT for Salt Lake City , Utah , the first of five intermediate stops en route to Seattle . Control of the flight was transferred to Los Angeles Air Route Traffic Control Center at 6 : 06 p.m. and passed through 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) at 6 : 09 p.m. and instructed to head 040 ( magnetic ) until receiving the Daggett VOR , then direct . Flight 706 's acknowledgement of this instruction was the last radio transmission received from the aircraft .
The U.S. Marine Corps F @-@ 4B @-@ 18 @-@ MC Phantom II , Bureau Number ( BuNo ) 151458 , coded ' 458 ' , had been in operation since April 15 , 1964 . At the time of the accident it was assigned to Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 323 , Marine Aircraft Group 11 , 3rd Marine Air Wing , though it had been operated by various squadrons prior to that . The fighter plane was piloted by 1st Lt. James R. Phillips , 27 . The Radar Intercept Officer was 1st Lt. Christopher E. Schiess , 24 . The jet and its crew were based at MCAS El Toro .
'458 ' was part of a cross @-@ country flight of two aircraft when its radio failed while landing at Mountain Home Air Force Base in southwest Idaho . The aircraft was ordered to effect repairs at Mountain Home AFB and then return to MCAS El Toro . Diagnostic tests at Mountain Home revealed that the aircraft had an inoperative radio , inoperative transponder , oxygen system leak , and a degraded radar system . Maintenance personnel were able to fix the radio and confirm the oxygen leak , but the base did not have the necessary personnel to repair either the transponder or the radar .
Lt. Phillips received permission from his superiors to fly the F @-@ 4B with an inoperative transponder . As the fighter proceeded to NAS Fallon in Nevada , the oxygen leak worsened until the system was disabled completely , and the pilot was instructed to fly at low altitude . The Phantom II departed NAS Fallon at 5 : 16 p.m. following a flight plan routing across the Fresno , Bakersfield , and Los Angeles air corridors .
Flight 706 was operating under instrument flight rules ( IFR ) . Under IFR procedures , the pilot guides the aircraft using the cockpit 's instrument panel for navigation , in addition to radioed guidance from air traffic controllers and ground radar . BuNo 151458 was operating under visual flight rules ( VFR ) . At the time of the accident , VFR require pilots to " see and avoid " other aircraft , a doctrine that dates back to early aviation . The " see and avoid " rule requires pilots of all aircraft flying in VMC to be maintain vigilance for other aircraft flying in their vicinity , in addition to traffic advisories from ATC .
= = Collision = =
Near the Bakersfield Flight Service Station , the crew of ' 458 ' decided to deviate east from their flight plan to avoid heavy air traffic in the Los Angeles area . Lt. Phillips was forced to climb to 15 @,@ 500 feet ( 4 @,@ 700 m ) from 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) because of deteriorating weather conditions . Meanwhile , shortly after takeoff , Flight 706 received two radar traffic advisories , neither of which indicated the presence of ' 458 ' .
Soon after reaching 15 @,@ 500 feet ( 4 @,@ 700 m ) , the fighter 's DME ( radio ) showed MCAS El Toro was 50 miles ( 80 km ) away . The pilot of ' 458 ' then performed an aileron roll , a flight maneuver that rolled the aircraft 360 ° in order to allow the pilot to observe any air traffic above or below the aircraft . Lt. Schiess , the Radar Intercept Officer , was operating the fighter 's radar , which was unable to detect any aircraft due to its deteriorated condition . Because of the stowed position of the scope , he had been leaning forward and looking downward at the instrument . Between three and ten seconds prior to the collision , he glanced up and observed the DC @-@ 9 in his peripheral vision and shouted a warning to the pilot . The pilot attempted an evasive roll but was unable to clear the oncoming airliner .
At about 6 : 11 p.m. , Flight 706 and ' 458 ' collided at about 15 @,@ 150 feet ( 4 @,@ 620 m ) altitude , over the San Gabriel Mountains in the vicinity of Duarte . The collision tore the F @-@ 4 's tail off , and the DC @-@ 9 's cockpit was shorn off as a result . The stricken airliner " cartwheeled " through the air and plunged downwards . Witnesses in nearby Duarte described hearing a loud noise and seeing two flaming objects falling from the sky . A second explosion shook the area as the DC @-@ 9 hit the mountain . Lt. Schiess , the Radar Intercept Officer , ejected from the F @-@ 4B and parachuted to safety ; Lt. Phillips , the pilot , was unable to eject in time , and was killed . The F @-@ 4B crashed on Mount Bliss , approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the airliner wreckage . Burning debris from the collision and subsequent crashes set off numerous small brush fires in the area . Wreckage was scattered across a mile of nearly inaccessible terrain in the Angeles National Forest .
= = Investigation = =
The stricken airliner crashed onto Mount Bliss in the San Gabriel Mountains at an elevation of approximately 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) , where the bulk of the wreckage landed in a gorge . Fire department officials sent search and rescue helicopters to the crash site , but efforts were hampered by thick fog . Nine bodies were initially found at the crash site , a number of them intact and still strapped into their seats . News reports indicated that these bodies had apparently been thrown clear on impact , and had come to rest alongside the tail section of the aircraft .
Some eyewitnesses reported that the F @-@ 4B 's right wing struck the center of the airliner 's fuselage immediately after performing a barrel roll . Other witnesses claimed that the F @-@ 4B ripped a large hole in the fuselage of the DC @-@ 9 , through which papers and luggage streamed as the crippled airliner fell . Though papers with the words " Air West " and the date of June 6 were collected by Sheriff 's deputies , no luggage was recovered .
The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) investigated the incident , assisted by the Marine Corps , Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) , Hughes Airwest , and the Airline Pilots Association . Early statements released by the NTSB revealed that the F @-@ 4B fighter had attempted to swerve away from the DC @-@ 9 immediately prior to impact , and that an additional 10 feet of clearance would have averted the entire collision . Additionally , the NTSB confirmed that the fighter had impacted the DC @-@ 9 in two places , with its right wing impacting the airliner 's forward passenger cabin and the vertical stabilizer " slicing through " the cockpit .
The DC @-@ 9 carried a primitive flight data recorder that recorded basic information about the aircraft 's air speed , acceleration , heading , and altitude on metal foil tapes . Additionally , the aircraft was equipped with a simple cockpit voice recorder that recorded all conversations that took place in the cockpit of the aircraft . The flight recorder was recovered by investigators on Thursday , June 10 , 1971 , and sent to Washington D.C. for analysis . Though the voice recorder was also recovered , the thermal protective measures had failed and the recording tapes were destroyed by fire .
= = = Survivability = = =
The NTSB determined that it had been impossible for any passenger aboard the Hughes Airwest DC @-@ 9 to survive the collision , disintegration , and crash of the aircraft . Though a severe ground fire ravaged both crash sites , the NTSB determined that all of the victims had died in the crash itself .
It was determined , however , that both crewmembers aboard the Marine F @-@ 4B could have survived the collision . Further investigation by the NTSB revealed a design flaw in the ejector seat and canopy assemblies of the fighter plane whereby the pilot would probably not be able to eject if the radar intercept officer ejected first . Since the specific design of ejector seats installed in the F @-@ 4B were not intended to be fired through the aircraft 's canopy , a circuit breaker kept the seat from ejecting if the canopy was in place . Once the canopy was manually unlocked , the ejector seat circuit was completed and could be fired . This specific design of ejector seat , however , had a tendency of being unable to complete the circuit in the pilot 's ejector seat if the aft ejector seat was fired first . The F @-@ 4B aircraft were in the process of being modified with a newly designed canopy when the collision occurred . Aircraft based at MCAS El Toro were slated to begin upgrades in July 1971 ; at the time of the collision , BuNo 151458 was still operating with the original canopy configuration , and the pilot was consequently unable to eject from the aircraft .
= = = Probable cause and recommendations = = =
The NTSB released their final accident report on August 30 , 1972 . The report concluded :
During the course of the accident investigation , the NTSB attempted to recreate the conditions of the accident to determine the visibility of BuNo458 on June 6 . They also calculated that their closing rate was about 1000 ft / s , similar to the muzzle velocity of a .45 caliber gun . The NTSB , Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) , and the Marine Corps flew a series of F @-@ 4B fighters along the flight paths described by Lt. Schiess , the radar intercept officer , and various witnesses . While the tests were sufficient to determine the difficulty in locating and identifying the fighter on the radar scope , the many other variables involved in the June 6 incident , including the deteriorated condition of ' 458 ' , compromised the validity of the study . This inability to ascertain the exact actions and circumstances of the air traffic controllers led the NTSB to recommend that the FAA install both video and audio surveillance in all air traffic control areas .
The NTSB report included a total of five recommendations for the FAA . These recommendations included : installing recorders for radar displays , installing audio conversation recorders at air traffic control facilities ; establishing climb and descent corridors under ATC positive control in the vicinity of air terminals ; and establishing more definitive procedures for receiving and handling the emergency transponder code 7700 . Additionally , the NTSB strongly recommended that the FAA and the Department of Defense cooperate to develop a program , in areas where a large intermix of civil and military traffic exists , to ensure that appropriate graphical depictions of airspace utilization and typical flow patterns are prominently displayed at all airports and operational bases for the benefit of all airspace users .
In addition to these recommendations , the NTSB also recommended that the Department of Defense restrict high @-@ speed , low @-@ altitude aircraft operation in civilian air corridors , consider collision avoidance technologies on military aircraft , and make military pilots aware of the FAA 's radar advisory service .
= = Aftermath = =
Congressmen Sherman P. Lloyd ( R @-@ Utah ) and Henry S. Reuss ( D @-@ Wis ) both decried the actions of the Marine jet fighter , which media at the time indicated had been " stunting " prior to the collision . In actuality , the 360 ° aileron roll maneuver the fighter pilot executed was to observe any air traffic above or below the aircraft . Lloyd said that military aircraft should be required to establish contact with air traffic controllers when entering high @-@ traffic air corridors and around airports , while Reuss advocated the complete ban of military aircraft from any high @-@ traffic civilian air corridors . Senator Frank Moss ( D @-@ Utah ) sponsored a bill in December that would require the installation of anti @-@ collision gear on all aircraft by 1975 .
VFR and the " see and avoid " doctrine faced sharp criticism in the press . Oscar M. Laurel , a member of the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) team investigating the crash , was widely quoted saying that now " may be a good time to take another look " at VFR flights near metropolitan areas .
The validity of the " see and avoid " doctrine as a safe means of aircraft navigation was a point of contention between the NTSB and the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) . The NTSB had faulted the doctrine in several earlier collisions , including the 1969 collision of Allegheny Airlines Flight 853 with a privately owned Piper PA @-@ 28 and the 1967 collision of Piedmont Airlines Flight 22 with a privately owned Cessna 310 . The FAA rebutted these findings and insisted that , regardless of the mode of operation , it is the duty of the aircraft pilot to be aware of any aircraft in his immediate vicinity .
In March 1971 , the NTSB released a report summarizing the findings of a study of midair collisions . The report indicated that 204 of 396 fatalities in U.S. jetliner crashes since 1967 had occurred in mid @-@ air collisions . Additionally , near @-@ miss situations involving jetliners occurred on average at least once per day , with the Los Angeles and New York areas noted as being especially high @-@ risk . Finally , the report noted that the current trend in air casualties indicated that a further 528 people would die in mid @-@ air collisions during the following ten years . These figures did not include the casualties from Flight 706 .
A FAA study in 1968 had found that a quarter of the 2 @,@ 230 near @-@ miss aircraft encounters reported that year had involved a military aircraft . Following the in @-@ flight collision of Flight 706 , the FAA and the US Military agreed to cut down on VFR flights and operate instead under IFR . This transition would require military aircraft to file flight plans and obey civilian air traffic controllers .
Shortly after the collision , on June 21 , 1971 , the Airline Pilots Association and Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization issued a joint statement asking the FAA for a series of safety regulations that included a speed limit of 250 knots ( 290 mph ) for aircraft operating under VFR . Other demands included the installation of transponders in all aircraft to amplify aircraft 's presence on radar screens , and the re @-@ evaluation of VFR due to the increased complexity , congestion , and speed of modern air travel .
The New York Times reported that the incidence of deaths in commercial aviation accidents had risen sharply in 1971 , up from 146 deaths in 1970 and 158 deaths in 1969 . Additionally , these deaths had occurred at a time when airlines were cutting back flights due to the economic recession , and airlines had flown about 6 % fewer hours in 1971 than 1970 . The eight fatal accidents of 1971 included three mid @-@ air collisions and four landing approach crashes ; one of these collisions , All Nippon Airways Flight 58 , which also involved a military aircraft , became the deadliest air disaster worldwide at the time it took place with 162 deaths . Additionally , 1971 saw the crash of Alaska Airlines Flight 1866 , at the time the worst single plane crash in US civil aviation history .
Later that year , Hughes Airwest changed its livery to its signature all @-@ yellow .
= = = Litigation = = =
A week after the crash , the families of various passengers aboard Flight 706 began filing lawsuits and court papers against Hughes Airwest and , later , the government of the United States . The first filing was by the family of Keith A. Gabel , which filed a motion to perpetuate testimony in the Central District of California on June 16 , 1971 . This motion requests that the court issue a court order for a person 's deposition to be taken , and can be done prior to a lawsuit being filed under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure .
Lawsuits against the United States government were delayed six months by the Federal Tort Claims Act . In January 1972 , the Gabel family filed a lawsuit against the United States that contained class @-@ action allegations and sought a " declaratory judgment on the issue of liability . " The Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation decided to move all related court actions to the Central District of California . Eleven actions were transferred in July 1972 . The US District Court ordered the transfer of all 72 actions filed in other district courts to be transferred to the jurisdiction of the Central District on March 19 , 1973 .
On August 30 , 1972 , all the cases were consolidated into a single case to determine liability . The cases against the United States , Hughes Airwest , and Hughes Air Corporation were consolidated into a single class @-@ action lawsuit in October 1972 . On April 5 , 1973 , Hughes Airwest and the US Government agreed not to contest the issue of liability . Most claimants settled by December 1973 for payments of various negotiated amounts .
= = Dramatization = =
The story of the accident was featured on the thirteenth season of the Canadian TV series Mayday ( known as Air Emergency in the US , Mayday in Ireland and Air Crash Investigation in the UK and the rest of world ) in an episode entitled " Speed Trap " . It was also the feature of " Air Disasters " episode on The Smithsonian Channel .
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= Villa Park =
Villa Park is a football stadium in Aston , Birmingham , England , with a seating capacity of 42 @,@ 682 . It has been the home of Aston Villa Football Club since 1897 . The ground is less than a mile from both Witton and Aston railway stations and has hosted sixteen England internationals at senior level , the first in 1899 and the most recent in 2005 . It was the first English ground to stage international football in three different centuries . Villa Park has hosted more FA Cup semi @-@ finals than any other stadium , having hosted 55 matches in total .
In 1897 , Aston Villa moved into the Aston Lower Grounds , a sports ground in a Victorian amusement park in the former grounds of Aston Hall , a Jacobean stately home . The stadium has gone through various stages of renovation and development , resulting in the current stand configuration of the Holte End , Trinity Road Stand , North Stand and the Doug Ellis Stand . The club has initial planning permission to redevelop the North Stand , which will increase the capacity of Villa Park from 42 @,@ 682 to approximately 50 @,@ 000 .
Before 1914 , a cycling track ran around the perimeter of the pitch where regular cycling meetings were hosted as well as athletic events . Aside from football @-@ related uses , the stadium has seen various concerts staged along with other sporting events including boxing matches and international rugby league and rugby union matches . In 1999 , the last ever final of the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup took place at Villa Park . Villa Park also hosted the 2012 FA Community Shield , as Wembley Stadium was unavailable due to it staging the final of the Olympic football tournament .
= = History = =
The Aston Lower Grounds , later renamed Villa Park , was not the first home of Aston Villa F.C. Their previous venue , Wellington Road faced increasing problems including an uneven pitch , poor spectator facilities , a lack of access and exorbitant rents . As a result , in 1894 , Villa 's committee began negotiations with the owners of the Aston Lower Grounds , " the finest sports ground in the district . " Situated in the former grounds of Aston Hall , a Jacobean stately home , the Lower Grounds had seen varied uses over the years . Originally the kitchen garden of Aston Hall 's owner Sir Thomas Holte , the man who gave his name to the Holte End stand , it later became a Victorian amusement park complete with aquarium and great hall . The current pitch stands on the site of the Dovehouse Pool , an ornamental pond drained in 1889 . In place of the pool the owners of the Lower Grounds built a cycle track and sports ground that opened on 10 June 1889 for a combined cycling and athletics event that drew an estimated crowd of 15 @,@ 000 . Negotiations continued for two years before the Villa committee reached agreement with the site 's owner , Edgar Flower , to rent the Lower Grounds for £ 300 per annum on a 21 @-@ year lease with an option to buy the site at any point during the term . The committee immediately engaged an architect who began preparing plans for the site , which included construction of a new 440 yards ( 400 metres ) cement cycle track to replace the existing cinder one . The main stand was to be built to the east on the Witton Lane side , with the track and pitch fully enclosed by banking . Construction of the final phase of the stadium began in the winter of 1896 following negotiations with contractors over the price . Several months behind schedule , the almost @-@ complete stadium finally opened on 17 April 1897 . The process of fixing issues with the building work would continue for a number of months thereafter . As built , the stadium could house 40 @,@ 000 spectators , most of whom would stand in the open on the banking . The first match at the ground , a friendly against Blackburn Rovers , took place on 17 April 1897 , one week after Aston Villa had completed the League and FA Cup ' Double ' .
After winning the league championship in 1899 , Villa 's record @-@ breaking average crowd of 21 @,@ 000 allowed the club to invest in a two @-@ stage ground improvement programme . The first stage extended the terrace covering on the Trinity Road side at a cost of £ 887 while the second cost £ 1 @,@ 300 and involved re @-@ laying all terracing around the track to remedy a design flaw that caused poor sightlines for the majority of the crowd . In 1911 , Villa bought the freehold of the ground for £ 8 @,@ 250 , the office buildings in the old aquarium and car park area for £ 1 @,@ 500 and the carriage drive and bowling green for £ 2 @,@ 000 . This was the first stage in plans drawn up by ambitious Villa director Frederick Rinder , that would see the capacity of Villa Park increased to 104 @,@ 000 . In June 1914 , another phase of enhancements began at Villa Park to compete with improvements at other grounds around the country , including Everton 's Goodison Park , where a new two @-@ tiered stand had just been completed . The first stage of improvements saw the cycling track removed , new banking at the Holte Hotel End ( Holte End ) and a re @-@ profiling of all the terracing to bring it closer to the newly squared @-@ off pitch . Rinder turned to the renowned architect Archibald Leitch to design a new Villa Park . Their joint plans included large banked end stands at the Holte and Witton ends and the incorporation of the original Victorian Lower Grounds buildings , including the aquarium and the newly acquired bowling greens . The outbreak of the First World War severely hampered design and construction efforts .
As a result of the worsening economic situation , 1919 quotes for the implementation of the pre @-@ war construction plans came to £ 66 @,@ 000 , compared to the 1914 quote of £ 27 @,@ 000 . By March 1922 this price had reduced to £ 41 @,@ 775 and the directors pushed ahead with the plans for the new Trinity Road Stand . Construction began in April 1922 with the stand partially opened in August that year . Construction continued throughout the 1922 – 23 season with the stand officially opened on 26 January 1924 by the then Duke of York , later King George VI . He commented to Rinder that he had " no idea that a ground so finely equipped in every way — and devoted to football — existed . " On completion the Trinity Road Stand was considered one of the grandest in Britain , complete with stained glass windows , Italian mosaics , Dutch gables in the style of Aston Hall and a sweeping staircase . Several commentators including Simon Inglis consider it to be Leitch 's masterpiece , described in 1960 by a Sunday Times reporter as the " St Pancras of football . " The final cost of the stand and associated 1922 – 24 ground developments was calculated at £ 89 @,@ 000 , a sum that enraged the club 's directors who ordered an investigation into cost and in 1925 forced the resignation of Rinder .
Villa Park was to remain in much the same state for another 30 years with no major developments until the late 1950s . During the 1930s the earth and timber terraces with wooden crash barriers were completely replaced by concrete terracing and metal barriers , a process first begun by Rinder . In 1936 he was voted back onto the board at the age of 78 after the club were relegated to the Second Division . Nearly 25 years after he had created his 1914 masterplan , Rinder resurrected it and looked to carry out the third phase of his developments . He died in December 1938 after Leitch who had died in April 1938 , leaving his construction business to his son , Archibald Junior . The complete redevelopment and extension of the Holte End began in early 1939 supervised by Archibald Junior . When the Second World War broke out in September 1939 , all construction across the country stopped . Unusually , given the austerity measures in place at the time , Villa acquired a special permit to continue construction of the Holte End ; Simon Inglis notes " How they achieved this is not recorded . " Work on the ground was completed by April 1940 and the stand was immediately mothballed as Villa Park switched to its war time role . The Trinity Road Stand became an air @-@ raid shelter and ammunition store while the home dressing room became the temporary home of a rifle company from the 9th Battalion , Royal Warwickshire Regiment . German bombs caused £ 20 @,@ 000 worth of damage to the Witton Lane Stand , which was not remedied until 1954 .
Apart from running repairs and fixing bomb damage , no major projects were undertaken until 1958 – 59 when four projects were announced . As a result , the old Bowling Green pavilion on the Trinity Road became a medical centre , the basement of the aquarium building was converted into a gym , four large floodlight pylons were installed and a training ground was purchased 500 yards ( 460 metres ) from Villa Park . The floodlights were first used in November 1958 for a friendly match against the Scottish side Heart of Midlothian . In the summer of 1962 , £ 40 @,@ 000 was spent on a roof for the Holte End , the first to provide cover for the ordinary terrace fans at Villa Park since 1922 . The old barrel @-@ shaped roof on the Witton Lane Stand , the only remaining feature of the 1897 Villa Park , was removed in the summer of 1963 and replaced with a plain sloping roof in the same style as the Holte End . Villa Park was chosen by FIFA to host three matches for the 1966 World Cup on the condition that the Witton Lane Stand became all @-@ seater . The players ' tunnel also required covering with a cage while the pitch was to be widened by 3 yards ( 2 @.@ 7 metres ) . Regular ground developments and innovations began in the summer of 1969 under the direction of the new chairman , Doug Ellis , who set about redeveloping Villa Park for the modern era . Much of the stadium had fallen into various states of disrepair and was in need of modernisation . Ellis updated the infrastructure , installed a new public address system , carried out plumbing work , which included installing new toilets , resurfaced the terraces and built a new ticket office . His tenure also saw executive lounges replace the old offices in the Trinity Road Stand .
Redevelopment of the Witton End stand began in the summer of 1976 . The stand had not seen any major work since 1924 and its rear remained a mound of earth . Initial renovations saw the levelling of the earthen mound and new concrete terraces constructed on the lower tier in preparation for the construction of an upper tier . Stage two began in February 1977 and was officially opened in late October that year . The stand 's design and fittings were impressive for the time , including novelties such as an ' AV ' logo spelled out in coloured seats and a double row of executive boxes . As well as the new Witton End stand , renamed the North Stand , Villa Park went through further renovations throughout the ground . The cost of the work was £ 1 @.@ 3 million . As a result , and as with the construction of the Trinity Road Stand fifty years earlier , Villa were again burdened with debt . An internal investigation found that £ 700 @,@ 000 of the £ 1 @.@ 3 million worth of bills were unaccounted for . A later report by accountants Deloitte Haskins & Sells found that the bills were inflated by only 10 % but that there were " serious breaches of recommended codes of practice and poor site supervision . "
In response to the Hillsborough disaster , the Taylor Report of August 1989 mandated that all major stadia be converted to become all @-@ seater as a safety measure . During the summer of 1990 , the first changes were made to comply with the report 's requirements . The North Stand saw the addition of 2 @,@ 900 seats to the lower tier of the stand in place of terracing , the Holte End 's roof was extended in preparation for more seats , the Trinity Road Stand had its roof replaced and the Witton Lane Stand had more corporate boxes added . By that time , all four floodlight pylons had been removed to make way for boxes or in preparation for seating and new floodlights were installed on new gantries on the Trinity and Witton stands . In February 1992 , the club 's application to the Council for permission to demolish the Holte Hotel was rejected . After several months of negotiations , Villa gained permission for a new stand to replace the Witton Lane Stand . The new design meant that the club had to realign Witton Lane and , as a condition of the planning permission , pay £ 600 @,@ 000 to compulsory purchase the houses along Witton Lane and upgrade the road from a B to an A road , as well as moving its utilities . The stand was fully operational by January 1994 at a cost of £ 5 million with 4 @,@ 686 seats , which brought Villa Park up to a capacity of 46 @,@ 005 . It was announced at the 70th birthday gala of chairman Doug Ellis that the stand was to be renamed the " Doug Ellis Stand " , a move that caused some controversy among Villa fans with some still referring to it as the Witton Lane Stand . Nevertheless , during the 1993 – 94 season , the newly rebuilt Witton Lane Stand became the Doug Ellis Stand . The Holte End was the only remaining stand that did not meet the Taylor Report requirements and a structural survey revealed that putting seats onto the existing terracing would be uneconomical . Instead the decision was taken to build a new stand consisting of two tiers , just four years after construction of the new roof . The demolition of the stand began on the last day of the 1994 season . Its replacement began to open in August 1994 with 3 @,@ 000 seats in the lower tier occupied for the first seating @-@ only game at Villa Park . By December the same year it was fully operational and had a capacity of 13 @,@ 501 seats , bringing the Villa Park capacity to 40 @,@ 310 . Upon completion , the Holte was the largest single end stand in Britain .
The next development at Villa Park was the Trinity Road Stand in 2000 . It had stood since 1922 though it had seen a number of renovations and additions since . The demolition of the old stand began after the last game of the 1999 – 2000 season , an event met with an element of sadness from observers such as Simon Inglis who stated that " the landscape of English football will never be the same . " The new stand was much larger and more spacious than the old one , taking Villa 's capacity from 39 @,@ 399 to its present 42 @,@ 682 . It was officially opened in November 2001 by HRH The Prince of Wales , just as the old stand had been opened by his grandfather George VI , 77 years earlier , when he was still the Duke of York .
= = Structure and facilities = =
Villa Park comprises 42 @,@ 682 seats split between four stands . These four stands are the Holte End to the South , the Trinity Road Stand to the West , the Doug Ellis Stand opposite the Trinity Road Stand , and the North Stand behind the northern goal . All of the stands are composed of two tiers except the Trinity Road Stand , which has three .
The Holte End is a large two @-@ tiered stand at the south end of the stadium . Originally a large terraced banking providing accommodation for more than 20 @,@ 000 spectators , the current incarnation was constructed in 1994 – 95 and consists of two tiers with no executive boxes . The two tiers are slightly curved in a parabola to provide good sightlines from all seats while inside there are three levels of spacious concourse area as well as the Holte Suite , a large hospitality room for supporters . The roof is a variant of the " King Truss " system and the front third slopes slightly forward . Two large staircases , pediments , Dutch gables and a mosaic introduced in the 2007 season in the style of the old Trinity Road Stand make up the facade , itself inspired by Aston Hall . The Holte End is the most renowned stand at Villa Park amongst home and away team supporters . Traditionally Villa 's most vocal and passionate supporters gather here , including some Aston Villa hooligan firms .
Built in 2000 , the main Trinity Road Stand is the most recently completed at Villa Park and houses the dressing rooms , club offices and director 's boxes . The stand is composed of three tiers with a row of executive boxes between the second and third tiers . Although much larger than the other stands , the stand has roughly the same roof level as the other three sides . The players ' tunnel and the technical area where the managers and substitutes sit during the match are in the middle of the stand at pitch level . The press and the directors ' VIP area are situated in the centre of the middle tier . The upper tiers of the stand extend over Trinity Road , the street that cuts behind the ground . Cars travelling along Trinity Road have to pass through what is effectively a tunnel formed by the Trinity Road Stand .
The oldest stand at Villa Park is the North Stand , formerly known as the Witton End , completed in 1977 . It is a two @-@ tiered stand , with a double row of 39 executive boxes running between the two tiers . Upper tier seats are claret with " AV " written in blue while the lower tier consists of sky blue seats . The North Stand was " the first major stand in Britain to use what is now broadly termed the ' goalpost ' structure . " The facade of the stand is a " textured concrete render " typical of the time . Since the segregation of supporters in the 1970s , away fans had been situated in the lower tier of the North Stand . Former manager Martin O 'Neill expressed his desire to have Villa fans seated in the North Stand to improve the atmosphere at Villa Park . For the start of the 2007 – 08 season the club released cut @-@ price season tickets for the lower tier of the stand . This meant moving the away fans to the northern end of the Doug Ellis Stand across both tiers . The Doug Ellis Stand , formerly known as the Witton Lane Stand , is a two @-@ tiered stand with a row of executive boxes dividing the tiers . The roof was originally planned to be a goalpost structure , the same as the Holte End and North Stand , but the plans were changed to a simpler cantilever design . It saw slight refurbishment prior to the 1996 European Championships to join the corners with the lower tier of the North Stand , improve leg @-@ room and increase the curve of the terracing to improve sightlines . The main television camera viewpoint is situated here , so televised matches at Villa Park take the point of view of a fan who is sitting on the half @-@ way line in the Doug Ellis Stand .
In the south @-@ west corner , between the Holte End and the Trinity Road Stand , there is a three @-@ storey pavilion @-@ like structure , which is used for corporate hospitality . There is also a large television screen in the same location . On 28 November 2009 , a bronze statue of former Villa chairman and founder of the Football League , William McGregor was unveiled outside the stadium . Behind the North Stand is the " Villa Village " made up of club and ticket offices as well as a club shop . The buildings were bought by the club from British Telecom in the 1990s .
= = Future = =
Aston Villa have initial planning permission to rebuild the North Stand in the same style as the Trinity Road Stand . Owner Randy Lerner has expressed his support for increased capacity as average attendances increased . When completed , the capacity of Villa Park will increase to around 50 @,@ 000 . As of the start of the 2010 season , designs are at a conceptual stage and due to a " multi @-@ year effort to consider business and supporter needs " there is no defined date for construction to start . In the meantime , the entrance to the North Stand , " R Block " , has been redecorated inside and out . The facelift has seen the curved fascia above the turnstiles replaced with cladding and canopies similar to those in front of the Holte Suite . The " R Block " concourse has also been expanded to create a larger , brighter open space .
Villa Park was originally listed as one of the six stadiums that will hold Olympic football matches in the 2012 Summer Olympics . On 10 August 2009 it was announced that the organising committee for the games and the football club had decided that uncertainty around expansion plans meant that the club were " unable to commit fully to hosting matches . "
= = Non @-@ Villa games and other sports = =
Villa Park was the first English ground to stage international football in three different centuries and has hosted matches during several international tournaments . Three World Cup matches were played at the ground during the 1966 World Cup and four matches during Euro ' 96 . The ground has also hosted a number of England internationals at senior level . The first was in 1899 and the most recent in 2005 . Sixteen international matches have been hosted at the stadium in total .
Villa Park has been the venue for several Cup competitions . It is the most often used stadium in FA Cup semi @-@ finals history , having hosted 55 semi @-@ finals . The club hosted the League Cup Final in 1980 – 81 when Liverpool beat West Ham 2 – 1 in a replay . In 1999 , the stadium hosted the last ever final of the European Cup Winners ' Cup in which Lazio beat Real Mallorca 2 – 1 . During the construction of the new Wembley Stadium between 2001 and 2005 , the FA Trophy Final was held at Villa Park . The 2012 Community Shield was held at Villa Park instead of Wembley due to Olympic Games at the stadium .
Many athletics and cycle events took place at the ground prior to the First World War while boxing has been hosted on several occasions . On 28 June 1948 , Dick Turpin , brother of Randolph Turpin , became the first non @-@ white boxer to win a British title in a fight against Vince Hawkins in front of 40 @,@ 000 spectators following the British Boxing Board of Control lifting their ban on non @-@ whites challenging for titles . On 21 June 1972 Danny McAlinden defeated Jack Bodell in a British and Empire Heavyweight title fight .
The first ever rugby league test series was secured by Great Britain at the ground , when they defeated the touring Australian Kangaroos side 6 – 5 on 14 February 1909 in front of a crowd of 9 @,@ 000 . A second rugby league game followed three years later on New Year 's Day 1912 but only 4 @,@ 000 people turned up to see Australia beat Great Britain 33 – 8 . The stadium has also seen several international rugby union tour matches . On 8 October 1924 , a North Midlands XV lost 40 – 3 to the New Zealand side touring Europe and Canada at the time . The second game took place on 30 December 1953 when Midlands Counties played another New Zealand side on their 1953 – 54 tour of United Kingdom , Ireland , France and North America . The Midlands side lost 18 – 3 . On 26 August 1985 , it played host to the first ever American football " Summerbowl , " intended to be the English equivalent to the Super Bowl . The game was played between the London Ravens and the Streatham Olympians and the low turn @-@ out of 8 @,@ 000 spectators meant that the Summerbowl was not repeated in subsequent years .
Villa Park was chosen as the venue for two pool matches in the 2015 Rugby World Cup . The first was a Pool B match between South Africa and Samoa on September 26 , 2015 with South Africa easily winning 46 - 6 with 39 @,@ 526 in attendance . The second was a Pool A match between Australia and Uruguay the next day with Australia easily winning 65 - 3 with 39 @,@ 605 in attendance .
= = Other Uses = =
Aside from sporting uses , Villa Park has been a venue for musicians from multiple genres as well as evangelical preachers . The stadium has hosted several rock concerts , including Bruce Springsteen who played two concerts in June 1988 as part of his Tunnel of Love Tour , and most recently Bon Jovi , who played the stadium in 2013 as part of the Because We Can : The Tour . Duran Duran held a charity concert in 1983 to raise money for MENCAP . Other singers who have played at the ground include Belinda Carlisle , Rod Stewart and Robert Palmer . The American evangelist Billy Graham attracted 257 @,@ 181 people to a series of prayer meetings held at the stadium over the summer of 1984 . Archbishop Desmond Tutu held a religious gathering at the stadium in 1989 .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance recorded at Villa Park was 76 @,@ 588 , on 2 March 1946 in an FA Cup 6th round tie against Derby County . The highest attendance in the all @-@ seater era was 42 @,@ 788 on 29 December 2009 in a Premier League game against Liverpool . The highest average post Second World War attendance at Villa Park was 47 @,@ 168 in the 1948 – 49 season , while the lowest average post @-@ war attendance was 15 @,@ 237 in the 1985 – 86 season .
= = Transport = =
Villa Park is within a short distance of two mainline railway stations . Witton railway station is approximately 500 metres ( 0 @.@ 3 miles ) from Villa Park , and Aston railway station is approximately 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 9 miles ) . Under current owner Randy Lerner , there have been discussions on changing the name of Witton Station to Villa Park as is the case with West Bromwich Albion 's local railway station , The Hawthorns . Aston Villa 's former CEO , Bruce Langham , has said that the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive ( Centro ) are amenable to the idea as long as it is done at the expense of the club . No action has yet been taken .
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= 2001 Avjet Aspen crash =
On March 29 , 2001 , a chartered Gulfstream III business jet , operated by Avjet Corporation , crashed into the ground while on instrument approach to Aspen – Pitkin County Airport , Colorado . All three crew members and fifteen passengers on board perished .
The subsequent investigation by the National Transportation Safety Board concluded that the cause of the accident was the captain 's premature descent below the minimum descent altitude , carried out without having the runway in sight .
The accident 's investigation also brought into focus several generic safety issues , such as pressure applied on charter pilots by customers , night flight into airports near mountainous terrain , and the ambiguity of some Federal Aviation Administration rules .
= = Flight history = =
The captain and first officer reported for duty at Avjet 's Burbank , California facility around noon on the day of the accident . After checking the weather and the aircraft , they embarked on an 11 @-@ minute repositioning flight to Los Angeles International Airport ( LAX ) to pick up their passengers . The flight was originally scheduled to leave LAX at 16 : 30 MST , but departed after a 41 @-@ minute delay for late passengers at 17 : 11 MST .
Earlier in the day , an FAA specialist had informed the crew that it would be illegal to land at night in Aspen under instrument flight rules . In addition , the crew were aware that due to noise abatement restrictions , their jet aircraft was required to land at Aspen by the 18 : 58 MST night curfew . Following the delayed departure from LAX , their estimated arrival time was 18 : 46 MST , twelve minutes before the curfew took effect .
As the flight approached Aspen – Pitkin County Airport , it became evident that some of the other inbound flights were performing missed approaches , as they had been unable to complete an instrument approach to the airport 's runway . The airport is surrounded by high terrain on all sides and a fairly steep descent is required in order to land .
At 18 : 56 : 06 MST , the flight was cleared for the VOR / DME @-@ C instrument approach to the airport , whereupon it proceeded to the Red Table VOR , executed a sequence of designated step @-@ down maneuvers and began final approach to the runway . As it continued its descent past the missed approach point – where the runway must be in sight to continue – the pilots had still not visually located the runway in the increasing darkness and snow showers . At 19 : 01 : 57 MST , while in a steep left bank , the aircraft crashed into the terrain , killing all 18 persons on board .
= = Investigation and final report = =
Following the crash , the aircraft 's cockpit voice recorder was recovered from the wreckage and the data recorded found to be intact and usable . Under Code of Federal Regulations ( CFR ) Part 135 Air Taxi rules , no flight data recorder was required for this type of flight and one had not been installed .
Part of the subsequent NTSB investigation focused on the fact that the instrument approach at the destination airport was not legal for night landing , and the overall pressure applied on the charter company and flight crew by the charter customer to complete the flight into the original destination . According to witnesses , the charter customer , upon learning that the flight might have to be diverted to an alternate airport due to the night landing restriction , had his business assistant call Avjet management , to " let them know that the airplane was not going to be redirected " .
In addition , witnesses claimed that when the charter customer learned that the captain had discussed the possible diversion with some of the passengers waiting for the late arrivals , he had his assistant call Avjet to instruct the captain to " keep his comments to himself " .
The Avjet charter department scheduler subsequently testified that " the captain felt that it was important to land at [ Aspen ] because of the substantial amount of money that the [ charter ] customer spent for a dinner party " .
Based on information obtained from the cockpit voice recorder , the flight attendant had escorted an unidentified male passenger to the flight deck 's jump seat during the approach sequence . According to the NTSB 's analysis , " the presence of this passenger in the cockpit , especially if it were the charter customer , most likely further heightened the pressure on the flight crew to land at [ Aspen ] " .
The NTSB issued its final report on June 11 , 2002 , with the following probable cause :
The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the flight crew 's operation of the airplane below the minimum descent altitude without an appropriate visual reference for the runway .
The NTSB added the following contributing factors :
Contributing to the cause of the accident were the Federal Aviation Administration 's ( FAA ) unclear wording of the March 27 , 2001 Notice to Airmen regarding the nighttime restriction for the VOR / DME @-@ C approach to the airport and the FAA 's failure to communicate this restriction to the Aspen tower ; the inability of the flight crew to adequately see the mountainous terrain because of the darkness and the weather conditions ; and the pressure on the captain to land from the charter customer and because of the airplane 's delayed departure and the airport 's nighttime landing restriction .
= = Aftermath = =
After the accident , Avjet decided to prohibit airport operations at Aspen and three other mountainous airports between sunset and sunrise . It also issued the following memorandum to its flight crews and schedulers :
" if you cannot accomplish a landing and be on the ground at one of these airports before sunset you must divert to a suitable alternate . All passengers for one of these destinations must be informed of this policy . Flight crew members must report any violation of this policy or pressure from passengers to violate this policy to the Director of Operations or Chief Pilot . "
Avjet also added the following policy to its operations manual after the accident :
" Only an Avjet assigned crewmember , check airman , or FAA observer may occupy the observer 's seat ( jump seat ) in any Avjet aircraft . Charter passengers shall never be allowed to occupy the observer 's seat at any time . "
= = Litigation = =
A wrongful death lawsuit was filed by the families of three of the victims in Los Angeles , CA . After a jury found the captain and Avjet Corporation negligent , an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement was reached , where Avjet agreed to pay the plaintiffs a total of US $ 11.7M in damages . There were reportedly also other settlements for other victims .
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= Lavochkin La @-@ 150 =
The Lavochkin La @-@ 150 ( also known as the Izdeliye 150 – Aircraft or Article 150 , USAF / DOD designation Type 3 ) , was designed by the Lavochkin design bureau ( OKB ) in response to a 1945 order to build a single @-@ seat jet fighter using a single German turbojet . By this time both the Americans and British , as well as the Germans , had already flown jet fighters and the single Soviet jet engine under development ( the Lyulka TR @-@ 1 ) was not yet ready for production . The design was completed quickly , but the construction of the five flying prototypes was protracted by the factory 's inexperience in building metal aircraft . The aircraft made its first flight in September 1946 , but proved to require extensive modifications to meet the Soviet Air Forces ' requirements . These took so long to make and test that the aircraft was essentially obsolete by the time that they were completed . Even one variant with a much more powerful engine was inferior to other aircraft that the OKB had under development and all work was terminated in 1947 .
= = Design and development = =
The Lavochkin OKB was ordered to design a fighter using a single Junkers Jumo 004B axial @-@ flow turbojet in February 1945 . Much like their rivals at the Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich OKB with their MiG @-@ 9 , the OKB chose a " pod @-@ and @-@ boom " layout for their new fighter , based on advice from the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute ( TsAGI ) , although their design had a shoulder @-@ mounted wing . The wings of the all @-@ metal aircraft had fixed leading edges and slotted flaps . The cockpit was well forward , giving the pilot good visibility , and he was protected by an armored headrest . The windscreen of the teardrop @-@ shaped canopy was also armored . Two 23 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 autocannon were mounted on the lower side of the fuselage with 75 rounds per gun . The tricycle landing gear retracted into the fuselage which gave the 150 a very narrow track . The Soviet derivative of the Jumo engine , the RD @-@ 10 , was rated at 900 kilograms @-@ force ( 8 @.@ 8 kN ; 2 @,@ 000 lbf ) and was mounted behind the cockpit . A steel heat shield protected the bottom of the rear fuselage from the engine 's exhaust . Air was supplied by an intake in the aircraft nose that split around the cockpit before reaching the engine . Seven tanks , five in the fuselage and one in each wing , carried a total of 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) of fuel .
Construction of a full @-@ scale mockup was completed in June 1945 by Factory No. 81 , but the order for five prototypes was given to Factory No. 381 as Factory No. 81 was already fully committed to other programs . Manufacturing drawings were delivered to Factory No. 381 by the end of August , but the prototypes were delayed because the plant had no experience building metal aircraft and lacked the necessary tooling . By the end of the year , the factory had only managed to complete a single airframe for static load testing . This showed that the rear fuselage , wings and tail needed to be reinforced , and the opportunity was taken to enlarge the vertical stabilizer as well . These tests and modifications required six months of work so that the first flying prototype was not completed until July 1946 . Manufacturer 's testing of the first prototype began on 27 August , after ground testing had required replacing the engine twice , and the first flight was made on 11 September .
The following day , the Council of Ministers ordered that a small batch of jets from each OKB were to participate in the 7 November parade commemorating the October Revolution . Because of the tight deadline , the components for the two incomplete prototypes were turned over to Factory No. 301 at Khimki , the new headquarters for the Lavochkin OKB , for assembly by Factory No. 381 . Factory No. 21 in Gorky joined the program with three more aircraft built in record time with support from Factory No. 301 . Tooling was constructed in 5 – 10 days with the first aircraft completed in a week and a half .
= = = Testing and evaluation = = =
All eight aircraft were complete by 1 November and had been tested to ensure their readiness to participate in the parade . They were later given the unofficial service designation of La @-@ 13 . It was considered too risky to fly the aircraft from Gorky to Moscow and their wings could not be dismounted which meant that they could not be railed to Moscow either . Special three @-@ wheeled trailers were built and the aircraft were driven to Moscow , but the flypast was cancelled because of bad weather .
The tests conducted in preparation for the parade revealed a number of flaws in the design including poor directional stability , a cramped cockpit without heating or ventilation , poor access to the engine , inadequate fuel capacity , compounded by the lack of a fuel gauge , and poor elevator control forces . Five aircraft were modified to correct these issues before resuming the factory 's testing in late 1946 . The modifications were not entirely successful and the lateral stability was now too great and the elevator forces remained too weak . Engine problems , however , plagued the tests as the first prototype alone required four engine changes .
After the conclusion of the manufacturer 's trials in April 1947 , one aircraft was returned to the factory for extensive modifications as the 150M . The wing tips were angled downward 35 ° to reduce the lateral stability , the wing was redesigned to detach from the fuselage , and the aerodynamic balancing of the elevators was reduced from 24 % to 20 % . The fuel capacity was increased to 660 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 460 lb ) , the cockpit was widened by 80 centimeters ( 31 in ) and fitted with an ejection seat . Fore and aft armor plates were fitted to protect the pilot and a new radio aerial mast was installed . All these changes added 365 kilograms ( 805 lb ) of weight and increased drag which reduced the aircraft 's top speed by 73 to 805 km / h ( 45 to 500 mph ) , and slowed its time to 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) from 4 @.@ 8 to 7 @.@ 2 minutes in comparison to the unmodified aircraft . Given that a higher @-@ performance design , the Aircraft 156 , had already been submitted for state acceptance trials , Semyon Lavochkin decided not to continue the development of the 150M .
In the meantime , the OKB had been developing two afterburning versions of the RD @-@ 10 in an effort to increase the engine 's power . The more successful model was only 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) longer and weighed an additional 31 kilograms ( 68 lb ) more than the original engine . Its power , however , was increased by an additional 340 kilograms @-@ force ( 3 @.@ 3 kN ; 750 lbf ) , over 30 % more thrust . This engine was designated the izdeliye YuF by the bureau and was fitted into an aircraft 150 prototype in July 1947 , designated as the 150F . The additional power increased the aircraft 's top speed to 950 km / h ( 590 mph ) at sea level and 915 km / h ( 569 mph ) at an altitude of 4 @,@ 320 meters ( 14 @,@ 170 ft ) . This made the 150F the second @-@ fastest Soviet fighter of the period , after the MiG @-@ 9 powered by two afterburning RD @-@ 21 engines . Nevertheless , Lavochkin decided not to submit the 150F for state acceptance trials as the fundamental design flaws of the airframe still had not been resolved .
= = Operators = =
Soviet Union
Soviet Air Force
= = Variants = =
150M – One 150 prototype was modified with drooped wingtips , a wider cockpit and extra fuel .
150F – One 150 prototype was modified with a Izdeliye YuF engine , an afterburning RD @-@ 10 .
= = Specifications ( Aircraft 150 ) = =
Data from Early Soviet Jet Fighters
General characteristics
Crew : 1 , pilot
Length : 9 @.@ 42 m ( 30 ft 11 in )
Wingspan : 8 @.@ 20 m ( 26 ft 10 @.@ 83 in )
Height : 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 ft 6 @.@ 36 in )
Wing area : 12 @.@ 15 m ² ( 130 @.@ 64 ft ² )
Empty weight : 2 @,@ 156 kg ( 4 @,@ 753 lb )
Loaded weight : 2 @,@ 973 kg ( 6 @,@ 554 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × RD @-@ 10 turbojet , 8 @.@ 8 kN ( 1 @,@ 984 lbf )
Performance
Maximum speed : 546 mph ( 878 km / h )
Range : 306 mi ( 493 km )
Service ceiling : 12,600m ( 41,338ft )
Rate of climb : 22 @.@ 1 m ( 4 @,@ 349 ft )
Wing loading : 244 @.@ 6 kg / m ² ( 50 @.@ 22 lb / ft ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 303
Armament
2 × 23 mm Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 autocannon with 75 rpg
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= 45th Infantry Division ( United States ) =
The 45th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army , part of the Oklahoma Army National Guard , from 1920 to 1968 . Headquartered mostly in Oklahoma City , the guardsmen fought in both World War II and the Korean War . They trace their lineage from frontier militias that operated in the Southwestern United States throughout the late 1800s .
The 45th Infantry Division guardsmen saw no major action until they became one of the first National Guard units activated in World War II in 1941 . They took part in intense fighting during the invasion of Sicily and the attack on Salerno in the 1943 Italian Campaign . Slowly advancing through Italy , they fought in Anzio and in Monte Cassino . After landing in France during Operation Dragoon , they joined the 1945 drive into Germany that ended the War in Europe .
After brief inactivation and subsequent reorganization as a unit restricted to Oklahomans , the division returned to duty in 1951 for the Korean War . It joined the United Nations troops on the front lines during the stalemate of the second half of the war , with constant , low @-@ level fighting and trench warfare against the People 's Volunteer Army of China that produced little gain for either side . The division remained on the front lines in such engagements as Old Baldy Hill and Hill Eerie until the end of the war , returning to the U.S. in 1954 .
The division remained a National Guard formation until its inactivation in 1968 as part of a downsizing of the Guard . Several units were activated to replace the division and carry on its lineage . Over the course of its history , the 45th Infantry Division sustained over 25 @,@ 000 battle casualties , and its men were awarded nine Medals of Honor , twelve campaign streamers , the Croix de Guerre and the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation .
= = History = =
With the outbreak of World War I , troops of the National Guard were formed into the units which exist today , with the Colorado Guard forming the 157th Infantry Regiment , the Arizona Guard forming the 158th Infantry Regiment , and the New Mexico Guard forming the 120th Engineer Regiment . These units were attached to the 40th Infantry Division and deployed to France where they were used as " depot " forces to provide replacements for front @-@ line units . They returned home at the end of the war . The Oklahoma Guard units that would later become the 179th Infantry Regiment and 180th Infantry Regiment were assigned to the 36th Infantry Division and would earn a combat participation credit during the Meuse @-@ Argonne Campaign ( 26 September – 11 November 1918 ) in France as the 142nd Infantry .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
On 19 October 1920 , the Oklahoma State militia was organized as the 45th Infantry Division of the Oklahoma Army National Guard , and manned with troops from Arizona , Colorado , New Mexico , and Oklahoma . The division was formed and federally recognized as a National Guard unit on 3 August 1923 in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma . It was assigned the 89th Infantry Brigade of the Colorado and Arizona National Guards , and the 90th Infantry Brigade of the Oklahoma National Guard . As a consequence of these militia roots , when the division was properly organized , many of its members were marksmen and outdoorsmen from the remote frontier regions of the Southwestern United States . The division 's first commander was Major General Baird H. Markham .
The 45th Infantry Division engaged in regular drills but no major events in its first few years , though the division 's Colorado elements were called in to help quell a large coal mining strike . The onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s severely curtailed its funding for training and equipment . Major General Roy Hoffman took command in 1931 , followed by Alexander M. Tuthill , Alexander E. McPherren in 1935 , and William S. Key in 1936 . In 1937 , the division 's troops were once again called up , this time to help manage a locust plague affecting Colorado .
The division 's original shoulder sleeve insignia , approved in August 1924 , featured a swastika , a common Native American symbol , as a tribute to the Southwestern United States region which had a large population of Native Americans . However , with the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany , with its infamous swastika symbol , the 45th Division stopped using the insignia . Following a long process of submissions for new designs , a new shoulder sleeve insignia , designed by a Carnegie , Oklahoma native named Woody Big Bow , featuring the Thunderbird , another Native American symbol , was approved in 1939 .
In August 1941 , the 45th Infantry Division took part in the Louisiana Maneuvers , the largest peacetime exercises in U.S. military history . It was assigned to VIII Corps with the 2nd Infantry Division and the 36th Infantry Division , camped near Pitkin , Louisiana . Still operating with outmoded equipment from World War I , the division did not perform well during these exercises . With poor weather and bad equipment , the undertrained 45th Infantry Division was criticized by officers who considered it " feeble " . In spite of these deficiencies , less than one month later , the men were recalled to the active duty force , much to their chagrin , because of concerns of an impending American entry into World War II .
= = = World War II = = =
On 16 September 1941 , the 45th Infantry Division was federalized from state control into the regular army force . It was one of four National Guard divisions to be federalized , alongside the 30th Infantry Division , the 41st Infantry Division and the 44th Infantry Division , originally for a one @-@ year period . Its men immediately began basic combat training at Fort Sill , Oklahoma . Throughout 1942 , it continued this training at Camp Barkeley , Texas , before moving to Fort Devens , Massachusetts , to undergo amphibious assault training in preparation for an invasion of Italy . It then moved to Pine Camp , New York briefly for winter warfare training , but was hampered by continuously poor weather . In January 1943 it moved to Fort Pickett , Virginia , for its final training . The division moved to the Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation embarkation 's Camp Patrick Henry to await combat loading on the transports .
The division 's two combat commands , the 89th and 90th Brigades , were not activated , as the Army favored smaller and more versatile regimental commands for the new conflict . The 45th Infantry Division was instead based around the 157th , 179th , and 180th Infantry Regiments . Also assigned to the division were the 158th , 160th , 171st , and 189th Field Artillery Battalions , the 45th Signal Company , the 700th Ordnance Company , the 45th Quartermaster Company , the 45th Reconnaissance Troop , the 120th Engineer Combat Battalion , and the 120th Medical Battalion .
= = = = Sicily = = = =
The 45th Division , under the command of Major General Troy Middleton , sailed from the Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation for the Mediterranean region on 8 June 1943 , combat loaded aboard thirteen attack transports and five cargo attack vessels as convoy UGF @-@ 9 headed by the communications ship USS Ancon . By the time the 45th Division landed in North Africa on 22 June 1943 , the Allies had largely secured the African theater . As a result , the division was not sent into combat upon arrival and instead commenced training at Arzew , French Morocco , in preparation for the invasion of Sicily . Allied intelligence estimated that the island was defended by approximately 230 @,@ 000 troops , the majority of which were drawn mostly from weak Italian formations and two German divisions which had been reconstituted after being destroyed earlier . Against this , the Allies planned to land 180 @,@ 000 troops , including the 45th Division , which was assigned to II Corps of the U.S. Seventh Army , under Lieutenant General George Patton , for the operation .
The division was subsequently assigned a lead role in the amphibious assault on Sicily , coming ashore on 10 July . Landing near Scoglitti , the southernmost U.S. objective on the island , the division advanced north on the U.S. force 's eastern flank . After initially encountering resistance from armor of the Herman Goering Division , the division advanced , supported by paratroopers of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division who landed inland on 11 July . The 82nd paratroopers , conducting their first combat jump of the war , then set up to protect the 45th 's flank against German counterattack , but without weapons to counter heavy armor , the paratroopers had to rely on support from U.S. armored units to repulse the German Tiger I tanks . As the division advanced towards its main objective to capture the airfields at Biscari and Comiso , German forces pushed back . For most of the first two weeks while the division moved slowly north , it encountered only light resistance from Italian forces fighting delaying actions . Italian and German forces resisted fiercely at Motta Hill on 26 July , however , and for four days the 45th Infantry Division was held up there . After this , division was allocated to drive towards Messina , being ordered by General Patton to cover the distance as quickly as possible . It spent a few days in that city , but on 1 August , the division was withdrawn from the front line for rest and rear @-@ guard patrol duty , after which the division was assigned to VI Corps of the U.S. Fifth Army , under Lieutenant General Mark Clark , in preparation for the invasion of mainland Italy .
= = = = Salerno = = = =
On 3 September , Italy surrendered to the Allied powers . Hoping to occupy as much of the country as possible before the German Army could react , the U.S. Fifth Army prepared to attack Salerno . On 10 September 1943 , the division conducted its second landing at Agropoli and Paestum with the 36th Infantry Division , on the southernmost beaches of the attack . Opposing them were elements of the German 29th Panzergrenadier Division and XVI Panzer Corps . Against stiff resistance , the 45th pushed to the Calore River after a week of heavy fighting . The Fifth Army was battered and pushed back by German forces until 20 September , when Allied forces were finally able to break out and establish a more secure beachhead . On 3 November it crossed the Volturno River and took Venafro . The division had great difficulty moving across the rivers and through the mountainous terrain , and the advance was slow . After linking up with the British Eighth Army , which had advanced from the south , the combined force , under the 15th Army Group , was stalled when it reached the Gustav Line . Until 9 January 1944 , the division inched forward into the mountains reaching St. Elia , north of Cassino , before moving to a rest area .
= = = = Anzio = = = =
Allied forces conducted a frontal assault on the Gustav Line stronghold at Monte Cassino , and VI Corps , British 1st Infantry Division included , was assigned to Operation Shingle , detached from the 15th Army Group to land behind enemy lines at Anzio on 22 January 1944 . For this mission , CCA ( Combat Command A ) of the 1st Armored Division was attached to the 45th Infantry Division . Landing on schedule , VI Corps surprised the Germans , but Major General John P. Lucas 's decision to consolidate the beachhead instead of attacking gave the Germans time to bring the LXXVI Panzer Corps forward to oppose the landings .
One regiment of the 45th ( the 179th ) went ashore with the landings . In company with the British 1st Division , they advanced north along the Anzio @-@ Albano road and captured the Aprilia " factory " , but encountered heavy resistance from German armored units a few miles further on . Lucas then ordered the rest of the division ahore . The 45th Division was deployed on the southeastern side of the beachhead , along the lower Mussolini Canal .
On 30 January 1944 , when VI Corps advanced from the beaches , it encountered heavy resistance and took heavy casualties . VI Corps was stopped at the " Pimlott Line " ( the perimeter of the beachhead ) , and the fight became a battle of attrition .
The first major German counterattack came in early February , was against British 1st Division . Two regiments of the 45th ( the 179th and 157th ) were sent to the Aprilia sector to reinforce the British . The 179th Infantry and a tank battalion of CCA tried to recapture Aprilia but were repulsed . Lucas then moved the rest of the 45th Division to the left @-@ center of the perimeter , at Aprilia and along the west branch of the Mussolini Canal . For the next four months the 45th Infantry Division was mostly stuck in place , holding its ground during repeated German counterattacks , and subjected to bombardment from aircraft and artillery .
On 16 February , a major German attack struck the 45th , and nearly broke through the 179th Infantry on 18 February . Lucas sent famed Ranger leader Colonel William O. Darby to assume command of the 157th , and the Germans were repulsed .
On 23 May , VI Corps went on the offensive , breaking out of the beachhead to the northeast , with the 45th Division forming the left half of the attack . By 31 May , the German defenses were shattered , and the 45th Division turned northwest , toward the Alban Hills and Rome . On 4 June the 45th crossed the Tiber River below Rome , and entered the city along with other VI Corps troops . Men of the 45th Division were the first Allied troops to reach the Vatican .
On 16 June , the 45th Division withdrew for rest in preparation for other operations . At this time , VI Corps was attached to the Seventh United States Army , Sixth United States Army Group . The 45th , 36th , and 3rd Infantry divisions were pulled from the line in Italy in preparation for Operation Dragoon ( formerly Anvil ) , the invasion of southern France . Dragoon was originally planned to coincide with the Normandy landings in the north , but was delayed until August because of a shortage of landing craft .
= = = = France and Germany = = = =
The 45th Infantry Division participated in its fourth assault landing during Operation Dragoon on 15 August 1944 , at St. Maxime , in Southern France . The division landed its 157th and 180th regimental combat teams and captured the heights of the Chaines de Mar before meeting the 1st Special Service Force . The German Army , reeling from the Battle of Normandy , pulled back after a short fight , part of an overall German withdrawal to the east following the landings . Soldiers of the 45th Infantry Division engaged the dispersed forces of German Army Group G , suffering very few casualties . The Seventh Army , along with Free French forces , were able to advance north quickly . By 12 September , the Seventh Army linked up with the Third United States Army , advancing from Normandy , joining the two forces at Dijon . Against slight opposition , it spearheaded the drive for the Belfort Gap . The 45th Infantry Division took the strongly defended city of Epinal on 24 September . The division was then reassigned to V Corps for its next advance . On 30 September the division crossed the Moselle River and entered the western foothills of the Vosges , taking Rambervillers . It would remain in the area for a month waiting for other units to catch up before crossing the Mortagne River on 23 October . The division remained on the line with the Sixth United States Army Group , the southernmost of three Army Groups advancing through France .
After the crossing was complete , the division was relieved from V Corps and assigned to XV Corps . The division was allowed a one @-@ month rest , resuming its advance on 25 November , attacking the forts north of Mutzig . These forts had been designed by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1893 to block access to the plain of Alsace . The 45th Division next crossed the Zintzel River before pushing through the Maginot defenses . During this time much of the division 's artillery assets were attached to the 44th Infantry Division to provide additional support . The 45th Infantry Division was reassigned to VI Corps on New Year 's Day . From 2 January 1945 , the division fought defensively along the German border , withdrawing to the Moder River . It sent half of its artillery to support the 70th Infantry Division . On 17 February the division was pulled off the line for rest and training . Once this rest period was complete , the division was assigned to XV Corps for the final push into German territory . The 45th moved north to the Sarreguemines area and smashed through the Siegfried Line , on 17 March taking Homburg on the 21st and crossing the Rhine between Worms and Hamm on the 26th . The advance continued , with Aschaffenburg falling on 3 April , and Nuremberg on the 20th . The division crossed the Danube River on 27 April , and liberated 32 @,@ 000 captives of the Dachau concentration camp on 29 April 1945 . The division captured Munich during the next two days , occupying the city until V @-@ E Day and the surrender of Germany . During the next month , the division remained in Munich and set up collection points and camps for the massive numbers of surrendering troops of the German armies . The number of POWs taken by the 45th Division during its almost two years of fighting totalled 124 @,@ 840 men . The division was then slated to move to the Pacific theater of operations to participate in the invasion of mainland Japan on the island of Honshu , but these plans were scrubbed before the division could depart after the surrender of Japan , on V @-@ J Day .
= = = = Criminal allegations = = = =
After the war , courts @-@ martial were convened to investigate possible war crimes by members of the division . In the first case , dubbed the Biscari massacre , American troops from C Company , 180th Infantry Regiment , were alleged to have shot 74 Italian and two German prisoners in Acate in July 1943 following the capture of an airfield in the area . Patton asked General Omar Bradley to get the case dismissed to prevent bad press , but Bradley refused . A non @-@ commissioned officer later confessed to the crimes and was found guilty , but an officer who claimed he had only been following orders was acquitted .
In a second incident , the Army considered court @-@ martialling several officers of the 157th Infantry Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel Felix L. Sparks after servicemen were accused of massacring German soldiers who were surrendering at the Dachau concentration camp in 1945 . Some of the German troops were camp guards ; the others were sick and wounded troops from a nearby hospital . The soldiers of the 45th Division who liberated the camp were outraged at the malnourishment and maltreatment of the 32 @,@ 000 prisoners they liberated , some barely alive , and all victims of the Holocaust . After entering the camp , the soldiers found boxcars filled with dead bodies of prisoners who had succumbed to starvation or last @-@ minute executions , and in rooms adjacent to gas chambers they found naked bodies piled from the floor to the ceiling . The cremation ovens , which were still in operation when the soldiers arrived , contained bodies and skeletons as well . Some of the victims apparently had died only hours before the 45th Division entered the camp , while many others lay where they had died in states of decomposition that overwhelmed the soldiers ' senses . Accounts conflict over what happened and over how many German troops were killed . After investigating the incident , the Army considered court @-@ martialling several officers involved , but Patton successfully intervened . Seventh Army was being disbanded and Patton had been appointed Military Governor of Bavaria , placing the matter in his hands . Some veterans of the 45th Infantry Division have said that only 30 to 50 German soldiers were killed and that very few were killed trying to surrender , while others have admitted to killing or refusing to treat wounded German guards .
= = = After the war = = =
During World War II , the 45th Division fought in 511 days of combat . Nine soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor during their service with the 45th Infantry Division : Van T. Barfoot , Ernest Childers , Almond E. Fisher , William J. Johnston , Salvador J. Lara , Jack C. Montgomery , James D. Slaton , Jack Treadwell , and Edward G. Wilkin . Soldiers of the division also received 61 Distinguished Service Crosses , three Distinguished Service Medals , 1 @,@ 848 Silver Star Medals , 38 Legion of Merit medals , 59 Soldier 's Medals , 5 @,@ 744 Bronze Star Medals , and 52 Air Medals . The division received seven distinguished unit citations and eight campaign streamers during the conflict . The division suffered 3 @,@ 650 killed in action , 13 @,@ 729 wounded in action , 3 @,@ 615 missing in action , 266 captured , and 41 @,@ 647 non @-@ battle casualties for a total of 62 @,@ 907 casualties during the war .
Most of the division returned to New York in September 1945 , and from there went to Camp Bowie , Texas . On 7 December 1945 , the division was deactivated from the active duty force and its members reassigned to other Army units . The following year , on 10 September 1946 , the 45th Infantry Division was reconstituted as a National Guard unit . Instead of comprising units from several states , the post @-@ war 45th was an all @-@ Oklahoma organization . During this time the division was also reorganized and as a part of this process the 157th Infantry was removed from the division 's order of battle and replaced with the 279th Infantry Regiment .
During this time , the U.S. Army underwent a drastic reduction in size . At the end of World War II , it contained 89 divisions , but by 1950 , there were just 10 active divisions in the force , along with a few reserve divisions such as the 45th Infantry Division which were combat @-@ ineffective . The division retained many of its best officers as senior commanders as the force downsized , and it enjoyed a good relationship with its community . The 45th in this time was regarded as one of the better @-@ trained National Guard divisions . Regardless , by mid @-@ 1950 the division had only 8 @,@ 413 troops , less than 45 percent of its full @-@ strength authorization . Only 10 percent of the division 's officers and 5 percent of its enlisted men had combat experience with the division from World War II .
= = = Korean War = = =
At the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 , the U.S. Army looked to expand its force again to prepare for major conflict . After the North Korean People 's Army invaded the Republic of Korea four understrength U.S. divisions on occupation duty in Japan were rushed to South Korea to stand alongside the Republic of Korea Army . These were the 7th Infantry Division , the 1st Cavalry Division , the 24th Infantry Division , and the 25th Infantry Division , which were all under the control of the Eighth United States Army . Due to drastic reductions in U.S. military spending following the end of World War II , these divisions were equipped with worn @-@ out or obsolete weaponry and suffered from a shortage of anti @-@ armor weapons capable of penetrating the hulls of the North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks .
= = = = Reinforcement pool = = = =
Initially , the division was used to provide a pool of reinforcements for the divisions which had been sent to the Korean War theater , and in January 1951 it provided 650 enlisted fillers for overseas service . Later that month , it was given 4 @,@ 006 new recruits for its three infantry regiments and artillery assets , and each unit created a 14 @-@ week training program to prepare these new soldiers for combat . Because of heavy casualties and slow reinforcement rates , the Army looked to the National Guard to provide additional units to relieve the beleaguered Eighth Army . At the time , the 45th Infantry Division was comprised overwhelmingly of high school students or recent graduates and only about 60 percent of its divisional troops had conducted training and drills with the division for a year or more . Additionally , only about 20 percent of its personnel had prior experience of military service from World War II . Nevertheless , the division was one of four National Guard divisions identified as being among the most prepared for combat based on the effectiveness of its equipment , training , and leadership . As a result , in February 1951 , the 45th Infantry Division was alerted that it would sail for Japan .
In preparation for the deployment , the division was sent to Fort Polk , Louisiana , to begin training and to fill its ranks . After its basic training was complete , the division was sent to Japan in April 1951 for advanced training and to act as a reserve force for the Eighth United States Army , then fighting in Korea . The involvement of the National Guard in the fighting in Korea was further expanded when the 40th Infantry Division of the California Army National Guard received warning orders for deployment as well .
= = = = Initial struggles = = = =
On 1 September 1951 , the 45th Infantry Division was activated as the first National Guard division to be deployed to the Far East theater since World War II . Nevertheless , it was not deployed to Korea until December 1951 , when its advanced training was complete . Following its arrival , the division moved to the front line to replace the 1st Cavalry Division , who were then delegated to the Far East reserve , having suffered over 16 @,@ 000 casualties in less than 18 months of fighting .
Though the 45th remained de facto segregated as an all @-@ white unit in 1950 , individual unit commanders went to great lengths to integrate reinforcements from different areas and ethnicity into their units . By 1952 , it was fully integrated . Additionally , in an effort to reduce the burden on the National Guard , troops from the division were often replaced by enlisted and drafted soldiers from the active duty force . When it arrived in Korea , only half the division 's manpower were National Guard troops , and over 4 @,@ 500 guardsmen left between May and July 1952 , continually replaced by more active duty troops , including an increasing number of African Americans . Though the division was no longer an " All @-@ Oklahoma " unit , leaders opted to keep its designation as the 45th Infantry Division .
By the time the division was in place , the battle lines on both sides had largely solidified , leaving the 45th Infantry Division in a stationary position as it conducted attacks and counterattacks for the same ground . The division was put under the command of Eighth Army 's I Corps for most of the conflict . It was deployed around Chorwon and assigned to protect the key routes from that area into Seoul . The terrain was difficult and the weather was poor in the region . The division suffered its first casualty on 11 December 1951 .
Initially , the division did not fare well , though it improved quickly . Its anti @-@ aircraft and armor assets were used as mobile artillery , which continuously pounded Chinese positions . The 45th , in turn , was under constant artillery and mortar attack . It also conducted constant small @-@ unit patrols along the border seeking to engage Chinese outposts or patrols . These small @-@ unit actions made up the majority of the division 's combat in Korea . Chinese troops were well dug @-@ in and better trained than the troops of the inexperienced 45th , and it suffered casualties and frequently had to disengage when it was attacked .
In the division 's first few months on the line , Chinese forces conducted three raids in its sector . In retaliation , the 245th Tank Battalion sent nine tanks to raid Agok . Two companies of Chinese forces ambushed and devastated a patrol from the 179th Infantry a short time later . In the spring , the division launched Operation Counter , which was an effort to establish 11 patrol bases around Old Baldy Hill . The division then defended the hill against a series of Chinese assaults from the Chinese 38th Army .
= = = = Final engagements and the end of the war = = = =
The 45th Infantry Division , along with the 7th Infantry Division , fought off repeated Chinese attacks all along the front line throughout 1952 , and Chinese forces frequently attacked Old Baldy Hill into the fall of that year . Around that time , the 45th Infantry Division relinquished command of Old Baldy Hill to the 2nd Infantry Division . Almost immediately the Chinese launched a concentrated attack on the hill , overrunning the U.S. forces . Heavy rainstorms prevented the divisions from retaking the hill for around a month , and when it was finally retaken it was heavily fortified to prevent further attacks . The 245th Tank Battalion was sent to assault Chinese positions throughout late 1952 , but most of the division held a stationary defensive line against the Chinese .
In early 1953 , North Korean forces launched a large @-@ scale attack against Hill 812 , which was then under the control of K Company , 3rd Battalion , 179th Infantry . The ensuing Battle of Hill Eerie was one of a series of larger attacks by Chinese and North Korean forces which produced heavier fighting than the previous year had seen . These offensives were conducted largely in order to secure a better position during the ongoing truce negotiations . Chinese forces continued to mount concentrated attacks on the lines of the UN forces , including the 45th Infantry Division , but the division managed to hold most of its ground , remaining stationary until the end of the war in the summer of 1953 .
During the Korean War the 45th Infantry Division suffered 4 @,@ 004 casualties , consisting of 834 killed in action and 3 @,@ 170 wounded in action . The division was awarded four campaign streamers and one Presidential Unit Citation . One soldier from the division , Charles George , was awarded the Medal of Honor while serving in Korea .
= = = After Korea = = =
The division briefly patrolled the Korean Demilitarized Zone following the signing of the armistice ending the war , but most of its men returned home and reverted to National Guard status on 30 April 1954 . Its colors were returned to Oklahoma on 25 September of that year , formally ending the division 's presence in Korea .
The division remained as a unit of the Oklahoma National Guard , and participated in no major actions throughout the rest of the 1950s save regular weekend and summer training exercises . In 1963 , the formation was reorganized in accordance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan , which saw the establishment of a 1st , 2nd and 3rd Brigade within the division . These brigades would see no major deployments or events , and were deactivated five years later in 1968 . That same year , due to the perceived lack of need for so many large formations in the Army National Guard , the 45th Infantry Division was deactivated , as part of a larger move to reduce the number of Army National Guard divisions from 15 to eight , while increasing the number of separate brigades from seven to 18 . In its place , the independent 45th Infantry Brigade ( Separate ) was established . The 45th Infantry Brigade received all of the 45th Division 's lineage and heraldry , including its shoulder sleeve insignia . Also activated from division assets were the 45th Field Artillery Group , later redesignated the 45th Fires Brigade , and the 90th Troop Command .
= = Honors = =
The 45th Infantry Division was awarded eight campaign streamers and one unit award in World War II and four campaign streamers and one unit decoration in the Korean War , for a total of twelve campaign streamers and two unit decorations in its operational history .
= = Commanding Generals = =
Note : Similarity of dates for General Muldrow and commanders beginning with General Ruffner is because 45th Infantry Division , AUS , was retained in Korea while twin unit , 45th Infantry Division , NGUS , was activated in Oklahoma .
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= 1995 Brazilian Grand Prix =
The 1995 Brazilian Grand Prix ( formally the XXIV Grande Prêmio do Brasil ) was a Formula One motor race held on 26 March 1995 at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace , São Paulo , Brazil . It was the first round of the 1995 Formula One season . The 71 @-@ lap race was won by Michael Schumacher for the Benetton team after starting from second position . David Coulthard finished second in a Williams , with Gerhard Berger third in a Ferrari . Damon Hill , who started the race from pole position , spun out while leading on lap 30 with an apparent gearbox problem , which was later found to be a suspension failure . Schumacher 's win came despite Benetton encountering steering problems with his car during Friday practice , leading to him crashing heavily and necessitating steering component changes for the rest of the event . Despite Schumacher 's victory , Hill proved to be faster during the race , and seemed to be on course for a comfortable victory before his sudden retirement .
Other notable performances came from Berger , who took the final podium position despite being delayed during one of his routine pit stops due to a problem with a loose wheel nut ; Mika Häkkinen , who finished fourth for the McLaren team despite its new car proving to be uncompetitive in pre @-@ season testing ; and Mika Salo , who drove strongly in the first half of the race to run third in his first Grand Prix for the Tyrrell team , only to suffer from a cramp and drop back to seventh place at the finish . Behind Häkkinen , the other points @-@ scoring finishers were Jean Alesi in the second Ferrari and Mark Blundell , who drove the second McLaren . Blundell was standing in for regular driver Nigel Mansell in the second McLaren until the team could produce a wider chassis in which to accommodate him , as the car 's initial cockpit design had proved to be too narrow for him to drive comfortably .
Several hours after the conclusion of the race , Schumacher and Coulthard were excluded from the race result as the chemical " fingerprint " of fuel samples from their cars taken after qualifying and the race did not match the specified sample lodged with the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) prior to the event . Berger was thus declared the winner , but the race stewards ' decision to exclude them was overturned at an appeal hearing on April 13 . Schumacher and Coulthard were reinstated in first and second places respectively , but the two teams did not receive their respective constructors ' points . The Ferrari team was unhappy with the decision made at the appeal hearing ; Berger called the sport " a joke " . The rule concerning the legality of fuels had been changed for the 1995 season , as had the new standardised equipment used for refuelling during the race , the drivers ' weighing @-@ in procedure and the conditions of the drivers ' racing licences ; all of these changes produced controversies which at times threatened to overshadow the race , as did the excessively bumpy condition of the track . The race also marked the first Brazilian Grand Prix to take place since the death of Brazilian triple World Champion Ayrton Senna the previous year ; his passing was commemorated in various ways throughout the event .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The race was the first round of the 1995 Formula One season after a four month break since the last race of the 1994 season in Australia . Over the winter months , the Autódromo José Carlos Pace race track was resurfaced in an attempt to reduce its bumpiness . The drivers were unhappy with the resurfacing work , though , as the track became more bumpy than in the previous year . Williams driver David Coulthard described the track as " bumpy as hell , quite unbelievable " . He was also concerned about his stamina for the duration of the 71 @-@ lap race , as he had suffered from a bout of tonsillitis in the run @-@ up to the event which had disrupted his physical training . Local Jordan driver Rubens Barrichello was even more vocal in his criticism of the track 's condition , declaring that the circuit organisers were " a bunch of idiots . The track is three times bumpier than before . It is not by applying layer upon layer of tarmac that they will improve matters . " Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen claimed that the bumping was so bad that he was close to passing out ; the Sauber car handled badly over the bumps throughout the weekend .
The race marked the first Brazilian Grand Prix to be held since the death of three @-@ time champion Ayrton Senna the previous year in a racing accident at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix . As such , various tributes were paid to him throughout the weekend , including a parade lap on the back of a truck with all the drivers waving Brazilian flags ; a display from the Brazilian Air Force which resulted in a large " S " trail in the sky ; and the renaming of a local highway to Rodovia Ayrton Senna . The São Paulo city authorities had planned to rename the circuit after Senna , but the family of Carlos Pace , the existing dedicatee , objected . Barrichello also sported a special helmet design as a personal tribute to his compatriot . As a result of Senna 's death , the event was lower @-@ key than in recent years : fewer spectators turned out to watch practice and qualifying , but the race itself was watched by a capacity crowd .
The threat of a drivers ' boycott over the terms of their 1995 FIA Super Licences , which allowed the FIA to demand promotional appearances and forbade the drivers from criticising the championship , was defused by the governing body prior to the race , ensuring full driver participation in the championship . Although the Super License issue was resolved with 14 teams and 28 drivers on the official 1995 entry list , the Larrousse team with drivers Éric Bernard and Christophe Bouchut did not make an appearance at the circuit for any of the on @-@ track sessions . This was due to the team running short of money : in the period prior to the event , with French government aid not forthcoming and a 1995 chassis not yet built , team owner Gérard Larrousse elected to miss the first two rounds of the season in the hope of competing from the San Marino Grand Prix onwards .
The construction of some of the cars was only just completed prior to the beginning of the season ; the Footwork FA16 and Simtek S951 chassis arrived at the event with virtually no testing , having been completed shortly beforehand . Of the initial 1995 drivers , Pedro Diniz was the only " complete " rookie , having not been officially entered in any other Formula One race meetings , while Andrea Montermini started his first race after failing to qualify for the 1994 Spanish Grand Prix due to injury . Mika Salo and Domenico Schiattarella had competed in two races , with Taki Inoue competing in one race the previous season .
At the front of the field , Michael Schumacher and Damon Hill in the Benetton and Williams cars respectively were the favourites to battle for the Drivers ' Championship , with Schumacher anticipating a " struggle " for the championship . Bernard Dudot , Renault Sport 's Chief Engineer , said that he believed Benetton was less well @-@ prepared than Williams , as the former team had changed its engine supplier to Renault , whereas Williams had been in partnership with the company since 1989 . Hill arrived at the event with the psychological advantage of having set the fastest time at the final pre @-@ season testing session at the Autódromo do Estoril , 0 @.@ 35 seconds faster than Schumacher 's best around the circuit . The Williams team had also completed 2 @,@ 500 miles of testing with its FW17 chassis , significantly more than Benetton ; the team had encountered some reliability problems with its own B195 chassis .
Heading into the new season , attention also focused on the McLaren team and its driver Nigel Mansell . He was initially announced as the partner of Mika Häkkinen ; however , a week before the first race , McLaren announced that Mansell would not compete in the first two races of the new season , as he could not fit into the MP4 / 10 car . Mansell 's arrival at McLaren was due to demand from the team 's sponsors , including Philip Morris , whose brand , Marlboro , was on the car , who wanted to enjoy the publicity associated with the 1992 World Champion 's return even if it meant him performing worse than teammate Häkkinen . His place at McLaren for the first two races was taken by the team 's test driver , Mark Blundell , as McLaren worked to build a wider monocoque to accommodate Mansell . McLaren were also concerned about the standard refuelling equipment provided for 1995 by suppliers Intertechnique , having suffered a major leak in a test of the new rig outside of its factory . Intertechnique had redesigned the fuel equipment , which was used by all of the teams , in the wake of a pit lane fire suffered by driver Jos Verstappen during the previous year 's German Grand Prix . The new fuel rigs , in addition to being half the size of the 1994 , also featured longer nozzles , and were designed to lock onto the car before any fuel could begin to flow . Intertechnique traced the problem to a faulty valve within the equipment , which caused 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) of fuel to leak , and modified the parts accordingly . Intertechnique and the FIA advised the teams to refuel the cars slowly and carefully during pitstops to avoid any further leaks , a situation that was considered unsatisfactory by many of the team principals and mechanics . A new regulation for 1995 also mandated the teams ' fuel suppliers to send samples of their fuel to the FIA prior to each Grand Prix , which the governing body would use as a reference when conducting fuel tests at the event itself . Thus only fuel approved by the FIA in advance was allowed ; any deviations from the samples on file was not permitted . As before , all cars were subject to routine fuel tests as part of the scrutineering process throughout the weekend to ensure compliance with the sport 's technical regulations . The rule change had been proposed by the Elf oil company in 1993 and unanimously supported by the other F1 suppliers in order to speed up the fuel @-@ testing process .
Controversy also surrounded the new Ligier JS41 car , with rival team owners comparing it to the Benetton B195 car because of their similar design , the only apparent difference being the engine in each car . The Ligier team was being run in 1995 by Tom Walkinshaw , who had been Benetton 's Engineering Director the previous season . Commenting on the design similarities , Walkinshaw said :
Mechanically it [ the JS41 ] is totally different [ from the B195 ] and structurally it is quite different as well . Aerodynamically , it 's as close as we can make it to being the same . I don 't know how you would end up with anything else if you take a core of engineers who have been working on the Benetton . Of course the damn thing looks the same . But if you go into the detail of the car , there is nothing interchangeable .
One of the rule revisions stated that the minimum weight limit of 595 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 312 lb ) applied to both car and driver together . Prior to the first session of the season , all of the drivers were weighed to establish a reference weight to be used on occasions when the two were weighed separately , or if the driver was unavailable to be weighed . As such , a small competitive advantage could be established if the driver attempted to register a weight as heavy as possible , so their actual weight when driving the car would be lower . Williams Technical Director Patrick Head estimated that a weight penalty of 7 kilograms ( 15 lb ) could cost 14 seconds over the course of 70 laps of the circuit . In the drivers ' weigh @-@ in , Schumacher weighed in at 77 kilograms ( 170 lb ) , compared to 69 kilograms ( 152 lb ) at the beginning of the 1994 season . Sauber driver Karl Wendlinger gained the most weight compared to 1994 , gaining 22 pounds ( 10 @.@ 0 kg ) . Wendlinger 's teammate Frentzen and Tyrrell driver Ukyo Katayama added the least amount of weight , gaining 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 4 kg ) . When Schumacher was weighed after the race , his weight had decreased to 71 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 158 lb ) , although this weight , when combined with that of his car , still left it above the limit , at 599 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 321 lb ) . Schumacher explained the weight gain as a consequence of a fitness regime over the winter that had converted excess fat to muscle , and also admitted to eating and drinking heavily , in addition to refraining from using the toilet , prior to the weigh @-@ in .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Two practice sessions were held before the race ; the first was held on Friday morning , with the second held on Saturday morning . Both were held in damp conditions due to overnight rain with the track drying towards the conclusion of the respective sessions . Both sessions lasted 1 hour and 45 minutes . Qualifying was split into two one @-@ hour sessions ; the first was held on Friday afternoon with the second held on Saturday afternoon . The fastest time from either of the two qualifying sessions counted towards their final grid position .
In the first practice session , Hill was fastest with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 664 , two thousands of a second ahead of teammate Coulthard . Schumacher was third , with the Ferrari cars of Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger , who had been the leading two for most session , close behind . Blundell in the McLaren was sixth , with teammate Häkkinen finishing the session in 14th position , the Finnish driver complaining of steering problems with the car . The two Ferrari drivers used different pedal layouts in the 412T2 chassis : Berger 's car was equipped with two pedals and a hand @-@ operated clutch , whereas Alesi preferred the traditional three @-@ pedal system .
Hill set a provisional pole position time of 1 : 20 @.@ 081 during the first qualifying session , ahead of Berger , Coulthard , Alesi , Häkkinen and Schumacher . The session was disrupted after Schumacher crashed heavily into the tyre barrier at turn eight , a corner normally taken at a speed of 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) . As a precaution , Benetton opted to keep Schumacher 's teammate , Johnny Herbert , in the garage while the team found out what was wrong with the car . This meant that Herbert did not set a time in the session , while Schumacher completed only two of his twelve allotted laps . Speaking of the incident , Schumacher said that " there was a little movement in the steering wheel at the previous corner and at the next it went completely . I spun the car backwards into the tyre barrier and the safety structure behind my head did a good job of protecting me . For sure I am not very happy about this , but I believe that the team will spend a lot of time investigating the situation for tomorrow and they will find the problem . " The problem was determined to be a steering failure , specifically a joint in the car 's steering column . Replacement steering components were sourced from São Paulo by Benetton engineer Tim Wright , and the team did not encounter any problems over the remainder of the weekend .
The second practice session was held in wet but drying weather conditions . During the session , Schumacher went off the track at the exit of turn five , damaging his car 's front wing in the process . However , he still set the fastest time of the session ( 1 : 23 @.@ 607 ) after a change to his car 's ride height proved beneficial to its performance . The top six was completed by Berger , Hill , Häkkinen , Alesi , and Olivier Panis ' Ligier .
Schumacher also set the fastest time in the second qualifying session with a lap of 1 : 20 @.@ 382 , but it was not good enough to beat Hill 's fastest time overall set in the first session . Hill made a set @-@ up change that he turned out not to be happy with , but maintained his pole position , his first since the 1994 British Grand Prix . The Williams and Benetton formation continued on the second row , as Coulthard was third , with Herbert qualifying fourth after a late flying lap , equalling his best @-@ ever qualifying position , achieved at the 1994 Italian Grand Prix for the Lotus team . However , a hole was punched in the bottom of Herbert 's monocoque chassis during the session as a result of damage , leading to a night of repairs in order for him to be able to take the start in his designated race car . The work required to repair both Benetton cars caused Schumacher 's race engineer , Pat Symonds , to describe the weekend as " one of the hardest [ ... ] I can remember for many years " . It also meant that three British drivers started in the top four , leading Hill to joke that " the English [ sic ] have got Michael surrounded " . Behind the leading four , the two Ferrari cars were fifth and sixth , Berger qualifying in front of Alesi . Both were optimistic on their race prospects , despite the fact that the former suffered an engine failure during the session . The two McLaren cars of Häkkinen and Blundell were seventh and ninth , the two split by Eddie Irvine in a Jordan car . Irvine set his time despite spinning off during the session ; his teammate Barrichello suffered the season 's first engine failure during a timed session on Friday and then gearbox problems on Saturday , before also spinning off during that day 's qualifying session , restricting his to a disappointing 16th position on the grid at his home race . Katayama and Salo proved evenly @-@ matched for Tyrrell , qualifying in 11th and 12th respectively , behind Panis . The Minardi drivers were also close , with Pierluigi Martini and Luca Badoer taking 17th and 18th positions on the grid respectively , separated from the Tyrrells by Gianni Morbidelli ( Footwork ) , Frentzen , Aguri Suzuki ( Ligier ) and Barrichello . Wendlinger took 19th position , the Sauber cars handling particularly badly on the bumpy track , ahead of Bertrand Gachot and Montermini ( both Pacific drivers ) , who sandwiched Inoue in the second Footwork . At the back of the grid , the two Forti and Simtek cars covered positions 23 to 26 . Schiattarella , in a Simtek , was last out of the four positions , having caused one of the two red flags in qualifying , crashing on the exit of turn three at the beginning of the second qualifying session . The Simtek team 's testing time was limited on Friday as the mandatory onboard fire extinguishers for its cars failed to arrive in time ; a similar problem with the late arrival of parts affecting Martini 's Minardi . The times in the second session were generally quicker , with only Hill , Badoer and Wendlinger setting their quickest lap times during the first session .
= = = Race = = =
The conditions for the race were dry , with a capacity crowd of some 40 @,@ 000 fans turning out to watch the race . The drivers took to the track on Sunday morning for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session . Both Williams cars maintained their good performance from qualifying ; Coulthard was fastest with teammate Hill in second . Schumacher completed the top three positions . Herbert and Katayama both suffered from gearbox problems with their race cars , and elected to start the race with their teams ' spare cars . The Simtek team did not take part in the session , as both drivers waited for stronger suspension components flown out from the United Kingdom to be fitted to the cars for the race . Minutes before the race started , a press release from the FIA was given to all media and team personnel , notifying them that the chromatographic analysis of the Elf fuel samples taken from Schumacher 's Benetton and the Coulthard 's Williams during qualifying did not match the sample provided by the fuel company before the start of the season for reference purposes , thus rendering both cars illegal . Both teams were fined $ 30 @,@ 000 and raced under appeal , as the standard penalty for the offence was disqualification from the event . Neither Schumacher nor Coulthard were informed of the situation , as the teams did not want to unsettle their drivers before the race start . Hill and Herbert 's races were not affected by the judgement , despite using the same type of fuel . Samples from Ferrari 's Agip and McLaren 's Mobil fuel were also tested ; both were in accordance with the regulations . Though 26 cars qualified for the race , only 25 took the start : Martini retired on the parade lap , his Minardi car suffering a gearbox problem .
Hill had a bad start from pole position , allowing Schumacher to overtake him into turn one . Panis , who started from tenth position in a Ligier , spun at the first corner after a nudge from Katayama , hitting the wall in the process and retiring from the race . Herbert , racing the spare Benetton chassis , dropped three places by the end of lap one , dropping behind Häkkinen and the two Ferrari cars . Blundell also made a poor start , dropping to fourteenth position after his gearbox changed from first to third gear as he accelerated away from the grid . At the end of the first lap , the race order was Schumacher leading Hill , from Coulthard , Häkkinen , Berger , Alesi , Herbert , Irvine , Katayama and Salo , with the two Tyrrells switching places on the next lap . At the start of lap three , Hill attempted to overtake Schumacher heading into turn five , but Schumacher closed the door on Hill . Hill lost the advantage for a moment , with teammate Coulthard drawing alongside , but unable to get past with Hill on the inside line into turn six . Henceforth , Schumacher and Hill began to gradually pull away from Coulthard , who realised that he could not match the pace of the leaders and settled into his own rhythm , albeit one that was still comfortably faster than the cars behind him . By lap five , Herbert had dropped down to tenth position , unhappy with the handling of the spare car and having been overtaken by Irvine , Salo and Katayama . On lap ten , Schumacher lapped last @-@ placed Diniz for the first time ; the presence of slower cars a constant factor for the front @-@ runners thereafter . On the same lap Frentzen retired from 12th position with electrical failure . He was joined by Schiattarella two laps later after his Simtek car developed a steering problem . Irvine made a pit stop earlier than expected on lap fifteen , retiring from the race with a gearbox actuator problem . On the same lap , Katayama spun at the fourth corner , stalled his car in the process and retired from the race . The two retirements meant Herbert moved back up to eighth position . Alesi was the first of the leading drivers to make a scheduled pit stop on lap 17 , rejoining the track in eleventh place . Barrichello , Irvine 's teammate , retired a lap later , driving into the pit lane slowly with a gearbox problem . On the same lap , Verstappen retired his Simtek car with a clutch problem .
The Benetton and Williams teams were employing different pit stop strategies – the Benetton team were planning a three stop strategy whereas the Williams team were only planning for two stops . Schumacher pitted on lap 18 , but was momentarily baulked by the slowing Jordan car of Barrichello as he was entering the pitlane . Schumacher exited the stop behind Berger , but overtook the Austrian driver at the beginning of the next lap . Hill , who had remained close behind Schumacher before the German pitted , made his own stop on lap 21 , exiting the pitlane in front of Schumacher . Coulthard took the lead of the race for one lap , before pitting and dropping behind the two leaders and the yet @-@ to @-@ stop Häkkinen and Berger . Häkkinen and Berger were the final drivers of the leading teams to pit , however , the McLaren mechanics had trouble getting the fuel hose off the Finn 's car when he stopped on lap 23 , losing him ten seconds . Several other teams experienced problems with attaching and detaching the refuelling nozzles , and occasional small sprays of fuel were observed , reinforcing the problem experienced by McLaren with the equipment before the race meeting . Berger , adopting a strategy of pitting late , was the only driver not to have stopped by lap 24 and thus was third , with Hill , Schumacher , Coulthard , Alesi and Salo the other drivers in the top six places . Salo 's stop had been faultless , gaining him significant time on those drivers who had been running in front of him . By this stage Gachot had retired his Pacific car after it got stuck in fifth gear . Berger made his stop on lap 27 , but had problems leaving the pits after a communication problem between him and his mechanics nearly led to him leaving the pit lane with a loose wheel nut on the front right @-@ hand wheel . The pit " lollipop " , signalling the driver when to leave , was raised and lowered again in quick succession , preventing Berger from leaving until the wheel nut was sufficiently tightened . The miscommunication cost Berger 13 seconds , dropping him back to seventh position . Alesi fell behind Salo and Häkkinen after the first set of pit stops , Salo overtaking him on lap 25 , with Häkkinen moving past three laps later as Alesi was held up behind the lapped Montermini .
Once in front of Schumacher , Hill was able to gradually extend his lead to 3 @.@ 4 seconds by lap 30 despite carrying a heavier fuel load for one fewer planned pit stop . However , he lost second gear during the course of that lap , and then spun off at turn two on lap 31 , retiring from the race with a suspected gearbox seizure . On the same lap , Herbert also retired from the race after suffering damage in a collision with Suzuki , who himself had to make an unscheduled pit stop to replace his car 's damaged nosecone . Schumacher thus assumed the lead as a result of Hill 's retirement , leading by 11 @.@ 5 seconds from Coulthard . Salo was third in the remaining Tyrrell , 39 @.@ 4 seconds behind Coulthard . Häkkinen and the two Ferrari cars completed the top six positions . Schumacher made his second pit stop on lap 37 , exiting in second position behind Coulthard . Salo and Häkkinen , both performing much better than had been expected prior to the race , battled over third position until lap 39 , when Salo , suffering from cramp and driving with one hand , spun at the final bend . He pitted soon after for fresh tyres , dropping down to eighth position . Häkkinen , having moved up to third , made his second stop on lap 43 , exiting behind the two Ferrari cars , Berger moving in front of Alesi as the latter made his stop on the following lap , rejoining in seventh . Coulthard pitted from the lead on lap 47 , the gap between him and Schumacher not big enough to allow him to maintain the lead . Schumacher set the fastest lap of the race , 1 : 30 @.@ 921 , extending his lead to such an extent that when he made his own final stop on lap 52 , he maintained the lead . After his final stop , Schumacher gradually opened his leading margin 11 seconds , winning the race after 71 laps in a time of 1 : 48 : 49.972s , with Coulthard finishing second in his Williams . The Ferraris of Berger – who made his final stop on lap 49 without losing a place – and Alesi were third and fifth respectively , but off the pace as Schumacher lapped them both in the closing stages . Häkkinen , despite losing part of his rear wing after his car was struck by a bird , split them both to take fourth position . In the closing stages , Morbidelli and Blundell both overtook Salo , only for the Footwork driver to retire on lap 62 with a blocked fuel line . Blundell , who had earlier changed his steering wheel and was driving without the use of third gear , thus took the final point in sixth place , ahead of Salo , Suzuki , Montermini – who completed the race distance despite struggling with a broken floor on his chassis , taking the Pacific team 's first race finish – and Diniz . The race saw a high attrition rate ; only ten out of the 25 starters finished the race . Of the other late retirements , Wendlinger suffered a broken battery cable on lap 41 , Roberto Moreno and Badoer retired on lap 47 due to a spin and gearbox problem respectively , and Inoue 's car caught fire on lap 48 . The Japanese driver was in any case due to receive the black flag for receiving an illegal push @-@ start from the marshals following a spin on the circuit .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Moments after his spin , Hill was interviewed by the BBC , revealing that his spin was due to a gearbox problem ; the Williams car losing second gear before apparently seizing completely . Hill also said that he was " very , very disappointed " with the result , and that " we could have beaten him [ Schumacher ] today " . Further post @-@ race analysis conducted by the Williams team , however , found that the problem was actually a broken left @-@ rear suspension pushrod .
During the podium ceremony , Schumacher , Coulthard and Berger did not spray the traditional champagne as a mark of respect to Senna . Schumacher felt lucky to win the race , conceding that " Damon was a little bit quicker than me ... he ended up going off and that 's racing , but I don 't think I could have caught him . " He also believed that his good start was fortunate , as it was the first one he had made in the new Benetton car ; the team had not practised starts previously due to being short of time . He also specified his evasion of Barrichello 's slowing car in the pit @-@ lane entry while making his first stop as a crucial moment of the race . Coulthard admitted that he had been affected by his tonsillitis : " I wasn 't able to match Michael and Damon 's pace so I settled for running my own race " . Berger , meanwhile , was frustrated to finish a lap down on Schumacher , saying that " He was faster everywhere : down the straights , going in and out of the corners . What can you do in these conditions ? Okay , the car 's roadholding is not bad . We must work very hard now . But at least I finished , that 's something . "
After the Grand Prix , Schumacher 's Benetton and Coulthard 's Williams cars were excluded from the race classification as a result of the illegal fuel sample " fingerprints " , and Berger declared the new victor . Further samples of both cars ' fuel were taken after the race ; these also did not match the specified sample . Patrick Head was surprised by this outcome as he believed that " there was no question of disqualification until the fuel samples had been returned to Europe for further analysis " . In addition to Benetton and Williams , fuel samples were taken from the Ferrari ( Agip ) and McLaren ( Mobil ) cars during the event , all of which were declared legal after FIA analysis . After an appeal was made by the two teams , the drivers were reinstated into the race classification at the hearing on April 13 ( after the Argentine Grand Prix had taken place ) ; however , the teams did not receive Constructors ' points . The two teams were fined a further $ 200 @,@ 000 during the hearing . It was generally agreed that the illegal fuel did not offer a performance advantage or break any of the regulations relating to chemical composition , only that it did not precisely match the sample that had previously been lodged with the FIA . Niki Lauda , an advisor to Ferrari , was not happy with the decision made at the appeal :
I cannot separate car and driver completely . If this is a new rule , you can build an illegal car and let the team pay for victory . The whole thing is only commercial and has nothing to do with sport any more . It 's like scoring a half @-@ goal in soccer – it is not possible . Either you score a goal or not . The decision for me is the biggest defeat for the FIA , who cannot govern the sport any longer .
Berger also commented on the situation , saying " I no longer understand anything . Formula One has become a joke . " In the lead @-@ up to the San Marino Grand Prix , Schumacher was quoted saying that Berger should " concentrate on racing instead of thinking how he can criticise me . I have never understood how someone can celebrate a victory like that [ Brazil ] one lap down and winning after someone else has been disqualified . " Berger responded to Schumacher 's comments by saying :
I never criticised Schumacher . I only criticised the decision [ to reinstate him ] . I can live with Schumacher being angry . I was declared the winner by the FIA Stewards so I have every reason to open the champagne .
Max Mosley , the president of the FIA , also responded to Schumacher 's comments saying that his comments " reflect poorly on the sport and show a lack of adult attitude " . Mosley also commented on the weight issue surrounding Schumacher saying that " it is a pity that it became a matter for public discussion , whether he drank a huge amount of water , didn 't go to the loo or had a heavy helmet . It is just a pity he didn 't take care that it didn 't happen " . Elf was also unhappy with the way in which the episode had been handled , the company 's Commercial Director Michel Bonnet declaring that " We believe the FIA acted in a high @-@ handed manner in disqualifying our two cars so quickly . It should have declared the results provisional and waited for the results of further analysis . Acting the way it did , the FIA has affected the image of large industrial companies , of top F1 teams and of famous drivers . The fact that we have been treated as cheats by a red team – probably red with embarrassment at having finished one lap behind our cars – and by Gerhard Berger is a serious slur against us . " Elf also threatened to take the matter to a tribunal if the cars were not reinstated . Company representative Valerie Jorquera also highlighted the need for a consistent chromatographic analysis of fuel samples , drawing attention to the fact that the samples provided during the event had been analysed by a different company than the reference sample , and that the differences may have been caused by the use of different analytical machines and methods . The incident was seen as unfortunate for the sport , which was trying to make a fresh start after several controversies the previous year . From the San Marino Grand Prix onwards , an FIA mobile fuel laboratory accompanied the teams to each event to permit more detailed testing at the track , in addition to ensuring consistency between events .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for the Drivers ' standings . Only top two included for the Constructors ' standings as only two teams had scored points . Benetton and Williams did not receive Constructors ' points at this race .
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= Commandaria =
Commandaria ( also called Commanderia and Coumadarka ; Greek : κουμανδαρία , κουμανταρία and Greek : κουμανταρκά ) is an amber @-@ coloured sweet dessert wine made in the Commandaria region of Cyprus on the foothills of the Troödos mountains . Commandaria is made from sun @-@ dried grapes of the varieties Xynisteri and Mavro . While often a fortified wine , through its production method it often reaches high alcohol levels , around 15 % , already before fortification . It represents an ancient wine style documented in Cyprus back to 800 BC and has the distinction of being the world 's oldest named wine still in production , with the name Commandaria dating back to the crusades in the 12th century .
= = History = =
The wine has a rich history , said to date back to the time of the ancient Greeks , where it was a popular drink at festivals . A dried grape wine from Cyprus was first known to be described in 800 BC by the Greek poet Hesiod and was known , by much later , as the Cypriot Manna .
During the crusades , Commandaria was served at the 12th century wedding of King Richard the Lionheart to Berengaria of Navarre , in the town of Limassol ; it was during the wedding that King Richard pronounced Commandaria " the wine of kings and the king of wines " . Near the end of the century he sold the island to the Knights Templar , who then sold it to Guy de Lusignan , but kept a large feudal estate at Kolossi , close to Limassol , to themselves . This estate was referred to as " La Grande Commanderie " . The word Commanderie referred to the military headquarters whilst Grande helped distinguish it from two smaller such command posts on the island , one close to Paphos ( Phoenix ) and another near Kyrenia ( Templos ) . This area under the control of the Knights Templar ( and subsequently the Knights Hospitaller ) became known as Commandaria . When the knights began producing large quantities of the wine for export to Europe 's royal courts and for supplying pilgrims en route to the holy lands , the wine assumed the name of the region . Thus it has the distinction of being the world 's oldest named wine still in production .
Although today it is produced and marketed under the name Commandaria , it has been referred to with several similar names and spellings in the past . In 1863 , Thomas George Shaw in his book Wine , the vine , and the cellar refers to this wine as Commanderi whilst in 1879 , Samuel Baker refers to it as Commanderia . In 1833 Cyrus Redding in his book " A history and description of modern wines " makes reference to the wine of the " Commandery " .
Legend has it that in the 13th century Philip Augustus of France held the first ever wine tasting competition . The event , branded The Battle of the Wines ( fr . La Bataille des Vins ) , was recorded in a notable French poem written by Henry d 'Andeli in 1224 . The competition which included wines from all over Europe and France , was won by a sweet wine from Cyprus widely believed to be Commandaria . The Commandery region itself fell into the control of his descendant Philip IV in 1307 , after the suppression of the Knights Templar .
Another legend has it that the Ottoman sultan Selim II invaded the island just to acquire Commandaria ; also that the grapes used to make this wine were the same grapes exported to Portugal that eventually became famous as the source of port wine .
= = Production = =
Commandaria is made exclusively from two types of indigenous Cyprus grapes : Xynisteri and Mavro . The grapes are left to overripe on the vine and when sugar content reaches acceptable levels ( corresponding to high must weight ) they are harvested . More specifically , Xynisteri is picked when at around 12 degrees Baumé ( ° Bé ) and Mavro at 15 @-@ 16 ° Bé . The grapes are then laid out in the sun to further increase the sugar density through evaporation . When the must weight reaches 19 to 23 ° Bé the juice is extracted thorough crushing and pressing . Fermentation takes place in reservoirs and will arrest naturally due to the high levels of alcohol achieved at around 15 % . The above process has to take place within the confines of 14 designated villages that lie in the Commandaria Region ( see below ) . Commandaria , by law is aged for at least four years in Oak Barrels but this can take place outside the above designated area within Cyprus under strict control and under the conditions laid down in Cypriot legislation .
Once fermentation has been completed , at a minimum alcohol level of 10 % ( which is often exceeded ) , the alcoholic strength of Commandaria may be increased by the addition of pure 95 % grape alcohol or a wine distillate of at least 70 % alcohol . However , after this addition , the wine 's actual alcohol content may not exceed 20 % , while its total potential alcohol ( including its sugar content ) must be at least 22 @.@ 5 % . Thus , Commandaria may be a fortified wine , but fortification is not mandatory .
The origins of the production method are not definite . In his poem Works and Days , written in the 7th century BC , Hesiod , writes :
Pliny the Elder describes similar methods employed by the Greeks for making a sweet wines ,
In his account Samuel Baker describes the production in 1879
Interestingly he claims that the evolution of this method was more out of necessity than choice .. …
Commandaria is produced both by the large wine industries ( KEO , ETKO , LOEL and SODAP ) and by small local producers of the Commandaria appellation zone ( see below ) .
Data recorded by Samuel Baker in his book Cyprus - How I saw it in 1879 reveal that in the late 19th century Cyprus had an annual production of about 300 @,@ 000 okes , equivalent to about 385 @,@ 000 litres ( data reflects only duty @-@ paid production ) . Of this , Cyprus exported 180 @,@ 103 okes from Limassol Port , of which the vast majority went to Austria ( 155 @,@ 000 okes valued at UK £ 2 @,@ 075 ) .
Official figures released by Cyprus ’ Vines Products Commission show that there is a general increasing trend in the volumes produced . Much of Commandaria production is still targeted for export .
= = Authentication = =
Currently Commandaria holds a protected designation of origin ( PDO ) within the European Union , the United States and Canada . By Cypriot legislation passed on March 2 , 1990 , it is only produced in a collection of 14 neighbouring villages : Agios Georgios , Agios Konstantinos , Agios Mamas , Agios Pavlos , Apsiou , Gerasa , Doros , Zoopigi , Kalo Chorio , Kapilio , Laneia , Louvaras , Monagri and Silikou . The designated area has assumed the name of the Commandaria Region and is located on the south facing slopes of the Troödos Mountains at an altitude of 500 @-@ 900m within the Limassol District . Only grapes from vineyards that have been planted for at least 4 years are allowed . Vine training must follow the goblet method and watering is prohibited . The grape harvest may only commence after the vine products commission of Cyprus has given the green light , based on the average sugar content of the grapes . Xinisteri grapes must demonstrate a sugar content of 212 g / L whilst Mavro can only qualify with a reading of 258 g / L and above . The sugar concentration is then raised by laying the grapes in the sun , usually for 7 – 10 days , to a strict window of 390 to 450g / L.
In February 2006 , the Wine Products Association of Cyprus selected an official Commandaria wine glass , manufactured by Riedel , an Austrian wine glass company .
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= Carpenter Street ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Carpenter Street " is the sixty @-@ third episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the eleventh episode of season three . It first aired on November 26 , 2003 on the UPN network in the United States . The episode was written by executive producers Rick Berman and Brannon Braga .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . Season three of the series shows the ship enter the Delphic Expanse to search for a Xindi superweapon in response to an attack on Earth . In this episode , Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) and Sub @-@ commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) travel back to early 21st century Earth to find a group of Xindi @-@ Reptilians who were seeking to wipe out the human race by using a biological agent .
The production of the episode used several different methods to represent 21st century Detroit , including exterior shots in Los Angeles , the Paramount studios downtown New York standing sets and exterior sets at the Lacy Street Production Center . The guest cast featured Matt Winston returning as Temporal Agent Daniels , and Jeffrey Dean Morgan as a Xindi @-@ Reptilian . It had the lowest number of viewers of season three at that point according to the Nielsen ratings , a decline that was attributed to pre @-@ Thanksgiving travel . Critical response was mostly negative , with criticism directed at the nature of the plot .
= = Plot = =
Temporal Agent Daniels informs Captain Archer that three Reptilians have traveled back in time to Detroit , Michigan , to the year 2004 , where they intend to produce a bio @-@ weapon to annihilate Humans . The Xindi Council had banned the use of bio @-@ weapons , forcing the Reptilians to take extraordinary measures . Daniels sends Archer and Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol back in time to investigate , and provides Archer with temporal tags to bring back anything foreign to that time @-@ frame .
Using a hand scanner , Archer is able to steal a vehicle , and T 'Pol locates the Xindi bio @-@ signs leading them to an abandoned factory on Carpenter Street . They notice Loomis , a blood bank employee , exiting the building . Suspecting something , they follow him home . After he tries to escape , T 'Pol uses the Vulcan nerve pinch to stop him . When he awakes , he believes that Archer and T 'Pol are police officers , and requests a lawyer . Archer punches him , and he admits delivering six bodies to his mysterious employers , one for a different blood type . Archer comes up with a plan , and decides to pose as one of the victims .
After being delivered by Loomis , Archer realizes that they are developing some sort of a bio @-@ weapon . Archer begins destroying their technology , and kills one of the three Reptilians . Two others try to escape with the deadly bio @-@ agent , and Archer kills another one as they flee . The last Xindi escapes due to the interference of Loomis , who T 'Pol stuns with her phaser . On the factory 's roof , Archer corners him as he attempts to release the bio @-@ agent . Archer and T 'Pol tag all non @-@ 21st @-@ century artefacts , and return to Enterprise . Loomis , still groggy in his car , is apprehended by real police officers and attempts to explain the " lizard people " and their " ray guns . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Rick Berman and Brannon Braga , the executive producers of Star Trek : Enterprise . It was directed by Mike Vejar , his sixth episode of the series . He previously directed episodes for three other Star Trek series . When asked about the use of time travel stories in Star Trek in relation to " Carpenter Street " , Scott Bakula said that " Obviously it 's something you want to be careful of , and yet at the same time I 'm told that the fans love the time travel episodes , and there 's certainly an effort on Rick and Brannon 's part to write things that they hope the fans will love . This particular journey back in time is very grounded in story . " He added that he believed that the setting for the episode was chosen because the production values were " easily accomplished " and that " because the episode deals with germ warfare , and that certainly is a relevant topic today . "
Guest stars on the episode included Matt Winston , who appeared for the fourth time as Temporal Agent Daniels , having previously played the role most recently in the second episode of " Shockwave " . Returning to Star Trek , but appearing for the first time in Enterprise , was Leland Orser , who played Loomis . The actor had previously appeared in the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Revulsion " , as well as the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episodes " The Die Is Cast " and " Sanctuary " . Jeffrey Dean Morgan , who would later become better known for portraying Denny Duquette in medical drama Grey 's Anatomy and as The Comedian in the 2009 superhero film Watchmen , strongly disliked portraying a Xindi Reptilian in " Carpenter Street " . He later explained to Entertainment Weekly that " I had to pay my bills . I knew I 'd play some guy saying some stuff . Then I got a call saying I needed to go in for a prosthetic fitting . I remember them dripping goop on my face , and I had straws sticking out of my nose . I couldn 't eat lunch . I was claustrophobic . I 'd go home in tears . This was the job that made me want to quit acting . "
Filming began October 10 , 2003 , on the standing Enterprise sets as well as a temporary set which represented Loomis ' apartment . This filming continued on the following Monday , where filming was shared with production on both " Twilight " and " Similitude " . On October 13 , the location filming began for " Carpenter Street " in downtown Los Angeles . As these scenes take place in darkness , filming did not start until dusk and the shoot was conducted overnight . The filming on the first night comprised the scenes where the characters were in 21st century vehicles , and the rest of the week was spent at the Lacy Street Production Center , which had urban settings which could represent the downtown Detroit area . During the following week , the production moved back to the Paramount lot where the standing New York Street backlot was used ; this included the use of one area where a scene from Francis Ford Coppola 's The Godfather ( 1972 ) had been shot . The episode finished filming on October 23 , including an overlap with the production of " Chosen Realm " on October 22 .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Carpenter Street " first aired on November 26 , 2003 on the UPN network in the United States . It received a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 9 / 4 percent , meaning that it was watched by 2 @.@ 9 percent of all adults and 4 percent of all adults watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was the lowest ratings received by any episode during the third season . This slump had been attributed to the date of the broadcast , which had taken place on the night before Thanksgiving , a day which typically sees a large number of people travel , thereby decreasing the overall ratings of television shows .
In her review for the website TrekNation , Michelle Erica Green said that the episode entertained , but was a " ultimately pointless time @-@ travel episode that redeems its existence primarily by not requiring a reset button . " But she thought that Orser was " superb " as the " repugnant " Loomis , and the episode was " entertaining fluff " but was " warm and witty and well @-@ done . " Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , called the episode a " turkey " and said that it was " a mediocre time @-@ travel bore with barely enough plot for me to accuse of not making sense . " He criticized the lack of explanation given to the Xindi 's involvement in the Temporal Cold War , and said that the plot itself was akin to " swiss cheese " due to the number of plot holes . He gave the episode a score of one and a half out of four .
The only home media release of " Carpenter Street " has been as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 , and released on January 7 , 2014 .
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= This Love ( Maroon 5 song ) =
" This Love " is a song by the American pop rock band Maroon 5 . The song was written by frontman Adam Levine and keyboardist Jesse Carmichael for their debut album , Songs About Jane ( 2002 ) . The track is built around a piano @-@ led strut , which is immediately followed by synth percussion , and a repeating guitar sound .
The song 's lyrics are based on Levine 's break @-@ up with an ex @-@ girlfriend . He revealed that the song was written in the " most emotionally trying time " in his life . He has also described that the lyrics in this song are extremely erotic . " This Love " was critically acclaimed by music critics , who noted the track 's musicscape . It was released on January 27 , 2004 , as the second single from Songs About Jane .
The single entered the top ten on most charts , topping several of Billboard magazine 's component charts , including reaching the number one spot on the Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks chart . The music video was met with controversy , regarding extended intimate scenes between Levine and his then @-@ girlfriend . " This Love " helped Maroon 5 win the MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist and was the third most played song of 2004 . The song won Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 2006 Grammy Awards , and , to date , is one of Maroon 5 's most successful songs .
= = Background = =
" This Love " was the second single from Maroon 5 's 2002 debut album , Songs About Jane . In an interview with MTV News in August 2002 , Maroon 5 vocalist Adam Levine revealed that he wrote the song the day his girlfriend moved away when they broke up . In another interview , Levine revealed that the song was written in the " most emotionally trying time " in his life . He also added , " I was in a relationship that was ending , but I was really excited on the other end because the band was about to go make the record and I was ecstatic to go in the studio . She was literally leaving town within days of me writing the lyrics to ' This Love , ' so I was in prime emotional condition to write a song with that kind of conflict . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
During development of " This Love " , the band stated that the song was influenced by musician Stevie Wonder . The verses being written in the key of C harmonic minor and the chorus being written in the key of Eb Major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 95 beats per minute . The introduction of " This Love " features a piano @-@ led strut . Maroon 5 has called " This Love " a prime pop @-@ rock song . The music featured in the song has a lot more rock @-@ guitar crunch , and is considered a soulful and pop / rock song . According to Johnny Loftus of Allmusic , the music featured in the song has " a slick channeling of vintage R & B rhythms into punchy pop dynamics " . Loftus felt that the song features " Levine 's wry falsetto around strutting , bottom @-@ heavy piano and percussion both programmed and live ; chirping backup vocals and washes of sunny synth and flute acted as counterweights " . Loftus also noted that the band has a " sexual charge " with the lyrics , " I tried my best to feed her appetite / To keep her coming every night / So hard to keep her satisfied " . The Boston Globe 's Steve Morse described the single 's sounds as " a rocking yet soulful tale about the breakup of a relationship " . Meghan Bard of The Daily Campus adds that the song has " Stevie Wonder @-@ esque vocals and a funky R & B beat " . In the extended version of the song , which is 4 minutes and 26 seconds long , the chorus of the band 's next single , " She Will Be Loved " , can be heard from 3 : 21 to 3 : 42 , during the outro .
In an interview with Rolling Stone , when asked about the lyrics " Keep her coming every night " and " Sinking my fingertips into every inch of you " , Levine said : " Yep , that 's sexual , all right . I was so sick of typical lyrics like ' Ooh , baby ' and ' I love you ' and all this vague shit . I thought the more explicit I got without being totally explicit was a nice approach . The little girls would enjoy them , and it would go right over my grandparents ' heads . But it would hit my ex @-@ girlfriend like a ton of bricks . It was perfect . " He also comments on how MTV played an edited version of the song for the music video , with the word " coming " edited out of the line " keep her coming every night " . Levine noted , " MTV has now edited the language . They won 't let me say , ' Keep her coming every night ' , and they took the sinking out of ' sinking my fingertips ' . It 's like communist China . It 's totally bizarre . "
= = Reception = =
The song received critical acclaim from critics . In the Rolling Stone review of the album , critic Christian Hoard wrote : " Adam Levine 's urban @-@ romantic swoonings work best when his band really gets up on the good foot , as on ' This Love ' , which uses piano and James Brown @-@ like guitars to create a foundation on which Levine can obsess about beauty ( including his own ) . " Jason Thompson of PopMatters noted that on the songs " This Love " and " Must Get Out " , keyboardist Jesse Carmichael " manages to conjure up both the productions of Britney Spears and The New Radicals respectively " . Sam Beresky of the Daily Lobo , who was less enthusiastic about the album , complimented the band on " This Love " , in which he noted , " ... ' This Love ' , is a happier version of the first with a great backbeat reminiscent of Stevie Wonder 's ' Superstition ' . It might make a foot tap , a head nod or even a booty shake if played at a loud volume . "
In May 2004 , musician John Mayer told Rolling Stone that he liked the band 's album Songs About Jane . Mayer was also positive towards the song . " Once I heard ' This Love , ' it was a light @-@ fuse / stand @-@ back kind of situation . It 's one of those perfect songs you always hope to write . " The single also strengthened Maroon 5 's appeal , and helped position them as one of the year 's break @-@ out bands in 2004 . It has since been remixed by Kanye West , titled " This Love ( Kanye West remix ) " , in May 2004 . The band released an EP titled 1.22.03.Acoustic , which features " This Love " , however , in an acoustic version . The song was featured in the video game Guitar Hero : On Tour in 2008 .
= = Chart performance = =
The single was officially released to radio in North America in January 2004 , although the music video was released six months later . " This Love " appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at # 5 . The track 's Junior Vasquez Mixes remix topped the Billboard Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart . It also appeared in the Hot Dance Airplay chart at number eighteen . " This Love " reached number one on Billboard 's Top 40 Mainstream . It also reached the top spot on Billboard 's Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks at the one spot , it stayed there for 10 weeks.The song was the top digital download of 2004 . In 2007 , the song re @-@ entered the chart at the number 36 position on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs . As of June 2014 , the song has sold 2 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
" This Love " reached the top ten in twelve countries . In the United Kingdom , it reached the number three spot in the UK Singles Chart on May 1 , 2004 . It entered the top ten in France , Belgium , and Australia . The single reached the top five in Norway , Switzerland , Netherlands , Austria , and New Zealand . Elsewhere , " This Love " appeared on the Italy , Swiss , Germany , and Ireland music charts .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " This Love " was directed by Sophie Muller . The video combines performance footage from the band in a courtyard built at Mack Sennett Studios and scenes of Adam Levine parting ways with a woman . According to Levine , the concept behind the music video was based on Prince . " An overt sexuality confuses people , too . That video was a very ' pop star ' thing to do . "
The music video for " This Love " also features Levine and his then @-@ girlfriend , model Kelly McKee , in a few intimate scenes . The video used creative camera angles , thereby avoiding possible FCC action . A version of the video where a stream of computer @-@ generated flowers cover up more was created for more conservative markets . When asked about the video , Levine said : " It was surprisingly not weird and surprisingly not sexual . It was totally comfortable . I didn 't get horny or anything , which was weird since I shot it with my girlfriend . "
The video was controversial enough to cause critics to comment on it . Sylvia Patterson of The Daily Telegraph described the video as a " porno @-@ pop video " . Bass player Michael Madden , asked to comment on the controversy , said that it was " an absurd over @-@ reaction . "
= = Live performances and cover versions = =
Maroon 5 performed " This Love " live on Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) in February 2004 . The band won the MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist for the music video of " This Love " in 2004 . Also in 2004 , the song was nominated for Choice Rock Track at the Teen Choice Awards . In the Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems , " This Love " was the third played song of 2004 , having 438 @,@ 589 total plays . At the 48th Grammy Awards , the song won a Grammy Award in the category for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal .
The song appeared as a track in the Nintendo DS video game Guitar Hero : On Tour as well as being a part of the downloadable content library for Guitar Hero 5 ( and by association , Band Hero as they share the same catalog ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Other versions = =
A remix of this song has been produced by Kanye West and Miri Ben @-@ Ari with background vocals by John Legend .
A South Korean singer , G @-@ Dragon bought the song , then penned and sang the Korean version . The music video was released on October 2 , 2008 on YG Entertainment 's YouTube channel .
In 2013 , American singer Marlow Rosado covered the song in salsa and released it as a single . His version peaked at No. 36 on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
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= M @-@ 294 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 294 is a state trunkline highway in Calhoun County in the US state of Michigan . It is one of a handful of highways that was established or realigned as a result of a rationalization process initiated in 1998 during the tenure of Governor John Engler . M @-@ 294 is approximately two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Interstate 194 ( I @-@ 194 ) and connects M @-@ 96 with I @-@ 94 southeast of Battle Creek .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 294 runs northward along Beadle Lake Road from I @-@ 94 at exit 100 north through a commercial area . Past these businesses , the adjoining land is not developed for a short distance , and the roadway runs through some woodlands . North of the intersection with Golden Avenue , the highway passes through a residential neighborhood before terminating at M @-@ 96 ( Columbia Avenue ) . The highway lies entirely within Emmett Township just southeast of Battle Creek . The trunkline carries an average annual daily traffic of 6 @,@ 078 vehicles south , and 5 @,@ 728 vehicles north , of Golden Avenue according to a traffic survey completed by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in 2010 . The highway has not been included as a part of the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
Beadle Lake Road was transferred to state jurisdiction on October 31 , 1998 . The new highway was assigned the M @-@ 294 designation by MDOT and first included on the 1999 state map . The routing has remained unchanged since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Emmett Charter Township , Calhoun County .
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= Lettice Knollys =
Lettice Knollys ( / ˈnoʊlz / NOHLZ , sometimes called Laetitia , also known as Lettice Devereux or Lettice Dudley ) , Countess of Essex and Countess of Leicester ( 8 November 1543 – 25 December 1634 ) , was an English noblewoman and mother to the courtiers Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex and Lady Penelope Rich , although via her marriage to Elizabeth I 's favourite , Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , she incurred the Queen 's unrelenting displeasure .
A grandniece of Anne Boleyn and close to Princess Elizabeth since childhood , Lettice Knollys was introduced early into court life . At 17 she married Walter Devereux , Viscount Hereford , who in 1572 became Earl of Essex . After her husband went to Ireland in 1573 she possibly became involved with Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester . There was plenty of scandalous talk , not least when Essex died in Ireland of dysentery in 1576 . Two years later Lettice Knollys married Robert Dudley in private . When the Queen was told of the marriage she banished the Countess forever from court , effectively curtailing her social life . The couple 's child , Robert , Lord Denbigh , died at the age of three , to the great grief of his parents and ending all prospects for the continuance of the House of Dudley . Lettice Knollys ' union with Leicester was nevertheless a happy one , as was her third marriage to the much younger Sir Christopher Blount , whom she unexpectedly married in 1589 only six months after the Earl 's death . She continued to style herself Lady Leicester .
The Countess was richly left under Leicester 's will ; yet the discharge of his overwhelming debts diminished her wealth . In 1604 – 1605 she successfully defended her widow 's rights in court when her possessions and her good name were threatened by the Earl 's illegitimate son , Robert Dudley , who claimed that he was his father 's legitimate heir , thus implicitly declaring her marriage bigamous . Lettice Knollys was always close to her large family circle . Helpless at the political eclipse of her eldest son , the second Earl of Essex , she lost both him and her third husband to the executioner in 1601 . From the 1590s she lived chiefly in the Staffordshire countryside , where , in reasonably good health until the end , she died at age 91 on Christmas Day 1634 .
= = Family and upbringing = =
Lettice Knollys was born on 8 November 1543 at Rotherfield Greys , Oxfordshire . Her father , Sir Francis Knollys , was a Member of Parliament and acted as Master of the Horse to Prince Edward . Her mother , Catherine Carey , was a daughter of Mary Boleyn , sister to Anne Boleyn . Thus Catherine Knollys was Elizabeth I 's first cousin , and Lettice Knollys her first cousin once removed . Lettice was the third of her parents ' 16 children .
Sir Francis and his wife were Protestants . In 1556 they went to Frankfurt in Germany to escape religious persecution under Queen Mary I , taking five of their children with them . It is unknown whether Lettice was among them , and she may have passed the next few years in the household of Princess Elizabeth with whom the family had a close relationship since the mid @-@ 1540s . They returned to England in January 1559 , two months after Elizabeth I 's succession . Francis Knollys was appointed Vice @-@ Chamberlain of the Royal Household ; Lady Knollys became a senior Lady of the Bedchamber , and her daughter Lettice a Maid of the Privy Chamber .
= = First marriage and love affair = =
In late 1560 Lettice Knollys married Walter Devereux , Viscount Hereford . The couple lived at the family seat of Chartley in Staffordshire . Here the two eldest of their five children , the daughters Penelope and Dorothy , were born in 1563 and 1564 , respectively . Lettice Devereux returned to court on at least one occasion , in the summer of 1565 , when the Spanish ambassador Diego Guzmán de Silva described her as " one of the best @-@ looking ladies of the court " and as a favourite with the Queen . Pregnant with her first son , she flirted with Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , the Queen 's favourite . The Queen found out at once and succumbed to a fit of jealousy . The Viscountess went back to Staffordshire where , in November 1565 , she gave birth to Robert , later 2nd Earl of Essex . Two more sons followed : Walter , who was born in 1569 , and Francis , who died soon after birth at an unknown date .
Walter Devereux was raised to the earldom of Essex in 1572 . In 1573 he successfully suggested to the Queen a project to plant Englishmen in Ulster . In the autumn he went to Ireland , not to return for two years . During this time Lettice Devereux possibly engaged in a love @-@ affair with the Earl of Leicester ; her whereabouts in the following years are largely unknown , though . In 1573 Leicester sent her a present of venison to Chartley from his seat Kenilworth Castle in Warwickshire , and she made hunting visits to Kenilworth in 1574 and 1576 . She was also present in July 1575 when Dudley entertained the Queen with a magnificent 19 @-@ days festival at the castle . Elizabeth and the court ( including the Earl of Leicester ) then progressed to Chartley , where they were welcomed by the Countess of Essex .
When Walter Devereux returned to England in December 1575 , the Spanish agent in London , Antonio de Guaras , reported :
As the thing is publicly talked of in the streets , there can be no harm in my writing openly about the great enmity between the Earl of Leicester and the Earl of Essex , in consequence , it is said , of the fact that while Essex was in Ireland his wife had two children by Leicester . ... Great discord is expected in consequence .
These rumours were elaborated on years later in Leicester 's Commonwealth , a Catholic underground libel against the Protestant Earl of Leicester satirically detailing his alleged enormities . Here the Countess of Essex , after having a daughter by Leicester , kills a second child " cruelly and unnaturally " by abortion to prevent her homecoming husband from discovering her affair . There is no evidence that any such children ever existed .
The Earl of Essex returned to Ireland in July 1576 . At Dublin , he died of dysentery on 22 September during an epidemic , bemoaning the " frailness of women " in his last words . Rumours of poison , administered by Leicester , immediately sprung up and continued notwithstanding an official investigation which concluded that Essex had died of natural causes . His body was carried over to Carmarthen , where his widow attended the funeral .
The Countess ' jointure , the lands left to her under her husband 's will , was too little to live by and did not comprise Chartley , so that she and her children had to seek accommodation elsewhere . She partly lived in her father 's house at Rotherfield Greys , but also with friends ; Leicester 's Commonwealth claimed that Leicester had her move " up and down the country from house to house by privy ways " . She pleaded for an augmentation of her jointure with the authorities and , to reach a compromise with the late Earl 's executors , threatened " by some froward advice " to claim her dower rights . These would have amounted to one third of the Devereux estate . After seven months of wrangling a more satisfactory settlement was reached , the Countess declaring to be " content to respect my children more than myself " . She equally — though unsuccessfully — tried to move the Queen to forgive Essex ' debts to the Crown , which very much burdened the inheritance of her son , the young Earl of Essex .
= = Marriage to Leicester and banishment from court = =
Lettice Knollys married Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester on 21 September 1578 at around seven o 'clock in the morning . Only six other people were present at the Earl 's country house at Wanstead , Essex ; among these were the bride 's father and brother , Francis and Richard Knollys , the bridegroom 's brother , Ambrose , Earl of Warwick , and his two friends , the Earl of Pembroke and Lord North . The officiating chaplain Humphrey Tyndall later remarked that the bride wore a " loose gown " ( an informal morning dress ) , which has triggered modern speculation that she was pregnant and that the ceremony happened under pressure from her father . The marriage was , however , in planning between Leicester and his wedding guests for almost a year . While Lettice Devereux may well have been pregnant , there is no further indication as to this . The marriage date coincided with the end of the customary two @-@ years @-@ mourning for a widow .
Leicester — a widower since 1560 — had for many years been in hope of marrying Elizabeth herself , " for whose sake he had hitherto forborne marriage " , as he confessed to Lord North . He also feared Elizabeth 's reaction and insisted that his marriage be kept a secret . It did not remain one for long , the French ambassador , Michel de Castelnau , reporting it only two months later . When the Queen was told of the marriage the next year , she banished Lettice Dudley permanently from court ; she never forgave her cousin , nor could she ever accept the marriage . Even Lady Leicester 's movements through London were resented by the Queen , let alone summer visits to Kenilworth by husband and wife .
Lettice Dudley continued to style herself Countess of Essex for several years into her new marriage . She lived very discreetly , often with her relatives at the Knollys family home in Oxfordshire . In February 1580 she was expecting the birth of a child there . For the birth of Leicester 's heir , Robert , Lord Denbigh , in June 1581 , she moved to Leicester House on the Strand . A further advanced pregnancy was reported in September 1582 by the French ambassador , yet the outcome is again unknown . The next year Lettice Dudley became officially resident at Leicester House , and Elizabeth was once again furious with the Earl " about his marriage , for he opened the same more plainly than ever before " . A few weeks later Michel de Castelnau was a guest at Leicester 's palatial mansion : " He especially invited me to dine with him and his wife , who has much influence over him and whom he introduces only to those to whom he wishes to show a particular mark of attention . "
Robert Dudley had been close to the Knollys family since the early 1550s ; several of Lettice 's brothers had been in his service and his marriage only enhanced his relations with her siblings . To his four stepchildren he was a concerned and generous stepfather . The Dudleys ' domestic life is partly documented in the Earl 's accounts ; Lettice Dudley financed her personal expenses and servants out of her revenue as Dowager Countess of Essex , remaining largely excluded from society life .
The three @-@ year @-@ old Lord Denbigh died suddenly on 19 July 1584 at Wanstead . His death shattered the dynastical hopes of the House of Dudley . Leicester stayed away from his court duties for a few weeks " to comfort my sorrowful wife for the loss of my little son , whom God has lately taken from us . " He also thanked Lord Burghley for — unsuccessfully — pleading with the Queen " on behalf of my poor wife . For truly my Lord , in all reason she is hardly dealt with . "
In 1585 Leicester led an English expedition to assist the rebellious United Provinces against Spain . He incurred Elizabeth 's wrath when he accepted the title of Governor @-@ General in January 1586 — what had especially kindled her fury was a tale that the Countess of Leicester was planning to follow her husband to the Netherlands " with such a train of ladies , and gentlewomen , and such rich coaches , litters , and side @-@ saddles , as Her Majesty had none , and that there should be such a court of ladies , as should far pass Her Majesty 's court here . " Thomas Dudley , who informed Leicester about these events , stressed that " this information " was " most false " . At this same time the Earl was giving his wife authority to handle certain land issues during his absence , implying they had no plans to meet in Holland . William Davison , whom Leicester had sent to explain his doings to the Queen , described a visit to the Countess during the crisis : " I found her greatly troubled with tempestuous news she received from court , but somewhat comforted when she understood how I had proceeded with Her Majesty . "
The Earl returned to England in December 1586 , but was sent again to the Netherlands in the following June — to the grief of his wife , as the young Earl of Essex remarked in a letter . Leicester eventually resigned his post in December 1587 . The Countess was with him when he died unexpectedly , possibly of malaria , on 4 September 1588 at Cornbury Park , Oxfordshire ; they had been on their way to Kenilworth and Buxton . The Earl 's funeral at Warwick in October 1588 was attended by his widow as well as numerous members of her family circle .
= = Blount and Essex = =
Lettice Dudley was left a wealthy widow . Leicester 's will appointed her as executrix and her income from both her husbands ' jointures amounted to £ 3 @,@ 000 annually , to which came plate and movables worth £ 6 @,@ 000 . However , her jointure was to suffer greatly from paying off Leicester 's debts , which at some £ 50 @,@ 000 were so overwhelming that she was advised to decline the responsibility of dealing with her husband 's financial legacy .
In March or April 1589 the Countess married Sir Christopher Blount , a relatively poor Catholic soldier 12 years her junior , who had been the Earl of Leicester 's Gentleman of the Horse and a trusted friend of his . The marriage was a great surprise and the Earl of Essex complained that it was an " unhappy choice " . In the face of tittle @-@ tattle that had reached even France , Lady Leicester — she continued to be styled thus — explained her choice with being a defenceless widow ; like her marriage to Leicester , the union proved to be a " genuinely happy " one . Some 60 years later it was claimed in a satirical poem that she had poisoned the Earl of Leicester on his deathbed , thereby forestalling her own murder at his hands , because he had found out about her supposed lover , Sir Christopher Blount .
In 1593 Lettice Knollys sold Leicester House to her son , after which it became known as Essex House . She moved to Drayton Bassett near Chartley in Staffordshire , her main residence for the rest of her life . Still banished from court , she saw no point in returning to London without being reconciled to Elizabeth . In December 1597 she had heard from friends that " Her Majesty is very well prepared to hearken to terms of pacification " , and was prepared to do " a winter journey " if her son thought " it be to any purpose " . " Otherwise a country life is fittest for disgraced persons " , she commented . She travelled to London , staying at Essex House from January till March 1598 , and seeking a reconciliation with Elizabeth . At last a short meeting was granted in which the Countess kissed the Queen and " the Queen kissed her " , but nothing really changed .
Lettice 's second son , Walter Devereux , died 1591 in France while on military duty , and in subsequent years she was anxious for her elder son 's safety . She addressed him " Sweet Robin " , longing for his letters and helpless about his moodiness and depression . After returning from his command in Ireland without licence , Essex was imprisoned in 1599 ; his mother came to London to intercede for him with the Queen . She tried to send Elizabeth a present in form of a gown , which Elizabeth neither accepted nor refused . Her efforts to get sight of her son made matters worse : " Mislike is taken that his mother and friends have been in a house that looks into York Garden where he uses to walk and have saluted each other out of a window . "
During Essex ' revolt , trial , and execution in February 1601 , Lettice remained at Drayton Basset . She not only lost her son but her " best friend " , as she called her third husband . Sir Christopher Blount was executed on 18 March 1601 , three weeks after the execution of his stepson , to whom he had been a friend and confidant for many years .
= = Litigation and old age = =
The executions and attainders of Essex and Blount led to a legal dispute over the Countess of Leicester 's remaining property . In this context she claimed that Blount , in the process of paying off Leicester 's debts , had squandered her jewels and much of her landed wealth . The death of Elizabeth I in 1603 meant some form of rehabilitation for the Countess ; the new monarch , James I , not only restored her grandson , the third Earl of Essex , to his father 's title and estate , but quickly cancelled the rest of her debts to the Crown , almost £ 4 @,@ 000 .
Even more than his debts , the Earl of Leicester 's will triggered litigation . He had intended his illegitimate son from his early 1570s relationship with Douglas Sheffield , the adolescent Robert Dudley , to inherit Kenilworth after the death of his brother , Ambrose Dudley , 3rd Earl of Warwick . Some of the countess ' jointure manors lay in the castle 's vicinity , while at the same time they had been assigned to the younger Dudley 's inheritance by the overseers of Leicester 's will . After Warwick 's death in February 1590 , lengthy legal proceedings ensued over whether particular parts of Lady Leicester 's jointure belonged to the Kenilworth estate or not .
In 1603 Dudley initiated moves to prove that he was the legitimate son of his parents and thus the heir to the earldoms of Warwick and Leicester . If successful , this claim would not only have implied that Lettice Knollys ' union with Leicester had been bigamous , but would also have nullified her jointure rights . Consequently , in February 1604 , she filed a complaint against Dudley in the Star Chamber , accusing him of defamation . She was backed by Sir Robert Sidney , who considered himself the only legitimate heir of his uncles Leicester and Warwick . During the Star Chamber proceedings 56 former servants and friends of the Earl of Leicester testified that he had always regarded Dudley as his illegitimate son . The other side was unable to cite clear evidence and the King 's chief minister , Robert Cecil , thought it unwise to rake up the existing property settlement , so the outcome was in favour of Lady Leicester . All the evidence was impounded to preclude a resumption of the case .
Throughout her life , Lettice Knollys cared for her siblings , children , and grandchildren . Until their respective deaths in 1607 and 1619 , her daughters Penelope and Dorothy were her closest companions . The young third Earl of Essex , also called Robert , shared much of his life with the old Countess at Chartley and Drayton Bassett . Still walking a mile a day at nearly 90 , she died in her chair in the morning of 25 December 1634 , aged 91 . Widely mourned as a symbol of a by @-@ gone age , she wished to be buried " at Warwick by my dear lord and husband the Earl of Leicester with whom I desire to be entombed " . Her request was respected and she came to rest in the Beauchamp Chapel of Collegiate Church of St Mary , Warwick , opposite the tomb of her son , young Lord Denbigh .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Daniel Boone =
Daniel Boone ( November 2 , 1734 [ O.S. October 22 ] – September 26 , 1820 ) was an American pioneer , explorer , woodsman , and frontiersman , whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United States . Boone is most famous for his exploration and settlement of what is now Kentucky , which was then part of Virginia , but on the other side of the mountains from the settled areas . As a young adult , Boone supplemented his farm income by hunting and trapping game , and selling their pelts in the fur market . Through this occupational interest , Boone first learned the easy routes to the area . Despite some resistance from American Indian tribes such as the Shawnee , in 1775 , Boone blazed his Wilderness Road through the Cumberland Gap in the Appalachian Mountains from North Carolina and Tennessee into Kentucky . There , he founded the village of Boonesborough , Kentucky , one of the first American settlements west of the Appalachians . Before the end of the 18th century , more than 200 @,@ 000 Americans migrated to Kentucky / Virginia by following the route marked by Boone .
Boone was a militia officer during the Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 83 ) , which , in Kentucky , was fought primarily between the American settlers and the British @-@ aided Indians . Boone was captured by Shawnee warriors in 1778 . He escaped and alerted Boonesborough that the Shawnees were planning an attack . Although heavily outnumbered , Americans repelled the Shawnee warriors in the Siege of Boonesborough . Boone was elected to the first of his three terms in the Virginia General Assembly , during the Revolutionary War , and fought in the Battle of Blue Licks in 1782 . Blue Licks , a Shawnee victory over the Patriots , was one of the last battles of the Revolutionary War , coming after the main fighting ended in October 1781 .
Following the war , Boone worked as a surveyor and merchant , but fell deeply into debt through failed Kentucky land speculation . Frustrated with the legal problems resulting from his land claims , in 1799 , Boone emigrated to eastern Missouri , where he spent most of the last two decades of his life ( 1800 – 20 ) .
Boone remains an iconic figure in American history . He was a legend in his own lifetime , especially after an account of his adventures was published in 1784 by John Filson , making him famous across Europe as the typical all @-@ American frontiersman . An American edition made him equally famous across the United States . After his death , he was frequently the subject of heroic tall tales and works of fiction . His adventures — real and legendary — were influential in creating the archetypal Western hero of American folklore . In American popular culture , he is remembered as one of the foremost early frontiersmen . The epic Daniel Boone mythology often overshadows the historical details of his life .
= = Youth = =
Daniel Boone was of English and Welsh ancestry . Because the Gregorian calendar was adopted during his lifetime , Boone 's birth date is sometimes given as November 2 , 1734 ( the " New Style " date ) , although Boone used the October date . The Boone family belonged to the Religious Society of Friends , called " Quakers " , and were persecuted in England for their dissenting beliefs . Daniel 's father , Squire ( his first name , not a title ) Boone ( 1696 – 1765 ) emigrated from the small town of Bradninch , Devon ( near Exeter , England ) to Pennsylvania in 1713 , to join William Penn 's colony of dissenters . Squire Boone 's parents , George Boone III and Mary Maugridge , followed their son to Pennsylvania in 1717 , and in 1720 built a log cabin at Boonecroft .
In 1720 , Squire Boone , who worked primarily as a weaver and a blacksmith , married Sarah Morgan ( 1700 – 77 ) . Sarah 's family were Quakers from Wales , and had settled in Towamencin Township , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania in 1708 . In 1731 , the Boones moved to the Oley Valley , near the modern city of Reading . There they built a log cabin , partially preserved today as the Daniel Boone Homestead . Daniel Boone was born there , the sixth of 11 children .
Daniel Boone spent his early years on what was then the edge of the Pennsylvania frontier . Several Lenape Indian villages were nearby . The pacifist Pennsylvania Quakers had good relations with the Indians , but the steady growth of the white population compelled many Indians to move further west . Boone was given his first rifle at the age of 12 , as families depended on hunting for much of their food . He learned to hunt from both local settlers and the Lenape . Folk tales have often emphasized Boone 's skills as a hunter . In one story , the young Boone was hunting in the woods with some other boys , when the howl of a panther scattered all but Boone . He calmly cocked his rifle and shot the predator through the heart just as it leaped at him . The validity of this claim is contested , but the story was told so often that it became part of his popular image .
In Boone 's youth , his family became a source of controversy in the local Quaker community when two of the oldest children married outside the endogamous community , in present @-@ day Lower Gwynedd Township , Pennsylvania . In 1742 , Boone 's parents were compelled to publicly apologize after their eldest child , Sarah , married John Willcockson , a " worldling " ( non @-@ Quaker ) . Because the young couple had " kept company " , they were considered " married without benefit of clergy " . When the Boones ' oldest son Israel married a " worldling " in 1747 , Squire Boone stood by him . Both men were expelled from the Quakers ; Boone 's wife continued to attend monthly meetings with their younger children .
= = Yadkin River Valley , North Carolina = =
In 1750 , Squire Boone sold his land and moved the family to North Carolina . Daniel Boone did not attend church again . He identified as a Christian and had all of his children baptized . The Boones eventually settled on the Yadkin River , in what is now Davie County , about two miles ( 3 km ) west of Mocksville . This was in the western backwoods area .
Because he grew up on the frontier , Boone had little formal education , but deep knowledge of the woods . According to one family tradition , a schoolteacher once expressed concern over Boone 's education , but Boone 's father said , " Let the girls do the spelling and Dan will do the shooting . " Boone received some tutoring from family members , though his spelling remained unorthodox . The historian John Mack Faragher cautions that the folk image of Boone as semiliterate is misleading , and argues that he " acquired a level of literacy that was the equal of most men of his times . " Boone regularly took reading material with him on his hunting expeditions — the Bible and Gulliver 's Travels were favorites . He was often the only literate person in groups of frontiersmen . Boone would sometimes entertain his hunting companions by reading to them around the evening campfire .
= = = French and Indian War = = =
After the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) broke out between the French and British , and their respective Indian allies , North Carolina Governor Matthew Rowan called up a militia , into whose service Daniel volunteered . He served under Captain Hugh Waddell on the North Carolina frontier . Waddell 's unit was assigned to serve in the command of General Edward Braddock in 1755 , and Boone acted as a wagoner , along with his cousin Daniel Morgan , who would later be a key general in the American Revolution . In the Battle of the Monongahela , the denouement of the campaign and a bitter defeat for the British , Boone narrowly escaped death when the baggage wagons were assaulted by Indian troops . Boone remained critical of Braddock 's blunders for the rest of his life .
While on the campaign , Boone met John Finley , a packer who worked for George Croghan in the trans @-@ Appalachian fur trade . Finley first interested Boone in the abundance of game and other natural wonders of the Ohio Valley . Finley took Boone on his first fateful hunting trip to Kentucky 12 years later .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Boone returned home and on August 14 , 1756 , he married Rebecca Bryan , a neighbor in the Yadkin River Valley whose brother married one of Boone 's sisters . The couple initially lived in a cabin on his father 's farm . They eventually had 10 children . His son , Nathan Boone , was the first white man born in Kentucky .
Boone supported his growing family in these years as a market hunter and trapper , collecting pelts for the fur trade . Almost every autumn , Boone would go on " long hunts " , extended expeditions into the wilderness lasting weeks or months . Boone went alone or with a small group of men , accumulating hundreds of deer skins in the autumn , and trapping beaver and otter over the winter . The hunt followed a network of bison migration trails , known as the Medicine Trails . When the long hunters returned in the spring , they sold their take to commercial fur traders .
Such frontiersmen often carved messages on trees or wrote their names on cave walls , and Boone 's name or initials have been found in many places . One on a tree in present Washington County , Tennessee reads " D. Boon Cilled a . Bar [ killed a bear ] on [ this ] tree in the year 1760 " . A similar carving , preserved in the museum of the Filson Historical Society in Louisville , Kentucky , reads " D. Boon Kilt a Bar , 1803 . " The inscriptions may also be among numerous forgeries of the famous trapper , part of a long tradition of phony Boone relics .
= = = Cherokee conflict , temporary move to Virginia = = =
In 1758 , a conflict erupted between the British forces and the Cherokee , their allies in the French and Indian War ( which continued in other parts of the continent ) . After the Yadkin River Valley was raided by Cherokee , the Boones and many other families fled north to Culpeper County , Virginia . Boone served in the North Carolina militia during this " Cherokee Uprising " . His militia expeditions deep into Cherokee territory beyond the Blue Ridge Mountains separated him from his wife for about two years .
In 1762 , Boone , his wife and four children moved back to the Yadkin River Valley from Culpeper . By the mid @-@ 1760s , with peace made with the Cherokee , colonial immigration into the area increased . The competition of new settlers decreased the amount of game available . Boone had difficulty making ends meet ; he was often taken to court for nonpayment of debts . He sold his land to pay off creditors . After his father 's death in 1765 , Boone traveled with his brother Squire and a group of men to Florida , which had become British territory after the end of the war , to look into the possibility of settling there . According to a family story , Boone purchased land near Pensacola , but Rebecca refused to move so far away from her friends and family . The Boones moved to a more remote area of the Yadkin River Valley , and Boone began to hunt westward into the Blue Ridge Mountains .
= = Kentucky = =
Boone first reached Kentucky in the fall of 1767 while on a long hunt with his brother Squire Boone , Jr . Boone 's first steps in Kentucky were near present @-@ day Elkhorn City . While on the Braddock expedition years earlier , Boone had heard about the fertile land and abundant game of Kentucky from fellow wagoner John Findley , who had visited Kentucky to trade with American Indians . Boone and Findley happened to meet again , and Findley encouraged Boone with more tales of Kentucky . At the same time , news had arrived about the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , in which the Iroquois had ceded their claim to Kentucky to the British . This , as well as the unrest in North Carolina due to the Regulator Movement , likely prompted Boone to extend his exploration .
On May 11 , 1769 , Boone began a two @-@ year hunting expedition in Kentucky . On December 22 , 1769 , a fellow hunter and he were captured by a party of Shawnees , who confiscated all of their skins and told them to leave and never return . The Shawnees had not signed the Stanwix treaty , and since they regarded Kentucky as their hunting ground , they considered white hunters there to be poachers . Boone , however , continued hunting and exploring Kentucky until his return to North Carolina in 1771 , and returned to hunt there again in the autumn of 1772 .
On September 25 , 1773 , Boone packed up his family and , with a group of about 50 immigrants , began the first attempt by British colonists to establish a settlement in Kentucky . Boone was still an obscure hunter and trapper at the time ; the most prominent member of the expedition was William Russell , a well @-@ known Virginian and future brother @-@ in @-@ law of Patrick Henry . On October 9 , Boone 's eldest son James and a small group of men and boys who had left the main party to retrieve supplies were attacked by a band of Delawares , Shawnees , and Cherokees . Following the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , American Indians in the region had been debating what to do about the influx of settlers . This group had decided , in the words of historian John Mack Faragher , " to send a message of their opposition to settlement " . James Boone and William Russell 's son Henry were captured and gruesomely tortured to death . The brutality of the killings sent shock waves along the frontier , and Boone 's party abandoned its expedition .
The massacre was one of the first events in what became known as Dunmore 's War , a struggle between Virginia and , primarily , Shawnees of the Ohio Country for control of what is now West Virginia and Kentucky . In the summer of 1774 , Boone volunteered to travel with a companion to Kentucky to notify surveyors there about the outbreak of war . The two men journeyed more than 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) in two months to warn those who had not already fled the region . Upon his return to Virginia , Boone helped defend colonial settlements along the Clinch River , earning a promotion to captain in the militia , as well as acclaim from fellow citizens . After the brief war , which ended soon after Virginia 's victory in the Battle of Point Pleasant in October 1774 , the Shawnees relinquished their claims to Kentucky .
Following Dunmore 's War , Richard Henderson , a prominent judge from North Carolina , hired Boone to travel to the Cherokee towns in present North Carolina and Tennessee and inform them of an upcoming meeting . In the 1775 treaty , Henderson purchased the Cherokee claim to Kentucky to establish a colony called Transylvania . Afterwards , Henderson hired Boone to blaze what became known as the Wilderness Road , which went through the Cumberland Gap and into central Kentucky . Along with a party of about 30 workers , Boone marked a path to the Kentucky River , where he founded Boonesborough . Other settlements , notably Harrodsburg , were also established at this time . Despite occasional Indian attacks , Boone returned to the Clinch Valley and brought his family and other settlers to Boonesborough on September 8 , 1775 .
= = American Revolution = =
Violence in Kentucky increased with the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) . Native Americans who were unhappy about the loss of Kentucky in treaties saw the war as a chance to drive out the colonists . Isolated settlers and hunters became the frequent target of attacks , convincing many to abandon Kentucky . By late spring of 1776 , fewer than 200 colonists remained in Kentucky , primarily at the fortified settlements of Boonesborough , Harrodsburg , and Logan 's Station .
On July 14 , 1776 , Boone 's daughter Jemima and two other teenaged girls were captured outside Boonesborough by an Indian war party , who carried the girls north towards the Shawnee towns in the Ohio country . Boone and a group of men from Boonesborough followed in pursuit , finally catching up with them two days later . Boone and his men ambushed the Indians while they were stopped for a meal , rescuing the girls and driving off their captors . The incident became the most celebrated event of Boone 's life . James Fenimore Cooper created a fictionalized version of the episode in his classic novel The Last of the Mohicans ( 1826 ) .
In 1777 , Henry Hamilton , a British Lieutenant Governor of Canada , began to recruit American Indian war parties to raid the Kentucky settlements . On April 24 , Shawnee Indians led by Chief Blackfish attacked Boonesborough . Boone was shot in the ankle while outside the fort , but he was carried back inside amid a flurry of bullets by Simon Kenton , a recent arrival at Boonesborough . Kenton became Boone 's close friend , as well as a legendary frontiersman in his own right .
While Boone recovered , Shawnees kept up their attacks outside Boonesborough , destroying the surrounding cattle and crops . With the food supply running low , the settlers needed salt to preserve what meat they had , so in January 1778 , Boone led a party of 30 men to the salt springs on the Licking River . On February 7 , 1778 , when Boone was hunting meat for the expedition , he was surprised and captured by warriors led by Blackfish . Because Boone 's party was greatly outnumbered , Boone returned the next day with Blackfish and persuaded his men to surrender rather than put up a fight .
Blackfish wanted to continue to Boonesborough and capture it , since it was now poorly defended , but Boone convinced him that the women and children were not hardy enough to survive a winter trek . Instead , Boone promised that Boonesborough would surrender willingly to the Shawnees the following spring . Boone did not have an opportunity to tell his men that he was bluffing to prevent an immediate attack on Boonesborough , however . Boone pursued this strategy so convincingly that many of his men concluded that he had switched his loyalty to the British .
Boone and his men were taken to Blackfish 's town of Chillicothe , where they were made to run the gauntlet . As was their custom , the Shawnees adopted some of the prisoners into the tribe to replace fallen warriors ; the remainder were taken to Hamilton in Detroit . Boone was adopted into a Shawnee family at Chillicothe , perhaps into the family of Chief Blackfish himself , and given the name Sheltowee ( Big Turtle ) . On June 16 , 1778 , when he learned Blackfish was about to return to Boonesborough with a large force , Boone eluded his captors and raced home , covering the 160 miles ( 260 km ) to Boonesborough in five days on horseback and , after his horse gave out , on foot .
During Boone 's absence , his wife and children ( except for Jemima ) had returned to North Carolina , assuming he was dead . Upon his return to Boonesborough , some of the men expressed doubts about Boone 's loyalty , since after surrendering the salt @-@ making party , he had apparently lived quite happily among the Shawnees for months . Boone responded by leading a preemptive raid against the Shawnees across the Ohio River , and then by helping to successfully defend Boonesborough against a 10 @-@ day siege led by Blackfish , which began on September 7 , 1778 .
After the siege , Captain Benjamin Logan and Colonel Richard Callaway — both of whom had nephews who were still captives surrendered by Boone — brought charges against Boone for his recent activities . In the court martial that followed , Boone was found " not guilty " , and was even promoted after the court heard his testimony . Despite this vindication , Boone was humiliated by the court martial , and he rarely spoke of it .
After the trial , Boone returned to North Carolina to bring his family back to Kentucky . In the autumn of 1779 , a large party of emigrants came with him , including ( according to tradition ) the family of Abraham Lincoln 's grandfather . Rather than remain in Boonesborough , Boone founded the nearby settlement of Boone 's Station . He began earning money at this time by locating good land for other settlers . Transylvania land claims had been invalidated after Virginia created Kentucky County , so settlers needed to file new land claims with Virginia . In 1780 , Boone collected about $ 20 @,@ 000 in cash from various settlers and traveled to Williamsburg to purchase their land warrants . While he was sleeping in a tavern during the trip , the cash was stolen from his room . Some of the settlers forgave Boone the loss ; others insisted he repay the stolen money , which took him several years to do .
A popular image of Boone which emerged in later years is that of the backwoodsman who had little affinity for " civilized " society , moving away from places like Boonesborough when they became " too crowded " . In reality , however , Boone was a leading citizen of Kentucky at this time . When Kentucky was divided into three Virginia counties in November 1780 , Boone was promoted to lieutenant colonel in the Fayette County militia . In April 1781 , he was elected as a representative to the Virginia General Assembly , which was held in Richmond . In 1782 , he was elected sheriff of Fayette County .
Meanwhile , the American Revolutionary War continued . Boone joined General George Rogers Clark 's invasion of the Ohio country in 1780 , fighting in the Battle of Piqua on August 7 . In October , when Boone was hunting with his brother Ned , Shawnees shot and killed Ned . Apparently thinking that they had killed Daniel Boone , the Shawnees beheaded Ned and took the head home as a trophy . In 1781 , Boone traveled to Richmond to take his seat in the legislature , but British dragoons under Banastre Tarleton captured Boone and several other legislators near Charlottesville . The British released Boone on parole several days later . During Boone 's term , Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781 , but the fighting continued in Kentucky unabated . Boone returned to Kentucky and in August 1782 fought in the Battle of Blue Licks , in which his son Israel was killed . In November 1782 , Boone took part in another Clark expedition into Ohio , the last major campaign of the war .
= = Businessman on the Ohio River = =
After the Revolution , Boone resettled in Limestone ( renamed Maysville , Kentucky in 1786 ) , then a booming Ohio River port . In 1787 , he was elected to the Virginia state assembly as a representative from Bourbon County . In Maysville , he kept a tavern and worked as a surveyor , horse trader , and land speculator . He was initially prosperous , owning seven slaves by 1787 , a relatively large number for Kentucky at the time . Boone became a celebrity while living in Maysville . In 1784 , on his 50th birthday , historian John Filson published The Discovery , Settlement And present State of Kentucke , a book which included a chronicle of Boone 's adventures .
The Revolutionary War had ended , but the border war with American Indians north of the Ohio River resumed with the Northwest Indian War . In September 1786 , Boone took part in a military expedition into the Ohio Country led by Benjamin Logan . Back in Limestone , Boone housed and fed Shawnees who were captured during the raid , and helped to negotiate a truce and prisoner exchange . Although the war escalated and would not end until the American victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 , the 1786 expedition was the last time Boone saw military action .
Boone began to have financial troubles while living in Maysville . According to the later folk image , Boone the trailblazer was too unsophisticated for the civilization which followed him and which eventually defrauded him of his land . Boone was not the simple frontiersman of legend , however : he engaged in land speculation on a large scale , buying and selling claims to tens of thousands of acres . The land market in frontier Kentucky was chaotic , and Boone 's ventures ultimately failed because his investment strategy was faulty and because his sense of honor made him reluctant to profit at someone else 's expense . According to Faragher , " Boone lacked the ruthless instincts that speculation demanded . "
Frustrated with the legal hassles that went with land speculation , in 1788 , Boone moved upriver to Point Pleasant , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) . There he operated a trading post and occasionally worked as a surveyor 's assistant . When Virginia created Kanawha County in 1789 , Boone was appointed lieutenant colonel of the county militia . In 1791 , he was elected to the Virginia legislature for the third time . He contracted to provide supplies for the Kanawha militia , but his debts prevented him from buying goods on credit , so he closed his store and returned to hunting and trapping .
In 1795 , Rebecca and he moved back to Kentucky , living in present Nicholas County on land owned by their son Daniel Morgan Boone . The next year , Boone applied to Isaac Shelby , the first governor of the new state of Kentucky , for a contract to widen the Wilderness Road into a wagon route , but the contract was awarded to someone else . Meanwhile , lawsuits over conflicting land claims continued to make their way through the Kentucky courts . Boone 's remaining land claims were sold off to pay legal fees and taxes , but he no longer paid attention to the process . In 1798 , a warrant was issued for Boone 's arrest after he ignored a summons to testify in a court case , although the sheriff never found him . That same year , the Kentucky assembly named Boone County in his honor .
= = Missouri = =
Having endured legal and financial setbacks , Boone sought to make a fresh start by leaving the United States . In 1799 , he moved his extended family to what is now St. Charles County , Missouri , but was then part of Spanish Louisiana . The Spanish , eager to promote settlement in the sparsely populated region , did not enforce the official requirement that all immigrants had to be Roman Catholic . The Spanish governor appointed Boone " syndic " ( judge and jury ) and commandant ( military leader ) of the Femme Osage district , The many anecdotes of Boone 's tenure as syndic suggest he sought to render fair judgments rather than to strictly observe the letter of the law .
Boone served as syndic and commandant until 1804 , when Missouri became part of the United States following the Louisiana Purchase . Because Boone 's land grants from the Spanish government had been largely based on verbal agreements , he once again lost his land claims . In 1809 , he petitioned Congress to restore his Spanish land claims , which was finally done in 1814 . Boone sold most of this land to repay old Kentucky debts . When the War of 1812 came to Missouri , Boone 's sons Daniel Morgan Boone and Nathan Boone took part , but by that time Boone was much too old for militia duty .
Boone spent his final years in Missouri , often in the company of children and grandchildren , where he continued to hunt and trap as much as his health and energy levels permitted . According to one story , in 1810 or later , Boone went with a group on a long hunt as far west as the Yellowstone River , a remarkable journey at his age , if true . In 1816 , a United States officer at Fort Osage , on the Missouri , wrote :
We have been honored by a visit from Colonel Boon , the first settler of Kentucky ; he lately spent two weeks with us .... He left this for the river Platt , some distance above . Col Boon is eighty @-@ five years of age , five feet seven inches high , stoutly made , and active for one of his years ; is still of vigorous mind , and is pretty well informed . He has taken part in all the wars of America , from before Braddock 's war to the present hour .
Stories were told of Boone making one last visit to Kentucky to pay off his creditors , although some or all of these tales may be folklore . American painter John James Audubon claimed to have gone hunting with Boone in the woods of Kentucky around 1810 . Years later , Audubon painted a portrait of Boone , supposedly from memory , although skeptics have noted the similarity of this painting to the well @-@ known portraits by Chester Harding . Boone 's family insisted he never returned to Kentucky after 1799 , although some historians believe Boone visited his brother Squire near Kentucky in 1810 and have therefore reported Audubon 's story as factual .
= = Death = =
Daniel Boone died of natural causes , other sources , from acute indigestion on September 26 , 1820 , at Nathan Boone 's home on Femme Osage Creek , 2 @-@ 1 / 2 months short of his 86th birthday . His last words were , " I 'm going now . My time has come . " He was buried next to Rebecca , who had died on March 18 , 1813 . The graves , which were unmarked until the mid @-@ 1830s , were near Jemima ( Boone ) Callaway 's home on Tuque Creek , about two miles ( 3 km ) from the present @-@ day Marthasville , Missouri . In 1845 , the Boones ' remains were supposedly disinterred and reburied in a new cemetery Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort , Kentucky . Resentment in Missouri about the disinterment grew over the years , and a legend arose that Boone 's remains never left Missouri . According to this story , Boone 's tombstone in Missouri had been inadvertently placed over the wrong grave , but no one had ever corrected the error . Boone 's relatives in Missouri , displeased with the Kentuckians who came to exhume Boone , kept quiet about the mistake , and they allowed the Kentuckians to dig up the wrong remains . No contemporary evidence indicates this actually happened , but in 1983 , a forensic anthropologist examined a crude plaster cast of Boone 's skull made before the Kentucky reburial and announced it might be the skull of an African American . Black slaves had also been buried at Tuque Creek , so it is possible the wrong remains were mistakenly removed from the crowded graveyard . Both the Frankfort Cemetery in Kentucky and the Old Bryan Farm graveyard in Missouri claim to have Boone 's remains .
= = Cultural legacy = =
Many heroic actions and chivalrous adventures are related of me which exist only in the regions of fancy . With me the world has taken great liberties , and yet I have been but a common man .
Daniel Boone remains an iconic figure in American history , although his status as an early American folk hero and later as a subject of fiction have tended to obscure the actual details of his life . Boone is commonly remembered as a hunter , pioneer , and " Indian @-@ fighter " , though most people are uncertain when he lived or exactly what he did . Several places in the United States are named for him , including the Daniel Boone National Forest , the Sheltowee Trace Trail , the town of Boone , North Carolina , various settlements carrying the name of " Boonville " , and seven counties : Boone County , Illinois , Boone County , Indiana , Boone County , Nebraska , Boone County , West Virginia , Boone County , Missouri , Boone County , Arkansas , and Boone County , Kentucky . Schools across the United States are named for Daniel Boone , including schools in Birdsboro , Pennsylvania , Douglassville , Pennsylvania , Richmond , Kentucky , Wentzville , Missouri , Warrenton , Missouri , Gray , Tennessee , and Chicago .
Boone 's name has long been synonymous with the American outdoors . For example , the Boone and Crockett Club was a conservationist organization founded by Theodore Roosevelt in 1887 , and the Sons of Daniel Boone was the precursor of the Boy Scouts of America .
Daniel Boone was honored with a 6 @-@ cent stamp in the American Folklore Series on September 26 , 1968 , at Frankfort , Kentucky , where he was buried . He was a famous frontiersman in the development of Virginia , Kentucky and the trans @-@ Appalachian west . A wall of roughly @-@ hewn boards displays the tools of Boone 's trade — a Pennsylvania rifle , a powder horn , and a knife . The pipe tomahawk represents that the Shawnees had adopted Boone . His name and birth date were carved on the wall .
The U.S. Navy 's James Madison @-@ class Polaris submarine USS Daniel Boone ( SSBN @-@ 629 ) , was named for Boone . This nuclear submarine was decommissioned in 1994 , and has since been scrapped . She was a member of a class of 41 submarines , all of which were named for great Americans from history , including the USS Lewis and Clark , two other noteworthy frontiersmen of the Great West .
= = = Emergence as a legend = = =
Boone emerged as a legend in large part because of land speculator John Filson 's " The Adventures of Colonel Daniel Boon " , part of his book The Discovery , Settlement And present State of Kentucke . First published in 1784 , Filson 's book was a pamphlet primarily intended to popularize Kentucky to immigrants . It was soon translated into French and German , and made Boone famous in America and Europe . Based on interviews with Boone , Filson 's book contained a mostly factual account of Boone 's adventures from the exploration of Kentucky through the American Revolution . However , because the real Boone was a man of few words , Filson invented florid , philosophical dialogue for this " autobiography " . Subsequent editors cut some of these passages and replaced them with more plausible — but still spurious — ones . Often reprinted , Filson 's book established Boone as one of the first popular heroes of the United States .
Like John Filson , Timothy Flint also interviewed Boone , and his Biographical Memoir of Daniel Boone , the First Settler of Kentucky ( 1833 ) became one of the best @-@ selling biographies of the 19th century . Flint greatly embellished Boone 's adventures , doing for Boone what Parson Weems did for George Washington . In Flint 's book , Boone fought hand @-@ to @-@ paw with a bear , escaped from Indians by swinging on vines ( as Tarzan would later do ) , and so on . Although Boone 's family thought the book was absurd , Flint greatly influenced the popular conception of Boone , since these tall tales were recycled in countless dime novels and books aimed at young boys .
= = = Symbol and stereotype = = =
Thanks to Filson 's book , in Europe , Boone became a symbol of the " natural man " who lives a virtuous , uncomplicated existence in the wilderness . This was most famously expressed in Lord Byron 's epic poem Don Juan ( 1822 ) , which devoted a number of stanzas to Boone , including this one :
Of the great names which in our faces stare ,
The General Boon , back @-@ woodsman of Kentucky ,
Was happiest amongst mortals any where ;
For killing nothing but a bear or buck , he
Enjoyed the lonely vigorous , harmless days
Of his old age in wilds of deepest maze .
Byron 's poem celebrated Boone as someone who found happiness by turning his back on civilization . In a similar vein , many folk tales depicted Boone as a man who migrated to more remote areas whenever civilization crowded in on him . In a typical anecdote , when asked why he was moving to Missouri , Boone supposedly replied , " I want more elbow room ! " Boone rejected such an interpretation of his life , however . " Nothing embitters my old age , " he said late in life , like " the circulation of absurd stories that I retire as civilization advances ... "
Existing simultaneously with the image of Boone as a refugee from society was , paradoxically , the popular portrayal of him as civilization 's trailblazer . Boone was celebrated as an agent of Manifest Destiny , a pathfinder who tamed the wilderness , paving the way for the extension of American civilization . In 1852 , critic Henry Tuckerman dubbed Boone " the Columbus of the woods " , comparing Boone 's passage through the Cumberland Gap to Christopher Columbus 's voyage to the New World . In popular mythology , Boone became the first to explore and settle Kentucky , opening the way for countless others to follow . In fact , other Americans had explored and settled Kentucky before Boone , as debunkers in the 20th century often pointed out , but Boone came to symbolize them all , making him what historian Michael Lofaro called " the founding father of westward expansion " .
In the 19th century , when Native Americans were being displaced from their lands and confined on reservations , Boone 's image was often reshaped into the stereotype of the belligerent , Indian @-@ hating frontiersman which was then popular . In John A. McClung 's Sketches of Western Adventure ( 1832 ) , for example , Boone was portrayed as longing for the " thrilling excitement of savage warfare . " Boone was transformed in the popular imagination into someone who regarded Indians with contempt and had killed scores of the " savages " . The real Boone disliked bloodshed , however . According to historian John Bakeless , there is no record that Boone ever scalped Indians , unlike other frontiersmen of the era . Boone once told his son Nathan that he was certain of having killed only one Indian , during the battle at Blue Licks , although he believed others might have died from his bullets in other battles . Even though Boone had lost two sons in wars with Indians , he respected Indians and was respected by them . In Missouri , Boone often went hunting with the very Shawnees who had captured and adopted him decades earlier . Some 19th @-@ century writers regarded Boone 's sympathy for Indians as a character flaw and therefore altered his words to conform to contemporary attitudes .
= = = In fiction = = =
Boone 's adventures , real and mythical , formed the basis of the archetypal hero of the American West , popular in 19th @-@ century novels and 20th @-@ century films . The main character of James Fenimore Cooper 's Leatherstocking Tales , the first of which was published in 1823 , bore striking similarities to Boone ; even his name , Nathaniel Bumppo , echoed Daniel Boone 's name . As mentioned above , The Last of the Mohicans ( 1826 ) , Cooper 's second Leatherstocking novel , featured a fictionalized version of Boone 's rescue of his daughter . After Cooper , other writers developed the Western hero , an iconic figure which began as a variation of Daniel Boone .
In the 20th century , Boone was featured in numerous comic strips , radio programs , and films , where the emphasis was usually on action and melodrama rather than historical accuracy . These are little remembered today ; probably the most noteworthy is the 1936 film Daniel Boone , with George O 'Brien playing the title role . Horn in the West , an outdoor drama performed annually in Boone , North Carolina since 1952 , is a fictional account of the lives of settlers whom Daniel Boone had led into the Appalachian Mountains .
Daniel Boone was the subject of a TV series that ran on NBC from 1964 to 1970 . In the popular theme song for the series , Boone was described as a " big man " in a " coonskin cap " , and the " rippin 'est , roarin 'est , fightin 'est man the frontier ever knew ! " This did not describe the real Daniel Boone , who was not a big man and did not wear a coonskin cap . Boone was portrayed this way because Fess Parker , the tall actor who played Boone , was essentially reprising his role as Davy Crockett from an earlier TV series . That Boone could be portrayed the same way as Crockett , another American frontiersman with a very different persona , was another example of how Boone 's image could be reshaped to suit popular tastes .
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= Quincy Miller =
Quincy Cortez Miller ( born November 18 , 1992 ) is an American professional basketball player for Maccabi Tel Aviv of the Israeli Premier League and the Euroleague . He has also previously played for the Sacramento Kings and Denver Nuggets as well as the Reno Bighorns , Iowa Energy and Grand Rapids Drive of the NBA Development League .
He was born in the Chicago metropolitan area and was raised there until the age of 13 , at which point he moved to live with an uncle in North Carolina so that he could live a better life . He attended four different high schools , but eventually became one of the top ten high school basketball prospects in the class of 2011 . He played for USA Basketball in the 2010 FIBA Americas Under @-@ 18 Championship . Early in his senior year , he tore his anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) rendering him incapable of playing the remainder of the season .
He played his true freshman season with the Baylor University Bears men 's basketball team as a forward for the 2011 – 12 team . In his freshman season , the team set school records for its best start ( 17 – 0 ) , longest winning streak ( 17 ) and highest ranking ( 3 / 3 ) . Following the 2011 – 12 Big 12 Conference men 's basketball season , he was named the Big 12 co @-@ Freshman of the Year and was recognized as an honorable mention All @-@ Big 12 and a Big 12 All @-@ Star Team selection by the Big 12 coaches . He was named Big 12 Freshman of the Year by Sporting News .
In the NBA , he has had a modest role for most of his first two seasons . He began to get regular playing time midway through his second season and in the final weeks of his second season he became an everyday starter due to injury .
= = High school career = =
At age 13 , his uncle Lamont Taylor from Fairmont , North Carolina took Miller in to get him away from the Chicago street life . He transferred from North Chicago High School and played his freshman season for Fairmont High School ( North Carolina ) before transferring to Quality Education Academy where he grew 8 inches ( 20 @.@ 3 cm ) as a sophomore . Miller was relatively unknown until the 2009 Pangos All @-@ American Camp and the Hoop Jamboree . Miller had begun playing AAU basketball for D @-@ One Sports . Then by July 2009 he was a top 10 class of 2011 prospect by Scout.com and top 25 by PrepStar and had interest from Duke , Wake Forest , Kentucky , Oklahoma , Baylor , Memphis and Kansas . Late in Miller 's 2009 – 10 junior season , he began receiving significant support from the 2010 ESPN HS Mr. Basketball USA voters who moved him into 11th place . At the time , he was competing for Quality Education Academy in Winston @-@ Salem . He led the school to the National Christian Schools Athletic Association title . Following the season he was named a second @-@ team ESPNHIGHSCHOOL.com All @-@ American forward and announced his transfer to Westchester Country Day School of High Point where his close friend Deuce Bello played . At the time , he held offers from Duke and Kentucky . He announced that along with the transfer , he would be changing jersey numbers from 35 to 22 .
The following summer SLAM Magazine rated him as the top prospect in the class of 2011 before he appeared at the June 2010 Pangos All @-@ American Camp . After leading his team in rebounding in the camp 's " Cream of the Crop " All @-@ Star finale game , Miller earned team MVP honors . In June 2010 , Miller was the sixth man for the gold medal @-@ winning team at the FIBA Americas Under @-@ 18 Championship . He led the team in rebounding average for the tournament , was second in scoring average , and made the game @-@ winning 3 @-@ point shot with 25 seconds remaining in the championship game against Brazil . His 2010 average of 9 @.@ 2 rebounds per game was tied with Chris Bosh 's 2002 average for second in the history of USA Basketball 's U18 competition behind only Shareef Abdur @-@ Rahim 1994 10 @.@ 1 average . Like most elite level high school players , Miller participated on the summer Amateur Athletic Union circuit , including showcase events such as the July NYC Summer Classic .
Based on his play during the high school basketball season , AAU tournaments and national summer camps , experts from ESPN RISE , ESPN College Basketball Recruiting and other talent evaluators selected him to the August 2010 Boost Mobile Elite 24 event . By the time of the event , he was the fourth ranked basketball player in the ESPNU 100 . Following his tournament play , ESPN HS began comparisons with him to Kevin Durant . At the event , his pass to Bello during the slam dunk contest appeared on SportsCenter . The following week , he played at the UIC Pavilion in the fourth annual adidas Nations global experience with many of the world 's elite high school players . In the September 2010 ScoutsFocus Elite 80 All Star Game in Greensboro , North Carolina , after fans heckled him that his team was trailing , he rattled off 18 consecutive points .
Following in the footsteps of basketball players like LeBron James , Kevin Love , Tyreke Evans and Harrison Barnes , Miller was the 2010 – 11 high school diary keeper for SLAM Magazine . Once Miller and Bello were united , they were described as arguably the best high school basketball tandem in the country . Entering his senior season , Miller was a first team All @-@ Southeast Region team selection by ESPN HS . At the time he was listed in third in the 2010 @-@ 2011 Preseason ESPNHS Mr. Basketball USA voting ( behind Austin Rivers and Mike Gilchrist ) . The team was preseason # 32 in the POWERADE FAB 50 ESPNHS Boys ' basketball team rankings . In December 2010 , Miller suffered a torn ACL , ending his senior season , and high school career . As a senior , he was ineligible for the McDonald 's All @-@ American Game , but was an honorary All @-@ American selection for the Jordan Brand Classic game . He did not play in the game , but participated in drills . His Jordan Brand workouts refueled Durant comparisons . He was also a first team All @-@ American selection by SLAM Magazine ( along with Gilchrist , Rivers , Bradley Beal , Anthony Davis and Marquis Teague ) .
He was rated as the # 4 player by Scout.com , the # 7 player in the ESPNU 100 , and the # 7 player by Rivals.com.
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman season = = =
On October 21 , 2010 , Miller and Bello jointly announced on ESPNU that they would attend Baylor University . In August 2010 , Scout.com had named Miller their number two prospect in the country behind Anthony Davis . At the time of the announcement , Miller was the top @-@ ranked high school class of 2011 power forward in the nation according to Rivals.com and the number two prospect in the nation behind Gilchrist according to PrepStar 's Rob Harrington , who had thought he might go to Louisville . In November , Miller and Bello signed their letters of intent . At the time he signed his letter of intent , he was ranked the 2nd best player in the nation by Scout.com and PrepStar , while Rivals.com listed him fifth . In 2011 , Big12Sports.com has repeatedly described Miller as a potential Top 10 draft pick . As an incoming freshman for the 2011 – 12 Bears , he was one of five Big 12 Conference players named to the Naismith College Player of the Year preseason top 50 watchlist . Baylor entered the season without 2011 – 12 Big 12 Conference basketball season preseason player of the year Perry Jones who was on a five @-@ game suspension for having accepted improper benefits before arriving at Baylor . Nonetheless , Dime Magazine included Miller , Jones and Bello in its list of Top 25 Breakout Players & Teams To Watch In The NBA , College & High School This Season .
In Baylor 's first three games , Miller scored 17 , 17 and 20 points against Texas Southern on November 11 , Jackson State on November 13 and San Diego State on November 15 , respectively . The New York Times described his second half contribution against San Diego State as key . His performance in these three games clarified the success of his rehabilitation according to the press . In the fifth game on November 23 against Texas @-@ Arlington , Miller posted his first double @-@ double with 17 points and 11 rebounds . After rolling his ankle in practice , Miller sat out the sixth game . After those first six games with a 15 @.@ 2 point per game average , Miller was mentioned in discussions about National Freshman of the Year candidates . However , as of 29 December 2011 , he had not scored 17 points in a game since Jones ' return to the lineup and his own return from injury .
By the end of December 2011 , Miller had contributed to the school 's first ever 13 – 0 start and a school @-@ record tying 13 @-@ game winning streak . Prior to the 13th victory on December 28 , which came over the ( 15 AP / 14 Coaches ) Mississippi State Bulldogs , the team ( 6 AP / 7 Coaches ) had already reach the highest rankings in school history in the 2011 – 12 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings . On January 14 , Miller posted 21 points as Baylor ( 4 AP / 4 Coaches ) defeated Oklahoma State , raising their record to 17 – 0 . Miller had 17 points when ( 3 AP / 3 Coaches ) Baylor suffered its first loss to ( 7 AP / 7 Coaches ) Kansas on January 16 . He had a career @-@ high 29 points in a January 21 89 – 88 loss to ( 5 AP / 5 Coaches ) Missouri . On February 18 , he posted another double @-@ double with 12 points and 11 rebounds against Kansas State . Following the 2011 – 12 Big 12 Conference men 's basketball season , he was named the Big 12 co @-@ Freshman of the Year ( with Le 'Bryan Nash ) and was recognized as an honorable mention All @-@ Big 12 and a Big 12 All @-@ Rookie Team selection by the league 's coaches . Miller was also selected as the Big 12 Freshman of the Year by The Sporting News .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Denver Nuggets ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
On April 10 , 2012 , Miller confirmed that he would return to Baylor for his sophomore year of eligibility . However , Miller later decided to forgo his final three years of eligibility and enter the NBA draft . He was selected in the second round of the 2012 NBA draft with the 38th pick overall by the Nuggets . His representative was Dwon Clifton of the Envision Sports Agency . During the 2012 NBA Summer League , Miller averaged 6 @.@ 8 points and 5 @.@ 2 rebounds for Denver . Miller made the Nuggets ' regular season roster , though he did not play in any games during the preseason .
On November 13 , 2012 , the Nuggets assigned Miller to the Iowa Energy . In his professional debut , he had 17 points and 8 rebounds on November 24 against the Sioux Falls Skyforce in 27 minutes . In the Energy 's third game , first victory and home opener , Miller posted a double @-@ double with 17 points and 12 rebounds on December 1 . After three D @-@ League games in which he averaged 14 @.@ 0 points , 10 @.@ 7 rebounds and 2 @.@ 3 assists in 29 @.@ 0 minutes , the Nuggets recalled Miller on December 2 . He made his NBA debut on December 16 against the Sacramento Kings . On December 27 , he was reassigned to the Iowa Energy , but he was recalled by the Nuggets on February 13 . Overall , he averaged 11 @.@ 3 points and 6 @.@ 8 rebounds in 23 games in the D @-@ League .
He again participated in the NBA Summer League for the Nuggets in 2013 . Prior to his second season , head coach Brian Shaw described Miller as if he has the potential to be comparable to Paul George . Once the season began , Miller 's second year salary became fully guaranteed . On December 27 , 2013 , Miller scored a career @-@ high 9 points against the New Orleans Pelicans . With Wilson Chandler suffering from a groin injury , Miller made his first NBA career start on January 9 , 2014 against the Oklahoma City Thunder with Kevin Durant as his defensive assignment . The game was nationally televised . Miller matched his career high with 9 points , while Durant scored 30 , but Denver won 101 – 88 . In his second start in the following game against Orlando on January 11 , Miller achieved his first NBA double double with career highs of 16 points and 11 rebounds . Miller again served in the starting lineup on February 10 but this time in the backcourt when point guard Ty Lawson was injured and starting shooting guard Randy Foye shifted over to replace him . In late March , when Wilson Chandler missed several games , Miller moved into the starting lineup . On April 6 , Miller , who was still starting in place of Chandler , scored a career @-@ high 19 points in an overtime contest against Houston .
On October 27 , 2014 , Miller was waived by the Nuggets .
= = = Reno Bighorns and Sacramento Kings ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = =
After filling paperwork to enter the NBA Development League on December 10 , 2014 , Miller was acquired by the Reno Bighorns via the D @-@ League player pool on December 12 . He was a finalist for NBA D @-@ League Player of the Month that month .
On January 17 , 2015 , Miller signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Sacramento Kings . On January 30 , he signed a second 10 @-@ day contract with the Kings . On February 4 , 2015 , he was named to the Futures All @-@ Star team for the 2015 NBA D @-@ League All @-@ Star Game . Following the expiration of his second 10 @-@ day contract , he parted ways with the Kings on February 10 and returned to the Bighorns with the intentions of playing in the D @-@ League All @-@ Star Game .
= = = Detroit Pistons ( 2015 ) = = =
On February 21 , 2015 , Miller signed a 10 @-@ day contract with the Detroit Pistons . On February 27 , he was assigned to the Grand Rapids Drive . After being recalled on March 2 , he signed a second 10 @-@ day contract with the Pistons the following day . On March 12 , he signed a two @-@ year , partially guaranteed deal with the Pistons . On March 25 , he was reassigned to Grand Rapids , and recalled two days later . Miller managed to appear in just four games for the Pistons to finish the season .
On July 13 , 2015 , Miller was traded to the Brooklyn Nets in exchange for Steve Blake . On October 20 , 2015 , he was waived by the Nets after appearing in four preseason games .
= = = Crvena zvezda = = =
On October 20 , 2015 , Miller signed with Serbian team Crvena zvezda for the rest of the 2015 – 16 season . He was a member of the 2015 – 16 ABA League champions . He was a 2015 – 16 Euroleague All @-@ League Second Team selection .
= = = Maccabi Tel Aviv = = =
On June 13 , 2016 , Miller signed a two @-@ year contract with the Israeli club Maccabi Tel Aviv .
= = Career statistics = =
Note : The Euroleague is not the only competition in which the player participated for the team during the season . He also played in domestic competition , and regional competition if applicable .
= = = NBA = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = Euroleague = = =
= = Personal = =
Miller 's older sister Keisha was killed in a car accident in 2005 at the age of 17 , which inspired his jersey number change . Three additional close family members died in the three years prior to his 2011 ACL rehab . His mother is a nurse and he has 14 siblings . At Baylor , he served as Julius Randle 's host for his visit .
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= Sleepless ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Sleepless " is the 4th episode of the second season and 28th overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on October 7 , 1994 on Fox . The episode was written by supervising producer Howard Gordon , and directed by Rob Bowman . " Sleepless " earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 6 and was viewed by 8 @.@ 2 million households . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder is assigned a new partner , Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) . The two investigate a case where doctors and soldiers who were part of a sleep deprivation experiment are being killed off .
" Sleepless " featured what would become the recurring character of Alex Krycek , portrayed by Nicholas Lea . Krycek would progress from Mulder 's partner to one of his enemies . Howard Gordon , the episode 's writer , was inspired by various cases of insomnia . During the first season , Chris Carter had written a similar themed episode , but stopped working on it when he became " unhappy " with the result .
= = Plot = =
In New York City , Dr. Saul Grissom finds a fire outside his apartment . When firefighters arrive , they find no fire or any related damage , but discover Grissom 's lifeless body .
Mulder anonymously receives a tape cassette of Grissom 's 911 call . He tries to take the case , only to learn that another FBI agent , Alex Krycek , has opened it first . Deciding to leave Krycek out of the loop , Mulder calls Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and asks her to conduct Grissom 's autopsy . Mulder then heads to Grissom 's clinic in Stamford , Connecticut , where he is confronted by an angered Krycek . The two travel back to Quantico to see Scully , who says that Grissom 's body showed no signs of a fire , but yet seems to have biologically believed it was burning .
Meanwhile , in a Brooklyn apartment , Vietnam veteran Henry Willig is approached by a fellow ex @-@ Marine , Augustus Cole . Suddenly a group of wounded Vietnamese appear and gun him down . Examining his corpse , Mulder and Krycek find a scar on his neck and realize he was in the Special Forces stationed in Vietnam in 1970 , and one of only two survivors , the other being Cole . They head to the VHA hospital in New Jersey where they discover that Cole was discharged , despite the fact that his doctor does not remember doing so .
Mulder meets the mysterious " X " , who gives him information on a secret military project that Grissom performed where he eradicated the need for sleep through lobotomy . X provides him with the name of Salvatore Matola , a squad member who was mistakenly reported as killed in action . A man matching Cole 's description robs a drug store . Mulder and Krycek arrive , but not before two gunshots are heard from the room where Cole is believed to be . It appears that the two officers in the room with him shot each other . Cole escapes . Mulder believes that Cole 's years of sleeplessness have provided him with illusionary abilities . Mulder and Krycek meet with Matola soon afterwards , who says that he has not slept in twenty @-@ four years , due to the experiment . He reveals that there was another doctor who was part of the squad , Dr. Girardi , and that he was the one who actually performed the lobotomies .
Mulder and Krycek head to the subway station , where Dr. Girardi is expected to arrive for Grissom 's funeral . Mulder sees Cole there , and Cole seems to shoot Girardi , but this is shown to be in Mulder 's head . In reality , Cole has captured Girardi and holds him hostage , about to show him a similar fate as his other victims . By searching surveillance footage , they track his location and find Girardi wounded . Mulder finds Cole , who is ready to kill himself . Krycek , believing Cole is holding a gun instead of the Bible he is actually holding , shoots him , and Cole dies of his wounds . Mulder and Scully find both of their files on the case missing . Krycek reports to the Smoking Man and others , telling them that the dissolution of the X @-@ Files and the separation of Mulder and Scully has been ineffective , and their determination is only stronger . He also notes that Scully is a bigger problem than they anticipated .
= = Production = =
Writer Howard Gordon was initially inspired to write this episode based on insomnia he was suffering at the time . Gordon , who wrote many episodes with Alex Gansa in season one made his solo writing debut with this episode . Originally Chris Carter had written a script for the first season , which shared the same theme as " Sleepless . " The original conceit for Carter 's episode was " What makes the perfect soldier ? " He also liked the twist on sleep , noting that " sleep is where demons are released in our dreams . " He explained that the characters in " Sleepless " were haunted by their memories in real life because they were not able to sleep . Carter sees this episode as one of his favorites .
This episode marked the first appearance of Nicholas Lea as Alex Krycek . Carter had much interest in Krycek , because he replaced Dana Scully as Mulder 's new partner . Lea had previously appeared as a different character in the first season episode , " Gender Bender . " Bowman , who had directed " Gender Bender , " thought that Lea " was a [ ... ] strong choice for a fresh @-@ out @-@ of @-@ Quantico FBI agent . " When creating him , the writers always had in mind that he would be a recurring character , while they agreed if the character did not work they would kill him off .
" Sleepless " marked the first on screen appearance of Steven Williams as Fox Mulder 's new source , " X. " The character was originally intended to be a woman , and an actress was cast in the role , but after shooting her first scene the role was recast with Williams , an actor who had previous experience with writers Glen Morgan and James Wong . Natalija Nogulich , the actor who originally earned the role , was replaced because the writing staff felt she was not able to create the " right chemistry " between her co @-@ stars .
= = Reception = =
" Sleepless " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 6 , with a 15 share . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 2 million households in the United States alone . Stephen Mark was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 1995 in the category " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Series — Single Camera Production " , but did not win .
Chris Carter enjoyed the episode , saying " I really love that show . It 's a great idea , well executed . We had a good cast ; Tony Todd was wonderful " and saying it was " beautifully directed by Rob Bowman . Entertainment Weekly rated " Sleepless " with a B + , considering that Tony Todd 's performance " elevates a just @-@ good story into a great one . " John Keegan Critical Myth gave the episode 7 out of 10 , saying it was best remembered for its introduction of Alex Krycek . The web site further stated that the episode was decent and was a " fairly standard exploration " for the early season episodes . Dave Golder from SFX named the episode one of the " 20 TV Sci @-@ Fi Gamechangers " due to its introduction of Krycek .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two noted that Gordon was able to make " the cliche of Vietnam war guilt " feel " very personal and even sorrowful . " However , Shearman and Pearson noted that the revelation of Krycek as an enemy was " the biggest shame " in the episode . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club wrote that , while the episode is " your standard MotW riff " , it is important because it features the on @-@ screen introduction of both Krycek and X.
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= Frozen Fever =
Frozen Fever is a 2015 American computer @-@ animated musical fantasy short film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . It is a sequel to the 2013 feature film Frozen , and tells the story of Anna 's birthday party given by Elsa with the help of Kristoff , Sven , and Olaf . Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee again served as the directors with Kristen Bell , Idina Menzel , Jonathan Groff , and Josh Gad providing the lead voices .
Frozen Fever was first announced in September 2014 by Disney Animation 's chief creative officer John Lasseter . The film debuted in theaters alongside Walt Disney Pictures ' Cinderella on March 13 , 2015 . It received positive reviews from critics , along with praise for its new song " Making Today a Perfect Day " by Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez and Robert Lopez .
= = Plot = =
Elsa plans to give Anna a surprise birthday party with the help of Kristoff , Sven , and Olaf ; but while Anna is led on a " party treasure hunt " by a string that winds through the kingdom , Elsa has caught a cold , and unknowingly produces a group of small animated snowmen ( " Snowgies " ) with each sneeze , who begin to dismantle the birthday party 's decorations while Kristoff tries to stop them . While Elsa takes Anna on the hunt , Kristoff , Sven , and Olaf try to control the Snowgies and fix the decorations in time for Anna and Elsa 's return . After Elsa nearly falls off a clock tower , Anna convinces her to take rest . While Anna enjoys the party , Elsa sneezes a giant snowball through an alphorn , and stuns Hans overseas ; whereupon Elsa rests in bed under Anna 's care . Olaf , Kristoff , and Sven escort the Snowgies to Elsa 's ice palace , where they stay with her snow @-@ giant doorkeeper ' Marshmallow ' .
= = Cast = =
Kristen Bell as Anna
Idina Menzel as Elsa
Jonathan Groff as Kristoff
Josh Gad as Olaf
Chris Williams as Oaken
Santino Fontana as Hans
Paul Briggs as Marshmallow
= = Production = =
On September 2 , 2014 , during the ABC airing of The Story of Frozen : Making a Disney Animated Classic , Walt Disney Animation Studios ' chief creative officer John Lasseter announced that a Frozen short film with a new song would be released in the future . On the same day , Variety announced that the short would be released in early 2015 under the title Frozen Fever , with Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee returning as co @-@ directors , Peter Del Vecho returning as producer and a new song by Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez and Robert Lopez . Olaf the snowman would also make an appearance in the short . On December 3 , 2014 , it was announced that Aimee Scribner would be a co @-@ producer and that Frozen Fever would debut in theaters alongside Walt Disney Pictures ' Cinderella on March 13 , 2015 . In late December , the co @-@ directors told the Associated Press " There is something magic about these characters and this cast and this music . Hopefully , the audiences will enjoy the short we 're doing , but we felt it again . It was really fun . " Around the same time , Dave Metzger , who worked on the orchestration for Frozen , disclosed he was already at work on Frozen Fever .
The short features the song " Making Today a Perfect Day " , by Anderson @-@ Lopez and Lopez . At the premiere of Cinderella and Frozen Fever at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California , on March 1 , 2015 , Josh Gad told USA Today , " I want to apologize to parents everywhere for the fact that children are going to be singing a whole new Frozen song [ . ] "
The creators started brainstorming possibilities for the short film in June 2014 . After early discussions about Olaf , head story artist Marc Smith pitched the idea of what might happen if Elsa had a cold , which became the basis for the short 's plot . The directors began working on the short in June and by August were back in the recording studio with the cast to lay down vocal tracks . The production of Frozen Fever took six months . All of the animators from Frozen wanted to come back to animate at least one shot on Frozen Fever , resulting in a large number of animator credits for a short film . They struggled to squeeze the animation phase of the short 's production into a tight time slot in fall 2014 after animation wrapped on Big Hero 6 and before the studio 's animators had to start working on subsequent features .
= = Release and reception = =
Frozen Fever premiered in theaters alongside Walt Disney Pictures ' Cinderella on March 13 , 2015 . Frozen Fever was released on Digital HD and Disney Movies Anywhere on August 11 , 2015 . It was released on the Walt Disney Animation Studios Short Films Collection Blu @-@ ray Disc on August 18 , 2015 . It was also included on the Blu @-@ ray , DVD , and digital HD releases of Cinderella on September 15 , 2015 . On November 9 , 2015 , it released on an exclusive DVD copy of its own , courtesy of Tesco stores across the UK .
USA Today 's Claudia Puig rated the short three stars out of four , and described the new song ( " Making Today a Perfect Day " ) as " pleasant " . She concluded that although the short " is not as exhilarating and inventive as the original , it 's still a treat to see an abridged tale of these two sisters in a warmhearted spinoff . " Writing for BBC , Natalie Jamieson called the new song " catchy and fun " . Dan Kois of the Slate called the film " a real bummer , the first recent misfire from Disney 's shorts program , and thus the first serious misfire from the Lasseter @-@ led Disney . " The Daily Telegraph 's Robbie Collin praised the song " Making Today a Perfect Day " , stating that " it 's a lip @-@ smacking confection , dusted with pure icing sugar , and suggests that songwriters Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez and Robert Lopez are capable of coming up with something special for the forthcoming feature @-@ length Frozen sequel . "
CraveOnline 's Witney Seibold wrote that the film " is a celebration of the very kind of conspicuous consumerism that Disney is always smearing the landscape with . " Mike Scott of The Times @-@ Picayune wrote that " with its blend of sweetness , silliness and tunefullness , this animated Disney short is satisfyingly consistent in vision and in spirit with the original Frozen . "
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= Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock =
The Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock ( Rupicola peruvianus ) , also known as tunki ( Quechua ) , is a large passerine bird of the cotinga family native to Andean cloud forests in South America . It is widely regarded as the national bird of Peru . It has four subspecies and its closest relative is the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock .
The Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock exhibits marked sexual dimorphism ; the male has a large disk @-@ like crest and scarlet or brilliant orange plumage , while the female is significantly darker and browner . Gatherings of males compete for breeding females with each male displaying its colourful plumage , bobbing and hopping , and making a variety of calls . After mating , the female makes a nest under a rocky overhang , incubates the eggs , and rears the young , all by herself .
The Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock eats a diet of fruit , supplemented by insects , amphibians , reptiles , and smaller mice . It is distributed all across the cloud forest of the Andes , having a range of around 260 @,@ 000 km2 ( 100 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Even though it is being affected by destruction of its habitat , the Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is not classified as threatened .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
One of two species in the genus Rupicola , the other being the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock , the Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock was first described by English ornithologist John Latham in 1790 . It is classified in the Cotingidae , a family of largely frugivorous tropical forest suboscine passerines . The generic name is derived from the Latin stems rupes " rock " or " cliff " , and cola " inhabiting " , and is derived from its habit of nesting in rock walls . Its specific epithet peruvianus " of Peru " is masculine despite the -a ending of the genus name ( in Latin , names in -cola were masculine or neuter ) ; peruviana is seen in older works .
Four subspecies are known :
R. p. peruvianus – ( Latham , 1790 ) , nominate subspecies
R. p. aequatorialis – Taczanowski , 1889
R. p. sanguinolentus – Gould , 1859
R. p. saturatus – Cabanis and Heine , 1859
= = Description = =
The Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is a large passerine , approximately 32 cm ( 13 in ) long and weighing around 265 grams ( 9 @.@ 3 oz ; 0 @.@ 584 lb ) , although males are somewhat larger and the heaviest specimens can reach 300 grams ( 11 oz ; 0 @.@ 66 lb ) . The birds is one of many birds species to exhibit marked sexual dimorphism . The male has a large disk @-@ like crest and brilliant scarlet or orange plumage . It has black tail and wings , and pale greyish scapulars . The female is significantly drabber and browner than the male and has a less prominent crest . The bill is yellowish in the male , and dark with a small yellow tip in the female . Depending on gender and subspecies there are significant variations in the colour of the iris , ranging from red over orange and yellow to bluish @-@ white in the male , and whitish over reddish to brown in the female . In addition to the display calls described in the breeding section below , foraging birds give a loud querulous “ tank ? ” when disturbed or in flight .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is distributed in cloud forests of the Andes . It lives in a large range of about 260 @,@ 000 km2 ( 100 @,@ 000 sq mi ) across Venezuela , Colombia , Ecuador , Perú , and Bolivia , mostly in ravines and forested streams in montane areas at 500 to 2 @,@ 400 m ( 1 @,@ 600 to 7 @,@ 900 ft ) elevation . It typically stays in the lower and middle forest levels , but will range higher in fruiting trees and will sometimes enter and cross clearings . It is generally shy and inconspicuous , often seen only briefly after being flushed out or while swiftly flying down a valley .
R. p. aequatorialis is the most widespread subspecies , ranging across the Andes of East Columbia to West Venezuela , East Ecuador and East Peru . The nominate subspecies , R. p. peruvianus has a small range stretching only through the Andes of Central Peru . R. p. sanguinolentus ranges throughout the Andes in West Columbia to Northwest Ecuador . The subspecies R. p. saturatus has a range across Southeast Peru and West Bolivia .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Food and feeding = = =
The diet consists mainly of fruit and insects , although small reptiles and frogs have been recorded . The fruits consumed are often from the plant families Lauraceae , Annonaceae , and Rubiaceae , although a few other plant families have also been reported in their diet . They are one of many species recorded following army ants . They occasionally will eat high protein fruits , but they prefer to eat the other fruits on their menu .
= = = Breeding = = =
Male cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock are polygamous , and have nothing to do with nesting once mating is done . The male ’ s energy instead is devoted to very elaborate display rituals that show off its magnificent plumage . These displays take place in communal leks , where males gather to challenge rivals and beckon the females . The males are easily disturbed , so their behavior is not easy to see . One study reported that the display activity is dependent on light intensity , with the morning display period occurring during the same light intensity level as the afternoon period .
At the lek , males have been observed to break up into pairs , performing “ confrontation displays ” . This consists of facing each other while bowing , jumping , and flapping their wings , sometimes even snapping their bills , and at the same time giving off various squawking and grunting calls . When the female approaches , it becomes even more intense . The display turns into a cacophony of bright color and a frenzied activity filling the air with very strange sounds .
Breeding takes place during different times of year in different areas . In Colombia , breeding normally happens in February until July . In Ecuador , the breeding interval spans from July until February .
= = = Nesting = = =
The nests , built entirely by the female , are mud plastered to cave entrances or rocky outcrops in forest ravines . The nests are often constructed from the saliva of the females mixed in with vegetable matter and mud . The nest is shaped like a concave cup . The female typically lays two white eggs . The females incubates these eggs for about 25 to 28 days .
= = = Impact on environment = = =
Andean cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rocks influence the environment around them . It was found that a white @-@ capped dipper renovated an abandoned cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock nest to lay its eggs in . Cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rocks also change the surrounding flora through seed dispersal . Seeds that the birds ingest often are found deposited around lek and nesting sites . This favours the germination and growth of those seeds . The diversity of these types of seeds has been found to be increased at lek and nests and decreased throughout the surrounding forest .
= = = Predators = = =
Andean cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock face slightly larger predators than smaller songbirds . Predators are attracted to leks by the conspicuous behavior of the displaying males . The animals reported to prey on adult cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock including hawk @-@ eagles , hawks , forest @-@ falcons , jaguar , mountain lion , ocelot and the boa constrictor .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is regarded as the national bird of Peru . Juveniles and adults have occasionally been used as pets .
= = = Conservation = = =
The worldwide population size and trends in population numbers have not been determined , but is it believed that the Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is not threatened . The species is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species despite habitat destruction . It is patchily distributed , but its range is large enough to sustain it at a Least Concern status .
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= Aval Appadithan =
Aval Appadithan ( English : That is how she is ) is a 1978 Indian Tamil @-@ language drama film directed by C. Rudhraiya in his directorial debut , and co @-@ written by him with Somasundareshwar . The film was produced by Ragamanjari in association with the M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute . It stars Kamal Haasan , Rajinikanth , and Sripriya , while Ilaiyaraaja composed the film 's music . The plot revolves around Manju ( Sripriya ) and the difficulties she faces in her life , due to her romantic relationships , resulting in her developing an aggressive and cynical nature towards men .
Aval Appadithan was released on 30 October 1978 , on Diwali day . Although the film received positive critical reception , it was not a box office success at the time of its release . However , the film began to develop an audience after directors P. Bharathiraja and Mrinal Sen commented positively about it . The film was noted for its stylish filmmaking , screenplay , and dialogue , a large portion of it being in English .
Aval Appadithan was the first film made by a graduate of the M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute , facilitating students of film technology to achieve success in the field of cinema . The film received the second prize for Best Film at the 1978 Tamil Nadu State Film Awards , while Nallusamy and M. N. Gnanashekharan won the Best Cinematographer award . Additionally , Sripriya received a Special Award for the Best Actress of 1978 . In 2013 , CNN @-@ News18 included the film in its list , " The 100 greatest Indian films of all time " .
= = Plot = =
Manju ( Sripriya ) was raised in a dysfunctional family that consisted of a timid father and a philandering mother ; she hurtles from one disastrous affair to another , leading to her degenerating into a cynical woman . Into her life enter two radically different men . One of them is her boss , Thyagu ( Rajinikanth ) , who owns the advertising agency she works for . He is a stereotype of the successful man : money @-@ minded , opinionated , arrogant , and a male chauvinist . In sharp contrast is Arun ( Kamal Haasan ) , who has come to Chennai from Coimbatore to make a documentary on women . Sensitive and sincere , he believes his job has a purpose and is both shocked and amused at the cynical attitudes of Manju and Thyagu .
Manju has been drafted by Thyagu to assist Arun in his documentary . As Arun and Manju start working together , Arun begins to understand Manju 's complex personality . She tells Arun about her unfortunate past relationships : How she was molested by her uncle , the ending of her first relationship in college when her lover left her by marrying another woman for the sake of employment , and how her second love , Mano ( Sivachandran ) , a Christian priest 's son , used her to satisfy his needs and lust , calling her " sister " in front of her parents . These incidents have led to her present attitude towards men . Arun later shares these conversations with Thyagu , who warns him to steer clear of such women .
Inevitably , Arun falls for Manju . However Manju incurs Thyagu 's wrath when he overhears her reprimanding her office staff for commenting on her character . When Thyagu also comments about her , she resigns from her job . When he learns of this , Arun requests Thyagu to re @-@ employ her . Thyagu simply laughs and says that she is already back , after which Manju seems to have a change of heart and starts courting Thyagu . Arun is devastated to see that she has turned out to be just the sort of woman that Thyagu earlier said she was — opportunistic , money @-@ minded , and fickle . When he asks her about her contradicting stands in life , she responds by saying that is the way she is and will be .
The truth finally emerges that Manju was merely baiting Thyagu to teach him a lesson . When Thyagu starts believing that Manju has fallen for him , he attempts to take advantage of her at a party banquet , but she rebukes and slaps him , after which Thyagu runs away in fright . However , this revelation comes too late for her , as Arun , who is disillusioned with her behaviour , has already married a small town girl ( Saritha ) . When Manju tells her aunt about the attempt to humiliate Thyagu and its ramifications , her aunt tells Manju that she deserved it for leaving behind a golden opportunity to start a new life . In a final discussion in Thyagu 's car , Manju asks Arun 's wife , " What do you think of women 's liberation ? " . " What do you think of women 's liberation ? " , Arun 's wife replies , " I don 't know " . Manju replies with a cynical , " that is why you are happy " . The film ends with Manju standing on the road as the car carrying Thyagu and the married couple pulls away from her . A voice @-@ over says , " She died today . She will be reborn tomorrow . She will die again . She will be reborn again . That is how she is " .
= = Cast = =
Kamal Haasan as Arun
Rajinikanth as Thyagu
Sripriya as Manju
Sivachandran as Mano
Saritha as Arun 's wife
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
C. Rudhraiya , whose former name was Aarumugam , was introduced to Kamal Haasan by writer and director Ananthu . The three shared an interest in the works of Robert Bresson , Jean @-@ Luc Godard , Roman Polanski , and Roberto Rossellini . Godard and Bresson were part of the French New Wave , which focused on films based on social ideas , some of which were iconoclastic in nature . Rudhraiya , Haasan , and Ananthu wanted to experiment with their ideas in Tamil . This was Rudhraiya 's first film as director ; quite radical in his approach , he wanted to change the conventions of Tamil cinema at that time . K. Rajeshwar was writing a script dealing with women 's liberation at that time , and it was decided that his script would be used for the film ; the result was Aval Appadithan . The initial script by Rajeshwar consisted of two pages .
Aval Appadithan was the debut film for both Nallusamy and M. N. Gnanashekaran , who jointly handled the film 's cinematography . Vanna Nilavan co @-@ wrote the screenplay with Somasundareshwar and Rudhraiya . The film was co @-@ produced by Ragamanjari , in association with the students of the M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute . Sripriya , who played Manju , was initially unsure about acting in the film due to her busy schedule at that time , and only agreed to do it on Haasan 's insistence . According to Rajeshwar , the characterisation of Manju was inspired from a woman he met and who had similar radical beliefs . In Rajinikanth : The Definitive Biography ( 2012 ) , Rajinikanth recalled , " if Kamal had said , “ Don ’ t cast Rajini ” , nobody would have taken me [ in Aval Appadithaan ] . "
= = = Filming = = =
Throughout the film , the cinematography made extensive use of shadows and close up shots to emphasise the moods of the characters . Jump cuts were frequently used as well . Overall , 8 @,@ 230 metres of film negative was used to make the film , and the team incurred a cost of ₹ 20 @,@ 000 for exterior shooting equipment . The scenes where Arun interviewed women for his documentary were real scenes , improvised with women they would meet at colleges and bus stops , and shot using the live @-@ recording method . The film uses a sharp contrast of black and white colours to lend a surreal atmosphere to it , and no makeup was used for the lead actors .
Filming proceeded smoothly as almost all of the dialogues were ready by the time team went for filming the scenes . The camera angles were pre @-@ planned as well . Haasan shot the film in his spare time , as he was involved in over 20 other films as an actor during the production of Aval Appadithan . Before a shot , Haasan discussed the scene with Ananthu and Rudhraiya on how Godard would have done it . The film was shot in two @-@ hour sessions over a period of four @-@ five months . The opening scene where Haasan looks into the camera and says " Konjam left @-@ la ukaarunga " ( English : Sit a little to the left , please . ) was meant as a sign to the audience to support gender equality . According to the Tamil newspaper Dinamalar , Aval Appadithan was shot in 20 days . The film 's final length was 3 @,@ 136 metres ( 10 @,@ 289 ft ) .
= = Themes and influences = =
Aval Appadithan 's central theme is on women and their plight in society , as exemplified by Manju and her relationships . Born to a timid father and a mother with loose moral values , she is also subsequently affected by two people she becomes romantically involved with . One , her college mate , left her to marry someone else for the sake of a job ; and the second is Mano , the son of a Christian priest , who used her to satisfy his lust and then trivialised their relationship by calling her " sister " in front of her parents . These relationships result in her becoming wary of men and developing an aggressive nature towards them . Conversations related to matters like the status of women in contemporary ( 1978 ) times and the nature of humankind are frequently seen in the film .
Sociologist Selvaraj Velayutham says in his book , Tamil Cinema : The Cultural Politics of India 's Other Film Industry , that " The woman ’ s characterisation is , of course , brought out entirely verbally by her [ Manju ] . According to her , she has become ' this way ' because of a wayward mother . [ ... ] The film constantly resorts to existing myths about women and relationships : that a wayward mother destroys her children ; that a woman who speaks the ' truth ' is always alone ; that men are scared of her ; that the woman who is different is confused , not sure of herself and is only seeking love from a man but does not know it herself . The only plus point of the film is that it does not expose the body of women in the way it is customary to do . [ ... ] The visuals constantly play upon the fact that she is pitted against the world . All this could have been avoided if only she had a ' proper ' mother ! "
Artist V. Jeevananthan compared Aval Appadithan to other films whose central theme was women , such as Charulata ( 1964 ) , Aval Oru Thodar Kathai ( 1974 ) , and Panchagni ( 1986 ) , while also labelling them as " classics that put the spotlight on women . " Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen , in their book Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema , say the film was also inspired by the 1972 film , Dhakam , which starred R. Muthuraman and Pandari Bai . The film is an exception on stereotypes of women , as shown by paralleling an independent woman , Manju , and a pious traditional woman : Manju gets into problems while Arun 's wife is happy . The last lines of the film where Manju asks " what do you think of ' women 's liberation ' " , Arun 's wife answers , " I don 't know " , to which Manju says " that is why you are happy " , send the message that one will inevitably get into trouble if one exhibits assertive behaviour .
Kamal Haasan 's character , Arun , is an early version of a metrosexual male — sensitive and sincere . Rajinikanth 's character , Thyagu , is the exact opposite of Arun — money @-@ minded , arrogant , and a womaniser . This is evident when Thyagu says to Arun : " Women should be enjoyed , not analysed . " According to Rajinikanth , Thyagu was very much similar to him in real life — he too smokes and drinks , but applies vibhuti ( sacred ash ) on his forehead . This implies that Thyagu was also an atheist . According to film critic Naman Ramachandran , Thyagu was , by far , Rajinikanth 's most entertaining character up to that point in his career ; his character was a self @-@ confessed chauvinist who believed that men and women can never be equal , and that women are merely objects to be used for men 's pleasure . When Arun calls Thyagu " a prejudiced ass " , Thyagu responds by saying , " I am a male ass , " with the dialogue being in English . His opinion of Sripriya 's character , Manju , is seen when he says ( also in English ) , " She is a self pitying sex @-@ starved bitch ! "
= = Music = =
Aval Appadithan 's soundtrack and score were composed by Ilaiyaraaja . The soundtrack was released under the label of EMI Records . At that time , Ilaiyaraaja was one of the busiest persons in the Tamil film industry , but he took a reduced fee for his services , at the insistence of Rudhraiya and Haasan , due to the film 's budget .
After the recording session of " Ninaivo Oru Paravai " from the film , Sigappu Rojakkal ( 1978 ) , Ilaiyaraaja asked Haasan to record " Panneer Pushpangale " that same afternoon . During the recording session , Ilaiyaraaja suggested that Haasan tone down the opening notes ; when Haasan sang perfectly as per his suggestion , Ilaiyaraaja accepted Haasan 's next rendition of the song . The song " Uravugal Thodarkathai " was reused in the film Megha ( 2014 ) . Ilaiyaraaja wanted Vannanilavan to write the lyrics for the song , since Vannanilavan had difficulties in writing the lyrics , he opted out . He was subsequently replaced with Gangai Amaran .
The soundtrack received positive reviews from critics . G. Dhananjayan said in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema , " Ilaiyaraaja 's brooding background score added to the sombre nature of the movie . Two songs , " Uravugal Thodarkathai " sung by K. J. Yesudas and " Panneer Pushpangale " sung by Kamal Haasan remain popular even today . " B. Kolappan of The Hindu wrote , " If the song " Uravugal Thodarkathai " poignantly captures the vulnerable moments in the life of a woman , " Panneer Pushpangale " and " Vaazhkai Odam Chella " in Aval Appadithan are known for their melody and philosophical touch . " According to Swarnavel Eswaran Pillai , author of the article The 1970s Tamil cinema and the post @-@ classical turn , Ilaiyaraaja 's songs were used " to punctuate the interiority of the characters rather than as a spectacle or as a device to move the plot forward . "
= = Release = =
Aval Appadithan was released on 30 October 1978 , on Diwali day . Awarded an " A " ( adults only ) certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification for its bold dialogue and subject matter , this led to the film initially struggling to find a distributor . After it was shown to several distributors and exhibitors , the Safire Theatre Group finally agreed to screen the film as a one @-@ print , one theatre release .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received generally positive reviews from critics . On 19 November 1978 , Ananda Vikatan criticised the gaps in the film , particularly the abundance of English dialogue , the excessive focus on naturalism , and lower standard of technical work ( especially the cinematography ) . Despite these perceived flaws , the magazine still appreciated the film , " None of the actors have acted in the film . Everyone has immersed in the character they played , leading to no one really acting before the camera but just living the characters ... The director demonstrated his intention to stand out from others and his keenness to tell something different ... " G. Dhananjayan said in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema , " The confidence and command of the filmmaker comes out strongly in this film . " K. Balamurugan of Rediff said , " It was what we would call parallel cinema these days . "
Writing for The Hindu , Baradwaj Rangan said , " Aval Appadithan was different . The shadowy black @-@ and @-@ white cinematography was different . The dialogues , which were more about revealing character than advancing plot , were different . The frank handling of sex and profanity ( ' she is a self @-@ pitying , sex @-@ starved bitch ! ' ) was different . The documentary @-@ like detours were different . The painfully sensitive , feminist hero was different . Rudraiah was different . " Another critic from The Hindu , B. Kolappan , called the performances of the lead cast " excellent " . D. Karthikeyan of The Hindu wrote in December 2009 that Aval Appadithan would " remain etched in every film lover 's memory by showing the best of Rajnikanth 's acting skills . " Director Mrinal Sen remarked , " The film was far ahead of its times . " Critics also appreciated the live @-@ recording method of shooting the sequences where Haasan 's character , Arun , interviewed women for his documentary .
= = = Box office = = =
The film did not initially receive a big response from the public , and was not a box office success upon its release . However , after the directors P. Bharathiraja and Mrinal Sen wrote positive comments on it , people began to watch the film and appreciate it , leading Aval Appadithan to develop a cult following . In November 2014 , Haasan defended the financial failure of the film , " Aval Appadithan was a guerilla attack on the industry by insiders like me . It slipped through their fingers , so to speak . With all the attention that films get these days , I doubt we can get away with such a film any more . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The film was awarded the Second Prize for Best Film at the 1978 Tamil Nadu State Film Awards . At the same ceremony , Nallusamy and M. N. Gnanashekharan won the award for Best Cinematographer , and Sripriya received a Special Award for Best Actress of the year .
= = Legacy = =
Aval Appadithan is one of only two films ever directed by Rudhraiya ; the other was Gramathu Athiyayam ( 1980 ) . Aval Appadithan was noted for its stylish filmmaking , screenplay and dialogue , a large portion of it being in English . The dialogues were sharp and were considered almost vulgar . It also broke the style of filmmaking followed up until that time . It was the first film made by a graduate from the M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute , facilitating Indian film technology students to achieve success in the film industry . Sripriya included it in her list of favourite films she had worked in .
In a July 2004 interview with T. Saravanan of The Hindu , director Karu Pazhaniappan rated Aval Appadithan as one of the best films he had ever seen . In May 2007 , K. Balamurugan of Rediff included Aval Appadithan in his list of " Rajni 's Tamil Top 10 " . In July 2007 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight Tamil film directors to list their all @-@ time favourite Tamil films ; two of them – Balu Mahendra and Ameer – named Aval Appadithan . Thiagarajan Kumararaja named Aval Appadithan as an inspiration for his film Aaranya Kaandam ( 2011 ) . S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu included the film on his December 2010 list of " Electrifying Rajinikanth @-@ Kamal Haasan films " with Moondru Mudichu ( 1976 ) , Avargal ( 1977 ) and 16 Vayathinile ( 1977 ) . Haasan described the film as an " unconventional way of film making . " In April 2013 , CNN @-@ News18 included the film in its list , " The 100 greatest Indian films of all time " . In June 2013 , A. Muthusamy of Honey Bee Music enhanced the songs from their original version on the film 's soundtrack album to 5 @.@ 1 surround sound . In July 2013 , Sruti Harihara Subramanian , founder and trustee of The Cinema Resource Centre ( TCRC ) , told Janani Sampath of The New Indian Express that many people assumed the film was directed by K. Balachander , not by Rudhraiya . Sruti also has an album of promotional stills and photographs of the film 's production .
In November 2013 , The New Indian Express included the film in its list , " Kamal Haasan 's most underrated films " . In February 2014 , CNN @-@ News18 included Aval Appadithan in its list , titled " 12 Indian films that would make great books " . In Kathai Thiraikathai Vasanam Iyakkam ( 2014 ) , the hero 's writing team discusses the theme of Aval Appadithan to get ideas for their film 's story , until they realise that the film was a failure at the time of its release . Indo @-@ Asian News Service , in their review of Sripriya 's directorial venture Malini 22 Palayamkottai ( 2014 ) , a film about a rape victim , stated , " Sripriya , who was once a successful actress , played a rape victim in Tamil drama Aval Appadithan . It 's probably because of that role and the effect it had left on her , she handles this subject with great care and understanding that most of her peers would lack . " In January 2015 , K. Rajeshwar said , " I was told that if Aval Appadithan were made today , it would be a blockbuster . I don ’ t agree , for it ’ s still taboo for a woman to talk about her sexual encounters . The profile of the audience should change . " In July 2016 , The Hindu included Aval Appadithan in its list of " roles that defined Rajinikanth the actor " .
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= The Boat Race 2007 =
The 153rd Boat Race took place on 7 April 2007 , and featured the most non @-@ British rowers in the history of the event . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The Cambridge crew were considerably heavier than their opponents . Oxford won the toss but Cambridge won the race by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 17 minutes 49 seconds .
In the reserve race Goldie beat Isis and Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 2006 race by five lengths , although Cambridge led overall with 78 victories to Oxford 's 73 ( excluding the dead heat of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Xchanging for the third time .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) was 9 pounds ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) per man heavier than their Oxford rivals ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) . The Oxford crew featured four Americans , two Britons , a Canadian , a Croatian and a Pole , while the Cambridge crew consisted of four Britons , two Canadians , two Germans and an American . The race featured the most non @-@ British rowers in the history of the event , and in German Thorsten Engelmann , the heaviest rower ever . Rebecca Dowbiggin became the thirteenth female cox in the race 's history and the seventh female cox for Cambridge . Cambridge 's head coach was Duncan Holland , his Oxford counterpart was Sean Bowden .
– Dowbiggin replaced Cambridge 's first @-@ choice cox Russ Glenn ten days before the race .
= = Race description = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . They took an early lead , and were just ahead at Hammersmith Bridge . Cambridge edged back into contention by the Chiswick Steps and heading under Barnes Bridge were a length clear . They passed the finishing post first , in a time of 17 minutes 49 seconds , a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter ahead of Oxford . It was Cambridge 's first victory since 2004 and took their overall lead in the contest to 79 – 73 . At the finish , following tradition , the Cambridge crew threw their cox , Dowbiggin , into the water in celebration . She later said " They flung me a really long way in there , and the water was freezing , but it was worth it . "
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis . Earlier , Cambridge won the 62nd Women 's Boat Race by half a length .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford coach Sean Bowden said " We had a good race and made all the right moves to Hammersmith , but we couldn 't quite shake them off and didn 't quite have enough lead to defend " , while Cambridge 's number six Kieran West said " Credit to Oxford . They threw everything they had at us , but we absorbed it all . " Cambridge head coach Duncan Holland praised his cox : " Rebecca was magnificent . She steered a superb course . She steered exactly where we thought she should steer and she stayed calm , it was great . " Dowbiggin herself recounted : " The guys asked me to be very calm , very relaxed , not to panic , even if Oxford were pushing and moving , I was just like ' okay , they 're pushing , they 're moving , but we 're going to do this ' . " Bowden criticised the umpire who he claimed " pushed us too tight round the bend . From Hammersmith Bridge on that took away our advantage . " Cambridge 's Tom James was finally successful , winning the Boat Race at his fourth attempt : " I really couldn 't think about losing this race . Oxford really hounded us . The line was getting closer but never quickly enough . "
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= Jovan Babunski =
Jovan Stojković ( Serbian Cyrillic : Јован Стојковић ; 25 December 1878 – 17 February 1920 ) , known as Jovan Babunski ( Јован Бабунски ) , was a Serbian Chetnik commander ( Serbian : vojvoda , вoјвода ) during the Balkan Wars and World War I. Following the murder of his brother and nephew by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization ( IMRO ) , he joined a Chetnik band and took command of Chetnik units on the Vardar River , where he and his men often engaged Bulgarian and Ottoman forces .
With the outbreak of the First Balkan War he joined the Serbian Army and was wounded while fighting in the village of Strevica . During the Second Balkan War , he joined a Serbian volunteer detachment and fought at the Battle of Bregalnica . During World War I , Babunski and his Chetnik detachment fought Austro @-@ Hungarian forces in the summer of 1914 and later fought on the Salonika Front , where Babunski was ordained by French General Louis Franchet d 'Espèrey after he and his men captured two German midget submarines and their crews . After the war , Babunski and his 250 @-@ strong force helped Serb authorities suppress Bulgarian resistance in the Macedonian towns of Bitola and Tikveš , committing several atrocities in the process . Considered one of the most famous Chetnik commanders of his time , Babunski died in Veles in February 1920 .
= = Early life = =
Jovan Stojković was born in the village of Martolci in central Macedonia along the Babuna Mountains near Veles on 25 December 1878 . Some sources state that he was born in 1875 . In his youth he earned the nickname " Babunski " , derived from the name of Mount Babuna near which his birthplace was located . He began his education at age ten , attending what was the only Bulgarian @-@ language elementary school in Veles at the time . It was here that his teacher Bulgarianized his name into " Ivan Stojkov " . Displeased , Babunski 's father responded by taking his son to the Serbian consulate in Skopje , from where he was taken to continue his education in Belgrade . After studying in Belgrade , Valjevo and Niš , Babunski worked as a Serbian @-@ language teacher in the towns of Tetovo and Veles in the Azot region .
= = Guerrilla activities = =
In 1905 , Babunski 's brother and nephew were killed by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization ( IMRO ) . Seeking revenge , he joined the Chetnik band of Gligor Sokolović and Temeljko Barjaktarević . That year , he became a Chetnik vojvoda . Afterwards , he defended the right bank of the Vardar River against Bulgarian insurgents and protected persecuted Serb villages against Bulgarian and Ottoman attack . Through these actions , Babunski became one of the five leading Serbian guerilla chiefs in Macedonia . In 1907 , the Chetnik song " The Serb Trumpet Plays For Me " ( Serbian : Srpska mi truba zatrubi ) was composed in his honour following his successful command of Chetnik forces during an attack against a group of IMRO militants commanded by Stefan Dimitrov . With the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 , Ottoman authorities declared a ceasefire between their forces and those of the Chetniks . Babunski left Chetnik ranks and returned to civilian life . He was later arrested by Ottoman authorities but quickly escaped from prison . That year , he returned to the Kingdom of Serbia .
= = Balkan Wars and World War I = =
Babunski fought with the Serbian Army during the First Balkan War and was wounded in a skirmish with Ottoman Turkish forces in the village of Strevica while serving under commander Vojin Popović . During the Second Balkan War , he fought with a Serbian volunteer detachment at the Battle of Bregalnica . With the outbreak of World War I Babunski formed the Sava Chetnik detachment , which was then placed under the command of Major Vojislav Tankosić . The unit went on to fight the Austro @-@ Hungarians in the late summer of 1914 and later destroyed a railway bridge on the Sava River to prevent Austro @-@ Hungarian forces from crossing it . In 1915 , Babunski and his men returned to Macedonia and fought Bulgarian guerillas . That autumn Babunski and his Chetniks were assigned to the town of Kačanik , where they joined other Serbian forces in fighting a Bulgarian division that they managed to hold to a standstill for nearly a month despite suffering heavy losses . With the Serbian army 's retreat through Albania that winter , Babunski and his men withdrew to the Greek island of Corfu . They then joined Serb forces at the Salonika Front . Here , Babunski was assigned to the Serbian First Army and was involved in guarding Lake Prespa from the Bulgarians . Later , he and his Chetnik detachments participated in capturing enemy soldiers and gathering intelligence from the front . In 1917 , French General Louis Franchet d 'Espèrey awarded Babunski a medal following the capture of two German midget submarines and their crews by him and his men . Babunski was also a recipient of the Order of the Star of Karađorđe .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After the war , Babunski was given command over a force of 250 men who helped Serb authorities suppress resistance in the towns of Bitola and Tikveš . During this time , forces under his command committed several atrocities in both Macedonia and Albania . Several further atrocities were carried out in Bregalnica and Tikveš and targeted local leaders sympathetic to Bulgarian komitas . Chetnik bands , including those of Babunski , enslaved locals and turned them into forced labourers for the armed forces of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes . By the summer of 1919 , Serbian and Yugoslav authorities decided that Chetnik bands such as those of Babunski were not " furthering the state 's aims in the region . " The armed forces were then deployed to maintain order in the southern territories of the state and more than 50 @,@ 000 Serbian professional soldiers were sent to Kosovo and Macedonia . Babunski died in Veles on 17 February 1920 , after falling from his horse and getting influenza .
= = Legacy = =
Described by historian Dušan T. Bataković as " exceptionally courageous and determined , " Babunski is considered one of the most famous Chetnik commanders of his time . A monument dedicated to him was constructed in Veles in 1924 , but it was blown up by the Bulgarians during World War II . A street in the Zvezdara neighborhood of Belgrade used to bear his name . His nom de guerre ( " Chetnik name " ) , Babunski , was adopted as a surname by his descendants . Jovan is the great @-@ grandfather of Macedonian footballer Boban Babunski , and great @-@ great @-@ grandfather of footballers David and Dorian .
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= Dreamland ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Dreamland " is the collective name for the fourth and fifth episodes of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Part one first aired on November 29 , and part two aired on December 6 , 1998 on Fox in the United States and Canada . The episode was written by Vince Gilligan , John Shiban , and Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Kim Manners ( " Dreamland " ) and Michael Watkins ( " Dreamland II " ) . Although dealing with a member of the Men in Black , the episode is largely unconnected to the mythology of The X @-@ Files , and is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story . Part one of " Dreamland " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 1 , being watched by 17 @.@ 48 million people in its initial broadcast ; Part two received a rating of 10 and was watched by 17 @.@ 01 million people . The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics , with many reviews critical of the episode 's reliance on humor .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Mulder and Scully visit Area 51 . But when the agents witness the flight of a mysterious craft , Mulder and a member of the Men in Black switch bodies , unbeknownst the others . In part two , Scully begins to suspect that her partner ’ s strange behavior is more than it appears to be , while Mulder fights to return his life to normal before it is too late .
" Dreamland " became the first non @-@ mythology story to be spread across two episodes . Originally , the writers for the episode contacted Garry Shandling to play the part of Fletcher but he was unavailable for filming . Michael McKean was then cast in his place . The episode is notable for a scene featuring Mulder @-@ as @-@ Fletcher encountering his reflection and proceeding to do the dance from the 1933 Marx Brothers comedy film Duck Soup . The scene required Duchovny and McKean to synchronize their movements perfectly . Dreamland is one of the names used for the Area 51 facility .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part one = = =
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) visit the Area 51 installation in Nevada after receiving a tip from an inside source concerning alien spacecraft . As they drive on the highway , the agents are surrounded by Jeeps carrying soldiers led by a Man in Black named Morris Fletcher ( Michael McKean ) . A rumbling noise is heard as a mysterious craft flies overhead and a bright light from the object passes over them . Mulder and Fletcher find that their minds have been swapped into each other 's bodies , but nobody else present is aware of this . Fletcher and Scully depart , watched by the soldiers .
Mulder is driven back to Area 51 along with two other Men in Black , Howard Grodin and Jeff Smoodge . After an angry telephone call from Fletcher 's wife , Joanne , Mulder — still inside Fletcher 's body — goes to Fletcher 's home . Instead of sleeping in the bedroom , he decides to sleep downstairs in an easy chair and watch pornography . When he is awoken by Joanne , he mumbles Scully 's name . While changing his clothes , Mulder receives a telephone call from Smoodge , who explains that the military has surveyed the wreckage of the craft from the night before , finding one of the human pilots merged into a rock but still alive . Another soldier , Captain Robert McDonough , had switched bodies with an elderly Hopi woman , as evident from McDonough 's aberrant behavior ,
Mulder telephones Scully and tries to explain that he 's the real Mulder . Scully does not believe him and asks Fletcher — in Mulder 's body — to pick up and listen to the conversation . Fletcher decides they should immediately report this incident , which further confuses Scully . She goes to Mulder ’ s apartment ( where Fletcher is having a tryst with Kersh 's assistant ) and tells Fletcher that they traced the telephone call to a pay phone near Area 51 and she suspects it is Mulder 's informant . Fletcher is indifferent to this news and Scully yells at him , sensing that his behavior is very strange and his lack of concern for the X @-@ Files is completely out of character . Scully decides to investigate , and drives through the desert towards Area 51 . She stops at a burned out gas station and finds a penny and a dime merged . Later , when Scully arrives at Fletcher 's house , Mulder tries desperately to convince Scully that he is really Mulder . Scully remains skeptical and thinks that any information Mulder describes could be obtained in other ways . Mulder tells Scully that he will bring proof of the defect of the UFO and the resultant problems that night , but Fletcher , having eavesdropped on the conversation , calls his old office posing as Mulder to inform them of the source of the leak — Mulder posing as Fletcher . Military police arrive at the appointed hour , and Mulder is dragged away , kicking and screaming , desperately trying to convince Scully . Mulder asks if he would turn in an informant to the authorities in this manner as he is carried away , and Scully begins to realize that Mulder may be telling the truth .
= = = Part two = = =
As Mulder — in Fletcher 's body — is dragged away by the soldiers , Scully begins to question whether what Mulder told her about the body @-@ swap was true . Fletcher — in Mulder 's body — approaches Scully and apologizes for telling Kersh and she feigns acceptance of it . After being reprimanded , Fletcher arranges a dinner date with Scully at Mulder 's apartment . Meanwhile , Mulder is confined in a cell next to the mind @-@ switched Lana Chee . Military police arrive and take Mulder to a meeting with General Wegman , Grodin and Smoodge . They believe that Mulder @-@ as @-@ Fletcher was trying to defraud the FBI , not help them . Mulder bluffs his way through the meeting , and claims that the real proof is safe and that he did not tell them about the scheme because he did not know if he could trust his colleagues , thinking any one of them could be the source of the leak . Mulder returns to Fletcher 's house and tells Joanne Fletcher that he is Agent Fox Mulder , but Joanne thinks her husband must be undergoing a mid @-@ life crisis .
At Mulder 's apartment , Scully announces that because of Mulder 's odd behavior , she realized Mulder 's body contains Morris Fletcher . Scully demands to know how to restore Mulder to his own body . Mulder 's informant calls again and Scully forces Fletcher to take the call and set up a meeting . Mulder , Joanne , Fletcher and Scully arrive at a bar in Rachel , Nevada , where Mulder 's informant is revealed to be General Wegman . Wegman admits that he sabotaged the UFO , but maintains that he only tried to merely disable the stealth module so that Mulder could see it . Wegman gives Fletcher , who he thinks is Mulder , the proof of the encounter , a flight data recorder in a paper bag . Meanwhile , Mulder leaves and talks to Scully in the car . Later , Mulder and Fletcher meet in the bar 's bathroom and argue about the flight data recorder . As they argue , General Wegman enters the bathroom and discovers the two . Mulder meets with General Wegman to discuss the UFO . Wegman believes that now that Fletcher knows Wegman 's identity , when restored to his own body , Fletcher will turn him in . Wegman explains that he hoped that Mulder could explain whether aliens actually exist ; apparently the craft are simply given to the military without knowing where they are from or how they work .
After the fiasco at the bar , Mulder and Scully meet . She sadly tells Mulder that she does not think he and Fletcher can be returned to their own bodies . However , soon after that , the warp caused by the alien craft begins to snap back and repair the natural order of the universe . Grodin , realizing that everything will be fixed naturally , gathers up Lana Chee and the pilot . Scully and Fletcher arrive at Fletcher ’ s home , and see Mulder standing by the moving truck . The shrill Joanne Fletcher berates Mulder about Scully but he insists that he and Fletcher have swapped bodies . Fletcher goes to help Joanne move a chair and confesses that Mulder is telling the truth . He tells her enough of their past to convince her he is Morris Fletcher . Jeff Smoodge and a group of troops appear at Fletcher 's home and detain Mulder , Fletcher , Scully and the flight data recorder in their car . Grodin explains that he is restoring everything and that he reversed the body @-@ swap between the pilot and the old Hopi woman . The warp passes over them and the past few days are rewritten . Mulder and Fletcher are restored to their own bodies and returned to the moment when Fletcher ’ s troops pulled them over on the highway . This time no ship passes overhead and Mulder and Scully leave uneventfully . After Mulder and Scully leave the highway near area 51 , Scully calls from FBI headquarters to tell Mulder that they have escaped reprimand from Director Kersh for going to Nevada . Scully opens her desk drawer to place a file inside and finds the penny and dime that were fused together from the event at the gas station in her desk drawer indicating that while some things have reversed themselves , not everything has . Mulder enters his apartment and finds that Morris Fletcher has completely reorganized and cleaned his apartment and both Mulder and Scully are left to puzzle over their recollection of events .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
When the episode was being cast , Michael McKean was not slated to play Morris Fletcher . Originally , the writers for the episode contacted Garry Shandling to play the part of Fletcher . Shandling , who was good friends with David Duchovny , was unavailable because he was filming a movie called Town and Country . Shandling would later appear in the seventh season episode " Hollywood A.D. " playing himself . In the meantime , the production staff began looking for a replacement . Rick Millikan , the casting director for The X @-@ Files , stated that they went through " lists and lists " of potential actors . Vince Gilligan noted , however , that McKean was at the top of the list for inclusion . McKean was very happy to play the part , although he did specifically ask the writers not to kill off his character .
Julia Vera was cast in the role of Lana Chee , the Hopi woman whose mind was switched with a young air force pilot . In order to age her , Vera wore special make @-@ up and facial appliances . Special contact lenses were also crafted to give her eyes a clouded look . It took five takes for her to flick her cigarette butt into Mulder 's lap because the lenses obstructed her vision .
= = = Filming = = =
In order to simulate the desert environment of Area 51 , production was temporarily relocated to " Club Ed " , a movie ranch located on the outskirts of Lancaster , California . Club Ed was two hours drive and almost 100 miles away from the Fox Studios , so most of the cast and crew camped out in motels in the desert . Because Club Ed was outside the 30 @-@ mile zone around Los Angeles , overtime , meal allowances , and per diem expenses had to be added to the budget . In the middle of filming , Duchovny was reported as saying , " When is this show moving back to Los Angeles ? " Within days , T @-@ shirts were made for the crew that featured exactly the same question .
Many of the locations in the episode were created from scratch , either through conventional means or through computer technology . The gas station , which could not be rented , was created by building a store on the side of the road on the outskirts of Lancaster and fitting it with gas pumps from a station that had recently gone out of business . The store was then loaded with merchandise obtained from restaurant supply houses and cooperative food manufactures . The last scene filmed was of the station exploding . After filming ceased , the station was demolished and the road returned to its previous state . Duke Tomasick , The X @-@ Files construction coordinator , later said that , " it was if the whole thing never even existed " . Area 51 , the government airplanes , and the alien craft were constructed by visual effects producer Bill Millar on a Macintosh computer . Originally , the time warp effect resembled a " blue sheet " , according to producer John Shiban , sans the blurring effect visible in the finished episode . Eventually , the production crew felt that the sheet effect was not effective , and so the footage was blurred in order to create a " molecular transferal " effect .
Several of the locations either were real , or were filmed with the use of stand @-@ ins . The gate for the Area 51 set was filmed at a fence on the San Bernardino county line , one hundred and twenty miles away from Los Angeles . The restaurant that the characters visit , the Little A 'Le 'Inn , is an actual cafe off Highway 375 in Rachel , Nevada . The inside , however , was an elaborate set , as the original is much too small .
= = = Choreography = = =
The scene where Mulder @-@ as @-@ Fletcher encounters his reflection and proceeds to dance is an homage to the 1933 Marx Brothers comedy film Duck Soup . Originally , during production meetings , the staff of The X @-@ Files decided to create the scene by using digital technology , although this method would raise the budget significantly . Duchovny and McKean , however , volunteered to shoot the film the " old fashioned way " by choreographing their moves so that they would be in @-@ synch . Duchovny and McKean each watched Duck Soup and then practiced for a week and a half in order to perfect the scene . When the scene was filmed , a metronome was present so that the two actors could keep time with each other . This was then erased from the mix during post @-@ production . In addition , the set was actually two bedrooms , both mirror images of each other . The only part that featured any CGI was when Mulder blows on the mirror , producing fog . According to director Kim Manners , Duchovny and McKean filmed the shot that was used on the twelfth take .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Dreamland " first aired in the United States on November 29 , and " Dreamland II " aired on December 6 , 1998 . The first part of the episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 48 million people . The second part received a 10 rating , with a 15 share . It was subsequently viewed by 17 @.@ 01 million people . The first part aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on March 28 , 1999 and the second part aired on April 4 ; part one received 0 @.@ 73 million viewers and was the fourth most watched episode that week , and part two later received 0 @.@ 88 million viewers and was the second most watched episode that week , after an episode of Friends . Fox promoted the first part of the episode with the tagline " what if you could discover the truth by living inside another man 's body ? " They promoted the second part of the episode with the line " Can he get back ? "
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics , with many commenting on the episode 's reliance on humor . In a review of part one , a critic from the Knight Ridder wrote , " As disorienting as this body transfer had to be for Mulder , the experience provided amusing television . And that seems to be a problem for some X @-@ Files fans . Knowing that the human population 's survival is imperiled by the colonization plans of a fierce extraterrestrial race , a large number of X @-@ Philes want the show to focus on our heroes ' efforts to come to the rescue " . The newspaper 's review of Part 2 was much more negative , with the article saying " by the end of the latest X @-@ Files episode , we were wishing we could push a reset button on Dreamland II , just to forget some of the silly stuff that transpired in this show " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five and noted that the episode lacked " structure and point " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave both episodes mixed reviews , awarding the first part two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , and the second part two stars . Vitaris was unhappy with the amount of comedy used in the episode , noting that once Mulder visited Fletcher 's house , " the comedy turns sour " : she argued that the members of Fletcher 's family were examples of caricatures . Despite this , she praised the scene featuring the murder of the gas station attendant , claiming that " for a moment , this episode really clicks " . Vitaris , in her review for part two , called the episode " purely illogical " , although she noted it did feature " minor fun " , pointing out the scene wherein Scully catches Fletcher by handcuffing him .
Not all reviews were completely negative . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club wrote positively of the first part of the episode 's humor and awarded it a B + . Handlen noted that " the context of seeing actors in the wrong places " is " what ’ s funny about the episode " . However , he did slightly criticize the episode 's padding — specifically Nora Dunn 's role as Fletcher 's wife and the Duck Soup mirror gag — but argued that " for every bit that doesn ’ t play in the episode , there are three that do . " Todd VanDerWerff , also from The A.V. Club , gave the second half of the episode a B – and wrote , " I have basically nothing to add to what Zack said about the first ' Dreamland ' last week . ' Dreamland II ' is a fairly unnecessary hour of television , and there ’ s no reason this logy two @-@ parter couldn ’ t have become a much tighter one @-@ hour episode . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote that " my final judgement on ' Dreamland ' [ part one ] is that I enjoyed the entertainment value it presented . It was fun and I 'm not one to begrudge a little romp now and then . " Kessenich , however , did note that the second part " felt strung out " . Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson , however , saw the episode in a more positive light and said , " Season six included some more excellent episodes only peripherally related to the main story arc , [ such as ] Dreamland parts one and two " . Kerry Fall from DVD Journal wrote positively of the episodes and described them , together as " one of the best episodes in years " . Gareth Wigmore of TV Zone gave the first part of the episode an 8 out of 10 rating and highlighted the " strong story @-@ telling , clever dialogue , and good acting " . Earl Cressey from DVD Talk concluded that both " Dreamland " parts one and two were among the " highlights of season six " . Topless Robot named " Dreamland " the fourth funniest episode of the series .
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= The Way I See It =
The Way I See It is the third studio album by American recording artist Raphael Saadiq , released on September 16 , 2008 , by Columbia Records . After his 2004 album Ray Ray , Saadiq continued working on other artists ' projects and developed a partnership with audio engineer Charles Brungardt , who shared his fascination with historic recording techniques and equipment . In 2008 , he returned from a vacation that inspired him to pursue classic soul and recorded The Way I See It with Brungardt at Saadiq 's studio in North Hollywood .
In an attempt to recreate the Motown music aesthetic of the 1960s , Saadiq and Brungardt disregarded their previous experience with modern music production in favor of experimenting with older recording techniques . The Way I See It is a traditional soul album that draws on the 1960s Motown Sound and Philadelphia soul . Saadiq , whose lyrics mostly deal with romantic subject matter , described it as a series of love songs about music and remaining faithful to it despite trends .
Initially overlooked by consumers , The Way I See It sold steadily and charted for 41 weeks on the Billboard 200 , selling 282 @,@ 000 copies in the United States by May 2011 . It also performed well in European countries such as France , where it charted for 51 weeks . The album received generally positive reviews from critics and was an exemplary release of the classic soul revival at the time . Saadiq 's extensive touring for the album in the United States , Europe , and Asia garnered him a newer , more diverse audience .
= = Background = =
After releasing his second studio album Ray Ray in 2004 , Saadiq continued working as a producer , composer , and instrumentalist on other recording artists ' music . He was introduced to audio engineer Charles Brungardt through production and songwriting team Jake and the Phatman , who had worked on Ray Ray . Brungardt interned at Blakeslee Recording Company , Saadiq 's North Hollywood recording studio , and eventually became his principal sonic partner on projects . The two shared a fascination with historic recording techniques and equipment . They also studied the 2006 book Recording The Beatles together and had an interest in the knowledge of recording gear by engineers and technicians for English rock band The Beatles . Brungardt increased his engineering output , and in 2007 , Saadiq enlisted him to engineer and mix English singer Joss Stone 's studio album Introducing Joss Stone , which Saadiq produced .
While vacationing in the Bahamas and Costa Rica in 2008 , Saadiq observed people there listening to classic soul music and was inspired to pursue it as a musical direction for his next album . He recounted the experience in an interview for Blues & Soul , saying that " I was like ' Wow , maybe I should tap into this vibe , because it ’ s actually what I LOVE ! ' ... I realised that , though you can hear it in many of the records I 've done throughout my career , I 'd never paid 100 % attention to going in that direction before . So the difference this time is that I took a more focused route . " As a part of Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! during the late 1980s and 1990s , Saadiq had incorporated influences from the music of Motown in his songwriting for the group . Before recording The Way I See It , Saadiq signed to Columbia Records . Label executive Rick Rubin visited Saadiq 's home studio and was impressed by his material there . He said of Rubin 's visit and advice to him as a solo artist , " He told me to never box myself in . I just have to be myself . You 've got to follow your own path . I 've always gone down the road less traveled , but now I do it even more aggressively . "
Saadiq titled The Way I See It as a declaration to music listeners about how his perspective was more informed by classic soul than before in his career : " This is what I really love , and everything you ’ ve heard from me before has been based on the roots of this music . " According to him , the album 's cover photo " set the tone for the whole album ... Me singing that song , me wearing that suit , it said everything that this album should be . " The photo was taken at a show in 2006 at Sweet 's Ballroom in Oakland , in which Saadiq performed Marvin Gaye 's 1965 song " Ain 't That Peculiar " . It showed Saadiq singing into a microphone with his arms raised and wearing a suit , tie , and thick @-@ rimmed glasses : a look similar to that of Temptations singer David Ruffin . Music journalist Greg Kot said the cover " evokes the dramatic portraits and color schemes of old @-@ school jazz and soul albums . Think Ray Charles on Atlantic , Sonny Rollins on Blue Note , Sam and Dave on Stax ... With arms raised , he looks like he 's testifying as much as singing . " The rest of the album 's packaging also adheres to a retro aesthetic with its crimson @-@ tinted cover 's font and 1960s Columbia Records logo . The packaging 's photography was taken by Norman Seeff .
= = Recording and production = =
After returning from his vacation , Saadiq started writing and recording The Way I See It , which took four months . In an interview for Sound on Sound , he discussed his comfort level when returning to Blakeslee Recording Company : " The music for this album flowed organically , naturally , and since I have my own studio I was able to perfect it and take my time to make it right . I was able to live with it day after day , and I think that had a lot to do with how the album turned out . " He wrote the songs extemporaneously , often by playing guitar and improvising riffs . He subsequently sung them while playing each instrument one at a time , including guitar , bass , and basic piano parts that he planned to include on the recordings . He attributed this secluded approach to " the state of the industry " and idealized " bounc [ ing ] ideas off other people , do some writing with them , take the material to my band and say , ' OK , let 's cut it , ' with the orchestra already there . That 's my dream . I 'd crank records out weekly if I had staff writers like they did at Stax and Motown " .
Saadiq recorded mostly at Blakeslee Recording Company ; Additional sessions took place at Harmonie Park Studios in Detroit and The Music Shed Studios in New Orleans . While recording , he immersed himself in a composite character of classic soul singers from videos he watched , including Al Green , Gladys Knight & the Pips , the Four Tops , and the Temptations . He recorded his vocals with only Brungardt present in the studio , a preference he felt prevented him from " looking for answers from somebody who may not really know " . Saadiq said he tended to " record complete takes , and if something isn 't quite right but it 's got a feel that I know I can never ever capture again , I 'll leave it , even if it 's flat . I mean , there are flat parts on my record , because it 's not about perfection , it 's about the soul . " He recorded background vocals for all songs . Saadiq played most of the instruments , including drums , guitar , piano , sitar , and bass guitar , his instrument of choice throughout his career . He viewed the bass playing of James Jamerson as an integral part of Motown recordings , citing it as the inspiration for his own bass sound on the album .
Saadiq worked with other musicians , including Joss Stone , percussionist Jack Ashford , string arranger Paul Riser , multi @-@ instrumentalist Bobby Ozuna , singer CJ Hilton , and recording artist Stevie Wonder . Ashford and Riser were members of The Funk Brothers , a group of session musicians for Motown Records during the 1960s . Ashford played tambourine , vibraphone , bells , and shakers on songs such as " 100 Yard Dash " , " Love That Girl " , and " Staying in Love " . Ozuna , one @-@ half of Jake and the Phatman , co @-@ produced and co @-@ wrote three songs and played several instruments , including bongos , tambourine , and drums . Hilton co @-@ wrote " Never Give You Up " and played its drum and keyboard parts . Wonder 's contribution of a harmonica solo on the song was impromptu , as Saadiq reached out to Wonder after recording the song 's vocal parts with the improvised line , " I 'd like to invite Mr. Stevie Wonder to my album . Come on , Stevie ! " After having the idea recommended to him by rapper Q @-@ Tip , Saadiq also reached out to Jay @-@ Z to record a featured rap for a remix of " Oh Girl " ; it was included on the album as a bonus track .
The Way I See It was engineered by Saadiq , Gerry Brown , James Tanksley , and Brungardt , who mixed the album with Saadiq . Saadiq and Brungardt both liked to layer multiple instruments and , prior to recording , had contemplated techniques such as sampling and drum programming . However , they ultimately found live instrumentalists more dynamic and challenged themselves to reproduce older music productions and the Motown aesthetic of the 1960s . To familiarize themselves with vintage recording techniques , they studied Mark Lewisohn 's 1988 book The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions , books about Motown Records , and images of the label 's studio personnel , setup of instruments , and microphone placement . They also studied Motown EQs to achieve a tone they found adequate for songs ' rhythm guitar parts . Saadiq said that he had to disregard " about 85 to 90 percent of the new techniques ... People used to take recording very seriously . They used to wear lab coats at Abbey Road . So I got serious with what I was trying to do , both mentally and physically . " Brungardt said in an interview for Mix that he abandoned the approach learned on previous records he had engineered , where " they wanted it clean with no distortion . I was taught to make sure it was polish , polish , polish , and to make sure everything fits right , the bass hits and things are clean for the big pop vocal . "
Saadiq 's studio integrated modern equipment such as a Pro Tools digital workstation and an SSL 9000 mixing console , and featured various vintage gear , including Saadiq 's 1960s Ludwig drum kit and a kick @-@ drum mic purchased from Abbey Road Studios . In the studio , Saadiq and Brungardt experimented with techniques and equipment . They wanted the songs to have slower attacks like older recordings , as producers in the past did not have advanced compressors , audio tools that manipulate the dynamic content of signals and affect certain sounds in a recording 's mix . Their production applied tube preamps and tube compressors , with the former used as a front end for Pro Tools . For Saadiq 's vocals , he used a Shure SM57 dynamic microphone to thicken and distort his voice and embellish his characteristically clean delivery , while Brungardt employed a compressor and a Pro Tools plug @-@ in during the mix . Saadiq sought a certain " edge " for his vocals and an unpolished sonic element for the album . They also tried to record tracks onto cassette tapes in order to produce a grittier , older sound . Brungardt used a FilterBank plug @-@ in when mixing the album to uncompress vocals and roll off high @-@ end sound from tracks .
Although they wanted to reproduce an older sound , Saadiq and Brunghardt also wanted to capture more of the bass and drum parts to add a louder , modern element to the mix . They applied a more basic approach to miking the instruments and utilizing the outboard gear , using a Neumann U 47 for guitars , alternating overhead microphones for Saadiq 's drum kit , a combination of dynamic and condenser mics for the kit 's bass drum , and Amplex tape machines for extra warmth to the kit . Brungardt used various standard mics for the snare drum to achieve a more solid cracking sound , rather than capturing the drum 's overall tone . Their miking of the guitars ' amps was adapted from The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions , and as Brungardt recounted , " It really gave us warmth and character . It allowed the amp to breathe and we got the tones of the amp along with the room . For me , that really opened things up so that I could play with the live room , using different reverbs to get a sound . " For Saadiq 's bass , they used a DI unit to connect a microphone preamplifier , increased the gain on a plug @-@ in for less compression , and adjusted the low @-@ end tones with an equalizer plug @-@ in .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The Way I See It has a traditional soul style fashioned after the 1960s Motown Sound and Philadelphia soul . It is a departure from Saadiq 's previous work with neo soul , which bears a hip hop influence . J. Gabriel Boylan of The New York Observer said that Saadiq expands further beyond his work as a producer for other recording artists , for whom he encouraged a " classic aesthetic , heavy on organic sounds and light on studio magic , deeply indebted to the past and distrustful of easy formulas " . BBC Music 's Chris Jones interpreted Saadiq 's use of 1960s soul as the album 's source material to be a reflection of " America 's most recent great political and cultural shift ... the first true post @-@ Obama expression of hope in record form . " Saadiq viewed his rootsy direction as a response to the state of popular music and found it analogous to modern politics : " You force so many terrible things on people , they get tired of it . We have a black president now . "
The album 's songs draw on Motown 's grooves , driving rhythms , tight drumming , tambourines in the rhythm section , guitar melodies , layered vocal arrangements , and two- to four @-@ minute durations . They also feature bright melodies , swinging bass , sweeping strings , and snare drums that emit reverb . Cameron Carrus of The Lawrentian said that the most hook @-@ oriented riffs are played on the bass and guitar , which blend " the low with the high " , and cited " Keep Marchin ' " , " Love That Girl " , and " Staying in Love " as examples . Jon Pareles of The New York Times viewed that Saadiq follows the example of 1960s Motown artists such as Marvin Gaye , Smokey Robinson , Stevie Wonder , and Holland – Dozier – Holland , the label 's songwriting and production team . Robert Christgau wrote that the album shares Holland – Dozier – Holland 's " bright , swift , clearly hooked aesthetic " . Saadiq sings in a tenor voice , which is slightly distorted as a result of the album 's post @-@ production .
Saadiq 's songwriting is characterized by straightforward romanticism , positive exhortations , pining ballads , and message songs . Christgau interpreted Saadiq 's persona on the album to be " a romantic who stays true to the deliberate simplicity " of the song titles , but " never threatens to assume the fetal position if he doesn 't get the extreme cuddling he craves . " Patrick Varine of the Observer @-@ Dispatch asserted that Saadiq deviates significantly from contemporary R & B lyrics : " there are no thinly @-@ veiled food @-@ sex metaphors or pimp fantasies " . His songwriting also paraphrases classic soul lyrics and , on the album 's slower songs , expresses tightly coiled emotions . Saadiq said that some songs were written about his life experiences . He described the album as " basically a series of love songs about music , how falling in love can be easy , but staying true to it can be tricky . " He elaborated on this interpretation in an interview for the Chicago Tribune : " You have to watch out for those curves . Trendy music comes out , and how do you stay true to what you love ? I ’ m not saying everything has to sound like a ' 60s record to stay true , but you should never take the relationship lightly . "
The opening track , " Sure Hope You Mean It " , features slightly off @-@ beat percussion , tambourine shakes , and lyrics about a man who awaits a sign of approval from the woman he admires . " Keep Marchin ' " , which evoked socially conscious and positive sentiments , was composed in the vein of the Civil Rights @-@ era soul music by artists such as Sam Cooke and the Staple Singers . Gail Mitchell from Billboard compared the song to Curtis Mayfield and the Impressions ' 1968 song " We 're a Winner " . Saadiq said " Keep Marchin ' " was also inspired by his journey in the music industry . " Big Easy " , featuring New Orleans @-@ style brass playing , was sung from the point of view of a man in New Orleans who reacts to Hurricane Katrina and looks for his lost lover . J. Gabriel Boylan of The New York Observer remarked that the song " manages to cast Hurricane Katrina as the villain in a romance , tearing lovers apart . " Its composition — mixing a blissful sound with disheartening lyrics — is similar to the songwriting technique used by Holland – Dozier – Holland . Saadiq was inspired to write " Big Easy " after watching the 2006 documentary film When the Levees Broke . He explained its upbeat composition in an interview for All Things Considered : " In New Orleans , when they mourn , they really celebrate and have a great time . I wanted to give it that same spirit . "
According to Saadiq , " Just One Kiss " can be interpreted as a song devoted to a female love interest , " but I 'm really talking about music and what it did for me . That one guitar line , that certain drum beat , how it turned my life into a ball of gold . " The song incorporates cinematic strings , xylophone , and a rolling crescendo . The ballad " Calling " , featuring Mexican balladeer Rocio Mendoza , draws on Motown 's late 1950s R & B roots and doo @-@ wop music , and incorporates Latin style guitar , and Spanish language lyrics . " Staying in Love " , an uptempo rhythm and blues song , was written by Saadiq after he thought of an ex @-@ girlfriend . Incongruous with its 1960s @-@ inspired sound , " Let 's Take a Walk " has sexually forward lyrics and come @-@ ons , which the narrator uses to bluntly proposition his love interest . The midtempo " Never Give You Up " is fashioned in Motown 's early 1970 sound and , unlike other songs on the album , also incorporates elements from more modern soul music . " Sometimes " , which was inspired by Saadiq 's upbringing in a tough neighborhood in Oakland , is about dealing with the fatigue of universal hardships when they are worsened by the burden of racism . The line " now I know what they meant by ' keep your head to the sky ' " makes reference to Earth , Wind & Fire , whose music Saadiq immersed himself in while growing up . Saadiq said of the song 's message , " That 's just giving dap to my moms and grandmother and the people who raised me in the neighborhood to let them know its easy but not as easy as it seems all the time and sometimes we have to back up and cry but I 'm just giving thanks to the people that helped me along the way . "
= = Release and reception = =
Before completing The Way I See It , Saadiq previewed its songs in May 2008 to music industry associates and journalists at the Sony Club in New York City . He also planned a grassroots marketing strategy for the record , which evolved from his difficulty with Columbia executives to promote the album and their idea of issuing its songs as vinyl records . He felt that " nobody at the label knew " him in an interview with The Dallas Morning News : " They had this record that I turned in that sounded like a ' 60s record . ' What the hell do we do with this record ? ' It was quality . There was not a lot of marketing and promotion , but they knew I had the credibility so you don 't just throw it in the garbage ... I don 't mind being a slow burn because that 's actually a better road to take . I have to go in one more time and prove myself again because I am starting over again . " In the week leading up to its release , Saadiq made promotional appearances at V @-@ 103 's For Sisters Only , the International Soul Music Summit , and the Uptown Restaurant & Lounge in Atlanta . He also performed songs from the album on VH1 Soulstage . Columbia released the album both on CD and as a collector 's edition box set with 7 @-@ inch vinyl singles . In the United Kingdom , it was issued with two bonus tracks — a " Euro version " of " Big Easy " and the song " Come On Home " .
The Way I See It was largely overlooked by consumers upon its release . The album debuted at number 19 on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 23 @,@ 000 copies in the week of October 4 . Nonetheless , it was Saadiq 's highest @-@ charting album in the United States at the time , and by November , had steadily sold 76 @,@ 919 copies . Five singles were released from the album — " Love That Girl " on August 5 , 2008 , " 100 Yard Dash " on March 30 , 2009 , " Never Give You Up " on May 27 , " Let 's Take a Walk " on August 7 , and " Staying in Love " on October 5 . " Love That Girl " , " Never Give You Up " , and " Staying in Love " all charted on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , peaking at number 45 , number 26 , and number 74 , respectively . During 2009 , Saadiq travelled for promotional television appearances and press in Europe , where The Way I See It had charted in several countries . In France , the record spent 51 weeks on the country 's albums chart , peaking at number 13 in the week of February 24 . In August , it re @-@ entered the American chart at number 101 and had sold 215 @,@ 000 copies . The album charted for 41 weeks on the Billboard 200 , serving as the longest chart @-@ run of Saadiq 's career . By May 2011 , it had sold 282 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
The Way I See It received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 79 , based on 20 reviews . Caroline Sullivan from The Guardian called it flawlessly produced and performed by Saadiq , and Rolling Stone magazine 's Will Hermes said the record showcased an original take on classic Northern soul . Andy Gill of The Independent wrote that it was one of 2008 's most captivating albums because " few have managed to retro @-@ fabricate that classic sound so accurately , nor in as many subtle variations " like Saadiq . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman stated , " Here 's where a modern master , backed by living and breathing session musicians ... masters the masters with startling accuracy . " In The Observer , Kitty Empire found the album " both feather @-@ light and substantial " because of how , " unlike most modern records , Saadiq 's tunes gather weight the deeper in you go " . Writing for MSN Music , Christgau said Saadiq sang with Smokey Robinson 's detailed sentimentality and Dennis Edwards ' amenable personality . Q was more critical , finding the record devoid of a " fresh approach " to elevate it from a simple homage . According to PopMatters writer Christian John Wikane , " one 's total enjoyment of the album depends on their appreciation of classic soul and R & B and whether such appreciation is contingent on absolute authenticity . "
At the end of 2008 , The Way I See It was included in a number of critics ' best albums lists . It was named one of the year 's 10 @-@ best records by the Los Angeles Times , The Wall Street Journal , and the Houston Chronicle , which cited it as ninth best . It was also ranked at number five by Exclaim ! , number seven by The Irish Times , number one by NPR , number five by The Observer , number three by Time Out , and number two by USA Today . The Way I See It was voted the 18th best album of 2008 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice ; the poll 's singles list had six of the album 's songs voted in , including " 100 Yard Dash " at number 114 and both " Love That Girl " and " Big Easy " at number 250 . Nate Chinen of The New York Times included " 100 Yard Dash " in his top @-@ five singles list for 2008 . The Way I See It also nominated for the 2009 Grammy Award for Best R & B Album . " Love That Girl " was nominated for Best Traditional R & B Vocal Performance , while " Never Give You Up " was nominated for Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals .
= = Touring = =
Saadiq toured for about two years to promote The Way I See It , performing in venues throughout the United States , Europe , and Asia . He was originally apprehensive at the prospect of touring extensively , having toured minimally as a solo act . He reconsidered at the advice of his rhythm guitarist Rob Bacon , which he recounted in an interview for the Los Angeles Times : " The money was just OK , so I was like , ' I don 't know – I could probably stay home and find something better , ' But then Rob reminded me , ' You know , all those cats you love , that 's exactly what they did . Little Richard ? He played 10 shows a day at the Apollo . ' I said , ' OK , let 's go . ' " To complement his songs ' style , Saadiq adopted a vintage soul image and , having studied footage of classic soul groups and album sleeves , donned old @-@ fashioned attire and performed R & B dance moves at shows . He wore a yellow tailored suit , while his nine @-@ piece backing band wore black suits . The band included a horn section and backup singer Erika Jerry .
Before the album 's release , Saadiq had toured Europe during the summer in 2008 . In November and December , he served as a supporting act for John Legend . He also opened for Seal and the Dave Matthews Band . Throughout his touring in the US and Europe , Saadiq played various music festivals , including Austin City Limits , Bonnaroo , Lollapalooza , South by Southwest , Voodoo Experience , Bumbershoot , Outside Lands , and Pori Jazz . In February 2009 , he performed at the Harvard Club of Boston as part of the music television series Live from the Artists Den . On June 25 , he played the Blue Note Tokyo in Japan . His performance at the Bataclan in Paris on July 11 was filmed and released as a DVD , entitled Live in Paris , in 2010 . After a stretch of summer festival performances in 2009 , Saadiq embarked on another leg of concerts during November and December , with Melanie Fiona , Janelle Monáe , and Anjulie as supporting acts . The tour featured dates in North America , but Saadiq also performed at the Paradiso in Amsterdam on November 13 . He continued touring for the album into 2010 , including performances at the JazzReggae Festival in May , the Essence Music Festival in July , and a headlining performance at Central Park SummerStage in August .
= = Legacy = =
The Way I See It was an exemplary release of the classic soul revival during its peak in 2008 . The music scene was marked by similarly retro @-@ minded work from mainstream artists such as Amy Winehouse and Adele , independent acts such as Sharon Jones & The Dap @-@ Kings and Mayer Hawthorne , and older artists attempting comebacks such as Al Green and Bettye LaVette . Oliver Wang cited Saadiq 's album , along with Solange Knowles ' 2008 record Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams , as one of the " retro @-@ soul " efforts that were released by contemporary R & B artists as the music scene peaked in popularity . Wang wrote that The Way I See It " showcased a mastery of any number of past R & B styles , including those out of Memphis , Muscle Shoals , Philadelphia , New Orleans , and of course , Detroit . " Estelle said in 2008 , " Every song is like a different era of Motown ... Everything sounds exactly like it did back in the day . Not to take away from Amy , but this is the real shit . " It was described by David Nathan as the " contemporary album that was the closest to authentically recreating the great soul music sound of the late ' 60s and early ' 70s . " Ken Tucker found it distinct from other soul revival music : " You can reproduce variations on melodies and rhythm , but without an emotional commitment , it 's all tedious pandering to baby boomers . For Raphael Saadiq , there 's a glowing vibrancy in soul music that allows him to work out themes and ideas . "
The Way I See It also earned Saadiq the highest international profile of his career . In promoting the album , he broadened his audience demographic and expanded his repertoire as a touring artist . His extensive touring in the US and Europe garnered the attention of younger , white audiences who were not exposed to his previous solo albums and work with Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! . The Press of Atlantic City wrote that the album " brought in a whole new generation of Saadiq fans , with songs such as ' 100 Yard Dash ' striking a chord with even ironic teenagers . " According to Gail Mitchell of Billboard , The Way I See It helped Saadiq reach " the major @-@ market hipster crowd , music supervisors and festival bookers . " He also attained a following among Japanese audiences . Saadiq 's touring for the album influenced his approach for recording his next album , Stone Rollin ' , in 2011 , as he noted the louder , raw sound and general feeling of performing live . It also continued his partnership with Charles Brungart , who assisted Saadiq in recording Stone Rollin ' .
Saadiq called The Way I See It " the culmination of a lifetime of experiences informed by the music I grew up on . " Kristal Hawkins of The Village Voice said that he " hit his artistic maturity " with the album . Robert Christgau remarked on its place in his solo career , " In 1996 , Saadiq turned the climactic Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! album into a virtuoso history lesson . Six years later , he tried to dazzle Maxwell in his own reflected glory . Six years later yet again , he outd [ id ] himself with a fearless return to retro . " Elton John , a fan of Saadiq 's music since his beginnings with Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , said that he was " blown away " by The Way I See It , citing it as " my album of the year – a soul record of the highest quality . " He subsequently called Saadiq to congratulate him for the album and ask him to play at his AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party in 2009 . In an interview for Blues & Soul , Saadiq elaborated on the album 's impact on his career : " before that record – after I 'd been in Tony Toni Tone ! and Lucy Pearl – most people had thought ' Oh well , he 's a producer now . He ’ s never gonna be an artist , he 's not gonna put the time in ' ... The Way I See It showed them that yes , I could put the time in still and be an artist ! "
= = Track listing = =
• ( co . ) Co @-@ producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= S by Shakira =
S by Shakira is the first woman 's fragrance by Colombian singer songwriter Shakira . Developing an interest in perfumery and scents , Shakira signed an agreement with international fashion company Puig to create a line of beauty and personal care products . S by Shakira is inspired by the singer 's " light " and is an oriental perfume which combines scents of various exotic sources like sambac jasmine , sandalwood , and vanilla . The bottle of the perfume is made of treated glass which reflects light at different angles ; it does not have a cap and instead utilises a key @-@ like mechanism to stop the flow of the perfume . Shakira launched S by Shakira at a press release in Madrid , Spain , in June 2010 , and it was sent to retail stores in September 2010 . Critics praised the scent of S by Shakira , but there was criticism regarding the design of the bottle . It was nominated for a FiFi Award in 2011 .
In September 2011 , Shakira released her second fragrance S by Shakira Eau Florale , which is a " floral interpretation " of the original fragrance . The perfume is more influenced by the scent of flowers and Shakira enlisted the aid of perfumer Elisabeth Vidal to create the fragrance . Shakira promoted S by Shakira and S by Shakira Eau Florale at a press release in Paris , France , in March 2013 . S by Shakira Aquamarine was released in early 2013 as a limited edition fragrance and is inspired by the smell of the ocean , making use of various ozonic substances in its scent .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
In 2008 , international fashion and fragrance company Puig announced that it had formed a partnership with Shakira and had signed an agreement " to develop a line of signature products produced with and inspired by the artist " . The agreement included the production and creation of several beauty and personal care products and it was stated that " Shakira will develop , with a dedicated team , the creation of the product line from inception to completion " . The distribution of the products and the creation of " strategic alliances " were chosen to be solely the responsibility of the company . Shakira expressed her views about the partnership , saying " I am very excited to be able to express myself through another creative medium . “ My feeling is that personal care and beauty should be effortless and accessible for everyone . " Interested in perfumery and conveying " emotions through aromas " , the singer decided to take the idea further and began exploring various scents . The development of the perfume took three years to complete and Shakira compared the process to composing a song , opining that " It 's similar to the process you go through when writing a melody : certain chord combinations inspire different feelings in the listener . I wanted to find a way of expressing the feeling of pure happiness through the medium of fragrance " . José Manuel Albesa , chief brand officer of Puig , commented that Shakira was completely involved in the process of developing the fragrance and was " extremely hands @-@ on " . Didier Maine de Biran , general manager of Puig USA , opined that S by Shakira was different from other celebrity @-@ branded fragrances , saying " What makes this stand out is how involved she [ Shakira ] was . The key difference is she has the knowledge of what she wants and really wants to share it with her fans . She 's involved . She 's committed . And it is just a great fragrance that stands on its own " .
= = = Scent and packaging = = =
The fragrance of S by Shakira is categorized as a " transparent oriental " , and according to Shakira 's official website , it is inspired by " what is unique and exceptional about her , her light " . The perfume is made of a variety of exotic oils and substances derived from Middle Eastern and Indian regions . The top notes include citrus , peach , and passion fruit chord ; the heart notes give a " spicy freshness " through the use of various flowers like gardenia and sambac jasmine , and cinnamon ; the base notes consist of amber , musk , sandalwood and vanilla chord . The fragrance is meant to be used by women , and Shakira claimed that " The type of women who feel a connection with this fragrance would be independent and strong , but also a woman with a great capacity to love and a strong sense of who they are . It ’ s for a woman who believes in herself . "
The packaging of S by Shakira is designed to reflect light and features gold accents , which Puig felt would help it stand out . The bottle of the perfume is " soft and feminine " in design and is made of glass , which is surface finished and has six star @-@ shaped cuts carved in its bottom so that it is able to reflect light from different angles . India Today website WonderWoman.in likened the bottle to the shape of an " oriental dancer " . The bottle does not have any cap and instead utilises a key @-@ like structure to stop the flow of the perfume . The absence of the cap aims to represent " Shakira 's bare feet " . She explained her idea behind the design of the bottle :
I wanted the bottle to be something that could contain a dream . Solid like the bottles of yesteryear , but with a light feeling . And it comes with something special . The pendant containing the " S " symbolizes a charm for happiness that I wanted to share .
= = Release = =
Shakira launched S by Shakira in Madrid , Spain , by organising a press release on June 22 , 2010 . At the press release , Shakira talked about her inspiration and the development of the perfume , saying " Like a song , a perfume is composed of different individual notes , which together form a harmony . " The perfume went on sale on September 10 and was available for purchase in more than 15 @,@ 000 stores . Samples were distributed to those who purchased tickets to Shakira 's The Sun Comes Out World Tour , which was going to appear in New York during the fall season . S by Shakira was made available in the following range :
Eau de toilette - 50 ml / 1 @.@ 69 oz
Eau de toilette - 80 ml / 2 @.@ 71 oz
Deodorant - 150 ml / 5 @.@ 07 oz
Body lotion - 74 ml / 2 @.@ 5 oz
= = = Promotion = = =
A television commercial to promote the perfume was released in late @-@ August 2010 and featured a remixed version of her 2010 single " Gypsy " . Vanita Sabnani , vice president of marketing for Puig USA , revealed that the company had decided on a " true 360 @-@ degree ad and marketing campaign " and had made preparations to promote S by Shakira through Jumbotron displays , taxi advertisements , and social networking services . Print advertisements were also commissioned and the first placement was printed in the September issue of fashion magazine Vogue .
= = Reception = =
Style.com favoured Shakira 's decision to release a perfume and called it " sexy , sensual , and a whole host of other words beginning with " S " " . Melanie Dee from Yahoo ! Voices criticised the bottle of the perfume as " probably one of the ugliest perfume bottles " , but highly praised the scent , describing it to be " simply delicious " ; she concluded that " I am never all too fond of celebrity fragrances , and JLo has been the only celeb , in my opinion that manages to impress time after time . S by Shakira though has managed to make another fan " . Kim West from Beauty World News felt the perfume was truly reflective of Shakira 's nature , saying " Full of energy , sensuality , and good vibrations , S by Shakira bottles the singer 's essence and what makes her unique " . In 2013 , Latina magazine included S by Shakira on their list of " The 11 Best Latino Celebrity Perfumes " and found the perfume " perfect " for romantic occasions , calling it " energetic , confident , and so sexy thanks to the vanilla and sandalwood notes " . At the 2010 Academia Del Perfume Award ceremony sponsored by The Fragrance Foundation , S by Shakira won the award for " Best Women 's Fragrance Great Distribution " . The award was received by Pilar Trabal , vice president of Puig Iberia , and Shakira thanked the jury and voters through a telephone call . At the 2011 FiFi Awards ceremony sponsored by The Fragrance Foundation , S by Shakira received a nomination in the category of " Women 's Broad Appeal " but lost to American actress Halle Berry 's fragrance Pure Orchid . Commercially , industry analysts predicted that S by Shakira would make $ 35 to $ 45 million through global retail sales in its first year .
= = Flanker fragrances = =
= = = S by Shakira Eau Florale = = =
= = = = Background and scent = = = =
After working on her first fragrance S by Shakira , Shakira further developed an interest in perfumery and wanted to explore more scents , saying " After working on my debut scent , S by Shakira , I became interested in the possibilities of expressing emotions through scents . " Working closely with perfumer Elisabeth Vidal , she decided to make a " more gentle and romantic " and simpler version of the original fragrance and explored floral scents . S by Shakira Eau Florale is categorized as a " floral musky scent " , and according to Shakira 's official website , it is a " floral interpretation of the first fragrance by Shakira " . The top notes include bergamot and cassis ; the heart notes consist of jasmine , heliotropium , and wild red fruits ; the base notes consist of musk and vanilla extracts . The packing of the perfume is very similar to the original one , but features a pink and white colour scheme and the " S " logo is surrounded by a bunch of flowers . Similarly , the bottle retains the original shape but has a " more romantic and feminine feel " and a pink colour scheme ; the colour of the perfume is golden rose .
= = = = Promotion = = = =
Two months after giving birth to her son Milan Piqué Mebarak , Shakira organised a press release to take place on March 27 , 2013 , at the Sephora store on the Champs @-@ Élysées street in Paris , France . At the event , Shakira signed autographs , posed for pictures with fans , and promoted both S by Shakira and S by Shakira Eau Florale . Prior to the press release , Shakira attended an " intimate " meeting with three fashion bloggers and discussed her experience in developing the perfumes . The commercial for S by Shakira was extended to include a section which exclusively promoted S by Shakira Eau Florale ; this version was nominated for " Digital Communication Award For Best Female " at the 2012 Academia Del Perfume awards ceremony .
Similar to the original perfume , S by Shakira Eau Florale was made available in the following range : .
Eau de toilette - 50 ml / 1 @.@ 69 oz
Eau de toilette - 80 ml / 2 @.@ 71 oz
Deodorant - 150 ml / 5 @.@ 07 oz
Body lotion - 74 ml / 2 @.@ 5 oz
= = = S by Shakira Aquamarine = = =
S by Shakira Aquamarine was launched as a limited edition fragrance in early 2013 . Inspired by the ocean , Shakira aimed to " express something pure , elemental and sensual " through a fragrance and opined that " the ocean represents all of those things . In a word , it is a source of true inspiration " . The perfume bottle and the packaging follow a largely similar design to the original one but feature a " metallic combination " of gold and turquoise . The top notes include bergamot , mandarin orange , passion fruit chord and various ozonic substances ; the heart notes capture the scents of different flowers like jasmine , plumeria , and tiaré ; the base notes also consist of ozonic substances , as well as cedar wood . S by Shakira Aquamarine was made available in the following range :
Eau de toilette - 50 ml / 1 @.@ 69 oz
Eau de toilette - 80 ml / 2 @.@ 71 oz
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= Road to Germany =
" Road to Germany " is the third episode of the seventh season and the fourth episode of the ' Road To ... ' series of the American animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 19 , 2008 . In the episode , Mort accidentally goes into Stewie 's time machine and is sent to Warsaw , Poland on September 1 , 1939 . Brian and Stewie realize Mort has gone back in time , and go in the time machine to save him .
The episode was written by Patrick Meighan and directed by Greg Colton . Brian Blessed , Gregory Jbara , Martin Savage , Jeff Witzke and Robert Boomfield guest star in the episode . " Road to Germany " was seen by approximately 9 @.@ 07 million viewers during its original broadcast , and it received positive reviews from television critics . In 2009 , the episode , along with I Dream of Jesus and Family Gay , received an Emmy Award nomination for " Outstanding Comedy Series " .
= = Plot = =
While the neighbors are watching the Oscars at the Griffins ' house , Mort needs to use the bathroom so desperately that he runs into what he thinks is a portable toilet in Stewie 's room . The " toilet " turns out to be a time machine , and Mort is sent to the past . Realizing that Mort does not have a return pad that would be able to bring him back to the present , Stewie and Brian take one of the return pads and go back in time to save Mort . They end up in Warsaw , Poland and find Mort in a synagogue . He believes he is in Heaven as he sees dead family members there . It does not take long for them to realize that the date is September 1 , 1939 , the day of the Nazi invasion of Poland and when World War II started .
The three cannot return to the present right away since the " return pad " to Stewie 's time machine fails to activate . They decide to go to England where Mort , who is Jewish , will be safe from the Nazis . While attempting to cross the border , German officers find out that Mort is Jewish ( while doing a poor impersonation of a Catholic priest ) , resulting in their being chased by the Nazis . Mort , Stewie and Brian make a getaway on a motorbike , followed by an elaborate undersea pursuit in a hijacked U @-@ boat . The chase scene on the motorbike re @-@ enacts the skateboard chase scene in Back To The Future . Like Biff , the Nazi officers ' car ends up slamming into a manure truck ( " Das Poop ! " ) . The three make it to England safely , and see Churchill . Stewie examines the return pad and discovers it has run out uranium fuel . Brian states that the only place they can find the needed uranium in this time is at a " secret " nuclear testing facility in Berlin , Nazi Germany . The three join the Royal Air Force and fly a Lancaster bomber as they participate in a dogfight against a squadron of Luftwaffe Me @-@ 109 fighters , eventually reaching Berlin . After finding the nuclear research lab , Stewie disguises himself as Hitler , while the other two disguise themselves as Nazi Officers , and obtains the needed uranium . They then run into the real Hitler , who orders their execution , but they escape on the return pad back to their time ( Hitler offered to spare them if they performed a charming musical number , but Mort cuts the eager Stewie and Brian off at the first line ) .
The group arrives back in Stewie 's room 30 seconds before Mort originally entered the time machine . To keep these events from repeating themselves , Stewie kills the Mort that traveled with them by shoving him into the time machine and then blowing it up . The original Mort then enters the room and , now lacking the time machine " toilet " and seeing Stewie and Brian in Nazi uniform , soils himself instead .
= = Production = =
" Road to Germany " is the third episode of Family Guy ´ s seventh season . It was written by Patrick Meighan who had written Road to Rupert . The episode was directed by series regular Greg Colton , who had worked on Brian Goes Back to College , No Meals on Wheels and also 8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter . Peter Shin and James Purdun acted as supervising directors . John Viener worked as an executive story editor . Seth MacFarlane , Chris Sheridan , David A. Goodman and Danny Smith were executive producers . Alec Sulkin , Wellesley Wild and Mike Henry acted as supervising producers . Richard Appel , Brian Scully , Mark Hentemann and Steve Callaghan worked as co @-@ executive producers . After reading the script aloud , Jewish executive producer David A. Goodman said , " I 'm going to get kicked out of my temple " .
" Road to Germany " is the fourth episode of the " Road to " hallmarks of the series , which have aired in various seasons of the show , and the first to be directed by Colton . The episodes are a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope , and Dorothy Lamour . The director who directed every previous Road to episodes Dan Povenmire left Family Guy soon after , following the conclusion of the fifth season , to create his own series , entitled Phineas and Ferb , which has since been nominated for seven Emmy Awards .
" Road to Germany " , along with the first eight episodes of the seventh season were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on June 16 , 2009 , one month after it had completed broadcast on television . The " Volume 7 " DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes , animatics , and commentaries for every episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode begins with a swing band version of the orchestral theme from the 1980s miniseries The Winds of War and War and Remembrance . When Brian , Stewie , and Mort are chased by Nazis , a recreation of the chase scene , including music , from Back to the Future occurs where Stewie rides a makeshift skateboard , escapes and has the Nazis crash into a truck of manure . Also , the entrance into Warsaw mirrors Marty 's arrival in 1955 Hill Valley . When Stewie picks up a Nazi uniform there is a McCain @-@ Palin button attached . Stewie and Hitler re @-@ enact the famous " mirror " scene from the Marx Brothers film Duck Soup . The U @-@ Boat sequence is an adaptation of U @-@ 571 when Stewie decides to throw trash out of the submarine in order to stop the U @-@ Boat that was chasing them . Furthermore , the U @-@ boat crashing scene is a reference to the multiple police car chases ( and subsequent crashes ) from The Blues Brothers . The submarine scene also features a melody of ' Wishing Well ' by Terrence Trent D 'Arby . The scene where the Hawk Men defeat the Nazi air force is a parody of the film Flash Gordon , with its original soundtrack by Queen . Stewie , Brian and Mort 's escape from their crashing plane is a recreation of the raft scene from Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom . The Hebrew wedding scene plays a song titled " Through Poland to a Jewish Village " . The scene in the uranium lab where the scientist shows Stewie " one hundred Luftballons " followed by one popping is a reference to the song " 99 Luftballons " where 99 red balloons trigger a nuclear war .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast in the United States on October 19 , 2008 , Road to Germany was watched by 9 @.@ 07 million viewers and was the most watched show in Fox 's Animation Domination block that night , beating The Simpsons , American Dad ! and King of the Hill . The episode acquired a 4 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing second in its timeslot after ABC 's Desperate Housewives . The episode also acquired a 6 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 34 demographic , finishing first in its timeslot .
Road to Germany received positive reviews . Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode 9 @.@ 6 saying , " Featuring gorgeous CGI animation , a genuinely exciting storyline , and some hilariously offensive humor , this Stewie and Brian centric episode of Family Guy easily stands out as one of the best episodes of the show in years . " Alex Rocha of TV Guide was much more critical stating , " it seemed that the show has taken a slight fall back . After having great episodes the past few weeks to get this current season started on a roll , we have witnessed another average , even sub @-@ par episode . " In his review of Family Guy , volume 7 , Francis Rizzo III of DVD Talk called the episode " hugely memorable " , and stated that it " features some of the finest animation the series has ever produced " .
According to Seth MacFarlane , Road to Germany was one of three episodes ( Along with I Dream of Jesus and Family Gay ) submitted for consideration for " Outstanding Comedy Series " in the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards in 2009 . " We picked three of our edgier shows as a choice , " he explained , " Ya know , we figured if we are going to be damned , let 's be damned for what we really are . " The series was ultimately nominated for the award , the first time in 48 years an animated series was nominated for the same category .
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